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F52>*

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£.OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK

AND FOR PRIVATE READING

BY

GEORGE PARK FISHER, D.D., LL.D.

PROFESSOR IN YALE COLLEGE

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, AND COMPANY

PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK AND CHICAGOCopyright, 1885,

By IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & COMPANY.^03
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INSCRIBED
BY THE AUTHOR
AS A TOKEN OF LOVE AND THANKFULNESS
TO HIS DAUGHTER
C. R. F.

685309PREFACE.

IN writing this volume I have aimed to provide a text-book suited to
more advanced pupils. My idea of such a work was, that it should
present the essential facts of history in due order, and in conformity
to the best and latest researches ; that it should point out clearly the
connection of events and of successive eras with one another; that
through the interest awakened by the natural, unforced view gained
of this unity of history, and by such illustrative incidents as the
brevity of the narrative would allow to be wrought into it, the dryness
of a mere summary should be, as far as possible, relieved; and that,
finally, being a book intended for pupils and readers of all classes, it
should be free from sectarian partiality, and should limit itself to
well-established judgments and conclusions on all matters subject to
party contention. Respecting one of the points just referred to, I can
say that, in composing this work, I have myself been more than ever
impressed with the unity of history, and affected by this great and
deeply moving drama that is still advancing into a future that is
hidden from view. I can not but hope that this feeling, spontaneous
and vivid in my own mind, may communicate itself to the reader in
his progress through these pages.

The most interesting object in the study of history is, to quote Dr.
Arnold's words, " that which most nearly touches the inner life of civ-
ilized man, namely, the vicissitudes of institutions, social, political, and
religious." But, as the same scholar adds, "a knowledge of the exter-
nal is needed before we arrive at that which is within. We want to
get a sort of frame for our picture. . . . And thus we want to know
clearly the geographical boundaries of different countries, and their
external revolutions. This leads us in the first instance to geography
and military history, even if our ultimate object lies beyond." Some-
thing more is aimed at in the present work than the construction
of this " frame," without which, to be sure, a student wanders about
" vaguely, like an ignorant man in an ill-arranged museum." By the
use of different sorts of type, it has been practicable to introduce a

vvi

PREFACE.

considerable amount of detail without breaking the main current of
the narrative, or making it too long. By means of these additional
passages, and by appending lists of books at the close of the sev-
eral periods, the attempt has been made to aid younger students in
carrying forward the study of history beyond the usual requirements
of the class-room. I make no apology for the sketches presented of
the history of science, literature, art, and Of moral and material de-
cline or improvement. Professor Seeley, in his interesting book on The
Expansion of England, is disposed to confine history to the civil com-
munity, and to the part of human well-being which depends on that.
"That a man in England," he tells us, "makes a scientific discovery
or paints a picture, is not in itself an event in the history of England."
But, of course, as this able writer himself remarks, " history may
assume a larger or a narrower function; " and I am persuaded that to
shut up history within so narrow bonds, is not expedient in a work
designed in part to stimulate readers to wide and continued studies.

One who has long been engaged in historical study and teaching,
if he undertakes to prepare such a work as the present, has occasion
to traverse certain periods where previous investigations have made
him feel more or less at home. Elsewhere at least his course must
be to collate authorities, follow such as he deems best entitled to
credit, and, on points of uncertainty, satisfy himself by recurrence
to the original sources of evidence. Among the numerous works from
which I have derived assistance, the largest debt is due, especially in
the ancient and mediaeval periods, to Weber's Lehrbucli der Welt-
geschichte, which (in its nineteenth edition, 1883) contains 2328 large
octavo pages of well-digested matter. Duruy's Histoire du Moyen
Age (eleventh edition, 1882), and also his Histoire des Temps Modernes
(ninth edition), have yielded to me important aid. From the writings
of Mr. E. A. Freeman I have constantly derived instruction. In
particular, I have made use of his General Sketch of European His-
tory (which is published in this country, under the title, Outlines of
History), and of his lucid, compact, and thorough History of Euro-
pean Geography. The other writings, however, of this able and
learned historian, have been very helpful. Mr. Tillinghast's edition
of Ploetz's Epitome I have found to be a highly valuable store-
house of historical facts, and have frequently consulted it with advan-
tage. The superior accuracy of George's Chronological Tables is the
reason why I have freely availed myself of the aid afforded by them.
Professor (now President) C. K. Adams's excellent Manual of His-
torical Literature, to which reference is repeatedly made in the fol-
lowing pages, has been of service in preparing the lists of works toPREFACE.

vii

be read or consulted. Those lists, it hardly need be said, aim at
nothing like a complete bibliography. No doubt to each of them
other valuable works might easily be added. As a rule, no men-
tion is made of more technical or abstruse writings, collections of
documents, and so forth. The titles of but few historical novels are
given. Useful as the best of these are, works of this class are often
inaccurate and misleading; so that a living master in historical
authorship has said even of Walter Scott, who is so strong when he
stands on Scottish soil, that in his Ivatihoe " there is a mistake in
every line." With regard, however, to historical fiction, including
poems, as well as novels and tales, the student will find in Mr. Justin
Winsor's very learned and elaborate monograph (forming a distinct
section of the catalogue of the Boston Public Library), the most full
information up to the date of its publication. Most of the historical
maps, to illustrate the text of the present work, have been engraved
from drawings after Spruner, Putzger, Freeman, etc. Of the ancient
maps, several have been adopted (in a revised form) from a General
Atlas. That the maps contain more places than are referred to in the
text, is not a disadvantage.

I wish to express my obligation to a number of friends who have
kindly lent me aid in the revisal of particular portions of the proof-
sheets of this volume. My special thanks are due, on account of this
service, to Professor Francis Brown of the Union Theological School;
to Professors W. D. Whitney, Tracy Peck, T. D. Seymour, W. H.
Brewer, and T. R. Lounsbury, of Yale College; to Mr. A. Van Name,
librarian of Yale College; and to Mr. W. L. Kingsley, to whose his-
torical knowledge and unfailing kindness I have, on previous occa-
sions, been indebted for like assistance. To other friends besides
those just named, I am indebted for information on points made
familiar to them by their special studies.

G. P. F.

New Haven, Sept. i, 1S85.CONTENTS.

page

Introduction..............

PART I.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

From the Beginning of Authentic History to the Migrations of the Teutonic

Tribes (A.D. 375)............17

DIVISION I.

ORIENTAL HISTORY.

Introduction.............18

Section I.

china and india.

CHAPTER I.—China...........20

CHAPTER II. — India...........25

Section II.

the earliest group of nations.

CHAPTER I.— Egypt...........33

CHAPTER II. — Assyria and Babylon.......43

CHAPTER III. — The Phoenicians and Carthaginians ...	51

CHAPTER IV.—The Hebrews.........55

CHAPTER V. —The Persians.........64

DIVISION II.

EUROPE.

Introduction.............73

Section I.

GRECIAN HISTORY.

Introduction . ........ . . • *75

ixX	CONTENTS.

Period I.

greece prior to the persian wars.

page

CHAPTER I.—The Prehistoric Age.......78

CHAPTER II. — The Formation of the Principal States . . 85

Period II.

the flourishing era of greece.

CHAPTER I. —The Persian Wars ........93

CHAPTER II. —The Ascendency of Athens......96

CHAPTER III. — The Peloponnesian War......102

CHAPTER IV. — Relations with Persia: the Spartan and Theban

Hegemony............109

Period iii.

THE MACEDONIAN ERA.

CHAPTER I. — Philip and Alexander.......111

CHAPTER II. — The Successors of Alexander.....116

Section II.

ROMAN HISTORY.

Introduction.............124

Period I.

ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS (753-3°4 B.C.).
CHAPTER I. — Rome under the Kings (753-509 B.C.) . . . .128
CHAPTER II. —Rome under the Patricians (509-304 B.C.) . . 133

Period II.

to the union of italy (3°4~264 b.c.).

CHAPTER I. — Conquest of the Latins and Italians (304-282 B.C.), 138
CHAPTER II. — War with Pyrrhus and Union with Italy (282-

264 B.C.).............139

Period III.

the punic wars.

To the Conquest of Carthage and of the Greek States (264-146 B.C.) . . 143

CHAPTER I. —The First and Second Punic Wars (264-202 B.C.) . 143

CHAPTER II. — Conquest of-Macedonia:-the Third Punic War:

the Destruction of Corinth (202-146 B.C.). . .	148.CONTENTS.

xi

Period IV.

the era of revolution and of the civil wars (146-3* b.c.).

page

CHAPTER I. — The Gracchi: the First Mithridatic War: Marius

and Sulla (146-78 B.C.) ......... 153

CHAPTER II. — Pompeius and the East: to the Death of Cras-

sus (78-53 B.C.)...........158

CHAPTER III.—Pompeius and CjEsar: the Second Triumvirate . 164

Period V.

the imperial monarchy.

To the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes (375 A.D.) . .	.	.	. 168

CHAPTER I. — The Reign of Augustus . . . .	.	.	.168

CHAPTER II. — The Emperors of the Augustan House	.	.	. 176

CHAPTER III.— The Flavians and the Antonines .	.	.	.180

CHAPTER IV. — The Emperors made by the Soldiers: the Abso-
lute Monarchy : the Triumph of Christianity . . . . 185

PART II.

MEDIZEVAL HISTORY.

From the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Fall of Constantinople
{AM. 375-1453).

Introduction.............198

Period I.

to the carlovingian line of frank rulers (a.d. 375"75l).

CHAPTER I. — Causes of the Fall of the Western Empire: the

Teutonic Confederacies.........199

CHAPTER II. — The Teutonic Migrations and Kingdoms . . 204

CHAPTER III. — The Eastern Empire........ 217

CHAPTER IV. — Mohammedanism and the Arabic Conquests . . 223

Period II.

from the carlo vingi an line of frank kings to the
romano-germanic empire (a.d. 751-962).

CHAPTER I. — The Carlovingian Empire to the Death of Char-
lemagne (A.D. 814)..........234

CHAPTER ii.—Dissolution of Charlemagne's Empire: Rise of

the Kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy .... 240

CHAPTER III. — Invasions of the Northmen and Others: the

Feudal System —.—. - . ... ... .- 246xii

CONTENTS.

Period III.

from the establishment of the romano-germanic empire to
the end of the crusades (a.d. 962-1270).

pagb

CHAPTER I. — The Church and the Empire : Predominance of the

Empire: to the Crusades (A.D. 1096)......260

CHAPTER II. — The Church and the Empire: Predominance of

the Church : to the End of the Crusades (A.D. 1270) . . 269

CHAPTER III.— England and France: the First Period of their

Rivalship (A.D. 1066-1217).........289

CHAPTER IV. — Rise of the Burgher Class: Society in the Era

of the Crusades...........301

Period IV.

from the end of the crusades to the fall of constan-
tinople (a.d. 1270-1453) ; the decline of ecclesiastical
authority : the growth of the national spirit and of
monarchy.

Introduction.............311

CHAPTER I.— England and France : Second Period of Rival-

ship : the Hundred Years' War (A.D. 1339-1453) . . . 311

CHAPTER II. — Germany: Italy: Spain: The Scandinavian Coun-
tries: Poland and Russia: Hungary: Ottoman Turks: the
Greek Empire...........331

CHAPTER III. —The Countries of Eastern Asia . . . 355

PART III.

MODERN HISTORY.

From the Fall of Constantinople (1453) to the Present Time .... 361
Introduction.............361

Period I.

from the fall of constantinople to the reforma-
tion (1453-'5 *7).

Introduction..................... 363

CHAPTER I.— France: England : Spain : Germany: Italy: the

Ottoman Turks: Russia: the Invasions of Italy . . .363

CHAPTER II.—Invention and Discovery: the Renaissance . . 387CONTENTS.	xiii

Period II.

the era of the reformation (1517-1648).

PAGE

Introduction.............396

CHAPTER I. — The Reformation in Germany: to the Treaty of

Nuremburg (1517-1532)..........397

CHAPTER II.— The Reformation in Teutonic Countries: Switz-
erland, Denmark, Sweden, England ...... 403

CHAPTER III. —The Reformation in Germany, from the Peace

of Nuremberg to the Peace of Augsburg (1532-1555) . . 408

CHAPTER IV. —Calvinism in Geneva: Beginning of the Catholic

Counter-Reformation.........411

CHAPTER V. — Philip II., and the Revolt of the Netherlands . 414

CHAPTER VI.— The Civil Wars in France, to the Death of

Henry IV. (1610)...........417

CHAPTER VII.—The Thirty-Years' War, to the Peace of West-
phalia (1618-1648)...........422

CHAPTER VIII. — Second Stage of the Reformation in England:

to the Death of Elizabeth (1547-1603)......429

CHAPTER IX. — The English Revolution and the Commonwealth

(1603-1658)............435

CHAPTER X. — Colonization in America: Asiatic Nations: Cul-
ture and Literature (1517-1648).......441

Period III.

from the peace of westphalia to the french revolu-
tion (1648-1789).

Introduction.............451

CHAPTER I. — The Preponderance of France: First Part of the
Reign of Louis XIV. (to the Peace of Ryswick, 1697): the
Restoration of the Stuarts : the English Revolution of
1688..............452

CHAPTER II. — War of the Spanish Succession (to the Peace of
Utrecht, 1713): Decline of the Power of France: Power
and Maritime Supremacy of England...... 463

CHAPTER III. —The Great Northern War: the Fall of Swe-
den: Growth of the Power of Russia......470

CHAPTER IV. —War of the Austrian Succession: Growth of

the Power of Prussia : the Destruction of Poland . . 474

CHAPTER V. —Contest of England and France in America:
War of American Independence: the Constitution of the
United States...........479

CHAPTER VI. — Literature, Science, and Religion. . , . 490xiv

CONTENTS.

Period IV.

the era of the french revolution (1789-1815).

page

Introduction.............497

CHAPTER I.— From the Assembling of the States-General to

the Execution of Louis XVI. (1789-1793).....499

CHAPTER II. — From the Execution of Louis XVI. to the Fall

of Robespierre (Jan. 21, 1793-JuLY 27, 1794).....508

CHAPTER III. — From the Fall of Robespierre to the Empire

of Napoleon (1794-1804).........515

CHAPTER IV. — From the Beginning of the Empire to the Rus-
sian Campaign (1804-1812).........523

CHAPTER V.— From the Russian Campaign (1812) to the Con-
gress of Vienna (1814-15).........530

CHAPTER VI.— American History in this Period (1789-1815) . . 536

CHAPTER VII. — Literature, Art, and Science (1789-1815) . . 543

Period V.

from the congress of vienna (1815) to the present time.

Introduction.............547

CHAPTER I. —Europe, from the Congress of Vienna (1815) to

the French Revolution of 1830.......549

CHAPTER II. —Europe, from the Revolution of 1830 to the Rev-
olutionary Epoch of 1848.........554

CHAPTER III.—Europe, from the Revolutions of 1848 to the

Austro-Prussian War (1866)............566

CHAPTER IV.— Europe, from the Beginning of the Austro-
Prussian War to the End of the Franco-German War
(1866-1871) ............57s

CHAPTER V. — Europe, from the Third French Republic, and

the Union of Italy (1871).........584

CHAPTER VI. — The United States since 1815: The South Ameri-
can States: Eastern Asia.........601

CHAPTER VII. — Discovery and Invention: Science and Litera-
ture: Progress of Humane Sentiment: Progress towards
the Unity of Mankind.........618LIST OF MAPS.

page

The World as known to the Ancients.......16

Physical Features of Asia.........18

Ancient Egypt.............32

Ancient Palestine...............56

Physical Features of Europe.........72

Ancient Greece and the jEgean Islands......74

Greek and Phoenician Colonies.........76

Empire of Alexander the Great........no

Kingdoms of the Successors of Alexander ......	116

Ancient Italy (Northern Part)........122

Ancient Italy (Southern Part)............

Ancient Roman Empire..........174

The New Nations after the Great Migrations (about A.D. 500) .	212

Empire of the Saracens (about A.D. 750)......228

Empire of Charlemagne..........232

Empire of Charlemagne A.D. 843........240

Empire of Charlemagne A.D. 887........240

Central Europe about A.D. 980........242

Mediterranean Lands at the Time of the Crusades . . .	270

France and England A.D. 1154-1189.......292

Central Europe A.D. 1360..........328

Central Europe A.D. 1660.........328

Italy about the Middle of the Sixteenth Century ....	410
Europe at the Time of Napoleon's Greatest Power (about A.D.

1810) . .............528

xvxvi	LIST OF MAPS.

PAGE

Central Europe in 1815..........534

Territorial Growth of the United States......538

Europe after 1878 ...........584

Austro-IIungary since 1878..........586

France since 1871...........590

German Empire since 1871..........592

Turkish Empire, Greece, etc., since 1878......	596

Asia at the Present Time..........600UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

INTRODUCTION.

Definition of History. — The subject of history is man. His-
tory has for its object to record his doings and experiences. It
may then be concisely defined as a narrative of past events in
which men have been concerned. To describe the earth, the
abode of man, to delineate the different kingdoms of nature, and
to inquire into the origin of them, or to explain the physical or
mental constitution of human beings, is no part of the office of
history. All this belongs to the departments of natural and intel-
lectual science.

But history, as we now understand the term, is more than a
bare record of what men have done and suffered. It aims to point
out the connection of events with one another. It seeks to ex-
plain the causes and the consequences of things that occur. It
would trace the steps that mark the progress of the race, and of
the different portions of it, through extended periods. It brings
to light the thread which unites each particular stage in the career
of a people, or of mankind as a whole, with what went before,
and with what came after.

Nations. — History has been called "the biography of a soci-
ety." Biography has to do with the career of an individual. His-
tory is concerned with the successive actions and fortunes of a
community; in its broadest extent, with the experiences of the
human family. It is only when men are connected by the social
bond, and remain so united for a greater or less period, that there
is room for history. It is, therefore, with nations, in their internal
progress and in their mutual relations, that history especially deals.
Of mere clans, or loosely organized tribes, it can have little to
say. History can go no farther than to explore their genealogy,
and state what were their journeyings and habits. The nation is
a form of society that rests on the same basis — a basis at once
natural and part of a divine system — as the family. By a nation
is meant a people dwelling in a definite territory, living under the2

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

same government, and bound together by such ties as a common
language, a common religion, the same institutions and customs.
The elements that enter into that national spirit which is the bond
of unity, are multiple. They vary to a degree in different peoples.
As individuals are not alike, and as the history of any particular
community is modified and molded by these individual differences,
so the course of the history of mankind is shaped by the peculiar
characteristics of the various nations, and by their interaction upon
one another. In like manner, groups of nations, each charac-
terized by distinctive traits derived from affinities of race or of
religion, or from other sources, act on each other, and thus help
to determine the course of the historic stream.

Scope of History. — The rise and progress of culture and civ-
ilization in their various constituents is the theme of history. It
does not limit its attention to a particular fraction of a people,
to the exclusion of the rest. Governments and rulers, and the
public doings of states, — such as foreign wars, and the struggles
of rival dynasties, — naturally form a prominent topic in historical
writings. But this is only one department in the records of the
past. More and more history interests itself in the character of
society at large, and in the phases through which it has passed.
How men lived from day to day, what their occupations were,
their comforts and discomforts, their ideas, sentiments, and modes
of intercourse, their state as regards art, letters, invention, reli-
gious enlightenment, — these are points on which history, as at
present studied and written, undertakes to shed light.

Points of View. — An eminent German philosopher of our day,
Hermann Lotze, intimates that there are five phases of human
development, and hence five points of view from which the course
of history is to be surveyed. These are the intellectual (embra-
cing the progress of truth and knowledge), the industrial, the es-
thetic (including art in all its higher ramifications), the religious,
and the political. An able English scholar, Goldiuin Smith,,
resolves the elements of human progress, and thus the most gen-
eral topics of history, into three, " the moral, the intellectual, and
the productive ; or, virtue, knowledge, and industry." " But these
three elements," he adds, " though distinct, are not separate, but
closely connected with each other."

The Philosophy of History. — That there is, in some sense, a
" reign of law " in the succession of human events, is a conviction
warranted by observed facts, as well as inspired by religion. Events
do not spring into being, disjoined from antecedents leading to
them. Even turning-points in history, which seem, at the first
glance, abrupt, are found to be dependent on previous conditions.
They are perceived to be the natural issue of the times that have
gone before. Preceding events have foreshadowed them. ThereINTRODUCTION.	3

are laws of historical progress which have their root in the charac-
teristics of human nature. Ends are wrought out, which bear on
them evident marks of design. History, as a whole, is the carry-
ing out of a plan :

"... through the ages one increasing purpose runs."

Augitstine long ago argued, that he who has not left " even the entrails of the smallest and
most insignificant animal, or the feather of a bird, or the little flower of a plant, or the leaf of
a tree, without a harmony, and, as it were, a mutual peace among all its parts, — that God can
never be believed to have left the kingdoms of men, their dominations and servitudes, outside of
the laws of his providence."

To discern the plan of history, and the causes or laws through
which it is accomplished, as far as our limited capacity will allow,
is the object of what is called the philosophy of history.

Freedom and Law. — It must not be forgotten, however, that
man is a free agent. History, although it is not an aimless pro-
cess, is, nevertheless, not subject to the forces and laws which
govern in the realm of matter. Physical analogies are not a literal
image of what takes place in the sphere of intelligence and free-
dom. Moral evil, wherever it is a factor in history, has its origin
in the will of man. In respect to it, the agency of God is per-
missive and overruling. Through his providence, order is made to
emerge, a worthy goal is at last reached, despite the elements of
disorder introduced by human perversity.

Nor is progress continuous and unbroken. It is often, as one
has said, a spiral rather than a straight line. It is not an unceas-
ing advance: there are backward movements, or what appear to
be such. Of particular nations it is frequently evident, that, intel-
lectually and morally, as well as in power and thrift, they have
sunk below a level once attained.

Of the inscrutable blending of human freedom with a pre-ordained design, Ouizot says:
"Man advances in the execution of a plan which he has not conceived, and of which he is not
even aware. He is the free and intelligent artificer of a work which is not his own." " Con-
ceive a great machine, the design of which is centered in a single mind, though its various parts
are intrusted to different workmen, separated from, and strangers to, each other. No one of
them understands the work as a whole, nor the general result which he concurs in producing;
but every one executes with intelligence and freedom, by rational and voluntary acts, the par-
ticular task assigned to him." (Lectures on the History of Civilization, Lect. xi.)

Personal Power.—The progress of society has been inseparably
connected with the agency of eminent persons. Signal changes,
whether wholesome or mischievous, are linked to the names of
individuals who have specially contributed to bring them to pass.
The achievements of heroes stand out in as bold relief in authentic
history as in the obscure era of myth and fable. Fruitful inven-
tions, after the earlier steps in civilization are taken, are traceable
to particular authors, exalted by their genius above the common
level. So it is with the literary works which have exerted the deep-
est and most lasting influence. Nations have their pilots in war
and in peace. Epochs in the progress of the fine arts are ushered4	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

in by individuals of surpassing mental power. Reforms and revo-
lutions, which alter the direction of the historic stream, emanate
from individuals in whose minds they are conceived, and by whose
energy they are effected. The force thus exerted by the leaders
in history is not accounted for by reference to general laws.
Great men are not puppets moved by the spirit of the time. To
be sure, there must be a preparation for them, and a groundwork
of sympathy among their contemporaries : otherwise their activity
would call forth no response. Independently of the age that gives
them birth, their power would lose its distinctive form and hue :
they would be incapable of influence.

Cromwell would not have been Cromwell had he been born in any other

Eeriod of English history. Nor could he have played his part, being what
e was, had not the religious and political struggles of England for genera-
tions framed a theater adapted to his talents and character. Michael Angelo
could not have arisen in a half-civilized tribe. His creative power would
have found no field in a society rude, and blind to the attractions of art.
Nevertheless, his power was creative. Cromwell and Michael Angelo, and
such as they, are not the passive organs, the mere outcome, of the communi-
ties in which they appear. Without the original thought and personal energy
of leaders, momentous changes in the life of nations could never have taken
place. A great man may be obliged to wait long for the answering sympathy
which is required to give effect to his thoughts and purposes. Such a mind
is said to be in advance of the age. Another generation may have to appear
before the harvest springs from the seed that he has sown. Moreover, it is
not true that great men, efficient leaders, come forward whenever there is
an exigency calling for them, or an urgent need. Rather is it true that terrible
disasters sometimes occur, at critical points in history, just for the lack of
leaders fit for the emergency.

The Meaning of History.— A thoughtful student can hardly fail to propose to him-
self the question, " What is the meaning of history ? Why is this long drama with all that is
noble and joyous in it, and with its abysses of sin and misery, enacted at all? " It is only a
partial answer that one can hope to give to this grave inquiry, for the designs of Providence
can not be fully fathomed. But, among the ends in view, the moral training of mankind stands
forth with a marked prominence. The deliverance of the race from moral evil and error, and
the building-up of a purified society, enriched with all the good that belongs to the ideal of
humanity, and exalted by fellowship with God, is not only an end worthy in itself, but it is the
end towards which the onward movement of history is seen to be directed. Hence, a central
place in the course of history belongs to the life and work of Jesus Christ.

No more satisfactory solution of this problem of the significance of history has ever been
offered than that brought forward by the Apostle Paul in Acts xvii. 27, where he says that the
nations of men were assigned to their places on the earth, and their duration as well as bound-
aries determined, " that they should seek the Lord, if haply they might feel after him, and find
him."

Works on the Philosophy of History.—(Professor C. K. Adams's Manual
of Historical Literature (1882) is an excellent guide in historical reading. Briefer lists of
works in Methods 0/ Teaching and Studying History, edited by G. Stanley Hall.) Books
on the Philosophy of History : R. Flint, The Philosophy of History, vol. i., — Writers on
the subject in France and Germany. Vol. ii. will treat of England and Italy. The work
is a critical review of the literature on the subject. Schlegel, The Philosophy of History;
Shedd's Lectures on the Philosophy of History; Bunsen's God in History (3 vols., 1870);
Lotzk, Mikrokosmus, vol. iii., book vii.; Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws; Buckle, History
of Civilization in England (a vols.). This work is based on the denial of free-will, and the
doctrine that physical influences, — climate, soil, food, etc., — are the main causes of intellectual
progress. Draper's History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (2 vols., 2d edition,
1876) is in the same vein. Opposed to this philosophy are Goldwin Smith's Lectures on
the Study of History; C. Kingsley, in his Miscellanies, The Limits of Exact Science as
applied to History; Froude, in Short Studies, vol. i., The Science of History; Lotze, as
above; also, Flint, and Droysen, Grundriss der Historik. Hegel's Philosophy of History
has profound observations, but connected with an a priori theory.INTRODUCTION.	5

Historical Writing.— The beginning of historical writing was in the
form of lists of kings, or bare records of battles, or the simple registration
of other occurrences of remarkable interest. The Egyptians, Babylonians,
Assyrians, Chinese, and other nations, furnish examples of this rudimental
type of historical writing. More continuous annals followed ; but these are
meager in contents, and make no attempt to find links of connection be-
tween events. The ancient Hebrew historians are on a much higher plane,
and, apart from their religious value, far surpass all other Asiatic histories.
It was in Greece, the fountain-head of science, that history, as an art, first
appeared. Herodotus, born early in the fifth century B.C., first undertook to
satisfy curiosity respecting the past by a more elaborate and entertaining
narrative. He begins his work thus : " These are the researches of Herodo-
tus of Halicarnassus, which he publishes, in the hope of thereby preserving
from decay the remembrance of what men have done, and of preventing the
great and ^marvelous actions of the Greeks and the barbarians from losing
their due meed of glory, and withal to put on record what were the grounds
of their hostility." In Herodotus, history, owing to the inquiry made into
the causes of events, begins to rise above the level of a mere chronicle, its
primitive type. Tkucydides, who died about 400 B.C., followed. He is far
more accurate in his investigations, having a deep insight into the origin of
the events which he relates, and is a model of candor. He, too, writes to
minister to the inquisitive spirit of his countrymen, and of the generations
that were to follow. He began to write his history of the war between the
Athenians and the Peloponnesians while it was still going on, in the belief,
he says, "that it would turn out great, and worthier of being recorded than
any that had preceded it." The attention of historical writers was still con-
fined to a particular country, or to insulated groups of events. Before there
could spring up the idea of universal history, it was necessary that there
should be a broader view of mankind as a whole. The ancient Stoics had a
glimpse of the race as a family, and of the nations as forming one complex
unity. The conquests and extended dominion of Rome first suggested the
idea of universal history. Polybius, a Greek in the second century B.C., had
watched the progress of Rome, in its career of conquest, until " the affairs
of Italy and Africa," as he says, "joined with those of Asia and Greece, and
all moved together towards one fixed and single point." He tells us that
particular histories can not give us a knowledge of the whole, more than the
survey of the divided members of a body once endowed with life and beauty
can yield a just conception of all the comeliness and vigor which it has
received from Nature. To Polybius belongs the distinction of being the
first to undertake a universal history. Christianity, with its doctrine of the
unity of mankind, and with all the moral and religious teaching characteristic
of the gospel, contributed effectively to the widening of the view of the
office and scope of history. It is only in quite recent times that history has
directed its attention predominantly to social progress, and to its causes and
conditions.

History, in its etymological sense (from the Greek, iaropia), meant the ascertaining of facts
by inquiry; then, tne results of this inquiry, the knowledge thus obtained. The work of
Herodotus was "history" in the strictest sense: he acquired his information by travel and
personal interrogation.

The German philosopher, Hegel, has divided histories into three classes: i. Original his-
tories; i.e., works written by contemporaries of the events described, who share in the spirit
of the times, and may have personally taken part in the transactions. Such are the works of
Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon's Anabasis, Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion in
England, Caesar's Commentaries. 2. Reflective histories, where the author writes at a later
point of time, on the basis of materials which he gathers up, but is not himself a partaker in
the spirit of the age of which he treats. 3. Philosophical histories, which set forth the
rational development of history in its inmost idea.

Another classification is the following: 1. Genealogies, like the records of Manetho, the
Egyptian priest. 2. The chronicle, following the chronological order, and telling the story in
a simple, popular way. 3. The "pragmatic" form of writing, which aims to explain by
reference to the past some particular characteristic or phase of the present, and uses history to6	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

point a special moral lesson. 4. The form of history which traces the rise and progress of
" ideas" tendencies, or ruling forces, — such as the idea of civil equality in early Rome or in
modern France, the religious ideas of Mohammedanism, the idea of representative government,
the idea of German unity, etc.

A broad line of distinction has been drawn between " the old or artistic type of history,"
and the new or sociological type which belongs to the present century. The ancient historians
represented the former type. They prized literary form. They aimed to interweave moral and
political reflections. Polybius often interrupts his narrative to introduce remarks of this sort.
Hut they were not, as a rule, diligent and accurate in their researches. And, above all, they
had no just conception of society as a whole, and of the complex forces out of which the visi-
ble scene springs. The Greeks were the masters in this first or artistic form of history. The
French Revolution was one stimulus to a profounder and more comprehensive method of study-
ing history. The methods and investigations of natural science have had a decided influence
in the same direction.

The Sources of History.— History must depend for credence on cred-
ible evidence. In order to justify belief, one must either himself have seen
or heard the facts related, or have the testimony, direct or indirect, of wit-
nesses or of well-informed contemporaries. The sources of historic knowledge
are mainly comprised in oral tradition, or in some form of written records.

Tradition is exposed to the infirmities of memory, and to the unconscious
invention and distortion which grow out of imagination and feeling. Ordi-
narily, bare tradition, not verified by corroborative proofs, can not be trusted
later than the second generation from the circumstances narrated. It ceases
to be reliable when it has been transmitted through more than two hands. In
the case of a great and startling event, like a destructive convulsion of nature
or a protracted war, the authentic story, though unwritten, of the central facts,
at least, is of much longer duration. There may be visible monuments that
serve to perpetuate the recollection of the occurrences which they commemo-
rate. Institutions may exist — popular festivals and the like — which keep
alive the memory of past events, and, in certain circumstances, are sufficient
to verify them to generations far removed in time. Events of a stirring char-
acter, when they are embodied in songs of an early date, may be transmitted
orally, though in a poetic dress. Songs and legends, it may be added, even
when they do not suffice to verify the incidents to which they refer, are
valuable as disclosing the sentiments and habits of the times when they ori-
ginated, or were cherished. The central fact, the nucleus of the tradition,
may be historical when all the details belonging with it have been effaced,
or have been superseded by other details, the product of imagination. The
historical student is to distinguish between traditionary tales which are un-
trustworthy throughout, and traditions which have their roots in fact. Apart
from oral tradition, the sources of historical knowledge are the following : —

1.	Contemporary registers, chronicles, and other documents, either now, or
known to have been originally, in a manuscript form.

2.	Inscriptions on monuments and coins. Such, for example, are the in-
scriptions on the monuments of Egypt and on the buried ruins of Nineveh
and Babylon. Such are the ancient epitaphs, heathen and Christian, in the
Roman catacombs. The study of ancient inscriptions of various sorts has
thrown much light of late upon Grecian and Roman antiquity.

3.	The entire literature of a people, in which its intellectual, moral, and
social condition, at any particular era, is mirrored.

4.	Material structures of every kind, as altars, tombs, private dwellings,-—
as those uncovered at Pompeii, — public edifices, civil and religious, paintings,
weapons, household utensils. These all tell a story relative to the knowl-
edge and taste, the occupations and domestic habits, and the religion, of a
past generation or of an extinct people.

5.	Language is a memorial of the past, of the more value since it is not
the product of deliberate contrivance. Comparative philology, following lan-
guages back to their earlier stages and to the parent stocks, unveils the con-
dition of society at remote epochs. It not only describes the origin of nations,
but teaches something respecting their primitive state.INTRODUCTION.

7

6. Histories written at former periods, but subsequently to the events de-
scribed in them, are a secondary but valuable source of historical knowledge.
This is especially true when their authors had access to traditions that were
nearer their fountain, or to literary monuments which have perished.

Historical Criticism. — Historical scholars are much more exacting as regards evidence
than was formerly the ease. The criticism of what purports to be proof is more searching. At
the same time, what is called " historical divination " can not be altogether excluded. Learned
and sagacious scholars have conjectured the existence of facts, where a gap in recorded history

—	" the logic of events " — seemed to presuppose them; and later discoveries have verified the
guess. This is analogous to the success of Leverrier and Adams in inferring the existence of an
unknown planet, which the telescope afterwards discovered. An example of historical divina-
tion on a large scale is furnished by the theories of the great German historian, Niebuhr, in
respect to early Roman history. He oropounded opinions, however, which in many particulars
lail to obtain general assent at present.

Credibility of History. — At the opposite pole from credulity is an unwarrantable
historical skepticism. The story is told of Sir Walter Raleigh, that when he was a prisoner
in the Tower, and was engaged in writing his History of the World,, he heard the sounds of a
fracas in the prison-yard. On inquiry of those who were concerned in it, and were on the spot,
he found so many contradictions in their statements that he could not get at the truth. Where-
upon, it occurred to him as a vain thing to undertake to describe what had occurred on the vast
theater of the world, when he could not ascertain the truth about an event occurring within
a bow-shot. The anecdote simply illustrates, however, the difficulty of getting at the exact
truth respecting details, — a difficulty constantly exemplified in courts of justice. The fact of
the conflict in tne court of the Tower, the general cause, the parties engaged, the consequences,

—	as, for example, what punishment was inflicted, — were undisputed. The great facts which
influence the course of history, it is not difficult to ascertain. Moreover, as against an extrav-
agant skepticism, it may be said that histoiy provides us with a vast amount of authentic
information which contemporaries, and even individual actors, were not possessed of. This is
through the bringing to light of documents from a great variety of sources, many of which were
secret, or not open to the view of all the leaders in the transactions to which they refer. The

}>rivate correspondence of the Protestant leaders,— Luther, Melanchthon, Cranmer, etc., — the
etters of Erasmus, the official reports of the Venetian ambassadors, the letters of William
the Silent and of Philip 11., put us in possession of much information, which at the time was
a secret to most of the prominent participants in the events of the sixteenth century. The
correspondence of Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson, John Adams, Wolcott, Pickering, etc.,
introduces us into the secret counsels of the American political leaders of that day. Numerous
facts conveyed from one to another under the seal of privacy, and not known to the others, are
thus revealed to us.

On the nature and value of tradition, a very valuable discussion is that of Evvald, History
of Israel, vol. x. pp 13-38, Sir G. C. Lewis, Essays on the Credibility 0/ Early Roman
History, in which Nicbuhr's conclusions are criticised; A. Kisset, Essays on Historical
Truth, On the sources of history, Art. by Gaikdner in The Contemporary Review, vol.
xxxviii.

History and Geography —Political Geography, which describes
the earth as inhabited, and as parceled out among nations, has a
close relation to history. Without a distinct idea of the position
of places and the boundaries of countries, historical narrations
are enveloped in a sort of haze. France, for example, is a name
with very different meanings at different dates in the past. Un-
less the varying uses of the word Burgundy are understood, im-
portant parts of European history are left in confusion.

Physical Geography. — Even more helpful is Physical Geogra-
phy, which surveys the earth in its three great divisions, — land,
sea, and air, — without reference to lines of political demarkation.
The configuration of the different portions of the globe, with the
varieties of climate, the relations of mountain and plain, of land
and water, have strongly affected the character of nations and the
currents of history. In regions extremely hot or extremely cold
man can not thrive, or build up a rich and enduring civilization.
The occupations of a people are largely dependent on its situa-8	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

tion, — whether it be maritime or away from the sea, — and on
peculiarities of soil and temperature. The character of the Nile
valley, and its periodical inundation, is a striking illustration of
the possible extent of geographical influences. The peninsular
and mountainous character of Greece went far to shape the form
of Greek political society. The high plateau which forms the
greater portion of Spain, with the fertile belts of valley on the
Atlantic and Mediterranean border, have helped to determine
the employments and the character of the Spanish people. Had
the physical characteristics of the Spanish peninsula been essen-
tially different, the success of Wellington in expelling the French,
with the forces at his disposal, would not have been possible.
Were there a chain of mountains along our Atlantic coast as near
as are the Andes to the Pacific, what different results would have
arisen from the English settlements in North America ! TI. I -
pine barrier in the north of Italy was indispensable to the built Uiig-
up and maintenance of the dominion of ancient Rome. Of the
great basin or plain between the Alps and the Apennines, open
to the sea only on the east, through which flows one great river,
fed by streams from the mountains on either side, Dr. Arnold
says : " Who can wonder that this large and richly watered plain
should be filled with flourishing cities, or that it should have been
contended for so often by successful invaders?" While the
agency of climate, soil, and other physical circumstances may
easily be exaggerated, that agency must be duly considered in
accounting for historical phenomena.

The best historical Atlas is the copious German work of Von Spruner. Freeman's His-
torical Geography of Europe is a work of great value. Droysen's Allg. Hist. Atlas.
Smaller atlases are those of Putzger, Rhode, Appleton's Hist. Atias, the International, and
the Collegiate. Smaller still, Keith Johnston's Crown Atlases and Half-Crown Atlases. On
Mediaeval History, Labberton's Atlas; also, Koeppen: in Ancient Geography, Smith's work,
Kiepert's, Longs. On Physical Geography, Guyot's text-books; Vaughan's Connection
between History and Physical Geography y in Content p. Review, vol. v.; Hall's Methods
of Studying History, etc., p. 201 seq.t Encycl. Britt., Art. Geography.

Chronology. — An exact method of establishing dates was slowly reached.
The invention of eras was indispensable to this end. The earliest definite
time for the dating of events was established at Babylon, — the era of
Nabonassar, 747 B.C. The Greeks, from about 300 B.C., dated events from
the first recorded victory at the Olympic games, 776 B.C. These games
occurred every fourth year. Each Olympiad was thus a period of four
years. The Romans, though not until some centuries after the founding
of Rome, dated from that event; i.e., from 753 B.C. The Mohammedan
era begins at the Ilegira, or flight of Mohammed to Mecca, 622 15.C. The
method of dating from the birth of Jesus was introduced by Dionysius
Exiguus, a Roman abbot, about the middle of the sixth century. This
epoch was placed bv him about four years too late. This requires us to fix
the date of the birtli of Christ at 4 B.C.

The day was the simplest and earliest division of time. The week has been in use for this
purpose in the East from time immemorial. It was not introduced among the Romans until
after the spread of Christianity in the Empire. The month was the earlier unit for periods of

fjreater length. To make the lunar and the solar years correspond, and to determine the exact
ength of the solar year, was a work of dfiiculty, and was only gradually effected. JuliusINTRODUCTION.	9

Ceesar reformed the calendar in 46 B.C., the date of the Julian era. This made the year
eleven minutes too long. Pope Gregory XIII. corrected the reckoning, in 1582, by ordering
Oct. 5th to be called the 15th, and instituted the " Gregorian calendar." The change, or the
" New Style," was subsequently adopted by Great Britain (in 1752), and by the other Protes-
tant nations. The difference for the present century between the Old and the New Style is
twelve days: during the last century it was eleven. -he Julian civil year began with Jan. 1.
It was not until the eighteenth century that this became the uniform date for the commence-
ment of the legal year among the Latin Christian nations.

On the general subjects of chronology: Encycl. flritt., Arts. Chronology and Calendar.
Manuals of Reference: Rosse's Index of Dates (1858): Haydn's Dictionary 0/ Dates (Vin-
cent's edition, 1866); Blair's Chronological Tables; Woodward and Cates, Encycl. of Chro-
nology (1872).

ETHNOLOGY.

Ethnology is a new science. Its function is to ascertain the
origin and filiation, the customs and institutions, of the various
nations and tribes which make up, or have made up in the past,
the human race. In tracing their relationship to one another, or
their genealogy, the sources of information are mainly three,—
physical characteristics, language, and written memorials of every
sort.

Ethnology is a branch of Anthropology, as this is a subdivision of Zoology, and this, again,
of Biology. Ethnography differs from Ethnology in dealing more with details of description,
and less with rational exposition.

Races of Mankind.—Authorities differ widely from one another
in their classification of races. Prichard made seven, which were
reduced by Cuvier to three; viz., Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethi-
opic. Blumenbach made five, and Pickering eleven. It is the
Caucasian variety which has been chiefly distinguished in history,
and active in the building-up of civilization. None of the numer-
ous schemes of division, from a zoological point of view, however,
are satisfactory.

Huxley has proposed a fourfold classification : 1. The Australoid, represented by the Aus-
tralians and the indigenous tribes of Southern India. 2. The Negroid. 3. The Mongoloid.
4. The Xanthochroi, or fair whites, among whom are comprised most of the inhabitants of
Northern Europe. To these are added a fifth variety, the Melanochroi, to which belong a part
of the Celts, the Spaniards, Greeks, Arabs, etc.

Of the various methods of race-division, A. von Humboldt says: " We fail to recognize any
typical sharpness of definition, or any general or well-established principle, in the division of
these groups. The extremes of form and color are certainly separated, but without regard to
the races which can not be included in any of these classes." (Cosmos, i. 36s.) For example,
black skin, woolly hair, and a negro-like cast of countenance, are not necessarily connected
together.

Monogenism. — Zoologists, from the point of view of their
own science, now more generally favor the monogenist doctrine,
which traces mankind to a single pair, than the polygenist, which
assumed different centers of origin. The present tendencies of
natural science, especially since Danvin, are favorable to the
monogenist view.

" The opinion of modern Zoologists, whose study of the species and breeds of animals
makes them the l>est judges, is against this view of the several origins of man, for two principal
reasons. First, That all tribes of men, from the blackest to the whitest, the most savage to the
most cultured, nave such general likeness in the structure of their bodies and the working of
their ininds, as is easiest and best accounted for by their being descended from a common
ancestry, however distant. Second, That all the human races, notwithstanding their form andIO	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

color, appear capable of freely intermarrying, and forming crossed races of every combination,
such as the millions of mulattoes and mestizoes sprung in the New World from the mixture of
Europeans, Africans, and native Americans; this again points to a common ancestry of all the
races of man. We may accept the theory of the unity of mankind as best agreeing with
ordinary experience and scientific research. (Tylor's Anthropology, etc., pp. 5, 6.)

Evidence of Language. — Languages, through marked affinities,
are grouped together into several great families, i. The Aryan,
or Indo-European, of which the oldest known branch is the
Sanskrit, the language in which the ancient books of the Hindus,
the Vedas, were written. With the Sanskrit belong the Iranian
or Persian, the Greek, the Latin or Italic, the Celtic, the Germanic
or Teutonic (under which are included the Scandinavian tongues),
the Slavonian or Slavo-Lettic. 2. The Semitic, embracing the
communities described in Genesis as the descendants of Shem.
Under this head are embraced, first, the Assyrian and Babylonian;
secondly, the Hebrew and Phoenician, with the Syrian or Aramaic;
and thirdly, the Arabic. The Phoenician was spread among numer-
ous colonies, of which Carthage was the chief. The Arabic fol-
lowed the course of Mohammedan conquest. It is the language
of the northern border of Africa, and has strongly affected various
other languages, — the Persian, Turkish, etc. 3. The Turanian
or Scythian, This is an extensive family of languages. The Finno-
Hungarian, which includes two cultivated peoples, the Fins and
Hungarians ; the Samoyed, stretching from the North Sea far east-
ward to the boundary between Russia and China; and the Turkish
or Tartar, spreading from European Turkey over a great part of
Central Asia, are connected together by family ties. They spring
from one parent stock. Whether the Mongolian and the Tungusic
— the last is the language of the Manchus — are also thus affiliated,
is a point not absolutely settled.

Besides these three great divisions, there are other languages,
as the Chinese, and the monosyllabic tongues of south-eastern
Asia, which possibly are connected lineally with it; the Japanese ;
the Malay-Polynesian, a well-developed family; the JIamitic (of
which the Egyptian or Coptic is the principal member) ; the Dra-
vidian or South Indian; the South African; the Central African;
the American Indian languages, etc.

On language and the divisions of language, W. D Whitney, Language, and the Study of
Language (1867), Oriental and Linguistic Studies (two series, 1872-74), Life and Growth
Cf Language (1875); Art. Philology, in Encycl. liritt., vol. xviii.; Max Miiller's Lectures
on the Science of Language (two series), and other writings by the same author.

Ethnology and History. — History is generally written from the
political point of view. It is the history of nations considered separately
and in relation to one another. There are, also, histories of culture. His-
tory, from a cultural point of view, without paying regard to national bounda-
ries, seeks to unfold the rise and progress of arts and industry, of inventions,
of customs, manners, and institutions. It is the history of culture and civili-
zation. History, from the ethnological point of view, would describe the
migrations and experiences of the different races of men, and the formationINTRODUCTION.

II

of the various nationalities by these races, through conquest and intermix-
ture. Following the divisions of linguistic science, we should have, first, the
Egyptian race and their history. Then we should have the Semitic race, in
the three eras of their pre-eminence, and in their various branches. Then
would come the Aryan, or Indo-European family, whose power, except when
interrupted and partially broken by the Mohammedan conquests, has con-
tinued to dominate in history since the rise of the ancient Persian Empire.

There have been three periods of Semitic ascendency, — the era of the Assyrian and Baby-
lonian empires; that of the Phoenician cities and of Carthage (a Tyrian settlement), with their
colonies; and that of the Arabic-Mohammedan Conquests. This last epoch falls within the Chris-
tian era. In this course of Semitic history would be embraced the narrative of the Israelites,
and of their dispersion in ancient and in modern times. The Indo-European, or Aryan family,
follows next in order. In recording its history, we should consider, first, its oldest representa-
tive of which we have knowledge, — the Indian race, with its literature, its social organization,
and its religions, Brahmanisin and Buddhism. Then come the Persians, with their religion
founded by Zoroaster, and the Armenians. With the fall of the Ancient Persian Empire, the
center of power was transferred from Asia to Europe, where it has since continued, though still
in the hands of the same Aryan race The histQry of the Greeks and of the Romans succeeds;
then the history of the three raccs, — the Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavonian, — as they present
themselves at the threshold of authentic history. The forming of the several nationalities of
Europe would have to be traced: the Slavonian, including Russia and Poland; the Teutonic,
comprising England, Holland, Germany, and the Scandinavian peoples (viz., Denmark, Sweden,
Norway, and Iceland); the Romanic or Italic nations (viz., Portugal, Spain, Provence, Italy,
Wallach ia, the Grisons of Switzerland), which are the nations the basis of whose languages is
the rustic or people's Latin of the middle ages. Such, in brief outline, is the method which
history, from the point of view of race affinities, as these are indicated by language, would
adopt.

Unity of Descent. — Whether mankind are all descended from one pair
— the Monogenist view, or spring from more than one center of origin^—the
Polygenist view, is a question which philological science can not answer.
The facts of language are reconcilable with either doctrine. While cautious
philologists are slow in admitting distinct affinities between the generic fami-
lies of speech, — as the Semitic and Indo-European, — which would be in-
dicative of a common origin, they agree in the judgment, that, on account
of the mutability of language, especially when unwritten, and while in its
earlier stages, no conclusion adverse to the monogenist doctrine can be
drawn from the diversities of speech now existing, or that are known to have
existed at any past time. As far as science is concerned, the decision of the
question must be left to zoology. The tendencies of natural science at pres-
ent, as we have said above, are strongly toward the monogenist view. The
variety of physical characteristics not only affords no warrant for assuming
diversity of species among men; they do not even imply diversity of par-
entage at the beginning.

"Nothing," says Max Miiller, " necessitates the admission of different independent begin-
nings for the material elements" [the vocabulary] "of the Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan
branches of speech." The same thing Miiller affirms of " the formal elements" J the gram-
matical structure] " of these groups of languages." " We can perfectly understand now, either
through individual influences or by the wear and tear of speech in its continuous working, the
different systems of grammar of Asia and Europe may have been produced." (Lectures on
Language, ist series, p. 340.) The same conclusions are reached by Professor W. 1). Whitney,
who, while disclaiming for linguistic science the power to prove that the human race in the
beginning formed one society, says, that it is " even far more demonstrable" that it can " never
prove the variety of human races and origins." (Life and Growth of Language, p. 260.)

We know that nations can learn and unlearn a language. The Irish, adopting the lan-
guage of their English conquerors, is one of many examples of the same sort in history.
What effects upon language took place; prior to recorded history, from the mingling of tribes
and peoples, it is impossible to ascertain. The consequences to language, of mixture among
different forms of speech, were like those which must have been produced upon the physical
man from the mingling of diverse physical types in remote ages. Science, if it has no decided
verdict to render, does not stand in conflict with the monogenist doctrine, which ha6 generally
been understood to be the teaching of the Scriptures.12

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

MYTHOLOGY.

The polytheistic religions are in themselves a highly interesting
part of the history of mankind. In the multiform character that
belongs to them we find reflected the peculiar traits of the several
peoples among whom they have arisen. The history of religion
stands in a close connection with the development of the fine
arts, — architecture and sculpture, painting, music, and also poetry.
The earliest rhythmical utterance was in hymns to the gods. To
worship, all the arts are largely ihdebted for their birth and growth.
This, however, is only one of the ways in which religion is inter-
woven with the rise and progress of civilization.

By mythology, we mean the collective beliefs of any tribe or nation respecting deities or
semi-divine personages. Recent studies in language, or the science of comparative philology
have thrown light on the origin of mythology, and upon the affinities of different polytheistic
religions with one another. Among various nations belonging to the same family (as, for exam-
ple, the peoples of the Aryan race), names of gods, and, to some extent, qualities and deeds
attributed to them, have been identified. Myths are found to have traveled in different guises
from land to land. At the same time, these discoveries have given rise to much unverified
theory and conjecture. Too much stress has been laid, by certain writers, on mistakes in
language as a source of mythology. In the primitive stage of language, all nouns had a gen-
der, either male or female; and verbs, even auxiliary verbs, it is alleged, expressed activity
of some sort. On the basis of these facts it has been inferred, that, at a later day, figurative
expressions, descriptive of natural changes, were taken as literal; as if one should interpret
the saying, " the sun follows the dawn," as meaning that one person pursues another. By this
kind of misunderstanding, it has been thought, a throng of mythological tales arose. By some
it is held that the names of animals, which had been given to ancestors, were interpreted liter-
ally by their savage descendants, or that traditions of having come from a certain mountain
or river caused these natural objects to be mistakenly regarded as actual progenitors. These
suggestions are of very limited value in solving the problem of the origin of the ethnic reli-
gions. Much, however, has been learned from observing the rites and beliefs of existing savage
nations. Not a few religious notions and ceremonies, once in vogue among cultivated heathen
peoples, may be plausibly considered a survival from a more remote and barbarous condition
of society.

That mythology is the product of a mere exaggeration of actual events, or is an allegorical
picture, either of the operations of nature or of human traits, is an untenable and obsolete
view.

We shall not err in defining the main sources of the religions to be,yfrst, the sense of
dependence, and the yearning for the fellowship and favor of powers " not ourselves," by
which the lot of men is felt to be determined; secondly, the effort to explain the world of nature
above and beneath, and the occurrences of life; and thirdly, the personifying instinct which
belongs to the childhood of nations as of individuals. This tendency leads to the attributing
of conscious life to things inanimate. A like tendency may impel the savage and the child to
ascribe mind to the lower animals The fact that language, in its earlier stage, was charged
with personal life and activity, is itself the work of the personifying instinct. When nature is
thus personified, where there is no sense of its unity and no capacity to rise in faith to a living
God above nature, the result is a multitude of divinities of higher and lower rank. Myths
respecting them are the spontaneous invention of unreflecting and uncritical, but imaginative,
peoples. Thus they serve to indicate the range of ideas, and the moral spirit of those who
originate and give credence to them.

This is not the place to consider the question, What was the primitive religion of man? The
earliest deities that history brings to our notice were not fetiches, but heavenly beings of lolty
attributes. Whether the religions of savage tribes, in common with their low grade of intelli-
gence, are, or arc not, the result of 'degeneracy t is a question which secular history affords no
means of deciding with confidence.

It may be added, that, in historic eras, the mythopoeic fancy is not inactive Stories of
marvelous adventure clustered about the old Celtic King Arthur of England and the " knights
of the Round-Table," and fill up the chronicles relating to Charlemagne. Wherever there
is a person who kindles popular enthusiasm, myths accumulate. This is eminently true in an
atmosphere like that which prevailed in the mediaeval period, when imagination and emotion
were dominant.INTRODUCTION.

13

PREHISTORIC TIMES.

Prehistoric Relics. — Within the last half century, in various
countries of Europe, and in other countries, also, which have been,
earlier or later, seats of civilization, there have been found numer-
ous relics of uncivilized races, which, at periods far remote, must
have inhabited the same ground. Many of these antiquities are
met with in connection with remains of fossil elephants, hyenas,
bears, etc., — with animals which no longer live in the regions re-
ferred to, and some of which have become wholly extinct. Dwelling-
places of these far-distant peoples—such as caves and rock-shelters,
and the remains of the lake-habitations that were built on piles, in
Switzerland and elsewhere — sepulchers, camps, and forts, and an
immense number of implements and ornaments of stone and metal,
have been examined. The most ancient of these monuments carry
us as far back as the era called by geologists the Quaternary or
Drift period.

The Three Stages. — But there are marked distinctions in the
relative age of the various relics referred to. They indicate differ-
ent degrees of knowledge and skill; and this proof of a succession
of peoples, or of stages of development, is confirmed by geological
evidence. The prehistoric time is divided into the Stone Age, the
Age of Bronze, and the Age of Iron, according as the implements
in use were of one or another of these materials. But the Stone
Age includes an earlier and a later sub-division. In the first and
most ancient section, the weapons and utensils, mostly of flint, were
very rude in their manufacture. This was the Paleolithic Age, where
there are no signs of habitations constructed by the hand, or of
domesticated plants and animals. Men lived in caves, and their
vestments were the skins of beasts. Yet, among their implements
are found fragments of bone, horn, ivory, and stone, on which are
carved in outline, often with much skill, representations of the rein-
deer, the bear, the ox, and of other animals. In the Neolithic
period, there was a decided advance. Implements are better made
and polished. There were domestic animals and cultivated plants.
The lake-dwellings in Switzerland were well contrived for shelter
and defense. Every hut had its hearth. It is probable that most
of them were furnished with a loom for weaving. Fragments of
pottery are found, and flax was grown and made into cord, net-
tings, etc. Stalls were constructed near the huts for the ox, the
goat, the horse, sheep, and pigs. The lake-dwellers cultivated
wheat and barley. The Bronze Age, when implements were made
of copper or of a mixture of copper and tin, exhibits proof of de-
cided improvement in various directions; and the Age of Iron, a
still more marked advance. In the Swiss remains referred to are
distinct traces of a transition from the Stone Age to the Age of14	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

Bronze, and then to the Age of Iron. The kitchen-middens, or
shell-mounds, of Denmark belong exclusively to the Neolithic
period. Where the transition was made from the Stone Age to
the Age of Bronze, it apparently occurred in some cases by degrees,
and peacefully; but sometimes by the incoming of an invading
people more advanced. It should be observed that the lines of
division between these periods are not sharply drawn : implements
of stone continued to be used after the Bronze and even the Iron
periods had been introduced* Nor were these several ages in
one region contemporaneous with like conditions in every other.
Moreover, it is not possible to find in all countries once civilized
proofs of a passage through these successive eras. In Egypt, the
evidences of a Stone Age are scanty. The most ancient human
remains show that man in his physical characteristics was on a level
with man at present.

Dr. Daniel Wilson, speaking of the age of the Flint-folk, says: " It is of no slight impor-
tance to perceive that the interval which has wrought such revolutions in the earth " [involving
great geological changes and mutations of climate] "as are recorded in the mammaliferous
drift, shows man the same reasoning, tentative, and inventive mechanician, as clearly distin-
guished then from the highest orders of contemporary life of the Elephantine or Cave periods*
as he is now from the most intelligent of the brute creation. . . . The oldest art-traces of the
paleotechnio men of central France not only surpass those of many savage races, but they
indicate an intellectual aptitude in no degree inferior to the average Frenchman of the nine-
teenth century." (Prehistoric Man, pp. 53, 34.)

Literature. — Wilson, Prehistoric Man, etc. (a vols., 1876); Joly, Man before the
Metals (1883); Kbary, The Dawn 0/ History. The writings of E. B. Tylor, Primitive
Culture (2 vols.), Anthropology, Early History of Mankind; his Art. Anthropology,
Encycl. Britt.; Lubbock's Prehistoric Times, and his Origin of Civilization ? Argyll*
The Unity of Nature (1884); J. Geikie, Prehistoric Europe (1881); Lyell, The An-
tiquity of Man ; W. E. Hearn, The Aryan Household; L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society.

The Antiquity of Man. — Science does not furnish us with
the means of fixing the date of the first human inhabitants of the
earth. But its various departments of investigation concur in
pronouncing the interval between the creation of man and the
present to be far longer than the traditional opinion has assumed.
For the growth of language and its manifold ramifications; for the
development of the different races of mankind, physically consid-
ered ; for the geological changes since the beginning of the Stone
Age in the regions where its relics are uncovered ; for the rise of
the most ancient civilization in Egypt as well as in Babylon and
China, — it is thought that periods of very long duration are in-
dispensable.

As to1 the" date" of the Neolithic man, or of the last section of the Stone
Age, Professor J. Geikie writes: "Any term of years I might suggest would
be a mere guess; but I have written to little purpose, however, if the phe-
nomena described in the preceding chapters have failed to leave the impres-
sion upon the reader, that the advent of Neolithic man in Europe must date'
back far beyond• fifty, or seventy centuries." (Prehistoric Europe, p. 558.)

The chronology gathered from Genesis has been supposed to place the date of man's creation
at a point far less remote.. Usher's calculation, attached to the authorized English Version of
the Bible, sets this date at 4004 B.C. The discussion of these questions of Scriptural chro-,
nology belongs to theology and biblical'criticism. It may be observed here, however, that of;INTRODUCTION.

'5

the three forms in which Genesis is handed down to us? — the Hebrew text, the Samaritan
Pentateuch, and the Septuagint, or ancient Greek translation, — no two agree in the numbers
on which the estimate is founded. Hence Hales and Jackson, following the larger numbers in
the genealogies of the Septuagint, place the date of the creation at a point about fourteen
hundred years prior to that fixed upon by Usher.

ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY.

The periods of history are not divided from one another by
merely chronological limits, according to intervals of time of a
definite duration. Such a classification may be of use to the
memory, but it is arbitrary in its character. The landmarks of
history are properly placed at the turning-points where new eras
take their start, whether the intervals between them are longer or
shorter.

Of these natural divisions, the most general and the most
marked is that between ancient and modern history. Ancient
history not only precedes modern in time : it is distinguished from
the latter as relating to a by-gone state of things. Modern his-
tory, on the contrary, deals with an order of things now existing.
Between the two there is this line of demarkation.

History (with the exception of China and India, which require
distinct consideration, as standing apart) begins with Egypt, and
flows down in a continuous stream, until, in the fourth century
A.D., the Roman Empire, into which the ancient civilized peoples
were incorporated, was broken up. Then the new nations, espe-
cially the tribes of the Germanic race, took power into their hands ;
Christianity was established among them; out of the chaos of
elements there emerged the European nations, with their offshoots,
— the peoples at present on the stage of action. Ancient history
had its center in the Mediterranean. It embraced the peoples who
dwelt on the shores of that sea, in the three continents, and the
nations that were brought into relations with them. The Roman
Empire, the final outcome of ancient history, was " the monarchy
of the Mediterranean." With the breaking-up of the Empire, new
races, new centers of power, a universal religion in the room of
national religions, and a new type of culture and civilization, were
introduced. Invaluable legacies were handed over from the past,
surviving the wreck of ancient civilization. There is, however, a
unity in history: the transition from the ancient to the modern
era was gradual.

MEDIEVAL AND LATER MODERN HISTORY.

Since the fall of the Roman Empire, there has occurred no revo-
lution to be compared with the circumstances and results of that
event. An old world passed away, and a new world began to be.
Yet the student, as he travels hitherward, arrives at another epoch
of extraordinary change,—a period of ferment, when modern soci-16	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

ety in Europe takes on a form widely different from the character
that had belonged to it previously. The long interval between
ancient history and modern (in this more restricted sense of the
term) is styled the Middle Ages. Its termination may be found
in the fifteenth century, and a convenient date to mark the boun-
dary-line is the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453).

History thus divides itself into three parts: —

PART I. Ancient History, to the migrations of the Germanic

Tribes (375 A.D).

PART II. Medleval History, from A.D. 375 to the Fall of

Constantinople (1453).

PART III. Modern History, from 1453 until the present.

Works on General History. — Ranke, Universal History; Ploetz, Epitome of
Ancient, Meditevaly and Modem History (Boston, 1884); Weber, IVcltgeschichte
(a vols.); Assmann, Handbuch d. allgemeinen Geschichte (5 vols., 1853-1862); by the
same, Abriss d. allgem. Gesch. (in 3 parts); Oncken, Allgem. Geschichte in Einzeldarstel-
lungen (a series of full monographs of high merit). Copious works on Universal History,
in German, by Weber, Schlosser, Becker, Leo. Laurent, Etudes sur I'Histoire de 1'Hu-
man iU (this is an extended series of historical dissertations),— The Orient and Greece
(a vols.); Rome (1 vol.); Christianity (t vol.), etc. Prdvost-Paradol, Essai sur I'His-
toire Universelle (a vols.; a suggestive critical survey of the course of history, with the
omission of details). S. Willard, Synopsis 0/ History.tige ' msm)j& mum

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PART I.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

FROM THE BEGINNING OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY TO THE MIGRA-
TIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES (A.D. 375).

Divisions of Ancient History.—Ancient history separates itself
into two main divisions. In the first the Oriental nations form
the subject; in the second, which follows in the order of time, the
European peoples, especially Greece and Rome, have the central
place. The first division terminates, and the second begins, with
the rise of Grecian power and the great conflict of Greece with
the Persian Empire, 492 B.C.

Sections of Oriental History. — But Oriental history divides
itself into two distinct sections. The first embraces China and
India, nations apart, and disconnected from the Mediterranean
and adjacent peoples. China and India have a certain bond of
connection with one another through the spread in China of the
Buddhistic religion. The second section includes the great em-
pires which preceded, and paved the way for, European history;
viz., Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, and Persia. In this section,
along the course of the historic stream, other nations which exer-
cised a powerful influence, attract special attention, especially the
Phoenicians and the Hebrews. All these Oriental peoples are
so connected together that they stand in history as the Earliest
Group of Nations. The historic narrative must be so shaped as
to describe them in part singly, but, at the same time, in their
mutual relations.

Ancient history, from an ethnographical point of view, would embrace two general
divisions, — Eastern peoples and Western peoples. The first would comprise Egyptians
(Hamitic); Jews, Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Lydians (Semitic); Hindus, Bac-
trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan); Parthians, Chinese, Japanese. The second would include
Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons (Aryan). (Ploetz, Universal History, p. i.)

From a geographical point of view, ancient history would fall into three general divisions:
I. Asia, including (i) India, (») China (with Japan), (3) Babylonia and Assyria, (4) Phoe-
nicia, (5) Palestine, (6) Media and Persia. II. Africa, including (x) Egypt, (2) Carthage.
111. Europe, including (1) Grecce, with its states and colonies; (2) Italy.

l7Division I.

ORIENTAL HISTORY.

Physical Geography.—Europe and1 Asia together'form one vast
continent, yet have a partial boundary between them in the Ural
Mountains and River, and in the deep bed of the Caspian' and
Black seas. Asia, which extends from the Ural Mountains to the
Pacific, and from the Arctic Sea to the Indian Ocean, embraces
an immense, plateau, stretching from the Black Sea to- Corea.
This plateau spreads like a. fan as it advances eastward. It is
traversed, by chains of mountains,, and bordered also by lofty
mountains,.of which the Himalayas is the principal range. From
this girdle of mountains descend slopes which lead down into-
the lowlands. The great plateau is broken into two by the Hin*
du-Kush range. The eastern division, the extensive plateau of
Central Asia, is bordered on the north by the barren plains of
Siberia. In the lowlands on the east and south are included the-
fertile plains of Central China and of Hindustan.- The pla--
teau of eastern Asia has been the natural abode of nomad tribes,.
Tartars and Mongols, whose invading hosts have poured through
the passes of the mountains into the inviting territories belowv
The plateau of western Asia, stretching westward from the Indus, r
is. not so high as that of the east. It begins with the lofty table-
lands of Iran, and extends, ordinarily at a less elevation, to
the extremity of the continent. On the south lie the plains of
Mesopotamia. Arabia is a low-plateau of vast extent, connected'
by the plateau and mountains of Syria with the mountain region
of Asia Minor. As might be expected, civilization sprang up in
the alluvial valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the*
Ganges, and on the soil watered by the great rivers> of China,,
the Hoang-Ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang. Egypt was looked on
by the Ancients as a part of Asia. Its language was distinct from-
the languages of the African nations. The seat of its power and.
thrift was the valley of the Nile, The conflicts of the nations
settled in the lowlands with the mountainous peoples, eager for
spoil and conquest, are a characteristic feature of Oriental His-
tory.TJiian sha"-2iM ^
CentriD Depression

Himalayas'
" 16000
'Sanpu It. _

'jOO

The rfgurca indicate average Altitudes
of Surface in English Vcet. (ORIENTAL HISTORY.

19

Character of the Asiatic Nations. -— Generalizations covering
so wide a field are, of necessity, inexact. As a rule, in the oriental
mind, the intuitive powers eclipse the severely rational and logi-
cal. Civilization — as, for example, in Egypt and China — attains
to a certain grade, and is there petrified. Immobility belongs to
the Eastern nations. Revolutions bring a change of masters, but
leave character and customs unchanged. The sense of individ-
uality has been less vivid, and freedom less understood or valued.
Governments have taken the despotic form. Law has had its seat
in the ruler's sovereign will. The ruler has been regarded as
clothed with divine authority. Before him the subject prostrates
himself with groveling servility.

Religion in Asia. — Asia is the cradle of the principal religions
of the world. Here monotheism appears, as in the faith of the
Hebrews, and in the Mohammedan revival of it in a less pure
form. Here have flourished polytheistic systems, each with its
throng of divinities. In the east, pantheism, dropping out of the
# conception of the Deity the element of personality, has found a
cherished home.

Priesthoods. — Connected with the controlling influence of re-
ligion have arisen the priesthoods, — sometimes ruling as an aristo-
cratic caste or class, sometimes dividing power with the reigning
despot, to whom sacred attributes are ascribed.

Literature and Art. — The Oriental nature has been mirrored in
the literature and art of the East. Its products lack the measure,
the grace and symmetry, and the human interest, which charac-
terize the creations of the European mind. In the mechanical
arts, invention and discovery push on progress to a certain point,
then languish and die out.Section I.
CHINA AND INDIA.

chapter i.

CHINA.

China proper comprises less than half of the present Chinese
Empire. It was called the land of Sinae or Seres by the ancients,
and in the middle ages bore the name of Cathay. In the north
of China are the broad alluvial plains, and in the north-eastern
portion of the empire, an immense delta. The rest of the country
is hilly and mountainous.

The nucleus of the Chinese nation is thought to have been a
band of immigrants, who are supposed by some to have started
from the region south-east of the Caspian Sea, and to have crossed
the head waters of the Oxus. They followed the course of the
Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River, having entered the country of their
adoption from the north-west; and they planted themselves in the
present province of Shan-se. Although nomads, they had some
knowledge of astronomy, brought from their earlier homes; and
they quickly made for themselves settled abodes. The native
tribes by degrees were extirpated or driven out. The new-comers
cultivated grain. They raised flax, out of which they wove gar-
ments.

Legendary Era, to the Chow Dynasty (1123 B.C.).—The early
annals of the Chinese, like those of other nations, are made up of
myth and fable. The annalists placed the date of the creation at
a point more than two millions of years prior to Confucius. The
intervening period they sought to fill up with lines of dynasties.
Preceding the Chow dynasty, the chroniclers give ten epochs.
Prior to the eighth of these, there are no traces of authentic
history. To Yew-Chciou She (the Nest-having) is given the credit
of teaching the people to make huts of the boughs of trees. Fire
was discovered by Suy-jin-She (the Fire-producer), his successor.
Another ruler (Fuh-he), whose date is fixed at 2852 B.C., dis-
covered iron. He also divided the people into classes. His
successor invented the plow. These tales, perhaps, retain vague
20CHINA.

21

reminiscences of the methods in which useful inventions origi-
nated, or of the order in which they appeared.

With Yaou (2356 B.C.) we reach the period where the narra-
tives which were compiled many centuries later by Confucius, begin
their story. In the mass of fable, there is a larger infusion of
historical fact, which, however, it is well-nigh hopeless to separate
from the fiction that is mingled with it. In that golden age, few
laws were required. We are told that the house-door could safely
be left open. Yaou extended the empire : he established fairs and
marts over the land. During the reign of Shun, who followed him,
a tremendous inundation is said to have occurred ; and Yu, called
"the Great," was energetic in draining off the waters. He
ascended the throne in 2205 B.C. His degenerate successors
provoked a revolt and the introduction of a new dynasty, called
the Shang dynasty, whose first Emperor, Tang (1760 B.C.), had
a wise and beneficent reign. Tyranny and disaster followed
under the later kings of this house; until finally Woo- Wang,
the first sovereign of the Chow dynasty, acceded to the throne
(1123 B.C.).

The Chow Dynasty (1123-255 B.C.). — The traditions now
become decidedly more trustworthy, although still largely mixed
with fable. Woo -Wang was brave and upright. Under him a
momentous change in government took place. By him the king-
dom was divided into seventy-two feudal states. Internal divisions
and struggles resulted from this new political system. The Tartars
availed themselves of the weakened condition of the nation, to
make predatory incursions. In this period of disorder and danger,
Confucius, the great teacher of China, was born (551 B.C.). His
father was a district magistrate, and died when the son was only
three years old. He was trained and taught by his mother. When
she died, he gave up all employments to mourn for her, during
three years. His only occupation during this period was study.
A grave and learned youth, he at length resolved to become an
instructor of his countrymen in the ancient writings, to which he
was devoted. He was regular in all his ways, and never ate or
drank to excess. He gathered about him scholars; his fame
increased ; and, in 500 B.C., he was made magistrate of Chung-tu
by the sovereign, Duke Ting, an office which he justly and discreetly
administered for three years. Sometimes persecuted, he compared
himself to a dog driven from his home. " I have the fidelity of
that animal, and I am treated like it. But what matters the
ingratitude of men? They can not hinder me from doing all the
good that has been appointed me. If my precepts are disregarded,
I have the consolation of knowing in my own breast that I have
faithfully performed my duty." Both by his literary works and by
the lessons taught to his disciples, he laid the foundation of a most22

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

powerful and lasting influence over his countrymen. He died in
478 B.C., at the age of seventy-three. Laou-tsze, another famous
thinker, was a few years older than Confucius. " Three precious
•things," he said, " I prize, and hold fast,—humility, compassion,
and economy.'* Afencius, a celebrated teacher and reformer, who
followed in the path of Confucius, after a long life died in 289
B.C. One of his doctrines was, that the nature of man is good,
and that evil is owing to education and circumstances. One of his
maxims was, that the people can be led aright, but can not be
taught the reasons for the guidance to which they are subjected.

Dynasty of Tain (255-206 B.C.). —Reverting to the course of
Chinese history, the next grand epoch is the enthronement of the
Tsin dynasty, in the person of the ruler of one of the provinces,
which, in the intestine strife among the feudal princes, gained the
victory. This was in 255 B.C. In this line belongs the famous
Emperor Che Hwang-te, who, in 246 B.C., at the age of thirteen
years, succeeded to the crown. His palace in his capital, the
modern Se-gan Foo, the edifices which he built elsewhere, the
roads and canals constructed by him, excited wonder. He routed
and drove out the Tartar invaders, and put down the rebellion of
the feudal princes. He enlarged the kingdom nearly to the limits'
of modern China proper. For the protection of the northern
frontier he began the "Great Wall," which he did not live to
finish. It was finished 204 B.C., ten years after it was begun.
When finished, it was not less than fifteen hundred miles in length.
It would reach "from Philadelphia to Topeka, or from Portugal
to Naples." The innovations and maxims of government of Che
Hwang-te were offensive to the scholars and the conservative class,
who pointed the people to the heroes of the feudal days and to
the glories of the past. For this reason, the monarch commanded
that all books having reference to the history of the empire should
be destroyed. He would efface the recollection of the old times.
He would not allow his system to be undermined by tradition.
The decree'was obeyed, although hidden copies of many of the
ancient writings were undoubtedly preserved. Numerous scholars
were buried alive. His death, in 210 B.C., was followed by disturb-
ances, growing out of the disaffection of the higher classes. In
the civil war that ensued, his dynasty was subverted. The throne
was next held by

The Han Rulers (206 B.C.-221 A.D.).—Their sway, which
lasted for four hundred years, covers a brilliant period in the Chi-
nese annals. During the reign of Mitig-te, 65 A.D., a deputation
was sent to India, to obtain the sacred writings and authorized
teachers of the Buddhistic religion, which had begun to spread
among the Chinese. The power of the feudal lords was reduced.
Northern Corea was conquered, and the bounds of the empireCHINA.

23

extended on the west as far as Russian Turkestan. In this period^
there was a marked revival of learning and authorship. TheiV
lived a famous public officer, Yang Chen, who, when asked to take
a bribe, and assured that no one would know it, answered, " How'
so? Heaven would know, Earth would know, you would know;-
and I should know." Under this dynasty, a custom of buryihg:
slaves with the dead was abolished.

Beginning in 221 B.C., there followed the " era of the three
kingdoms." It was an age of martial prowess, civil war, and!
bloodshed. This long period of division was interrupted in 265
A.D. by a re-union of the greater part of the empire for a brief
period. But discord soon sprang up; and it was not until 590 A.D.
that unity and order were restored by Yang-Kian, who founded
the dynasty, named from his local dominion; Suy.

Religion in China.— The ancient religion of China .was poly-%
theistic. The supreme divinity was called Tien or Shang-ti. Tien-
signifies Heaven. Was Heaven, or Shang-ti — or the Lord — the
visible heaven, the expanse above, clothed with the attribute of
personality? This has been, and still is, the prevailing opinion'
of missionaries and scholars. Dr. Legge, however, holds that Tienv
is the lord of the heavens, a power above the visible firmament ;>
and thus finds monotheism as the basis of the Chinese religious4
creed.

The prevailing religions of China are three, —Buddhism' (which*
in its original form was brought in from India in the first century*
of the1 Christian era), Confucianism, and Taouism. It may be'
observed, that, in all these systems, there is but a vague sense of
personality as inhering in the heavenly powers, in comparison with-'
the creeds in vogue among heathen nations generally. Another
fact to be noted is, that, in Chinese worship, the veneration for
ancestors, a feeling inbred in the Chinese mind, is a very prominent -
and pervading element.

Confucius did not profess to reveal things supernatural.' His
teaching is made up of .moral and political maxims. He builds
on the past, and always inculcates reverence for the fathers and
for what has been. There is much wise counsel to parents and
to rulers. His morality reaches its acme in the Golden Rule,
which he gives, however, only in its negative relation: "Do not
unto others what you would not that others should do unto you."
Laou-tsze is a more speculative and mystical thinker. In his moral
aphorisms, he approaches the theory of the ancient Stoics. Teh —•
i.e., virtue — is lauded. Teh proceeds from Tao. To explain
what the Chinese sage means by Tao, — a word that signifies the
"way," — is a puzzle for commentators and inquirers. From Tao-
all things originate : they conform to Tao, and to Tao they return.
There are noble maxims in Laou-tsze, — precepts enjoining com-"24

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

passion, and condemning the requital of evil with evil. Taouism
is a type of religion which traces itself to the teaching of Laou-tsze.
That teaching became mixed with wild speculations. Then cer-
tain Buddhistic rites and tenets were added to it. The result,
finally, was a compound of knavery and superstition. Taouism is
at once mystical and rationalistic in its tone.

Literature in China. — The Chinese language was crystallized,
in the written form, in the monosyllabic stage of its development.
Beginning in hieroglyphs, literal pictures of objects, and having no
alphabet, it has so multiplied its characters and combinations of
characters as to put great hindrances in the way of the acquisition
of it. The utter absence of inflection may have crippled the devel-
opment of poetry and of the drama, for which the Chinese have a
natural taste. In these departments, Chinese productions do not
jise above mediocrity. For this, however, the lack of imagination
and of creative power is largely accountable. It is in the province
of pure prose — as in historical narrations, topographical writings,
such as geographies, and in the making of encyclopedias — that the
Chinese have excelled. But the yoke of tradition has everywhere
weighed heavily. In one sense, the Chinese have been a literary
people. The system of competitive examinations for public offices
has diffused through the nation a certain degree of book-learning;
yet the masses have been kept in a state of ignorance. At the
foundation of all learning are the " nine classics," which consist of
five works, edited or written by Confucius, of which the " Shoo
King," or Book of History, stands at the head, together with the
four books written by his disciples and the disciples of Mencius.
Great as have been the services of Confucius, his own slavish rev-
erence for the past, so stamped upon his writings, has had the
effect to cramp the development of the Chinese mind, and to
fasten upon it the fetters of tradition.

Government and Civilization.—The government of China is
" a patriarchal despotism." As father of his people, the king has
absolute authority. The power of life and death is in his hand.
Yet the right of revolution was taught by Confucius and Mencius,
and the Chinese have not been slow to exercise it. The powers
of the emperor are limited by ceremonial regulations, and by a
body of precedents which are held sacred. He administers rule
with the help of a privy council. Officers of every rank in the
employ of the government constitute the aristocratic class of
Mandarins, who are divided into different ranks.

Invention.— Printing by wooden blocks was known in China
as early as the sixth century A.D. Printing did not come into
general use until the thirteenth century. The use of movable
types, although devised, it is said, many centuries earlier, did not
come into vogue until the seventeenth century. Gunpowder wasINDIA.	25

used as early as 250 A.D., in the making of fire-crackers; but
it was certainly as late as the middle of the twelfth century that it
was first employed in war. The Chinese were early acquainted
with the polarity of the loadstone, and used the compass in jour-
neys by land long before that instrument was known in Europe.
In various branches of manufactures, — as silk, porcelain, carved
work in ivory, wood, and horn,— the Chinese, at least until a recent
period, have been pre-eminent; In the mechanical arts their prog-
ress has been slow. Their crude implements of husbandry are in
contrast with their exhibitions of skill in other directions. Al-
though imitation long ago supplanted the activity of inventive
talent, to China belongs the distinction of being a civilized land
before the Christian nations of Europe had emerged into being.

Literature. — The Middle Kingdom, by S. Wells Williams (a vols.); Encycl. Britt.,
Art. China by Professor Douglas; Arts. Confucius and Mencius by Dr. Legge; Legge, The
Religions of China; Richthofen, China (3 vols.); Giles, Historic China, and Other
Sketches (1882); Legge, The Chinese Classics; Boulger, History of China (1881-84);
Thornton, History of China.

Japan. — The authentic history of Japan belongs mainly in the modern
period, since the tenth century A.D. The most ancient religion of Japan,
designated by a term which means " the way of the pods," included a vari-
ety of objects of worship,—gods, deified men, the mikados, or chief rulers,
regarded as "the sons of heaven," animals, plants, etc. Unquestioning
obedience to the mikado was the primary religious duty. It was a state-
religion. Buddhism, brought into the country in 552 A.D., spread, and became
prevalent.

The Japanese are a mixed race. Kioto and the adjacent provinces are
said to have been occupied by the conquerors. Prior to 660 B.C. we have
no trustworthy history of the island. This is the date assigned by the Japa-
nese to their hero, Jimmu Tentio% the first mikado, the founder of an
unbroken line. For several centuries, however, the history is open to ques-
tion. The tenth mikado, Sujin, is noted as a reformer, and promoter of
civilization. An uncrowned princess, Jingu-Kogo (201-269 A.D.), is famous
for her military prowess. She suppressed a rebellion, and subdued Corea.
Ojifty a celebrated warrior, is still worshiped as a god of war. The intro-
duction of Chinese literature and civilization at this period, makes a turning-
point in Japanese history.

Literature.—J. J. Rein, Japan: Travels and Researches, vol. x. (1881); E. J. Reed,
Japan (a vols.. 1880); Siebold, Nippon (5 vols. 4to, and plates); Kampfer, History of
Japan (a vols, iol., 1738); Encycl. Britt., Art. Japan.

[ CHAPTER II.

INDIA.

India is the central one of the three great peninsulas of Southern
Asia. On the north is the mountainous region of the Himalayas,
below which are the vast and fertile river plains, watered by the
Indus, the Ganges, and other streams. On the south, separated2 6

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

from the Ganges by the Vindhyd range, is the hilly and moun-
tainous tract called the Deccan.

The Aryan Invaders.—The history of India opens with glimpses
of a struggle on the borders of the great rivers, — first of the Indus
and then of the Ganges, — between an invading race, the Sanskrit-
speaking Aryans from the north-west, and the dusky aborigines.
These rude native tribes have left few relics but their tombs. Be-
fore they tenanted the soil, there dwelt upon it still earlier inhab-
itants, whose implements were of stone or bronze. The incoming
people referred to above were of that Indo-European stock to
which we belong. From their camping-ground in central Asia, they
moved in various directions.. A part built up the Persian king-
dom ; another portion migrated farther, and were the progenitors
of the Greek nation; and a third founded Rome. The Indian
Aryans migrated southward from the headwaters of the Oxus at
some time prior, doubtless, to 2000 B.C. Our knowledge of them
is derived from their ancient sacred books, the Vedas; of these
the oldest, the Rig- Veda, contains ten hundred and seventeen
lyrics, chiefly addressed to the gods. Its contents were composed
while the Aryans dwelt upon the Indus, and while they were on
their way to the neighborhood of the Ganges. The Rig-Veda,
therefore, exhibits this people in their earliest stage of religious and
social development. They were herdsmen, but with a martial
spirit, which enabled them by degrees to drive out the native
tribes, and compel them to take refuge in the mountains on the
north, or on the great southern plateau. Among them women
were held in respect, and marriage was sacred. There are beau-
tiful hymns written by ladies and queens. No such cruel custom
as the burning of widows existed : it was of far later origin. They
were acquainted with the metals. Among them were blacksmiths,
coppersmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters, and other artisans. They
fought from chariots, but had not come to employ elephants in
war. They were settled in villages and in towns. Mention is made
of ships, or river-boats, as . in use among them. They ate beef,
and drank a sort of fermented beer made from the soma plant.

The Vedio Religion. — The early religion of the Indian Aryans
was quite different from the system that grew "up later among
them. We do not find in it the dreamy pantheism that appears
afterwards. It is cheerful in its tone, quite in contrast with the
gloomy asceticism which is stamped on it in after times. The
head of each family is priest in his own household. It is only
the great tribal sacrifice which is offered by priests set apart for the
service. The worship is polytheistic, but not without tendencies
to monotheism. The principal divinities are the powers of nature.
The deities (deva) were the heavenly or the shining ones. "It
was the beautiful phenomenon of light which first and most power-INDIA.	27

fully swayed the Aryan mind." The chief gods were the Father-
heaven ; Indra, the god of thunder and of rain, from whom the
refreshing showers descended ; Varuna, the encompassing sky; and
Agni, the god of fire. Among these Indra, from his beneficence,
more and more attracted worship. Soma, too, was worshiped ; soma
being originally the intoxicating juice of a plant. Brihaspati, the
lord of prayer, personifying the omnipresent power of prayer, was
adored. Thirty-three gods in all were invoked. The bodies of
the dead were consumed on the funeral-pile. The soul survived
the body, but the later doctrine of transmigration was unknown.
All the attributes of sovereign power and majesty were collected in
Varuna. No one can fathom him, but he sees and knows all.
He is the upholder of order; just, yet the dispenser of grace,
and merciful to the penitent. Worship is made up of oblations and
prayers. It must be sincere. The gods will not tolerate deceit.
They require faith. Of the last things and the last times the Rig-
Veda hardly speaks. The Vedic hymns have much to say of the
origin of things, but little, except in the last book, of the final
issues.

There are four Vedas,— the Rig~Veda} which has the body of hymns; the Yajur-Veda, in
which the prescribed formulas to be used in acts of sacrifice are collected; the Sarna-V eda%
containing the chants: and the Atharva~Veda> a collection of hymns, in part of a later date.
Besides, each Veda contains, as a second part, one or more BrAhmanas% or prose treatises on
the ceremonial system In addition, there are theological works supplementary, and of later
origin, — the intermediate A ranyakas, and the Upanishads, which are of a speculative cast.

Not only is nature — mountains, rivers, trees, etc. —personified in the'
Vedas: the animals—'as the cow, the horse, the dog, even the apparatus of
worship, the war-chariot, the plow, and the furrow — are addressed in prayer.
The sacrificial fire is deified in Agni, the sacrificial drink in Soma. Indra has
for his body-guards the Maruts, gods of the storm and lightning. He is a
warlike god, standing in his chariot, but also a beneficent giver of all good
£ifts. Varuna is the god of the vast luminous heavens, in their serene ma-
jesty. Indray on the other hand, represents the atmosphere in its active and
militant energy. The number of the gods is variously given. In passages,
thev are said to be many thousands.

ftites.— There is no hierarchy among the gods. But there is a tendency
to confuse the attributes of the different divinities. Occasionally, for the;
time being, one eclipses all the rest, and is addressed as if all others were
forgotten. There is sometimes a tendency to regard them as all one, under
different names. But this tendency develops itself later. Offerings consisted
of rice, cakes, soma', etc. Victims also were sacrificed, the horse especially;
also the goat, the buffalo, and other animals. Sacrifice purchases the gifts
and favor of the gods. It is an expression of gratitude and dependence. It
has, moreover, a deep, mysterious energy of an almost magical character.

Thd Aryans on the Ganges. — Later, but earlier than 1000 B.C.,
we find that the Aryan invaders have moved onward in their career
of conquest, and have planted themselves on the plains of the
Ganges. A marvelous transformation has taken place in their
social constitution, their religion, and in their general spirit. The
caste system has sprung up, of which there are few traces in the28

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

Rig-Veda. In the first or lowest of these distinct classes are
the Sudras, or despised serfs, who are the subjugated aborigines;
the second, or next higher, class is composed of the tillers of the
soil, who are of a lower rank than the third, the warrior caste.
These, in turn, fall below the Brahmans> or priests, who, as rites of
worship grew more complicated, and superstition increased, gained,
though not without a struggle, a complete ascendency. This
marks the beginning of the sacerdotal era. The tendency of the
farmer caste was to decrease, until, in modern times, in various
provinces they are hardly found. The supremacy of the Brahmans
was largely owing to their eminence as the great literary caste.
They arose out of the families by whom the hymns had been com-
posed, and who managed the tribal sacrifices. They alone under-
stood the language of the hymns and the ritual. Brahman, in the
earliest Veda, signifies a worshiper.

Brahminical Pantheism. — The polytheism of the earlier type
of religion was converted into pantheism. Brahma, the supreme
being, is impersonal, the eternal source of all things, from which
all finite beings — gods, nature, and men — emanate. It is by
emanation, — an outflow analogous to that of a stream from its
fountain, in distinction from creation, implying will and self-con-
sciousness, — that all derived existences emerge into being. With
this doctrine was connected the belief in the transmigration of souls.
All animated beings, including plants as well as animals, partake
of the universal life which has its origin and seat in Brahma.
Alienation from Brahma, finite, individual being, is evil. To work
the way back to Brahma is the great aim and hope. Absorption
in Brahma, return to the primeval essence, is the supreme good.
The sufferings of the present are the penalty of sins committed in
a pre-existent state. If they are not purged away, the soul is con-
demned to be embodied again and again,—it may be, in some repul-
sive animal. This process of metempsychosis might be repeated
far into the indefinite future. With the doctrine of Brahma and
of transmigration was connected the feeling that all life is sacred.
The Brahman spared even trees and plants from destruction. Pol-
lution or defilement might be contracted in a great variety of ways.
There grew out of these ideas of sin, rigorous penances, most
painful forms of self-torment. It was only by practices of this sort
that there was hope of avoiding the retribution so much dreaded.

The Brahminical Codes.—The principal of these codes is the
Laws of Manu, Manu was imagined to be the first human being,
conceived of as a sage. This code is a digest compiled by the
priests at a date unknown, but comprising in it materials of a very
high antiquity. Hence, while exhibiting Brahmanism in its maturer
form, it affords glimpses of society at a much earlier date. A sec-
ond code was compiled not earlier than the second century A.D.INDIA.	29

These codes present Hindu law under three heads: (1) domestic
and civil rights and duties, (2) the administration of justice, (3)
purification and penance. In truth, the codes prescribe regula-
tions for every department of life. The obligations of kings, of
Brahmans, and of every other class, are defined in detail. One
motive that is kept in view is to set forth and fortify the special
privileges of the Brahminical order.

The Philosophy of the Brahmans.—In process of time, commenta-
ries on the Vedas were multiplied. Discord arose in- the interpretation of
the sacred books. Out of this debate and confusion there emerged, in the
seventh and sixth centuries B.C., several philosophical systems. These aimed
to give peace to the soul by emancipating it from the bondage of matter,
and by imparting a sense of independence of the body and of the external
world.

These old philosophies are preserved in the Uf>anishads% or Instructions. ^ The main idea
in these diverse systems — the Sankkya, the Veaanta, etc. — is, that the soul's notion of itself
as separate from the supreme, impersonal being, is the fallen state. . This duality roust be over-
come. Conscious of its identity with the Supreme, the soul enters into yoga> or the state of
unison with the Infinite. He who is thus taken away from the illusions of sense, or the yogin,
is free from the power of things perishable. Death brings a complete absorption into the source
of all being. It is the bliss of personal extinction. This sort of philosophy attached great
value to contemplation and self-renunciation. It led to a light esteem of ritual practices and
ceremonies.

BUDDHISM.

The Brahminical system has not ceased to maintain its suprem-
acy in India since the time when it was presented to view in the
law-codes. But it has not escaped alteration and attack. New
movements, religious and political, have appeared to modify its
character. Of these, Buddhism is by far the most memorable.

The Life of Buddha. — Of the life of Buddha we have only
legendary information, where it is impossible to separate fact from
romance. The date of his death was between 482 and 472 B.C.
He was then old. He belonged to the family of Gautamas, who
were said to be of the royal line of the (^akyas, a clan having its
seat about a hundred and thirty-seven miles north of Benares. The
story is, that, brought up in luxury, and destined to reign, he was
so struck with the miseries of mankind, that, at the age of twenty-
nine, he left his parents, his young wife, and an only son, and retired
to a solitary life to meditate upon the cause of human suffering.
From Brahminical teachers he could obtain no solution of the
problem. But after seven years of meditation and struggle, during
which sore temptations to return to a life of sense and of ease were
successfully resisted, he attained to truth and to peace. For forty-
four years after this he is said to have promulgated his doctrine,
gathering about him disciples, whom he charged with the duty of
spreading it abroad.

The Buddhistio Doctrine.— Buddhism was not a distinct revolt
against the reigning system of religion. Buddha left theology to
the Brahmans. Indra, Agni, and the other divinities, and the ser-3°

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

vices rendered to them, he left untouched. Being an anchorite,
he was not required to concern himself with the rites and observ-
ances in which others took part. His aim was practical. His
doctrine, though resting on a theoretical basis, was propounded
simply as a way of salvation from the burdens that oppressed the
souls of men. Nor did he undertake a warfare against caste.
The blessing of deliverance from the woes of life he opened to
all without distinction. This was the limit of his opposition to
caste.

The Hoad to Nirvana. — Buddha taught, (i) that existence is
always attended with misery; (2) that all modes of misery re-
sult from passion, or desire unsatisfied; (3) that desire must be
quenched; (4) that there are four steps in doing this, and thus
of arriving at Nirvana, which is the state in which self is lost
and absorbed, and vanishes from being. These four ways are (1)
the. awakening to a perception of the nature and cause of evil,
as thus defined; (2) the consequent quenching of impure and
revengeful feelings; (3) the stifling of all*other evil desires, also
riddance from ignorance, doubt, heresy, unkindliness, and vexa-
tion; (4) the entrance into Nirvana, sooner or later, after death.
The great boon which Buddha held out was escape from the hor-
rors of transmigration. He attributed to the soul no substantial
existence. It is the Karma, or another being, the successor of one
who dies, the result and effect of all that he was, who re-appears
in case of transmigration. Buddhism involved atheism, and the
denial of personal, immortality, or, where this last tenet was not
explicitly denied, uncertainty and indifference respecting it. On
the foundation of Buddha's teaching, there grew up a vast system
of monasticism, with ascetic usages not less burdensome than the
yoke of caste. The attractive feature of Buddhism was its moral
precepts. These were chiefly an inculcation of chastity, patience,
and compassion; the unresisting endurance of all ills; sympathy
and efficient help for all men.

Deification of Buddha. — By the pupils of Buddha he was glo-
rified. He was placed among the Brahminical gods, by whom he
was served. A multitude of cloisters were erected in his honor, in
which his relics were believed to be preserved. On the basis of
the simpler doctrine and precepts of the founder, there accumu-
lated a mass of superstitious beliefs and observances.

The Spread of Buddhism. — After the death of Buddha, it is
said that his disciples, to the number of five hundred, assembled,
and divided his teaching into three branches, — his own words,
his rules of discipline, and his system of doctrine. During the
next two centuries Buddhism spread over northern India. One
of the most conspicuous agents in its diffusion was Asoka, the king
of Behar, who was converted to the Buddhistic faith, and publishedINDIA.

31

its tenets throughout India. His edicts, in which they were set
forth, were engraved on rocks and pillars and in caves. He or-
ganized missionary efforts among the aborigines, using only peace-
ful means, and combining the healing of disease, and other forms
of philanthropy, with preaching. He carried the Buddhistic faith
i as far as Ceylon. It spread over Burmah (450 A.D.). Siam was
converted (638 A.D.), and Java between the fifth and seventh
centuries of our era. Through Central Asia the Buddhistic mis-
sionaries passed into China in the second century B.C., and
Buddhism became an established system there as early as 65 A.D.
At present, this religion numbers among its professed adherents
more than a third of the human race.

The Brahminical He-action. — In India Buddhism did not sup-
plant the old religion. The Brahmans modified their system.
They made their theology more plain to the popular apprehen-
sion. They took up Buddhistic speculations into their system.
But they rendered their ceremonial practices more complex and
more burdensome. Their ascetic rule grew to be more exacting
and oppressive. In diffusing and making popular their system,
customs, like the burning of widows, were introduced, which were
not known in previous times. The divinities, Brahma, the author
of all things, Wshnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer, were
brought into a relation to one another, as a sort of triad. Suc-
cessive incarnations of Vishnu became an article of the creed,
Krishna being one of his incarnate names. For centuries Brah-
manism and Buddhism existed together. Gradually Buddhism de-
cayed, and melted into the older system; helping to modify its
character, and thus to give rise to modern Hinduism. For ten
centuries Buddhism, with multitudinous adherents abroad, has had
no existence in the land of its birth.

The Greek-Roman Period.—In 327 A.D., Alexander the Great
advanced in his victorious career as far as India, entered the Pun-
jab, which was then divided among petty kingdoms, and defeated
one of the kings, Porus, who disputed the passage of the river
Jhelum. The heat of the climate and the reluctance of his
troops caused the Macedonian invader to turn back from his
original design of penetrating to the Ganges. Near the conflu-
ence of the five rivers he built a town, Alexandria. He founded,
also, other towns, established alliances, and left garrisons. On the
death of Alexander (323 B.C.) and the division of his empire,
Bactria and India fell to the lot of Seleucus Nicator, the founder
of the Syrian monarchy. About this time a new kingdom grew
up in the valley of the Ganges, under the auspices of Chandra
Gupti, a native. After various conflicts, Seleucus ceded the
Greek settlements in the Punjab to this prince, to whom he gave
his daughter in marriage. The successors of Seleucus sent Grseco-32

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

Bactrian expeditions into India. Thus Greek science and Greek
art exerted a perceptible influence in Hindustan. During the first
six centuries of the Christian era, Scythian hordes poured down
into northern India. They were stoutly resisted, but effected settle-
ments, and made conquests. The events as well as the dates of
the long struggle are obscure. The non-Aryan races of India, both
on the north and on the south of the Ganges, many of whom
received the Buddhistic faith, were not without a marked influence
— the precise lines of which it is difficult to trace — upon the his-
tory and life of India during the period of Greek and Scythic oc-
cupation and warfare. The Dravidian people in southern India,
made up of non-Aryans, number at present forty-six millions.

Literature.— Mill's History of India (Wilson's edition, 9 vols.); Monier Williams,
Indian Wisdom; Max Muller's History of Sanskrit Literature ; Barth's The Religions
of India 11882; Encycl. BrittArts. India, Brahman ism, Buddhism.19	50	31 Longitude East 52 fr

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Section II.
THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS.

CHAPTER I.

EGYPT.

The Land and the People. — When the curtain that hides the
far distant past is lifted, we find in the valley of the Nile a people
of a dark color, tinged with red, and a peculiar physiognomy, who
had long existed there. Of their beginnings, there is no record.
They did not come down the river from the south, as some have
thought; but they were of Asiatic origin. Their language, if it
seems to have certain affinities with the Semitic tongues in its
grammar, is utterly dissimilar in its vocabulary: its modern descend-
ant is the Coptic, no longer a spoken dialect. The Egyptians
were of the Caucasian variety, but not white like the Lybians on
the west. On the east were tribes of a yellowish complexion and
various lineage, belonging to the numerous people whom the
Egyptians designated as Amu. On the south, in v/hat was called
Ethiopia, was a negro people; and, also beyond them and east-
ward, a dusky race, of totally different origin, a branch of the
widely diffused Cus/iites.

The Nile: Divisions of the Country.— Egypt (styled by its
ancient inhabitants, from the color of the soil deposited by the
Nile, Kent or the Black * Land, and by the Hebrews called Miz-
raim) is the creation of the great river. "Egypt," says Herodotus,
"is the gift of the Nileand this is not only true, as the historian
meant it, physically, because it is the Nile that rescued the land
from the arid waste by which it is bordered; but the course of
Egyptian history—the occupations, habits, and religion of the
people—was largely determined by the characteristics of the river.
The sources of the Nile have had in all ages the fascination of
mystery, and have been a fruitful theme for conjecture. It was
reserved for modern explorers to ascertain that it takes its rise in
equatorial Africa, in the two great lakes, the Albert and Victoria
Nyanzas. From that region, fed by few tributaries, it flows to the

3334

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

Mediterranean, a distance of two thousand miles, but breaks, as it
nears the sea, into two main and several minor arms. These spread
fruitfulness over the broad plain called, from its shape, the Delta.
Above the Delta the fringe of productive land has a width of
only a few miles on either side of the stream. Its fertility is due
to the yearly inundation which, as the effect of the rainfall of
Abyssinia, begins early in July, and terminates in November, when
the river, having slowly risen in the interval to an average height
of twenty-three or twenty-four feet, reaches in its gradual descent
the ordinary level. This narrow belt of territory, annually en-
riched with a layer of fertile mud, is in striking contrast with the
barren regions, parched by the sun, on either side, with the long
chain of Arabian mountains that adjoin it on the east, and with
the low hills of the Lybian desert on the west. By dikes, canals,
and reservoirs, the beneficent river from the most ancient times
has been made to irrigate the land above, where are the towns and
dwellings of the people, and thus to extend and keep up its unri-
valed fertility. The country of old was divided into two parts, —
Upper Egypt, as it is now called, with Thebes for its principal city,
extending from the first cataract, near Syene, to the Memphian
district; and Lower Egypt, embracing the rest of the country on
the north, including the Delta. The two divisions were marked
by differences of dialect and of customs. The country was fur-
ther divided into nomes, or districts, about forty in all, but varying
in number at different times. They were parted from one another
by boundary stones. Each had its own civil organization, a cap-
ital, and a center of worship.

Early Culture. — At a far remote day, there existed in Lower
Egypt an advanced type of culture. Sepulchers, with their in-
scriptions and sculptures, were made of so solid material that
they have remained to testify to this fact. When the pyramids
were built, mechanical skill was highly developed, Egyptian art
had reached a point beyond which it scarcely advanced, and
the administration of government had attained substantially to the
form in which it continued to exist. The use of writing, the di-
vision of the year, the beginnings of the sciences and of literature,
are found in this earliest period. Egyptian culture, as far as we
can determine, was not borrowed. It was a native product. The
earliest period was the period of most growth. The prevailing
tendency was to crystallize all arts and customs into definite,
established forms, and to subject every thing to fixed rules. The
desire to preserve what had been gained overmastered the im-
pulses to progress: individuality and enterprise were blighted by
an excessive spirit of conservatism. Moreover, the culture of
the Egyptians never disengaged itself from its connection with
every-day practical needs, or the material spirit that lay at itsEGYPT.	35

root. They did not, like the Greeks, soar into the atmosphere
of theoretical science and speculation. They did not break
loose from the fetters of tradition.

The Hieroglyphics.— We owe our knowledge of ancient Egypt chiefly
to hieroglyphical writing. The hieroglyphs, except those denoting numbers,
were pictures of objects. The writing is of three kinds. The first, the
hieroglyphical, is composed of literal pictures, as a circle, O, for the sun,
a curved line, ( or —for the moon, a pointed oval, <=>y for the month. The
second sort of characters, the hieratic, and the third, the demotic, are curtailed
pictures, which .can thus be written more rapidly. They are seldom seen on
the monuments, but are the writing generally found on the papyrus rolls or
manuscripts. They are written from right to left. The hieroglyphs proper
may be written either way, or in a perpendicular line. In the demotic, or
people's writing, the characters are somewhat more curtailed, or abridged,
than in the hieratic, or priestly, style. There were four methods of using
the hieroglyphics in historical times. First, there were the primary, repre-
sentational characters, the literal pictures. Secondly, the characters were
used figuratively, as symbols. Thus a circle, O, meant not only the sun, but
also " day "; the crescent, denoted not only the moon, but also " a month;"
a pen and inkstand signified " writing," etc. So one object was substituted for
another analogous to it, — as the picture of a boot in a trap, which stood for
"deceit." A conventional emblem, too, might represent the object. Thus,
the hawk denoted the sun, two water-plants meant Upper and Lower Egypt.
Thirdly, hieroglyphics were used as determinatives. That is, an object
would be denoted by letters (in a way that we shall soon explain), and a
picture be added to determine, or make clear, what was meant. After proper
names, they designated the sex; after the names of other classes, as animals,
they specined the particular genus. Fourthly, the bulk of the hieroglyphs
are phonetic. They stand for sounds. The picture stood for the initial
sound of the name of the object depicted. Thus the picture of an eagle,
akh6m% represented " A." Unfortunately, numerous objects were employed for
a like purpose, to indicate the same sound. Hence the number of characters
was multiplied. The whole number of signs used in writing is not less than
nine hundred or a thousand. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone— a large
black slab of stone — with an identical inscription in hieroglyphics, in demotic
and in Greek, furnished to Champollion (1810) and to Young the clew to
the deciphering of the Egyptian writing, and thus the key to the sense of
the monumental inscriptions. The Egyptian manuscripts were made of the
pith of the byblus plant, cut into strips. These were laid side by side hori-
zontally, with another layer of strips across them; the two layers being united
by paste, and subjected to a heavy pressure. The Egyptians wrote with a
reed, using black and red ink.

Sources of Knowledge of Egyptian History.—These are (t) the inscriptions
on the monuments. These, it must be remembered, are commonly in praise of the departed,
and of their achievements, (a) The list of kings in the Turin papyrus, a very important Egyp-
tian manuscript, discovered by Champollion. (3) Manetho. An Egyptian priest; he wrote,
about 250 B.C., a history. Only his lists of dynasties are preserved as given in an Armenian
version of Eusebius, a writer ot the fourth century, and in George Synceltust a writer of the
eighth centuiy, who professed to embody the statements of Eusebius and of another author,
7ulius Africanus, probably of the second century, who had also quoted the lists of Manetho.
Manetho is of great importance; but we do not know accurately what his original text was,
it being so differently reported. His details frequently clash with the monuments. Moreover,
the method adopted by him in making his lists is, in essential points, subject to doubt. (4) The
Greek historians. Herodotus had visited Egypt (between 460 and 450 B.C.), and conferred with
Egyptian priests. Diodorus, also, in the time of Julius C«sar, had visited Egypt. He is
largely a copyist of Herodotus. (5) The Old Testament. Here we have many instructive
references to Egypt. But, until Rehoboam, the kings of E^ypt have in the Scriptures the
general name ofPharaoh. Hence it is not always easy to identify them with corresponding
kings on the Egyptian lists.36	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

Chronology. — The date of the beginning of the first dynasty of
Egyptian rulers is an uncertain and controverted point. There
are advocates of a longer and of a shorter chronology. The data
are not sufficient to settle accurately the questions in dispute; but
there are many judicious scholars who make the beginning of the
first dynasty as early as 3000 B.C., and even earlier. Egyptian
history, prior to the Persian conquest (552 B.C.), divides itself
into three sections, — the Old Empire, having its seat at Memphis;
the Middle Empire, following upon a period of strife and division,
and embracing the rule of foreign invaders, the Hyksos; and the
New Empire, the era of conquest, by foreign power, and of
downfall.

The expedition of Shishak, king of Egypt, against Rehoboam, is ascertained, from both
Egyptian and Hebrew sources, to have been not earlier than 971 B.C., and within twenty-five
vears of that date. The nineteenth Egyptian dynasty began about the year 1400 B.C. Th«
Middle Empire is thought by some to have commenced as early as aaoo B.C.; by others as late
as 1720 B.C. When we go backward into the Old Empire, the sources of uncertainty are multi-
plied. The main difficulty is to determine whether the lists of dynasties are consecutive through-
out, or in part contemporary. One class of scholars place the date of the first historic king,
Menes■ two or three thousand years earlier than the point assigned by the other class! The
date of Menes given by Bockh is 570a B.C.; by Lenormant, 5004 B.C.; Dy Brugsch, 4455 B.C.;
by Lepsius, 3852 B.C.; by Bunsen, 3623 or 3059 B.C.; E. Meyer makes 3180 B.C. the lowest
possible date for Menes; 3933 B.C. is the date assigned by Dttncker. On the contrary, A\ S.
Poole ^ives 2717 B.C.; Wilkinson, 2691 B.C.; and G. Rawlinson, between 2450 and 2250
B.C. l'here are no means of fully determining the controversy, as Rawlinson has shown (//«•
tory 0/ A ncient Egypt, vol. ii., p. 19). It appears to be well ascertained that Egyptian civiliza-
tion was in being at least as far back as about 3000 B.C.

The Political System.—The bulk of the people were farmers
and shepherds, indisposed to war. The land was owned in large
estates by the nobles, who were possessed of multitudes of serfs and
of cattle. They had in their service, also, artisans, oarsmen, and
traffickers. The centers of industry were the numerous cities.
Here the nobles had their mansions, and the gods their temples
with retinues of priests. But the Nomes had each its particular
jurisdiction. The traces of two original communities are preserved
in the mythological legends and in the titles of the kings. The
'oldest inscriptions discover to us a systematic organization of the
state. The king is supreme : under him are the rulers of the two
halves of the kingdom. He creates the army, and appoints its gen-
erals. The whole strength of the kingdom is given to him for the
erection of the temples which he raises to the gods, or of the stu-
pendous pyramid which is to form his sepulcher. The nobility
make up his court; from them he selects his chief officers of state,
— his secretary, his treasurer, his inspector of quarries, etc. The
princes and princesses are educated in connection with the children
of the highest nobles. A body-guard protects the monarch : he
shows himself to the people only in stately processions. All who
approach him prostrate themselves at his feet. He is the descend-
ant of the gods. The Pharaohs are even looked upon as gods
incarnate. They are clothed with all power on earth. When theyEGYPT.

37

die, they go to the gods; and rites of worship are instituted for
them. That there was a well-ordered and efficient civil adminis-
tration admits of no doubt. Whether there existed a thrifty mid-
dle class or not we can not decide. The tendency was for the child
to follow the vocation of the parent, but there were no rigid
barriers of caste. Not until the New Empire, was there an attempt
to build up such a wall even about the priesthood.

The Religion.—With the Egyptians, religion was a matter of
supreme and absorbing interest. There was a popular religion;
and there arose early, in connection with it, an esoteric or secret
doctrine relative to the gods and to the legends respecting them,
— a lore that pertained especially to the priesthood. • Moreover,
while the religious system, from the earliest date, is polytheistic,
we have proof that the educated class, sooner or later, put a mono-
theistic interpretation upon it, and believed in one supreme deity,
of whom all the particular gods were so many forms and manifes-
tations, or that one being under different names. Whether this
more elevated faith preceded the reigning system, or was a later
offspring of it, is a matter of dispute. For a long period the two
co-existed, and without collision.

The great divinities of Egypt are pre-eminently gods of light. They are
associated with the sun. With the agency of that luminary, with his rising
and setting, they stand in a close relation. All Egypt worships the sun under
the names of Ra and Horus. Horus is the adversary of Seth (called Typhon
by the Greeks), the god of darkness, and is born anew every morning to at-
tack and conquer him. In honor of Ra, the lofty obelisks, or symbols of the
sun's rays, are erected, each of which has its own name and priests. With
the sun-gods are joined the goddesses of the heavens, — Nut, Hathory Isis, and
others. But Osiris became the most famous sun-god. His worship was origi-
nally at Abydos and Husiris. At length his cult spread over the whole land.
In the legend, he is murdered by Seth; but Horus is his avenger. Horus con-
auers the power of darkness. Henceforward Osiris reigns in the kingdom of
the West, the home of the dead. He is the sun in the realm of the shades.
He receives the dead, is their protector, and the judge whose final award
is blessedness or perpetual misery. The departed, if their lives have not
been wicked, become one with him. They are each of them called by his
name. To Osiris, all sepulchral inscriptions are addressed. His career, with
the victory of the power of darkness over him, and his glorious revival in
the regions of the West, typifies human life and destiny. The principal god
at Memphis is Ptah% the primal divinity, the former of neaven and earth; yet,
perhaps, a god of light, since he is styled by the Greeks, Hephaestus. At
Thebes, Amnion was revered as the king of the gods: he shared in the proper-
ties of the sun. Thoth is the chief moon-god, who presides over the reckon-
ing of time. He is the god of letters and of the arts, the author of sacred
books.^ The Nile is worshiped under the name of IIapiy being figured as a
man with pendent breasts, an emblem of the fertility of the river. The gods
were often connected in triads, there being in each a father, a mother, and a
son. To bring to them the right offerings, and to repeat the right formulas,
was a matter of momentous concern. Homage was directed to the inaterial
objects with which the activity of the god was thought to be connected, and
in which he was believed to be present. All nature was full of deities.
There were sacred trees, stones, utensils. Above all, animals, in their mys-38	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

terious life, were identified with the divinities. Worship was offered to the
crocodile, the cat, the bull, etc. In the temples these creatures were carefully
tended and obsequiously served.

Embalming.—Believing that the soul survives death, the Egyptians
linked its weal with the preservation of the body, from which they could
not conceive its destiny to be wholly dissevered. Thus arose the universal
practice of embalming, and of presenting, at intervals, offerings of food and
drink to the departed. The tomb contains a room for sacred services to the
dead. The most ancient structures are sepulchers. They were the germ of
the pyramid, in which rested the sarcophagus of the king.

Religion and Morality.—The leading gods were held to be the makers
of the world and of men, the givers of good, the rulers and disposers of all
things. Morality was not separated from religion. The gods punished un-
righteousness and inhumanity. In the age of the pyramid-builders, family
life was not wanting in purity; the wife and mother was held in respect:
monogamy prevailed. Ma-t was the goddess of truth: in the myth of Osiris,
it is in her hall that the dead are judged.

The Priests. — The priests are the guardians of religious rites. They
are acquainted with the origin and import of them. Their knowledge is
communicated only to select believers. It was a body of traditions, guarded
as a mysterious treasure. But the priests, certainly until a late period, do
not control the king. The civil authority is uppermost.

Literature and Science. — The most important Egyptian book that
has come down to us is the Book of the Dead„ It relates, in a mystical strain,
the adventures of the soul after death, and explains how, by reciting the
names and titles of numberless gods, and bv means of other theological
knowledge, the soul can make its way to the hall of Osiris. It is a monument
of the pedantic and punctilious formalism of the Egyptian ritual. Most of
the papyri that have been preserved are of a religious character. There are
songs not void of beauty. The moral writings are of a decidedly higher
grade. Works of fiction are constructed with a fair degree of skill, and are
not wholly wanting in humor. Some of the hymns are not destitute of merit.
It can not be doubted that there were important mathematical writings.
Astronomical observations were very early made. In medicine, we have
writings which prove that considerable proficiency was attained in this de-
partment. But here, as in other branches, the spirit was empirical rather
than scientific in the higher sense; and the result was to petrify knowledge
in an unalterable form. At length rules of medical treatment, with specific
remedies, were definitely settled, from which it was a crime against the state
to deviate.

The Old Empire (to about 2100 B.C.). — Seno/eru, who belongs
to the third dynasty, is the first king who has left behind him a
monumental inscription. A rock-tablet in the peninsula of Sinai
gives him the title of conqueror. By some, the pyramid of Mey-
doun, built in three distinct stages to a height of 125 feet, is
ascribed to him, and is believed to be his sepulcher. At Saccarah
is a pyramid of like form, 200 feet in height. Khufu, the Cheops
of Herodotus, was the builder of the " Great Pyramid " of Ghi-
zeh, the largest and loftiest building on earth. Its original perpen-
dicular height was not less than 480 feet, the length of its side
764 feet, and the area covered by it more than thirteen acres.
Near it are the small pyramids, which were the sepulchers of his
wives and other relatives. The . statues of Khafra remain, and
the wooden mummy-case of Menkauray with the myth of OsirisEGYPT.

39

recorded on it. These were the builders of the two other most
celebrated pyramids, the second and the third. With the long
reign of Unas closes the first era in Egyptian history. His un-
finished pyramid, built of huge blocks of limestone, indicates that
he died too soon to complete it. From this date, back to the
epoch of Senoferu, are included nearly three centuries. In this
period of prevalent peace, art had the opportunity to develop.
The spirit of progress in this department had not yet been cramped
by the " hieratic canon," the fixed rules set for artistic labor. There
is evidence of considerable knowledge in anatomy and medicine.
The myth of Osiris expanded, and his worship spread.

With the sixth dynasty a new epoch begins. The most powerful
monarch in this series is Pepi. He levied armies, conquered the
negroes of Nubia, and waged war against the nomads of the east-
ern desert. The interval from the sixth to the tenth dynasty was
marked by usurpations and insurrections. The district governors
sought to make themselves independent. Monarchs rose and fell.
Syrian invaders appear to have seized the occasion to attack the
country. Heliopolis, with Turn for its sun-god, is the center of the
new symbolical lore of the priesthood. Power is transferred to
Thebes, and Amnion becomes the embodiment of the monotheistic
conception, the supreme deity.

The Theban ruling-house gradually extended its supremacy
over the land. The kings of the twelfth dynasty have left their
inscriptions everywhere, and of several of them gigantic portrait-
statues remain. Amenemhat /. and his successors are prosperous
sovereigns. They carry on a lively intercourse of trade with the
small states of Syria, reaching possibly to Babylon. Under the
twelfth dynasty, the valley of the upper Nile was conquered.
Usurtasen lILy in after times, was revered as the subduer of the
Nubian land. By monarchs of this epoch, vast structures, like the
temple of Ammon at Thebes and the temple of the Sun at Heli-
opolis, were erected. Amenemhat III. built the immense artifi-
cial reservoir, I^ake Moeris, to receive and dispense the waters of
the Nile. Under the twelfth dynasty is the blossoming period
of literature. The carving of hieroglyphics and the execution
of the details of art reach their perfection. It is the culminating
point of Egyptian culture.

The Middle Empire (from about 2100 to 1670 B.C.). — The
season of prosperity under the twelfth dynasty was followed by an-
archy and the downfall of the Theban rule. According to Manetho,
it was under a king named Timaos that a horde of invaders — the
Uyksos, or "shepherds " — came in from the north, devastated
the country, and made themselves its rulers. They were probably
of Semitic descent, but nothing more is known as to their origin.
In connection with them, Semitic, and in particular Canaanite, ele-4°

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

ments penetrated into Egypt, and left their traces in its language.
The residence of their kings was Tanis, on the eastern Delta,
a splendid city, which they still more adorned. They conquered
Memphis, but their power was not permanently established in
Lower Egypt. The duration of their control was a number of
centuries, — how many can only be conjectured. It is believed
by some scholars that either Apepi or Nub, kings of the Hyksos
line, was the sovereign who made Joseph his prime minister, and
invited his family to settle in the land of Goshen. The elevation
of a foreigner and a Semite to an exalted office is thought to be
less improbable in connection with a Semitic dynasty.

The New Empire (from 1670 to 525 B.C.). — The expulsion of
the Hyksos was effected by Aahmes /., first king of the eighteenth
dynasty. It was accomplished, however, not all at once, but gradu-
ally. From this event Egypt enters on a new stage in its career.
It becomes a military, an aggressive, and a conquering state. Not-
withstanding the enormous sacrifice of life that must have been
involved in the erection of pyramids and in other public works,
the Egyptians had not been a cruel people : compared with most
Semitic peoples, they had been disposed to peace. But now a
martial spirit is evoked. A military class arises. Wars for plunder
and conquest ensue. The use of horses in battle is a new and sig-
nificant fact. The character of the people changes for the worse.
The priestly class become more compact and domineering. Tem-
ples are the principal edifices, in the room of massive sepulchers.

Under Thothmes /. and his successors, especially Amenophis //.,
wars were successfully waged against the Syrians, and against the
Ethiopians on the south. The palaces and temples of Thebes,
including the gigantic structures at Karnak and Luxor, are wit-
nesses to the grandeur of these monarchs. The Egyptian arms
were carried through Syria, and as far even as Nineveh. Under the
Ratnessides, the conquests of Egypt reached their farthest limit.

Ramses II. — Ramses II., or Ramses the Great (1388-1322
B.C.), — who was called by the Greeks Sesostris, a name with
which they linked many fabulous narratives, — is the most brilliant
personage in Egyptian history. He is the first of the renowned
conquerors, the forerunner of the Alexanders and Napoleons. His
monuments are scattered over all Egypt. In his childhood he was
associated on the throne with his father,-himself a magnificent
monarch, Seti /. In the seventh year of the sole reign of the son
he had to encounter a formidable confederacy under the lead of
the Syrian Ilittites — the " Khita"— in the north-east, a powerful
nation. - How he saved himself by his personal valor, on the field
of Kadeshy is celebrated in the Egyptian Iliad, the heroic poem
of Pentaur. A subsequent treaty with this people is one of. the
most precious memorials of his reign.EGYPT.	41

The Hittites. — Recent explorations have shown that the Hittites of
Scripture were families, or smaller communities, in Palestine, of a people
whose proper seat was between the Orontes and Euphrates. In one place
they are spoken of as distant (Judg. i. 26). The "Khita" of the Egyptians,
called u Khatti" by the Assyrians, were a civilized nation, whose sway was
so extended that their outposts were at times on the western coast of Asia
Minor. They were a non-Semitic people. From them, hardly less than from
the Phoenicians, it may be, the Greeks derived the rudiments of their art.
The great victory of Ramses (1350 B.C.) was with difficulty won. The Hit-
tites were rivals of the Assyrians. At length Sargon captured their capital,
Carchemish (717 B.C.), and broke down their power.

Subsequently we find Ramses in Galilee, as it was called later:
we find him storming the city of Askalon in Philistia, and in various
military expeditions, in which he brought home with him multi-
tudes of captives. The mighty temples which he built at Abydos,
Thebes, and Memphis, and the gorgeous palace, " the House of
Ramses," south of Karnak, were in keeping with other displays
of his energy and magnificence. Ramses II. is probably "the
Pharaoh of the oppression," under whom the Hebrews suffered.
His son, Menephthah, is considered to be the Pharaoh under whom
the exodus took place.

The Bondage of the Israelites. — As the exodus occurred under
Menephthahy its date is almost exactly ascertained. It is nol so with regard
to the settlement of the Hebrews in Goshen. The data from the Scriptures
leave scholars divided on the question, whether the Egyptian bondage lasted
430 years, or half that period (as implied in Gal. iii. 17, in accordance with
the Septuagint, or Greek version of the Old Testament). If the longer term
is taken, Joseph''s elevation, as stated above, was under a Hyksos king; if
the shorter term is taken, he served a native Egyptian monarch.

Amonfc Egyptologists, Brugsch and Raivlinson favor the longer term; Leftsius is equall>
decided for the shorter.

To the Persian Conquest. — From about 1500 to 1300 B.C.,
Egypt was the foremost nation in culture, arts, and military prowess.
Under the later kings bearing the name of Ramses, the empire
began to decay. The Ethiopians in the south revolted, and set up
an independent kingdom, Me roe, of which Napata was the capital.
Shishak (961-940 B.C.) aspired to restore the Egyptian rule in
the East. He marched into Judaea, and captured and plundered
Jerusalem. He made Rehoboam, king of Judah, a tributary, and
strengthened Jeroboam, the ally of Egypt. He even led his forces
across the valley of the Jordan. At length (730 B.C.) the Ethi-
opians gained the upper hand in Egypt. Their three kings form
the twenty-fifth dynasty. As the power of Egypt was on the wane,
the power of Assyria was more and more in the ascendant. Shabak
joined hands with Hosheay king of Israel, but was defeated by the
Assyrians, under Sargon /., in a pitched battle at Raphia, in which
the superiority of the Asiatic kingdom was evinced. Later (701
B.C.) Sennacherib defeated an Egyptian army, sent for the relief42	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

of Ekron, and made Hezekiah a tributary. Ttrhakah, the ally of
Hezekiah, continued the struggle. His army was saved from over-
throw by the disaster which happened to Sennacherib's host in the
neighboring camp on the eve of battle. Twenty years later, he
was vanquished by an invading army under the most warlike of the
Assyrian kings, Esarhaddon. The rule of the Ethiopian dynasty
was subverted. The Assyrians intrusted the government to twenty
governors, of whom the most were natives. Of these governors,
one, then king of Sais, Psammeticus /. (653-610 B.C.), in alliance
with Gyges, king of Lydia, and with the aid of Carians, Phoenicians,
and Lycians, cast off the Assyrian yoke, and became sole ruler of
Egypt. This epoch is marked by the introduction of numerous
foreigners into the country, and by the exertion of a powerful and
lasting Greek influence. Neku //. — the Necho of Scripture —
(610-595 B.C.), the son of Psammeticus I., defeated Josiah, king
of Judah, at Megiddo (609 B.C.); and Josiah fell in the battle.
But, advancing to Carchemish by the Euphrates, Neku, in turn,
was vanquished by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, which had
now become the formidable power. The defeat of Neku ended
Egyptian rule in the East. Apries (590 B.C.), the Hophra of
Scripture, was dethroned by a revolt of his own soldiers, in a war
with the Greeks of Cyrene, and was succeeded by Aahmes, or
Amasis (570-526), under whose auspices foreigners, and especially
Greeks, acquired an augmented influence. Egypt had escaped
from permanent subjection to Assyria or Babylon; but a new
empire, the Persian Empire of Cyrus, was advancing on the path
to universal dominion. Cyrus was too busy with other under-
takings to attack Egypt; but Cambyses, his successor, led an army
into that country; and, having defeated Psammeticus IIIat the
battle of Pelusium, he made it a Persian province (525 B.C.),.

j Literature. — See the list on p. 16. x. Works on Oriental History as a whole : Dunck-
| y er's History of Antiquity. It includes, also, Greece. Lenormant and Chevalier, Manual .
* * of the Ancient History of tht East (a vols.); G. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies
(3 vols.), The Sixth Great Monarchy (Parthia), The Seventh Great Monarchy (the
' Sas*anidae)» The Origin of Nations (1 vol.), Manual of Ancient History.(1 vol.), Egypt
and Babylon (x vol.). Lenormant, The Beginnings of History (1 vol.;; P. Smith, The
Ancient History of the East (1 vol.), History of the World (Ancient History, 3 vols.);
Maspero, Hist. Aticienne des Peupies de<1'Orient; Doublier, Gesch. des Alterthums (from
the cultural point of view, 1 vol.); E. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterthums (1884); Sayce, Ancient
Empires (1 vol., 1884).

2. Works on the History of Egypt. Brugsch-Bby, History of Egypt under the Pha-
raohs (a vols.); G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt (a vols.); Mariette, Aperqu de
fHistoire d'Egvpte (1864), and numerous other writings; Wilkinson, Manners and Cus-
toms of Egypt (3 vols.); Ebeks, Egypt; Notes and Appendices of Rawlinson's Herodotus ;
Birch, Records of the Past (translations of Egyptian and Assyrian Monuments, n vols.), Egypt
from the Earliest Times ; Harkness, Egyptian Life and lUstory (1884); Fekgusson's His•
tory of Architecture ; the great illustrative works of the French savans under Napoleon I.;
the great illustrated works of Rossellini, and the works of Lepsius; the noveU of Lbers, The
Sisters / Ouarda; The Egyptian Princess.	„ v •ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

43

CHAPTER II.

ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

The Geography. — Assyria and Babylon were geographically
connected. They were inhabited by the same race, and, for the
greater part of their history, were under one government. The
district lying between the Euphrates and the Tigris comprises
the hilly region in the north and the lowlands in the south; the
boundary being where the two rivers, in their long progress from
their sources in the mountains of Armenia, at length approach
one another at a place about three hundred and fifty miles from
their outlet in the Persian Gulf. Both streams, in particular the
Euphrates, annually flooded the adjacent territory, and by canals
and dams were made to add to its productiveness. The shores
of the Euphrates, after its descent from the plateau to the plains,
were fertile beyond measure. Here the date-palm, whose juice
as well as fruit were so highly prized, flourished. Even now wheat
grows wild near the river's mouth.

The Early Inhabitants.—The oldest inhabitants of Mesopo-
tamia were tribes of a kindred race. On the south, near the
mouth of the rivers, were the Sumerians. To the north of them
were the Accadians. On the east of the Tigris were the warlike
Cossceatis; south of them, the Ela mites, with Susa for their capital.
The Sumerians and Accadians preceded the Chaldceans in the
occupancy of Babylonia. The two former were of an unknown
stock. They were the founders of Babylonian culture. Even by
them the soil was skillfully cultivated with the help of dikes and
canals. They were the inventors of the cuneiform writing. The
cuneiform characters were originally pictures; but these were re-
solved into wedge-shaped characters of uniform appearance, the
significance of which was determined by their position and local
relation to one another. At some time between 3000 and 2000
B.C., possibly earlier, the Chaldccans — a Semitic people, whether
from the north-east* or the south-west it is impossible to assert —
invaded and conquered the- Sumerians and Accadians. The
conquerors adopted, the civilization of-the conquered. The Chal-
daeans carried their settlements northward, and,, became the foun-
ders of Assyria. It was in north Babylonia f, that they had first
planted themselves. Their name first , occurs in the Babylonian
records, in the ninth century B.C. Gradually they extended their
power over the Sumerians on the south. ' The earliest kings used
the dialect of the Accadians. By degrees the native language was
superseded by that of the Semitic rulers.

Sources of Knowledge. — Berosus, a Babylonian priest, wrote a history of his
country a» early a* 350 B.C. lie was a trustworthy writer, as for as his means of knowledge44	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

went; but it is only fragments of his work that we possess, and these in inaccurate quotations,
partly at second hand. Greek writers, as Ctesias, drew from Persian sources; and their
narratives up to the later times of the Persian rule can not be relied on. The great source of
knowledge is the Assyrian and — but up to this time in a much less decree — the Babylonian
monuments. The ruins of Nineveh have been unearthed, and their copious inscriptions in the
cuneiform character have furnished us with a large amount of authentic information.

I. THE OLD KINGDOM OF BABYLON.

Early Annals.—The annals of ancient Babylon are obscure and
confused. The name of the first founder, as given in Genesis, is
JVimrod. We have records of Ur-Bagas, king of Ur, who there
erected of brick the temple of the moon-god; but Sargon L would
appear to have been the first of the great Babylonian builders.
The country was soon broken up into small independent states.
There was a dynasty of Elamite conquerors. The Chedorlaomer of
Genesis is thought to be an Elamite name. A Cosscean dynasty,
lasting for several centuries, followed. The Cossaean kings made
Babylon their capital. Under them, the kingdom at length de-
clined, while the neighboring Assyrian state had increased in
power.

The early, or Turanian, time is made by some to extend as late as about 2000 B.C. The
dynasties that followed are thus given by G. Rawlinson: the Semitic, 2000-1575 B.C., the
Elamitic, 1575-1545 B.C., and the Arabian ox Cosscean, 1543-1398 B.C. Other scholars,
however, place the Elamitic dynasty prior to 2000 B.C.

Religion and Science. — If the events connected with old
Babylon are less known, more is ascertained respecting its civili-
zation. The groundwork, as was stated, was laid by the earlier
conquered people. The religion of the Chaldaeans rested on the
basis of the old Accadian worship. There was homage to demons,
powerful for good or for evil, who were brought together into
groups, and were figured now as human beings, now as lions or
other wild animals, or as dragons and that sort of monsters. Of
the great gods, Anu, the god of the sky, was the father and king
of all. The peculiarity of the Babylonian religion is the identifi-
cation of deities with the heavenly bodies. Sin, the moon-god,
an Accadian divinity, at the outset had the highest rank. Bel\
or Baal, however, a Semitic divinity, elsewhere the god of the
sun, was in Babylonia the god of the earth, and particularly of
mankind. Ea was the god of the deep, and of the underworld.
The early development of astrology and its great influence in old
Babylon were closely connected with the supposed association
of the luminaries above with the gods. The stars were thought
to indicate at the birth of a child what his fortunes would be,
and to afford the means of foretelling other remarkable events.
There was an Accadian goddess, Jshtar, a goddess of war and of
love. She was worshiped side by side with the Semitic female
divinity Beltis, called by the Greeks, Mylitta. This deity em-
bodied the generative principle, the spring of fertility, whoseASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

45

beneficent agency was seen in the abundant harvest. She was
clothed with sensual attributes, and propitiated with unchaste rites.
It was in the worship of this divinity that the coarse and licen-
tious side of the Semitic nature expressed itself. At the same
time, there was an opposite ascetic side in the service of this deity.
Her priests were eunuchs : they ministered at her altar in woman's
attire. On the relation of the human soul to the gods, and its
condition after death, there was little speculation. In general,
the Babylonians were more interested in religion and worship than
the Assyrians. The former erected temples; the latter, palaces.

The attainments of the early Babylonians in mathematics and
astronomy were far beyond those of the Egyptians. They divided
the year into twelve months, and arrived at the signs of the eclip-
tic or zodiac. The week they fixed at seven days by the course
of the moon. They divided the day into twelve hours, and the
hour into sixty minutes. They invented weights and measures,
the knowledge of which went from them to the other Asiatic
nations. Architecture, as regards taste, was in a rude state. In
pottery, they showed much skill and ingenuity, ana invented the
potter's wheel. In the engraving of gems, and in the manufacture
of delicate fabrics, — linen, muslin, and silk, — they were expert.
Trade and commerce, favored by the position of Babylon, began
to flourish. As regards literature, the libraries of Nineveh and
Babylon, at a later day, contained not a few books translated from
the early Accadian language. Among them are the " Izdubar
legends," in which is contained a story of the flood that resembles
in essential features the account in Genesis.

II. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.

Growth of its Power. — Assyria was the first great conquering
power of Western Asia. In the legends current among the
Greeks, the building-up of the monarchy, and of Nineveh its
capital, as well as of Babylon, is referred to the legendary heroes,
Ninus and his queen Semiramis. The name of Ninus is not
recorded on the monuments, and is, perhaps, a kind of mythical
personification of Assyrian conquests and grandeur; and the
name of Semiramis does not appear until the ninth century B.C.
She may have been a princess or even queen. Assyrian inde-
pendence began as early as about 1900 B.C. Between 1500 and
1400 B.C., Assyria was a weak state. It gained a brief mastery
over Babylon through a conquest by Tiglath-Adar (1300 B.C.).
Tiglath-Pileser /. (1130 B.C.) spread his conquests to the Medi-
terranean and the Caspian on the west, and south to the Persian
Gulf. But these early acquisitions of Assyria were transient.
There ensued a long interval, until the middle of the tenth46

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

century, when the monarchy was mostly confined within its own
proper borders. A new series of strong and aggressive princes
arose. The conflicts of Damascus and of the nations of Palestine
with one another left room for the growth of the Assyrian might
and for the spread of Assyrian dominion. Asshur-nasir-bal (for-
merly called Sardanapalus /.) levied tribute upon Tyre, and the
other rich cities of the Syrian coast, and founded the Assyrian rule
in Cilicia. About the middle of the eighth century, the kingdom
of Israel, having renounced its vassalage to Assyria, in league with
Rezin of Damascus, the ruler of Syria, made war upon the king-
dom of Judah. Ahaz, the Judaean king, against the protest of the
prophet Isaiah, invoked the aid of the Assyrian monarch, Tiglath-
Pileser II. (the " Pul" of Scripture). The league was overthrown
by him in a great battle fought near the Euphrates, and numerous
captives, according to the Assyrian practice, were carried away
from Samaria and Damascus. We are told that Ahaz, seeing the
offerings made by Tiglath-Pileser at Damascus, commanded his
priests at Jerusalem, despite the remonstrance of Isaiah, to make
offerings to the Assyrian gods. Judah, as the result of these events,
became tributary to Assyria. All Syria, together with Babylonia,
which was then made up of several states, western Iran, and Arme-
nia, were subdued by this Assyrian conqueror. He formally
assumed the title of" King of Babylon." Shalmaneset IV. (727-
722 B.C.), bent on completing the subjugation of Syria, subdued
anew the revolted cities, and conquered, as it would seem, the
island of Cyprus. Tyre alone, that is, the insular city of that
name, withstood a siege of five years. Hoshea, the king of Israel
(730-722 B.C.), in order to throw off the Assyrian yoke, sent an
embassy to Shabakf the king of Egypt, to procure his assistance.
Hearing of this, Shalmaneser attacked Israel. After a siege of
three years, Samaria, the capital, fell into the hands of Sargon, who
had succeeded him, the kingdom of Israel was subverted, and a
great part of the people dragged off into captivity. In 720 B.C.,
Sargon encountered Shabak, in the great battle of Raphia, in
southern Palestine, whom he defeated, and put' to flight. He
received tribute from Egypt, conquered a part of Arabia, and
received the homage of the king of Meroe, who made a journey
from Ethiopia to bow before him. The reign of Sennacherib
(705-681 B.C.) was an eventful one, both for Assyria and for
the neighboring countries. Hezekiah, king of Judah, hoped with
the aid of Egypt to achieve his independence. Sennacherib
was obliged to raise the siege of Jerusalem, after Hezekiah had
vainly sought to propitiate him with large offerings of silver and
gold; but the Assyrian was prevented from engaging in battle
with Tirhaka of Egypt by a great calamity that befell his army.
Against Babylon, which frequently revolted, he was more success-ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

47

ful. " Berodach-baladan," as he is called in Scripture (2 Kings,
chap. 20), who at an earlier day had sent an embassy from Baby-
lon to Hezekiah, was overcome, and a new ruler enthroned in his
place. Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.) not only restored the Assy*
rian sway over Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Judah, and a part of Ara-
bia, countries that lost no opportunity to shake off the cruel and
hateful rule of Nineveh, but also conquered Egypt, and parceled
it out among twenty governors. By Esarhaddon, or by his suc-
cessor, Manasseh, king of Judah, was conquered, and carried off
as a captive, but afterwards restored to his throne. Assyria was
now at the summit of its power. Asshur-bani-pal V. (668-626
B.C.), called Sardanapalus, although he lost Egypt, confirmed the
Assyrian power in the other subject states, and received tribute
from Lydia, on the western border of Asia-Minor. Under him,
Assyrian art made its farthest advance. He was the builder of
magnificent palaces. It is his library, dug up from the grave in
which it had been buried for two and a half decades of centuries,
that has yielded a vast amount of welcome information concern-
ing Assyrian and Babylonian history far back into the Accadian
period.

Religion and Art. — It has been stated that the Assyrian culture
was transplanted from Babylon. The religion was substantially the same.
Asshur was the tutelary deity of the country, but Bel had the same promi-
nence as at Babylon, and the Astarte of the Assyrians corresponded to
the Babylonian Jshtar. Beltis (Mylitta) was also adored. The Assyrians
from the start were devoted to war, pillage, and conquest. Their unsparing
cruelty and brutal treatment of their enemies are abundantly witnessed by
their own monuments. They lacked the productive power in literature and
art which belonged to the Babylonians. Although they might have built
their edifices of stone, they generally made use of brick. Their sculptures
in relief were much better than the full figures. They laid color upon their
works in sculpture. But their art was merely a pictorial record of events.
The sense of beauty and creative power were wanting. The more religious
character of the Babylonians created a difference in the architecture of the
two peoples. In gem-cutting both were singularly expert. The Assyrians
gave less attention to the burial of the dead. They showed an aptitude for
trade; and Nineveh, in the eighth and seventh centuries, was a busy mart.

The Fall of Assyria. — The first important blow at the Assyrian
imperial rule was struck by the Medes. After nearly a century of
resistance, they had been subdued (710 B.C.), and were subject
to Assyria for a century after. In 640 B.C., they rose in revolt,
under Phraortes, one of their native chiefs, who fell in battle.
The struggle was continued by his son, Cyaxares. His plans were
interrupted, however, by

The Irruption of the Scythians (623 B.C.). — More than a
century before, these wandering Asiatic tribes had begun to make
predatory incursions into Asia Minor. When Cyaxares was before
Nineveh, they came down in greater force, and a horde of them,48	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

moving southward from the river Halys, invaded Syria. Jerusa-
lem and the stronger cities held out against them, but the open
country was devastated. They were met by Psammeticus Z,.king
of Egypt, and bribed to turn back. They entered Babylonia; but
Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), suc-
cessfully defended the city of Babylon against their attacks. By
Cyaxares, either these or another horde were defeated ; but it was
not until 605 B.C. that the region south of the Black Sea was
cleared of them. The kingdom of Lydia had now come to play
an important part in the affairs of western Asia.

Our first knowledge of the peoples of Asia Minor is from the Homeric poems (about
900 B.C.). The Chalybcans were in Pontus; west of them, the Amazotiians and Paphla-
gonians; west of these, the Mysians; on the Hellespont, small tribes related to the Trojans;
on the iEgean, the Dardanians and the Trojans (on the north), the Carians and the Lyciatis
(on the south); on the north-east of these last, the Phrygians*

A large portion of the early inhabitants of Asia Minor were Semitic t and closely related
to the Syrians. Semitic divinities were worshiped: a goddess, Mylitta, under other names,
was adored in Pontus, at Ephesus, in Phrygia, and in Lydia.

The Lydians were of the Semitic race. Cybele, the female divinity whom
they served, was the same deity whose altars were at Habylon, Nineveh,
ana Tyre. The rulers of the dynasty of the Mermnada% Gyges and his
successors, spread the Lydian dominion until it extended to the Hellespont,
and included Mysia and Phrygia. Alyattes was able to extirpate the Cim-
merian hordes from the Sea of Azoff, who had overrun the western part of
Asia Minor, and to make the Halys his eastern boundary. Gyges had been
slain in the contest with those fierce barbarians, called in the Old Testament
Gomer. At first he had sought help from the Assyrians, but he broke away
from this dependence.

Liberated from the troubles of the Scythian irruption, Cyaxares
formed an alliance with Nabopolassar, the viceroy in Babylon, who
had revolted, and gained his independence. The Median ruler
had subdued Armenia, and established his control as far as the
Halys, making a treaty with Lydia. Now ensued the desperate
conflict on which hung the fate of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh
was taken (606 B.C.) by the Medes under Cyaxares, and the
Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar. The
Grecian story of Sardanapalus burning himself on a lofty bier, is
a myth. Assyria was divided by the Tigris between the Medes and
Babylonians.

The Three Powers: Egypt--On the fall of Nineveh, there

were three principal powers left on the stage of action, which were
bound together by treaty, Lydia, Media, and Babylon. Egypt
proved itself unable to cope with Babylonian power. Necho,
during the siege of Nineveh, had attacked Syria, and defeated the
Jews on the plain of Esdraelon, where king Josiah was slain. He
dethroned Jehoahaz, Josiah's son, and enthroned Jehoiakim in his
stead. But when, in 605 B.C., he confronted Nebuchadnezzar at
Carchemishy and was defeated, he was compelled to give up Syria,
and to retire within the boundaries of Egypt.ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

49

III. THE NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

Triumphs of Nebuchadnezzar.— Syria was now at the mercy
of Nebuchadnezzar. He captured Jerusalem (598 B.C.), de-
spoiled the temple and palace, and led away Jehoiakim as a
captive. He placed on the throne of Judah, Jehoiakim's uncle,
Zedekiah. But this king, having arranged an alliance between
'Egypt and the Phoenician cities, revolted (590 B.C.), refusing to
pay his tribute. Again Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem,
but raised the siege, in order to drive home Apries II (Hophra),
the Egyptian ally of Zedekiah. The city was taken, the king's
sons were killed in his presence, his own eyes were put out; and,
after the temple and palace had been burned and the city sacked,
he, with all the families of the upper class who had not escaped
to the desert, was carried away to Babylon (586 B.C.). Tyre
(the old city) in like manner was taken by assault (585 B.C.).

By Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon was enlarged, and adorned on a
scale of unequaled splendor. The new palace, with its " hanging
gardens," the bridge over the Euphrates, the Median wall connect-
ing the Euphrates and the Tigris on his northern boundary, and
magnificent water-works, are famous structures which belong to
this reign. Wealth and luxury abounded. But vigor of adminis-
tration fell away under his successors; and Babylon, after a domin-
ion short when compared with the long sway of Nineveh, was
conquered by Cyrus, the Medo-Persian king, in 538 B.C. The
last king was Nabonetus, reigning in connection with Belshazzar.

The City of Babylon.— Babylon was a city of the highest antiquity.
It was known before the Elamite conquest, and from that time certainly
was the chief city of the land. Destroyed bv Sennacherib (690 B.C.), it was
rebuilt by Esarhaddon, but not fully restored and adorned until the reigns of
Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar.

Babylon surpassed all ancient cities in size and magnificence. Nineveh
was about three miles in length and one and a half miles in breadth. The
" three days' journey," referred to in the Book of Jonah (ii. 3,4), must have
included the group of cities in the neighboring district. The walls of Baby-
lon were forty miles in circumference. This extent of wall probably included
Borsippa, or " Babylon the Second," on the right bank of the river. Baby-
lon proper was mainly on the left. Within the walls were enclosed gardens,
orchards and fields: the space was only filled in part by buildings; but the
whole area was laid out with straight streets intersecting one another at right
angles, like the streets of Philadelphia. The wall was pierced by a hundred
gates, probably twenty-five in each face. The Euphrates, lined with quays
on both sides, and spanned with draw-bridges, ran through the town, dividing
it into two nearly equal parts. The city was protected ^without by a deep and
wide moat. The wall was at least seventy or eighty feet in height, and of
vast and unusual thickness. On the summit were two hundred and fifty
towers, placed along the outer and inner edges, opposite to one another, but
so far apart, according to Herodotus, that there was room for a four-horse
chariot to pass between. The temple of Belus was in a square enclosure,
about a quarter of a mile both in length and breadth. The tower of the
temple was ascended on the outside by an inclined plane carried around the50	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

four sides. An exaggerated statement of Strabo makes its height six hun-
dred and six feet. Possibly, this represents the length of the inclined plane.
In the shrine on the top were a golden table and a couch; according to Dio-
dorus, before the Persian conquest there were colossal golden images of
three divinities, with two golden lions, and two enormous serpents of silver.
It is thought that Herodotus may have described the splendid temple of
Nebo (now Birs NimHld)^ and have mistaken it, by reason of its enormous
ruins, for the temple of Bel% which it rivaled in magnificence. The great pal-
ace is represented to have been larger than the temple of Bel, the outermost
of its three inclosing walls being three miles in circumference. Its exterior
was of baked brick. The "Hanging Gardens" was a structure built on a
square, consisting of stages or stories, ons above another, each supported by
arches, and covered on the top, at the height of at least seventy-five feet,
with a great mass of earth in which grew flowers and shrubs, and even large
trees. The ascent to the top was by steps. On the way up were stately
and elegant apartments. The smaller palace was on the other side of the
river.

The Prophets on Assyria and Babylon. — The Hebrew prophets of the eighth and seventh
centuries, especially Isaiah, Nahum, Jeremiahf and EzekieL are highly instructive respect-
ing Assyrian and Babylonian history. These writers contain the most powerful and thrilling
passages respecting the great empires with which Israel and Judah were brought into contact,
and the grand cities which formed the centers of their power. Isaiah, in chaps, ii.-v , and in
vii. x-ix. 7, and in chap, xxviii. x-xx, dwells on the byro-Israelitish alliance, in the time of
Ahaz% between Rezin of Damascus, and Pekah of Israel. The invasion of Palestine by
Sargon is referred to in chap, xx , and probably in xiv. 29-32, xxix.-xxxii., x. 5-xi. x6, xxii..
and, perhaps, in i. It is thought, that, in xxi 1-10, the prophet has in mind the rebellion of
Merodach-baladan against Sargon, and the prospective subjugation of Babylon, — a sign
of what was to befall the minor states. To the invasion of Sennacherib% refer chaps, xviii.,
xvii. 12-14, xxxiii., xxxvii. 22-32 or 35. In the second part of lsaiah% it is Babylon and its
gods and their approaching downfall at the Persian conquest, to which the prophecies relate.
Chaps, xl.-xlviii. are specially worthy of attention. But the most impressive utterances of
Isaiah on this theme are, perhaps, the thirteenth and fourteenth chapters: 44 Babylon, the glory
of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," is to be brought down. 44 It shall
never be inhabited; " 44 neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall the shepherds
make their fold there/* 44 Wild beasts of the desert shall lie there," 44 owls shall dwell theret"
and 44 dragons in their pleasant palaces." Sheol, the Underworld, the Abode of the Dead, is
startled at the arrival of the king of Babylon in the realm of shades. The great ones of the
departed accost him, 4* Art thou also become weak as we ? " 41 Thy pomp is brought down to
the grave, and the noise of thy viols." They gaze on the once mighty sovereign, and scorn-
fully ask,44 Is this the man that made the earth to tremble, that did shake kingdoms ? "

It was probably in the times of Manasseh% when the hand of Assyria was heavy on the
Judaeans, that Xanum uttered his predictions. The second and third chapters are taken up
with the catastrophe of Nineveh : 44 The chariots shall rage in the streets, they shall jostle
one against another in the broad ways." 44 Take ye the spoil of silver, take the spoil of gold:
for there is none end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture " (ii 4, 9). ** Woe
to the bloody city! it is all full of lies and robbery." ^ 44 It shall come to pass, that all they
that look upon tnee shall flee from thee, and say, Nineveh is laid waste: who will bemoan
her • " " Thou hast multiplied thy merchants above the stars of heaven." 44 Thy crowned are
as the locdsts, and thy captains as the great grasshoppers, which camp in the hedges in the cold
day." 44 All that hear the bruit of thee shall clap the hand* over thee" (in. x, 7, 16, 17, 19).

Jeremiah, born in the reign of Josiah, was a spectator of the terrible calamities that fell on
Zedekiah and his subjects. lie depict* the irresistible power of Nebuchadnezza r (chap. xxv.),
the doom of the nations resisting him, the folly of an Egyptian alliance, the retribution that
at last will overtake the conqueror. His pages swarm with references to the momentous events
which he witnessed with the profoundest emotion.

Ezekiel was carried into exile with Jehoiakim in 599 B.C. His writings were in part com-
posed before the capture of Jerusalem and of Zedekiah, and in part in the period that followed.
Like Jeremiah, he pointed out the folly of the Egyptian alliance against the overshadowing
might of Babylon. Incidental allusions to manners and customs-—as to the blue apparel of
Assyrian nobles (chap, xxiii. 6) —are mingled with the description of historic changes of tragic
interest.

Literature. — Works on Oriental History mentioned on p. 42. Rich, Babylon and
Persepolis ; Loftus, Cha Id era and Sttsiana; Lenormant, Premieres Civilisations; Sayce,
'Art. Babylonia (Encycl. Briit.)„• Murdler, KurzgefassteGeschichte Babyloniens und Assy-
runs ; Harkness, Assyrian Life and History; Budge, Babylonian Life and History; Raw-
linson, Egypt and the Bible. learned discussions may be sought in Schrader, Keilinschriften
und das Alte Testament; Friedr. Delitzsch, Arts. Ninevef San he rib t ctc.. (Herzog, Real-
Encylclop'ddie); Arts. Assur, Babel, Babylonien, Nineve, etc. (Calwcr, BibelUxicott),THE PHGENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. 51

CHAPTER III.

THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS.

Phoenicia.—A narrow strip of territory separates the mountains
of Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean. Of this belt the
northern part, west of Lebanon, about one hundred and fifty miles
long, varies in width from five to fourteen miles. In some places
the cliffs approach close to the sea. This belt of land was occu-
pied by the first of the great maritime and commercial peoples of
antiquity, the Phoenicians. Their language was Semitic, closely
akin to Hebrew.

Commerce and Prosperity of the Phoenicians. — The most im-
portant of the Phoenician cities were Sidon—which was the first
of them to rise to distinction and power—and Tyre, which be-
came more famous as a mart, and comprised, besides the town
on the coast, New Tyre, the city built on the neighboring rocky
island. In New Tyre was the sanctuary of the tutelary god, McU
. hart. The spirit of trade stimulated ingenuity. The Phoenicians
were noted for their glass, their purple dyes, their improved alpha-
bet, and knowledge of the art of writing. In mining and in casting
metals, in the manufacture of cloth, in architecture, and in other
arts, they were not less proficient. From their situation they natu-
rally became a seafaring race. Not only did they transport their
cargoes of merchandise to the islands and shores of the Mediterra^
nean, conveying thither not merely the fruits of their own industry
and skill, but also the productions of the East: they ventured to
steer their vessels beyond the Strait of Gibraltar; and, if they did
not procure amber directly from the North Sea, they brought tin
either directly from Cornwall or from the Scilly Islands. Through
the hands of Phoenician merchants " passed the gold and pearls
of the East, the purple of Tyre, slaves, ivory, lions1 and panthers'
skins from the interior of Africa, frankincense from Arabia, the
linen of Egypt, the pottery and fine wares of Greece, the copper
of Cyprus, the silver of Spain, tin from England, and iron from
Elba." These products were carried wherever a market could
be found for them. At the instigation of Necho, king of Egypt
(611-605 B.C.), they are said to have made a three years' voyage
round the southern cape of Africa.

Colonies: Opulence.—The Phoenicians were the first great col-
onizing nation of antiquity. It was the fashion of Assyrians and
other conquerors to transport to their own lands multitudes of peo-
ple, whom they carried away as captives from their homes. The
Phoenicians—in this particular the forerunners of the Greeks and of
the Dutch and the English — planted trading settlements in Cyprus
and Crete, on the islands of the yEgean Sea, in southern Spain, anc}52	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

in North Africa. Cadiz, the oldest town in Europe, was founded
by these enterprising traders (about nooB.C.). Tarshish was
another of their Spanish settlements. " Ships of Tarshish," like
the modern "East Indiamen," came to signify vessels capable
of making long voyages. The coast of modern Andalusia and
Granada belonged to the Phoenicians. Through caravans their
intercourse was not less lively with the states on the Euphrates,
with Nineveh and Babylon, as well as with Egypt. Tyre was a link
between the East and the West.

Hiram: Settlement of Carthage.—The Tyrian power Attained
to its height under King Hiram (about iooo B.C.), the contem-
porary of Solomon. Two Greek historians make his reign to extend
from 980 to 946 B.C. The alliance with him extended the traffic
of Tyre, and increased its wealth. Hiram connected old and New
Tyre by a bridge. The Tyrians adorned their city with stately
palaces and temples, and built strong fortifications. Engrossed in
manufactures and commerce, and delighting in the affluence thus
engendered, the Phoenicians were not ambitious of conquest. Al-
though conquerors upon the sea, they were not a martial people :
like commercial states generally, they preferred peace. Of the
people of Laish (Dan), it is said in the Book of Judges (xviii. 7),
"They dwelt careless, after the manner of the Zidonians, quiet
and secure." This pacific temper was coupled with a fervent at-
tachment to their own land and to their countrymen wherever
they went. But they lacked the political instinct. They did not
appreciate liberty, and their love of traffic and of gain often made
them prefer to pay tribute rather than to fight. Their colonies
were factories, but were not centers of further conquest, or germs
of political communities. When the family of Hiram was exter-
minated (about 887 B.C.) by the high-priest of the goddess
Astarte, who seized on power, civil strife and disorder ensued.
Pygmalion, the great-grandson of the high-priest, as it is related
by a Grecian authority, slew his uncle, who was to marry Pygma-
lion^ sister, Elissa. On account of this internal conflict, and from
dread of the Assyrian power, a large number of the old families
emigrated to North Africa, and founded Carthage (about 850 B.C.).

The Phoenician cities were confederated together under hereditary kings,
whose power was limited by the lay and priestly aristocracy. The common
people, many of whom were skilled artisans, made themselves felt in some
degree in public affairs. The mercantile class were influential. Thus there
was developed a germinant municipal feeling and organization. The "strong
city," Tyre, is mentioned in Joshua xix. 29. In Isaiah xxiii., Tyre is de-
scribed as " the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers
are the honourable of the earth." •• He stretched out his hand over the sea,
he shook the kingdoms." The fate of Babylon is pointed at by the Prophet,
to show what Tyre had to expect from Assyria. Later, before the conquest
by Nebuchadnezzar, Ezekiel thus speaks of Tyre (chap, xxvii.): "They nave
taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee." 44 Of the oaks of BashanTHE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. S3

have they made thine oars." The benches of their boats were of "ivory,"
their sails of fine linen with broidered work from Egypt. " Tarshish was thy
merchant;" " with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they traded in thy fairs." " They
traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy market." The nu-
merous nations are enumerated which furnished their wares of all descrip-
tions to the-Tynan merchants. "Thou wast replenished, and made very
glorious in the midst of the seas." The wealth and splendor of Tyre are
illustrated (chap, xxviii. 13) by the long list of precious stones — the topaz,
the diamond, the onyx, etc.—which were her "covering."

Religion and Letters. — In the religion of the Phoenicians, the more
elevated ingredients of the Semitic heathenism are in the background. The
sensual features of it are more prominent, and savage elements are intro-
duced. It was more adapted to foster than to check lust and cruelty. The
principal deities are Baal and Aschera. To Aschera, young maidens make
an offering of their virtue. Another goddess, Astarte> bearing a spear, is at
length fused in the popular faith with Aschera. To Astarte, in Cyprus,
maidens likewise sacrifice their chastity. There was the same double ritual,
made up of gross sensuality on the one hand, and of ascetic practices by the
priesthood on the other, that belonged to the service of Mylitta at Babylon.
Moloch, "horrid king," was the god of fire. To appease him at Tyre and
Carthage, girls and boys, sometimes in large numbers, and of the highest
families, were cast into the flames; while the wailing of their relatives, if
it was not stifled by themselves at the supposed demand of piety, was
drowned by the sound of musical instruments. To Moloch, the king of
Moab (2 Kings iii. 27) offers up his eldest son. Hamilcar, the Carthaginian,
son of Hanno, in Sicily, when the tide of battle was turning against him,
threw himself into the fire (480 B.C.). Baal and Moloch became confused
in one divinity, Melkarth, to whom labors and journeys like those imputed
to Hercules were ascribed. To Melkarth costly temples were dedicated at
Tyre and Cadiz. Aschera and Astarte were united also in one divinity,
who, when represented as a roving goddess, disappearing with the chan-
ging light of the moon, is called Dido; but, when represented as a kind
and gentle divinity, is named Anna. Nature — as dying in the autumn, and
again reviving in the spring — is figured as the god Adonis, who is hon-
ored first by a protracted season of mourning, and then by a joyous fes-
tival.

The Phoenicians were not a literary people. Their alphabet was the old
Semitic alphabet, which was based on the Egyptian hieroglyphics. But in
the Phoenician alphabet every character represented a sound. It was thus a
vast improvement on the original. From the Phoenicians it spread, and be-
came the mother of most of the graphic systems now existing. Cadmus,
however, by whom it was said to be carried to the Greeks, is a fabulous per-
son. The alleged history of Sachuniathoit, which was published in Greek
by Philo of Byblus, in the second century A.D., is now generally believed
to be the work of Philo himself.

Historical Events. — In the struggles against the Mesopota-
mian empires, the Phoenicians defended themselves with valor and
perseverance. When Sargon (722-705 B.C.) had subjugated their
cities on the mainland, insular Tyre for five years repelled his
assaults, although the conduits bringing fresh water from the shore
were cut off, and the besieged were obliged to content themselves
with the scanty supply to be gained from wells dug with great
labor. Soon the Tyrian fleets regained their mastery on the sea.
When Nebuchadnezzar captured old Tyre, and a multitude of its
inhabitants shared the lot of the Jews, and were dragged off by54

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

the conqueror to the Euphrates, the island city withstood his
attack for thirteen years, and did not yield until it extorted from
him a treaty. But the power of resistance was weakened by the
repeated invasions and domination of Nineveh and Babylon.
Tyre submitted to Persia after the downfall of the Babylonian
monarchy, and added her fleet to the Persian forces; although
to the Phoenician towns was left a degree of freedom and their
local government. Sidon, Tyre, and Arados had a council of their
own, which met with their respective kings and senators at Tripolis,
for the regulation of matters of common interest. Manufactures
and commerce continued to flourish. Under the Persian supremacy,
Sidon once more became the chief city. In the middle of the
fourth century B.C., it revolted against the tyranny of the foreign
governors. The Persian king, Ocho, ordered that the noblest citi-
zens should be put to death; whereupon the inhabitants set the
city on fire, and destroyed themselves and their treasures in the
flames. Tyre remained, but ventured to resist Alexander the Great,
after his conquest of the Persians, and by him was captured and
partly demolished (332 B.C.). After the death of Alexander, the
Phoenicians fell under the sway of the Seleucidce at Antioch, and,
for a time, of the Egyptian Ptolemies.

In early times, there were three Phoenician tribes, Sidonians, A rvadites, and Giblites.
The period when Sidon had the most power was about 1300 B.C.; but the Phoenicians had
begun to carry on trade with Assyria, Babylon, Armenia, and Arabia, by land, as early as 1500
B.C., and to make sea-voyages. They founded colonies in Cilicia, Rhodes, Crete, Cythera,
Malta, in Sicily and Sardinia, at Hadrumetum, Utica, and the two towns of Hippo on the north
coast of Africa, and in many other places, either insular or adjacent to the sea. Their sailors,
accompanied by the servants of Solomon, went to India from the Red Sea, and brought back
the " gold of Ophir."

Carthaginian History.—The most prominent of all the Phoe-
nician settlements was Carthage. It had remarkable advantages
of situation. Its harbor was sufficient for the anchorage of the
largest vessels, and it had a fertile territory around it. These
circumstances, in conjunction with the energy of its inhabitants,
placed it at the head of the Phoenician colonies. In Carthage,
there was no middle class. There were the rich landholders and
merchants, and the common people. The government was practi-
cally an oligarchy. There were two kings or judges (Shofetes),
with little power, and a council or senate ; possibly a second coun-
cil also. But the senate and magistrates were subordinate to an
aristocratic body, the hundred judges. The bulk of the citizens
had little more than a nominal influence in public affairs.

Ascendency of Carthage.—When the Greeks (about 600 B.C.)
spread their colonies, the rivals of the Phoenician settlements, in
the west of the Mediterranean, Carthage was moved to deviate
from the policy of the parent cities, and to make herself the
champion, protector, and mistress of the Phoenician dependen-
cies in all that region. Thus she became the head of a North-THE HEBREWS.	55

African empire, which asserted its supremacy against its Greek
adversaries in Sicily and Spain, as well as in Lybia. When Tyre
was subjugated by Persia, Carthage was strengthened by the
immigration of many of the best Tyrian families. As the Tyrian
strength waned, the Carthaginian power increased. Syracuse, in
Sicily, became the first Greek naval power, and the foremost antag-
onist of the Carthaginian dominion. In 480 B.C., Carthage made
war upon the Greek cities in Sicily. The contest was renewed
from time to time. In the conflicts between 439-409 B.C., she
confirmed her sway over the western half of the island. In later
conflicts (317-275 B.C.), in which Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse,
was a noted leader of the Greeks, and, after his death, Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus, was their ally, Carthage alternately lost and re-
gained her Sicilian cities. But the result of the war was to estab-
lish her maritime ascendency.

Literature.—Works mentioned on pp. 16,42: Heeren, Historical Researches into the
Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations 0/ Antiquity (6 vols.); Movers,
Die PJtonizier (1841): Ren an, Mission de Phinicie (1874); Mommsen, History 0/ Rome
(vol. ii. chap, i.); (Stoic's History of Greece (vol. x.); F. W. Newman's Defense ofCarthage.

.	CHAPTER IV.

/

THE HEBREWS.

Peculiarity of the Hebrews. — While the rest of the nations
worshiped " gods many and lords many," whom they confounded
with the motions of the heavenly bodies, or with other aspects of
nature, there was one people which attained to a faith in one God,
the Creator and Preserver of the universe, who is exalted above
nature, and whom it was deemed impious to represent by any ma-
terial image. More than is true of any other people, religion was
consciously the one end and aim of their being. To bring the true
religion to its perfection, and to give it a world-wide diffusion and
sway, was felt by them to be their heaven-appointed mission. The
peculiarity of their faith made them stand alone, and rendered
them exclusive, and intolerant of the surrounding idolatries. The
mountainous character of their land, separated by Lebanon from
Phoenicia, and by the desert from the nations on the East and
South, was well adapted to the work which they had to fulfill in the
course of history.

The Patriarchal Age.—The Israelites traced their descent from
Abraham, who, to escape the infection of idolatry, left his home,
which was in Ur on the upper Euphrates, and with his household
and his flocks came into the land of Canaan, where he led a wan-
dering life, but became the father of a group of nations. Isaac,
his son by Sarah, was recognized as the next chief of the family;56

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

while Ishmael\ Abraham's son by Hagar, became the progenitor of
the Arabians. Of the two sons of Isaac, Esau, who was a hunts-
man, married a daughter of the native people: from him sprung
the Edomites. Jacob kept up the occupation of a herdsman. Of
his twelve sons, Joseph was an object of jealousy to the other
eleven, by whom he was sold to a caravan of merchants on their
way to Egypt. There, through his skill in interpreting dreams, he
rose to high dignities and honors in the court of Pharaoh; and,
by his agency, the entire family were allowed to settle on the pas-
ture-lands of Goshen in northern Egypt (p. 41). Here in the
neighborhood of Heliopolis, for several centuries, they fed their
flocks. From Israel, the name given to Jacob, they were com-
monly called Israelites. Hebrews was a Canaanite name, signifying
" from the other side," — that is, from beyond the Euphrates, — in
reference to their Chaldaean origin.

The Exodus (about 1300 B.C.).—The time came when the
Israelites were no longer well treated. A new Egyptian dynasty
was on the throne. Their numbers were an occasion of apprehen-
sion. An Egyptian princess saved Moses from being a victim of
a barbarous edict issued against them. He grew to manhood in
Pharaoh's court, but became the champion of his people. Com-
pelled to flee, he received in the lonely region of Mount Sinai
that sublime disclosure of the only living God which qualified him
to be the leader and deliverer of his brethren. A "strong east
wind," parting the Red Sea, opened a passage for the Israelites,
whom a succession of calamities, inflicted upon their oppressors by
the Almighty, had driven Pharaoh (Menephthah) to permit to de-
part in a body; but the returning waves ingulfed the pursuing
Egyptian army. " The sea covered them: they sank as lead in
the mighty waters." For a long period Moses led the people
about in the wilderness. They were trained by this experience to
habits of order and military discipline. At Horeb, the Decalogue,
the kernel, so to speak, of the Hebrew codes, the foundation of the
religious and social life of the people, was given them under circum-
stances fitted to awaken the deepest awe. They placed themselves
under Jehovah as the Ruler and Protector of the nation in a
special sense. The worship of other divinities, every form of idola-
try, was to be a treasonable offense. The laws of Jehovah were
to be kept in the Ark of the Covenant, in the "Tabernacle," which
was the sanctuary, and was transported from place to place. The
priesthood was devolved on Aaron and his successors, at the side
of whom were their assistants, the Levites. The civil authority in
each tribe was placed in the hands of the patriarchal chief and
the "elders," the right of approval or of veto being left to the
whole tribe gathered in an assembly. The heads of the tribes,
with seventy representative elders, together with Aaron and Moses,Admedxrix

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THE HEBREWS.	57

formed a supreme council or standing committee. On particular
occasions a congregation of all. the tribes might be summoned.
The ritual was made up of sacrifices and solemn festivals. The
Sabbath was the great weekly commemoration, a day of rest for
the slave as well as for the master, for the toiling beast as well
as for man. Every seventh year and every fiftieth year were sab-
baths, when great inequalities of condition, which might spring up
i> the intervals, respecting the possession of land, servitude con-
sequent on debts, etc., were removed.

Hebrew Xjaws. — The Israelites, in virtue of their covenant with Jehovah, were to be a
holy people, a nation of priests. They were thus to maintain fraternal equality. There was to
be no enslaving of one another, save that which was voluntary and for a limited time. Only
prisoners not of their race, or purchased foreigners, could be held as slaves. Every fiftieth
year, land was to revert to its original possessor. In the sabbatical years the land was not to
be tilled. What then grew wild might be gathered by all. There were careful provisions for
the benefit of the poor.

Heads of Tribes. — The progenitors of the tribes, the sons of Jacob,
as given in Exodus> were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon,
Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph, and Benjamin.

The Hebrew Religion. — Such, in brief, were the beginnings of
a religion as unique as it was elevated in its character, — a religion
which stood from the outset in mortal antagonism to the Egyptian
worship of sun-gods, and to the star-worship, the service of Baal,
and of sensual or savage divinities joined with him, — to that ser-
vice which was diffused through the Semitic nations of western
Asia. A people was constituted to be the guardian of this light,
kindled in the midst of the surrounding darkness, to carry it down
to later ages, and to make it finally, in its perfected form, the heri-
tage of mankind.

The Prophets. — Moses was not only a military leader and a
legislator: he stands at the head of the prophets, the class of men
who at different times, especially in seasons of national peril and
temptation, along the whole course of Israelitish history, were
raised up to declare the will of Jehovah, to utter the lessons proper
to the hour, to warn evil-doers, and to comfort the desponding.

Conquest of Canaan: The Era of the Judges.— Moses himself
did not enter " the promised land," where the patriarchs were
buried, and which the Israelites felt themselves commissioned to
conquer. The war was to be a war of extermination. It was im-
pressed on the people, that there was no other way to avoid the
contagion of idolatry, that it was the fit reward of the nation which
they were bidden to dispossess.

The word " Canaauite" means " hrtvlander." It designated the inhabitants of the valley
region of Palestine. It was applied, however, to all the tribes, who were under thirty-one
kings or chiefs, in the time of Joshua. There were six principal tribes, — the Hittites, Hivites,
A morites, Jebnsites, Perizxites, and Cirgashites. These, with the exception of the Hittites
and possibly the A morites, were Semitic in their language. The Canaaniies had houses and
vineyards. From them the Israelites learned agriculture. "They were in possession of forti-
fied towns, treasures of brass, iron, gold, and foreign merchandise." Their religious rites were
brutal aud debasing, — " human sacrifices, licentious orgies, the worship of a host of divinities."58

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

On the death of Moses, Joshua succeeded to the post of a
leader. He defeated the Amorites and other tribes on the east
of the Jordan. The land to be appropriated was parceled out
among the tribes by lot, with the exception that the tribe of Levi
received certain cities, with a tenth of the products of the soil.
The share of Joseph was divided between Ephraim and Manasseh.
After the first victories of Joshua, each tribe carried on for itself
the struggle with Canaanites, victory over them being followed by
indiscriminate slaughter. Resistance was stubborn, and the prog-
ress of occupation slow. It was not until David's time, centuries
after the invasion, that Jebus, the site of Jerusalem, was captured.
This delay was due largely to a lack of union, not to a lack of
valor. The strength of the Israelites was in their infantry. Hence
they preferred to fight upon the hills, rather than to cope with
horsemen and chariots on the plains below.

The Period of the Judges.—The era of the Judges extends
from about 1300 B.C. over at least two centuries. Powerful tribes
— as Moabites, Midianites, Ammonites, Philistines — were unsub-
dued. The land was desolated by constant war. It was one sure
sign of the prevailing disorder and anarchy, that " the highways
were unoccupied, and the travelers walked through byways"
(Judg. v. 6). Not unfrequently the people forgot Jehovah, and
fell into idolatrous practices. In this period of degeneracy and
confusion, men full of sacred enthusiasm and of heroic courage
arose to smite the enemies of Israel, and to restore the observance
of the law. Of these heroic leaders, Deborah, Gideon, Jeptlitha,
and Samson were the most famous. There remains the song of
Deborah on the defeat and death of Sisera (Judg. v.).

The Philistines, on the western coast, captured the tabernacle, —»
an act that spread dismay among the Israelites. Then they pushed
on their conquests as far as the Jordan, took away from the Israel-
ites their weapons, and grievously oppressed them. The Ammon-
ites threatened the tribes on the east of the Jordan with a like fate.
At this juncture, an effective leader and reformer appeared, in the
person of Samuel\ who had been consecrated from his youth up
to the service of the sanctuary, and whose devotion to the law
was mingled with an ardent patriotism. He roused the courage of
the people, and recalled them to the service of Jehovah. In the
" schools of the prophets " he taught the young the law, trained
them in music and song, and thus prepared a class of inspiring
teachers and guides to co-operate with the priesthood in uphold-
ing the cause of religion.

The Monarchy: Samuel and Saul. — In the distracted condi-
tion of the country, the people demanded a king, to unite them,
and lead them to victory, and to administer justice. They felt
that their lack of compact organization and defined leadershipTHE HEBREWS.	59

placed them at a disadvantage in comparison with the tribes about.
This demand Samuel resisted, as springing out of a distrust of
Jehovah, and as involving a rejection of Him. He depicted the
burdens which regal government would bring upon them. Later
history verified his prediction. A strong, centralized authority
was not in harmony with the family and tribal government which
was the peculiarity of their system. It brought in, by the side of
the prophetic order, another authority less sacred in its claims to
respect. Collisions between the two must inevitably result. But,
whatever might be the ideal political system, the exigency was
such that Samuel yielded to the persistent call of the people. He
himself chose and anointed for the office a tall, brave, and experi-
enced soldier, Saul. Successful in combat, the king soon fell into a
conflict with the prophet, by failing to comply with the Mosaic law,
and by sparing, contrary to the injunction laid upon him, prison-
ers and cattle that he had captured. Thereupon Samuel secretly
anointed David\ a young shepherd of the tribe of Judah; thus
designating him for the throne. The envy of Saul at the achieve-
ments of David, and at his growing popularity, coupled with secret
suspicion of what higher honors might be in store for the valiant
youth, embittered the king against him. David was befriended
and shielded by Jonathan, Saul's son, who might naturally be
looked upon as his suitable successor. The memorials of the
friendship of these two youths, in the annals of that troublous
time, are like a star in the darkest night. David was obliged to
take refuge among the Philistines, where he led a band of free
lances, whom the Philistines did not trust as auxiliaries, but who
were inured by their daring combats for the struggles that came
afterwards. Saul and Jonathan were slain, Saul by his own hand.
For six years David was king in Hebron, over the tribes of Judah
and Benjamin. The other tribes were ruled by Saul's son, Ishbo-
sheih. At length David was recognized as king by all the tribes.
Saul's family were exterminated.

Chronology. — There is much difficulty in settling the chronology in the
early centuries of the regal period of Hebrew history. Apart from the
questions which arise in comparing the biblical data, the information derived
from Egyptian and especially from Assyrian sources has to be taken into ac-
count. Hence the dates given below must be regarded as open to revision
as our knowledge increases.

Assyriologists find that Shalmaneser TT. received tribute from Ahab, King of Israel, 854
B.C., and from Jehu, 842 B.C.; that Tiglath-Pileser If. (745-727 BC.) received tribute from
Menakem and Azariak% and that Samaria fell in 722 B.C. Assyriology, on the basis of its
data, as at present ascertained, would make out a chronology something like the following:
t-ra of the judges, 1300-1040; Saul, 1040-1000: David, 1000-960; Solomon, 960-030; Reho*
boam, 930-914 (Jeroboam I., 930-910); Jehoshaphat, 870+-850 (Ahab, 875-853); Azariah and
Uzziah, 770-735, (Jehu, 843-815); (Jeroboam II., 781-750); (Menahem, 748-738).

David and Solomon. — David's reign (about 1051-1011 B.C.)
is the period of Israel's greatest power. He extended his sway6o

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

as far as the Red Sea and the Euphrates; he overcame Damascus,
and broke down the power of the Philistines; he subdued the
Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites; he conquered the Jebusites,
and made Jerusalem his capital and the center of national wor-
ship. A poet himself, he enriched the religious service, which he
organized, by lyrics — some of them composed by himself—of
unrivaled devotional depth and poetic beauty. He organized his
military force as well, and established an orderly civil administra-
tion. His favorite son, Absalom, led away by ambition, availed
himself of disaffection among the people to head a revolt against
his father, but perished in the attempt. David left his crown to
Solomon at the close of a checkered life, marked by great victories,
and by flagrant misdeeds done under the pressure of temptation.

Character of Solomon's Heign.—Solomon's reign (about ion-
975 B.C.) was the era of luxury and splendor. He sought to emu-
late the other great monarchs of the time. With the help of Hiram,
king of Tyre, who furnished materials and artisans, he erected a
magnificent temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. He built
costly palaces. He brought horses from Egypt, and organized a
standing army, with its cavalry and chariots. He established a
harem, bringing into it women from the heathen countries, whom
he allowed in their idolatrous rites. He was even seduced to take
part in them himself. Renowned for his knowledge and for his
wisdom—which was admired by the Queen of Saba (Sheba), who
came to visit him from the Arabian coast — famous as the author
of wise aphorisms, he nevertheless entailed disasters on his coun-
try. He established a sort of Oriental despotism, which exhausted
its resources, provoked discontent, and tended to undermine
morality as well as religion.

The Divided Kingdoms.—The bad effect of Solomon's mag-
nificence soon appeared. Before his death a revolt was made under
the lead of Jeroboam, which was put down. Of Rehoboam, the
successor of Solomon, the ten tribes north of Judah required
pledges that their burdens should be lightened. In the room of
the heads and elders of the tribes, the late king's officers had
come in to oppress them with their hard exactions. The haughty
young king spurned the demand for redress. The tribes cast off
his rule, and made Jeroboam /. their king (about 975 B.C.). The
temple was left in the hands of Judah and Benjamin. The divis-
ion of the kingdom into two, insured the downfall of both. The
rising power of the Mesopotamian Empire could not be met with-
out union. On the other hand, the concentration of worship at
Jerusalem, under the auspices of the two southern tribes, may have
averted dangers that would have arisen from the wider diffusion,
and consequent exposure to corruption, of the religious system.
The development and promotion of the true religion — the oneTHE HEBREWS.

6l

great historical part appointed for the Hebrews — may have been
performed not less effectively, on the whole, for the separation.

Heathen Rites.— From this time the energetic and prolonged
contest of the prophets with idolatry is a conspicuous feature, es-
pecially in the history of Israel, the northern kingdom. Jeroboam
set up golden calves at Dan and Bethel\ ancient seats of the wor-
ship of Jehovah. Wars with Judah and Damascus weakened the
strength of Israel. The Egyptian king, Sht'shak, captured Jerusa-
lem, and bore away the treasures collected by Solomon (p. 41).
Under Jehoshaphat (about 914-889 B.C.) the heathen altars were
demolished and prosperity returned.

Struggle with Idolatry : Elijah and Elisha.— The contempo-
rary of Jehoshaphat in the northern kingdom was Ahab (about
918-897 B.C.). He expended his power and wealth in the build-
ing up of Baal-worship, at the instigation of the Tyrian princess,
Jezebel, whom he had married. At Samaria, his capital, he raised
a temple to Baal, where four hundred and fifty of his priests minis-
tered. The priests of Jehovah who withstood these measures were
driven out of the land, or into hiding-places. The austere and in-
trepid prophet Elijah found refuge in Mount CarmeL The peo-
ple, on the occasion of a famine, which he declared to be a divine
judgment, rose in their wrath, and slew the priests of Baal. In a
war — the third of a series — which Ahab waged against Syria, he
still fought in his chariot, after he had received a mortal, wound,
until he fell dead. He had previously thrown the prophet Micah
into prison for predicting this result. By the marriage of Athalia,
a daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, with Jehoshaphat's son, Baal-wor-
ship was introduced into Jerusalem. Joram succeeded Ahab. The
prophet Elisha, who followed in the steps of Elijah, anointed
Jehu " captain of the host of Joram." He undertook, with fierce
and unsparing energy, to destroy Baal-worship, and to extirpate
the house of Ahab, root and branch. The two kings of Israel and
of Judah he slew with his own hand. The priests and servants of
Baal were put to the sword. These conflicts reduced the strength
of Israel, which fell a prey to Syria, until its power was revived by
Jeroboam JI. (825-784 B.C.). The death of Athalia brought on
the expulsion of the Phoenician idolatry from Jerusalem. The
southern kingdom suffered from internal strife, and from wars with
Israel, until CJzziah (809-758 B.C.) restored its military strength,
and caused agriculture and trade once more to flourish.

The Assyrian Captivity. — The two kingdoms, in the ninth and
eighth centuries, instead of standing together against the threaten-
ing might of Assyria, sought heathen alliances, and wasted their
strength in mutual contention. Against these hopeless alliances,
and against the idolatry and the formalism which debased the
people, the prophets contended with intense earnestness and un-62

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

flinching courage. Amos, called from feeding his flocks, inveighed
against frivolity and vice, misgovernment and fraud, in Israel.
Hosea warned Menaliem (771-760 B.C) against invoking the help
of Assyria against Damascus, but in vain. He was terribly pun-
ished by what he suffered from the Assyrians; but Jotham (758-
741 B.C.) and Ahaz (741-725 B.C.), the Judsean kings, succes-
sively followed his example. Tiglath-PileserxaaAz Judaea tributary.
The Assyrian rites were brought into the temple of Jehovah. The
service of Moloch and Aschera was introduced. The one incor-
ruptible witness for the cause of Jehovah was the fearless and elo-
quent prophet, Isaiah. Hosea, king of Israel, by his alliance with
Egypt against Sargon, so incensed this most warlike of the As-
syrian monarchs, that, when he had subdued the Phoenician cities,
he laid siege to Samaria ; and, having captured it at the end of a
siage of three years, he led away the king and the larger part of
his subjects as captives, to the Euphrates and the Tigris, and re-
placed them by subjects of his own (722 B.C.). The later Samari-
tans were the descendants of this mixed population.

The Babylonian Captivity. — When Sargon, the object of gen-
eral dread, died, Hezekiah, king of Judah (725-696 B.C.), flat-
tered himself that it was safe to disregard the warnings of Isaiah,
and, in the hope of throwing off the Assyrian yoke, made a treaty
of alliance with the king of Egypt, and fortified Jerusalem. He
abolished, however, the heathen worship in " the high places."
Sennacherib, Sargon's successor, was compelled to raise the siege
(p. 46). Manasseh (695-640 B.C.), in defiance of the prophets,
fostered the idolatrous and sensual worship, against which they
never ceased to lift their voices. Josiah (638-609 B.C.) was a
reformer. As a tributary of Babylon, he sought to prevent Necho,
king of Egypt, from crossing his territory, but was vanquished, and
slain at Megiddo, on the plain of Esdraelon. Nebuchadnezzar's vic-
tory over Necho, at Carchemish, enabled the Babylonian king to
tread in the footsteps of the Assyrian conquerors. The revolt of
Zedekiah, which the prophet Jeremiah was unable to prevent, and'
his alliance with Egypt, led to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews.
In this period of national ruin, the prophetic spirit found a voice
through Jeremiah and Ezekt'el. It was during the era of Assyrian
and Babylonian invasion that the predictions of a Messiah, a great
Deliverer and righteous Ruler who was to come, assumed a more
definite expression. The spiritual character of Isaiah's teaching
has given him the name of " the evangelical prophet,"

Cyrus, the conqueror of Babylon, opened the way (539 B.C.)
for the return of the exiles. A small part first came back under
Zerubbabel\ head of the tribe of Judah, who was made Persian
governor. They began to rebuild. the temple, which was finished
in 514 B.C. Later (457 B.C.) Ezra "the scribe" andNehemiahTIIE HEBREWS.	63

led home a larger body. The newly returned Jews were fired
with a zeal for the observance of the Mosaic ritual, — a zeal which
had been sharpened in the persecutions and sorrows of exile. The
era of the " kagiocracy" of the supreme influence of the priesthood
and the rigid adherence to the law, with an inflexible hostility to
heathen customs, ensued. The spirit of which prophecy had been
the stimulant, and partially the fruit, declined. The political in-
dependence of the land was gone for ever. The day of freedom
under the Maccabees, after the insurrection (168 B.C.) led by that
family against the Syrian successors of Alexander, was short. But
Israel "had been thrown into the stream of nations." Its reli-
gious influence was to expand as its political strength dwindled.
Its subjugation and all its terrible misfortunes were to serve as a
means of spreading the leavening influence of its monotheistic
faith.

In the year 63 B.C., Pompeius made the Jews tributary to the Romans. In the year 40
B.C., Herod began to reign as a dependent king-under Rome.

# Hebrew Literature.— The literature of the Hebrews is essentially reli-
gious in its whole motive and spirit. This is true even of their historical
writings. The marks of the one defining characteristic of their national life
— faith in Jehovah and in his sovereign and righteous control — are every-
where seen. Hebrew poetry is mainly lyrical. Relics of old songs are scat-
tered through the historical books. In the Psalms, an anthology of sacred
lyrics, the spirit of Hebrew poesy attains to its highest flight. Examples of
didactic poetry are the Book of Job, and books like the Proverbs, composed
mainly of pithy sayings or gnomes. Nowhere, save in the Psalms, does the
spirit of the Hebrew religion and the genius of the people find an expression
so grand and moving as in the Prophets, of whom Isaiah is the chief.

Art. — In art the Hebrews did not excel. The plastic arts were generally
developed in connection with religion. But the religion of the Hebrews ex-
cluded all visible representations of deity. Nor were they proficients in sci-
ence. "Israel was the vessel in which the water of lite was inclosed, in
which it was kept cool and pure, that it might thereafter refresh the world."

The historical books of the Old Testament comprise, first, the Pmtateuck, which de-
scribes the origin of the Hebrew people, the exodus from Egypt, and the Sinaitic legislation.
Questions pertaining to the date and authorship of these five books, and of the materials at the
basis of them, are still debated among historical critics. It is not denied, however, by judicious
scholars generally, that at least important parts, embracing laws and historical notices con-
nected with them, are from Moses. The early part of Genesis is designed to explain the gene-
alogy of the Hebrews, and to show how, step by step, they were sundered from other peoples.
The narratives in the first ten chapters—as the story of the creation, the flood, etc. —so strik-
ingly resemble legends of other Semitic nations, especially the Babylonians and Phoenicians,
it t0 Jna'<e Pja'n that-all these groups of accounts are historically connected with one another.
But the Genesis narratives are distinguished by their freedom from the polytheistic ingredients
which disfigure the corresponding narratives elsewhere. They are on the elevated plane of
that pure theism which is the kernel of the Hebrew faith. This whole subject is elucidated by
Lenormant, in The Beginnings of History (1882). The Book of Joshua relates the history
of the conquest of Canaan; judges, the tale of the heroic age of Israel prior to the monarchy; .
the liooks of Samuel and of Kings, of the monarchy in its glory and its decline; the Books of
Chronicles treat of parts of the same era, more from the point of view of the priesthood;
Ruth is an idyl of the narrative type; Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther have to do with the
return of the Jews from exile, and the events next following.

The poetic writings include the Psalter, by David and other authors; the Pror'eris of
Solomon; Ecclesiastes% which gives the somber reflections of one who had tasted to the full the
pleasures and honors of life; the Canticles, or Song of Solomon, which depicts a young
woman's love in its constancy, and victory over temptation.

The prophets are divided into four classes: 1. Those of the early period from the twelfth
to the ninth century, including Samuelt Elijah Elisha, etc., who have left no prophetical64	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

writings, a. The prophets of the Assyrian age (800-700 B.C.), where belong Joel, Avtos%
Hosea, Isaiah, Mican, and Nahum. 3. The prophets of the Babylonian age, Zephaniah,
Jeremiah, Hahakkuk, Ezekiel. Here some scholars would place the second half of Isaiah.
4. The post-exilian prophets, Haggai\ Zachariah, Malachi. By some, Jonah and Daniel
are placed under this last head; by others, the first of these books is ranked under (2), and the
second of them under (3). »■

The apocryphal books belong between the closing of the Old-Testament canon and the
New Testament. They exist only in Greeks although some of them were first written in
Hebrew. They are instructive as to that intermediate period. The first Jiook of Maccabees
is specially important for its historical matter; the Books of Wisdom and the Son of Siracht
for their moral reflections and precepts.

Works relating to Hebrew History. — Ewald, History of the Israelitish
People (Eng. trans., 5 vols.); Stanley, History of the Jewish Church; Milman, History
of the Jews, (3 vols.). From a conservative standpoint, Kurtz, History of the Old Cove-
nant (3 vols.); Hengstenberg, History of the Old Covenant. On the other side, Well-
HAUSEn's Art. Israel, in the Encycl. Britt. ; Keuss, Histoire des Israelites (1877). The
historical works of Jewish scholars, Herzfeld, Jost, Derknboukg, etc., are valuable.

CHAPTER V.

THE PERSIANS.

In the western part of the plateau of Iran, which extends from
the Suleiman Mountains to the plains of Mesopotamia, were the
Medes. On the southern border of the same plateau,'along the
Persian Gulf, were the Persians. Both were offshoots of the1 Aryan
family, and had migrated westward from the region of the upper
Oxus, from Bactria, the original seat of their religion.

Religion.—The ancient religion of the Iranians, including the
Medes and Persians, was reduced to a system by the Bactrian sage,
Zoroaster (or Zarathustra), who, in the absence of authentic knowl-
edge respecting him, may be conjecturally placed at about iooo
B.C. The Zendavesta, the sacred book of the Parsees, the adher-
ents of this religion, is composed of parts belonging to very differ-
ent dates. It is the fragment of a more extensive literature no
longer extant. The Bactrian religion differed from that of their
Sanskrit-speaking kindred on the Indus, in being a form of dualism.
It grew out of a belief in good demons or spirits, and in evil spirits,
making up two hosts perpetually in conflict with each other. At
the head of the host of good spirits, in the Zoroastrian creed, was
Omiuzdy the creator, and the god of light; at the head of the evil
host, was Ahriman, the god of darkness. The onfc made the world
good, the other laid in it all that is evil. The one is disposed to
bless man, the other to. do him harm. The conflict of virtue and
vice in man is a contest for control on the part of these antagonistic
powers. In order to keep off the spirits of evil, one must avoid
' what is morally or ceremonially unclean. He who lived pure,
went up at death to the spirits of light. The evil soul departed
to consort with evil spirits in the region of darkness. Mithra, the
sun-god in the Zoroastrian system, isHhe equal, though the crea-
ture, of Ormuzd. Mithra is the conqueror of darkness, and so theTHE PERSIANS.

65

enemy of falsehood. The Medes and Persians were fire-worship-
ers. To the good spirits, they ascribed life, the fruitful earth, the
refreshing waters, fountains and rivers, the tilled ground, pastures
and trees, the lustrous metals, also truth and the pure deed. To
the evil spirits belonged darkness, disease, death, the desert, cold,
filth, sin, and falsehood. The animals were divided between the
two realms. All that live in holes, all that hurt the trees and
the crops, rats and mice, reptiles of all sorts, turtles, lizards, ver-
min, and noxious insects, were hateful creatures of Ahriman. To
kill any of these was a merit. The dog was held sacred ; as was
also the cock, who announces the break of day. In the system of
worship, sacrifices were less prominent than in India. Prayers, and
the iteration of prayers, were of great moment.

The Magi. — The Zoroastrian religion was not the same at all
times and in every place. The primitive Iranian emigrants were
monotheistic in their tendencies. In their western abodes, they
came into contact with worshipers of the elements, — fire, air,
earth, and water. It is thought by many scholars, that the Magian
system, with its more defined dualism and sacerdotal sway, was
ingrafted on the native religion of the Iranians through the in-
fluence 6f tribes with whom they mingled in Media. The Magi,
according to one account, were charged by Darius with corrupting
the Zoroastrian faith and worship. Whatever may have been their
origin, they became the leaders in worship, and privy-counselors
to the sovereign. They were likewise astrologers; and interpreters
of dreams. They were not so distinct a class as the priests in
India. A hereditary order, they might still bring new members
into their ranks. From the Medes, they were introduced among
the Persians.

Persian Religious Customs. — Peculiar customs existed among
the Medes in disposing of the dead. They were not to be cast
into the fire or the water, or buried in the earth, for this would
bring pollution to what was sacred; but their bodies were to be
exposed in the high rocks, where the beasts and birds could devour
them. Sacrifices were offered on hill-tops. Salutations of homage
were made to the rising sun. On some occasions, boys were
buried alive, as an offering to the divinities. In early times, there
were no images of the gods. As far as they were introduced in
later times, it was through the influence of surrounding nations.
In the supremacy and the final victory, which, in the later form of
Zoroastrianism, were accorded to Ormuzd, there was again an
approach to monotheism. Hostility to deception of all sorts, and
thus to stealing, was a Persian trait. {Herodotus says that the

to ride, to shoot the bow-, and to

culture, was a part of their religion. They allowed a plurality of

speak tiie truths To prize the
 

pursuits of agriculture and horti-66

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

wives, and concubines with them ; but there was one wife to whom
precedence belonged. V oluntary celibacy in man or woman was
counted a flagrant sin.

History. — The first authentic notice that we have of the Medes
shows them under Assyrian power. This is in the time of Shal-
maneser IJ.f 840 B.C. Their rise is coincident with the fall of
Assyria. Phraortes (647-625 B.C.) began the Median struggle for
independence; although the name of Deiocesis given by Herodotus
as a previous king, and the builder of Ecbatana the capital. It
was reserved for Cyaxares (625-585 B.C.), having delivered his
land from the Scythian marauders (p. 47), to complete, in con-
junction with the Babylonian king, Nabopolassar, the work of break-
ing down the Assyrian empire (p. 48). He brought under his rule
the Hadrians, and the Persians about Pasargadce and Persepolis,
and made the Halys, dividing Asia Minor, the limit of his king-
dom. His effeminate son, Astyages, lost what his father had won.
The Persian branch of the Iranians gained the supremacy. Cyrus,
the leader of the Persian revolt, by whom Astyages was defeated,
is described as related to him ; but this story, as Well as the account
of his being rescued from death and brought up among shepherds,
is probably a fiction.

Cyrus. — In the sixth century B.C., this famous ruler and con-
queror became the founder of an empire which comprised nearly
all the civilized nations of Asia. During his reign of thirty years
(559-530 B.C.), he annexed to his kingdom the two principal
states, Lydia and Babylon. The king of Lydia was Croesus,
whose story, embellished with romantic details, was long familiar
as a signal example of the mutations of fortune. Doomed to be
burned after the capture of Sardis, his capital, he was heard, just
when the fire was to be kindled, to say something about Solon.
In answer to the inquiry of Cyrus, whose curiosity was excited, he
related how that Grecian sage, after beholding his treasures, had
refused to call him the most fortunate of men, on the ground that
"no man can be called happy before his death," because none
can tell what disasters may befall him. Cyrus, according to the
narrative, touched by the tale, delivered Croesus from death, and
thereafter bestowed on him honor and confidence.

There is another form of the tradition, which is deemed by some more probable. Croesus
is said to have stood on a pyre, intending to offer himself in the flames, to propitiate the god
Sandon, that his people might be saved from destruction; but he was prevented, it is said, by
unfavorable auguries.

The subjection of the Greek colonies on the Asia-Minor coast
followed upon the subjugation of Lydia. From these colonies, the
Phocceans went forth, and founded Elea in Lower Italy, and Mas-
silia (Marseilles) in Gaul. The Asian Greek cities were each
allowed its own municipal rulers, but paid tribute to the Persian
master. The conquest of Babylon (538 B.C.), as it opened theTHE PERSIANS.

6/

way for the return to Jerusalem of the Jewish exiles, enabled Cyrus
to establish a friendly people in Judaea, as a help in fortifying his
sway in Syria, and in opening a path to Egypt. But in 529 he lost
his life in a war which he was waging against the Massagetce, a
tribe on the Caspian, allied in blood to the Scythians.

There was a tradition that the barbarian queen, Tomyris, enraged that
Cyrus had overcome her son by deceit, dipped the slain king's head in a
skin-bag of blood, exclaiming, " Drink thy fill of blood, of which thou couldst
not have enough in thy lifetime 1"

Cambyses. — The successor of Cyrus, a man-not less warlike
than he, but more violent in his passions, reigned but seven years
(529~522 B.C.). His most conspicuous achievement was the con-
quest of Egypf. One ground or pretext of his hostility, according
to the tale of Herodotus, was the fact that Amasis, the predeces-
sor of Psammeticus III., not daring to refuse the demand of his
daughter as a wife, to be second in rank to the Persian queen, had
fraudulently sent, either to Cambyses, or, before his time, to Cyrus,
Nitetis, the daughter of the king who preceded him, Apries. De-
feated at Pelusium, and compelled to yield up Memphis after a
siege, it is said that Psammeticus, the Psammenitus of Herodotus,
the unfortunate successor of the powerful Pharaohs, was obliged
to look on the spectacle of his daughters in the garb of working-
women, bearing water, and to see his sons, with the principal young
nobles, ordered to execution. But this tale lacks confirmation.
His cruelties were probably of a later date, and were provoked by
the chagrin he felt, and the satisfaction manifested by the people,
at the failure of great expeditions which he sent southward for the
conquest of Meroe, and westward against the Oasis of Amnion.
His armies perished in the Lybian deserts. Even the story of his
stabbing the sacred steer (Apis), after these events, although it
may be true, is not sanctioned by the Egyptian inscriptions. His
attack upon Ammon probably arose, in part at least, from a desire
to possess himself of whatever lay between Egypt and the Car-
thaginian territory. But the Phoenician sailors who manned his
fleet refused to sail against their brethren in Carthage. Cambyses
assumed the title and character of an Egyptian sovereign. The
story of his madness is an invention of the Egyptian priests.

Darius (521-485 B.C.). — For a short time, a pretender, a
Magian, who called himself Smerdis, and professed to be the
brother of Cambyses, usurped the throne. Cambyses is said to
have put an end to his own life. After a reign of seven months,
during which he kept himself for the most part hidden from view,
Smerdis was destroyed by a rising of the leading Persian families.
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, of the royal race of the Achamenida,
succeeded. He married Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus. The
countries which composed an Oriental empire were so loosely held68	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

together that the death of a despot or the change of a dynasty
was very likely to call forth a general insurrection. Darius showed
his military prowess in conquering anew various countries, including
Babylon, which had revolted. He made Arabia tributary, and spread
the bounds of his vast empire as far as India and in North Africa.
A mighty expedition which he organized against the Scythians on
the Lower Danube failed of the results that were hoped from it.
The barbarians wasted their own fields, filled up their wells, drove
off their cattle, and fled as the army of Darius advanced. He re-
turned, however, with the bulk of his army intact, although with a
loss of prestige, and enrolled " the Scyths beyond the sea " among
the subjects of his empire. His armies conquered the tribes of
Thrace, so that he pushed his boundaries to the frontiers of Mace-
donia. The rebellion of the Greek cities on the Asia-Minor coast
he suppressed, and harshly avenged. Of his further conflicts with
the Greeks on the mainland, more is to be said hereafter. He had
built Persepolis, but his principal seat of government appears to
have been Susa. He did a great work in organizing his imperial
system. The division into satrapies — large districts, each under a
satrap, or viceroy — was a part of this .work. He thus introduced
a more efficient and methodical administration into his empire, —
an empire four times as large as the empire of Assyria, which it
had swallowed up.

Government. — Persia proper corresponded nearly to the modern prov-
ince of Farsistan or Fars. The Persian Empire stretched from east to west
for a distance of about three thousand miles, and was from five hundred to
fifteen hundred miles in width. It was more than half as large as modern
Europe. It comprised not less than two millions of square miles. Its popu-
lation under Darius may have been seventy or eighty millions. He brought
in uniformity of administration. In each satrapy, besides the satrap himself,
who was a despot within his own dominion, there was at first a commander
of the troops, and a secretary, whose business it was to make reports to the
Great King. These three officers were really watchmen over one another.
It was through spies ("eyes" and "ears") of the king that he was kept
informed of what was taking place in every part of the empire. At length
it was found necessary to give the satraps the command of the troops, which
took away one important check upon their power. There was a regular
system of taxation, but to this were added extraordinary and oppressive
levies. Darius introduced a uniform coinage. " Daries," the Persian coin,
is a term said to be derived from his name. Notwithstanding the govern-
ment by satraps, local laws and usages were left, to a large extent, undis-
turbed. Great roads, and postal communication for the exclusive use of
the government, connected the capital with the distant provinces. In this
point the Persians set an example which was followed by the Romans. From
Susa to Sardis, a distance of about seventeen hundred English miles, stretched
a road, along which, at proper intervals, were caravansaries, and over which
the fleet couriers of the king rode in six or seven days. The king was an
absolute lord and master, who disposed of the lives and property of his sub-
jects without restraint. To him the most servile homage was paid. He
lived mostly in seclusion in his palace. On great occasions he sat at banquet
with his nobles. His throne was made of gold, silver, and ivory. All whoTHE PERSIANS.

69

approached him kissed the earth. His ordinary dress was probably of the
richest silk. He took his meals mostly by himself. His fare was made up
of the choicest delicacies. His seraglio, guarded by eunuchs, contained a
multitude of inmates, brought together by his arbitrary command, over whom,
in a certain way, the queen-mother presided. His chief diversions were
playing at dice within doors, and hunting without. Paradises, or parks,
walled in, planted with trees and shrubbery, and furnished with refreshing
fountains and streams, were his hunting-ground. Such inclosures were the
delight of all Persians. In war he was attended with various officers in close
attendance on his person, — the stool-bearer, the bow-bearer, etc. In peace,
there was another set, among whom was "the parasol-bearer," — for to be
sheltered by the parasol was an exclusive privilege of the king, — the fan-
bearer, etc. There were certain privileged families, — six besides the royal
clan of the Achamenida^ the chiefs of all of which were his counselors, and
from whom he was bound to choose his legitimate wives. When the monarch
traveled, even on military expeditions, he was accompanied by the whole
varied apparatus of luxury which ministered to his pleasures in the court,—
costly furniture, a vast retinue of attendants, of inmates of the harem, etc.

Army and Navy.—The arms of the footman were a sword, a spear,
and a bow. Persian bowmen were skillful. Persian cavalry, both heavy and
light, were their most effective arm. The military leaders depended on the
celerity of their horsemen and the weight of their numbers. It is doubtful
whether they employed military engines. They were not wholly ignorant of
strategy. Their troops were marshaled by nations, each in its own costume,
the commander of the whole being in the center of the line of battle. The
body-guard of the king was " the Immortals," a body of ten thousand picked
footmen, the number being always kept intact. The enemies of the Persians,
except in the case of rebels, were not treated with inhumanity. In this regard
the Persians are in marked contrast with the Semitic ferocity of the Assyrians.
Their navies were drawn from the subject-peoples. The trireme, with its
projecting prow shod with iron, and its crew of two hundred men, was the
principal, but not the only vessel used in sea-fights.

Iiiterature and Art. — A Persian youth was ordinarily taught to read,
but there was little intellectual culture. Boys were trained in athletic exer-
cises. It was a discipline in hardy and temperate habits. Etiquette, in all
ranks of the people, was highly esteemed. The Persians, as a nation, were
bright-minded, and not deficient in fancy and imagination. But they contributed
nothing to science. Their religious ideas were an heirloom from remote
ancestors. The celebrated Persian poet, Firdousl\ lived in the tenth century
of our era. His great poem, the Shahnameh, or Book of Kings, is a store-
house of ancient traditions. It is probable that the ancient poetry of the
Persians, like this production, was of moderate merit. Of the Persian archi-
tecture and sculpture, we derive our knowledge from the massive ruins of
Persepolis, which was burned by Alexander the Great, and from the remains
of other cities. They had learned from Assyria and Babylon, but they dis-
play no high degree of artistic talent. They were not an intellectual people:
they were soldiers and rulers.

Literature. —Works mentioned on pp. 16,42: Encycl. Britt., Art. Persia; Vaux, Persia
from the Monuments (1876); Noldeke, Geschichte tier Perser (1879). Markham, General
Sketch 0/ the History of Persia (1874).

RETROSPECT.

In Eastern Asia the Chinese nation was built up, the principal
achievement of the Mongolian race. Its influence was restricted
to neighboring peoples of kindred blood. Its civilization, having
once attained to a certain stage of progress, remained for the7°

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

most part stationary. China, in its isolation, exerted no power
upon the general course of history. Not until a late age, when
the civilization of the Caucasian race should be developed, was
the culture of China to produce, in the mingling of the European
and Asiatic peoples, its full fruits, even for China herself. India —
although the home of a Caucasian immigrant people, a people of
the Aryan family too — was cut off by special causes from playing
an effective part, either actively or passively, in the general historic
movement.

Egypt, from 1500 to 1300 B.C., was the leading community of
the ancient werld. But civilization in Egypt, at an early date,
crystallized in an unchanging form. The aim was to preserve un-
altered what the past had brought out. The bandaged mummy,
the result of the effort to preserve even the material body of
man for all future time, is a type of the leaden conservatism which
pervaded Egyptian life. The pre-eminence of Egypt was lost
by the rise of the Semitic states. Semitic arms and culture were
in the ascendant for six centuries (1300 to 700 B.C.). Babylon,
the ancient Chaldcea, shares with Egypt the distinction of being
one of the two chief fountains of culture. From Babylon, as-
tronomy, writing, and other useful arts were disseminated among
the other Semitic peoples. It was a strong state as far back as
2000 B.C. Babylon was a hive of industry, and was active in
trade, a link of intercourse between the East and the West. But
this function of an intermediate was discharged still more effec-
tively by the Phoenicians, the first great commercial and naval
power of antiquity. Tyre reached the acme of its prosperity under
Hirattiy the contemporary of Solomon, about 1000 B.C. Meantime,
among the Hebrew people, the foundations of the true" religion
had been laid, — that religion of monotheism which in future ages
was to leaven the nations. Contemporaneously, the Assyrian
Monarchy was rising to importance on the banks of the Tigris.
The appearance, " in the first half of the ninth century B.C., of a
power advancing from the heart of Asia towards the West, is an
event of immeasurable importance in the history of the world."
The Israelites were divided. About the middle of the eighth
century B.C., both of their kingdoms lost their independence.
Assyria was vigorous in war, but had no deep foundation of national
life. " Its religion was not rooted in the soil, like that of Egypt,
nor based on the observation of the sky and stars, like that of
Babylon." "Its gods were gods of war, manifesting themselves
in the prowess of ruling princes." The main instrument in effect-
ing the downfall of Assyria was the Medo-Persian power. Through
the Medes and Persians, the Aryan race comes forward into con-
spicuity and control. One branch of the Iranians of Bactria,
entering India, through the agency of climate and other physicalTHE PERSIANS.

71

influences converted their religion into a mystical and speculative
pantheism, and their social organization into a caste-system under
the rule of a priesthood. The Medes and Persians, under other
circumstances, in contact with tribes about them, turned their
religion into a dualism, yet with a monotheistic drift that was not
wholly extinguished. The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus anni-
hilated Semitic power. The fall of Lydia, the conquest of Egypt
by Cambyses, and the victories of Darius, brought the world into
subjection to Persian rule.

The dates of some of the most important historical events in this Section are as follows : —

Menes, the first historic king of Egypt......about 3000 B.C.

Accession of Ramses II. to the Egyptian throne ... . . 1388 B.C.

Rise of the Chaldsean kingdom.......about 2500 B.C.

Reign of Hiram at Tyre, and of Solomon .... about 1000 B.C.

Assyrian captivity: downfall of Israel.......722 B.C.

Fall of Nineveh...........606 B.C.

Babylonian captivity: downfall of Judah * . . . . . 588 B.C.

Reign of Cyrus begins ......... 558 B.C.

Fail of Lydia: capture of Sardis....... • 549 B.C.

Fall of Babylon.......... . 538 B.C.

Reign of Darius begins..........521 B.C.

Beginnings of Civilization. — In the history of Western Asia,
we discern the beginnings of civilization and of the true religion.
In the room of useless and destructive tribal warfare, great num-
bers are banded together under despotic rule. Cities were built,
where property and life could be protected, and within whose
massive walls of vast circumference the useful arts and the rudi-
ments of science could spring up. Trade and commerce, by land
and sea, naturally followed. Thus nations came to know one
another. Aggressive war and subjugation had a part in the same
result. The power of the peoples of western Asia, the guardians
of infant civilization, availed to keep back the hordes of barbarians
on the north, or, as in the case of the great Scythian invasion
(p. 47), to drive them back to their own abodes.

Defects of Asiatic Civilization. — But the civilization of the
Asiatic empires had radical and fatal defects. The development
of human nature was in some one direction, to the exclusion of
other forms of human activity. As to knowledge, it was confined
within a limit beyond which progress was slow. The geometry of
Egypt and the astronomy of Babylon remained where the neces-
sity of the pyramid-builders and the superstition of the astrologers
had carried them. Even the art of war was in a rudimental stage.
In battle, huge multitudes were precipitated upon one another.
There are some evidences of strategy, when we reach the cam-
paigns of Cyrus. But war was full of barbarities, — the destruc-
tion of cities, the expatriation of masses of people, the pitiless
treatment of captives. Architecture exhibits magnitude without
elegance. Temples, palaces, and tombs are monuments of labor
rather than creations of art. They impress by their size, not by72

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

their beauty. Statuary is inert and massive, and appears insepa-
rable from the buildings to which it is attached. Literature, with
the exception of the Hebrew, is not less monotonous than art.
The religion of the Semitic nations, the Hebrews excepted, so far
from containing in it a purifying element, tended to degrade its
votaries by feeding the flame of sensual and revengeful passion.
What but debasement could come from the worship of Astarte and
Moloch ?

The great empires did not assimilate the nations which they
comprised. ' They were bound, but not in the least fused, together.
Persia went farther than any other empire in creating a uniform
administration, but even the Persian Empire remained a conglom-
erate of distinct peoples.

Oriental Government. — The government of the Oriental na-
tions was a despotism. It was not a government of laws, but the
will of the one master was omnipotent. The counterpart of tyr-
anny in the ruler was cringing, abject servility in the subject.
Humanity could not thrive, man could not grow to his full stature,
under such a system. It was on the soil of Europe and among
the Greeks that a better type of manhood and a true idea of lib-
erty were to spring up.The Figure* indicate average Altitude*

of Surface in English b'tet.Division II.

EUROPE.

Physical Geography. — The Alps, continued on the west by
the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountains, and carried eastward
to the Black Sea by the Balkan range, form an irregular line, that
separates the three peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and Greece from
the great plain of central Europe. On the north of this plain,
there is a corresponding system of peninsulas and islands, where
the Baltic answers in a measure to the Mediterranean. This
midland sea, which at once unites and separates the three conti-
nents, is connected with the Atlantic by the narrow Strait of Gib-
raltar, aid on the east is continued in the JEgean Sea, or the
Archipelago, which leads into the Hellespont, or the Strait of
the Dardanelles, thence onward into the Propontis, or Sea of Mar-
mora, and through the Bosphorus into the Black Sea, and the Sea
of AzofT beyond. From the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean the
Mediterranean is parted by a space which is now traversed by a
canal. The irregularity of the coast-line is one of the characteris-
tic features of the European continent. Especially are the north-
ern shores of the Mediterranean indented by arms of the sea;
and this, along with the numerous islands, marks out the whole
region as remarkably adapted to maritime life and commercial
intercourse.

Its Inhabitants. — Europe was early inhabited by branches of
the Aryan race. The cradle or primitive seat of the Aryan family
— from which its two main divisions, the European and the Asiatic,
went forth — is not known. It is a matter of theory and debate.
We find the Grceco-Latin peoples on the south, the more central
nations of Celtic speech, the more northern Teutons, and in the
north-east the Slavonians. But how all these Aryan branches are
mutually related, and of the order and path of their prehistoric
migrations, little is definitely known. The Celts were evidently
preceded by non-Aryan inhabitants, of whom the Basques in Spain
and France are a relic. The Celtiberians in Spain, as the name
implies, were a mixture of the Celts with the native non-Aryan
Iberians. The Greeks and the Italians had a common ancestry, as

n74	UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

we know by their languages; but of that common ancestry neither
Greeks nor Latins in the historic period retained any recollection;
nor can we safely affirm, that, of that earlier stock, they alone were
the offspring.

" All the known Indo-European languages/' writes Professor Whitney, " are descended
from a single dialect, which must have been spoken at some time in the past by a single limited
community, by the spread and emigration of which — not, certainly, without incorporating also
bodies of other • ~es than that to which itself belonged by origin — it has reached its present
wide distribution. "Of coursc, it would be a matter of the highest interest to determine the
place and period of this important community, were there any means of doing so; but that is
not the case, at least at present." " The condition of these languages is reconcilable with any
possible theory as to the original site of the family." " One point is established, that the sep-
aration of the five European branches must have been later than their common separation from
the two Asiatic branches,' the Iranians and Indians." (Whitney's The Life and Growth of
Language% pp. iqi, 193.)E

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46































































































































Section I.

GRECIAN HISTORY.

The Land. —" Greeks " is not a name which the people who
bore it applied to themselves. It was a name given them by their
kinsfolk, the Romans. They called themselves Hellenes, und
their land they called Hellas. Hellas, or Greece proper, included
the southern portion of the peninsula of which it is a part, the por-
tion bounded on the north by Olympus and the Cambunian Moun-
tains, and extending south to the Mediterranean. Its shores were
washed on the east by the JEgean, on the west by the Adriatic, or
Ionian Gulf. The length of Hellas was about two hundred and
fifty English miles: its greatest width, measured on the northern
frontier, or from Attica on a line westward, was about a hundred
and eighty miles. It is somewhat smaller than Portugal.

Along its coast are many deep bays. Long and narrow prom-
ontories run out into the sea. Thus a great length is given to the
sea-coast, which abounds in commodious harbors. The tideless
waters are safe for navigators. Scattered within easy distance of
the shore are numerous islands of great fertility and beauty. So
high and rugged are the mountains that communication between
different places is commonly easier by water than by land. A
branch of the Alps at the forty-second parallel of latitude turns to
the south-east, and descends to Tcenarum> the southern promon-
tory. On either side, lateral branches are sent off, at short inter-
vals, to the east and the west. From these in turn, branches,
especially on the east, are thrown out in the same direction as the
main ridge; that is, from north to south. Little room is left for
plains of much extent. Thessaly, with its single river, the Peneus>
was such a plain. There were no navigable rivers. Most of the
streams were nothing more than winter-torrents, whose beds were
nearly or quite dry in the summer. They often groped their way
to the sea through underground channels, either beneath lakes or
in passages which the streams themselves bored through limestone.
The physical features of the country fitted it for the development
of small states, distinct from one. another, yet, owing especially to
the relations of the land to the sea, full of life and movement.

7576

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

The Grecian States. — The territory of Greece included (i)
Northern Greece, comprising all north of the Malian (Zeitoum)
and Ambracian (Arta) gulfs; (2) Central Greece, extending thence
to the Gulf of Corinth; (3) the peninsula of Peloponnesus
(Morea) to the south of the isthmus. The country was occupied,
in the flourishing days of Greece, by not less than seventeen
states.

Northern Greece contained two principal countries, Thessaly and Epirns,
separated from one another by the Pindus. Thessaly was the largest and
most fertile of the Grecian states. The Peneus, into which poured the
mountain streams, passed to the sea through a narrow gorge, the famous
Vale of Tempe. In the mountainous region of Epirus were numerous
streams flowing through the valleys. Within it was the ancient Dodotta, the
seat of. the oracle. Magnesia, east of Thessaly, on the coast, comprised
within it the two ranges of Ossa and Pelioti. Central Greece contained eleven
states. Malis had on its eastern edge the pass of Thermopyla. In Phoc is,
on the southern slope of Mount Parnassus, was Delphi. Bceotia was dis-
tinguished for the number and size of its cities, the chief of which was Thebes.
Attica projected from Boeotia to the south-east, its length being seventy miles,
and its greatest width thirty miles. Its area was only about seven hun-
dred and twenty square miles. It was thus only a little more than half as
large as the State of Rhode Island, which has an area of thirteen hundred
and six square miles. Its only important town was Athens. Its rivers, the
Ilissus and the two Cephissusses, were nothing more than torrent courses.
In Southern Greece were eleven countries. The territory of Corinth embraced
most of the isthmus, and a large tract in Peloponnesus. It had but one
considerable city, Corinth, which had two ports, — one on the Corinthian
Gulf, Lechceum, and the other on the Saronic Gulf, Cenchrece. Arcadia,
the central mountain country, has been called the Switzerland of Pelopon-
nesus. It comprised numerous important towns, as Matitinea% Orchomenus,
and, in later times, Megalopolis. In the south-east was Laconia, with an area
of about nineteen hundred square miles. It consisted mainly of the valley
of the Eurotasy which lay between the lofty mountain ranges of Parnon and
Taygetus. " Hollow Lacedsemon " was a phrase descriptive of its situation.
Sparta> the capital, was on the Eurotas, twenty miles from the sea. It had
no other important city. Argolis, projecting into the sea, eastward of Arca-
dia, had within it the ancient towns oi Mycena and Argos.

The Islands.—It must be remembered that the waters between
Europe and Asia were not a separating barrier, but a close bond
of connection. There is scarcely a single point " where, in clear
weather, a mariner would feel himself left in a solitude between
sky and water; the eye reaches from island to island, and easy
voyages of a day lead from bay to bay." Greek towns, including
very ancient places, were scattered along the western coast of Asia
Minor, between the mountains and the shore. The ^Egean was
studded with Greek islands. These, together with the islands in
the Ionian Sea, on the west, formed a part of Greek territory.

The principal island near Greece was Eubara, stretching for a hundred
miles along the east coast- of Attica, Bceotia, and Locris. On the opposite
side of the peninsula, west of Epirus, was the smaller but yet large island
of Corcyra (Corfu). On the west, besides, were Ithaca, Cephallenia, and
Zacynthus (Zante); on the south, the (Enussce Islands and Cythera; on the,thrill*

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77

east, sEgina, Salamis, etc. From the south-eastern shores of Euboea and
Attica, the Cyclades and Sporades extended in a continuous series, "like
a set of stepping-stones," across the ifcgean Sea to Asia Minor. From
Corcvra and the Acroceraunian promontory, one could descry, in clear
weather, the Italian coast. These were all littoral islands. - Besides these,
there were other islands in the northern and central iftgean, such as Lem-
nos, Samothracey Delos, Naxos% etc.; and in the southern /Egean, Crete, an
island mountainous but fertile, a hundred and fifty miles in length from east
to west, and about fifteen in breadth, and containing more than two thou-
sand square miles. The Greek race was still more widely diffused through
the settlements in and about the western Mediterranean.

The Bond of Race. — The Greeks, or Hellenes, were not so
much a nation as a united race. Politically divided, they were
conscious of a fraternal bond that connected them, wherever they
might be found, and parted them from the rest of mankind.
Their sense of brotherhood is implied in the fabulous belief in a
common ancestor named Hellen. Together with a fellowship in
bloody there was a community in language, notwithstanding minor
differences in dialect. Moreover, there was a common religion.
They worshiped the same gods. They had the same ritual, and
cherished in common the same beliefs respecting things supernat-
ural. In connection with these ties of blood, of language, and of
religion, they celebrated together great national festivals, like the
Olympic games, in which Greeks from all parts of the world might
take part, and into which they entered with a peculiar enthusiasm.
As the Jews, following the impulses of a holier faith, went up to
Jerusalem to celebrate as one family their sacred rites; so the
Greeks repaired to hallowed shrines of Zeus or Apollo, assembling
from afar on the plain of Olympia and at the foot of Parnassus.'

divisions of greek history.

Greek history embraces three general periods. The first is the
formative period, and extends to the Persian wars, 500 B.C. The
second period covers the flourishing era of Greece, from 500 B.C.
t0 359 B.CI. The third is the Macedonian period, when the
freedom of Greece was lost, — the era of Philip and Alexander,
and of Alexander's successors.

Period I. is divided into (1) the mythical or prehistoric age,
extending to 776 B.C.; (2) the age of the formation of the prin-
cipal states. Period II. includes (1) the Persian wars, 502-479
B.C.; (2) the period of Athenian supremacy, 478-431 B.C.; (3)
the Peloponnesian war, 431-404 B.C., with the Spartan, followed
by the Theban ascendency, 404-362 B.C. Period III. includes
(1) the reigns of Philip and Alexander, 359-323 B.C.; (2) the
kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander was divided.Period I.

GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS.

chapter i.

THE PREHISTORIC AGE.

Origin of the Greeks. — Before the Hellenes parted from their
Aryan ancestry, they had words for "father,"-"mother," "broth-
er," "son," and "daughter," as well as for certain connections
by marriage. They lived in houses, pastured flocks and herds,
possessed dogs and horses. They had for weapons, the sworcl
and the bow. "They knew how to work gold, silver, and copper;
they could count up to a hundred; they reckoned time by the
lunar month; they spoke of the sky as the ' heaven-father.'" The
differences between the Greek and the Latin languages prove, also,
that the Greeks and Italians, after their common progenitors broke
off from the primitive Aryan stock, had long dwelt apart. The
Greeks, when they first become known to us in historical times,
consist of two great branches, the Dorians and lonians, together
with a less distinct branch, the /Eolians, which differs less, per-
haps, from the parent Hellenes than do the two divisions just
named.

It is a probable opinion of scholars, that the halting-place of the
Hellenes, whence, in successive waves, they passed over into Greece,
was Phrygia, in the north-west of Asia Minor. Preceding the
Greeks both in northern Greece and in Peloponnesus, and spread
over the coasts and islands of the Archipelago, was a people of
whom they had an indistinct knowledge, whom they called Pelas-
gians. They were husbandmen or herdsmen. Their national
sanctuary was at Dodonay in Epirus. The "Cyclopean" ruins,
composed of huge polygonal blocks of stone, which they left
behind in various places, are the remnant of their walls and fortifi-
cations. The Greeks looked back on these Pelasgian predecessors
as different from themselves. Yet no reminiscences existed of
any hostility towards them. It is plausibly conjectured that this
prehistoric people were emigrants from the region of Phrygia at a
more ancient date, and that the Hellenes, a more energetic and
gifted branch of the same stock, followed them, and, without force
73GRECIAN HISTORY.

79

or conflict, became the founders and leaders of a Hew historic
movement, in which the Pelasgians disappeared from view. In
this second migration, the ancestors of the Ionians went down
from Phrygia to the coast of Asia Minor, and began the career
which made them a maritime and commercial people. The Do-
rians crossed over to the highlands of northern Greece, where
they became hardy mountaineers, not addicted to the sea. The
one tribe were to be eventually the founders of Athens ; the other,
of Sparta. Besides these two main tribes, the <Holians occupied
Thessaly, Bccotia, -/Etolia, and other districts. To them the
Achceans, who were supreme in Peloponnesus in the days of
Homer, were allied.

Foreign Influences. — Besides Phrygia, the legends of the Greeks
bear traces of a foreign influence from Phoenicia and Egypt The
Phoenicians were unquestionably early connected with the Greeks,
first by commercial visits to Greek ]>orts, to which' they brought
foreign merchandise. The story of Cadmus, who is said to have
founded Thebes, and to have brought in the Phoenician alphabet, is
fabulous. But it is probable, that, as early as the close of the ninth
century B.C., the alphabet was introduced by Phoenicians, and dif-
fused over Greece. Another legend is that of Cecrops, conceived
of later as an Egyptian, who is said to have built a citadel at Ath-
ens, and to have imported the seeds of civilization and religion.
Danaus, another emigrant from Egypt, coming with his fifty
daughters, is said to have built the citadel of Argos. In the later
times, the Greeks were fond pf tracing their knowledge of the
arts to Egyptian sources. It is remarkable that the agents by
whom germs of civilization were said to have been imported from
abroad, though foreign, are nevertheless depicted as thoroughly
Greek in their character. Whatever the Greeks may have owed to.
Egypt, it is probable was mainly derived from Ionians who had
previously planted themselves in that country.

The Dorian Emigration.—It was in the prehistoric time that
the Dorians left their homes in northern Greece, and migrated into
Peloponnesus, where they proved themselves stronger than the
Ionians and the Achreans dwelling there. They left the Achseans
on the south coast of the Corinthian Gulf, in the district called
Achaia. Nor did they conquer Arcadia. But of most of Pelopon-
nesus they became masters. This is the portion of historic truth
contained in the myth of the Return of the Heraclidce, the de-
scendants of Hercules, to the old kingdom of their ancestor.

Migrations to Asia Minor. — The Dorian conquest is said to
have been the cause of three distinct migrations to Asia Minor.
The Achseans, with their >Eolic kinsmen on the north, established
themselves on the north-west coast of Asia Minor, Lesbos and Cyme
being their strongholds, and by degrees got control in Mysia andSo

ANCIENT HISTORY.

the Troad\ Ionic emigrants from Attica joined their brethren on
the same coast. The Dorians settled on the south-west coast;
they also settled Cos and Rhodes, and at length subdued Crete.
The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, and the migrations just
spoken of, were slow in their progress, and possibly stretched over
centuries.

Character of the Greeks. — Originality is a distinguishing trait
of the Greeks. Whatever they borrowed from others they made
their own, and reproduced in a form peculiar to themselves. They
were never servile copyists. All the products of the Greek mind,
whether in government, art, literature, or in whatever province of
human activity, wear a peculiar stamp. When we leave Asiatic
ground, and come into contact with the Greeks, we find ourselves
in another atmosphere. A spirit of humanity, in the broad sense
of the term, pervades their life. A regard for reason, a sense of
order, a disposition to keep every thing within measure, is a marked
characteristic. Their sense of form — including a perception of
beauty, and of harmony and proportion — made them in politics
and letters the leaders of mankind. " Do nothing in excess," was
their favorite maxim. They hated every thing that was out of
proportion. Their language, without a rival in flexibility and sym-
metry and in perfection of sound, is itself, though a spontaneous
creation, a work of art. " The whole language resembles the body
of an artistically trained athlete, in which every muscle, every
sinew, is developed into full play, where there is no trace of tumid-
ity or of inert matter, and all is power and life." The great variety
of the spiritual gifts of this people, the severest formulas of science,
the loftiest flights of imagination, the keenest play of wit and
humor, were capable of precise and effective expression in this
language u as in ductile play." The use of the language, so lucid
and so nice in its discriminations, was itself an education for the
young who grew up to hear it and to speak it. In a genial yet
invigorating climate, in a land where breezes from the mountain
and the sea were mingled, the versatile Greeks produced by phys-
ical training that vigor and grace of body which they so much
admired; and they developed the civil polity, the artistic discern-
ment, and the complex social life, which made them the principal
source of modern culture. Their moral traits are not so admirable.
As a race they were less truthful, and less marked for their courage
and loyalty, than some other peoples below them in intellect.

Religion.—In the early days, when Greece was open to foreign
influences, the simple religion of the Aryan fathers was enlarged by
new elements from abroad. The Tyrian deity, Melkarth, appears at
Corinth as Melicertes. Astarte becomes Aphrodite (Venus), who
springs from "the sea. The lnyth of Dionysus and the worship of
Demeter (Ceres) may be of foreign origin* Poseidon (Neptune),GRECIAN HISTORY.	81

the god of the sea, and Apollo, the god of light and of healing,
whose worship carried in it cheer and comfort, though they were
brought into Greece, were previously known to the Ionians. By
Homer and Hesiody the great poets of the prehistoric age, the
gods in these successive dynasties, their offices and mutual rela-
tions, were depicted. In Hesiod they stand in a connected
scheme or theogony.

i. There are the twelve great gods and goddesses of Olympus, who were named by the
Greeks,— Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Ares, Hephaestos, HermSs, H8re, Athen*, Artemis, Aphrodite,
Hestia, Demeter. 2. Numerous other divinities, not included among the Olympic, but some
not less important than the twelve. Such are Hades, Helios, Dionysus, the Charites, the
Muses, the Nereids, the Nymphs, etc. 3. Deities who perform special service to the greater
pods, — Iris, H6be, the Horse, etc. 4. Deities whose personality is less distinct, — Ate, Eris,
l'hanatos, Hypnos, etc. 5. Monsters, progeny of the gods, — the Harpies, the Gorgons, Pega-
sus, Chimaera, Cerberus, Scylla and Cnarybdis, the Centaurs, the Sphinx. Below the gods
are the demigods or heroes.

Legends of Heroes.—The space which precedes the beginning
of authentic records, the Greeks filled up with mythical tales, in
which gods and heroes are the central figures. The heroes are
partly of divine parentage. They are in near intercourse with the
deities. Their deeds are superhuman, and embody those ideals of
character and of achievement which the early Greeks cherished.
The production of a lively imagination, before the dawn of the critical
faculty or the growth of reflection, these tales may yet include a
nucleus of historical incident or vague reminiscences of historical re-
lations and changes. To attempt to extract these from the fictitious-
form in which they are embodied, is for the most part hopeless. .

The exploits of Heracles (Hercules) have a prominent place in the legends.
This hero of Argos submitted to serve a cruel tyrant, but, by prodigious
labors (twelve in number), delivered men from dangerous beasts, — the Ler-
naean hydra, the Nemean lion, etc.,—and performed other miraculous services.
Theseus, the national hero of Attica, cleared the roads of savage robbers,
and delivered his country from bondage. Minosy the mythical legislator of
Crete, cleared the sea of pirates, and founded a maritime state. Of the
legendary stories, three of the most famous are The Seven against Thebes;
The A rgonautic Expedition, and The Trojan IVar. 1. Lai us, king of Thebes,
was told by an oracle that he should be killed by his son. He exposed him,
therefore, as soon as he was born, on Mount Cithaeron. Saved by a herds-
man, (Edipus was brought up by Polybus, king of Corinth, as his own son;
Warned by the oracle that he should kill his father, and marry his mother,
the son forsook Corinth, and made his abode at Thebes. Meeting Laius in
a narrow pass, and provoked by his attendants, he slew them and him. At
Thebes there was a female monster, the Sphinxf who propounded a riddle,
and each day devoured a man until it should be solved. (Edipus won the
rize which the Queen Jocaste had offered; namely, the crown and her owp
a"nd to whomsoever should free the city. When his two sons and daughters
had grown up, a pestilence broke out; and the oracle demanded that the
murderer of Laius should be banished. (Edipus, in spite of the warnings'
of the blind priest, Tiresias, finds out the truth. He puts out his eyes, and
is driven into exile by his sons, whom he curses. Under the guidance of his*
daughter Antigone% he finds a resting-place at Colonusy a suburb of Athens, in
a grove of the Etimenides, whose function it was to avenge such crimes as his;
He received expiation at the hands of	and died in a calm and peace-

ful way. This legend was the basis of some of the finest of the Greek dramas.82	ANCIENT HISTORY.

"CEdipus Tyrannus," and the "(Edipus at Colonus" of Sophocles, and "The
Seven against Thebes" of AZschylus. The curse of (Edipus still rested on
his sons. The story of Antigone, defying the tyrant Creon, and burying her
slain brother, Polynices, is the foundation of the drama of Sophocles', bearing
her name. Finally, the Epigotii, descendants of the Seven who had fought
Thebes, captured and destroyed that city.

2.	The Argonauts were described as a band of heroes, who, through peril-
ous and unknown seas, sailed from Iolcos in Thessaly, in the ship " Argo,"
to Colchis, whence they brought away the golden fleece which had been
stolen, and which they found nailed to an oak, and guarded by a sleepless
dragon. Jason, the leader, was accompanied on his return by the enchant-
ress, Medea, who had aided him. She, in order to delay their pursuers,
killed her brother Absyrtus, and threw his body, piece by piece, into the sea.
Her subsequent story involves various other tragic events.

3.	The most noted of the legends is the story of the Trojan war. The
deeds of the heroes of this war are the subject of the Iliad. Paris, son
of Priam, king of Ilios (Troy), in Asia Minor, carried off Helen, the wife of
Menelaus, king of Sparta. To recover her, the Greeks united in an expedi-
tion against Troy, which they took after a siege of ten years. Agamemnon,
Achilles, Odysseus (Ulysses), Ajax son of Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus,
Diomedes, and Nestor were among the chiefs on the Greek side. Troy had
its allies. The "Odyssey" relates to the long journey of Odysseus on his
return to Ithaca, his nome. That there was an ancient city, Troy, is certain.
A conflict between the Greeks and a kindred people there, is probable. Not
unlikely, there was a military expedition of Grecian tribes. Every thing
beyond this is either plainly myth, or incapable of verification.

Unions of Tribes. — During the period when the Greek popu-
lation was dispersing itself in the districts which its different frac-
tions occupied in the historic ages, there arose unions among tribes
near one another, for religious purposes. They preceded treaties
and alliances of the ordinary kind. Such tribes agreed to celebrate,
in common, certain solemn festivals. Deputies of these tribes met
at stated intervals to look after the temple and the lands pertaining
to it. Out of these unions, there grew stipulations relative to the
mode of conducting war and other matters of common interest.
Treaties of peace and of mutual defense might follow. Thus
arose combinations of states, in which one state, the strongest,
would have the hegemony, or lead. This became an established
characteristic of Greek political life. It was a system of federal
unions under the headship of the most powerful member of the
confederacy. When such a union was formed, it established a
common worship or festival.

The Delphio Amphictyony.—In the north of Greece, there
was formed, in early times, a great religious union. It was com-
posed of twelve tribes banded together for the worship of Apollo
at Delphi, and to guard his temple. It was called the Delphic
Amphictyony, or " League of Neighbors." The members of this
body agreed not to destroy one another's towns in war, and not to
cut off running water from a town which they were besieging.

The Delphio Oracle. — The sanctuary at Delphi, where the
Amphictyonic Council met, became the most famous temple inGRECIAN HISTORY.

83

Greece. Here the oracle of Apollo gave answers to those who
came to consult that divinity. The priests who managed the tem-
ple kept themselves well informed in regard to occurrences in dis-
tant places. Their answers were often discreet and wholesome,
but not unfrequently obscure and ambiguous, and thus misleading.
In early times their moral influence in the nation promoted justice
and fraternal feeling. In later times they lost their reputation for
honesty and impartiality. In civil wars the priests were some-
times bribed to support one of the contending parties.

The Homeric Poems. — Within the last century, there has been
much discussion about the authorship of the two poems, the Iliad
and the Odyssey. The place where they were composed, whether
among the Ionians in Greece proper or in Asia Minor, is still a
matter of debate. It was probably Asia Minor. Seven places
contended for the honor of having given birth to the blind bard.
Smyrna, and, next to Smyrna, Chios, presents the strongest claim.
It is doubtful whether the art of writing was much, if at all, in use
among the Greeks at the time of the composition of the Iliad and
Odyssey. We know that the custom existed of repeating poems
orally by minstrels or rhapsodists at popular festivals. This may
have been the mode in which for a time the Homeric poems
were preserved and transmitted. The Odyssey has more unity
than the Iliad, and seems to be of a somewhat later date. The
nucleus of the Iliad is thought by some scholars to be embedded
in the group of poems which, it is supposed, constitute the work
at present; and that primitive portion, 44 The Wrath of Achilles,"
is thought to have been the work of Homer. Whatever may be
the truth on these questions, the Iliad and Odyssey present an
invaluable picture of Greek life in the period when they were com-
posed, which was probably as early as 900 B.C.

Social Life in the Homeric Age.— (1) Government* In the
Homeric portraiture of Greek life, there are towns; but the tribe
is predominant over the town. The tribe is ruled by a king, who
is not like an Eastern despoty but has about him a council of
chiefs, and is bounid by the themisies, the traditional customs.
There is, besides, the agora, of popular assembly, where debates
take place among the chiefs, and to which their decisions, or rather
the decision of the king, on whom it devolves finally to deter-
mine every thing, are communicated. Public speaking, it is seen,
is practiced in the infancy of Greek society. (2) Customs. People
live in hill-villages, surrounded by walls. Life is patriarchal, and,
as regards the domestic circle, humane. Polygamy, the plague of
Oriental society, does not exist. Women are held in high regard.
Slavery is everywhere established. Side by side with piracy and
constant war, and the supreme honor given to military prowess,
there is a fine aud bountiful hospitality which is held to be a reli-84	ANCIENT HISTORY.

gious duty. In the Homeric poems, there is often exhibited a
noble refinement of thought and sentiment, and a gentle courtesy.
(3) Arts and Industry. In war, the chariot is the engine : cav-
alry are unknown. The useful arts are in a rudimental stage.
Spinning and weaving are the constant occupation of women.
All garments are made at home: noble women join with their
slaves in washing them in the river. The condition of the common
freeman who took one temporary job after another, was miserable.
Of the condition of those who pursued special occupations,—as
the carpenter, the leather-dresser, the fisherman, etc., — we have no
adequate information. The principal metals were in use, and the
art of forging them. There was no coined money : payment was
made in oxen. But there is hereditary individual property in land,
cultivated, vineyards, temples of the gods, and splendid palaces of
the chiefs. (4) Geographical Knowledge. In Homer, there is a
knowledge of Greece, of the neighboring islands, and western Asia
Minor. References to other lands are vague. The earth is a sort
of flat oval, with the River Oceanus flowing round it. Hesiod is
better informed about places: he knows something of the Nile
and of the Scythians, and of some places as far west as Syracuse.

Religion in the Homeric Age. — The Homeric poems give us a full
idea of the early religious ideas and practices. (1) The Nature of the
Gods.— The gods in Homer are human beings with greatly magnified powers.
Their dwelling is in the sky above us: their special abode is Mount Olym-
pus. They experience hunger, but feed on ambrosia and nectar. They
travel with miraculous speed. Their prime blessing is exemption from
mortality. Among themselves they are often discordant and deceitful. (2)
Relation of the Gods to Men. They are the rulers and guides of nations.
Though they act often from mere caprice or favoritism, their sway is, 011 the
whole, promotive of justice. Zeus is supreme: none can contend with him
successfully. The gods hold communication with men. They also make
known their will ana intentions by signs and portents, — such as thunder and
lightning, or the sudden passing of a great bird of prey. They teach men
through dreams. (3) Service of the Gods Sacrifice and supplication are the
chief forms of devotion. There is 110 dominant hierarchy. The temple has
its priest, but the father is priest in his own household. (4) Morals and
Religion. Morality is interwoven with religion Above all, oaths are sacred,
and oath-breakers abhorred by gods as well as by men. In the conduct of
the divinities, there are found abundant examples of unbridled anger and
savage retaliation. Yet gentle sentiments, counsels to forbearance and
mercy, are not wanting. The wrath of the gods is most provoked by lawless
self-assertion and insolence. (5) Propitiation: the Dead. The sense of sin
leads to the appeasing of the deities by offerings, attended with prayer. The
offerinjgs are gifts to the god, tokens ot the honor due to him. The dead live
as flitting shadows in Hades. Achilles is made to say that he would rather
be miserable laborer on earth than to reign over all the dead in the abodes
below.

Greek Literature. — The chief types, both of poetry and of
prose, originated with the Greeks. Their writings are the foun-
tain-head of the literature of Europe. They prized simplicity:
they always had an intense disrelish for obscurity and bombast.GRECIAN HISTORY.

85

The earliest poetry of the Greeks consisted of hymns to the gods.
It was lyrical\ an outpouring of personal feeling. The lyrical type
was followed by the epic, where heroic deeds, or other events of
thrilling interest, are the theme of song, and the personal emotion
of the bard is out of sight through his absorption in the subject.
Description flows on, the narrator himself being in the background.
This epic poetry culminates in the Iliad and Odyssey (940-850
B.C.). Their verse is the hexameter. These poems move on in
a swift current, yet without abruptness or monotony. They are
marked by a simplicity and a nobleness, a refinement and a pathos,
which have charmed all subsequent ages. Homer, far more than
any other author, was the educator of the Greeks. There was a
class called Homerida, in Chios; but whether they were them-
selves poets, or reciters of Homer, or what else may have been
their peculiar work, is not ascertained. There was, however, a
class of Cyclic poets, who took up the legends of Troy, and
carried out farther the Homeric tales. Hesiod was the founder
of a more didactic sort of poetry. He is about a century later
than the Iliad. Besides the Theogony\ which treats of the origin
of the gods and of nature, his Works and Days relates to the
works which a farmer has to do, and the lucky or unlucky days for
doing them. It contains doctrines and precepts relative to agri-
culture, navigation, civil and family life. Hesiod was the first of a
Boeotian school of poets. He lacks the poetic genius of Homer,
and the vivacity and cheerfulness which pervade the Iliad and the

CHAPTER II.

THE FORMATION OP THE PRINCIPAL STATES.

Aristocratic Government. — The early kings were obeyed as
much for their personal. qualities, such as-valor and strength of
body, as for their hereditary title. By degrees the noble families
about the king took control, and the kingship thus, gave way to
the rule of an aristocracy. The priestly office, which required
special knowledge, remained in particular families, as the Eumol-
pidce at Athens, — families to whom was ascribed the gift of
the seer, and to whom were known the Eleusinian mysteries.
The nobles were landholders, with dependent farmers who paid
rent. The nobles held sway over tillers of the soil, artisans and
seamen, who constituted the people (the "demos"),and who had
no share in political power. This state of things continued until
the lower class gained more property and more knowledge; and
the example of the colonial settlements, where there was greater

Udyssey.86

ANCIENT HISTORY,

equality, re-acted on the parent state, The struggle of the lower
ranks for freedom was of long continuance. In all Greek cities,
there were Metceci, or resident foreigners without political rights,
and also slaves from abroad. Free-born Greeks busied them-
selves with occupations connected with the fine arts, or with trade
and commerce on an extended scale. They commonly eschewed
all other employments, and especially menial labor.

The Constitution of Lycurgus.— According to the tradition,
disorders in Sparta following the Dorian conquest, and strife be-
tween the victors and the conquered, moved Lycurgus, a man of
regal descent, to retire to Crete, where the old Dorian customs were
still observed. On his return he gave to the citizens a constitution,
which was held in reverence by the generations after him. To him,
also, laws and customs which were really of later date, came to be
ascribed. The Spartan population consisted (i) of the Spartiata,
who had full rights, and those of less means, — both comprising the
Dorian conquerors. They were divided into three Phyla, or tribes,
each composed of ten divisions ( Obce) ; (2) the Periceci, Achaeans
who paid tribute on the land which they held, were bound to mili-
tary service, but had no political rights; (3) the Helots, serfs of the
State, who were divided among the Spartiatae by lot, and cultivated
their lands, paying to them a certain fraction of the harvest. The
form of government established by Lycurgus was an aristocratic
republic. The Council of Elders, twenty-eight in number, chosen
for life by the Phylse, were presided over by two hereditary kings,
who had little power, in time of peace, but unlimited command
of the forces in war. The popular assembly, composed of all
Spartiatae of thirty years of age or upwards, could only decide
questions without debate. Five Ephors, chosen yearly by the
Phylae, acquired more and more authority. Lycurgus is said to
have divided the land into nine thousand equal lots for the fami-
lies of the Spartiatae, and thirty thousand for the Perioeci. To
keep down the helots required constant vigilance, and often occa-
sioned measures of extreme cruelty. The Crypteia was an organ-
ized guard of young Spartans, whose business it was to prevent
insurrection.

Laws and Customs.—The Spartan state was thus aristocratic
and military. It took into its own hands the education of the
young. Weak and deformed children were left to perish in a
ravine of Taygetus, or thrust down among the Perioeci. Healthy
children at the age of seven were taken from their homes, to be
reared under the supervision of the State. They had some literary
instruction, but their chief training was in gymnastics. They were
exercised in hunting and in drills; took their meals together in the
syssitia (the public mess), where the fare was rough and scanty;
slept in dormitories together; and by every means were disciplinedGRECIAN HISTORY.

87

for a soldier's life. The Spartan men likewise fed at public tables,
and slept in barracks, only making occasional visits to their own
houses. No money was in circulation except iron: no one was
permitted to possess gold or silver. Girls were separately drilled
in gymnastic exercises, and made to be as hardy as boys. Mar-
riage was regulated by the State. There was more purity, and
women had a higher standing, in Sparta than in other parts of
Greece. The strength of the Spartan army was in the hoplites,
or heavy-armed infantry. In battle, messmates stood together.
Cowardice was treated with the utmost contempt. The rigorous
subordination of the young to their elders was maintained in war
as in peace. The tradition was, that after this constitution of
Lycurgus had been approved by the Delphian oracle, he made the'
citizens swear to observe it until he should return from a projected
journey. He then went to Crete, and staid there until his death.

Hegemony of Sparta. — Having thus organized the body politic,
Sparta took the steps which gave it the hegemony in Peloponnesus
and over all Greece. First, it conquered the neighboring state of
Messenia in two great wars, the first lasting from 743-724 B.C., and
the second from 685-668 B.C. In the first of these wars, the Mes-
senians submitted to become tributary to Sparta, after their citadel,
Jthome, had been captured, and their defeated hero, Aristodemus,
had slain himself. Many of the vanquished Messenians escaped
from their country to Arcadia and Argolis. Some of them fled
farther, and founded Rhegium in Lower Italy. In the second war,
the Messenians revolted against the tyrannical rule of Sparta, and
at first, under Aristomenes, were successful, but were afterwards
defeated by the Spartans, who were inspirited for the conflict by
the war-songs of the Athenian poet, Tyrtceus. Aristomenes fled to
Rhodes. Most of his people were made helots. The Arcadians,
after long resistance, succumbed, and came under the Spartan
hegemony (about 600 B.C.). Argos, too, was obliged to renounce
its claim to this position in favor of its Spartan antagonist, after its
defeat by Cleomenes,l\\Q Lacedaemonian king,at Thyrea(549 B.C.).
The Argive League was dissolved, and Sparta gained the right to
command in every war that should be waged in common by the
Peloponnesian states, the right, also, to determine the contingent
of troops which each should furnish, and to preside in the council
of the confederacy. She now began to spread her power beyond
Peloponnesus, entered into negotiations with Lydia (555 B.C.),
and actually sent an expedition to the coast of Asia (525 B.C.).
Moreover as early as 510 B.C., by interfering in the affairs of the
states north of the Corinthian isthmus, and with Attica in particular,
she sowed among the Athenians the seeds of a lasting enmity.

Government in Athens : Draco. — According to the tradition,
Codrus, who died about 1068 B.C., was the last of the Athenian88.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

kings. The Eupatrids, the noble families, abolished monarchy,
and substituted for the king an Archon, chosen for life by them
out of the family of Codrus. The Eupatrids stood in a sort of
patriarchal relation to the common people. The inhabitants were
divided into four tribes. These were subdivided, first into Brother-
hoods and Clans, and secondly, into classes based on consan-
guinity, and classes arranged for taxation, military service, etc.
The entire community comprised the Nobles, — in whose hands the
political power was lodged, — the Farmers, and the Artisans. The
farmers and the artisans might gather in the Agora, and express
assent to public measures, or dissent. In process of time the
archons came to be chosen not from the family of Codrus ex-
clusively, but from the Eupatrids generally. From 682 B.C. they
were nine in number, and they served but for one year. The
oppression of the nobles provoked the demand, by the Athenian
people, for a body of written laws. The archon Draco, about 629
B.C., in compliance with this demand, framed a code so rigorous
that the word " draconian " came to mean harsh and rigid. It was
said of his laws that they were written in blood. The death penalty
was imposed for numerous minor offenses. The avarice of the
nobles, and their hard treatment of debtors, many of whom were
deprived of their liberty, stirred up insurrection and conflict be-
tween the people and their masters. A rebellion, led by Cy/on,
one of the Eupatrids, was put down, and punished by means involv-
ing treachery and sacrilege. The insurgents were slain clinging
to the altars of the gods, where they had taken refuge. This was
the occasion (594 B.C.) of the introduction of the constitution of
Solon, one of " the seven wise men of Greece." He had acquired
popularity by recovering Salamis from the Megarians, and in a
sacred war against towns which had robbed the temple of Apollo
at Delphi.

Legislation of Solon.—The design of Solon was to substitute
a better system for the tyrannical oligarchy, but, at the same
time, to keep power mainly in the hands of the upper class. He
divided the people into four classes, according to the amount of
their income. To the richest of these the archonship, and ad-
mission into the Areopagus, were confined. A new council was
established, which had the right to initiate legislation, composed of
one hundred from each of the four old tribes, and annually elected
by the body of the citizens. The Ecclesia, or assembly of the whole
people, having the right to choose the archons and councilors,
was revived. Courts of Appeal\ with jury trials, were instituted.
The old council of the Areopagus was clothed with high judicial
and executive powers. There were laws to relieve a portion of the
debtors from their burdens, and to abolish servitude for debt.
Every father, was required to teach his son a handicraft.	,GRECIAN HISTORY.

89

- Parties in Athens. — The legislation of Solon was a measure of
compromise. It satisfied neither party. After journeys abroad,
he passed his old age in Athens, and was a spectator of the rising
contests between the discordant factions, which his constitution
was only able for a time to curb. There were three parties, — a
re-actionary party under Lycurgus, a progressive party led by Pisis-
/ralus, and a moderate or middle party under Megacles.
• The Tyrants. — At this time, in almost all of the Grecian states,
monarchy had given place to aristocracy. The reign of an oli-
garchy, the unbridled sway of a few, was commonly the next step.
Against this the people in different states,—the demos, — rose in re-
volt. The popular leader, or " demagogue," was some conspicuous
and wealthy noble, who thus acquired supreme authority. In this
way, in the seventh and sixth centuries, most of the states were
ruled by " tyrants," — a term signifying absolute rulers, whether
their administration was unjust and cruel, or fair and mild. They
endeavored to fortify their rule by collecting poets, artists, and
musicians about them, for their own pleasure and for the diversion
of the populace. Occasionally they gave the people employment
in the erection of costly buildings. They formed alliances with
one another and with foreign kings. Not unfrequently they prac-
ticed violence and extortion. The oligarchies sought to dethrone
them. Their overthrow often had for its result the introduction
of popular sovereignty. Among the most noted tyrants were Peri-
ander of Corinth (655-625 B.C.), Pittacus in Lesbos (589-579
B.C.), and Polycrates in Samos (535-522 B.C.).

The Pisistratids. —The government of Athens, framed by Solon,
was in effect a " timocracy," or rule of the rich. At the head of
the popular party stood Pisistratus, a rich nobleman of high de-
scent. He succeeded, by means of his armed guard, in making
himself master of the citadel. Twice driven out of the city, he
at length returned (538 B.C.), and gained permanent control by
force of arms. He managed his government with shrewdness and
energy. Industry and trade flourished. He decorated Athens
with buildings and statues. Religious festivals he caused to be
celebrated with splendor. He ruled under the legal forms by
having archons chosen to suit him. He died 527 B.C. Hippias,
his son, governed with mildness until his younger brother and
colleague in power, Ilipparchus, was slain by the two friends,
JIarmodius and Aristogiton. Then he gave the rein to revenge-
ful passion, and laid upon the people burdensome taxes. Hippias
was driven out of the city by the Alctnceonidce and other exiled
nobles, assisted by the Spartan king, Cleotnenes (510 B.C.). He
fled to Asia Minor in order to secure Persian help.
, The Athenian Democracy. —- Clis/henes, a brilliant man, the
head of the Alcmczonid family, connected himself with the popular90	ANCIENT HISTORY.

party, and introduced such changes in the constitution as to render
him the founder of the Athenian Democracy. The power of the
archons was reduced. All of the free inhabitants of Attica were
admitted to citizenship. New tribes, ten in number, each com-
prising ten denies, or hamlets, with their adjacent districts, super-
seded the old tribes. A council of five hundred, fifty from each
tribe, supplanted Solon's council of four hundred. The courts
of law were newly organized. The Ostracism was introduced;
that is, the prerogative of the popular assembly to decree by secret
ballot, without trial, the banishment of a person who should be
deemed to be dangerous to the public weal. Certain officers were
designated by lot. Ten Stratcgi, one from each tribe, by turns,
took the place of the archon polemarchus in command of the
army.

Effect of Democracy. — Under this system of free government,
the energy of the Athenian people was developed with amazing
rapidity. The spirit of patriotism, of zeal for the honor and wel-
fare of Athens, rose to a high pitch. The power and resources
of the city increased in a proportionate degree. Culture kept
pace with prosperity.

Lyrical Poetry.— In the eighth century, when monarchy was declining,
and the tendency to democracy began to manifest itself, a new style of poetry,
different from the epic, arose. The narrative poems of minstrels were heard
at the great religious festivals. Hut there was a craving for the expression
of individual feeling. Hence, lyrical poetry re-appeared, not in the shape of
religious songs, as in the old time, but in a form to touch all the chords of
sentiment. Two new types of verse appeared, — the Elegiac and the Iambic.
At first the elegy was probably a lament for the dead. It was accompanied
by the soft music of the Lydian flute. The instruments which the Greeks had
used were string-instruments. The early Greek elegies related to a variety of
themes, — as war, love, preceptive wisdom. The iambic meter was first used
in satire. Its earliest master of distinction was Archilochus of ParOs (670
B.C.). It was employed, however, in fables, and elsewhere when pointed or
intense expression was craved. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus
and Tyrtaus, composed war-songs. Mimnermus, Solatia Theognis, Simonides
of Ceos, are among the most famous elegists. Music developed in connec-
tion with lyric poetry. The Greeks at first used the four-stringed lyre.
Terpander made an epoch (660 B.C.) by adding three strings. Olympus and
Thaletas made further improvements. Greek lyric poetry flourished, espe-
cially from 670 to 440 B.C. The ./liolian lyrists of Lesbos founded a school
of their own. The two great representatives are Alcaus, who sang of war
and of love, and Sappho, who sang of love. " Probably no poet ever surpassed
Sappho as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of form
and sound." Anacreott, an Ionian, resembled in his style the </Eolian lyrists.
He was most often referred to by the ancients as the poet of sensuous feeling
of every sort. The Dorian lyric poetry was mostly choral and historic in its
topics. Greek lyric poetry reaches tne climax in Simonides and Pindar.
The latter was a Boeotian, but of Dorian descent. Simonides was tender
and polished ; Pindar, fervid and sublime. The extant works of Pindar are
the Epinicia, or odes of victory.

Historical Writing. — This age witnesses the beginnings of historical
writing. • But the logographers, as they were called, only wrote prose epics.GRECIAN HISTORY.

91

They told the story of the foundation of families and cities, reconciling as
best they could the myths, so far as they clashed with one another.

Philosophy: the Ionian School. — The Greeks were the first to
investigate rationally the causes of things, and to try to comprehend the
world as a complete system. The earliest phase of this movement was on
the side of physics, or natural philosophy. Mower and Ilesiod had accounted
for the operations of nature by referring them to the direct personal action
of different divinities. The earliest philosophers brought in the conception
of some kind of matter as the foundation and source of all things. The Ionian
School led the way in this direction. Thales of Miletus (620-560 B.C.) made
this primary substance to be water Anaximander (570-520 B.C.) made all
things spring out of a primitive stuff, without definite qualities, and without
bounds. He taught that the earth is round, invented the sun-dial, engraved
a map on a brass tablet, and made some astronomical calculations. Anax-
imenes (500-494 B.C.) derived all things from air, which he made to be
eternal and infinite.

The Eleatic School. — The Eleatic School conceived of the world as
one in substance, and held that the natural phenomena which we behold, in
all their variety and change, are unreal. Xenophanes (who flourished from
730 to 500 B C.) asserted this. Parmenides (504-460 B.C.) taught that succes-
sion, change, the manifold forms of things, are only relative, that is, are only
our way of regarding the one universal essence. Zeno sought to vindicate
this theory logically by disproving the possibility of motion.

Other Philosophers. — Another set of philosophers attempted definitely
to explain the appearances of things, the changing phenomena, which had
been called unreal. Heraclitus made the world to be nothing but these:
There is no substratum of things: there is only an endless flux, a cycle. All
things begin and end in fire, the symbol of what is real. Empedocles ascribed
all things to fire, air, earth, and water, which are wrought into different bodies
by "love" and "hate;" or, as we should say, attraction and repulsion.
Democritus was the founder of the Atomists, who made all - things spring out
of the motions and combinations of primitive atoms. Anaxagoras brought
in intelligence, or reason, as giving the start to the development of matter,—
this prfticiple doing nothing more, however, and being inherent in matter itself.

Pythagoras. — A different spirit in philosophy belonged to Pythagoras
(580-500 B.C.), who was born in Samos, traveled extensively, and settled in
Croton, in southern Italy. His theory was, that the inner substance of all
things is number. Discipline of character was a prime object. Pythagoras
was sparing in his diet, promoted an earnest culture, in which music was
prominent, and gave rise to a mystical school, in which moral reform and
religious feeling were connected with an ascetic method of living.

Colonies. — It was during the era of the oligarchies and tyrannies that
the colonizing spirit was most active among the Greeks. Most of the colo-
nies were established between 7 so and 550 B.C. Their names alone would
make a very long catalogue. They were of two classes: first, independent
communities, connected, however, with the parent city by close ties of friend-
ship ; and secondly, kleruchiesy which were of the nature of garrisons, where
the settlers retained their former rights as citizens, and the mother city its
full authority over them. In Sicily, on the eastern side, were the Ionian
communities, — Naxos, Catana, etc. Syracuse (founded by Corinth 734 B.C.),
Gela, and Agrigentums which were among the chief Dorian settlements, lay on
the south-eastern and south-western coasts. The oldest Greek town in Italy
was Cutna (not far from Naples), said to have been founded in 1050 B.C.
Tarentum (Dorian), Sybarisy and Croton (/Kolic) were settled in the latter part
of the eighth century. Locri (/Eolic) and Rhegium (Ionic) were on the south.
The south-western portion of Italy was termed Magna Gr<rcia> Massilia
(Marseilles) was founded by the Phocaean Ionians (about 600 B.C.). In the
western Mediterranean the Greeks were hindered from making their settle-92

ANCIENT HISTORY.

ments as numerous as they would have done, by the fact that Carthage and
her colonies stood in the way. Cyrene, on the coast of Africa, was a Dorian
colony (630 B.C.), planted from Thera, an earlier Spartan settlement. Cyrene
founded Barca. Corcyra was colonized by Corinth (about 700 B.C.). Along
the coast of Epirus were other Corinthian and Corcyraean settlements.
Chalcis planted towns in the peninsula of Chalcidice, and from thence to
Selymbria (or Byzantium), which was founded by Megara (657 B.C.). The
northern shores of the ^Egean and the Propontis, and the whole coast of the
Euxine were strewn with Greek settlements. The Greek towns, especially
Miletus, on the western coast of Asia Minor, themselves sent out colonies,—
as Cyzicus and Siuo/>e, south of the Propontis and the Euxine. The foregoing
statements give only a general idea of the wide extent of Greek colonization.

An exhaustive statement of the Greek colonies is given in Rawlinson's Manual of Ancient
History, p. 148 uq.Period II.
THE FLOURISHING ERA OF GREECE.

chapter l
the persian wars.

The Ionian Revolt. — Hardly were the Greeks in possession
of liberty when they were compelled to measure their strength with
the mighty Persian Empire. The cities of Asia Minor groaned
under the tyranny of their Persian rulers, and sighed for freedom.
At length, under propitious circumstances, Miletus rose in* revolt
under the lead of Aristagoras. Alone of the Grecian cities,
Athens, and Eretria on tfte island of Euboea, sent help. The
insurrection was extinguished in blood: its leaders perished.
Miletus was destroyed by the enemy 495 B.C.; and the Ionian
towns were again brought under the Persian yoke, which was made
heavier than before. The Persian monarch, Darius, swore ven-
geance upon those who had aided the rebellion.

. The Battle of Marathon.—Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius,
moved with a fleet and an army along the ^Egean coast. A storm
shattered the fleet upon the rocky promontory of Athos, and the
land force was partly destroyed by the Thracians. Mardonius
retreated homeward. The heralds who came to demand, accord-
ing to the Persian custom, " water and earth " of Athens and
Sparta, were put to death. Enraged at these events, Darius sent
a stronger fleet under ZW/j and Artaphernes. They forced Naxos
and the other Cyclades to submission, captured and destroyed
Eretria, and sent off its inhabitants as slaves to the interior of
Asia. Guided on their path of destruction by the Athenian
refugee, Hippias, the Persians landed on the coast of Attica, and
encamped on the shore adjacent to the plain of Marathon. The
Athenians sent Philippides, one of the swiftest of couriers, to Sparta
for assistance, who reached that city, a hundred and thirty-five or
a hundred and forty miles distant, the next day after he started.
He brought back for answer that the Spartans were deterred by
religious scruples from marching to war before the full moon,
which would be ten days later. There was a Greek, as well as a
Judaic, Pharisaism. Left to themselves, the Athenians were fortu-

9394

ANCIENT HISTORY.

nate in having for their leader Miltiadcs, an able and experienced
soldier, who had been with the Persians in the Scythian campaign.
At the head of the Athenian infantry, ten thousand in number,
whose hearts were cheered before the onset by the arrival of a
re-inforcement of one thousand men, comprising the whole fight-
ing population of the little town of Plataa, Miltiades attacked the
Persian army, ten times as large as his own. The Athenians ran
down the gentle slope at Marathon, shouting their war-cry, or
psean, and, after a fierce conflict, drove the Persians back to their
ships, capturing their camp with all its treasures (Sept. 12, 490
B.C.). 'Phis brilliant victory was not the end of danger. The
Greek watchmen saw a treacherous signal, a glistening shield, on
Mount Pentelicus, put there to signify to the Persians that Athens
was open to their attack. In that direction, round Cape Sunium,
the Persian fleet sailed. But Miltiades, by a rapid march of
twenty-three miles, reached the city in season to prevent the land-
ing. Datis and Artaphernes sailed away. The traitor, Hip pi as,
died on the return voyage. The patriotic exultation of the Athe-
nians was well warranted. Never did they look back upon that
victory without a thrill of joyful pride. It proved what a united
free people were capable of achieving. More than that, Marathon
was one of the decisive battles which form turning-points in the
world's history. It was a mortal conflict between the East and
the West, between Asia and Europe, —• the coarse despotism under
which individual energy is stifled, and the dawning liberty which
was to furnish the atmosphere required for the full development
and culture of the human mind.

AriatideB and Themistocles. — Miltiades subsequently failed in
an attempt against Paros, one of the ^Egean islands which had sub-
mitted to the Persians, and which he sought to conquer. Accused
of making false promises to the people, he was fined fifty talents,
but died before the sum could be collected (489 B.C.). His son
Cimon paid the fine. The two leading men in Athens at that time
were Arts tides and Themistocles. The former, from his upright-
ness, was styled " the just." Themistocles was a man of genius, of
an ambitious spirit, whom the laurels of Miltiades robbed of sleep.
Devoted to Athens, he was not scrupulous in regard to the means
of advancing her prosperity and glory. Duplicity and intrigue
were weapons in the use of which he was not less willing than ex-
pert. He aspired to make Athens a great naval and maritime
power. Aristides believed that the strength of the country lay in
the landholders and in the land forces. In the attainment of
public ends, he would not deviate from a straightforward course.
Themistocles was by far the more captivating of the two men; and,
in 484 B.C., Aristides was ostracised. Themistocles was thus left
free to build up a powerful fleetGRECIAN HISTORY-

95

The War with Xerxes: Thermopylae. — Darius died while he
was preparing another grand expedition against Greece. He left
his successor, Xerxes (485 B.C.), to complete and carry out the
plan. This proud monarch drew together from his immense
dominions an army which tradition, as given in Herodotus, made
to number one million seven hundred thousand men and a fleet
of twelve hundred large vessels. He had for a counselor, Dema-
raius, a fugitive king of Sparta. The vast array of troops was as-
sembled near Sanies, and thence marched to the Hellespont Seven
days were spent by this mighty gathering of nations in passing over
the two bridges of boats. They marched through Thrace, Mace-
donia, and Thessaly, the Persian fleet proceeding along the coast.
Boeotia and several smaller states yielded without resistance. The
most of the other Greek states, inspired by Themistocles, joined
hands for defense under the hegemony of Sparta. In July, 480,
the Persian army arrived at the narrow pass of Thermopylae. There
the Lacedaemonian king, Leonidas, with his three hundred Spar-
tans and some thousands of allies, had taken his stand, to stem
the vast current that was pouring down to overwhelm Greece. To
the Persian command to give up their weapons, the " laconic" reply
was given by Leonidas, " Come and get them." For several days
the band of Spartans defended the pass, beating back the Persians,
thousands of whom were slain, and repulsing, even, the ten thou-
sand " immortals," who constituted the royal guard. ^ At length
a treacherous Greek showed the enemy a by-path, which enabled
them to fall on the rear of the gallant troops, every one of
whom fell, bravely fighting, with his weapon in his hand. A lion
made of iron was afterwards placed on the spot where the heroes
had died, " obedient to the commands of Sparta." The Persians
pushed forward to Athens, and burned the city. All citizens capa-
ble of bearing arms were on board the fleet: the women, children,
and movable property had been conveyed to Salamis, sEgina,
and Trotzene.

Salamis.—The Greek fleet, under the Spartan Eurybiades, had
come from victory at Artemisium into the Gulf of Salamis. By
means of a device of Themistocles, the Spartans were prevented
from withdrawing their forces to the Corinthian isthmus, where they
had built a wall for their own protection ; and a sea-fight was brought
on, of which the Athenians in Salamis, and Xerxes himself from a
hill on the mainland, were anxious spectators (Sept. 20, 480).
Once more the cause of civilization was staked on the issue of a
conflict. The Greeks were completely victorious, and their land
was saved. Xerxes hastily marched towards home, thousands of
his army perishing on the way from hunger, cold, and fatigue. The
Spartiatce gave to Eurybiades the prize of valor, to Themistocles an
olive crown for his wisdom and sagacity.96

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Plataea: Mycale Eurymedon. — Xerxes left three hundred
thousand men behind in Thessaly, under the command of Mar-
donius. In the spring, incensed at the proud rejection of his
overtures, he marched to Athens, whose people again took refuge
in Salamis. In the great battle of Platcza (479 B.C.), the Greeks,
led by the Spartan Pausanias, inflicted on him such a defeat that
only forty thousand Persians escaped to the Hellespont. On the
same day at Mycaley the Persian fleet was vanquished in a sharp
encounter where a Spartan commanded, but where the Athenians
were the most efficient combatants. Sestus, Lemnos, Imbros, and
Byzantium were taken by the Greeks; and a double victory of
Citnoti, the son of Miltiades, at the Pamphylian river, Eurymedon,
over both the land and naval forces of the Persians, brought the
war to an end (466 B.C.).

CHAPTER II.

THE ASCENDENCY OP ATHENS.

Pausanias and Themistocles. — Both of the generals by whom
the Persians had been overcome, fell under the displeasure of the
states to which they belonged. Pausanias was so far misled by
ambition as to engage in a negotiation with the Persians for the
elevation of himself, by their aid, to supreme power in Greece.
His plots were discovered, and he was compelled by his country-
men to starve to death in a temple to which he had fled for
refuge. Themistocles caused Athens to be surrounded by a wall,
and built long walls from the city to the Pirceus. This provoked
the hatred of the Spartans, so jealous were they of the power of
Athens. T In conjunction with his Athenian enemies, they contrived
to procure his banishment for ten years (471 B.C.). Themistocles
fled to Persia, where he was treated with honor and favor. Artax-
erxes L gave him a princely domain in Asia Minor where he died
(460 B.C.). Grave as his faults were, Themistocles was the founder
of the historical greatness of Athens.

Confederacy of Delos,—It was through the influence of Art's-
■ tides that the confederacy of ;• Delos was formed, in which the
•Grecian islands and seaports combined with Athens, and under
her leadership, for the further prosecution of the war. By this
means, the Athenians, already so efficient on the sea, were enabled
still more to strengthen their fleet, and gradually to bring the
iEgean islands and smaller maritime states under their sway.
Cimon rendered great service as a naval commander. He drove
the Persians out of Thrace altogether, and founded Amphipolis.GRECIAN HISTORY.

97

He wrested the Chersonese from the Persians, and freed the Greek
cities on the coast. In the single battle on the Eurymedon, he
sunk or captured two hundred galleys (465 B.C.).

To the Peace of Pericles. —Under the leadership of such men,
the Athenian Republic became more and more powerful. sEgt'na,
a rich and prosperous island, was conquered, and planted with
Athenian colonists. Megara became a dependency of Athens.
Sparta, partly in consequence of a struggle with Argos, a state
friendly to the Persians, and still more on account of an earthquake
which laid the most of the city in ruins (465 B.C.), was so crippled
as not to be able to check the progress of the rival community.
She was even obliged to invoke Athenian help against the revolting
Messenians and helots; but after the troops of Athens had joined
them, the Spartans, jealous and afraid of what they might do, sent
them back. This indignity led to the banishment of Cimon, who
had favored the sending of the force, and to the granting of aid.
to the Messenians. The Spartans now did their best to reduce
the strength and dominion of Athens by raising Thebes to the
hegemony over the Boeotian cities. Everywhere, in all the con-
flicts, Sparta was the champion of the aristocratic form of govern-
ment ; Athens, of the democratic. The Athenians were defeated
at Tanagra (457 B.C.). This induced them to recall Cimon,
a great general and a worthy citizen. Two months after her
victory, Sparta was defeated by Myrortides; and the Athenians
became masters of Phocis, Locris, and Boeotia. Cimon brought
about a truce between Athens and Sparta. He left his country on
a high pinnacle of power and dominion. Nearly all the allies in the
confederacy of Delos had fallen into the position of tributaries,
whose heavy contributions were carried no longer to the sanctuary
at Delos, but to the temple of Minerva on the Acropolis, and
who had no power to decide on questions of peace and war. The
nobles, however, who were driven into exile in all conquered
places, were the mortal enemies of Athens. At Coronea (447
B.C.), the Boeotian refugees and aristocrats were so strong that
the Athenians experienced a disastrous defeat. . The peril of the
situation moved Pericles to secure, by astute management, a peace
with Sparta, the terms of which were that each of the two cities
was to maintain its hegemony within its own circle, and the several
states were to attach themselves at their option to either con-
federacy. In market and harbor, there was to be a free inter-
course of trade (445 B.C.).

The Age of Pericles. — Pericles belonged to one of the principal
Athenian families, but was democratic in his politics, and made
himself a popular leader. By his influence the Areopagus was
stripped of high prerogatives that had belonged to it. He caused
it to be enacted, that every citizen, when engaged in the public ser-98	ANCIENT HISTORY.

vice, even in attending the popular assembly, should receive a sti-
pend. For fifteen years, as the first citizen of Athens, with none of
the trappings of power, he virtually ruled the commonwealth. One
of his works-was the building the third of the long walls which
protected the Pirceus and the neighboring ports on the land side,
and connected them with Athens. His patriotism was as sincere
as his talents were versatile and brilliant. He was at once a soldier,
an orator, a statesman of consummate ability, and a man imbued
with the best appreciation of letters and of art. In his hospitable
house, where Astasia from Miletus, a beautiful and cultured woman,
was his companion, men of genius found a welcome. Under him,
Athens became the metropolis of literature, philosophy, and art
for the whole Hellenic race, and, considering the influence of
Athens, it might almost be said for mankind in all ages. Magnifi-
cent buildings—of which the Parthenon, the temple of Minerva
%that crowned the Acropolis, whose ruins are the model of archi-
tectural perfection, was one—gave to the city an unrivaled beauty.
Sculpture vied with architecture in this work of adornment. Phid-
ias, who wrought the frieze of the Parthenon, counted among his
wonderful creations the colossal sitting statue of Zeus at Olympia.
It was the blossoming season of the Greek intellect, as regards
literature and the fine arts. The drama reached its perfection in
the masterly tragedies of /Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and
in the comedies of A ristophanes. The Athenian community, through
its political eminence, its intellectual character, so original and
diversified, its culture, — such that almost every citizen was quali-
fied for civil office, — has no parallel in history. It is the eleva-
tion, not of a select class of the citizens, but of the whole society,
which gives to Athens its unique distinction. Public spirit and
enterprise, which made her navy dominant in the ^gean and
over the sea-coast of Asia Minor, went hand in hand with delight
in eloquence and in the creations of genius. There was not, how-
ever, as some have affirmed, in the prevalent absorption in the
affairs of state, a neglect of the labors of agriculture and of me-
chanical industry.

The Acropolis. — It was customary for a Greek town to be built about
an acropolis, — an eminence by which it was commanded, and on which
stood the citadel. On the acropolis at Athens were the buildings and statues
in which the glory of Athenian art was impressively displayed. There were
three edifices which excelled all the rest in splendor. On the south side of the
elevated area was the Parthenon % built of Pentelic marble, two hundred and
twenty-eight feet in length, and of faultless proportions. On the northern edge
was the Erechtheum> an Ionic temple of extraordinary beauty. The Propylcca,
approached by sixty marble steps, was a noble gateway: it stood on the
western end 01 the acropolis, which it magnificently adorned.

^ Athens. —No other description of Athens, in the age of Pericles, equals
his own in the Funeral Oration (431 B.C.), as given by Thucydides, for tnose
who had fallen in the war. It shows how an Athenian looked upon his city.GRECIAN HISTORY.	99

•'It is true that we are called a democracy: for the administration is in the hands of the
many, and not of the few. But while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private
disputes, the claim of excellence is also recognized; and when a citizen is in.any way distin-
guished, he is preferred to the public service, not as a matter of privilege, but as the reward of
merit. Neither is poverty a bar; but a man may benefit his country, whatever be the obscurity
of his condition. There is no exclusiveness in our public life; and in our private intercourse
we are not suspicious of one another, nor angry with our neighbor if he does what he likes:
we do not put on sour looks at him, which, though harmless, are not pleasant. While we are
thus unconstrained in our private intercourse, a spirit of reverence pervades our public acts:
we are prevented from doing wrong by respect for authority and the laws, having an especial
regard to those which are orda» ed for the protection of the injured, as well as to those unwritten
laws which bring upon the transgressor of them the reprobation of the general sentiment.

"And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil.
We have regular games and sacrifices throughout the year. At home the style of our life is
refined, and the delight which we daily fe A in all these things helps to banish melancholy.
Because of the greatness of our city, the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon us; so that we
enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as of our own.

* Then, again, our military training is in many respects superior to that of our adversaries.
Our city is thrown open to the world; and we never expel a foreigner, or prevent him from see-
ing or learning any thing of which the secret, if revealed to an enemy, might profit him. We
rely not upon management or trickery, but upon our own hearts and hands. And in the matter
of education, whereas they from early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which
are to make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they
face. And here is the proof, — the Lacedaemonians come into Attica, not by themselves, but with
their whole confederacy following: we go alone into a neighbor's country; and. although our
opponents are fighting for their homes, and we are on a foreign soil, we have seldom any diffi-
culty in overcoming them. Our enemies have never yet felt our united strength. The care
of a navy divides our attention, and on land we are obliged to send our own citizens every-
where. But they, if they meet and defeat a part of our army, are as proud as if they had
routed us all; and, when defeated, they pretend to have been vanquished by us all.

"If, then, we prefer to meet danger with a light heart, but without laborious training, and
with a courage which is gained by habit, and not enforced by law, are we not greatly the gain-
ers? since we do not anticipate the pain, although, when the hour comes, we can be as brave as
those who never allow themselves to rest And thus, too, our city is equally admirable in peace
and war; for we are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind
without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk and ostentation, but when there is
real use for it. To avow poverty with us is no disgrace: the true disgrace is in doing nothing
to avoid it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the State because he takes care of his own
household, and even those of us who are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics.
We alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs, not as harmless, but as a useless
character; and, if few of us are originators, we are all sound judges of policy. The great
impediment to action is, in our opinion, not discussion, but the want of that knowledge which
is gained by discussion preparatory to action. For we have a peculiar power of thinking before
we act, and of acting too; whereas other men are courageous from ignorance, but hesitate
upon reflection. And they are surely to be esteemed the bravest spirits who, having the clearest
sense both of the pains and pleasures of life, do not on that account shrink from danger. In
doing good, again, we are unlike others: we make our friends by conferring, not by receiving,
favors. Now, he who confers a favor is the firmer friend, because he would fain by kindness
keep alive the memory of an obligation; but the recipient is colder in his feelings, because he
knows that in requiting another's generosity he will not be winning gratitude, but only paying
a debt. We alone do good to our neighbors, not upon a calculation of interest, but in the con-
fidence of freedom, and in a frank and fearless spirit. To sum up, I say that Athens is the
school of Hellas, and that the individual Athenian in his own person seems to have the power
of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace.
This is no passing and idle word, but truth and fact; and the assertion is verified by the posi-
tion to which these qualities have raised the State. For in the hour of trial Athens alone
among her contemporaries is superior to the report of her. No enemy who comes against her
is indignant at the reverses which he sustains at the hands of such a city: no subject com-
plains that his masters are unworthy of him. And we shall assuredly not be without witnesses;
there are mighty monuments of our power, which will make us the wonder of this and of suc-
ceeding ages. We shall not need the praises of Homer or of any other panegyrist, whose
poetry may please for the moment, although his representation of the facts will not bear the
light of day; for we have compelled every land and every sea to open a path for our valor, and
have everywhere planted eternal memorials of our friendship and of our enmity. Such is the
city for wnose sake these men nobly fought and died: they could not bear the thought that she
might be taken from them, and every one of us who survive should gladly toil on her behalf."

Religion. — We find in Sophocles a much purer tone of moral and reli-
gious feeling than in Homer. Greek thought upon divine things is expanded
and purified, (i) Higher Conception of the Gods, The gods are still conceived
of as in bodily form. Their images abide in their temples. Take them
away, and the god leaves his abode* The divinities need not be present, asIOO

ANCIENT HISTORY.

in Homer, in order to exert their power. The monotheistic tendency is man-
ifest. The " gods " are referred to as if a single agency were in the writer's
mind. The regal sway of Zeus is emphasized. He is less subject to Fate.
(2) Divine Government. The gods, especially Zeus% are the fountain of law.
The righteousness of the divine government is especially evinced in the
punishment of evil-doers. Transgressors generally, and not those of the
worst class alone, as in Homer, are punished in Hades. Pride and insolence
call down the vengeance of the gods. Unsleeping justice pursues the crimi-
nal. The theory of Nemesis, which pursues the prosperous, if they are
proud, to their hurt and ruin, is held. (3) Number of the Gods. The num-
ber of divinities is multiplied as time advances. The worship of the heroes,
children of the gods or goddesses, grows in importance. (4) Revelation.
There was direct revelation, it was believed, by prophecy, uttered now in
an ecstatic, and now in a tranquil, mood. Oracles acquired a new and vast
importance. (5) Rites. Visible objects of devotion were multiplied; reli-
gious ceremonies ramified in all directions; sacred processions, festivals,
amusements involving religious observances, abounded. (6) Morality. Moral
excellence centered in moderation and self-government, through which the
individual keeps both his own nature as to its parts, and himself in relation
to others, within due limits. This spirit includes temperance and justice.
The stern spirit of law prevails: the requital of injuries is approved. Yet
feelings of compassion find a beautiful expression. At Athens, there was
public provision for orphans and for the help of the poor. (7) Domestic Life :
Patriotism. The wife lived in retirement, and in submission to her hus-
band. VV hen he entertained friends at his table, she was absent; yet domestic
affection was evidently strong. Every other duty merged in patriotism.
The Greek placed a great gulf between himself and the "barbarian." He
was conscious of higher intellectual gifts, superior culture, better customs.
(8) Sin: The Future Life. There was a deeper sense of sin than in the
Homeric era. There was a pathetic consciousness of the trouble and sor-
row that beset human life. Hades was regarded as a scene of trial and judg-
ment, and of rewards as well as sufferings. The soul was not so closely
identified with the body. Death was an object of gloomy anticipation.
Pericles^ in his funeral oration for the fallen patriots, is silent as to a future
life. In the tragic poets, it is only the select few whose lot is blessed. As
concerns the mass of the people, it is probable that the Homeric notions
respecting the state of the dead still prevailed. Generally speaking, we are
not warranted in ascribing the more elevated views of religion entertained
by the best minds to the mass of the people.

The Tragic Drama. — The songs which were sung in the worship of
Dionysus (dithyrambs) were accompanied with dance and pantomime. The
custom followed of mingling speeches and dramatic action with these lyrics.
The change is ascribed to Thespis (about 536 1J C.), a little later than Solon.
Thespis is said to have brought in the stage for the performers. The
Greek theaters were large, open to the sky, and sometimes on sites which
commanded fine views. There was the amphitheater, with graded seats for
spectators, and the stage, together with the orchestra where the choir in
song or musical recitation reflected the sympathies and views of the spec-
tators of the play. At first there was only one actor, and, of course, a
monologue. sEschylus is said to have brought in a second actor, and Soph-
ocles a third. These, with Euripides, were the three great dramatists of
Greece. The choral song, which had been the chief thing, was made sec-
ondary to the dialogue. ^Eschylus, at the age of forty-five, fought in the
battle of Salamis; Sophocles, then fifteen years old, took part in the festival
in honor of the victory; and Euripides was bom, it was supposed, on the
very day of the battle. These three brought the tragic drama to perfection.
Of the productions of ^Eschylus (525-456 H.C.), seven remain. They are
inspired with the heroic and elevated mood which was engendered by theGRECIAN HISTORY.

101

great struggle against' the Persians. Of the numerous plays of Sophocles
(495-406 B.C.), the number of those extant is also seven. They so combine
vigor and force with refinement of thought and style that they are surpassed,
if indeed they are equaled, by the literary products of no age or country.
In Euripides (480-406 B.C.), while there is an insight into the workings of
the heart, and the antique nobleness of sentiment, there is less simplicity,
and there is manifest the less earnest and believing tone of the later day. In
the dramas, the "unities " of time, place,and action are observed. The acts
together seldom stretch over a single day.

Comedy. — Comedy, in which Aristophanes (452-388 B.C.), a great poet
as well as a great wit, was the principal author, dealt largely in satire. Con-
spicuous men, and those active in public affairs, were represented on the stage
in satirical pieces, so that they were at once identified. The spirit of the
"old comedy " was patriotic, although it might be unjust, as in the case of
Socrates, who was a target for the wit of Aristophanes. The "middle
comedy " was nothing really distinct from the " new comedy." The " new
comedy," in which Menander (342-290 B.C.) was an eminent author, ceased
to present actual persons, and dealt with imaginary characters alone. Among
the Greeks in Lower Italy and Sicily, mimes were much in vogue.

Greek Art: Architecture. — The Greeks more and more broke away
in a free and joyous spirit from the stiff and conventional styles of Egyptian
and Oriental art. In the room of the somber, massive edifices of Egypt,
they combined symmetry and beauty with grandeur in the temples which
they erected. The temples were originally colored within and without. Three
styles were developed, — the Doric, thz Ionic% and the Corinthian. In the
Doric, the column and entablature have the most solid and simple form.
The column has no other base than the common platform on which the
pillars rest, and the capital that surmounts it is a plain slab.

In the Ionic style, the column has a distinct base, is more tall and slender,
and its capital has two volutes, or spiral moldings. The capital of the Corin-
thian column is peculiar, representing flower calices and leaves, " pointing
upwards, and curving like natural plants." The acanthus, on account of its
graceful form, was generally copied. The most ancient Doric temples, of a
date prior to the Persian war, of which the ruined temple of Neptune at
Paestum is one, are, in comparison with later edifices, of a severe and mas-
sive style. In the period extending from the Persian war to the Macedonian
rule, the stern simplicity of the Doric is modified by the softer and more
graceful character of the Ionic. The temple of Theseus at Athens is an ex-
ample. The Parthenon was the most beautiful specimen of the Doric, which
has appropriated the grace of the Ionic column without losing its own dis-
tinctive character. In the later period, after freedom was lost, there was
much more ornamentation. It was then that the more decorated Corinthian
style flourished.

Sculpture.«—Before the Persian wars, in the earliest sculpture the re-
straint of Egyptian and Oriental styles is perceptible in the sculptors, of whom
Dadalus is the mythical representative. The oldest statues were of wood,
which was subsequently covered with gold and ivory, or painted. The lofty
style of Phidias (488-432 B.C.), and of Polyclctus of Argos, became prevalent
in the flourishing period of Greek liberty. Myrony to whom we owe the Dis-
cobolus (Disk-Thrower), belongs to the school of ^Egina. Statues were now
made in brass and marble. They were everywhere to be seen. The pedi-
ments and friezes of the temples were covered with exquisitely wrought
sculptures. The most beautiful sculptures that have come down from an-
tiquity are the marbles of the Parthenon. The Greeks appreciated to the
full the beauty of nature. They gave to their gods ideal human forms, in
which were blended every attribute of majesty and grace which arc con-
ceived to belong to perfected humanity. Sculpture in Greece, as elsewhere,
was allied to religion; "but whilst the religion of the Egyptians was a102

ANCIENT HISTORY.

religion of the tomb, and their ideal world a gloomy spot peopled by sleeps
ing lions, dreamy sphinxes, or weird unearthly monsters, the mythology of
the Greeks, rightly understood, is an exquisite poem, the joint creation of the
master-minds of infant Greece; and their art is a translation of that poem
into visible forms of beauty." In the third period, which may be made to ter-
minate with the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.), there were masters
in sculpture, among whom Praxiteles and Scopas are at the head. More and
more, as we come down to the Roman period, while extraordinary technical
perfection is still manifested, the loftier qualities of art tend to disappear.

Painting. — In Greece, painting first ceased to be subordinate to archi-
tecture, and became independent. In early days, there was skill in the orna-
mentation of vases and in mural painting. Yet, with much spirit and feeling,
there was a conventional treatment. The earliest artist of whom we know
much is Polygnotits (about 420 B.C.), whose groups of profile figures were
described as remarkable for their life-like character and fine coloring. Apol-
lodorus of Athens was distinguished, but Zeuxis of Heraclea is said to have
been the first to paint movable pictures. He is famed for his marvelous
power of imitation: the birds pecked at a bunch of grapes which he painted.
But even he was outdone by Parrhasius. Zeuxis, however, had far higher
qualities than those of a literal copyist. The most successful of the Greek
painters was Apelles. Among his masterpieces was a painting of Venus ris-
ing from the waves, and a portrait of Alexander the Great. We have not
in painting, as in sculpture, a store of monuments of Greek art; but the skill
of the Greeks in painting fell behind their unequaled genius in molding the
human form in bronze and marble.

CHAPTER III.

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.

I. TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS (421 B.C.).

To the Death of Pericles. — Wonderful as was the growth of
Athens under Pericles, it is obvious that she stood exposed to two
principal sources of danger. Her allies and dependants,, the stay
of that naval power in which her strength lay, were discontented
with her spirit of domination and of extortion. The Peloponne-
sian Alliance, which was led by Sparta, the bulwark of the aristo-
cratic interest, comprised, with the Dorian, most of the ^Eolian
states, — as Bceotia, Phocis, Locris, etc. Its military strength lay
mainly in its heavy-armed infantry. Thus Sparta had the advan-
tage of strong allies. The motive at the bottom of this alliance
was what Thucydides tells was the real cause of the Peloponnesian
war, — the jealousy which the growth of Athens excited in other
states. This feeling* really involved a conviction of the need of
maintaining in Greece that which in modern times is called a
" balance of power." When Greece was no longer one, as in the
best days of the wars with Persia, but was divided into two oppo-
site camps, watchful and jealous of one another, an occasion of
conflict could not fail to arise. It was complained that AthensGRECIAN HISTORY.	IO3

gave help to Corcyra in a war with Corinth, its mother city, made
war upon Potidcea in Macedonia, a Corinthian colony, and also
shut out Megara from the harbors of Attica.

The demands made by Sparta, which included the granting of
independence to Azgina, were rejected. Attica was ravaged by
Spartan troops, and the coast of Peloponnesus by the Athenian
fleet (431 B.C.). This desolating warfare was kept up until a
frightful pestilence broke out at Athens, — a plague having its ori-
gin in Egypt, and passing thence over Asia and the Greek islands.
Two of the sons of Pericles died, and an accumulation of public
burdens and private sorrows brought on his own death (Sept., 429).

Th© Pestilence. — The horrors of the pestilence are thus described in a celebrated
passage of the best of the Greek historians, Thucydides; " The crowding of the people out of
the country into the city aggravated the misery, and the newly arrived suffered most. For,
haying no houses of their own, but inhabiting, in the height of summer, stifling huts, the mor-
tality among them was dreadful, and they perished in wild disorder. The dead lay as they had
died, one upon another; while others, hardly alive, wallowed in the streets, and crawled about
every fountain, craving for water. The temples in which they lodged were full of the corpses
of those who died in them; for the violence of the calamity was such that men, not knowing
where to turn, grew reckless of all law, human and divine. The customs which had hitherto
been observed at funerals were universally violated, and they buried their dead, each one as
best he could. Many, having no proper appliances, because the deaths in their household had
been so frequent, made no scruple of using the burial-place of others. When one man had
raised a funeral-pile, others would come, and, throwing on their dead first, set fire to it; or,
when some other corpse was already burning, before they could be stopped, would throw their
own dead upon it, and depart.

44 There were other and worse forms of lawlessness which the plague introduced at Athens.
Men who had hitherto concealed their indulgence in pleasure, now grew bolder. For, seeing
the sudden change, — how the rich died in a moment, and those who nad nothing, immediately
inherited their property, — they reflected that life and riches were alike transitory, and they
resolved to enjoy themselves while they could, and to think only of pleasure. Who would
be willing to sacrifice himself to the law of honor when he knew not whether he would ever live
to be held in honor ? The pleasure of the moment, and any sort of thing which conduced to it,
took the place both of honor and of expediency: no fear of God or law of man deterred a
criminal. Those who saw all perishing alike, thought that the worship or neglect of the gods
made no difference. For offenses against human law, no punishment was to be feared: no one
would live long enough to be called to account. Already a far heavier sentence had been
passed, and was hanging over a man's head: before that fell, why should he not take a little
pleasure? "

To the Truce with Sparta. — The loss of Pericles, coupled
with the terrible calamities which had befallen Athens, let loose
the winds of party passion. New leaders of the democracy, of
whom Cleon was the most noted, who lacked the refinement and
self-restraint of Pericles, took his place. The Athenians were not
able to save Platcea, to which they owed so much, from destruc-
tion at the hands of the Spartans and Boeotians (428 B.C.) ; but
Lesbos they recovered, and captured Mytileney the bulk of whose
citizens, against the will of Cleon, they spared. To the cruelties
of war, which the revengeful temper of the Spartans promoted,
there was added another plague at Athens, besides an earthquake,
and tremendous rain-storms, alternating with drought.

Demosthenes, a brave and enterprising Athenian general, took
possession of Pylos in Messenia. The Spartans, under Brasidas,
were on the island of Sphacteria opposite; and their retreat was
cut off by the fleet under Nicias, who was the leader of the more104

ANCIENT HISTORY.

aristocratic faction at Athens. C/eon, made strategus in the room
of Nicias, took Sphacteria by storm, contrary to general expecta-
tion, and brought home nearly three hundred Spartan prisoners.
Athens had other successes; but when her forces had been de-
feated by the Boeotians at Deiium, and Brasidas had captured
Amphipolis, and when in a battle there (422 B.C.) Brasidas was
victorious over Clean, who fell during the flight, the aristocratic
party, which was desirous of peace, gained the upper hand.
Nicias concluded a truce with Sparta for fifty years. Each party
was to restore its conquests and prisoners.

II. THE INFLUENCE. OF ALCIBIADES.

The Sicilian Expedition. — From this time, Alcibiades, a rela-
tive of Pericles, but lacking his sobriety and disinterested spirit,
plays an active part. - Beautiful in person, rich, a graceful and
effective orator, but restless and ambitious, he quickly acquired
great influence. Three years after the peace of Nicias, he per-
suaded Athens to join a league of disaffected Peloponnesian allies
of Sparta; but in the battle of Maniinea (418 B.C.) the Spartans
regained their supremacy. It was at the suggestion of Alcibiades
that the Athenians undertook the great Sicilian Expedition, which
resulted in the worst disasters they ever suffered. This expedition
was aimed at the Dorian city of Syracuse, and the hope was that
all Sicily might be conquered. It consisted of about forty thou-
sand men, besides the sailors. The commanders were Alcibiades,
JVicias, and Lamachus. Alcibiades was recalled to answer a
charge of sacrilege. At Thurii he managed to escape and went
over to the side of Sparta. Gylippus went with a small Spartan
fleet to aid Syracuse. The Athenians were repulsed in their attack
on the city. Although re-inforced by land and naval forces under
a gallant and worthy general, Demosthenes, they fought under great
disadvantages, so that their fleet was destroyed in the Syracusan
. harbor. Their retreating forces on land were cut to pieces or cap-
tured. Nicias and Demosthenes died either at the hands of the
executioner or by a self-inflicted death.

* Naval Contests. — No such calamity had ever overtaken a
Grecian army. The news of it brought anguish into almost every
family in Athens. The Spartans had fortified the village of Decelea
in Attica, and sought on the sea, with Persian help, to annihilate the
Athenian navy. The allies of Athens, Chios, Miletus, etc., revolted.
The oligarchs at Athens overthrew the democratic constitution,
and placed the Government in the hands of a Council of Four
Hundred. The popular assembly was limited to five thousand
members, and was never called together. The object was to make
peace with Sparta. But the army before Samos, of which Thrasy*GRECIAN HISTORY.

105

bulus, a patriotic man, was the leader, refused to accept this change
of government. Alcibiades, who had left the Spartans out of anger
on account of their treatment of him, was recalled, and assumed
command. The oligarchical rule was overturned in four months
after its establishment, and the democracy restored, — the assembly
being still limited, however, to five thousand citizens. Three bril-
liant naval victories, the last at Cyzicus (410 B.C.), were won over
the Spartans by Alcibiades who came back to Athens in triumph
(408 B.C.). Zysanderwas the commander of the Spartan fleet on
the coast of Asia Minor, and (407 B.C.) gained a victory over the
Athenian ships during a temporary absence of Alcibiades. Alcibi^
ades was deposed, retired to the Hellespont, and, three years later,
died. The new Spartan admiral, Callicratidas, surrounded the
Athenian fleet under Conon at Mitylene. By very strenuous exer-
tions of the Athenians, a new fleet was dispatched to the help of
Conon; and in the battle of Arginusce (406 B.C.), the Pelopon-
nesians were completely vanquished. The public spirit of Athens
and the resources of a free people were never more impressively
shown than in the prodigious efforts made by the Athenians to rise
from the effect of the crushing disaster which befell the Sicilian
expedition on which their hopes were centered. But these exer-
tions only availed to furnish to coming generations an example of
the heroic energy and love of country which are possible under
free government. -

III. THE FALL OF ATHENS.

Lysander oi\cz more took command of the Spartan fleet. Shrewd
in diplomacy, as well as skillful in battle, he strengthened his naval
force by the aid of Cyrus the Younger, the Persian governor in Asia
Minor. Watching his opportunity, he attacked the Athenians at
dZgospotami, opposite Lampsacus, when soldiers and sailors were
off their guard (405 B.C.). Three thousand of them, who had not
been slain in the assault, were slaughtered after they had been
taken captive. Conon escaped to Cyprus with only eight ships.
One fast-sailing trireme carried the news of the overwhelming de-
feat to Athens. Lysander followed up his success cautiously, but
with energy. Islands and seaports surrendered to him, and in them
he established the aristocratic rule. The Athenians were shut in
by land and by sea. A treacherous aristocratic faction within the
walls was working in the interest of the Spartans. Famine con-
spired with other agencies to destroy the multitude of homeless and
destitute people who had crowded into the city. Starvation com-
pelled a surrender to the Spartan general. The long walls and for-
tifications were demolished by the ruthless conqueror, the work of
destruction being carried on to the sound of the flute. All but
twelve vessels were given up to the captors. The democratic sys-io6

ANCIENT HISTORY.

tem was subverted, and thirty men — the "Thirty Tyrants " — of
the oligarchical party were established in power, with Critias, a
depraved and passionate, though able, man, at their head (404-
403 B.C.). They put a Spartan garrison in the citadel, and sought
to confirm their authority by murdering or banishing all whom they
suspected of opposition. Thrasybulus, a patriot, collected the
democratic fugitives at Pliylc, defeated the Thirty, and seized the
Pirceus. Critias was slain. Ten oligarchs of a more moderate
temper were installed in power. In co-operation with the Spartan
king, Pausaniasy the two parties at Athens were reconciled. An
amnesty was proclaimed, and democracy in a moderate form was
restored, with a revision of the laws, under the archonship of Euclides
(403 B.C.). It was shortly after this change that the trial and
death of Socrates occurred, the wisest and most virtuous man of
ancient times (399 B.C.).

Philosophy: Socrates.—At the head of the Greek philosophers is
the illustrious name of Socrates. He was the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor,
and was born 469 B.C., just as Pericles was assuming the leadership at Athens.
Socrates was the founder of moral philosophy. He was original, being in-
debted for his ideas to no previous school. lie was as sound in body as in
mind. His appearance was unique. His forehead was massive, but nis flat
nose gave to his countenance an aspect quite at variance with the Greek ideal
of beauty. lle'looked, it was said, like a satyr. He taught, in opposition to
the Sophists, a class of men (including Gorgias, Protagoras, and others) who in-
structed young men in logic and grammar, taking fees, w-which was contrary
to the custom of the Greek philosophers, — and cultivating intellectual keen-
ness and dexterity, often at the expense of depth and sincerity. Their work
as thinkers was negative, being confined mainly to pointing out fallacies in
existing systems, but providing nothing positive in the room of them. Socrates
had been called by the oracle at Delphi the wisest of men. He could only
account for this by the fact, that, in contrast with others, he did not erroneously
deem himself to be knowing. " Know thyself " was his maxim. His daily
occupation was to converse with different classes, especially young men, on
subjects of highest moment to the individual and to the state. By a method
of quiet cross-examination, the "Socratic irony" he made them aware of
their lack of clear ideas and tenable, consistent opinions, and endeavored to
guide them aright. The soul and its moral improvement was his principal
subject. He asserted Theism and the spiritual nature and obligations of
religion, without calling in question the existence of the various divinities.
He taught the doctrine of a universal Providence. Absolute loyalty to con-
science, the preference of virtue to any possible advantage without it, he
solemnly inculcated. He believed, perhaps not without a mingling of doubt,
in the immortality of the soul. Taking no part in public affairs, he devoted
his time to this kind of familiar instruction, — to teaching by dialogue, in
compliance with what he believed to be an inward call of God. An impulse
within him, which he called a divine "voice," checked him when he was
about to take a wrong step. He was charged with corrupting the youth by
his teaching, and with heresy in religion. His rebukes of the shallow and the
self-seeking had stung them, and had made him many enemies. Such men as
Alcibiades and Critias, who had been among his hearers, but for whose mis-
conduct he was really not in the least-responsible, added to his unpopularity.
The Apology, as given by Plato, contains the substance of his most impressive
defense before his judges. He took no pains to placate them or his accusers,GRECIAN HISTORY.

107

or to escape after he was convicted. Conversing with his disciples in the
same genial, tranquil tone which he had always maintained, he drank the cup
of hemlock, and expired (May, 399 B.C.). An account of his teaching and
of his method of life is given by his loving scholar +Xenophony in the Memo-
rabilia. The dialogues of Platoy in which Socrates is the principal interlocutor,
mingle with the master's doctrine the pupil's own thoughts and speculations.

Plato.—Plato (429-348 B.C.), the foremost of the disciples of Socrates,
founded the philosophical school known as the Academy from the place where
his pupils were wont to meet him. One of his prominent tenets was the doc-
trine of ideas which he regarded as spiritual realities, intermediate between
God and the world, of which all visible things are the manifestation. They
are the shadow, so to speak, of which ideas are the substance. He defined
virtue in man to be resemblance to God according to the measure of our
ability. In the Republic, he sets forth his political views, and sketches the
ideal state. More speculative than Socrates, Plato, from the wide range of
his discussions, from their poetic spirit as well as their depth of thought, not
less than their beauty of style, is one of the most inspiring and instructive of
all authors. No other heathen writer presents so many points of affinity with
Christian teaching.

Aristotle. — Aristotle (3S4-322 B.C.) studied under PJato, but elaborated
a system of his own, which was on some points dissonant from that of his
instructor. His investigations extended over the field of material nature, as
well as over the field of mind and morals. With less of poetry and of lofty
sentiment than Plato, he has never been excelled in intellectual clearness
and grasp. He was possessed of a wonderful power to observe facts, and
an equally wonderful talent for systemizing them, and reasoning upon them.
He is the founder of the science of Logic. His treatises on Rhetoric and on
Ethics have been hardly less important in their influence. His Politics is
a masterly discussion of political science, based on a diligent examination of
the various systems of government. In truth, in all departments of research
he exhibits the same capacity for scientific observation and discussion. In
religion he was a theist; but ne is less spiritual in his vein of thought, and
more reserved in his utterances on this theme, than Plato. The names of
these two philosophers have been very frequently coupled. Their influence,
like their fame, is imperishable.

Later Schools: the Cynics. —The impulse given by Socrates gave rise
to still other schools of philosophers. Aristippus of Cyrene (about 380 B.C.)
founded a sect which held that happiness is the chief end, the goal of
rational effort. Antisthenes, who was born 422 B.C., and especially Diogenes,
went to the opposite extreme, and founded the school of Cynics, who looked
with disdain, not only on luxuries, but on the ordinary comforts of life, and
inured themselves to do without them. Their manners were often as savage
as their mode of living.

Historical Writings. — The three principal historical writers were He-
rodotus (470-402 B.C.), the charming but uncritical chronicler of what he heard
and saw, by whom the interference of the gods in human affairs is devoutly
credited; T/mcydides, who himself took part in the Peloponnesian war, the
history of which he wrote with a candor, a profound perception of character,
an insight into the causes of events, a skill in arrangement, and a condensa-
tion and eloquence of style, which are truly admirable; and Xenophon^ an
author characterized by naturalness, simplicity, and a religious spirit.

Greek Iiife.— It will be convenient to bring together here some features of Greek life.
(1) Public Buildings and Dwellings. The Greeks almost always preferred to live in cities.
These grew up about an Acropolis, which was a fort on a hill, generally a steep crag. This
was a place of refuge, and the site of the oldest temple. It became often, therefore, a sacred
place from which private dwellings were excluded. At the nearest harbor, there would be a
seaport town. The Pira>us was more than four miles from Athens, — a mile farther than the
nearest shore, but was chosen as being an excellent harbor. Sparta, alone, had no citadel,—
the access from the plain being easily defended, — and no walls. The attractive buildings in aio8

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Greek town were the public edifices. Private houses, as to the exterior, were very plain, with
flat roofs, with few stories, and low. Towards the street '* the house looked like a dead wall
with a strong door in it." It was built round an open court: in the case of the best houses,
round two courts,—one bordered by apartments for the men, the other with the rooms for women.
Bedrooms and sitting-rooms were small, admitting but little light. Fresco-painting on the walls
and ceilings came to be common. The furniture of the house was plain and simple, but grace-
ful and elegant inform. The poorer classes slept on skins: the richer, on woolen mattresses
laid on girths. The Greeks lived so much in the open air that they took less pains with their
dwellings. The public buildings were costly and substantially built, (a) Aleals, Gymnas-
tics t etc. The Greeks rose early. There are no notices of a morning bath. The first meal
was light. It was succeeded, as was the custom at Rome, by calls on friends. Business might
follow until noon, the hour of the dejeuner t or breakfast, which, in the case of the rich, was
a substantial meal. I^ater in the day, males went to the practice of gymnastics, which were
followed, in later times, by a warm bath. Towards sunset came the principal meal of the
day. Conversation and music, or the attending of a feast with friends, took up the evening;
if there was a festal company, often the whole night. At the dinner-table, the Greeks reclined
on couches. Ladies, if allowed to be present, and children, were required to sit. Spoons,
sometimes knives, but never forks, were used. (3) Costume: Use of Wine. The dress
of the Greeks, both of men and women, was simple and graceful. The men were generally
bareheaded in the streets. In bad weather they wore close-fitting caps, and, in traveling,
broad-brimmed hats. In Athens and Sparta they always carried walking-sticks. The use
of wine was universal. It was always mixed with water. (4) Slaves. Slaves were regarded
as chattels. No one objected to slavery as wrong. Slaves were better treated at Athens than
elsewhere, but even at Athens they were tortured when their testimony was required. They
were let out, sometimes by thousands, to work in pestiferous mines. (5) Women and Chil-
dren. In Athens, the wife had seldom learned any thing but to spin and to cook. She lived
in seclusion in her dwelling, and was not present with her husband at social entertainments,
either at home or elsewhere. She had few if any legal rights, although at Athens she might
bring a suit against her husband for ill-treatment. Concubinage was not condemned by pub-
lic opinion. There was no law against exposing infants whom the parents did not wisn to
bring up, — that is, leaving them where they would perish. When found and brought up, they
were the slaves of the person finding them. This cruelty was frequent in the case of daughters,
or of offspring weak or deformed There were toys and games for children. Archytas, a
philosopher, was said to have invented the child's rattle. Dolls, hoops, balls, etc., were common
playthings. Boys and girls played hide and seek, blind man's buff, hunt the slipper, ctc. Older
people played ball, and gambled with dice. (6) Education. The education of boys was careful;
that of girls was neglected. The boy went to or from school under the care of a slave, called
Pedagogue, or leader. Teachers were of different social grades, from the low class which
taught small children, to the professors of rhetoric and philosophy. It is needless to say how
much stress was laid on gymnastic and aesthetic training. Boys read Homer and other authors
at an early age, committing much of them to memory. They were taught to play on the harp
or the flute, and to sing Lyric poems they learned by heart. Music held a veiy high place
in the esteem of the Greeks for its general influence on the mind Running, wrestling, throwing
the dart, etc., the games practiced at the public contests, were early taught. Boys at sixteen
or eighteen came of age, and were enrolled as citizens. (7) Musical Instruments: the
Dance. Instrumental music was common among the Greeks at games and meals, and in battle.
They used no bows on the stringed instruments, but either the fingers or the plectrum, — a
stick of wood, ivory, or metal. There were three sorts of stringed instruments, the lyre, the
cithara (or zithern), and the harp. The wind-instruments were the pipe, the clarionet, and
the trumpet. Besides these, there were clanging instruments which were used chiefly in reli-
gious ceremonies: such were castinets, the cymbal, and the tambourine. Dancing was origi-
nally connected with religious worship. Mimetic dances were a favorite diversion at feasts.
There were warlike dances by men in armor, who went through the movements of attack and
defense. In mimetic dances the hands and arms played a part There were peaceful dances or
choral dances, marked by rhythmic grace. Sometimes these were slow and measured, and
sometimes more lively. Specially brisk were the dances at the festivals of Dionysus (Bacchus).
Symbolic dances of a religious character, these Bacchic dances were the germ of the drama.
Recitations were first introduced between hymns that attended the choric dances. Then, later,
followed the dialogue. (8) Weddings and Funerals. Marriage was attended by a religious
ceremonial. There was a solemn sacrifice and a wedding-feast. The bride was conveyed to
lier husband's house, accompanied on the way with music and song. When a person died, his
body was laid out for one day, during which the relatives and hired mourners uttered laments
round the bier. Burial was at the daw 11 of day. In later times, a coin was put into the mouth
of the corpse, with which to pay his passage to the world below. There was a funeral proces-
sion, and at the tomb a solemn farewell was addressed to the deceased by name. There was
then a funeral-feast. Mourning garments were worn for a short period. The dead were buried
in the suburbs of the cities, generally on both sides of a highway. In the tomb many little
presents, as trinkets and vases, were deposited. (9) Courts of Law. At lawmen pleaded
their own causes, but might take advice or have their speeches composed for them by others.
In some cases, friends were allowed to speak in behalf of a litigant. Men like Demosthenes
received large fees for services of this kind. There being no public prosecutor, informers were
more numerous. They became odious under the name of sycophants, which is supposed to
have been first applied to those who informed against breakers of an old law forbidding the
exportation of figs from Athens.GRECIAN HISTORY.

IO9

CHAPTER IV.

RELATIONS WITH PERSIA.—THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN
HEGEMONY,

The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — The Anabasis, the princi-
pal work of Xenophon, describes the retreat from the Tigris to the
coast of Asia Minor, of a body of ten thousand mercenary Greek
troops, —a retreat effected under his own masterly leadership.
The Persian Empire, now in a process of decay, was torn with civil
strife. Xerxes and his eldest son had been murdered (465 B.C.).
The story of several reigns which follow is full of tales of treason
and fratricide. On the death of Darius //. (Darius Nothus)
(423-404 B.C.), the younger Cyrus undertook to dethrone his
brother Artaxerxes //., and for that purpose organized, in Asia
Minor, a military expedition, made up largely of hired Greek troops.
At Cunaxay not far from Babylon, Cyrus fell in the combat with
his brother. The Persians enticed the Greek commander, Clear-
chusy into their camp, and slew him. Xenophon, an Athenian vol-
unteer who had accompanied the army, conducted the retreat of
his countrymen, with whom he encountered incredible hardships
in the slow and toilsome journey through Armenia to Trapezus
(Trebizonid),and thence to Byzantium. The story of this march,
through snow, over rugged mountains, and across rapid currents, is
told in the Anabasis. A very striking passage is the description
of the joy of the Greeks when from a hilltop • they first descried
the Black Sea. The soldiers shouted, " The sea ! the sea 1" and
embraced one another and their officers.

The Corinthian War and the Peace of Antalcidas. — Tissa-
phernes, the antagonist and successor of the younger Cyrus, was
Persian governor in Asia Minor, and set out to bring under the yoke
the Ionic cities which had espoused the cause of Cyrus. Sparta
came to their aid, and King Agesilaus defeated the Persians near
the Pactolus (395 B.C.). The Persians stirred up an enemy
nearer home, by the use of gold, and the Boeotians, Corinthians,
and Arrives, jealous of Sparta, and resentful at the tyranny of her
governors (harmosts), and joined by Athens, took up arms against
the Lacedaemonians. Lysander fell in battle with the allies (395
B.C.). The course of the war in which Conon, the Athenian com-
mander, destroyed the Spartan fleet at Cnidus, made it necessary
to recall Agesilaus. His victory at Coronea (394 B.C.) did not
avail to turn the tide in favor of Sparta. Conon rebuilt the long
walls at Athens with the assistance of Persian money. The issue
of the conflict was the Peace of Antalcidas with Persia (387 B.C.),
The Grecian cities of Asia Minor were given up to the Persians,
as were the islands of Clazomence and Cyprus. With the exceptionno

ANCIENT HISTORY.

of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which the Athenians were to con-
trol, all of the other states and islands were to be free and indepen-
dent. This was a great concession to Persia. Greek union was
broken up : each state was left to take care of itself as it best could.
Antalcidas cared little for his country: his treaty was the natural
result of Spartan aggressiveness and selfishness.

Contest of Thebes and Sparta. — The Spartans had fallen away
from the old rules of life ascribed to Lycurgus. They were - pos-
sessed by a greed for gold. There were extremes of wealth and
poverty among them. After the treaty of Antalcidas, they still
lorded it over other states, and were bent on governing in Pelo-
ponnesus. At length they were involved in a contest with Thebes.
This was caused by the seizure of the Cadmeia, the Theban citadel,
by the Spartan Phcebidas acting in conjunction with an aristocratic
party in Thebes (383 B.C.). The Theban democrats, who, under
Pelopidas, made Athens their place of rendezvous, liberated Thebes,
and expelled the Spartans from the Cadmeia. Hostile attempts of
Sparta against Athens induced the Athenians to form a new con-
federacy (or symmachy) composed of seventy communities (378
B.C.) ; and, after they had gained repeated successes on the sea, the
two states concluded peace. Athens had become alarmed at the
increased power of Thebes, and was ready to go over to the side
of Sparta, her old enemy. It was a feeling in favor of a balance of
power like that which had prompted Sparta at the close of the Pelo-
ponnesian war, to refuse to consent to the destruction of Athens,
which Thebes and Corinth had desired. Cleombrotusy king of
Sparta, again invaded Boeotia. The principal Boeotian leader was
Epaminondas, one of the noblest patriots in all Grecian history, —
in his disinterested spirit and self-government resembling Washing-
ton. The Spartan king was defeated by him in the great battle of
Leuctra (371 B.C.), and was there slain. At this time the rage of
party knew no bounds. The wholesale massacre of political antag-
onists in a city was no uncommon occurrence.

Theban Hegemony. —The victory of Leuctra gave the hegem-
ony to Thebes. Three times the Boeotians invaded the Spartan
territory. They founded Megalopolis in Arcadia, to strengthen
the Arcadians against their Lacedaemonian assailants (370 B.C.).
They also revived the Messenian power, recalled the Messenians
who had long been in exile, and founded the city of Messene. In
the battle of Mantinea (362 B.C.), Epaminondas, though victo-
rious against the Spartans and their allies, was slain. Peace fol-
lowed among the Grecian states, Sparta alone refusing to be a
party to it. In the course of this intestine war, the Thebans had
broken up the new maritime sway gained by them.ALEXANDER THE GREAT

jOxiana
\Palux/

J POXTUs

A pel Ionia
\Byzantium

Alexandria^.*
.S-O G DJ AJVT A

ilaracalfdar-" * ""f~

Mazara C.

a

Bactra

RHOOESj

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Alexandria:

Damascus

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Babylon

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Thebc:_Period III.
THE MACEDONIAN ERA.

chapter i.

PHILIP AND ALEXANDER.

The Macedonians. — The Greeks, exhausted by long-continued
war with one another, were just in a condition to fall under the
dominion of Macedonia, the kingdom on the north which had been
ambitious to extend its power. The Macedonians were a mixed
race, partly Greek and partly Illyrian. Although they were not
acknowledged to be Greeks, their kings claimed to be of Greek
descent, and were allowed to take part in the Olympian games.
At first an inland community, living in the country, rough and un-
cultivated, made up mostly of farmers and hunters, they had been
growing more civilized by the efforts of their kings to introduce
Greek customs. Archelaus (413-399 B.C.) had even attracted
Greek artists and poets to his court. At the same time they were
exerting themselves to extend their power to the sea. The people
were hardy and brave. When Epaminondas died, Philip (359-
336 B.C.) was on the Macedonian throne. He had lived three
years at Thebes, and had learned much from Epaminondas, the
best strategist and tactician of his day. The decline of public
spirit in Greece had led the states to rely very much on mercenary
troops, whose trade was war. Philip had a well-drilled standing
army. Every thing was favorable to the gratification of his wish
to make himself master of Greece. First he aimed to get pos-
session of Greek cities in Chalcidice> of which Olynthus was the
chief. The Athenians had towns in that region, besides Amphipolis,
which was formerly theirs. Philip contrived to make the Olyn-
thians his allies; and then, crossing the river Sttymon, he con-
quered the western part of Thrace, where there were rich gold
mines. There, for purposes of defense, he founded the city of
Philippi.

The Sacred War. — A pretext for interfering in the affairs of
Greece, Philip found in the Sacred War in behalf of the temple
of Delphi, whose lands had been seized by the Phocians.. This

in112

ANCIENT HISTORY.

act of the Phocians was a part of their contest against Thebes, to
throw off the Theban supremacy. Athens and Sparta joined the
Phocians. The Thessalian nobles sided with Philip. He gained
the victory in his character of champion of the Amphictyonic
Council\ and took his place in that body, in the room of the Pho-
cians (346 B.C.). He had Thessaly under his feet, and would
have marched into Phocis, but turned back when he found an
Athenian force at the pass of Thermopylae to resist his progress.

Demosthenes. — The Athenians had placed themselves at the
head of an AZgcan League, and, had they managed with more spirit
and prudence, they might have checked Philip. There was one
man, worthy of the best days of Greece, who penetrated the de-
signs of Philip, and exerted his great powers to stimulate his
countrymen to a timely resistance. This was Demosthenes (385-
322 B.C.). He was the prince of the school of orators who had
sprung up in these troublous times. Overcoming natural obsta-
cles, he had trained himself with such assiduity that a place at the
head of all orators, ancient and modern, is generally conceded to
him. He was a great statesman, moved by a patriotic spirit: his
speeches were for the welfare and salvation of the state. In 358
B.C., a war broke out between Athens and its maritime allies, in
which Athens was unsuccessful. It was on the conquest of Thes-
saly by Philip, that Demosthenes made against him the first of that
series of famous speeches known as Philippics (352 B.C.). In
vain he urged the Athenians to rescue Olynthus. The inefficiency
of the aid rendered, enabled Philip to conquer and destroy that
city, and to sell its inhabitants as slaves (348 B.C.). Thirty cities
he destroyed, and annexed all Chalcidice to Macedon. A Mace-
donian party was formed at Athens, the foremost leader of which
was /Eschines, not a good citizen, but an orator only second in
rank to Demosthenes. They contended that it was futile to resist
the advance of the Macedonian power. Demosthenes went at the
head of an embassy to the Peloponnesian states which had taken
sides with Philip, but his efforts to dissuade them from this suicidal
policy were unavailing. .What he wanted was a union of all
Greeks against the common enemy, who was bent on.robbing them
of their liberty. He gathered, at length, a strong party about him
at Athens. The overtures of peace from Philip, who was prose-
cuting his conquests in Thrace, were rejected. Athenian forces
obliged the king to give up the siege of Byzantium (341 B.C.).
The consequent enlarged influence of Demosthenes was used by
him to secure an increase of the fund for carrying on the war.
But Philip had his paid supporters in all the Greek states. sEs-
chines at -Athens proved an efficient helper. A deputy at the
Amphictyonic Council\ in 338 B.C., he contrived to bring about
another "holy war" against Amphissa in Locris/ the end beingGRECIAN HISTORY.

,"3

to give Philip the command. Philip seized Elalea, in the east of
Phocis, which commanded the entrance to Boeotia and Attica.
Dismay spread through Greece. Demosthenes roused the Athe-
nian assembly, where all were silent through fear, to confront
Philip boldly, and himself went to Thebes, which he induced to
form an alliance with Athens. But the allies were defeated at the
fatal battle of Chceronea (August, 338 B.C.), where Alexander,
Philip's youthful son, decided the fortune of the day by vanquish-
ing the Theban "sacred band." Philip treated the Thebans with
great severity. He placed a garrison in the Cadmeia. To Athens
he granted favorable terms. Marching into Peloponnesus, he took
from Sparta a large part of its territory, and apportioned it to the
Messenians, Argives, and Arcadians. At a national assembly at
Corinth, from which the Spartans were absent, Philip caused
himself to be created leader of the Grecian forces against Persia,
with the powers of a dictator. Each of the Greek states was to
retain its autonomy; and a congress, to meet at Corinth, was
to settle differences among them. Two years after the battle of
Chceronea, at the marriage festival of his daughter with the king
of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by means of a conspiracy, in

P"rhich his queen is thought to have been a partner.

Alexander the Great. — Alexander was twenty years old when
his father died. His bodily health and vigor qualified him for
combats and toils which few soldiers in his army could endure.
His energy, rapidity, and military skilly lift him to a level with
Hannibal and the foremost commanders of any age. He was not
without a generous appreciation of art and literature. The great
philosopher, Aristotle, was one of his tutors. For the eminent
authors and artists of Greece he cherished a warm admiration.
But, his temper was passionate and imperious. Homer was his
delight, and in Homer he took Agamemnon for his model; but
the direst act of cruelty done by Achilles — that of dragging Hector
after his chariot — he exceeded when he dragged Balis, a general
who had opposed him, at the tail of his chariot through the streets
of Gaza. Especially when his passions were inflamed by strong
drink, — as at banquets, occasions where Macedonian princes be-
fore him had been wont to drink to excess, — he was capable of
savage deeds.

Alexander in Greece: His Army. — At a congress in Corinth,
Alexander was recognized as the leader and general of Greece.
In the spring of 335 B.C., he made a campaign against the bar-
barous peoples north of Macedonia, — the Thracians, the Getce, and
the Illyrians. A false report of his death led to an uprising of
the Greeks. Quickly returning, he took vengeance on the The-
bans by razing their city to the ground, sparing only the house of
the poet Pindar, and by selling its thirty thousand inhabitants intoH4

ANCIENT HISTORY.

slavery. Athens prayed for pardon, which was granted, even the
demand for the surrender of Demosthenes and other leaders being
revoked. All resistance in Greece was over. Alexanders hands
were free to complete his preparations for the task of conquering
the Persian Empire. His army was strong through its valor and
discipline rather than its numbers. The Macedonian phalanx was
the most effective force which had hitherto been used in war. It
was made up of foot soldiers drawn up in ranks, three feet apart,
with spears twenty-one feet in length, held fifteen feet from the
point. The length of the spears and the projection of so many
in front of the first rank, gave to the phalanx a great advantage,
although such a body of troops could be turned around with diffi-
culty. Alexander began his battles with other troops, and used
the phalanx for the decisive charge. Only native Macedonians
served in the phalanx. This was the case, also, with the Guard\
a body of infantry, and with two divisions of cavalry, one clad in
heavy armor, and one in light. With these troops were Greek and
barbarian soldiers, infantry and cavalry, and a division for hurling
stones, which was used not only in sieges, but also in battles.
There was a band of young Macedonian soldiers called pages,
also a body-guard selected from these by promotion; and out of
this the king chose his generals. The army consisted of not more
than forty thousand men, but it was so organized as to be com-
pletely under the control of Alexander; and he was a military
genius of the first order.-

The Campaign of Alexander: to the Battle of Issus. — In the
spring of 334 B.C., Alexander crossed the Hellespont at Abydos.
At Ilium (Troy) he performed various rites in honor of the heroes
of the Trojan war, his romantic sympathy with whom was the princi-
pal tie between him and the Greeks. A Persian army disputed the
passage of the Granicus. He was the first to enter the river, and
in the battle displayed the utmost personal valor. His decisive
victory caused nearly the whole of Asia Minor to submit to him.
Halicamassus, and the few other towns that held out, were taken
by storm. At Tarsus he was cured by his physician, Philip, of a
dangerous fever, brought on by a bath in the chilly waters of the
river Cydnus. Darius 1IL, the king of Persia, with a large army,
approaching from the Euphrates, encountered him in a valley near
Issus, in Cilicia. There (333 B.C.) was fought the memorable
battle which settled the fate of the Persian Empire. The host of
Darius was defeated with great slaughter; and his camp, with his
treasures and his family, fell into the hands of the victor.

To the Battle of Arbela. — After the victory of Issus, Syria
and Phoenicia submitted, except Tyre, which was captured after a
siege of seven months. Two thousand of the inhabitants were
hung on the walls, and thirty thousand were sold into slavery.GRECIAN HISTORY.

US

Gaza resisted, and there Alexander was severely wounded. After
it was taken, he entered Egypt\ and founded the city of Alex-
andria, in its consequences one of the most memorable acts of
his life. He marched through Lybia to the temple of Jupitet
Amnion (331 B.C.). Having thus subdued the lands on the
west, he passed through Palestine and Syria by way of Damascus,
crossed the Euphrates and the Tigris, and met the Persian army
in the plains of Gaugamela, near Arbela,—an army more than
twenty times as large as his own (October, 331 B.C.). After a
hotly contested battle, the Persians were routed, and their empire
destroyed.

To the Invasion of India.—Babylon and Susa with all their
treasures, and, afterwards, Pcrsepolis and Pasargada, fell into the
conqueror's hands. He set fire to Persepolis, and sold its male in-
habitants into slavery. He pursued Darius into Media, Hyrcania,
and Parthia, where the flying king was murdered by Bessus, one
of his own nobles, that he might not give himself up to Alexander.
He then marched east and south through Persia and the modern
Afghanistan. He tarried at Prophthasia (Furrah) for two months.
Here it was that he charged Philotas, one of his best officers, with
a conspiracy against his life, and put him to death; and after this
he ordered the murder of Parmenio, his best general, who had
been a companion in arms of King Philip. Founding cities in
different places as he advanced, he crossed the Oxus, marched
through Sogdiana9 and crossed the Jaxartes (Sir-Daria). While
at Samarcand\ in a drunken revel, he slew Clitus, the friend who
had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus. In a fit of
remorse he went without food or drink for three days. In Bactra,
the capital of Bactria, he married Roxana, a princess of the
country. By this time his head was turned by his unexampled
victories, conquests and power. He began to demand of his fol-
lowers the cringing adulation that was paid to Oriental monarchs,
and when it was denied was ready to inflict summary vengeance.

To the Death of Alexander. — Crossing the eastern Caucasus
(the Hindu-Kush), Alexander moved down the right bank of the
Indus? subduing the tribes whom he met in his path. On the
further side of the Hydaspes, he met the Indian prince Porus,
whom he defeated and captured, and converted into an ally. He
continued his marches and his line of victories as far as the river
Hyphasis. Here the Macedonian troops would go no farther.
Alexander turned back (327 B.C.), and with his army and fleet
moved down the Hydaspes to the Indus, and down the Indus to
the sea. Nearchus, his admiral, sailed along the shore to the west,
while Alexander conducted the rest of the army amid infinite hard-
ships through the desert, and finally met him on the coast. In
the beginning of the year 325, he reached Susa. Here he plainlyn6

ANCIENT HISTORY.

manifested his purpose of combining "Macedonia and Greece with
the East in one great empire. He adopted the Persian costume
and ceremonial, and married both the daughter of Darius 111\
and the sister of Artaxerxes III\ He prevailed on eighty of his
Macedonian officers and ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to take
Persian wives. For himself he exacted the homage paid to a di-
vinity. These measures, looking to the amalgamation of Macedon
and Greece with the East on terms of equality, were most offensive
to the old comrades and subjects of Alexander. He was obliged
to quell a mutiny, which he accomplished with consummate ad-
dress and courage (July, 324 B.C.). In the marshes about Baby-
lon, a place which he intended to make his capital, he contracted
a fever, which was aggravated by daily revels, and which terminated
his life (323 B.C.), after a reign of twelve years and eight months.

Influence of Alexander. — The Persian Empire, when it was
\ attacked by Alexander, was a gigantic body without much vitality.
Yet to overcome it, there was requisite not only the wonderful
military talents of the conqueror, but the vigilance and painstaking
which equally characterized him. He has been called " an adven-
turer." To fight and to conquer, and to spread his dominion
wherever there were countries to subdue, seems to have been his
absorbing purpose. The most substantial result of his exploits,
which read more like fable than authentic history, was to spread
Hellenism, — to diffuse at least a tincture of Greek civilization,
together with some acquaintance with the Greek language, over
the lands of the East. This was a most important work in;its
. bearing on the subsequent history of antiquity, and more remotely
on the history of all subsequent times.

CHAPTER II.

THE SUCCESSORS OP ALEXANDER.

Divisions of the Empire. — Alexander left no legitimate?chil-
dren. The child of Roxana, Alexander the Younger, was born
after his fathers death. The empire naturally fell to his princi-
pal generals, of whom Perdiccas, having command. of the great
army of Asia, had the chief power. He was obliged to content
his military colleagues, which he did by giving to them provinces.
The principal regents, or guardians, were soon reduced to three,—
Antipater and Craterus in Europe, and Perdiccas. The govern-
ment was carried on in the name of Roxana's son, and of Arrhi-
daus, the half-brother of Alexander. But Perdiccas soon found
that each general was disposed to be in fact a king in his own
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MadlaliaGRECIAN HISTORY.

II7

This combined the satraps against him. Perdiccas was supported
by his friend Eumenes, but had against him Antipater and Cra-
terusy the other regents, and the powerful governors, Ptolemy Lagi
in Egypt, and Antigonus in Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphilia (322
B.C.). There followed a series of wars lasting for twenty-two
years, involving numerous changes of sovereignty, and fresh par-
titions of territory. The rebellious satraps triumphed over the
royalists, whose aim was to keep the empire intact for the family
of Alexander. The ambition of Antigonus to make himself the
sole ruler, led to a league against him (315 B.C.). In a treaty of
peace, Cassander, the son of Antipater, was to retain the govern-
ment , of Macedonia. By him Roxana and the young Alexander
were put to death. In a second war against Antigonus, in which,
as before, he was supported by his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, they
were completely defeated in the battle of Jpsus, in Phrygia (301
-B.C.). Antigonus was slain: Demetrius fled to Greece. The re-
sult of this protracted contest was, that the Macedonian empire was
broken into three principal states,— Macedonia under the Antigo-
nidce, the descendants of Antigonus; Egypt under the Ptolemies,;
Syria under the Seleucidce. Besides these, there were the smaller
kingdoms of Pergamon and of Bithynia. Other states broke off
from the Syrian realm of the Seleucidae.

I. THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES.

Ptolemy Lagi (323-283 B.C.). —When Alexander transferred the
seat of power in Egypt from Memphis to Alexandria, he accom-
. plished results which he could not at all foresee. The Greek ele-
ment became predominant in Egyptian affairs. A great stimulus
was given to commerce and to foreign intercourse. The Egyptians
themselves entered zealously into industrial pursuits. Ptolemy Lagi
(Soter), the first of the new sovereigns, was wise enough to guard
his own territory, and even to establish his rule in Palestine, Phoeni-
cia, and Coele-Syria, but to avoid extensive schemes of conquest.
Cyrenaica, on the west of Egypt, , and the intermediate Lybian
tribes, he subdued. Ptolemy was an absolute monarch, but he
retained prominent features in the old Egyptian administrative
system, gave offices to Egyptians, and protected their religion. The
most important civil stations and all military offices were reserved
for Grjeco-Macedonians : Alexandria was a Greek city. From the
beginning he fostered learning and science. He set to work to
collect a great library in a building connected with his palace. He
; founded the Museum, which was a college of professors. It at-
tracted a great body of students, and became the university of the
eastern world. Under the patronage of Ptolemyy mathematicians,
poets, and critics of high repute flourished. Among the structuresn8

ANCIENT HISTORY.

raised by him were the lighthouse of vast height on the island of
Pharos, which was connected with the shore by a mole, or cause-
way, a mile in length; the Soma, or mausoleum, containing the
body of Alexander; the Temple of Serapisy completed by his son;
and the Hippodrome.

Ptolemy Philadelphia. — Ptolemy II., surnamed Philadelphus
(283-247 B.C.), with less talent for war than his father, did much
to encourage commerce, and was especially active in his patronage
of learning. In this last province he did a greater work than his
father. He greatly enlarged the library. He drew learned men to
his court from all directions. In his time the Hebrew scriptures
were translated into Greek, in the version called the Septuagint.
Under his auspices Manetho composed his History of Egypt

Ptolemy Euergetes.— Ptolemy III. (247-222 B.C.), surnamed
Euergetes (the benefactor), was the most enterprising and aggres-
sive of this line of monarchs. Most of his conquests were not per-
manent, but some of them were. He was a patron of art and of
literature. He raised Egypt to the highest pitch of prosperity
that she ever enjoyed. The first three Ptolemies whose reigns had
covered a century, were followed by a series of incompetent and
depraved kings, nine in number.

Ptolemy IV. (Philopator) (322-305 B.C.) was a weak and dissolute prince. In war with
Antiochus III. (the Great) of Syria, he saved his kingdom: but his own subjects were rebel-
lious and disaffected. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor) (181-148 B.C.) was a boy at his accession.
His guardians engaged in war with Syria, which would have conquered Egypt but for the inter*
position of the Romans in his behalf (170 B.C.).

II. MACEDON AND GREECE.

When Alexander was in the far East, the Spartan king, Agis III\
(330 B.C.), headed a revolt against Antipater; but Agis was
vanquished and slain. The death of Alexander kindled the hope
of regaining liberty among patriotic Greeks. Athens, under De-
mosthenes and Hyperides, led the way. A large confederacy was
formed. Leosthenesf the Greek commander, defeated Antipater,
and shut him up within the walls of Lamia (in Thessaly). But
the Greeks were finally beaten at Crannon. Favorable terms were
granted to their cities, except Athens and yEtolia. Twenty-one
thousand citizens were deported from Athens to Thrace, Italy, and
other places. The nine thousand richest citizens, with Phocion
at their head, the anti-democratic party, had all power left in
their hands. Demosthenes, Hyperides, and other democratic lead-
ers, were proscribed. Demosthenes took refuge in the temple of
Neptune, on the little island of Calaurea. Finding himself pur-
sued by Archiasy the officer of Antipater, he took poison, which he
had kept by him in a quill, and died. Thus closed the life of an
intrepid statesman who had served the cause of liberty and of his
country through the direst perils and trials with unfaltering con-GRECIAN HISTORY.	' 119

stancy. The democracy again acquired power temporarily, and
Phocion was condemned to death.

Cassander, excluded from the Macedonian throne by his father, Antipater, supplanted
Polysperchon, the regent (316 B.C.). He placed Demetrius of Phaleron in power at Athens
over a democracy with restricted prerogatives. He was driven out by Demetrius Poliorcetes,
who was helped by Athens to possess himself of Macedonia and of the most of Greece, but was
compelled (287 B.C.) to give up his throne, which, however, was gained by his son, Antigo-
nus Gonatas (977 B.C.).

The Achaean League. — In 279 B.C., there occurred an irrup-
tion of the Gauls into Greece, " one of those vast waves of mi-
gration which from time to time sweep over the world." The
Macedonian king, Ptolemy Ceraunus, was defeated by them in a
great battle, captured, and put to death. It was two years before
these marauders were driven out, and Macedonia acquired a
settled government. »This episode in history favored the growth
of two leagues — the Ac1icean League and the ALtolian League.
In these leagues the several cities gave up to the central council
much more power than Greek cities had been in the habit of
granting in former unions. The Achaean League was at first made
up of ten Achaean cities. About 240 B.C. Aratus of Sicyon, who
had brought Sicyon into the league, delivered Corinth from the
Macedonians. To free Greek cities from subjection to them, was
long a great object of the league. Peloponnesus, except Sparta,
with Athens and /Egina, joined it.

The .SStolian League: War of the Leagues. — The rough Ita-
lians north of the Corinthian Gulf, semi-barbarous in their mode
of life, formed another league, and got command of Phocis9
Locris, and Bceotia. A praiseworthy attempt at reform was made
in Sparta by the king, Agis IV\ (240 B.C.), who was opposed by
the rich, and put to death. Cleomenes} his successor, who had the
same spirit as Agis, engaged in conflict with the Achaean League,
which then called in Macedonian help (227 B.C.). It had to give
up to Macedon the Corinthian citadel. Sparta was overthrown.
Soon a war between the two leagues broke out, when the Achaeans
again called on the Macedonians for aid. These conflicts were
followed by the interference of the Romans.

The Evil of Faction. — The bane of Greece, from the beginning
to the end of its history, was the suicidal spirit of disunion. Her
power was splintered at many crises, when, if united, it might
have saved the land from foreign tyranny. Her resources were
drained, generation after generation, by needless local contests.
She owed her downfall to the desolating influence of faction.

III. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM.

Seleucus /. (Nicator) (312-280 B.C.) was the founder of the
Syrian kingdom. From Babylon he extended his dominion to
the Black Sea, to the Jaxartes, and even to the Ganges, so far as120	ANCIENT HISTORY.

to make the Indian prince, Sandracottus, acknowledge him as suze-
rain. From Babylon he removed his capital to Antioch on the
Orontes, which he founded,—a city destined to be the rival of
Alexandria among the cities of the East. The effect of this re-
moval, however, was to loosen his hold upon the Eastern provinces
of his empire. Seleucia, on the west bank of the Tigris, he like-
wise founded, which became a great commercial city, but was
outstripped later by the Parthian city opposite, Ctesiphon. The
provinces beyond the Euphrates he committed to his son, Antio-
chus. With him (Antiochus I.) begins the decline of the empire
through the influence of Oriental luxury and vice. Under him Syria
lost the eastern part of Asia Minor through the invading Gauls,
who converted northern Phrygia into Galatia, while north-western
Lydia became the kingdom of Pergamon. Antiochus II. (261-246
B.C.) could not hold the provinces in subjection. The Parthian
and Bactrian kingdoms began under his reign. Antiochus III.
- (the Great) (223-187 B.C.) checked the Parthians and Bactrians,
and expelled the Egyptians from Asia, but prepared for the down-
fall of the Syrian Empire by provoking the hostility of the
Romans.

Bactria, Parthla, Pergamon, Galatia. — Bactria, after it broke off from Syria,
was under Greek princes until, having been weakened by the Parthians, it was conquered by
the Scythians (134 B.C.;. The Parthians issued, as marauders, from the north border of Iran
(256 li.C.), under the Arsacida. They gradually acquired civilization from contact with
Greek culture, especially after they established the trading-city of Ctesiphon. About 200 B.C.
the rulers of Pontus made the Greek city of Sinoj>e their residence, and attained to a high de-
gree of strength under Mithridates Vl. (the Great). Pergamon became a flourishing state
under the Greek rule of Attains /. (241 B.C.). It was famed for its wealth and its trade.
Eumenes II. (197-159 B.C.) founded the library at Pergamon. For him parchment was im-
proved, if not invented, the Egyptians having forbidden the exportation of papyrus. Galatia
was so named from the swarm ol Gallic invaders (about 279 B.C.), who, after incursions in the
East, which were continued for forty years, settled there, and by degrees yielded to the influences
of Greek culture.

Palestine: the Maccabees: the IdumasanPrinces.— Palestine
fared comparatively well in the times when the Ptolemies had con-
trol. Not so after it fell under the permanent sway of Syria.
The Jews were surrounded and invaded by Gentilism. On three
sides, there were Greek cities. The perils to which their religion
was exposed by the heathen without, and by a lukewarm party
within, made earnest Jews, the bulk of the people, more inflexible
in their adherence to their law and customs. The party of the
Pharisees grew out of the intensity of the loyal and patriotic feel-
ing which was engendered in the periods following the exile. The
. synagogues, centers of worship and of instruction scattered over
the land, acted as a bulwark against the intrusion of heathen doc-
trine and heathen practices. The resistance to these dreaded
evils came to a head when the Syrian ruler, Antiochus Epiphane
embittered by his failures in conflict with Egypt, resolved to break
down religious barriers among his subjects, and, for this end, to
exterminate Jewish worship. In 16S B.C. he set up an altar toGRECIAN HISTORY.

121

Jupiter in the temple at Jerusalem, and even compelled Jewish
priests to immolate swine. Then the revolt broke out in which
the family of Maccabees were the heroic leaders. Judas Macca-
beus recovered the temple, but fell in battle (160 B.C.). Under his
brother Simon, victory was achieved, and the independence of the
nation secured. The chief power remained in the hands of this
family, the Asmoncean princes, until their degeneracy paved the
way for Roman intervention under Pompeius. His adviser was the
Idumceariy Antipater, a Jewish proselyte, whose son Herod was
made king (39 B.C.).

Philosophy: The Stoics and the Epicureans.— In the Greek
world the progress of investigation and reflection tended to produce dis-
belief in the old mythological system. Social confusion and degeneracy
tended to undermine all religious faith. Pyrrho (about 330 B.C.) brought
forward the skeptical doctrine, that the highest wisdom is to doubt every
thing. Euhemerus (315 B.C.) interpreted the whole mythology as an exag-
geration, by imagination and invention, of historical events which form its
slender nucleus. With the loss of liberty and the downfall of the Greek
states, philosophy became, so to speak, more cosmopolitan. It no longer
exalted, in the same narrow spirit, the Greek above the barbarian. It
looked at mankind more as one community. This was a feature of the first
of the two principal sects, the Stoics, of whom Zeno (about 330 B.C.), and
Chrysippus (280-207 1*-C.) were the founders. They taught that virtue is
the only good; that it consists in living according to nature; that reason
should be dominant, and tranquillity of spirit be maintained by the complete
subjugation of feeling. The emotions are to be kept down by the force of
an iron will. This is the Stoic apathy. The world is wisely ordered: what-
ever is, is right; yet the Cause of all things is not personal. Mankind form
one great community, "one city." The Epicureans, the second of the
prominent sects,— so called from Epicurus, their founder (342-270 B.C.),—
made pleasure the chief good, which is to be secured by prudence, or such a
regulation of our desires as will yield, on the whole, the largest fruit of
happiness. They believed that the gods exist, but denied Providence.

Culture.—-In the Greek cities which were founded by the Macedo-
nians, the political life and independence which Greece had enjoyed did
not exist. The "Hellenistic" literature and culture, as it is called, which
followed, lacked the spontaneous energy and original spirit of the old time.
The civilization was that of people not exclusively Greek in blood. Alex-
andria was its chief seat. Poetry languished. It was prose—and prose in
the form of learned inquiries, criticism, and science — that flourished. The
path was the same as that marked out by Aristotle. Theocritus, born in Syra-
cuse, or Cos, under Ptolemy /. (about 320 B.C.), had distinction as a pastoral
or bucolic poet. Euclid, under Ptolemy Soter, systemized geometry. Archi-
medeSy who died in 212 B.C., is said to have invented the screw, and was skill-
ful in mechanics. Eratosthenes founded descriptive astronomy and scientific
chronology. "The Alexandrian age busied itself with literary or scientific re-
search, and with setting in order what the Greek mind had done in its creative
time." After Greece became subject to Rome (146 B.C.) the Grceco-Roman
period in Greek literature begins. The Greek historian Polybius stands on
the border between the Alexandrian age and this next era. He was born
about 210 B.C., and died about 128 B.C.

Literature. — Work* mentioned on p. 16: Histories of Greece by Grote (ia vols.)
(democratic in his sympathies), E. Curtius (5 vols.), Thirlwali. (8 vols.), W. Smith
(1 vol.), G. W. Cox. Felton, Ancient and Modem Greece; Fyflfe, History 0/ Greece
(primer); Duncker, History of Greece [separately published].122

ANCIENT HISTORY.

On special periods: The writings of the ancient authors,— Herodotus (Rawlinson's trans-
lation, 4 vols.), Xenophon, Thucydides (Jowett's translation, 2 vols.), Polybius, Plutarch's
Lives. Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (3 vols.); Droysen, Geschichte des Helle-
nismus (3 vols.); E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government (vol. i.); Fin lay. His-
tory 0/ Greece from the Conquest of the Romans (7 vols.); G. W. Cox, History of Greece
from the Earliest Period to the End of the Persian War (2 vols.), and Lives of Greek
Statesmen (1 vol.).

On special topics: Boeckh, The Public Economy of Athens; Coulangcs, The Ancient
City, etc.: Goll, Kulturbilder aus Hellas und Rom (3 vols.); Guhl and Koner, The Life
of the Greeks and Romans, etc.; Green, Greece and Greek Antiquities (primer); J. P.
Mahafly, Social Life in Greece, also Rambles in Greece, Old Greek Education, and His-
tory of Greek Literature (2 vols.); Becker, Charicles (a story illustrative of Greek life);
F. A. Paley, Greek Wit (2 vols.); Church, Stories from Homer; Black, The Wise Men of
Greece; Neares, Greek Anthology I in Ancient Classics for English Readers], Chief Ancient
Philosophies [Stoicism, etc.] (1 vol., 1880); Miiller and Donaldson, History of the Litera-
ture of Ancient Greece (3 vols.); Mure. A Critical History of the Language and Lit-
erature of Ancient Greece (5 vols.); Jebb, Attic Orators (2 vols.); Symonds, The Greek
Poets (2 vols.); G. F. Schomann, The Antiquities of Greece; Gladstone, Studies on the
Homeric Age and Homer; Liibke, Outlines of the History of Art; Fergusson, History
of Architecture', D'Anvers, Elementary History of Art. Smith's Dictionaries of Greek
and Roman geography, biography, and mythology.

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(4) Philip,

nt. 1, Olympias; 2, Cleopatra; 3, Concubines.

(2) Alexander II.

(3) Perdiccas III.
Amyntas, nt. Cynanrf.

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m. 1, Roxana; 2, Concubines. nt. Alexander of Epirus.	m. Eurydic6.	nt. Cassander. - nt. Amyntas. nt. Philip Arrhidaeus.

(7) Alexander. Hercules.

J2. — House of Antipater.

(8) Cassander,
nt. Thessalonica.

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Antipater.

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Demetrius the	Stratonice,	Phila.

Handsome. nt. 1, Seleucus Nicator; 2, Antiochus Theus.

Craterus.
Alexander.

I

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nt. x, Stratonice; 2, Phthia.

Halcyoneus.

(15) Antigonus III (Doson),
nt. JPhthia, widow of Demetrius II.

Echecrates,
Antigonus.

(16) Philip III.

Apama.

(17) Perseus, nt. Laodic^,
daughter of Seleucus Philopator.

Demetrius.

[From Rawlinson's Manual of Ancient History.]Section II.
ROMAN HISTORY.

introduction.

Place of Home in History. — Rome is the bridge which unites,
while it separates, the ancient and the modern world. The his-
tory of Rome is the narrative of the building up of a single City,
whose dominion gradually spread until it comprised all the coun-
tries about the Mediterranean, or what were then the civilized
nations. " In this great empire was gathered up the' sum total
that remained of the religions, laws, customs, languages, letters,
arts, and sciences of all the nations of antiquity which had succes-
sively held sway or predominance." Under the system of Roman
government and Roman law they were combined in one ordered
community. It was out of the wreck of the ancient Roman Em-
pire that the modern European nations were formed. Their like-
ness to one another, their bond of fellowship, is due to the heritage
of laws, customs, letters, religion, which they have received in
common from Rome.

The Inhabitants of Ancient Italy.—Until a late period in Ro-
man history, the Apennines, and not the Alps, were the northern
boundary of Italy. The most of the region between the Alpine
range and the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, was inhabited
by Gauls, akin to the Celts of the same name north of the Alps.
On the west of Gallia were the Ligurians, a rough people of un-
known extraction. People thought to be of the same race as the
Ligurians dwelt in Sardinia and in Corsica, and in a part of Sicily.
On the east of Gallia were the Venetians, whose lineage is not
ascertained. The Apennines branch off from the Alps in a south-
easterly direction until they near the Adriatic, when they turn to
the south, and descend to the extreme point of the peninsula, thus
forming the backbone of Italy. On the west, in the central por-
tion of the peninsula, is the hilly district called by the ancients,
Etruria (now Tuscany), and the plains of Latium and Campania.
What is now termed Campania, the district about Rome, is a part
of ancient Latium. The Etrurians differed widely, both in ap-
pearance and in language, from the Romans. They were not
t24ROMAN HISTORY.

125

improbably Aryans, but nothing more is known of their descent.
In the east, in what is now Calabria, and in Apulia, there was
another people, the Iapygians, whose origin is not certain, but who
were not so far removed from the Greeks as from the Latins. The
southern and south-eastern portions of the peninsula were the seat
of the Greek settlements, and the country was early designated
Great Greece. Leaving out the Etrurians, Iapygians, and Greeks,
Italy, south of Gallia, was inhabited by nations allied to one an-
other, and more remotely akin to the Greeks. These Italian
nations were divided into an eastern and a western stock. The
western stock, the Latins, whose home was in Latium, were much
nearer of kin to the Greeks than were the eastern. The eastern
stock comprised the Umbrians and the Oscans. It included the
Sabines, Samnites, and Lucanians.

We are certain, that, " from the common cradle of peoples and languages, there issued a
stock which embraced in common the ancestors of the Greeks and the Italians; that from this,
at a subsequent period, the Italians branched off; and that these divided again into the western
and eastern stocks, while, at a still later date, the eastern became subdivided into Umbrians
and Oscans." (Mommsen's History of Rome, vol. i., p. 36.)

Italy and Greece. — In two important points, Italy is geographi-
cally distinguished from Greece. The sea-coast of Italy is more
uniform, not being broken by bays and harbors; and it is not cut
up, like Greece, by chains of mountains, into small cantons. The
Romans had not the same inducement to become a sea-faring
people; there were fewer cities; there was an opportunity for
closer and more extended leagues. It is remarkable that the out-
lets of Greece were towards the east; those of Italy towards the
west. The two nations were thus averted from one another: they
were, so to speak, back to back.

The Greeks and Romans.—The Greeks and Romans, although
sprung from a common ancestry, and preserving common features
in their language, and to some extent in their religion, were very
diverse in their natural traits. The Greeks had more genius : the
Romans more stability. In art and letters the Romans had little
originality. In these provinces they were copyists of the Greeks :
they lacked ideality. They had, also, far less delicacy of percep-
tion, flexibility, and native refinement of manners. But they had
more sobriety of character and more endurance. They were a
disciplined people; and in their capacity for discipline lay the
secret of their supremacy in arms and of their ability to give law
to the world. If they produced a much less number of great men
than the Greeks, there was more widely diffused among Roman
citizens a conscious dignity and strength. The Roman was natu-
rally grave: the fault of the Greek was levity. Versatility belonged
to the Greek : virility to the Roman. Above all, the sense of right
and of justice was stronger among the Romans. They had, in an
eminent degree, the political instinct, the capacity for governing,126

ANCIENT HISTORY.

and for building up a political system on a firm basis. This trait
was connected with their innate reverence for authority, and their
habit of obedience. The noblest product of the Latin mind is the
Roman law, which is the foundation of almost all modem codes.
With all their discernment of justice and love of order, the Ro-
mans, however, were too often hard and cruel. Their history is
stained here and there with acts of unexampled atrocity. In pri-
vate life, too, when the rigor of self-control gave way, they sunk
into extremes of vulgar sensuality. If, compared with the Greeks,
they stood morally at a greater height, they might fall to a lower
depth.

The Roman Religion. — The difference between the Greek and
Roman mind was manifest in the sphere of religion. Before their
separation from one another they had brought from the common
hearthstone elements of worship which both retained. Jupiter,
like Zeus, was the old Aryan god of the shining sky. But the
Greek conception, even of the chief deity, differed from the Roman.
When the Romans came into intercourse with the Greeks, they
identified the Greek divinities with their own, and more and more
appropriated the tales of the Greek mythology, linking them to
their own deities. Of the early worship peculiar to the Romans,
we know but little. But certain traits always belonged to the Ro-
man religion. Their mood was too prosaic to invent a theogony,
to originate stories of the births, loves, and romantic adventures
of the gods, such as the Greek fancy devised. The Roman myths
were heroic, not religious: they related to the deeds of valiant
men. Their deities were, in the first place, much more abstract,
less vividly conceived, less endowed with distinct personal charac-
teristics. And, secondly, their service to the gods was more punc-
tilious and methodical. It was regulated, down to the minutiae, by
fixed rules. Worship was according to law, was something due to
the gods, and was discharged, like any other debt, exactly, and
at the proper time. The Roman took advantage of technicalities
in dealing with his gods: he was legal to the core. The word reli-
gion had the same root as obligation. It denoted the bondage or
service owed by man to the gods in return for their protection and
favor; and hence the anxiety, or scrupulous watchfulness against
the omission of what is required to avert the displeasure of the
powers above.

Origin of the Romans.—The Romans attributed their origin to
the mythical /Eneas, who fled, with a band of fugitives, from the
flames of Troy, and whose son, Ascanius, or lulus, settled in Alba
Longa, in Latium. What is known of the foundation of Rome is,
that it was a settlement of Latin farmers and traders on the group
of hills, seven in number, near the border of Latium, on the Tiber.
It was the head of navigation for small vessels, and Rome was atROMAN HISTORY.

127

first, it would seem, the trading-village for the exchange of the
products of the farming-district in which it was placed. Such an
outpost would be useful to guard Latium against the Etrurians
across the river. Of the three townships, or clans, which united to
form Rome,—the Ravines, the Tides, and the Luceres,—the first
and third were Latin. The second, which was Sabine, blended with
the Roman element, as the language proves. The clans, or tribes,
in Latium together formed a league, the central meeting-place of
which was at first Alba Longa. There is some reason to think
that the Sabines were from Cures near Rome. Certain it is that
Rome, even at the outset, derived its strength from a combination
of tribes.Period I.

ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS.

{753-304 B.C.)

CHAPTER I.

ROME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 B.C.).

Character of the Legends. — There is no doubt that the Romans
lived for a time under the rule of kings. These were not like the
Greek kings, hereditary rulers, nor were they chosen from a single
family. But the stories told in later times respecting the kings,
their names and doings, are quite unworthy of credit. They rest
upon no contemporary evidence or sure tradition. To say nothing
of the miraculous elements that enter into the narratives, they are
laden with other improbabilities, which prove them to be the fruit
of imagination. They contain impossibilities in chronology. They
ascribe laws, institutions, and religion, which were of slow growth,
to particular individuals, apportioning to each his own part in an
artificial way. Many of the stories are borrowed from the Greeks,
and were originally told by them about other matters. In short,
the Roman legends, including dates, such as are recorded in this
chapter, are fabrications to fill up a void in regard to which there
was no authentic information, and to account for beliefs and cus-
toms the origin of which no one knew. They are of service,
however, in helping us to ascertain the character of the Roman
constitution, and something about its growth, in the prehistoric
age.

The Legendary Tales. — Romulus and Remus, so the legend runs, were
sons of the god Mars by Rhea Silvia, a priestess of Vesta, whose father,
Numitor, had been slain by his wicked brother, Amuliusy who thereby made
himself king of Alba Longa. The twins, by his command, were put into a
basket, and thrown into the Tiber. The cradle was caught by the roots of
a fig-tree: a she-wolf came out, and suckled them, and Faustulus^ a shepherd,
brought them up as his own children. Romulus grew up, and slew the usurper,
Amulius. The two brothers founded a city on the banks of the Tiber where
they had been rescued (753 H.C.). In a ciuarrel, the elder killed the younger,
and called the city after himself, Roma. Romulus, to increase the number of
the people, founded an asylum on the Capitoline Hill, which gave welcome to
robbers and fugitives of all kinds. There was a lack of women; but, by a
12$ROMAN HISTORV.

I29

cunning trick, the Romans seized on a large number of Sabine women, who
had been decoyed to Rome, with their fathers and brothers, to see the games.
The angry Sabines invaded Rome. Tarf>ciay the daughter of the Roman cap-
tain, left open for them a gate into the Capitoline citadel, and so they won
the Capitol. In the war that followed, by the intervention of the Sabine
women, the Romans and Sabines agreed to live peaceably together as citizens
of one town, under Romulus and the Sabine, Tatius. After the death of
Tatius, Romulus reigned alone, and framed laws for the two peoples. During
a thunder-storm he was translated to the skies, and worshiped as the god
Quirinus (716 B.C.). After a year Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, was elected
king (715-673 B.C.). lie stood in close intercourse with the gods, was full
of wisdom and of the spirit of peace. He framed the religious system, with
its various offices and rites. The gates of the temple of Janus, closed only
in peace, were shut during his mild reign. He died of old age, without ill-
ness or pain. The peaceful king was followed by the warlike king, Tullus
Nostilius (673-664 B.C.). War breaks out with Alba. The two armies face
each other, and the contest is decided by the single combat of the three
Iforatii% champions of the Romans, and the three Curiatii, champions of Alba.
One Roman, the victor and sole survivor, is led to Rome in triumph. Thus
Alba became subject to Rome. Afterwards Alba was destroyed, but the
Albans became Roman citizens. The fourth king, Ancus Marcius (641-616
B.C.), loved peace, but could not avoid war. He fought against four Latin
towns, brought their inhabitants to Rome, and planted them on the Aventine
hill. He fortified the hill Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber, and
connected it by a wooden bridge with the town. The next king was by birth
an Etruscan. Lucumo and his wife, Tanaquil, emigrated to Rome. Lucumo
took the name of Lucius Tarquinius, was stout, valiant, and wise, a counselor
of Ancus, and chosen after him, instead of one of the sons of Ancus, whose
guardian he was. Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 B.C.) — for so he was called
— waged successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. The
Etruscans owned him for their king, and sent a crown of gold, a scepter, an
ivory chair, an embroidered tunic, a purple toga, and twelve axes in as many
bundles of rods. He made a reform of the laws. He built the temple of
Jupiter, or the Capitol, laid out the forum for a market-place, made a great
sewer to drain the lower valleys of the city, leveled a race-course between
the Aventine and Palatine hills, and introduced games like those of the
Etruscans. Tarquinius was killed by the sons of Ancus; and Servius Tullius
(578-534 B.C.), the son of Ocrisia, a slave-woman, and of a god, was made
king through the devices of TanaquiL He united the seven hills, and built the
wall of Rome. He remodeled the constitution by the census and the division
of the centuries. Under him Rome joined the Latin league. He was mur-
dered by his* flagitious son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus (534-510 B.C.) —
Tarquin the Proud. He ruled as a despot, surrounding himself with a body-
uard, and, upon false accusation, inflicting death on citizens whose property
e coveted. By a treacherous scheme, he got possession of the town of
Gabii. He waged war against the Volscians, a powerful people on the south
of Latium. lie adorned Rome with many buildings, and lived in pomp and
extravagance, while the people were impoverished and helpless. The in-
spired Sibyl of Cum<B offered him, through a messenger, nine books of
prophecies. The price required excited his scorn, whereupon the woman who
bought them destroyed three. She came back with the remaining six, which
she offered at the same price. On being refused in the same manner, she
destroyed another three. This led Tarquin to pay the price when she ap-
peared the third time with the books that were left. They were carefully
preserved to the end, that in times of danger the will of the gods might be
learned. Another story told of the haughty king was, that, when he had
grown old, and was frightened by dreams and omens, he sent his two sons to
consult the oracle at Delphi. With them went his sister's son, Junius, who130

ANCIENT HISTORY.

was called Brutus on account of his supposed silliness, which was really
feigned to deceive the tyrant. The offering which he brought to the Delphian
god was a simple staff. His cousins, who laughed at him, did not know that
it was stuffed with gold. The god, in answer to a question, said that he would
reign at Rome who should first kiss his mother. Brutus divined the sense of
the oracle, pretended to stumble, and kissed the mother earth. The cruel
outrage of Sextus Tarquinius^ the king's son, of which Lucretia, the wife of
their cousin, was the pure and innocent victim, caused the expulsion of the
house of Tarquin, and the abolishing of regal government. Her father and
husband, with Brutus and the noble Publius Vdlerius Poplicola, to whom she
related "the deed of shame" wrought by Sextus, swore, at her request, to
avenge her wrong. She herself plunged a dagger into her heart, and expired.
Brutus roused the people, and drove out the Tarquins. Two consuls were
appointed in the room of the king, who should rule for one year. Brutus
was one. When it was ascertained that his own sons had taken part in
a conspiracy of the higher class to restore Tarquinius, the stern Roman gave
orders to the lictors to scourge them, and to cut off their heads with the ax.
Now the senate and people decreed that the whole race of Tarquinius should
be banished for ever. Tarquinius went among the Etruscans, and secured the
aid of the people of Tarquinii, and of Veii.. In a battle, A runs, the son of
Tarquinius, and Brutus, both mounted, ran upon one another, and were
slain. Each army marched to its home. Tarquinius then obtained the help
of Porsena, king of the Etruscans, with a strong army. They took Janicu-
ium ; but Horatius Codes, with two companions, posted himself at the entrance
of the bridge, and kept the place, Horatius remaining until the bridge had
been torn away behind him. He then, with his armor on, leaped into the
river, and swam back to the shore. The town was hard pressed by the
enemy and by famine. Mucius Scarvola went into Porsetia's camp, resolved
to kill him. But he slew another whom he mistook for the king. When
threatened with death, he thrust his right hand into the fire, to show that he
had no fear. Porsena, admiring his courage, gave him his freedom ; and, on,
being informed that three hundred yOung Romans were sworn to undertake
the same deed which Mucius had come to perform, Porsena made peace
without requiring the restoration of Tarquinius. Tarquinius, not despairing,
persuaded the Tusculans and other Romans to begin war against Rome. The
Romans appointed a dictator to meet the exigency, Marcus Valerius. In a
battle near Lake Kegillus, when the Romans began to give way, the dictator
invoked Castor and Pollux, vowing to dedicate a temple to them in case he
was victorious. Two young men on white chargers appeared at the head of
the Roman troops, and led them to victory. Tarquitiius now gave up his
effort, and went to Cutnce to the tyrant Aristodemus, where he lived until his
death.

Truth in the Legends. — There are certain facts which are em-
bedded in the legends. Alba was at one time the head of the
Latin confederacy. The Sabines invaded Latium, settled on some
of the hills of Rome, allied themselves with the Romans, and
the two peoples were resolved into one federal state. This last
change was a very important step. The tradition of a doubling
of the senate and of two kings, Romulus and Tatius, although not
in literal form historical, is believed to be a reminiscence of this
union. It is thought that the earliest royalty was priestly in its
character, and that this was superseded by a military kingship. It
is probable that the Etruscans who had made much progress in
civilization, in the arts and in manufactures, gained the upperROMAN HISTORY.

131

hand in Latium. The insignia of the Roman kings were Etruscan.
The Etruscan kings were driven out. There were advances in civ-
ilization under them, the division of the people into classes took
place, and at that period structures like the "Servian" wall were
built.

Patricians and Plebeians. — The Romans from the beginning
were divided into the upper class, the Patricians, and the com-
mon people, or Plebeians, who were free, but, like the periazci and
metceci in Greece, had no political rights. The plebeians, as they
included the conquered class, were not all poor. A part of them,
who were under the special protection of citizens, their Patrons,
were called Clients. The patricians were the descendants of the
first settlers and proprietors. Under the old constitution, as-
cribed in the legends to Romulus, the patricians alone formed
the military force, and were styled the Populus. They were
divided into curia (districts or wards), at first ten in number, and,
after the union of the Romans with the Tities and Luceres, thirty.
Each curia was divided into ten families, or gentes. The assem-
bly of the citizens was called the Comitia Curia la. The Comitia
chose theKing. The Senate was a council of elders representing
in some way the gentes.

The clan, or gtns, was always of great consequence among the Romans. Its name was a
f>art of the proper name of every citizen. The particular or individual names in vogue were
not numerous. The name of the gens was placed between the personal name, or the pratno-
men, and the designation of the special family (included in the gens). Thus in the case of
Cains Julius Caesar, " Julius " was the designation of the gens, " Caesar," of the family, while
. " Caius " was the personal name.

The Early Constitution. — The "Servian constitution" made
all land-owners, whether patrician or plebeian, subject to taxation,
and obliged to do military service. The cavalry — the Equites, or
knights, — was made up, by adding to the six patrician companies
already existing, double the number of wealthy plebeians. The
infantry were organized without reference to rank, but were graded
according to their property. The whole people were divided thus
into five classes, and, when assembled, formed the Comitia Cen-
turiata, — as being made up of the companies called "centuries,"
or " hundreds." At first this body was only consulted by the king
in regard to offensive wars. Gradually it drew away more and
more power from the Comitia Curiata, which consisted solely of
patricians. Those who had no land were now distinguished from
the land-owning plebeians. For the purposes of conscription, the
city was divided into four Tribes, or wards. Every four years a
census was to be taken.

Magistrates. — When the kingship was abolished, and under
the system that followed, the two Consuls were to be patricians.
They exercised regal power during their term of office. They ap-
pointed the senators and the two Quasiors, who came to have132	ANCIENT HISTORY.

charge of the treasury, under consular supervision. The consuls
were attended by twelve Lie tors, who carried the fasces — bundles
of rods fastened around an ax, — which symbolized the power
of the magistrate to flog or to behead offenders. The Comitia
Centuriata acquired the right to elect the consuls, to hear appeals
in capital cases from their verdicts, and to accept or reject bills
laid before it. This was a great gain for the plebeians. Yet the
patricians were strong enough in this assembly to control its action.
On occasions of extraordinary peril, a Dictator might be selected
by one of the consuls, who was to have absolute authority for the
time. The Senate commonly had an important part, however, in
the selection of this officer. There was a Master of Horse to com-
mand the knights under him. He was appointed by the dictator.

Religion. — Worship in families was conducted by the head of
the household, the paterfamilias, who offered the regular sacrifices.
But, as regards the whole people, worship was under the direction
of the pontiffs, with the chief pontiff, the Pontifex Maximus, at
their head, and in the hands of the priests. These were all offi-
cers of the state, elected to their places, and entirely subordinate
to the civil magistrates. The pontiffs were not so much priests as
they were guardians and interpreters of divine law. They were
masters of sacred lore. They 4ooked out that the numberless and
complex rules in respect to religious observances should be strictly
complied with. At the same time they had enough knowledge of
astronomy to enable them to fix the days suitable for the transac-
tion of business, public or private. They had the control of the
calendar. The Augurs consulted the will of the gods as disclosed
in omens. The augur, his eyes raised to the sky, with his staff
marked off the heavens into four quarters, and then watched for
the passage of birds, from which he took the auspices. In early
times, there was an implicit faith in these supposed indications
of the will of the divinities; but this credulity passed away, and
the auguries became a political instrument for helping forward the
schemes of some person or party. Besides the college of pontiffs
and the college of augurs, there was the college of Fetiales, who
were the guardians of the public faith in relation to other peoples,
and performed the rites attending the declaration of war or the
conclusion of peace. The Soothsayers (haruspices) were of Etrus-
can origin. They ascertained the will of the gods by inspecting the
entrails of the slaughtered victims. The Flamens were the priests
having charge of the worship of particular divinities. The Vestals
were virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her temple,
and kept the sacred fire from being extinguished.

The chief gods worshiped by the Romans were Jupiter, god of the sky; his wife, funo,
the goddess of maternity, Minema, the goddess of wisdom; A Polio > the god of augury and
the arts; Diana, the goddess of the chase and archery? Mars, the god of war; Bellonat the
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ROMAN HISTORY.	133

goddess of agriculture; Saiurnns, the patron of husbandry/ Hercules, the Greek god, early
naturalized in Italy as the god of gain and of mercantile contracts; Mercury, the god of trade;
Neptune, god of the sea. Venus was an old Roman goddess, who presided over gardens, but
gradually was identified with the Grecian Aphrodite. Lares ana Penates were household
divinities, guardians of the family.

The Romans assigned a spirit to almost every thing. Each individual had his own protect-
ing genius. Janus was the god of beginnings, Terminus was the god of the boundary,
Silvanus of the forest, Vertumnus of the circling year. The farmer, in each part of his
labor, —- in harrowing, plowing, sowing, etc., — invoked a spirit. So marriage, birth, and every
natural event had each a sacred life of its own. Not less than forty-three distinct divinities
are spoken of by name as having to do with the actions of a child. Thus the number of
divinities was countless. Gods were great or small, according to the department of nature
or of life where they severally were present and active.

CHAPTER II.

HOME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 B.C.).

Rivalry of Classes..— The abolishing of royalty left Rome
as " a house divided against itself." The power granted to the
Comitia Centuriata did not suffice to produce contentment. The
patricians still decided every thing, and used their strength in an
oppressive way. Besides the standing contest between the patri-
cians and plebeians, there was great suffering on the side of the
poorer class of plebeians. Many were obliged to incur debts; and
their creditors enforced the rigorous law against them, loading
them with chains, and driving their families from their homes. A
great and constant grievance was the taking by the patricians of
the public lands which had been obtained by conquest, for a mod-
erate rent, which might not be paid at all. If they granted a
share in this privilege to some rich plebeian houses, this afforded
no help to the mass of the people, who were more and more
deprived of the opportunity to till the smaller holdings in conse-
quence of the employment of slaves. Yet the plebeians had to
bear the burden of military service. At length they rose in a
body, probably in returning from some victory, and encamped on
a hill, the Sacred Mount, three miles from Rome, where they
threatened to stay, and found another town. This bold move-
ment led to an agreement. It was stipulated that they should
elect magistrates from their own class, to be called Tribunes of the
People, who should have the right to interpose an absolute veto
upon any legal or administrative measure. This right each consul
already had in relation to his colleague. To secure the commons
in this new right, the tribunes were declared to be inviolable.
Whoever used violence against them was to be an outlaw. The
power of the tribunes at first was merely protective. But their
power grew until it became controlling. One point where their
authority was apt to be exerted was in the conscription, or military
enrollment. This, if it were undertaken in an unfair way, they
could stop altogether, and thus compel a change.134

ANCIENT HISTORY.

The Plebeian Assembly. — Not far from this time, there was
instituted a new assembly, the Comitia of Tribes, or Comitia Tri-
buta. There was a new division of the people into tribes or
wards, — first twenty, then twenty-one, and, later, thirty-five. In
this comitia, the plebeians were at the outset, if not always, the
exclusive voters. The patricians had their assembly, the Comitia
Curiata. The Comitia of the Tribes, which was then controlled
by the plebeians, cho?e the tribunes. By degrees, both the other
assemblies lost their importance. The plebeian body more and
more extended its prerogatives. Besides the tribunes, the sEdilcs,
two in number, who were assistants of the tribunes, and superin-
tended the business of the markets, were chosen by the Comitia
Tributa.

The Law of Cassius.—The anxiety of the plebeians to be rid
of the restrictions upon the holding and enjoyment of land, led to
the proposal of a law for their relief by the consul Spurius Cas-
sius (486 B.C.). Of the terms of the law, we have no precise
knowledge. We only know, that, when he retired from office, he
was condemned and put to death by the ruling class.

War with the i&quians and the Volscians. — About this time
Rome concluded a league with the Latins, and soon after with
another people, the Iiernicans, who lived farther eastward, be-
tween the ^Equians and Volscians. It was a defensive alliance, in
which Rome had the leading place. Then follow the wars with
the /Equians and Volscians, where the traditional accounts are
mingled with many fictitious occurrences. There are two stories
of special note, — the story of Coriolanus, and the story of Cincin-
natus. It is related that a brave patrician, Caius Marcius Corio-
lanus, at a time when grain was scarce, and was procured with
difficulty from Etruria and Sicily for the relief of the famishing,
proposed that it should be withheld from the plebeians unless they
would give up the tribunate. The anger of this class, and the
contempt which he showed for it, caused him to be banished.
Thereupon he went to the Volscians, and led an army against
Rome, — an army too strong to be resisted. One deputation after
another went out of the city to placate him, but in vain. At
length Veturia, his mother, and Volumnia, his wife, at the head
of a company of matrons, went to his camp, and entreated him.
Their prayer he could not deny, but exclaimed, " O my mother !
Rome thou hast saved, but thou hast lost thy son." He died
among the Volscians (491 B.C.). The tale, certainly in most of
its parts, is fictitious. For example, he is said to have been
called Coriolanus, from having previously conquered Corioli ;
but such designations were not given among the Romans until
centuries later. The story of Cincinnatus in essential particulars
is probably true. At a time when the Romans were hard pressedROMAN HISTORY.	135

by the <dzquians, the messengers of the Senate waited on Lucius
Quinctius Cincinnatus, formerly a senator and a consul of renown
in peace and war, and asked him to become dictator. They
found him plowing in his field. He accepted the post, by his
prudence and vigor delivered the state, and on the sixteenth day
laid down his office, and went back to his farm. The time re-
quired by the hero for his task was doubtless much longer than the
legend allows.

There is an authentic tradition of a war with the Etruscans, who had retained certain
towns on the Roman side of the Tiber. The Romans established a fort on the Cremera, not
far from Veilwhich was one of them. In the course of this struggle, it is said that all the
Fabii,— a distinguished Roman family, — except one boy, were perfidiously slain. This is an
exaggerated tale. A truce was concluded with Veii in 474 B.C. for forty years, which left
Rome free to fight her enemies on the east and south.

The Decemvirs.—The internal conflict of the patricians against
the commons in Rome went on. In 471 B.C. the Publilian Law
was passed to establish fully the right of the plebeians alone to
elect their tribunes, or to exclude the upper class from their comi-
tia. The claims of the plebeians, who formed the greater part of
the fighting men, rose. They demanded first, however, that they
should have the same private rights as the patricians, and that the
laws should be made more efficient for their protection by being
reduced to a code. This was the object of the Terentilian Lawy
proposed in 462. The result was a great dispute. Some con-
cessions failed to satisfy the plebeians. Finally it was agreed that
ten men, Decemvirs, should be chosen indiscriminately from both
classes to frame a code, they, meantime, to supersede the con-
suls and tribunes in the exercise of the government (450 B.C.).
They were to equalize the laws, and to write. them down. The
story of the mission to Athens for the study of the laws of Solon,
is not worthy of credit. There is no doubt, however, that many
obstacles were put in the way of the project by the conservative
patricians, and that one of their order, Appius Claudius, took a
prominent part, probably on the side of the people.

Virginius. — Here comes in the story of Virginia. It is related that Appius Claudius
was an ambitious and bad man, who, being one of the decemvirs, wished to hold on to power.
He conceived a base passion for the daughter of Virginius% a brave plebeian centurion, and
claimed her on the pretense that she was the daughter of one of his slaves. Standing at his
judgment-seat, Virginias, seeing that he could do nothing to save his child from the clutch of
the villainous judge, plunged his dagger in her heart. This was the signal for another revolt
of the people, which extorted the consent of the upper class to the sacred laws and the restora-
tion of the tribuneship. It is a plausible theory that Appius Claudius favored the plebeian
claims, and that the tale told above is a later invention to his discredit.

Political Equality. — The laws of the twelve tribes lay at the
basis of all subsequent legislation in Rome, and were always held
in reverence. The plebeians soon gained further advantages. In
448 B.C., it was ordained, under the consuls Horatius ancj Valerius,
that the plebeian assembly of tribes should be a sovereign assembly,
whose enactments should be binding on the whole Roman people.
In 445 B.C., the law of Canuleius legalized marriage between the136

ANCIENT HISTORY.

plebeians and patricians. This was an important step towards the
closer union of the two classes. The executive, power was still
in the hands of the patricians. But in 444 a new office, that of
military tribunes with consular power, to be chosen from the ple-
beians, was established. By way of offset to this great concession,
a new patrician office, that of Censor, was created. The function
of the two censors, who were to be chosen by the Comitia Centu-
riatciy was to take the census at short intervals, to make out the
' tax-lists, to appoint senators and knights, to manage the collection
of taxes, to superintend public buildings, and, finally, to exercise
an indefinite supervision over public manners and morals. These
were very great powers. We find that considerable time elapsed
before the. plebeians actually realized the advantage which they
had legally won in this compromise. About the year 400, they
succeeded in electing several military tribunes. As early as 410
B.C. three out of the four treasurers, or paymasters (qucestors), were
plebeians. About ten years after (388 B.C.), they obtained, by
the Licinian Laws, the political equality for which they had so long
contended.

War with the Etruscans.— But before this result should be
reached, other events of much consequence were to occur. The
Etruscans, who were not only proficients in the arts, but were
also active in trade and commerce, had been defeated at sea by
the Greeks, in 474 B.C. "But on the north they had a more formid-
able foe in the Gauls, by whom their power was weakened. The
Romans took advantage of the situation to lay siege to Veii, which,
after ten years, was captured by their general, Marcus Furius
Camillus. The capture of other towns followed.

It was told of Camillus that Falerii surrendered to him of its own accord, for his magna-
nimity in sending back a treacherous schoolmaster who had taken out to his camp the sons of
the chief citizens. Camillus tied his hands behind him, and ordered the boys to flog him back
into the city. Camillus was sent into exile, it was related, on a charge of injustice in dividing
the booty obtained at Veii.

Invasion of the Gauls. — But the Romans joined with the
Etruscans in the attempt to drive back a dreaded enemy of both,
the Gauls. In the battle of the Allia, a brook eleven miles north
of Rome, on the 18th of July, 390 B.C., the Roman army was
routed by them, and Rome left without the means of defense.
All the people fled, except a few brave men, who shut themselves
up in the Capitol, and, according to the tradition, some aged patri-
cians, who, in their robes of state, waited for the enemy. The
Gauls, under Brennusy rushed in, and plundered and burned the
city. In later times the story was told, that, when the Gauls were
climbing up to the Capitol secretly by night, the cackling of the
geese awoke Marcus Manlius, and so the enemy was repulsed.
There was another story, that, when the Romans were paying the
ransom required by Brennus, and complained of false weight, theROMAN HISTORY.

*37

insolent Gaul threw his sword into the scale, exclaiming, " Woe to
the conquered ! " and that just then Camillus appeared, and drove
the Gauls out of the city. This is certain, that the Gauls retired of
their own free will from their occupation of the city. The destruc-
tion of the temples involved the loss of early chronicles, which
would have given us better information as to the times preceding.
The city was rebuilt without much delay.

The Llcinian Laws. — The agitation for political reform soon
commenced again. The Licinian Laws, which make an epoch in
the controversy of parties, were proposed in 376, but were not
passed until 367. Besides provisions for the relief of debtors and
for limiting the number of acres of public lands to be held by an in-
dividual, it was enacted that the military tribuneship should be given
up, and that at least one of the two consuls must be chosen from the
plebeians. A new patrician office, the prcetorshlp, was founded,
the holders of which were to govern in the absence of the consuls.
The patricians did not at once cease from the effort to keep the
reins in their hands. Several times they broke the law, and put
in two patrician consuls. They yielded at last, however; and, as
early as the year 300, all Roman offices were open to all Roman
citizens. The patrician order became a social, not a legal, distinc-
tion. A new sort of nobility, made up of both patricians and ple-
beians, whose families had longest held public offices, gradually
arose. These were the optimates. The Senate became the prin-
cipal executive body. It was recruited by the censors, principally
from those who had held high stations and were upwards of thirty
years old. One censor was required to be a plebeian. The con-
dition of the people was improved by other enactments, one of
which (in 326 or 313) secured to the debtor his personal freedom
in case he should transfer his property to the creditor. At about
this time, there was a change in the constitution of the army. The
sort of arms assigned was no longer to depend on property qualifi-
cations. There were to be three lines in battle, — the first two to
carry a short spear (J>ilum), and the third the long lance (hasta).

Influence of Party Conflicts. — The long contest of parties in
Rome was an invaluable political education. It was attended with
little bloodshed. It involved discussion on questions of justice
and right, and on the best civil constitution. It was not unlike
party conflicts in English history. It trained the Romans in a
habit of judicious compromise, of perseverance in asserting just
claims, and of yielding to just demands.Period II.

TO THE UNION OF ITALY.

(304-264 B.C.)

CHAPTER I.

conquest op the latins and italians (304-282 b.c.).

Wars with the Gauls. — The increased vigor produced by the
adjustment of the conflict of classes manifested itself in a series of
minor wars. The Romans were now able to face the Gauls, who
had permanently planted themselves in Northern Italy. Against
them they waged four wars in succession, the last of which ended
in a signal victory for the Roman side (367-349). Wars with the
Etruscan cities brought the whole of Southern Etruria under
Roman rule (358-351).

First Samnite War. — The neighbor that was the hardest for
the Romans to conquer was the nation of Samnites, who lived
among the Apennines of Central Italy, east of Latium. The con-
flict with this tough tribe lasted, with intermissions, for fifty years..

The immediate occasion of the struggle was the appeal of Capua — a Greek
city in Campania in which Samnites had before settled — for help against
their kinsmen in the mountains (343). This prayer the Romans granted
when Capua had placed itself under their sway. In the first battle, the
Romans under Valerius Corvus won the day. A second Roman army was
rescued from imminent danger by the heroism of the elder Decius Mus, and
a Roman victory followed. After a third victory at Suessula, the Romans, on
account of the threatening attitude of their Latin confederates, made peace.
.The Samnites, too, were involved in a war with Tarentumt a Greek city on
the eastern coast.

War with the Latins. — The Latins were not disposed to recognize
Rome, any longer as the head of the league. They demanded perfect equal-
ity and an equal share of the Roman public offices (340). In a battle near Vesu-
viusf the plebeian consul, Decius Mus, having devoted himself to death for
his country, rode into the thickest ranks of the enemy, and perished, having
secured victory for the Roman army. Before the battle, the patrician consul,
Titus Matilius, punished his son with death for presuming to undertake, with-
out orders, a military exploit, in which, however, he had succeeded. After a
second victory of Manlius at Trifanum, the Latins were subdued (340), the
league was broken up, and most of the cities were made subject to Rome,
acquiring citizenship without the right of suffrage; but they were forbidden
to trade or to intermarry with one another. Some became Roman colonies.

138ROMAN HISTORY.

139

Several had to cede lands, which were apportioned among Roman citizens.
The beaks (rostra) of the old ships of Antiutn ornamented the Roman forum.
Colonies of Roman citizens were settled in the district of the Volscii and in
Campania. This was an example of the Roman method of separating van-
quished places from one another, and of inclosing as in a net conquered ter-
ritories.

Second Samnite War. — The establishment by the Romans of the
military colony of Fregell<ry in connection with other encroachments, brought
on the "second Samnite war, which lasted for twenty-two years. The prize of
the contest was really the dominion over Italy. A great misfortune befell
the Roman arms in 321. The incautious consuls, Veturinus and Postumius%
allowed themselves to be surrounded in the Caudine Pass, where they were
compelled to capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give up six hundred
Roman knights as hostages. The whole Roman army was compelled to pass
under the yoke. The Roman Senate refused to sanction the treaty, and gave
up the consuls, at their own request, in fetters to the Samnites. The Sam-
nites refused to receive them, spared the hostages, and began the war anew.
The Roman consuls, Papirius Cursor and Fabius Maximus, gained a victory
at Capua, drove the Samnites out of Campania, and reconquered Fregella.
A great military road, the Appian Way, the remains of which may still be
seen, was built from Rome to Capua (312).

The Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome. All Etruria was in
arms to overcome the advancing power of the Romans. The coalition was
broken by the great defeat of the Etrurians at the Vadimonian Lake, in 310.
The Samnites had their numerous allies; but the obstinate valor of the Ro-
mans, who were discouraged by no reverses, triumphed. The capture of
Bovianum, the capital of the Samnite league (305), ended the war. The
Samnites sued for peace. The old treaties were renewed. In the course of
this protracted struggle, various Roman colonies were established, and mili-
tarv roads were constructed.

!Third Samnite War. — Peace was not of long continuance. The Sam-
nites once more armed themselves for a desperate conflict, having on their
side the Etruscans, the Umbrians, and the Gauls (300). The Italian peoples
which had been at war with one another, joined hands in this contest against
the common enemy. A decisive battle was fought at Sentinum,— where
Decius Mus the younger, following his father's example, devoted himself to
death, — resulting in the defeat of the Samnites, and of their allies (295).
Soon after, the Samnite general, Pontius, fell into the hands of the Romans.
The Samnites kept up the contest for several years. But in 290 they found
that they could hold out no longer. The Romans secured themselves by
fortresses and by colonies, the most important of which was that of Venusia,
at the boundary of Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, where they placed twenty
thousand colonists.

CHAPTER II.

WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY (282-204 B.C.).

Tarentum and Fyrrhus. — The Samnites were overcome. The
Greeks and Romans were now to come into closer intercourse
with one another, — an intercourse destined to be so momentous
in its effect on each of the two kindred races, and, through their
joint influence, on the whole subsequent course of European his-140

ANCIENT HISTORY.

tory. Alexander the Great had died too soon to permit him to
engage in any plan of conquest in the West. In the wars of his
successors the Romans had stood aloof. Now they were brought
into conflict with a Greek monarch, Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who
was a relative of Alexander, and had married into the royal family
of Egypt. He was a man of fascinating person and address, a bril-
liant and famous soldier, but adventurous, and lacking the cool-
ness and prudence requisite to carry out his project of building up
an Hellenic Empire in the western Mediterranean. In the war
against the Samnite coalition, the Lucartians had rendered decisive
support to the Romans. This was one reason why Tarentum, the
rich and prosperous Dorian city on the Tarentine Gulf, had been
a spectator of the contest in which it had abundant occasion to
feel a deep interest. Rome had given up to the Lucanians the
non-Dorian Greek cities in that region. But when they sought to
subdue Thurii, and the Thurines besought the help of Rome,
offering to submit themselves to her, the Romans warned the
Lucanians to desist. This led to another combination against
Rome, in which they took part. A Roman army was destroyed by
the Senonian Gauls. In consequence of this, the Romans slaugh-
tered, or drove out of Umbria, this people, and, gaining other de-
cisive victories, put their garrisons into Locri, Crotona, and Thurii.
The Romans were already masters of Central Italy. Only the
Greek cities on the south remained for them to conquer. It was
high time for Tarentum to bestir itself. It was from the side of
Tarentum that the immediate provocation came. The Tarentines
were listening to a play in the theater as ten Roman ships came
into the harbor. Under a sudden impulse of wrath, a mob at-
tacked them, and destroyed five of them. Even then the Romans
were in no haste to engage in hostilities. The Tarentines them-
selves were divided as to the policy best to be pursued. But the
war-party had the more voices. An embassy was dispatched to
solicit the help of Pyrrhus. At Tarentum an embassy from Rome
was treated with contempt. Pyrrhus came over with a large army.
He obliged the Tarentines themselves to arm, and to join his
forces.

Events of the War.—The Romans were fully alive to the peril,
and prepared to meet it. Even the proletarians, who were not
liable to military service, were enrolled. The first great battle
took place at Iieracleay near the little river Siris (280 B.C.).
Then the Roman cohort and the Macedonian phalanx met for
the first time. It was a collision of trained mercenary troops
with the citizen soldiery of Rome. It was a struggle between
the Greek and the Roman for the ascendency. The confusion
caused by the elephants of Pyrrhusy an encounter with which
was something new and strange to the Romans, turned the tideROMAN HISTORY.

141

in his favor. " A few more such victories," said Pyrrhus, " and I
am ruined." He desired peace, and sent Cineas as a messenger
to the Senate. But Appius Claudius, who had been consul and
censor, and was now old and blind, begged them not to make
peace as long as there was an enemy in Italy. Cineas reported
that he found the Senate " an assembly of kings." In the next
year, the two armies, each with its allies numbering seventy
thousand men, met at Asculum (279). After a bloody con-
flict, Pyrrhus remained in possession of the field, but with an
enormous loss of men. The Syracusans in Sicily, who had been
hard pressed by the Carthaginians, now called upon him to
aid them. He was not reluctant to leave Italy. The Romans
captured all the cities on the south coast, except Tarentum
and Rhegium. After two years' absence, Pyrrhus returned to
Italy. His fleet, on the passage from Sicily, was defeated by the
Carthaginians. At Beneventum, he was completely vanquished
by the Romans, who captured thirteen hundred prisoners and
four elephants. Pyrrhus returned to Epirus ; and, after his death
(272), Milon, who commanded the garrison left by him in Taren-
tum, surrendered the city and fortress. The Tarentines agreed
to deliver up their ships and arms, and to demolish their walls.
One after another of the resisting tribes yielded to the Romans,
ceding portions of their territory, and receiving Roman colonies.
In 266, the Roman sway was established over the whole penin-
sula proper, from the Rubicon and the Macra to the southern
extremity of Calabria.

Citizenship.—In order to understand Roman history, it is
necessary to have a clear idea of the Roman system in respect to
citizenship. All burgesses of Rome enjoyed the same rights.
These were both Public and Private. The private rights of
a Roman citizen were (1) the power of legal marriage with the
families of all other citizens ; (2) the power of making legal pur-
chases and sales, and of holding property; and (3) the right to
bequeath and inherit property. The public rights were, (1) the
power of voting wherever a citizen was permitted to vote; (2)
the power of being elected to all offices.

Conquered Towns. — " The Roman dominion in Italy was a
dominion of a city over cities." With regard to conquered
towns, there were, (1) Municipal cities (municipia) the inhabit-
ants of which, when they visited Rome, could exercise all the
rights of citizens. (2) Municipal cities which had the private, but
not the public, rights of citizenship. Some of them chose their
own municipal officers, and some did not. (3) Latin Colonies,
as they were called. Lands ceded by conquered places were
divided among poor Roman citizens, who constituted the ruling142

ANCIENT HISTORY.

class in the communities to which they were transplanted. In
the Latin colonies, the citizens had given up their public rights
as citizens. (4) Towns of a lower class, called Prefectures. In
these, the principal magistrate was the Prefect\ who was appointed
by the Prcztor (Prcetor CJrbanus) at Rome.

The Allies (Socii).—These were a more favored class of cities.
They had their relation to Rome defined by treaty. Generally
they appointed their own magistrates, but were bound, as were
all subject cities, to furnish auxiliary troops for Rome.

The Latin Franchise. — This was the privilege which was first
given to the cities of Latium and then to inhabitants of other
places. It was the power, on complying with certain conditions,
of gaining full citizenship, and thus of taking part in elections at
Rome.

Roman Colonies. —The Roman Colony (which is not to be con-
founded with the Latin Colony referred to above) was a small
body of Roman citizens, transplanted, with their families, to a
spot selected by the government. They formed a military station.
To them lands taken from the native inhabitants were given.
They constituted the ruling class in the community where they
were established. Their government was modeled after the gov-
ernment at Rome. They retained their rights as Roman burgesses,
which they could exercise whenever they were in that city. By
means of these colonies, planted in places wisely chosen, Italy
was kept in subjection. The colonies were connected together
by roads. The Appian Way, from Rome to Capua, was built in
the midst of the conflict with Samnium. It was made of large,
square stones, laid on a platform of sand and mortar. In later
times the Roman Empire was traversed in all directions by simi-
lar roads.Period III.

THE PUNIC WARS:

TO THE CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE AND OF THE GREEK STATES.
(264-146 B.C.)

chapter I.

THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS (204-202 B.C.).

The First Punic War. — By dint of obstinacy, and hard fighting
through long centuries, the Romans had united under them all
Italy, or all of what was then known as Italy. It was natural that
they should look abroad. The rival power in the West was the
great commercial city of Carthage. The jealousy between Rome
and Carthage had slumbered so long as they were threatened by
the invasion of Pyrrhics, which was dangerous to-both. Sicily,
from its situation, could hardly fail to furnish the occasion of a con-
flict. The Mamertines, a set of Campanian pirates, had captured
Messana. They were attacked by Hiero I/., king of Syracuse.
A part of them besought help-of the Romans, and a part applied
to the Carthaginians. The gravity of the question, whether Rome
should enter on an untried path, the end of which no man could
foresee, caused hesitation. The assemblies voted to grant the
request. The Romans had begun as early as 311 to create a fleet.
The ships which they now used, however, were mostly furnished by
their South Italian allies. They crossed the channel, and drove
out the Carthaginian garrison from Messana, The Carthaginians
declared war (264). Hiero was gained over to the side of the
Romans; and after a bloody conflict, with heavy losses to both
armies, the city of Agrigeritum was captured by the Romans. The
Romans were novices on the sea, where the Carthaginians were
supreme. Successful on the land, the former were beaten in naval
encounters. One of the most characteristic proofs of the energy
of the Romans is their creation of a fleet, at this epoch, to match
that of their sea-faring enemies. Using, it is said, for a model, a
Carthaginian vessel wreck?d on the shore of Italy, they con-
structed, in the room of their " three-deckers," " five-deckers "

M3144

ANCIENT HISTORY.

furnished with bridges to drop on the decks of the hostile ships, —
thus giving to a sea-fight a resemblance to a combat on land. At
first, as might be expected, the Romans were defeated; but in
260, under the consul Caius Duilius, they won their first naval
victory at My Ice, west of Messana. The Roman Senate decided
to invade Africa. A fleet of three hundred and thirty vessels
sailed under the command of the consul M. Atilius Regulus,
which was met by a Carthaginian fleet at Economus, on the south
coast of Sicily. The Carthaginians were completely vanquished. •
The Romans landed at Clupea, to the east of Carthage, and rav-
aged the adjacent district. There Regulus remained with half the
army, fifteen thousand men. The Carthaginians sued for peace;
but when he required them to surrender all their ships of war
except one, and to come into a dependent relation to Rome, they
spurned the proposal. Re-enforcing themselves with mercenaries
from Greece under the command of the Spartan, Xanthippus, they
overpowered and captured Regulus in a battle at Tunis (255). A
Roman fleet, sent to Clupea for the rescue of the troops, on the
return voyage lost three-fourths of its ships in a storm. The Car-
thaginians, under Hasdrubal, resumed hostilities in Sicily. He was
defeated by the consul Cceciltus Metellus, at Panormus, who in-
cluded among his captures one hundred elephants (251). The
story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome with the Carthaginian
offer of peace, of his advising the Senate not to accept it, of his
voluntary return according to a promise, and of his cruel death at
the hands of his captors, is probably an invention of a later time.
The hopes of the Romans, in consequence of their success at Pa-
normus, revived; but two years later, under Appius Claudius at
Drepanum, they were defeated on sea and on land. Once more
their naval force was prostrated. Warfare was now carried forward
on land, where, in the south of Sicily, the Carthaginian leader,
Hamilcar Barcas, maintained himself against Roman attacks for
six years, and sent out privateers to harass the coasts of Italy.
Finally, at Rome, there was an outburst of patriotic enthusiasm.
Rich men gave liberally, and treasures of the temples were devoted '
to the building of a new fleet. This fleet, under command of C.
Lutatius Catulus, gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian
Hanno, at the /Egatian Islands, opposite Lilybceum (241). The
Carthaginians were forced to conclude peace, and to make large
concessions. They gave up all claim to Italy and to the neigh-
boring small islands. They were to pay an indemnity, equal to
four million dollars, in ten years. The western part of Sicily was
now constituted a province, the first of the Roman provinces.

Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. — The Carthaginians were for
some time busy at home in putting d$wn a revolt of mercenary
troops, whose wages they refused to pay in full. The RomansROMAN HISTORY.

145

snatched the occasion to extort a cession of the island of Sardinia
(238), which they subsequently united with Corsica in one prov-
ince. They entered, about ten years later (229-228), upon an
important and successful war against the Ilfyrian pirates, whose
depredations on the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian seas were
very daring and destructive. The Greek cities which the pirates
held were surrendered. The sway of the Romans in the Adri-
atic was secured, and their supremacy in Corcyra, Epidamnus,
and other important places. The next contest was a terrific one
with the Cisalpine Gauls, who were stirred up by the founding of
Roman military colonies on the Adriatic, and by other proceedings
of Rome. They called in the help of transalpine Gauls, and
entered Etruria, on their way to Rome, with an army of seventy
thousand men. They met the Roman armies near Telamon,
south of the mouth of the Umbro, but were routed, with a loss of
forty thousand men slain, and ten thousand men prisoners (225).
The Romans marched northward, crossed the Pot and subdued
the most powerful of the Gallic tribes, the Insubrians (223).
Other victories in the following year reduced the whole of upper
Italy, with Mediolanum (Milan) the capital of the - Insubrians,
under Roman rule. Fortresses were founded as usual, and the
great Flaminian and z&milian roads connected that region with
the capital. Later, Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province.

Carthaginians in Spain. — Meantime Carthage endeavored in
Southern Spain to make up for its losses The old tribes, the Cel-
tiberians and Lusitanians in the central and western districts, and
the Cantabrians and Basques in the north, brave as they were,
were too much divided by tribal feuds to make an effectual resist-
ance. The national party at Carthage, which wished for war, had
able leaders in Hamilcar and his three sons By the military skill
of Hamilcar, and of Hasdrubal his son-in-law, the Carthaginians
built up a flourishing dominion on the south and east coasts. The
Romans watched the growth of the Carthaginian power there
with discontent, and compelled Hasdrubal to declare in a treaty
that the Ebro should be the limit of Carthaginian conquests (226).
At the same time Rome made a protective alliance with Saguntum,
a rich and powerful trading-city on the south of that river. Has-
drubal was murdered in 221 ; and the son of Hamilcar Barcas,
Hannibal\ who was then only twenty-eight years old, was chosen
by the army to be their general. He laid hold of a pretext for
beginning an attack upon Saguntum, which he took after a stout
resistance, prolonged for eight months (219). The demand of a
Roman embassy at Carthage — that Hannibal should be delivered
up — being refused, Rome declared war.

When the Carthaginian Council hesitated at the proposal of the Roman
embassy, their spokesman, Quintu/ Fabins. said that he carried in his bosom146

ANCIENT HISTORY.

peace or war: they might chose either. They answered, "We take what you
give us;" whereupon the Roman opened his toga, saying, "I give you warl"
The Carthaginians shouted, " So let it be 1"

/

* The Second Punic War. — When the treaty of Catulus was
made (241), all patriots at Carthage felt that it was only a truce.
They must have seen that Rome would never be satisfied with any
thing short of the abject submission of so detested and dangerous
a rival. There was a peace party, an oligarchy, at Carthage; and it
was their selfishness which ultimately brought ruin upon the state.
But the party which saw that the only safety was in aggressive
action found a military leader in Hannibal,— a leader not sur-
passed, and perhaps not equaled, by any other general of ancient
or modern times. He combined skill with daring, and had such a
command over men, that under the heaviest reverses his influence
was not broken. If he was cruel, it is doubtful whether he went
beyond the practices sanctioned by the international law of the
time and by Roman example. When a boy nine years old, at his
father's request he had sworn upon the altar never to be the friend
of the Roman people. That father he saw fall in battle at his side.
The oath he kept, for Rome never had a more unyielding or a
more powerful enemy.

Hannibal in Italy. — In the summer of 218, Hannibal crossed the
Ebro, conquered the peoples between the Ebro and the Pyrenees,
and, leaving his brother Hasdrubal in Spain, pushed into Gaul
with an army of fifty thousand foot, twelve thousand horse, and
thirty-seven elephants. He crossed the swift Rhone in the face of
the Gauls who disputed the passage, and then made his memora-
ble march over the Alps, probably by the way now known as the
Little St Bernard pass. Through ice and snow, climbing over
crags and circling abysses, amid perpetual conflicts with the rough
mountaineers who rolled stones down on the toiling soldiers, the
army made its terrible journey into Northern Italy. Fifteen days
were occupied in the passage. Half the troops, with all the
draught-animals and beasts of burden, perished on the way. The
Cisalpine Gauls welcomed Hannibal as a deliverer. No sooner
had the valiant consul, Cornelius Scipio, been defeated in a cavalry
battle on the Ticinus9 a northern branch of the Po (218), and,
severely wounded, retreated to Placentiaf and his rash colleague,
Sempronius, been defeated with great loss in a second battle on
the Trebia, than the Gauls joined Hannibal\ and reinforced him
with sixty thousand troops inured to war. Hannibal, by march-
ing through the swampy district of the Amo, where he himself
lost an eye, flanked the defensive position of the Romans. The
consul Flaminius was decoyed into a narrow pass; and, in the
battle of Lake Trasumenus (217), his army of thirty thousand
men was slaughtered or made prisoners. The consul himself wasROMAN HISTORY.

147

killed. All Etruria was lost. . The way seemed open to Rome;,
but, supported by the latins and Italians, the Romans did not
quail, or lower their mien of stern defiance. They appointed a
leading patrician, Quintus Fabius Afaximus, dictator. Hannibal\
not being able to surprise and capture the fortress of Spoletium,
preferred to march towards the sea-coast, and thence south into
Apulia. His purpose was to open communication with Carthage,
and to gain over to his support the eastern tribes of Italy. Fabius,
the Delayer ( Cunctator), as he was called, followed and watched
his enemy, inflicting what injuries he could, ■ but avoiding -a
pitched battle. The Roman populace were impatient of the cau-
tious, but wise and effective, policy of Fabius. In the following
year (216) the consulship was given to L.AZmilius Paulus — who
was chosen by the upper class, the Optimates — and C. Terentius
Varro, who was elected by the popular party for the purpose of
taking the offensive. Varro precipitated a battle at Cannce, in
Apulia, where the Romans suffered the most terrible defeat they
had ever experienced. At the lowest computation, they lost forty
thousand foot and three thousand horse, with the consul ^Emilius
Paulus, and eighty men of senatorial rank. No such calamity
since the capture of Rome by the Gauls had ever occurred. The
Roman Senate did not lose heart. They limited the time of
mourning for the dead to thirty days. They refused to admit to
the city the ambassadors of Hannibal\ who came for the exchange
of prisoners. With lofty resolve they ordered a levy of all who
could bear arms, including boys and even slaves. They put into
their hands weapons from the temples, spoils of former victories.
They thanked Varro that he had not despaired of the Republic.
Some of the Italian allies went over to Hannibal. But all the
Latin cities ahd all the Roman colonies remained loyal. The
allies ot Rome did not fall away as did the allies of Athens after
the Syracusan disaster. It has been thought, that, if Hannibal had
followed up the victory at Cannce by marching at once on the capital,
the Roman power might have been overthrown. What might then
have been the subsequent course of European history ? Even the
Roman school-boys, according to Juvenal, discussed the question
whether he did not make a mistake in not attacking Rome. But
it is quite doubtful whether he could have taken the city, or, even
if he had taken it, whether his success would then have been com-
plete. He took the wiser step of getting into his hands Capua,
the second city in Italy. He may have hoped to seize a Campa-
nian port, where he could disembark reinforcements " which his
great victories had wrung from the opposition at home." Hannibal
judged it best to go into winter-quarters at Capuay where his army
was in a measure enervated by pleasure and vice. Carthage made
an alliance with Philip 111. of Macedonia, and with Hiero of148

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Syracuse. But fortune turned in favor of the Romans. At Nola,
Hannibal was defeated by Marcellus (215) ; and, since he could
obtain no substantial help from home, he was obliged to act on the
defensive. Marcellus crossed into Sicily, and, after a siege of three
years, captured Syracuse, which had been aided in its defense by
the philosopher Archimedes. Capua, in 211, surrendered to the
Romans, and was visited with a fearful chastisement. Hannibal's
Italian allies forsook him, and his only reliance was on his brother
in Spain. For a long time, the two brothers, Publius and Cnceus
Scipio, maintained there the Roman cause successfully; but they
were defeated and slain (212).

Scipio: Zama. — Publius Cornelius Scipio, son of one and
nephew of the other Scipio just named, a young man twenty-five
years old, and a popular favorite, took the command, and gained
important successes ; but he could not keep Hasdrubal from going
to his brother's assistance in Italy. The Romans, however, were
able to prevent a junction of his force with that of Hannibal; and
Hasdrubal was vanquished and slain by them in the battle of Sena
Gallica, near the little river Metaurus (207). Scipio expelled the
Carthaginians from Spain, and, having returned to Rome, was made
consul (205). His plan was to invade Africa. He landed on the
coast, and was joined by Masinissa, the king of Numidia, who had
been driven from his throne by Syphax, the ally of Carthage.
The defeat of the Carthaginians, and the danger of Carthage itself,
led to the recall of Hannibal\ who was defeated, in 202, by Scipio
in the decisive battle of Zama. Carthage made peace, giving up
all her Spanish possessions and islands in the Mediterranean, hand-
ing over the kingdom of Syphax to Masinissa, and agreeing to
pay a yearly tribute equal to two hundred and fifty thousand dol-
lars, for fifty years, to destroy all their ships of war b'ut ten, and to
make no war without the consent of the Romans (201). Scipio
Africanus, as he was termed, came back in triumph to Rome.
The complete subjugation of Upper Italy followed (200-191).

CHAPTER II.

CONQUEST OP MACEDONIA: THE THIRD PUNIC WAR:
THE DESTRUCTION OP CORINTH (202-140 B.C.).

Philip III.: Antiochus III — The Romans were now domi-
nant in the West. They were strong on the sea, as on the land.
Within fifty years Rome likewise became the dominant power in
the East. Philip 1IL of Macedon had made an alliance with
Hannibal, but had furnished him no valuable aid. The SenateROMAN HISTORY.

149

maintained that a body of Macedonian mercenaries had fought
against the Romans at Zama. Rhodes and Athens, together with
King Attalus of Pergamon, sought for help against Philip. The
Romans were joined by the 4Etolians, and afterwards by the
Achaians. In 197, the consul T. Quintius Flamininus defeated
him at the battle of Cynoseephalce in Epirus, and imposed upon
him such conditions of peace as left him powerless against the
interests of Rome. At the Isthmian games, amid great rejoicing,
Flamininus declared the Greek states independent. When they
found that their freedom was more nominal than real, and involved
a virtual subjection to Rome, the sEtolians took up arms, and
obtained the support of Ahtiochus ///., king of Syria. Another
grievance laid at the door of this king was the reception by him
of Hannibal\ a fugitive from Carthage, whose advice, however, as
to the conduct of the war, Atitiochus had not the wisdom to fol-
low. In 190 he was vanquished by a Roman army at Magnesia,
under Z. Cornelius Scipio, with whom was present, as an adviser,
Scipio Ajricanus, He was forced to give up all his Asiatic pos-
sessions as far as the laurus mountains. The territory thus
obtained, the Romans divided among their allies, Pergamon and
Rhodes. About seven years later (183), Hannibal, who had taken
refuge at the court of Prusiast king of Bithynia, finding that he
was to be betrayed, took poison and died. The ingratitude of his
country, or of the ruling party in it, did not move him to relax
his exertions against Rome. He continued until his death to be
her most formidable antagonist, exerting in exile an effective
influence in the East to create combinations against her.

Perseus.—Philip 1IL laid a plan to avenge himself on the
Romans, and regain his lost Macedonian territory. Perseus, his
son, followed in the same path, having slain his brother Deme-
trius, who was a friend of Rome. The war broke out in 171.
For several campaigns the management of the Roman generals
was ill-judged; but at last Z. ALmilius Paulus, son of the consul
who fell at Cannce, routed the Macedonians at the battle of Pydna.
Immense spoils were brought to Rome by the conqueror. Perseus
himself, who had sat on the throne of Alexander, adorned the
consul's triumphal procession through the streets of Rome. The
cantons of Greece, where there was nothing but continual strife
and endless confusion, were made subject to Rome. One thou-
sand Achaians of distinction, among them the historian Polybiusf
were carried to Italy, and kept under surveillance for many years.
The imperious spirit of Rome, and the deference accorded to her,
is illustrated in the interview of C. Popilius Lcenas, who deliv-
ered to Antiochus IV\ of Syria a letter of the Senate, directing
him to retire from before Alexandria. When that monarch re-
plied that he would confer with his counselors on the matter, theANCIENT HISTORY.

haughty Roman drew a circle round him on the ground, and bade
him decide before he should cross that line. Antiochus said that
he would do as the Senate ordered.

The Third Punic War. — The treaty with Carthage had bound
that city hand and foot. Against the encroachments of Masinissa,
the Carthaginians could do nothing; but at length they were
driven to take up arms to repel them. This act the Romans pro-
nounced a breach of the treaty (149). That stern old Roman,
who in his youth had served against Hannibal, M. Fortius Catoy
had been unceasing in his exhortation to destroy Carthage. He
was in the habit of ending his speeches with the saying, " But I
am of opinion that Carthage should I5e destroyed." The Roman
armies landed at Utica. Their hard demands, which included the
surrender of war-ships and weapons, were complied with. But
when the Carthaginians were required to abandon their city, and
to make a new settlement ten miles distant, they rose in a fury of
patriotic wrath. The women cut off their hair to make bow-
strings. Day and night the people worked, in forging weapons
and in building a new fleet in the inner harbor. The Romans
were repulsed; but P. Scipio s.Emilianus, the adopted son of the
first Scipio Africanus, shut in the city by land and by sea, and, in
146, captured and destroyed it. Its defenders fought from street
to street, and from house to house. Only a tenth part of the
inhabitants were left alive. These were sold into slavery. Car-
thage was set on fire, and almost entirely consumed. The fire
burned for seventeen days. The remains of the Carthaginian
wall, when excavated in recent times, " were found to be covered
with a layer of ashes from four to five feet deep, filled with half-
charred pieces of wood, fragments of iron, and projectiles."
Scipio would have preserved the city, but the Senate was inexor-
able. With the historian Polybius at his side, the Roman com-
mander, as he looked down on the horrors of the conflagration,
sorrowfully repeated the lines of Homer,—

" The day shall come when sacred Troy shall be leveled with the plain,
And Priam and the people of that good warrior slain."

" Assyria," he is said to have exclaimed," had fallen, and Persia
and Macedon. Carthage was burning: Rome's day might come
next." Carthage was converted into a Roman province under the
name of Africa.

Destruction of Corinth. — The atrocious crime of the destruc-
tion of Carthage was more than matched by the contemporaneous
destruction of Corinth. Another rising in Macedonia resulted, in
146, in the conversion of that ancient kingdom into a Roman
province. The return to Greece of three hundred Achaiah exiled
♦ who had been detained in Italy for sixteen years, strengthened theROMAN HISTORY.

ISI

anti-Roman party in Greece, and helped to bring on war with the
Achaian league. In 146, after the battle of Leucopetra, Corinth
was occupied by the consul Z. Mummius. The men were put to
the sword; the women and children were sold at auction into
slavery; all treasures, all pictures, and other works of art, were
carried off to Rome, and the city was consigned to the flames.
The other Greek cities were mildly treated, but placed under the
governor of Macedonia, and obliged to pay tribute to Rome. At
a later date Greece became a Roman province under the name
of Achaia.

The Provinces.— At this epoch, there were eight provinces,—Sicily
(241), Sardinia (238) and Corsica, two provinces in Spain (205), Cisalpine
Gauly Illyricum (168), Africa (140), Macedonia (146), and Achaia. The first
four were governed by Prcetors. Later, however, the judicial functions of
the praetors kept them in Rome. At the end of the year, the praetor, on
laying down his office at home, went as proprcetor to rule a province. But
where there was war or other grave disturbances, the province was assigned
to a consul in office, or to a proconsul, who was either the consul of the
preceding year, or an ex-consul, or an ex-praetor who was appointed pro-
consul. The provinces were generally organized by the conquering general
and a senatorial commission. Some cities retained their municipal govern-
ment. These were the "free cities." The taxes were farmed out to collec-
tors called publicans, who were commonly of the equestrian order. The last
military dictator was appointed in 216. In times of great danger, dictatorial
power was given to a consul.

Literature and Philosophy. — The intercourse of the Romans with
the Greeks opened to the former a new world of art, literature, and philoso-
phy, and a knowledge of other habits and modes of life. .There were those
who regarded the Greek authors and artists with sympathy, and showed an
intelligent enthusiasm for the products of Greek genius. Under the patron-
age of the Scipios, Roman poets wrote in imitation of Greek models. Such
were Plautus (who died in 184), and the less original, but more refined,
Terence (185-159), who had been the slave of a senator. Ennius (239-169),
a Calabrian Greek, wrote epics, and also tragedies and comedies. Him the
later Romans regarded as the father of their literature. The beginnings
of historical writing — which go beyond mere chronicles and family histo-
ries— appear, as in the lost work on Roman history by M. Portius Cato
(Cato the Censor, 284-149). The great historian of this period, however,
was the Greek Polybius. The Greek philosophy was introduced, in spite of
the vigorous opposition of such austere conservatives as Cato. Pancetius
(185-112), the Stoic from Rhodes, had a cordial reception at Rome. The
Stoic teaching was adapted to the Roman mind. The Platonic philosophy
was brought in by Carneades. This was frequently more acceptable to
orators and statesmen. Along with the Stoic, the Epicurean school found
adherents. Cato— who, although a historian and an orator, was, in theory
and practice, a rigid man, with the simple ways of the old time — procured
the banishment of Carneades, together with Critolaus the Peripatetic, and the
Stoic Diogenes. The schools of oratory he caused to be shut up. He did
what he could to prevent the introduction of the healing art, as it was prac-
ticed by the Greeks. He preferred the old-fashioned domestic remedies.

The State of Morals. — If the opposition of the Conservatives to
Greek letters and philosophy was unreasonable, as it certainly proved futile,
there was abundant ground for alarm and regret at the changes that were
going on in morals and in ways of living. The conquest of Greece and152

ANCIENT HISTORY.

of the East brought an amazing increase of wealth. Rome plundered the
countries which she conquered. The optimatest the leading families, who
held the chief offices in the state and in the army, grew very rich from
the booty which they gained. They left their small dwellings for stately
palaces, which they decorated with works of art, gained by the pillage of
nations. They built villas in the country, with extensive grounds and beau-
tiful gardens. Even women, released fiom the former strict subordination
of the wife to her husband, indulged lavishly in finery, and plunged into
gaieties inconsistent with the household virtues. The optimates> in order to
enrich themselves further, often resorted to extortion of various sorts. In
order to curry favor with the people, and thereby to get their votes, they
stooped to flattery, and to demagogical arts which the earlier Romans
would have despised. They provided games, at great expense, for the enter-
tainment of the populace. In the room of the invigorating and of the intel-
lectual contests, which had been in vogue among the Greeks, the Romans
acquired an increasing relish for bloody gladiatorial fights of men'with wild
beasts, and of men against one another. Slaves multiplied to an enormous
extent: "as cheap as a Sardinian" was a proverb. The race of plain
farmers dwindled away. The trade in slaves became a flourishing branch
of business. Field-hands toiled in fetters, and were often branded to pre-
vent escape. If slaves ran away, and were caught, they might be crucified.
If a householder were killed by a slave, all the slaves in his house might
be put to death. As at Athens, the testimony of slaves was given under
torture. Hatred to the master on the part of the slave was a thing of course.
u As many enemies as slaves," was a common saying.

Numantian War. — The intolerable oppression of the provinces
occasionally provoked resistance. It was in Spain that the Romans
found it most difficult to quell the spirit of freedom. The Lusi-
tanians, in the territory now called Portugal, under a gallant chief-
tain, Viriathus, maintained for nine years a war in which they were
mostly successful, and were finally worsted only in consequence
of the perfidious assassination of their .leader (149-140). The
Cdtiberians, whose principal city, Numantia, was on the upper
Douroy kept up their resistance with equal valor for ten years
(143-133). On one occasion a Roman army of twenty thousand
men was saved from destruction by engagements which the Senate,
as after the surrender at the Caudine Forks, repudiated. In 133,
after a siege of eighteen months, Numantia was taken by Scipio
Africanus s.Emilianus. It was hunger that compelled 'the surren-
der; and the noblest inhabitants set fire to the town, and slew
themselves, to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy.

Pergamon. — More subservience the Romans found in the East.
In the same year that the desperate resistance of the Numantians
was overcome, Attalus JU.f king of Pergamon, an ally of Rome,
whose sovereignty extended over the greater part of Asia Minor,
left his kingdom and all his treasures, by will, to the Roman peo-
ple. There was a feeble struggle on the part of the expectant
heir, but the Romans formed the larger part of the kingdom into
a province. Phrygia Major they detached, and gave to Mithri-
dates JK, king of Pontus, who had helped them in this last brief
contest.Period IV.

THE ERA OF REVOLUTION AND. OF THE CIVIL WARS.

(146-31 b.c.)

chapter i.

the gracchi: the first mithridatio war! marius
and sulla (140-78 b.c.).

Condition of Home. — We come now to an era of internal strife.
The Romans were to turn their arms against one* another. Yet it
is remarkable that the march of foreign conquest* still went on.
It was by conquests abroad that the foremost leaders in the civil'
wars rose to the position which enabled them to get control in the
government at home. The power of the Senate had been more
and more exalted. Foreign affairs were mainly at its disposal.
The increase in the number' of voters in the comitia, and their *
motley character, made it more easy for the aristocracy to manage
them. Elections were carried by the influence of largesses and
by the exhibition of games. Practically the chief officers were'
limited to a clique, composed of rich families of both patrician*
and plebeian origin, which was diminishing in number, while the
numbers of the lower class were rapidly growing larger. The gulf
between the poor and the rich was constantly widening; The last
Italian colony was sent out in 177 B.C., and the lands of Italy'
were all taken up. Slaves furnished labor at the cost of their bare
subsistence. It was hard for a poor man to gain a living. Had
the Licinian Laws (p. 137) been carried out, the situation would
have been different. The public lands were occupied by the mem-
bers of some forty or fifty aristocratic families, and by a certain
number of wealthy Italians. A great proletariate—a needy and
disaffected lower class — was growing up, which boded no good to
the state.

Tiberius Graochus. —This condition of things moved Tiberius
Gracchus, the son of Cornelia, who was the daughter of the great
Scipio Africanusy to bring forward his Agrarian Laws. The effect
of them would have been to limit the amount of the public
domain which any one . man could hold, and to divide portions' of

>53154

ANCIENT HISTORY.

it among poor citizens. In spite of the bitter opposition of the
nobility, these laws were passed (133). But Gracchus had been
obliged to persuade the people to turn a tribune, who resisted
their passage, out of office, which was an unconstitutional act.
In order to carry out the laws, he would have to be re-elected
tribune. But the optimates, led by the consul Scipio Nasica, had
been still more infuriated by other proposals of Gracchus. They
raised a mob, and slew him, with three hundred of his followers.
This gave the democratic leaders a temporary advantage; but
violent measures on their own side turned the current again the
other way, and proceedings under the laws were quashed.

Caius Gracchus. — The laws of Cains Gracchus, the brother
of Tiberius, were of a more sweeping character. He caused
measures to be passed, and colonies to be sent out, by decrees of
the people, without any action of the Senate. He renewed the
agrarian law*. He caused a law to be passed for selling com for
less than the cost, to all citizens who should apply for it. He
also caused it to be ordained, that juries should be taken from the
knights, the equites, instead of the Senate. These were com-
posed of rich men. The tendency of the law would be to make
the equestrian order distinct, and thus to divide the aristocracy.
The proposal (122), which was not passed, to extend the fran-
chise to the Latins, and perhaps to the Italians, cost him his
popularity, although the measure was just. The Senate gave its
support to a rival tribune, M. Livius Drusus, who outbid Grac-
chus in the contest for popular favor. In 121 Gracchus was not
made tribune. In the disorder that followed, he, with several hun-
dred of his followers, was killed by the optimates. Before long
most of his enactments were reversed. The law for the cheap
sale of corn, the most unwise of his measures, continued.

The Jugurthine War. — An interval of tranquillity followed.
But the corruption of the ruling class was illustrated in connec-
tion with the Jugurthine war. Jugurtha, the adopted son of the
king of Numidia, the ally of Rome, wishing the whole kingdom
for himself, killed one of the sons of the late king, and made war
upon the other, who applied to the Romans for help. The com-
mission sent out by the Senate was bribed by Jugurtha. Not
until he took the city of Cirtay and put to death the remaining
brother, with all his army, was he summoned to Rome. There,
too, his money availed to secure him impunity, although he caused
a Numidian prince to be murdered in Rome itself. When the
Romans finally entered on the war with Jugurtha, he bribed the
generals, so that little was effected. The indignation of the peo-
ple was raised to such a pitch that they would not leave the direc-
tion of the. war in the hands of Quintus Metellusy whom the
Senate had sent out, and who defeated Jugurtha (108), but in-ROMAN HISTORY.

*55

sisted on giving the chief command to one of his subordinate
officers, Caius Marius (107), the son of a peasant, wild and rough
in his manners, but of extraordinary talents as a soldier. He
brought the war to an end. Jugurtha was delivered up by the
prince with whom he had taken refuge to Z. Cornelius Sulla, one
of the generals under Marius, and in 105, with his two sons,
marched in chains before the triumphal car of Marius through the
streets of Rome. Marius was now the leader of the popular
party, and the most influential man in Rome.

The Cimbri and Teutones. — The power of Marius was aug-
mented by his victories over the Cimbri and the Teutones. These
were hordes of barbarians who appeared in the Alpine regions, the
Cimbri being either Celts, or, like the Teutones, Germans. The
Cimbri crossed the Alps in 113, and defeated a Roman consul.
They turned westward towards the Rhine, traversed Gaul in dif-
ferent directions, defeating through a series of years the Roman
armies that were sent against them. These defeats the democratic
leaders ascribed, not without reason, to the corrupt management
of the aristocratic party. In 103 the Cimbri and the Teutones ar-
ranged for a combined attack on Italy. Marius was made consul;
and in order to meet this threatened invasion, which justly excited
the greatest anxiety, he was chosen to this office five times in suc-
cession (104-100). Having repulsed the attack of the barbarians
on his camp, he defeated them in two great battles, the first at
Aqua Sextice (Aix in Provence) in 103, and the second at Vercel-
/#, in Upper Italy, in 101. These successes, which really saved
Rome, made Marius for the time the idol of the popular party.

The Army. — At about this time a great change took place in
the constitution of the army. The occupation of a soldier had
become a trade. Besides the levy of citizens, there was established
a recruiting system, which drew into the ranks the idle and lazy,
and a system of re-inforcements, by which cavalry and light-armed
troops were taken from subject and vassal states. Thus there
arose a military class, distinct, as it had not been of old, from the
civil orders, and ready to act separately when its own interest or
the ambition of favorite leaders might prompt.

Saturninus. — Marius lacked the judgment and the firmness
required by a statesman, especially in troublous times. . When Sa-
turninus and Glaucia brought forward a series of measures of a
radical character in behalf of the democratic cause, and the con-
sul Metellus, who opposed them, was obliged to go into voluntary
exile, Marius, growing ashamed of the factious and violent pro-
ceedings of the popular party, was partially won over to the sup-
port of the Senate. When C. Memmius, candidate for consul, was
killed with bludgeons by the mob of Saturninus and Glaucia, and
there was fighting in the forum and the streets, he helped to put156

ANCIENT HISTORY.

down these reckless innovators (99). But his want of hearty cor
operation with either party made him hated by both. Metellus was
recalled from banishment. Marius went to Asia, and visited the
court of Mithridates.

The Murder of Drusus.—Nearly ten years of comparative quiet
ensued. The long continued complaints of the Italians found at
last a voice in the measures of M. Livius Drusus, a tribune, who,
in 91, proposed that they should have the right of citizenship.
Two other propositions, one referring to the relations of the
Equites and the Senate, and the other for a new division of lands,
had been accepted by the people, but were by the Senate de-
clared null. Before Drusus could bring forward the law respect-
ing Italian citizenship, he was assassinated. Neither Senate nor
people was favorable to this righteous measure.

The Italian or Social War (90-88 B.C.). — The murder of Dru-
sus was the signal for an insurrection of the Italian communities.
They organized for themselves a federal republic. The peril oc-
casioned by this great revolt reconciled for the moment the con-
tending parties at Rome. In the North, where Marius fought,
the Romans were ^generally successful: in the South, the allies
were at first superior; but in 89, in spite of Su/la's bold forays,
they were worsted. But it was by policy, more than by arms, that
the Romans subdued this dangerous revolt. They promised full
citizenship to those who had not taken part in the war, and to
those who would at once cease to take part in it (90). Finally,
when it was plain that Rome was too strong to be overcome, the
conflict was ended by granting to the allies all that they had ever
claimed (89). Rome had now made all Italy (south of Cis-
alpine Gaul), except the Samnites and Lucanians, equal with
herself. But Italy had been ravaged by desolating war: the
number of small proprietors was more than ever diminished, and
the army and the generals were becoming the predominant force
in the affairs of the state.

War with Mithridates. — Mithridates, king of Pontus, in the
north-east of Asia Minor, was as ardent an enemy of the Romans
as Hannibal had been. With the help of his son-in-law Tigranes,
king of Armenia, he had subdued the neighboring kings in alliance
with Rome. The Asiatic states, who were ruled by the Romans,
were impatient of the oppression under which they groaned.
When checked by the Romans, Mithridates had paused for a
while, and then had resumed again his enterprise of conquest. In
88 the Grecian cities of Asia joined him ; and, in obedience to his
brutal order, all the Italians within their walls, not less than eighty,
thousand in number, but possibly almost double that number, were
put to death in one day. The whole dominion of the Romans in
the East was in jeopardy.ROMAN HISTORY.

157

Marius and Sulla. — Sulla was elected consul in 88, and was
on the point of departing for Asia. He was a soldier of marked
talents, a representative of the aristocratic party, and was more
cool and consistent in his public conduct than Marius. Marius
desired the command against Mithridates for himself. P. Sulpicius,
one of his adherents, brought forward a revolutionary law for in-
corporating the Italians and freed men among the thirty-five tribes.
The populace, under the guidance of the leaders of the Marian
faction, voted to take away the command from Sulla,and to give
it to Marius. Sulla refused to submit, and marched his army to
Rome. It was impossible to resist him. Sulpicius was killed in
his flight. Marius escaped from Italy, and, intending to go to
Africa, was landed at Minturnce. To escape pursuit, he had to
stand up to the chin in a marsh. He was put in prison, and a
Gaulish slave was sent to kill him. But when he saw the flashing
eyes of the old general, and heard him cry, " Fellow, darest thou
kill Caius Marius ?" he dropped his sword, and ran. Marius
crossed to Africa. Messengers who were sent to warn him to go
away, found him sitting among the ruins of Carthage.

The Marians in Rome. — Sulla restored the authority of the
Senate. During Sulla1 s absence, Cinna, the consul of the popular
party, sought to revive the laws of Sulpicius by violent means (87).
Driven out of the city, he came back with an army which he had
gathered in Campania, and with old Marius, who had returned
from Africa. He now took vengeance on the leaders of the Op-
timates. For five days the gates were closed, and every noble
who was specially obnoxious, and had not escaped, was killed by
Marius, who marched through the streets at the head of a body
of soldiers. In 86 Marius and Cinna were made consuls. Sulla
was declared to be deposed. Marius, who was now more than
seventy years old, died (86). The fever of revenge, and the ap-
prehension of what might follow on Sulla's return, drove sleep
from his eyelids. A brave soldier, he was incompetent to play
the part of a statesman. He went to his grave with the curse of
all parties resting upon him.

Return of Sulla. — Sulla refused to do any thing against his
adversaries at home, or for the help of the fugitive nobles who
appealed to him, until the cause of the country was secure abroad.
He captured Athens in 86, defeated Archelaus, the general of
Mithridates, in a great battle at Chceronea; and, by this and sub-
sequent victories, he forced Mithridates to conclude peace, who
agreed to evacuate the Roman province of Asia, to restore all his
conquests, surrender eighty ships of war, and pay three thousand
talents (84). Sulla's hands were now free. In 83 he landed at
Brundisium. He was joined by Cneius Pompeius, then twenty-
three years old, with a troop of volunteers. Sulla did not wish to158

ANCIENT HISTORY.

fight the Italians. He issued a proclamation, therefore, giving
them the assurance that their rights would not be impaired. This
pledge had the desired effect. The army of the Consuls largely
outnumbered his own. Sulla lingered in South Italy to make good
his position there. The Samnites joined the Marians, and moved
upon Rome with the intent to destroy it. They were defeated
before they could enter the city. The Marians in Spain were
defeated afterwards, as were the same party in Sicily and Africa
by Pompeius.

Cruelty of Sulla. — The cruelty of Sulla, after his victory, was
more direful than Rome had ever witnessed. It appeared to spring
from no heat of passion, but was cold and shameless. After a few
days, there was a massacre of four thousand prisoners in the Cir-
cus. Their shrieks and groans were heard in the neighboring Tem-
ple of Bellona, where Sulla was in consultation with the Senate.
Many thousands — not far from three thousand in Rome alone —
were proscribed and murdered, and the property of all on these
lists of the condemned was confiscated.

The Laws of Sulla. —In his character as Dictator, Sulla re-
made the constitution, striking out the popular elements to a great
extent, and concentrating authority in the Senate. The Tribunes
were stripped of most of their power. The Senate alone could
propose laws. In the Senate, the places in the juries were given
back (p. 154). Besides these and other like changes, the right of
suffrage was bestowed on ten thousand emancipated slaves; while
Italians and others, who had been on the Marian side, were de-
prived of it. In the year 80 B.C., Sulla caused himself to be
elected Consul. The next year he retired from office to his coun-
try estate, and gave himself up to amusements and sensual pleasure.
A part of his time — for he was not without a taste for literature
— he devoted to the writing of his memoirs, which, however, have
not come down to us. He died in 78.

CHAPTER II.

POMPEIUS AND THE EAST: TO THE DEATH OP CRASSTJS

(78-53 B.C.).

War with Sertorius. — Not many years after Sulla's death, his
reforms were annulled. This was largely through the agency of
Gneius Pompeius, who had supported Sulla, but was not a uniform
or consistent adherent of the aristocratic party. He did not be-
long to an old family, but had so distinguished himself that Sulla
gave him a triumph. Later he rose to still higher distinction byROMAN HISTORY.

159

his conduct of the war against Sertorius in Spain, a brave and
able man of the Marian party, who was supported there for a long
time by a union of Spaniards and Romans. Not until jealousy
arose among his officers, and Sertorius was assassinated, was the
formidable rebellion put down (72).

The Gladiatorial War.—Pompeius had the opportunity still
further to distinguish himself on his way back from Spain. The
gladiators in Italy— the men who were trained in schools for the fights
of the amphitheater — rose in large numbers under a gallant leader,
Spartacus, defeated the Roman generals, and threatened Rome itself.
For two years they ravaged Italy at their will. They were vanquished
by Marcus Crassus in 71, in two battles, in the last of which Spar-
tacus fell. The remnant of them, a body of five thousand men,
who had nearly reached the Alps, were annihilated by Pompeius.

Pompeius: Crassus: Cicero. — Crassus was a man of great
wealth and of much shrewdness. Pompeius was bland and digni-
fied in his ways, a valiant, though sometimes over-cautious, general.
These two men, in 70 B.C., became consuls. They had resolved
to throw themselves for support on the middle class at Rome.
PompeiuSy sustained by his colleague, secured the abrogation of
some of the essential changes made by Sulla. The Tribunes re-
ceived back their powers, and the independence of the Assembly
of the Tribes was restored. The absolute power of the Senate over
the law-courts was taken away. These measures were carried in
spite of the resistance of that body. Pompeius was aided by the
great advocate, Marcus Tullius Cicero. He was born at Arpinum
in 106 B.C., of an equestrian family. He had been a diligent stu-
dent of law and politics, and also of the Greek philosophy, and
aspired to distinction in civil life. He studied rhetoric under
Molo, first at Rome and then at Rhodes, during a period of ab-
sence from Italy, which continued about two years. On his return
(in 77 B.C.), he resumed legal practice. Cicero was a man of
extraordinary and various talents, and a patriot, sincerely attached
to the republican constitution. He was humane and sensitive, and
much more a man of peace than his eminent contemporaries. His
foibles, the chief of which was the love of praise, were on the sur-
face ; and, if he lacked some of the robust qualities of the great
Roman leaders of that day, he was likewise free from some of
their sins. The captivating oratory of Cicero found a field for its
exercise in the impeachment of Verresf whose rapacity, as Roman
governor of Sicily, had fairly desolated that wealthy province.
Cicero showed such vigor in the prosecution that Verres was driven
into exile. This event weakened the senatorial oligarchy, and
helped Pompeius in his contest with it.

War with the Pirates. — In 65 B.C., Pompeius retired from
office; but, two years later, he assumed command in the wari6o

ANCIENT HISTORY.

against the pirates. These had taken possession of creeks and
valleys in Western Cilicia and Patnphylia, and had numerous
fleets. Not confining their depredations to the sea, they plun-
dered the coasts of Italy, and stopped the corn-ships on which
Rome depended for food. Pompeius undertook to exterminate
this piratical community. By the Gabinian Law, he was clothed
with more power than had ever been committed to an individual.
He was to have absolute command over the Mediterranean and
its coasts for fifty miles inland. He used this unlimited authority
for war purposes alone, and, in three months, completely accom-
plished the work assigned him. He captured three • thousand
vessels, and put to death ten thousand men. Twenty thousand
captives he settled in the interior of Cilicia.

Pompeius in the East. — The success of Pompeius was the prel-
ude to a wider extension of his power and his popularity. After
the return of Sulla from the East, another Mithridatic War (83-81),
the second in the series, had ended in the same terms of peace that
had been agreed upon before (p. 157). In 74 the contest began
anew against Mithridates, and Tigranes of Armenia, his son-in-law.
For a number of years Lucullus, the Roman commander, was suc-
cessful; but finally Mithridates regained what he had lost, and
kept up his aggressive course. In 66 B.C., on a motion that was
supported by Cicero, but opposed by the aristocratic party in the
Senate, Pompeius was made commander in the East for an indefi-
nite term. So extensive powers had never before been committed
to a Roman. He drove Mithridates out of Pontus into Armenia.
Tigranes laid his crown at the feet of the Roman general, and was
permitted to retain Armenia. Mithridates fled beyond the Cau-
casus, and, in 63 B.C., committed suicide; Pompeius overthrew
the Syrian kingdom of the Seleucidce. He entered Judcea, captured
Jerusalem from Aristobulus the reigning prince, and placed his
brother Hyrcanus on the throne, who became tributary to Rome.
Pompeius with his officers entered the sanctuary of the temple, and
was surprised to find there neither image nor statue. He estab-
lished in the Roman territories in Asia the two provinces, Pontus
and Syria, and re-organized the province of Cilicia. Several king-
doms he allowed to remain under Roman protection. After this
unexampled exercise of power and responsibility as the disposer
of kingdoms, he slowly returned to Italy, dismissed his army at
Brundisium, and entered the capital as a private citizen, where,
in 61 B.C., he enjoyed a magnificent triumph that lasted for two
days.

The Roman Triumph. — The most coveted reward of a victorious gen-
eral was a triumph. It was granted by a vote of the Senate and according
to certain rules, some of which, however, were often relaxed. The general
must have held the office of dictator, consul, or praetor; at least five thousandROMAN HISTORY.

l6l

of the enemy must have been slain in a single battle; the war must have been
against public foes, etc. The general, with his army, remained without the
city until the triumph had been decreed by the Senate, which also assembled
without the walls to deliberate on the question. The pageant itself, in later
times, was of the most splendid character. It consisted of a procession
which entered the " Triumphal Gate," and passed through the Via Sacra, up
the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter, where sacrifices were offered.
In front were the Senate, headed by the magistrates. Then came a body of
trumpeters, who immediately preceded the long trains of carriages and frames
which displayed the spoils of conquest, including statues, pictures, gorgeous
apparel, gold and silver, and whatever else had been borne away from the
conquered people. Pictures of the country traversed or conquered, and mod-
els of cities and forts, were exhibited. Behind the spoils came flute-players,
and these were followed by elephants and other strange animals. Next were
the arms and insignia of the hostile leaders; and after them marched the lead-
ers themselves and their kindred, and all the captives of less rank, in fetters.
The crowns and other tributes voluntarily given to the general by Roman
allies next appeared, and then the central figure of the procession, the irn-
perator himself, standing in a chariot drawn by four horses, clad in a robe
embroidered with gold, and a flowered tunic, in his right hand a bough of
laurel and in his left a scepter, with a wreath of laurel on his brow, and a slave
standing behind, and holding a crown over his head. Behind him in the pro-
cession were his family, then the mounted equites and the whole body of the
infantry, their spears adorned with laurels, making the air ring with their shouts
and songs. Meantime the temples were open, and incense was burned to the
gods; buildings were decorated with festal garlands; the population, in holiday
dress, thronged the steps of the public buildings and stages erected to command
a view, and in every place where a sight of the pageant could be obtained.
As the procession climbed the Capitoline Hill, some of the captives of rank
were taken into the adjoining Mamertine prison, and barbarously put to
death. In the lower chamber of that ancient dungeon, which the traveler
still visits, Jugurtha and many other conquered enemies perished. After
the sacrifices nad been offered, the imperator sat down to a public feast
with his friends in the temple, and was then escorted home by a crowd of
citizens.

The ovation was a lesser triumph. The general entered the city on foot,
and the ceremonies were of a much inferior cast.

Conspiracy of Catiline. — Meanwhile at Rome, the state had
been endangered by the combination of democrats and anarchists
in the conspiracy of Catiline. The well-contrived plot of this
audacious and profligate man was detected and crushed by the vigi-
lance and energy of the consul Cicero, whose four speeches on
the subject, two to the Senate and two to the people, are among the
most celebrated of all his orations. Catiline was forced to fly from
Rome ; and several of his prominent accomplices were put to death
by the advice of Cato (the younger), the leader of the Senatorial
party, and by the vote of the Senate. This was done without asking
for the verdict of the people, and for this reason was not warranted
by the law; but it was declared to be needful for the salvation of
the state. The next year Catiline was killed in battle, and his
force dispersed by the army of the Senate. A turn of party feeling
afterwards exiled Cicero for departing from the law in the execu-
tion of the conspirators.ANCIENT HISTORY.

Julius Caesar. — Another person strong enough to be the rival
of Pompeius was now on the stage of action. This was Caius
Julius Ccesar, who proved himself to be, on the whole, the fore-
most man of the ancient Roman world. Caesar's talents were ver-
satile, but in nothing was he weak or superficial. He was great as
a genera], a statesman, an orator, and an author. With as much
power of personal command over men as Hannibal had possessed,
he was likewise an agreeable companion of men of letters and
in general society. Every thing he did he appeared to do with
ease. By his family connections he was naturally designated as
the leader of the popular, Marian party. He was the nephew of
Marius and the son-in-law of Cinna. Sulla had spared his life,
although he had courageously refused to obey the dictator's com-
mand to put away his wife; but he had been obliged to quit
Rome. At the funeral of Julia, the widow of Marius, he had
been bold enough to exhibit the bust of that hero, — an act that
involved risk, but pleased the multitude. He was suspected of
being privy to Catiline's plot, and in the Senate spoke against the
execution of his confederates. In 65 he was elected sEdile, but
his profuse expenditures in providing games plunged him heavily
in debt; so that it was only by advances made to him by Crassus
that he was able, after being praetor, to go to Spain (in 61), where,
as propraetor, he first acquired military distinction. Prior to his
sojourn in Spain, by his bold political conduct, in opposition to the
Senate, and on the democratic side, he had made himself a favor-
ite of the people.

The First Triumvirate. — Pompeius was distrusted and feared
by the Senate; but, on seeing that he took no measures to seize on
power at Rome, they proceeded to thwart his wishes, and denied
the expected allotments of land to his troops. The circum-
stances led to the formation of the first Triumvirate, which was an
informal alliance between Pompeius, Ccesar, and Crassus, against
the Senatorial oligarchy, and for the protection and furtherance of
their own interests. Ccesar became consul in 59 B.C. He gave
his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompeius. Gaul, both Cis-
alpine, and Transalpine (Gallia Narbonensis), was given to Cce-
sar to govern for five years. Cato was sent off to take possession
of the kingdom of Cyprus. Cicero, who was midway between the
two parties, was exiled on motion of the radical tribune, Clodius.
But the independent and violent proceedings of this demagogue
led Pompeius to co-operate more with the Senate. Cicero was
recalled (57 B.C.). A jealousy, fomented by the Senate, sprang
up between Pompeius and Crassus. By Caesar's efforts, a better
understanding was brought about between the triumvirs, and it
was agreed that his own proconsulship should be prolonged for a
second term of five years. Pompeius received the Spains\ and. ROMAN HISTORY.	163

Crassus, who was avaricious, was made proconsul of Syria, and
commander of the armies in the Oriental provinces. In an expe-
dition against the Parthians in 53, he perished.

Caesar in Gaul. — The campaigns of Ccesar in Gaul covered a
period of eight years. An admirable narrative of them is pre-
sented by himself in his Commentaries.

The Gauls. — The Gauls were Celts. The Celts were spread over the most of Gaul,
over Britain and the north of Italy. In Gaul, there were three general divisions of people,
each subdivided into tribes. These were the Belgce, the Galli, and the Aqtiitani, the last of
whom, however, were not Celts, but, like the Iberians in Spain, belonged to a f re-Celtic race.
The Helvetii and Vindelici were in Switzerland. The Celts of Gaul had attained to a consid-
erable degree of civilization. Their gods were the various objects of nature personified. Their
divinities are described by Caesar as corresponding in their functions to the gods of Rome.
Their priests were the Druids, a close corporation, but not hereditary. They not only con-
ducted worship: they were the lawgivers, judges, and physicians of the people. They pos-
sessed a mysterious doctrine, which they taught to the initiated. They held a great yearly
assembly for the trial of causes. The Bards stood in connection with the Druidical order.
In worship, human sacrifices were offered in large numbers, the victims being prisoners, slaves,
criminals, etc. There were temples, but thick groves were the favorite seats of worship.
Casar says that the Gauls were strongly addicted to religious observances. In their character
they are described as brave and impetuous in an onset, but as lacking persistency.

The Celts in Britain were less civilized than their kinsfolk across the channel. But in
their customs and religious beliefs and usages, they were similar to them. They probably
came over from Gaul.	«

Conquest of Gaul. — The first victory of Caesar was in conflict
with the Helvetii, who had invaded Gaul, and whom he drove back
to their homes in the Alps. The Gallic tribes applied to him for
help against the Germans, who had been led over the Rhine by
Ariovistus, chief of the Suevi. Him Ccesar forced to return to the
other side of the river. The Gallic tribes, fearing the power of
Caesar, stirred up the Belgce, the most warlike of all the Gauls.
These Caesar subdued, and also, with less difficulty, conquered the
other nations of Gaul. Twice, in conflict with the Germans, he
crossed the Rhine near Bonn and Andernach (55 and 53 B.C.).
Twice,also (55 and 54 B.C.), he landed in Britain. On the second
expedition he crossed the Thames. In 52 there was a general
insurrection of the Gauls under Vercingetorix, a brave chieftain,
to conquer whom required all of Caesars strength and skill. The
result of eight years of hard and successful warfare was the sub-
jugation of all Gaul from the Rhine to the Pyrenees. The Celts
were subdued, and steps taken which resulted in their civilization.
A barrier was placed in the way of the advance of the Germans,
which availed for this end during several centuries. By his suc-
cesses in Gaul, Caesar acquired a fame as a general, which partly
eclipsed the glory previously gained by Pompeius in the East. He
became, also, the leadei of veteran legions who were devoted to
his interests.164

ANCIENT HISTORY.

CHAPTER III.

POMPEIUS AND CJESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.

The Civil War. — The rupture between Pompeius and Ccesar
brought on another civil war, and subverted the Roman republic.
They were virtually regents. The triumvirs had arranged with one
another for the partition of power. The death of Crassus took
away a link of connection which had united the two survivors. The
death of Julia, the beautiful daughter of Ccesar, in 54 B.C., had
previously dissolved another tie. Pompeius contrived to remain in
Rome, and to govern Spain by legates. Each of the two rivals had
his active and valiant partisans in the city. The spoils of Gaul were
sent to be expended in the erection of costly buildings, and in pro-
viding entertainments for the populace. To Pompey, in turn, Rome
owed the construction of the first stone theater, which was dedi-
cated with unprecedented show and splendor. Bloody conflicts
between armed bands of adherents of the two leaders were of daily
occurrence. Clodiusy an adherent of Caesar and a reckless parti-
san, was slain by Miio, in a conflict on the Appian Way. The
Senate and the republicans, of whom Cato was the chief, in order
to curb the populace, and out of enmity to Csesar, allied them-
selves with Pompeius. It was determined to prevent him from
standing as a candidate for the consulship, unless he should lay
down his command, and come to Rome. He offered to resign his
military power if Pompeius would do the same. This was refused.
Finally he was directed to give up his command in Gaul before the
expiration of the time which had been set for the termination of it.
This order, if carried into effect, would have reduced him to the
rank of a private citizen, and have left him at the mercy of his
enemies. The tribunes, including his devoted supporter, Marcus
Antonius, in vain interposed the veto, and fled from the city. Ccesar
determined to disobey the order of the Senate* His legions — two
had been withdrawn on the false pretext of needing them for the
Parthian war—clung to him, with the exception of one able officer,
T. Labienus. Ccesar acted with great promptitude. He crossed
the Rubicon, the boundary of the Gallic Cisalpine province, before
Pompeius — who had declared, that with a stamp of his foot he
could call up armed men from the ground — had made adequate
preparations to meet him. The strength of Pompeius was mainly
in the East\ the scene of his former glory; and he was, perhaps,
not unwilling to retire to that region, taking with him the throng
of aristocratic leaders, who fled precipitately on learning of the
approach of Ccesar. Pompeius sailed from Brundisium to Epirus.
Ciceroy who had ardently desired an accommodation between the
rivals, was in an agony of doubt as to what course it was right andROMAN HISTORY.

best for him to take, since he saw reason to dread the triumph of
either side. Reluctantly he decided to cast in his lot with the
Senate and its newly gained champion.

Fharsalus: Thapsus: Munda. — Caesar gained the advantage
of securing the state treasure which Pompeius had unaccountably
left behind him, and was able to establish his power in Italy. Be-
fore pursuing Pompeius, he marched through Gaul into Spain
(49 B.C.), conquered the Pompeian forces at llerda, and secured
his hold upon that country. He then crossed the Adriatic, He
encountered Pompeius, who could not manage his imprudent
officers, on the plain of Fharsalus (48 B.C.), where the senatorial
army was completely overthrown. Pompeius sailed for Egypt; but,
just as he. was landing, he was treacherously assassinated. His
head was sent to Ccesar, who wept at the spectacle, and punished
the murderers. Ccesar gained friends everywhere by the exercise
of a judicious clemency, which accorded with his natural disposi-
tion. He next went to Egypt. There he was met by Cleopatra,
whose dazzling beauty captivated him. She reigned in conjunction
with her younger brother, who, according to the Egyptian usage,
was nominally her husband. The Egyptians were roused against
Caesar, and, on one occasion, he saved his life by swimming; but
he finally defeated and destroyed the Egyptian army. At Zela, in
Pontus, he met and vanquished Pharnaces, the revolted son of
Mithridates, and sent the laconic message, "Veni, vidi, vici " (I
came, I saw, I conquered). Early in 46 he landed in Africa,
and, at Thapsus, annihilated the republican forces in that region.
A most powerful combination was made against him in Spain,
including some of his old officers and legionaries, and the two sons
of Pompeius. But in the hard-fought battle at Munda (March,
45 B.C.), when Caesar was himself in great personal danger, he
was, as usual, triumphant.

Caesar as a Civilian. — Marvelous as the career of Ccesar as
a general was, his merit as a civilian outstrips even his distinction
as a soldier. He saw that the world could no longer be governed
by the Roman rabble, and that monarchy was the only alternative.
He ruled under the forms of the old constitution, taking the post
of dictator and censor for life, and absorbing- in himself the other
principal republican offices. The whole tendency of his measures,
which were mostly of a very wholesome character, was not only to
remedy abuses of administration, but to found a system of orderly
administration in which Rome should be not the sole misiress,
but simply the capital\ of the world-wide community which had
been subjected to her authority.

The Government of Caesar. — Caesar made the Senate an advisory
body. He increased the number of senators, bringing in provincials as well
as Roman citizens. He gave full citizenship to all the Transpadatie Gauls,166

ANCIENT HISTORY.

and to numerous communities in Transalpine Gaul, in Spain, and elsewhere.
He established a wide-spread colonization, thus planting his veterans in dif-
ferent places abroad, and lessening the number of proletarians in Italy. He
rebuilt Carthage and Corinth. He re-organized the army, and the civil ad-
ministration in the provinces. In the space of five years, while he was busy
in important wars, he originated numerous governmental measures of the
utmost value.

The Motives of Caesar. — The designs of Caesar and of his party are
to be distinguished from what they actually accomplished. Caesar was not
impelled by a desire to improve the government of the provinces, in taking
up arms against the Senate. Nor did he owe his success to the support of
provincials; although, in common with the rest of the democratic party at
Rome, he was glad to have them for allies. The custom had grown up of
virtually giving to eminent generals, absolute power for extended intervals.
This was done, for example, in the case of Marius, on the occasion of the
invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutones. In such exigencies, it was found
necessary to create what was equivalent to a military dictatorship. The idea
of military rule became familiar. The revolution made by Caesar was achieved
by military organization, and was a measure of personal self-defense on his
part. Being raised to the supreme power, he sought to rule according to
the wise and liberal ideas which were suggested by the actual condition of the
world, and the undesirableness of a continued domination of a single city,
with such a populace as that of Rome. Before he could carry out his large
schemes, he was cut down.

Assassination of Caesar. — Caesar was tired of staying in Rome,
and was proposing to undertake an expedition against the Par-
thians. Neither his clemency nor the necessity and the merits
of the government sustained by him, availed to shield him against
the machinations of enemies. The aristocratic party detested his
policy. He was suspected of aiming at the title, as well as the
power, of a king. A conspiracy made up of numerous senators
who secretly hated him, of other individuals influenced by personal
spite, and of republican visionaries like Cassins and Junius Brutus,
who gloried in what they considered tyrannicide, assaulted him on
the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) in the hall of Pompeius,
whither he had come to a session of the Senate. He received
twenty-three wounds, one of which, at least, was fatal, exclaiming
as he fell, " Et tu Brute ! " (Thou, too, Brutus !) ; for Brutus was
one who had been counted a special friend. Cicero had acquiesced
in the new government, and eulogized Casar and his administra-
tion. But even he expressed his satisfaction at the event which
left the republic without a master. An amnesty to those who slew
Caesar was advocated by him, and decreed by the Senate.

The Second Triumvirate. — The Senate gave to the leading
conspirators provinces ; to Decimus Brutus, Cisalpine Gaul. But
at Rome there was quickly a re-action of popular wrath against
the enemies of Caesar, which was skillfully fomented by Marcus
Antonius in the address which he made to the people over his
dead body, pierced with so many wounds. The people voted to
give Cisalpine Gaul to Antonius, and he set out to take it from
Decimus Brutus by force of arms. Cicero delivered a famous seriesROMAN HISTORY.

of harangues against Antonius, called the Philippics. Antonius,
being defeated, fled to Lepidus, the governor of Transalpine Gaul.
Octavius, the grand-nephew and adopted son of Ctzsar, a youth
of eighteen, now became prominent, and at first was supported
by the Senate in the hope of balancing the power of Antonius.
But in October, 43, Octavianus (as he was henceforward called),
Antonius, and Lepidus together formed a second triumvirate,
which became legal, by the ratification of the people, for the
period of five years. A proscription for the destruction of the
enemies of the three contracting parties was a part of this alliance.
A great number were put to death, among them Cicero, a sacri:
fice to the vengeance of Antonius. War against the republicans
was the necessary consequence. At Philippi in Thrace, in the
year 42, Antonius and Octavianus defeated Brutus and Cassius,
both of whom committed suicide. Porciay the wife of Brutus, and
the daughter of Cato, on hearing of her husband's death, put an
end to her own life. Many other adherents of the republic fol-
lowed the example of their leaders. The victors divided the world
between themselves, Antonius taking the east, Octavianus the west,
while to the weak and avaricious Lepidus, Africa was assigned; but
he was soon deprived of his share by Octavianus.

Civil War: Actium.—Antonius was enamoured of Cleopatra,
and, following her to Egypt, gave himself up to luxury and sensual
gratification. Civil war between Octavianus and the followers of
Antonius in Italy (40, 41 B.C.) was followed by the marriage of
Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, to Antonius. But after a suc-
cession of disputes ^between the two regents, there was a final
breach. Antonius (35) went so far as to give Roman territories
to the sons of Cleopatra, and to send to Octavia papers of divorce.
The Senate, at the instigation of Octavianus, deprived his unworthy
colleague of all his powers. War was declared against Cleopatra.
East and West were arrayed in arms against one another. The
conflict was determined by the naval victory of Octavianus at Acti-
um (Sept. 2, 31 B.C.). Before the battle was decided, Cleopatra
fled, and was followed by Antonius. When the latter approached
Alexandria, Antonius, deceived by the false report that Cleopatra
had destroyed herself, threw himself upon his sword and died.
Cleopatra, finding herself unable to fascinate the conqueror, but
believing that he meant that she should adorn his public triumph
at Rome, poisoned herself (30). Egypt was made into a Roman
province. The month Sextilis, on which Octavianus returned to
Rome, received in honor of him the name of "August," from
"Augustus," the "venerated" or "illustrious," the name given
him in 27 B.C. by the Roman people and Senate. He celebrated
three triumphs; and, for the third time since the city was founded,
the Temple of Janus was closed.Period V.

THE IMPERIAL MONARCHY:

TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES (375 A.D.).

CHAPTER I.

THE REIGN OP AUGUSTUS.

Augustus as a Ruler. — The long-continued, sanguinary civil
wars made peace welcome. Augustus knew how to conceal his
love of power under a mild exterior, and to organize the monarchy
with a nominal adherence to republican forms. One by one, all
the offices of Senate and people were transferred to him. As Im*
perator, he had unlimited command over the military forces, and
was at the head of a standing army of three hundred and forty
thousand men. To him it belonged to decide on peace and war.
The Senate, composed to suit his views, was resolved into a con-
sultative and judicial body, with a separate Council of State, chosen
by him from its members. The authority of the Tribunes belonged
to him, and thus the popular assemblies became more and more a
nullity. " The Senate was made up of his creatures; the people
were won by bread and games ; the army was fettered to him by
means of booty and gifts." While the forms of a free state re-
mained, all the functions of authority were exercised by the ruler.

State of the Empire. — (i) Its Extent. The Roman Empire extended
from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, a distance of more than three thousand
miles, and from the Danube and the English Channel — later, from the friths
of Scotland — to the cataracts of the Nile and the African desert. Its popula-
tion wa9 somewhere from eighty millions to one hundred and twenty millions.
It was composed of the East and the West% a distinction that was not simply
geographical, but included deeper characteristic differences. (2) The Prov-
inces. The provinces were divided (27 B.C.) into the proconsular, ruled by
the Senate, and the imperial, ruled by the legates of Augustus. Ilis author-
ity, however, was everywhere supreme. Over all the empire extended the
system of Roman law, the rights and immunities of which belonged to Roman
citizens everywhere. (3) The Two Languages. It was a Romano-Hellenic
monarchy. Local dialects remained; but the Greek language was the lan-
guage of commerce, and of polite intercourse in all places. The Greek
tongue and Hellenic culture were the common property of the nations. The
Latin was prevalent west of the Adriatic. It was adopted in Africa, Spain,
Gaul, and in other provinces. It was the language of courts and of theROMAN HISTORY,

169

camp. (4) Journeys and Trade. The Roman territory was covered with a
net-work of magnificent roads. Journeys for purposes of trade and from
motives of curiosity were common. Religious pilgrimages to famous shrines
were frequent. The safety and peace which followed upon the civil wars
stimulated traffic and intercourse between the different regions united under
the imperial government.

Literature. — The Augustan period was the golden age of Roman litera-
ture. Literary works were topics of conversation in social circles. Libraries
were collected by the rich. The shops of booksellers were places of resort
for cultivated people. There were active and liberal patrons of poets and of
other men of letters. Such patrons were Macenas, Horace's friend, and Au-
gustus himself. Then favors were repaid by praises and flattery, as we see in
the verses of Horace, Virgil, and especially of Ovid. The lectures of gram-
marians and rhetoricians, of philosophers and physicians, were largely at-
tended. Literary societies were formed. Periodicals and bulletins were
published, in which the proceedings of the Senate and of the courts were
recorded. The business of scribes — copyists of manuscripts — engaged a
vast number of persons.

Writings of Cicero. — Cicero (106-43), in his philosophic writings,
reproduces the thoughts and speculations of the Greek sages, in the manner
of a cultivated and appreciative student. His speeches and his epistles, espe-
cially those to his friend, Atticust lift the veil, as it were, and afford us most
interesting glimpses of the civil and social life of the Romans of that day.

The Poets.— One of the most original of the Latin poets is Lucretius
(95-51 B.C.), whose poem "On the Nature of Things" is an effort to dispel
superstitious fear by inculcating the Epicurean doctrine that the world is self-
made through the movement and concussion of atoms, and that the gods leave
it to care for itself. A contemporary of Lucretius, and a poet of equal merit,
but in an altogether different vein, is Catullus. He is chiefly noted for his
lyrics. Virgil (70-19 B.C.), in the ALneid, has produced a genuine Roman
epic, although his dependence on Homer is obvious throughout, and in the
BucolicSy and in particular in the Georgics, where he shows most originality,
has made himself immortal as a pastoral poet. Horace (65-8 B.C.), like most
of the Roman authors, in many of his poems is inspired by his Greek models,
but, in his Satires and Poetic Epistles, expresses the character of his own
genius. His "Odes," for their beauty and melody and the variety of their
topics, rank among the best of all productions of their kind. Ovid (43 B.C.-

A.D.	18), in his chief work, the Metamorphoses, handled the mythical tales of
the Greeks, and, in his poems on Lave, likewise introduced many Grecian
tales. He was much influenced by the Alexandrian poets.

The Historians.— In historical composition, most of the Roman authors
had Greek patterns before their eyes. Nevertheless, Livy (59 B.C.-A.I). 17),
thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two books of whose "Annals " have
been preserved, and Sallustt to whom we are indebted for narratives of the
conspiracy of Cataline and of the Jugurthine war, are far from being servile
copyists. The simple and lucid but graceful style of the Commentaries of
Casar makes this work an example of the purest Latin prose.

Law Writers.-—In one department, that of jurisprudence, the Romans
were eminently original. The writings of the great jurists were simple and
severe, and free from the rhetorical traits which Roman authors in other
departments borrowed from the Greeks.

Other Authors. — Among other eminent authors of this period are the great Roman
antiquary, Varro (t 16-27 B.C.); the elegiac poets, Tibullus and Proj>ertins; Phadrus, the
Roman yfisop: the historian, Cornelius Nepos ; and the Greek historical writers of that day,
Diodore of Sicily and Dionysius of Halicarnassus; also, Strabo, the Greek geographer (64

B.C.-A.D.	24).170

ANCIENT HISTORY.

THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.

The Jews and their Dispersion. — There were three ancient
peoples, each of which fulfilled an office of its own in history. The
Greeks were the intellectual people, the Romans were founders in
law and politics : from the Hebrews the true religion was to spring.
At the epoch of the birth of Jesus, the Hebrews, like the Greeks
and Romans, were scattered abroad, and mingled with all other
nations. Wherever they went they carried their pure monotheism,
and built their synagogues for instruction in the law and for com-
mon worship. In the region of Babylon, a multitude of Jews had
remained after the captivity. Two out of the five sections of
Alexandria were occupied by them. At Antioch in Syria, the
other great meeting-place of peoples of diverse origin arid reli-
gion, they were very numerous. In the cities of Asia Minor, of
Greece and Macedonia, in Illyricum and in Rome, they were
planted in large numbers. Jewish merchants went wherever there
was room for profitable trade. Generally regarded with aversion on
account of their religious exclusiveness, they nevertheless made so
many proselytes that the Roman philosopher, Seneca, said of them,
" The conquered have given laws to the conquerors." Prophecy
had inspired the Jews with an abiding and fervent expectation of
the ultimate conquest of heathenism, and prevalence of their faith.
If the hope of a temporal Messiah to free them from the Roman
yoke, and to lead them to an external victory and dominion,
burned in the hearts of most, there were some of a more spiritual
mind and of deeper aspirations, who looked for One who should
minister to the soul, and bring in a reign of holiness and peace.

Preparation for Christianity among the Heathen. — In the *
heathen world, there was not wanting a preparation for such a De-
liverer. The union of all the nations in the Roman Empire had
lessened the mutual antipathy of peoples, melted down barriers of
feeling as well as of intercourse, and weakened the pride of race.
An indistinct sense of a common humanity had entered the breasts
of men. Writers, like Cicero, talked of a great community, a single
society of gods and men. The Stoic philosophy had made this idea
familiar. Mankind, it was said, formed one city. Along with this
conception, precepts were uttered in favor of forbearance and fra-
ternal kindness between man and man. In religion, there was a
drift towards monotheism. The old mythological religion was de-
caying, and traditional beliefs as to divine things were dissolving.
Many minds were yearning for something to fill the void, — for a
more substantial ground of rest and of hope. They longed for a
goal on which their aspirations might center, and to which their ex-
ertions might tend. The burden of sin and of suffering that rested
on the common mass excited at least a vague yearning for deliver-ROMAN HISTORY.

171

ance. The Roman Empire, with all its treasures and its glory,
failed to satisfy the hearts of men. The dreams of philosophy
could not be realized on the basis of ancient society, where the
state was every thing, and where no higher, more comprehensive
and more enduring kingdom could spring into being.

Christ and the Apostles.—Four years before the date assigned
for the beginning of the Christian era, Jesus was born. Herod\
a tyrannical king, servile in his attitude toward the Romans, and
subject to them, was then ruling over the Jews in Palestine. But,
when Jesus began his public ministry, the kingship had been abol-
ished, and Judsea was governed by the procurator, Pontius Pilate
(A.D. 26). Jesus announced himself as the Messiah, the founder
of a kingdom " not of this world;" the members of which were
to be brethren, having God for their Father. He taught in a tone
of authority, yet with " a sweet reasonablenessand his wonderful
teaching was accompanied with marvelous works of power and
mercy, as " he went about doing good." He attached to himself
twelve disciples, among whom Peter, and the two brothers James
and John, were the men of most mark. These had listened to the
preaching of John, the prophet of the wilderness, by whom Jesus
had been recognized as the Christ who was to come. The minis-
try of the Christ produced a wide-spread excitement, and a deep
impression upon humble and truth-loving souls. But his rebuke
of the ruling. class, the Pharisees, for their formalism, pretended
sanctity, self-seeking, and enslavement to tradition, excited in them
rancorous enmity. His disappointment of the popular desire for
a political Messiah chilled the enthusiasm of the multitude, many
of whom had heard him gladly. After about three years, he was
betrayed by one of his followers, Judas Iscariot; was accused of
heterodoxy.and blasphemy before the Jewish Sanhedrim; the con-
sent of Pilate to his death was extorted by a charge of treason
based on the title of " king," which he had not refused; and he
was crucified between two malefactors. Not many days elapsed
before his disciples rallied from their despondency, and boldly and
unitedly declared, before magistrates and people, that he had
manifested himself to them in bodily form, in a series of inter-
views at definite places and times. They proclaimed his contin-
ued though invisible reign, his perpetual presence with them, and
his future advent in power. In his name, and on the ground of
his death, they preached the forgiveness of sins to all who should
believe in him, and enter on a life of Christian obedience. In the
year 33 or 34, the death of Stephen, the first martyr, at the hands
of a Jewish mob, for a time dispersed the church at Jerusalem,
and was one step towards the admission of the Gentiles to the
privileges of the new faith. But the chief agent in effecting this
result, and in thus giving to Christianity its universal character and172

ANCIENT HISTORY.

mission, was the ApostlePaul, a converted Pharisee. Antiock in
Syria became the cradle of the Gentile branch of the church, and
of the missions to the heathen, in which Paul was the leader; while
Peter was efficient in spreading the gospel among the Jews in Pal-
estine and beyond its borders. By Paul numerous churches were
founded in the course of three extended missionary journeys, which
led him beyond Asia into Macedonia, Greece, and Illyricum. By
him the gospel was carried from Jerusalem to Rome, where he died
as a martyr under Nero in 67 or 68. Not far from the same time,
according to a credible tradition, Peter, also, was put to death at
Rome. The preachers of the Christian faith pursued their work
with a fearless and untiring spirit, and met the malignant perse^
cution of the Jews and the fanatical assaults of the heathen with
patient endurance and with prayer for the pardon and enlighten-
ment of their persecutors.

The Victory of the Germans. — Augustus avoided war when
he could. His aim was to defend the frontiers of the empire
rather than to extend them. The Parthians were prevailed on to
return of their own accord the standards and prisoners taken from
the army of Crassus. But in Germany, Drusus, the brave step-son
of Augustus, made four campaigns on the east of the Rhine, as
far as the Weser and the Elbe. On his way back from the Elbe,
a fall from his horse terminated his life (9 B.C.). His brother,
Tiberius, managed to establish the Roman power over a part of
the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the river (4 B.C.) Long
before (27 B.C.) the western shore of the river had been formed
into two provinces, Upper and Lower Germany. An incapable
and incautious general, Quintiiius Varus, excited the freedom-
loving Germans to revolt under the brave chief of the Cherusci,
Arminius (or Hermann). Three Roman legions were annihilated
in the, Teutoburg forest, Varus taking his own life. The civil and
military chiefs who were taken captive, the Germans slew as a sac-
rifice to their gods. The rest of the prisoners were made slaves.
" Many a Roman from an equestrian or a senatorial house grew old
in the service of a German farmer, as a servant in the .house, or
in tending cattle without." There in the forest of Teutoburg the
Germans practically won their independence. On hearing the bad
news, Augustus, for several days, could only exclaim, "Varus ! give
me back my legions !" After the death of Augustus, in his seventy-
sixth year, the noble son of Drusus, Germanicus, conducted three
expeditions against Arminius (A.D. 14-16), obtained a victory
over him, and took his wife prisoner, who died in captivity; but
the Romans permanently held only the left bank of the Rhine.

Homan Life.—Various particulars characteristic of Roman ways have
been, or will be, incidentally referred to. A few special statements may beROMAN HISTORY.

173

given in this place. The Romans, like the Greeks, built a town round a
height (or capitol) where was a stronghold (arx), a place of refuge. Heres
temples weie erected. The foruvi, or market-place, was near by, where the
courts sat, and where the people came together to transact business. The
dwellings were on the sides of the hill, or on the plain beneath. The streets
were narrow. The exterior of the houses was plain. They were of brick,
generally covered with stucco, and whitewashed.*- Glass was' too costly to be
much used: hence the openings in the walls were few. When the space
became valuable, as in Rome, the houses were built high. The chief room
in the house was the atrium, which, in earlier times, was not only the common
room but also the bedroom of the family. In the primitive dwellings it had
been the only room. A passage led from it through a door-way into the
street. In front and on both sides were apartments, and in the rear a walled
court, or garden. Large houses had several inclosed courts. Rich men and
nobles built magnificent palaces. The walls of Roman dwellings within were
decorated with fresco-paintings, some of which at Pompeii are left in all their
freshness. Round the dinner-table were couches, on which those who par-
took of the meal reclined. In other rooms chairs were plentifully supplied.
Lamps were very numerous and of beauiiful design, but the wick was so small,
that they gave but little light. There was little furniture in the atrium.
Statues stood round the walls of this room, if the house were one of the better
sort, and in open presses on the walls were the images or masks of the dis».
tinguished ancestors of the family. At a funeral of a member of the house-
hold they were worn in the procession by persons representing the deceased
progenitors.

Dress.--The principal material of a Roman's dress was woolen cloth.
The main article of wearing apparel for a man was the toga, thrown over
the shoulders, and brought in folds round the waist in a way to leave the
right arm free. Under it was a tunic. At the age of about seventeen, the
boy publicly laid aside the toga with a purple hem, and put on the white toga,
the token of citizenship. Women wore a long tunic girded about the waist,
with a tunic and a close-fitting vest beneath. Except on a journey or in an.
open theater, as a protection from the sun, neither men nor women wore
any covering on the head. Women, when they walked abroad, wore veils
which did not cover the face. The color and form of the shoes varied with-
the rank of the individual, and were significant of it. In the house, sandals
were used.

Order of Occupations. — The interval from sunrise to sunset was di-
vided into twelve hours. The seventh hour of the day began at noon. At
the third hour, there was usually a light meal, which was followed by busii
ness, or visits of friendship. The wealthy Roman was followed about the
city by a throng of clients, who called on him with their morning greeting
before he rose, and received their gift of food or money At noon came the
prandium, or more substantial breakfast. This was followed by a short
sleep, in the case of those who were at leisure to take it. Then came games
and physical exercise of various sorts. A favorite recreation, both for young
and old, was ball-games. Exercise was succeeded by the bath, for which the
Romans from the later times of the republic had a remarkable fondness.
In private houses the bathing conveniences were luxurious. The emperors
built magnificent bath-houses, which included gymnasia, and sometimes libra-,
ries. What is now called the Turkish bath was very much in vogue. Dinner,
or the cena, the principal meal, was about midway between noon and sunset.
The fork was not used at the table, but only in carving; but spoons, and
sometimes, it would appear, knives, were used by the host and his guests.
The food was so carved that it was usually taken with the fingers. * At the
table, the toga was exchanged for a lighter garment, and sandals were laid
aside. The beverage was wine mixed with water. At banquets of the rich,
after the dessert of fruit and cakes had been taken, there was, in later times,174

ANCIENT HISTORY.

the convivium, or social "drinking-bout." Under the empire, this became
often a scene of indecent revelry. The Roman dinner-table was not so likely
as a Greek repast to be enlivened by flashes of intellect and of wit, or by
music furnished by the guests. Musicians were more commonly hired per-
formers, as were also the dancers. The Romans enjoyed games of chance.
Playing with dice, and gambling along with it, became common.

Marriage and the Household.—There were two kinds of marriage.

I By one the wife passed entirely out of the hands (manus) of the father into
the hands of the husband, or under his control. There was frequently a
religious rite (confarreatio); but, when this did not take place, the other
customary ceremonies were essentially the same. At the betrothal the pro-
spective bride was frequently presented with a ring, and with some more
valuable gift, by the man whom she was to marry. In the household, not-
withstanding the supreme authority of the husband, the wife had an honored
position and an active influence. The children were, in law, the property of
the father. Their lives were at his disposal. The mother had charge of their
early training. The father took the principal charge of the young boy, taught
him athletic exercises, and took him to the forum with him. Schools began
to exist in the early period. Boys and girls studied together. The peda-
gogue was the servant who accompanied the child to school, and conducted
him home. Greek was studied. The law of the Twelve Tables was committed
to memory. Virgil and Horace became school-books, along with Cicero and
earlier writers. In the later republican period, Greeks took the business of
teaching largely into their hands. There were flourishing schools of rhetoric
managed both Dy Greek and by Latin teachers. Young Romans who could
afford to do so went to Athens and other cities in the East for their university
training.

Slaves. —Town-slaves were found in the richer families in great numbers
(p. 152). They were not only employed in menial occupations* they were
clerks, copyists, sculptors, architects, etc., as well as actors and singers. The
work of the farm-slaves was harder. They were shut up in the night in large
barracks, made partly under ground, into which was admitted but little light
or air. They often worked in chains. In town and country both, the unlim-
ited power of the master led to great severity and cruelty in the treatment of
slaves. Women as well as men were often guilty of brutal harshness. Fe-
males as well as males were the sufferers. The town-slave, however, might
be favored by his master: he might be allowed to save money of his own,
and might, perhaps, buy his freedom, or receive it as a gift. During the holi-
days of the Saturnalia, slaves were allowed unusual privileges and pleasures.
The freedmen could become citizens, and were then eligible to any office.

Magistrates. — A Roman who sought office went round soliciting votes.
This was called ambitio (from ambire, to go round), whence is derived the
English word ambition. He presented himself in public places in a toga
specially whitened, and was hence called a candidate (from candidat meaning
white). He sought to get support by providing shows and games. The
voting was by ballot. Magistrates haa their seats of honor, which were made
in a particular shape. In the different forms used in the trial of causes, there
was one general practice, the magistrate laid down the law, and referred the
judgment as to the facts in the case to an umpire, either an individual or a
special court.r

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ROMAN HISTORY.

THE JULIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

C. Julius Casar, m. Aurelia.

C. Julius Csesar.

J ulia, m. M. Atius Balbus.

Atia, m. C. Octavius.

C. Octavius (adopted as son Ly the will of Julius) became
C. Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus,
m. 2, Scribonia;	3, Livia.

Julia,	Tiberius (adopted as

m. 2, M. Vipsanius Agrippa. son by Augustus).

Agrippina,
m. Germanicus.

Caius (Caligula),
m. Csesonia,

Julia Drusilla.

Agrippina,
m. Cn. Domitius.

L. Domitius Nero,

m. Poppaea Sabina.

Claudia Augusta.

Julia,
m. yEmilius Paulus.

I

iEmilia Lepida,
m. 1, Claudius;
2, J unius Silanus.

Junia ^alvina,
m. Vitellius.

THE CLAUDIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

Tiberius Claudius Nero.

m. Livia Drusilla (afterwards wife of Augustus).

Tiberius Claudius Nero.

Drusus Claudius Nero,
m. Antonia, daughter of the Triumvir
and niece of Augustus.

Germanicus,
m. Agrippina.

Ti. Claudius Drusus,

m. 5, Valeria Messalina.

I

Octavia,
m. Nero*

Britannicus.

By adoption,
Nero.176

ANCIENT HISTORY.

CHAPTER II.

THE EMPERORS OP THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE.

Tiberius. — During the long reign of the prudent Augustus,
there was peace within the borders of the empire. He said of him-
self, that he " found Rome of brick, and left it of marble." This
change may be taken as a symbol of the growth of material pros-
perity in the Roman dominions. But in his private relations, the
emperor was less fortunate. His daughter Julia, a woman of
brilliant talents, disgraced him by her immorality, and he was
obliged to banish her. Her two elder sons died when they were
young. The empire devolved on his adopted step-son Tiberius
who was obliged to adopt his nephew Germanicus. He
\/as the grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus, and the son of
Antonia, his niece, and the deceased Drusus. The legions on the
Rhine would have raised Germanicus to the throne, but he refused.
Tiberius, in his earlier years, was comparatively mild in his policy.
But his natural jealousy and cruelty broke through the restraint
which he at first imposed on himself. Distrusting everybody of
prominence, he took for his chief helper, Sejanus, a man of Etrus-
can origin, the son of a Roman knight. Him he made captain of
the body-guard. These select troops, ten thousand in number,
instead of being dispersed over the city as formerly, were collected
in a fortified camp before the Viminal gate. . There was thus
formed the Pratorian Guard\ which the emperor might use at
any time against the people, but which, under its powerful prefect,
might itself set up or cast down the chief ruler. Popular assem-
blies from this time wholly ceased. The Senate became a slavish
instrument for carrying out the despot's will. The emperor
usurped the right to put to death without trial, all who had been
thrown into prison. Every attempt against his person was made
to be high treason. A word that could be construed as implying
hostility was punished by, the loss of property and life. In these
times of servility and tyranny, great calamities of another sort fell
upon the empire. Destructive conflagrations occurred. There was
an earthquake which reduced many of the most populous cities of
Asia Minor to heaps of ruins. At Fidence, a Sabine city, fifty
thousand men were crushed or buried alive by the fall of an
amphitheater. The last years of the life of Tiberius he spent in
retirement at Caprece, given up to debauchery and cruelty, yet a
prey to bitter misanthropy, and, according to Tacitus, to the torture
of remorse. Sejanus, who was left in power at Rome, contrived
to destroy several members of the imperial family. When it was
discovered that he was intriguing for the throne, and plotting to
assassinate his master, the Senate was commanded to execute himROMAN HISTORY.

177

(A.D. 31). The emperor became more suspicious than ever. . A
reign of terror followed, in which hundreds of men, women, and
even children were massacred. At length there was an end to his
bloody decrees, when, in his seventy-eighth year, his barbarous and
profligate career closed with a violent death, inflicted by his own
household (A.D. 37).

Caligula. — There was no law for the regulation of the succes-
sion. But the Senate, the praetorians, and the people united in
calling to the throne Caius, the son of Germanicus (37-41).
This ruler, called Caligula, at first mild and generous in his doings,
soon rushed into such excesses of savage cruelty and monstrous
vice that he was thought to be half-deranged. He was fond of
seeing with his own eyes the infliction of tortures. His wild ex-
travagance in the matter of public games and in building, drained
the resources of the empire. After four years, this madman was
cut down by two of his guards whom he had grievously insulted.

Claudius. — Claudius, the uncle and successor of Caligula, and
the son of Drusus and Antonia, was not bad, but weak. He was
a student and a recluse in his habits. His favorites and nearest
connections were unprincipled. The depravity of his wife, Mes-
salina, was such that he did right in sanctioning her death. The
immoral and ambitious Agrippina, whom he next married, had an
influence less malign. But she was unfaithful to her husband;
and this fact, together with the fear she felt that Nero, her son by
her first marriage, would be excluded from the throne, impelled
her to the crime of taking the life of Claudius by poison.

Nero. — Nero reigned from 54 to 68. He was the grandson of
Germanicus, and had been the pupil of the philosopher Seneca,
and of BurruSy an excellent man, the captain of the Praetorian
Guard. The first five years of Nero's reign were honorably dis-
tinguished from the portion of it that followed. When a warrant
for the execution of a criminal was brought to him, he regretted
that he had ever learned to write. His first great crime was the
poisoning of Britannicus, the son of Claudius. Nero became en-
amored of a fierce and ambitious woman, Poppcea Sabina. On
the basis of false charges, he took the life of his wife, Octavia,
the daughter of Claudius (A.D. 65). His criminal mother, Agrip-
pina, after various previous attempts made by him to destroy her,
was dispatched by his command (A.D. 59). His unbridled cruelty
and jealousy moved him to put to death the two men to whom he
owed most, Seneca and Burrus. He came forward as a musician,
and nothing delighted him so much as the applause rendered to
his musical performances. He recited his own poems, and was
stung with jealousy when he found himself outdone by Lucan.
His eagerness to figure as a charioteer prompted him, early in his
reign, to construct a circus in his own grounds on the Vaticanf178

ANCIENT HISTORY.

where he could exhibit his skill as a coachman to a throng of de-
lighted spectators. At length he appeared, lyre in hand, on the
stage before the populace. Senators of high descent, and matrons
of noble family, were induced by his example and commands to
come forward in public as dancers and play-actors. The public
treasure he squandered in expensive shows, and in the lavish dis-
tribution of presents in connection with them.

The Christians. — Nero has the undesirable distinction of being
the first of the emperors to persecute the Christians. In A.D. 64
a great fire broke out at Rome, which laid a third of the city in
ashes. He was suspected of having kindled it; and, in order to
divert suspicion from himself, he charged the crime upon the
Christians, who were obnoxious, Tacitus tells us, on account of
their " hatred of the human race." Their withdrawal from cus-
tomary amusements and festivals, which involved immorality or
heathen rites, naturally gave rise to this accusation of cynical
misanthropy. A great number were put to death, " and in their
deaths they were made subjects of sport; for they were covered
with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to death by dogs, or
nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and, when day declined, were
burned to serve for nocturnal lights." At length a feeling of
compassion arose among the people for the victims of this wanton
ferocity. Prior to this time, while the Christians were confounded
with the Jews as one of their sects, they had been more protected
than persecuted by the Roman authorities. Now that they were
recognized as a distinct body, — the adherents of a new religion not
identified with any particular nation, but seeking to spread itself
everywhere, — they fell under the condemnation of Roman law,
and were exposed to the hostility of magistrates, as well as to the
wrath of the fanatical populace.

Nero was a great builder. The ground which had been burnt
over in the fire he laid out in regular streets, leaving open spaces,
and limiting the height of the houses. But a large area he re-
served for his " Golden House," which, with its lakes and shady
groves, stretched over the ground on which the Coliseum afterwards
stood, and as far as the Esquiline.

The City of Home. — Ancient Rome was mostly built on the left bank
of the Tiber. It spread from the Palatine, the seat of the original settle-
ment, over six other hills; so that it became the "city of seven hills." All
of them appeared higher than they do now. Of these hills the Capitoline
was the citadel and the seat of the gods. In earlier days, from a part of the
summit, the Tarpeian Rock, criminals were hurled. In time the hill became
covered with public edifices, of which the grandest was the Temple of u Capi-
toline Tupiter." On the Palatine were eventually constructed the vast pal-
aces of the emperors, the ruins of which have been uncovered in recent
times. The walls of Servius Tullius encompassed the seven hills. The
walls constructed by Aurelian (270-275 B.C.), Probus, and Hortorius <402
B.C.), inclosed an area twelve miles in circumference. The streets wereROMAN HISTORY.

179

most of them narrow; and, to economize space, the houses were built very
high. One of the finest, as well as most ancient, thoroughfares was the
Via Sacra, which ran past the Coliseum, or the Flavian amphitheater, and
under the Triumphal Arch of Titus, erected after the capture of Jerusalem,
along the east of the Forum to the Capitol. There was a particular street
in Rome where shoemakers and booksellers were congregated. The central
part of the city was thronged, and noisy with cries of teamsters and of vend-
ers of all sorts of wares. The fora — one of which, the " Roman Forum,"
between the Capitoline and the Palatine, was the great center of Roman
life — were open places paved, and surrounded with noble buildings, — tem-
ples, and basilicas, or halls of justice. The fora were either places for the
transaction of public business, or they served the purpose of modern mar-
ket-places. Among the public buildings of note were the vast colonnades,
places of resort both for business and for recreation. The sewers, and espe-
cially the aqueducts, were structures of a stupendous character. Among the
most imposing edifices in ancient Rome were the baths. Those built by
Diocletian had room for three thousand bathers at once. In these'establish-
ments the beauty of the gardens and fountains without was on a level with
,, the elegance of the interior furnishings, and with the attraction of the libra-
v ries, paintings, and sculptures, which added intellectual pleasure to the
physical comfort for which, mainly, these gigantic buildings were constructed.
Besides the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, there were many other temples,
some of which were but little inferior to that majestic edifice.

The triumphal arches — as that of Titus, already mentioned, which was ^
built of Pentelic marble — and the commemorative columns—as the Col-
umn of Trajan, which stood in the forum that bears his name —were among
the architectural wonders of the ancient capital of the world. The plain,
named of old the Campus Martius, on the north-west side of the city, and
bordering on the Tiber, contained, among the buildings and pleasure-grounds
by which it was covered, the Pantheon, and the magnificent mausoleum of
Augustus. On the south-west of the Ccelian Hill, the Appian Way turns to
the south-east, and passes out of the Appian Gate. It is skirted for miles
with sepulchral monuments of ancient Romans, of which the circular tomb
of Metella Cacilia is one of the most interesting. There are varying esti-
mates of the population of ancient Rome. Probably the number of free
inhabitants, in the early centuries of the empire, was not far from a million;
and the slaves were probably almost as many.

Death of Nero: Galba.— Growing jealous of the legates who
commanded armies on the frontiers, Nero determined to destroy
them. They consequently revolted; and war between the troops
of two of them issued in the death of Vindex, the general in Gaul.
But Galba was deputed to carry on the contest; and Nero, being
forsaken even by his creature, Tigellinus, and the praetorians, at last
gained courage to call on a slave to dispatch him, and died (A.D.
68) at the age of thirty. The principal events out of Italy,
during his reign, were the revolt of the Britons under the brave
queen Boadicea (A.D. 61), and the suppression of it by Suetonius
Paulinus; the war with the Parthians and Armenians, extending
slightly the frontier of the empire; and the beginning of the Jew-
ish war. Despite the corruption at Rome, her disciplined soldiers
still maintained their superiority on the borders.

Otho: Vitellius. — With the death of Nero, the Augustan fam-
ily came to an end. Galba began the series of military emperors.i8o

ANCIENT HISTORY.

A Roman of the old type, simple, severe, and parsimonious, he
pleased nobody. The praetorians killed him, and elevated Otho,
a profligate noble, to the throne; but he was obliged to contend
with a rival aspirant, Vitellius, commander of the German legions,
who defeated him, and became emperor A.D. 69. Vitellius was
not only vicious, like his predecessor, but was cowardly and ineffi-
cient. The Syrian and Egyptian legions refused to obey so worth-
less a ruler, and proclaimed their commander, Flavius Vespasian,
as emperor. As Vespasian's general, An fortius, approached Rome,
Vitellius renounced the throne, and declared his readiness to retire
to private life. His adherents withstood him; and, in the struggle
that followed between the two parties in the city, the Capitoline
Temple was burned. The Flavian army took Rome, and Vitellius
was put to an ignominious death (A.D. 69).

CHAPTER III.

THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES.

Vespasian: the Jewish War . — Vespasian, the first in the list
of good emperors, restored discipline in the army and among the
praetorians, instituted a reform in the finances, and erected the im-
mense amphitheater now called the Coliseum, for the gladiatorial
games. By his general, Cerealisy he put down the revolt in Ger-
many and Eastern Gaul, and thus saved several provinces to the
empire. Ciinlis, the leader of the rebellion, had aimed to estab-
lish an independent German principality on the west of the Rhine.
Vespasian had begun the war with the Jews while Nero reigned
(A.I). 66). The Romans had to face a most energetic resistance.
Among the captives taken by them in Galilee was the Jewish his-
torian, Josephus. At the end of A.D. 67, all Galilee was sub-
dued. The fanatical, or popular, party, the Zealots, got the upper
hand at Jerusalem. The city was torn with the strife of violent
factions. In A.D. 70 commenced the memorable siege by Titus,
the son of Vespasian, the details of which are given by Josephus.
The fall of the city was attended with the conflagration of the
temple. Although the estimate given by Josephus of the number
that perished during the siege, which he places at eleven hundred
thousand, is exaggerated, it is true that the destruction of life was
immense. The inhabitants of the city who were not killed were
sold as slaves. In Britain a most competent officer — Agricola,
the father-in-law of Tacitus — was made governor in A.D. 78. He
conquered the country as far north as the Tyne and the Solway,
and built a line of forts across the isthmus between England and
Scotland.ROMAN HISTORY.

181

Titus (A.D. 79-81).—Vespasian's firm and beneficent reign was
followed by the accession of Titus, who had been previously asso-
ciated by his father with himself in the imperial office. Titus was
mild in temper, but voluptuous in his tastes, and prodigal in ex-
penditures. One of the marked events of his short reign was the
destruction of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum by a great
eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79). The uncovering of the streets
and buildings of Pompeii in recent times has added much to our
knowledge of ancient arts and customs. A terrible fire and de-
structive pestilence at Rome were regarded as sent by the gods,
not on account of the sins of the emperor, but of the nation.

Domitian (A.D. 81-96). — Domitian, the younger brother of
Titus, succeeded him. In his war against the Marcomanni, north
of the Danube, he met with reverses (87). This failure aggravated
his naturally morose and jealous disposition, and he became ex-
ceedingly cruel. The murders committed by him, and his many
acts of intolerable tyranny, occasioned a conspiracy, which had the
effect to make him still more barbarous through the fear which it
excited in his bosom. He was killed by the freedmen of his own
palace (A.D. 96). His war with the Dacians on the Danube
had been concluded by the shameful stipulation to pay them an
annual tribute as a reward for abstaining from predatory incursions
into Moesia (A.D. 90). For the first time, Rome purchased peace
of her enemies. Domitian was guilty of persecuting the Chris-
tians, among whom, it is now known, was included at least one
member of his own family, his niece, Flavia Domatilla, who was
also allied to him by marriage. The epistle of Clement of Rome,
the oldest extant Christian writing after the Apostles, refers to the
barbarities inflicted upon Christian disciples by this tyrant.

Nerva (AD. 96-98).—The Senate now took the initiative, and
placed on the throne one of their own number, Nerva, an old
man of mild and virtuous character. The administration was in
every point in contrast with the preceding. But the best thing
Nerva did was to provide for the curbing of the praetorians by ap-
pointing, with the concurrence of the Senate, a most competent
man to be his colleague and successor.

Trajan (A.D. 98-117). — Trajan was a native of Spain, and had
been brought up in the camp. He belongs among the very best
of the Roman emperors. He upheld the ancient laws and insti-
tutions of the state. He provided for the impartial administration
of justice. He restored freedom of speech in the Senate. He
founded schools, and establishments for the care of orphans, facil-
itated commerce by building new roads, bridges, and havens, and
adorned Rome with a public library, and with a new and magnificent
forum, or market-place, where "Trajan's Column" was placed by
Senate and people as a monument of his victories and services.ANCIENT HISTORY.

He relished the society of literary men like the historian Tacitus.
He was an intimate friend of Pliny (the younger), whose corre-
spondence while he was governor of Bithynia throws much light
upon the emperor's character and policy. Trajan's own manner
of life was simple, and free from luxury. To the people he fur-
nished lavishly the diversions which they coveted. He made an
aggressive war against the Dacians on the Danube, and constituted
a new province of Dacia. He carried his arms into the Parthian
territory; and three new provinces — Armenia, Mesopotamia, and
Assyria — were the fruit of his campaign in the East. In a letter
to Pliny, he defined the policy to be pursued towards Christians,
who had become very numerous in the region where Pliny gov-
erned. The effect of the emperor's rescript was to place Chris-
tianity among the religions under the ban of the law. This decision
was long in force, and guided the policy of future emperors
towards the new faith.

Hadrian (A.D. 117-138). — Trajan was succeeded by Hadrian,
a lover of peace,—a cultivated man, with extraordinary taste in the
fine arts, and their generous patron. He was diligent and full of
vigor in the transaction of public business. Although genial and
affable, his temper was not so even as that of Trajan ; and he was
guilty of occasional acts of cruelty. He spent the larger portion
of his reign in traveling through his dominions, personally attend-
ing to the wants and condition of his subjects. He constructed
great works in different portions of the empire : in Rome, his Mau-
soleum (now the Castle of St. Angelo), and his grand temple of
Rome and Venus. He began the wall connecting the Scottish friths.
A fresh revolt broke out among the Jews (A.D. 131), under a
fanatic named Barcochebas, which was suppressed in 135. Jeru-
salem was razed to the ground; and the Jewish rites were for-
bidden within the new city of ALlia Capitolina, which the emperor
founded on its site. This gave a finishing blow to the Jewish and
Judaizing types of Christianity within the limits of the Church.

Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161).—Antoninus Pius was the adopt-
ed son and successor of Hadrian. He was one of the noblest of
princes, a man of almost blameless life. His reign was an era
of peace, the golden age in the imperial history. He fostered
learning, was generous without being prodigal, was firm yet
patient and indulgent, and watched over the interests of his sub-
jects with the care of a father. It is a sign of the happiness of his
reign that it does not afford startling occurrences to the narrator.

Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180). — Hardly less eminent for his
virtues was the next in the succession of sovereigns, Marcus Aure-
lius (161-180). "A sage upon the throne," he combined a love
of learning with the moral vigor and energy of the old Roman
character, and with the self-government and serenity of the StoicROMAN HISTORY.

183

school, of the tenets of, which he was a noble exemplar as well as
a deeply interesting expounder. A philosopher was now on the
throne; and his reign gives some countenance to the doctrine of
Plato, that the world could be well governed only when philosophers
should be kings, or kings philosophers. He endured with patience
the grievous faults of his wife Faustina, and of his brother by adop-
tion, and co-regent, Lucius Verus. He protected the eastern fron-
tier against Parthia. In the war with the Marcomanni, he drove
the German tribes back over the Danube, and gained a signal vic-
tory over the Quadi in their own land. His great object was to
strike terror into the barbarian enemies of the empire on the north,
and prevent future incursions. Although victorious in many of his
battles, he failed to accomplish this result. The danger from bar-
barian invasion increased with the lapse of time. Before his work
was finished, Marcus Aurelius died at Vindobona (Vienna), in
March, 180. During his reign, there was persecution of Christians.
Especially the churches of Lyons and Vienne have left a record of
their sufferings. The virtuous emperors, who were strenuous in
their exertions to maintain the old laws and customs, were apt to
be more severe in their treatment of Christians, whom they igno-
rantly regarded as a mischievous sect, than were those emperors
who were men of looser principles.

State of Morals.—The Roman Empire, in the declining days
of heathenism, presented the spectacle of a flourishing civilization
in contrast with extreme moral degeneracy. Rich gind populous
cities; stately palaces; beautiful works of art—as vases, statues,
carved altars — on every hand; bridges and aqueducts, and noble
highways, binding land to land; institutions of education in the
provincial cities as well as in Rome; a thriving trade and com-
merce ; a rapid spread of the Roman language, of the Roman
legal system, and Roman culture and manners over the subject
countries, — these are among the signs and fruits of civilization.
But with all this outward prosperity and elegance, there was a
growing sensuality, a decay of manly feeling, a disregard of the
sanctity of the marriage tie, an insatiable hunger for wealth and
for the pleasures of sense. One of the most corrupting features
in the social condition was slavery. Every Roman of moderate
means aspired to own at least a few slaves. Some owned from ten
to twenty thousand, mostly field-hands. Many householders pos-
sessed as many as five hundred. Horace gives it as a sign of the
simplicity of his life as a bachelor, that he is waited on at table by
only three slaves. Slave-holding among the Romans brought in
temptations to all sorts of brutality and vice. It brought a poison-
ous atmosphere into every household. . Nothing more clearly illus-
trates the moral degradation of this period than the character of
the sports in which people of all ranks delighted. The most at-184	ANCIENT HISTORY.

tractive theatrical performances came to be comedies, from the
Greek and Latin plays of the same order, where scenes were in-
troduced from the licentious stories of the Greek mythology.
But the Pantomime, which was often of an unchaste and even
obscene character, gradually usurped the place of every other exhi-
bition on the stage. The chief amusements of the people of all
classes were the Circus and the Arena. In the Circus, before
hundreds of thousands of spectators, nobles of ancient lineage
competed in the chariot race. Gladiatorial games, which had
first taken place at funerals, and in honor of deceased friends,
acquired an almost incredible popularity. At the games instituted
by Augustus, ten thousand men joined in these bloody combats.
In the festivals under the auspices of Trajan, in A.D. 106, eleven
thousand tame and wild animals were slain. Not satisfied with
seeing pairs of men engage in mortal conflict, the Romans were
eager to witness bloodshed on a larger scale. The emperors pro-
vided actual battles between hundreds and, in some cases, thou-
sands of men, which were beheld by countless spectators. On an
artificial lake, in Caesar's garden, Augustus gave a sea-fight in
which three thousand soldiers were engaged. The effect of these
brutal spectacles of agony and death was inevitably to harden the
heart.

Literature. — If the sanguinary fights in the arena excited little or no
condemnation, the prevalence of various other sorts of immorality, at variance
with the practice of better days, could not fail to call out different forms of
* censure.

One of these forms of protest was through the satirical poets. Of these
caustic writers, Persius (34-62) is obscure and of a moderate degree of merit.
Juvenal (about 42-122), on the contrary, is spirited and full of force. Martial
(43-101), a Spaniard fcy birth, was the author of numerous short poems of
a pithy and pointed character, called epigrammata. All these poets, if we
make proper discount for the exaggeration of satire, are very instructive as to
the manners and morals of their time. Lucian (120-200), who wrote in Greek,
the best known of whose works are his " Dialogues," touched with his broad
humor a great many of the superstitions and follies of the day.

The popular teachers in the imperial time were the rhetoriciansy analogous
to the Greek Sophists, — teachers of rhetoric and eloquence,—one of whom,
Quintilian (who was born about 40, and died about 118), was the first to re-
ceive from the public treasury a regular salary, and had among his pupils the
younger Pliny and the two grand-nephews of Domitian. The influence of
the mania for rhetoric was more and moUe to impart an artificial character to
literature and art. The epic poems of such writers as Lucan and Statins are
to a large extent imitations; although Lucan's principal poem, " Pharsalia,"
£ives evidence of poetic talent. Where there was so little productive genius,
it was natural that grammarians and commentators should abound. There
was one great writer, the historian Tacitus (about 54-117), who towers above
his contemporaries, and in vigor and conciseness has seldom been equaled.
The elder Pliny (23-79), whose curiosity to witness the eruption of Vesuvius
in 79 cost him his life, was a famous observer and author in natural history.
His nephew, the younger Pliny, the friend of Trajan, has left to us ten books
of u Epistles," which present an agreeable picture of the life and thoughts of
a cultivated Roman gentleman. The philosopher Seneca, with the exceptionROMAN HISTORY.

18s

of Marcus Aurelius, the most eminent expositor of the Roman Stoic school,
was a voluminous author. No ancient heathen writer has uttered so many
thoughts and precepts which bear a resemblance to teachings of the New
Testament.

The study that flourished most in this period is Jurisprudence. It is the
classic era of the jurists. Persons versed in the law were preferred by
the emperors for high offices. Men who would have been statesmen under the
Republic, found a solace and delight in legal studies. Among the most
learned jurists of this era, were Caius Papinian, and Ulpian. Of the Greek
writers, one of the most important is Plutarch (about 50-120), whose44 Lives,"
and 44 Essays " (or Aforalia)y are among the most delightful and instructive of
all the works of antiquity. One of the noblest philosophical writers of that
or of any other period is the Stoic Epictetus (50-c. 120).

The two most popular systems of philosophy in the closing days of the
Republic and the early period of the Empire, were the Stoic and the Epicu-
rean. The severity of the Stoic doctrine was somewhat softened by its
Roman teachers; but the rigorous self-control, the superiority to misfortune,
and the contempt of death, which it recommended, found favor with noble
Romans in dark days. Cato and other champions of the falling Republic
were disciples of this school. Later, New Platonism, of a mystical and con-
templative type, secured many adherents.

Skepticism. — Long before the fall of the Republic, faith in the old
mythology had begun to decline. This change followed upon an intimate
contact of the Romans with the Greek religion. It was hastened by the fa-
miliarity acquired by the Romans with so great a variety of heathen systems.
The decay of morality was attended with a spread of skepticism as regards the
supernatural world altogether. In the course of the debate in the Roman
Senate on the punishment of the confederates of Catiline, Julius Ccssar op-
posed their execution, on the ground that death puts an end to conscious-
ness, and thus to all suffering. It does not appear that in that body, where
Cicero and Cato were present, any one disputed this tenet. Cicero in his
philosophical essays advocates the doctrine of immortality by arguments, *
mostly gathered from Greek sources, — arguments some of which are of
more and some of less weight. His correspondence, on the contrary, even
in times of bereavement, affords no proof that this consoling truth had any
practical hold upon his convictions.

Superstition.—The spread of skepticism was attended, as time went
on, with a re-action to the other extreme of superstition. Magic and sorcery
came into vogue. There was an eagerness to become acquainted with Ori-
ental religious rites, and to pay homage to deities worshiped in the East
with mysterious ceremonies. Another tendency strongly manifest was to-
wards what is called syncretism, or a mingling of different religious systems.
It was hoped that the truth might be found by combining beliefs drawn from
many different quarters. This eclectic drift was signally manifest in religion
as well as in philosophy.

_V_

CHAPTER IV.

THE EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS: THE ABSO-
LUTE MONARCHY,

Commodus. — Rome had enjoyed good government for eighty-
four years. This was owing to the fact that her sovereigns had
been nominated to their office, instead of inheriting it. None of
the emperors during this interval had male children. Marcus186

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Aurelius made the mistake of associating with him in power his
son Commodus, who was eighteen years old when his father died,
and reigned alone from 180 to 192. He began his despicable
career as sole ruler by buying peace of the Marcomanni and the
Quadi. He turned out to be a detestable tyrant, who was like-
wise guilty of the worst personal vices. He was strangled in his
bedroom by one of his concubines, Marcia, with the assistance of
others, all of whom he was intending to kill. At this time the
army, where there had been more energy and virtue than in any
other class, began to decline in discipline. Society was growing
more and more corrupt. It proves the inherent strength of the
organization of the Roman Empire, that, amid all the causes of
disintegration and decay, it lasted for two centuries longer^

I. EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS.

We now enter upon a period of military license. The emperors
are appointed by the soldiers. The rulers, when the soldiers fall
out with them, are slain. In the course of ninety-two years, from
192 to 284, twenty-five emperors, with an average reign of less than
four years for each, sat on the throne. Only two reigns exceeded
ten years. Ten emperors perished by violence at the hands of the
soldiers. A real advantage in this way of making emperors, was,
that supreme power might thus devolve on able generals; but
another, and a fatal result, was the demoralizing of the armies,
by whose favor the rulers of the state were set up and pulled
down.

To Alexander Severus (A.D. 222).—The assassins of Commodus,
with the assent of the praetorians, made a worthy senator, Pertinaxy em-
peror; but his honesty and frugality, and his disposition to maintain discipline
among the soldiers, caused them to murder him three months after his ac-
cession (193). It is said that they then sold the imperial office at auction to
a rich senator, but the leaders of the armies in different regions refused their
consent. Of these, Septimius Severus (193-211) made his way to the throne,
and put down his rivals. The empire became a military despotism. A gar-
rison of forty thousand troops, the prefect of whom was in power second
only to the sovereign, took the place of the old praetorians. Severus was a
good general. In a war against the Parthians, he captured Ctesiphon, their
capital. Caracalla, his son (211-217), was a^base tyrant. He was murdered
by the praetorian prefect, Macrinus> who reigned for a short time (217-218),
but perished in consequence of his attempts to reform the discipline of the
army. Heliogabalus (218-222) was not more cruel than others had been, but
his gross and shameless debauchery was without a precedent.

Power of the Provinces: Discord. — In the reign of Caracalla
is placed the Edict which gave the rights of citizenship to all the
free inhabitants of the Roman Empire. The provinces had been
steadily rising in power and influence. At Rome, among officials
of the highest grade, as well as in the higher professions, there was
a throng of provincials. The provinces were disposed to nominateROMAN HISTORY.

18/

emperors of their own. It was hard for the central authority to
keep under control the frontier armies. To add to these sources
of division, there was a growing jealousy between the East and
West, owing to a difference in language, ideas, and interests. Per-
sia was soon to threaten the empire on the East, and Gothic bar-
barians to invade its territories.

Alexander Severus: Persia.—Alexander Severus (222-235) was a
man of pure morals, and sincerely disposed to remedy abuses and to govern
well. But the evils were too great for the moderate degree of vigor with
which he was endowed. The overthrow of the Parthian kingdom, in 226,
created, in the New Persian Monarchy, a formidable enemy to Rome. Alex-
ander did little more than check the advance of Persia. In a war against the
Germans, he was slain by his own soldiers.

To Decius (A.D. 249), — The fierce and brutal Maximin% who had
excited the soldiers of Alexander Severus to mutiny, reigned from 235 to 238.
The Senate roused itself to resist his advance into Italy; and he, and his son
with him, were killed in his tent by his soldiers. Gordiait (238-244) at least
held the frontier against the attacks of the Persians. Philips an Arabian,
probably a Roman colonist, after reigning from 244 to 249, was supplanted
"by Decius% whom his rebellious Mcesian and Pannonian soldiers raised to
power.

Decius to Claudius (A.D. 250-268). — The short reign of Decius
was marked by the first general persecution of the Christian Church.
During his reign, the Goths (A.D. 250) invaded the empire. They
traversed Daciay and crossed the Danube. They ravaged Mczsia,
and even made their way into Thrace. Decius was defeated by
them in Mcesia, and slain. The peril of the empire continually in*
creased. The German tribes oh the north, the Goths on the Lower
Danube and the Euxine, and Persia in the east, arrayed themselves
in hostility.

The reigns of Valerian (253-260) and of his associate and successor, Gal•
lienus (260-268), were marked by continuous disaster. Numerous indepen-
dent rulers — "the thirty tyrants" — established themselves, generally for a
very short time, in different regions. In the East, one kingdom, the capital
of which was Palmyra, and which had for a ruler Zenobia> the widow of its
founder, lasted for ten years (264-273). The Goths occupied Dacia,and from
the Cimmerian Bosphorus sent out their predatory expeditions in all direc-
tions, plundering cities, including Athens and Corinth, and carrying off im-
mense booty to their homes south of the Danube. The Persians conquered
Armentay took Valerian prisoner, advanced into Syria, and burned Antioch.

To Diocletian ( A.D. 284).— It would seem as if the Roman empire
was on the verge of dissolution. But a series of vigorous emperors —among
them Claudius (268-270) and Aureliatt (270-275) — quelled rebellion within its
borders, and re-established its boundaries; although Aureliatt gave up to the
Goths Dacia, which had been of no benefit to the empire. Probus (276-282)
was a prudent as well as valiant ruler. Carus (282-283) invaded Persia,
captured Seleucia and Ctesiphony and might, perhaps, have completed the
conquest of the country, but for his death. Numerianus (283-284) was the
last in the succession or rulers during this period of military control, of which
the corruption of the army was the worst result.ANCIENT HISTORY.

/

)

II. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY (TO A.D. 375).

Diocletian. — Once more the gigantic and weakened frame of
the Roman Empire was invigorated by a change in the character
of the chief rulers and in the method of government. Diocletian
(284-305), one of a number of energetic emperors who were of
Illyrian birth, first stripped the imperial office of its limitations,
and converted it into an absolute monarchy. This new system
was carried to its completion by Constantine. Diocletian took
from the Senate what political jurisdiction was left to it. 'He abol-
ished the difference between the treasury of the state and the pri-
vate coffers of the prince. The precedence of Rome was taken
away by making other great cities to be seats of government.
There were to be two emperors under the title of Augustus, with
two Ccesars under them; and thus the empire was divided, for
administrative purposes, into four parts. Maximian, the second
Augustus, was to rule over Italy, Africa, and the islands, with Milan
for his residence. Constantius Chlorus had the western provinces,
—Spain, Gaul, and Britain. At Nicoviedia, Diocletian, a man of
imposing presence and of great talents as a statesman, exercised
rule for twenty years with efficiency and success. The new sys-
tem, if it involved the peril of strife among the regents, led to a
more vigilant and efficient government in the different provinces,
and provided for a peaceful succession to the throne. But the
government came to resemble, in the omnipotence of the emperor,
in the obsequious homage paid to him, and in the cringing man-
ners' of the court, an Oriental despotism. The old heathen religion
was considered by conservative Romans to be an essential part
of the imperial system, and indispensable to the unity of the em-
pire. It was this view, in connection with other influences, which
moved Diocletian, near the close of his reign, in 303, to set on
foot a systematic persecution of the Christian Church, by a series of
extremely severe and well-contrived measures, through which it was
designed to extirpate the new religion. The last great persecution,
in the reign of Decius, cruel though it had been, did not approach
in severity this final effort to exterminate the disciples of the Chris-
tian faith, who had now become very numerous. Terrible suffer-
ingswere inflicted, but without avail. In 305 Diocletian, partly on
account of a serious illness, formally abdicated, and obliged Max-
imian to do the same. Civil wars followed, until Constantine, the
son of Constantius, gained the supremacy, first as joint ruler with
Licinius, who governed in the East, and then, after a bloody strug-
gle which began in A.D. 314, as sole master of the empire (A.D.

324).

Constantino (A.D. 306-337).—The career of Constaptine was
stained by acts of cruelty towards members of his own family. InROMAN HISTORY.

189

the closing period of his life, he was less just and humane than in
earlier days. The change which had taken place in the imperial
system was signally manifest in his removal of the seat of govern-
ment to Constantinople, which was built up by him, and named in
his honor. Placed between Europe and Asia, on a tongue of land
where it was protected from assault, it was admirably suited for a
metropolis. But the change of capital involved dangers for the
western portions of the empire, exposed as they were to the as-
saults of the barbarians. Especially was this event a land-mark in
the destruction of the old system of government. The empire was
divided, for purposes of government, into four prefectures, each
of which was subdivided into dioceses. Constantine established,
likewise, different classes of nobles, the type of modern systems of
nobility. He organized the army afresh, under the Master of the
Horse and Master of the Foot, each, however, commanding, in
action, both infantry and cavalry, and each having under him dukes
and counts. In short, the system of central and despotic administra-
tion, with subordinate rulers, which Diocletian began, was perfected
by Constantine. Diocletian, in order to fortify the imperial power
against the army, had shared his power with " a cabinet of em-
perors,'' which his genius enabled him to control. To prevent the
breaking up of the empire through the system of viceroys thus
created to preserve it, Constantine separated the civil authority
from the military as regards the subordinate rulers, while both
"functions were united in himself. He still further exalted his
throne by giving it even more of an Oriental character, by creating
a multitude of officials, who were satellites of the sovereign, and
by becoming the secular head and guardian of the Christian Church.
The arrangements of his court, with its grades of officials, from the
chamberlain downwards, were after the Oriental pattern.

the downfall of heathenism.

Progress of Christianity.—The failure of the grand attempt
of Diocletian to exterminate Christianity was an indication of its
coming triumph. Its progress had been gradual yet rapid, and,
in its earlier stages especially, obscure. Of the labors of most of
the apostles we know little. On the approach of the Jewish war
(p. 180), the Apostle John, and other Christians with him, had re-
paired to Asia Minor. There, at Ephesus, this apostle lived until
the reign of Trajan, and from that center exerted a wide influence,
the traces of which are marked and various. The cities were the
principal scenes of early missionary work. They were the " stra-
tegic points." In them, it was easier for Christian preachers to
gain a hearing, and in them they were exempt from the hindrance
created by strange dialects. Wherever Christians went, even for
purposes of trade or mechanical industry, they carried the seeds190

ANCIENT HISTORY.

of the new doctrine. Even with regard to the churches of Ale:c-
andria and Carthage, which became so flourishing, and in the
case of the church at Rome itself, we can not say how they were
first planted. The exultant terms in which the ecclesiastical writers
at the end, and even as early as the middle, of the second century
speak of the increasing number of the converts, proves that the
Christian cause was fast gaining ground. Its adherents were
sometimes of the higher class, but mostly from the ranks of the
poor.

Persecutions. — Persecution from the side of the heathen began
among the populace. Always when fire, tempest, or plague oc-
curred, they were ascribed to the wrath of the heathen gods at the
desertion of their altars, and the cry was for Christian blood. But
Christianity, from the time of Trajan, was an illegal religion.
Magistrates might at any time require Christians to do homage to
the emperor's bust, or to burn incense to the old divinities. To
make a proselyte of a Roman citizen, or to meet in private com-
panies for worship, was unlawful. The persecutions by public au-
thority have been said to be ten; but this number is too small if all
of them are reckoned, and too large if only those of wide extent
are included. The constancy with which even young women and
children sometimes endured the torture, excited wonder in the
beholders. Among the more noted martyrs are Ignatius, bishop
of Antioch (116) ; Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, who had been a
pupil of the Apostle John, and was put to death in 156 ; and Cyp-
rian, the aged bishop of Carthage, one of the leading ecclesiastics
of the time, who suffered under Valerian in 258.

The Church under Constantino.—The accession of Constantine
made Christianity the predominant religion in the Roman Empire.
His conversion was gradual. More and more he came to rely
for support in his conflicts with his rivals upon the God of the
Christians. The sign of the cross, which he said that he beheld
in the sky, and which led him to make the cross his standard,
may have been an optical illusion occasioned partly by his own
mental state at the moment, when, after prayer, he was standing
at noon-day in the door of his tent. He remained, like many
others in that day, not without relics of the old beliefs, as is seen
from inscriptions on his coins, and other evidences. His own bap-
tism he deferred until he was near his end, on account of the prev-
alent idea that all previous guilt is effaced in the baptismal water.
The edict of unrestricted toleration was issued from Milan in 312.
Constantine did not proscribe heathenism. He forbade immoral
rites, and rites connected with magic and sorcery. But, with this
exception, heathen worshipers were not molested. But the em-
peror gave his zealous personal countenance to the Christian
cause, and marks of his favor to its adherents. By the privilegesROMAN HISTORY.

191

and immunities which he granted to the Church and its minis-
ters, he did more than he would have been likely to effect by the
use of severity against its adversaries.

Organization of the Church.—The early Christian societies were
little republics, at first under the supervision of tne apostles. Their organi-
zation shaped itself partly after the model of the synagogue, and partly from
the pattern of the civil communities and the voluntary associations about
them. In the apostolic age a body of elders or bishops and a body of deacons
in each church guided its affairs, while the members took an active part
in the choice of their officers, and in the general direction of ecclesiastical
proceedings. In the second century, when we get a distinct view of the
churches after the obscure interval that follows the age of the apostles, we
find that over the elders is a bishops whose office grows in importance as
the churches become larger, as the need of more compact organization is
felt, and as the clergy become more and more distinct from the laity. The
bishop of the city church acquires jurisdiction over the adjacent country
churches. The bishop in the capital of each province comes to exercise a
certain superintendence within the province. This is the metropolitan sys-
tem. More and more the bishops of the great cities, especially Romey Alex-
andria% and Antioch, exercise a parallel supervision in larger divisions of the
empire. This is the patriarchal system. As early as the closing part of
the second century, the catholic or universal church presents itself before
us, conceived of as a unity which is made such by the hierarchy of bishops,
and by connection with the apostolic sees, — the churches founded by the
apostles in person. As the apostles were thought of as having a head in
Peter, the bishops of Rome, who were looked on as his successors, had ac-
corded to them a precedence over other bishops. The grandeur of Rome,
the strength of the church there, its services to other churches in the em-
pire, especially in the West, together with many other considerations addi-
tional to its alleged historic relation to Peter and to Paul, gave to the
Roman See, as time went on, a growing and acknowledged pre-eminence.
The custom of holding synods helped to build up the unity of the Church,
and to give power and dignity to its officials.

Sects: Theology. — The Church from the beginning had to contend
with opposing sects. There was a desire to amalgamate the Christian doc-
trine with other systems. On the Jewish side, the Ebionites clung to the Old
Testament ritual observances, a part of them being bitterly hostile to the
Apostle Paul, and another part, the Nazareans, not sharing this fanatical feel-
ing, but still adhering to the Jewish ceremonies. On the other hand, the
Gnosticsintroduced a dualism, and ascribed to the Demiurge— a second deity,
either subordinate to the supreme God, or antagonistic to him — the origination
of this world and of the Old Testament religion. They made a compound of
Christianity, Judaism, and heathen religion and speculation, each Gnostic sect
giving to one or the other of these ingredients the preponderance in the strange
and often fantastic medley. The controversy with heathenism was prose-
cuted with the pen. Of the numerous defenses of Christianity, now addressed
to heathen rulers and now to its opponents in private stations, the most re-
markable work in the first three centuries was the writing of Origeit — who was
the most eminent of the teachers of theology at Alexandria — in reply to Celsus.
Origen, after scholarly labors so vast as to earn for him the title of the Ada•
mantiney died in 254, in consequence of his sufferings in the Diocletian perse-
cution. Two,defenses of the Christian faith, composed about the middle of
the second century by Justin Martyr, are specially instructive as to the state
of Christian opinion and the customs of the Church. The first great center
of theological activity was Alexandria, where philosophy was studied in a
liberal spirit. In the East, the questions relative to the divinity of Jesus and
the relation of the divine to the numan nature, engrossed attention. In the192	ANCIENT HISTORY.

West, it was the practical aspects of theology, the doctrine of sin and of the.
deliverance of the will by grace, which were chiefly discussed. The Avian
controversy grew out of the assertion by Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria,
that Jesus was the first-made of all beings, the instrument of the creation of
all other beings, but himself a creature. The leader of the orthodox oppo-
sition to this opinion was the famous Alexandrian archdeacon, afterwards
bishop, Atkanasius. This debate it was which led to the assembling, under
the auspices of Constantine, of the Council of Nicaa (A.D. 325), the first of
a series of General Councils, for the adjudication of doctrinal disputes, that
were held in this and the following centuries. The Arian doctrine was con-
demned at Nicaea, and, after a long contest in the period subsequent, was
finally determined to be heretical. In the West, the main controversy was
that raised by Pelagius, respecting the power of the will,, the native charactcr
of men, and the agency of God in their conversion. In this debate, Augtts-
tine (354-430), the most eminent theologian of the West, bishop of Hippo in
North Africa, was the jenowned champion of the doctrine of grace against
what he considered an exaggerated assertion of free-will. Pelagianism was
condemned in the West, and nominally in the East where views interme-
diate between the Pelagians and Augustinians commonly prevailed. The
most eminent scholar contemporary with Augustine was Jerome, who died
in 420, the author of the Latin version of the Scriptures, called the Vul-
gate. Preceding Augustine in North Africa, early in the third century, was
Tertulliaiiy a vigorous and fervid writer, who first made Latin the vehicle of
theological discussion; and, a little later, Cyprian, whose works relate chiefly
to church unity and hierarchical government, of which he was a devoted
champion. Late in the second century, Ireitaus, bishop of Lyons in Gaul,
one of the most eminent ecclesiastics of that day, composed an elaborate
work against the Gnostic heresies. Irenaus had known Polycarp, a disciple
of John the apostle.

Christian Life. — Passing within the sphere of Christian life,
there can be no doubt that Christianity exerted a power, of which
there had been no experience before, in reforming the character and
conduct of those even who had been addicted to crime and vice.
The fraternal feeling of Christians for one another impressed the
heathen about them as something new and singularly attractive.
It expressed itself in unstinted charity for those in poverty, and in
helpfulness for all sorts of distress. The church was a home for
the weary and friendless. In the strong reaction against the sen-
suality of a dissolute society, ascetic tendencies appeared, which, in
process of time, issued in monasticism. Anthony of Thebes, born
about 250, was one of the earliest and most celebrated of the
Anchorites, who chose a hermit life, and abjured all the luxuries
of life and most of the comforts which belong to social existence.
To the Anchorites succeeded the Coenobites, societies of monks
who dwelt in a common habitation under fixed rules; and these
were naturally followed by confederacies of such communities
under one organization. The monastic vows were poverty, or the
renunciation of property; celibacy, or abstinence from marriage ;
and obedience to the conventual superior. Sometimes in the early
centuries great evils and abuses sprang up in connection with mo-
nastic life. For example, monks might become fanatical andROMAN HISTORY.	193

violent. But they furnished numerous examples of sincere piety,
and of unselfish and intrepid self-sacrifice for the welfare of
others.

Changes in Worship. — As the Church grew in numbers and wealth,
costly edifices were constructed for worship. The services within them be-
came more elaborate. At length art was called in to adorn the Christian
sanctuaries. Sculpture and painting were enlisted in the work of providing
aids to devotion. Relics of saints and martyrs were cherished as sacred
possessions. Religious observances were multiplied; and the Church, under
the Christian emperors, with its array of clergy and of imposing ceremonies,
assumed much of the stateliness and visible splendor that had belonged to .
the heathen system which it had supplanted.

Last days of Heathenism. — When Christianity had become
powerful, its disciples forgot the precepts of their Master, and
sometimes persecuted the heathen. Christian mobs demolished
the old temples. The great temple of Serapis in Alexandria was
destroyed, and the statue of the god was broken in pieces. The-
odosius /. (379-395) made the celebration of heathen rites a capi-
tal offense, and confiscated the property by which heathen worship
had been supported. Arians, too, he persecuted, but with less
harshness. The Eastern emperor, Justinian, suppressed the school
of New Platonic philosophers at Athens, and banished the teachers
(529). Heathenism lingered in remote districts, and was hence
called paganism, or the religion of rustics. The last adherents
of the ancient religion inhabited in the seventh century remote
valleys of the Italian islands. The oracles were for ever dumb.
The old divinities were never more to be invoked. But it was not
by force that heathenism was extirpated. If it had not lost its
vitality, it would have survived the penal laws against it. It per^
ished by the expulsive energy of a better faith.

Causes of the Triumph of Christianity. — The causes of the spread
and triumph of Christianity lie ultimately in the need which men feel of reli-
gion, especially in times of dread and distress, and in the intrinsic excellence
which was felt to belong to Christianity. In the first and second centuries
the dreary feeling engendered by the hollow skepticism that prevailed was
favorable to the Christian cause. There was a void to be filled, and the
gospel came to fill it. In the third century, when the progress of Christianity
was specially rapid, there was a perceptible revival of religious feeling among
the heathen; and this, too, operated to the advantage of the gospel. At
least it must have done so in numerous instances. In that century the ter-
rible plagues which desolated the empire, with the sufferings that sprung
from wild anarchy and misgovernment, made the church a welcome asylum
for the afflicted. In the first place, Christianity was a religion. It was nei-
ther a merely speculative nor a merely moral system. It took hold of the
supernatural. • Secondly, it presented to a corrupt society a moral ideal of
spotless perfection. Thirdly, it offered, in the doctrine of the cross, a wel-
come solace, — consolation in life, with a sense of reconciliation, and the
hope of everlasting good. Other causes, such as Gibbon enumerates, were
operative. But these are themselves mostly effects or aspects of the gospel;
or they were auxiliary, not principal, causes.194	ANCIENT HISTORY.

Christianity and Liberty. — The founders of Christianity had no
thought of becoming the authors of a political revolution. They had a very
different purpose in view. To overthrow the existing order of society would
have been equally unwise and impracticable. What was needed was a new
spirit of justice and of love. The virtues that were called for then were the
passive virtues,—gentleness, forbearance, the calm endurance of ills of which
there was no present remedy. The Christian spirit, therefore, did not evoke
in the disciples of the new faith sentiments of liberty akin to those which
had belonged to Greek and Roman heroes. Indirectly, however, Christianity
brought into human society the germs of liberty. In thz first place, while it
enjoined absolute submission to rulers, it made an exception whenever their
commands should require disobedience to God's law. This position involved
the denial to the state of that absolute supremacy accorded to it by the an-
cients. The allegiance to the state became a qualified allegiance. Secondly,
there arose within the state another community, which took into its hands, to
a large extent, the regulation of social life. The boundaries of the two authori-
ties might be indistinct, but there was a real division of control between them.
It isjtrue that tyranny might arise within the Christian organization itself:
still,*its very existence planted on the earth a principle of liberty, which was
destined ultimately to work out the destruction of all tyranny, whether civil
or religious. For the first time the rulers of the Roman world were faced by
an opposition, meek yet too inflexible for all their power to overcome. This
is the first stage in the history of modern liberty. The " heroic and invincible
Athanasius," as Alilton styles him, boldly confronted Constantine and his suc-
cessors, and chose to spend twenty years of his life in voluntary or enforced
exile rather than bow to their tyrannical decrees. Ambrose, the great arch-
bishop of Milan, compelled the Emperor T/ieodosius — who, in a fit of anger
had ordered a massacre at Tkessalonica—to do penance before he could be
admitted to the communion. Such occurrences indicate that the days of
imperial omnipotence, even over unarmed subjects, were past.

Successors of Constantine. — Constantine left his empire to
his three unworthy sons. Constantine, the eldest, had the West-
ern provinces for his share. He endeavored to wrest Italy
from his brother Constans, but was slain at Aquileia (340).
This event left Constans the master of the entire West. He
took up his abode in Gaul, where he was slain by Magnentius,
the leader of a mutinous body of soldiers (350). Constantius
was at Edessa, engaged in war against the Persians. He marched
westward, and routed Magnentius at Mursia, in Pannonia. This
rival fled to Gaul, and was there attacked and destroyed. Gallus,
the cousin of Constantius, was put to death for the murder of one
of the emperor's officers (354). Julian, the brother of Gallus,
was the sole remaining survivor of the family from which the
emperor sprung. Constantius, under whom the whole empire
was now for a few years (357-361) united, made a triumphal
visit to Rome. He was the defender of the Arians, but he found
it impossible to coerce the Roman Christians into the adoption
of his opinion. The orthodox bishop whom he had banished,
was restored. Constantius was succeeded by his cousin Julian
(36t—363), commonly called the Apostate. Fascinated by the
heathen philosophy, and a secret convert to the old religion, hei

C\

THE IMPERIAL'HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.

Constantius Chlorus, m. I, Helena; 2, Theodora.

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By his first wife.

Constantino I (the Great),
m. i, Minervina; 2, Fausta.

By his second wife.

1-

Constantine II.

Constantius,
m. 1, Galla; 2, Basilina.

Constantia,
m. Licinius.

Gallus,	Julian,

m. Constantia, widow of Hannibalianus. m. Helena, daughter of Constantine I.

Constantius II.

—r-i-1

Constans.	Constantia,	Helena,

m. 1, Hannibalianus; 2, Gallus. m. Julian#

Constantia, m. Gratian.196	ANCIENT HISTORY.

proved that its vitality was gone, by his ineffectual exertions to
rescue it, and restore its predominance. He was not without
merits as a ruler. He looked out for the impartial administra-
tion of justice: he revived discipline and a military spirit in the
army, and sought to infuse a better spirit into the civil adminis-
tration. While he avoided cruel persecution, he directed all his
personal efforts to the weakening of the Christian cause. Julian
led an expedition against the Persians, He sailed down the
Euphrates to Circesium, and thence proceeded into the interior
of Persia. He repulsed the enemy, but was slain while engaged
in the pursuit. The soldiers on the field of battle chose one of
his officers, Jovian (363-364), who was a Christian, to be his suc-
cessor. He conducted the retreat of the army. His reign lasted
for only seven months. He showed no intolerance either towards
Pagans or Arians, but he gave back to Christianity its former posi-
tion. The army next chose Valentinian /. (364-375), the son of
a Pannonian warrior, who associated with him, as emperor in the
East, his brother Valens (364-378). Valens ruled from Constan-
tinople. Valentinian fixed his court at Milan, and sometimes at
Treves. He was an unlettered soldier, but strict and energetic in
the government of the state, as well as of the army. His time
was mostly spent in conflict with the barbarians on the northern
frontiers. He carried forward this contest with vigor on the
Rhine and on the Danube. He trained up his son Gratian to
be his successor. The great event of the reign of .Valens was the
irruption of the Huns into Europe, and the consequent invasion
of the Goths, by whom Valens was defeated and slain in 378.
Several emperors followed, until, on the death of Theodosius /.,
(the Great) (395), the Roman Empire was permanently divided.
Rome bore the shock of the barbarian invasions until, in 476,
Odoacer supplanted the Caesars, and became the first barbarian •
king of Italy. The fourth century in which these invasions — which
overthrew the Western Empire, and transferred power to new races
— occurred, forms the era of transition from ancient to mediaeval
history.

Literature.-—The general works on Ancient History (p. x6). On Roman History as
a whole : Merivale's General History of Rome (from 753 B.C. to A.I). 476; 1 vol.);
Duruy, Histoire des Rorttaitts, etc. ( vols., 4to); Wagner, Rom, etc. (3 vols.); Creighton,
History of Rome (primer); Freeman, Outlines of History, chaps, iii. and iv.; Smith and
Lawrence, Smaller History of Rome; Leighton, History of Rome (1 vol.).

On the Roman Republic: Mommsen, The History of Rome (4 vols.); Liddell, A
History of Rome. etc. (1 vol.); Ihne, The History of Rome (Eng. trans., 3 vols.); Miche-
let, History of the Roman Republic (x vol., xamo); Schwegler, Rdmische Geschichte (4
vols.).

On the Roman Empire : Merivalb, History of the Romans under the Empire (7
vols.); Seeley, Roman Imperialism [three Lectures]; Mommsen, The Provinces (5th vol-
ume of his History, 1885).

On special periods : Ihne, Early Rome (t vol.); T. Arnold, History of Rome (3 vols.;
reaches into the second Punic war); Long, The Decline of the Roman Republic (5 vols.);
R. B. Smith. Rome and Carthage ; Merivalb, The Roman Triumvirates ; T. Arnold,
History of the Later Roman Commonwealth (2 vols.); Gibbon, History of the DeclineROMAN HISTORY.	I97

and Fall of the Roman Empire (Smith's edition); Finlay, A History of Greece from the
Conquest 0/ the Romans to the Present Time (7 vols.).

TrollopLife of Cicero (2 vols.); Forsyth, Life of Cicero (2 vols.); Middleton's Life
of Cicero ; Froude, Life of Ceesar (1 vol.;; Boissier, Ciceron et ses Amis (1 vol., i2mo).

Treatises: T. Arnold, Roman Provincial Administration; Kuhn, Verfassung d.
R&mischeti Stadte; Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans; Marquardt,
Handbuch d. Romischen Alterthumer (7 vols.); Becker, Callus (an archaeological novel);
Smith's Dictionaries of Classical Biography and Mythology, Antiquities, and Geography; Rich,
Greek and Roman Antiquities ; Madvig, Verfassung und Verwaltung des Rom Staatest
(2 vols.). Wilkins, Roman Antiquities (primer); Burn, Rome and the Campagna ; Zieg-
ler, Das alte Rom ; Smith and Wace's Dictionary of Christian Biography ; Smith and
Cheatham's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Friedlander, Sittengeschichte Roms
(2 vols.). Histories of Roman Literature by Simcox, Cruttwell, Schmitz, Teuffel.

On Early Christianity : The Lives of Jesus, by Neander, Weiss, Farrar, Edersheim,
Andrews. Neander's Planting and Training of the Church. Works on the Life of St.
Paul, by Cokeybeare and Howson, by Lewis, by Farrar. Fisher'* The Beginnings of Chris-
tianity ; Pressens^, Early Days of Christianity. Church Histories of Neander, Gieseler,
Schaff, Robertson, Hase, Kurtz, Alzog. Uhlhorn, Christian Charity in the Ancient
Church; Mason, The Persecutions of Diocletian.

For other titles, see Adams's Manual of Historical Literature, p. 114 sq., and his Sug-
gestions to Students and Readerst p. 148 sq.PART II.
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

INTRODUCTION.

Character of the Middle Ages. — The middle ages include
the long interval between the first general irruption of the Teu-
tonic nations towards the close of the fourth century, to the
middle of the fifteenth century, when the modern era, with a dis-
tinctive character of its own, began. Two striking features are
observed in the mediaeval era. First, there was a mingling of
the conquering Germanic nations with the peoples previously
making up the Roman Empire, and a consequent effect produced
upon both. The Teutonic tribes modified essentially the old
society. On the other hand, there was a re-action of Roman civ-
ilization upon them. The conquered became the teachers and
civilizers of the conquerors. Secondly, the Christian Church,
which outlived the wreck of the empire, and was almost the sole
remaining bond of social unity, not only educated the new na-
tions, but regulated and guided them, to a large extent, in secu-
lar as well as religious affairs. Thus out of cliaos, Christendom
arose, a single homogeneous society of peoples. It was in the
middle ages that the pontifical authority reached its full stature.
The Holy See exercised the lofty function of arbiter among con-
tending nations, and of leadership in great public movements, like
the Crusades. Civil authority and ecclesiastical authority, empe-
rors and popes, were engaged in a long conflict for predominance.
Thus there are three elements which form the essential factors in
Mediaeval History,—the Barbarian element, the Roman element,
with its law and civil polity, and with what was left of ancient arts
and culture, and the Christian, or Ecclesiastical\ element. As we
approach the close of the mediaeval era, a signal change occurs.
The nations begin to acquire a more defined individuality; the
superintendence of the church in civil affairs is more and more
renounced or relinquished; there dawns a new era of invention
and discovery, of culture and reform.

198X

Period I.

FROM THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES
TO THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK RULERS.

(A.D. 375-751.)

chapter i.

CAUSES OP THE PALL OP THE WESTERN EMPIRE: THE
TEUTONIC CONFEDERACIES.

Gradual Overthrow of the Empire. — When we speak of the
destruction of the Roman Empire by the barbarians, we must not
imagine that it was sudden, as by an earthquake. It was gradual.
Had the empire not been undermined from within, it would not
have been overthrown from without. The Roman armies were
recruited by bringing numerous barbarians into the ranks. At
length whole tribes were suffered to form permanent settlements
within "the boundaries of the empire. A " king" with his entire
tribe would engage to do military service in exchange for lands.
More and more both the wealth and the weakness of Rome were
# exposed to the gaze of the Germanic nations. Their cupidity was
aroused as their power increased. Meantime the barbarians were
learning from their employers the art of war, and were gaining sol-
dierly discipline. Their brave warriors rose to places of com-
mand. They made and unmade the rulers, and finally became
rulers themselves. Another important circumstance is, that most
of the Germanic tribes were converts to Christianity before they
made their attacks and subverted the throne of the Qesars. In
fine, there was a long preparation for the great onset of the bar-
barian peoples in the fifth century.

Causes of the Pall of the Empire. — But the success of the
barbarian invasions presupposes an internal decay in the empire.
It was one symptom of a conscious decline, that the conquering
spirit was chilled, and the policy was adopted of fixing the limits
of the Roman dominion at the Rhine and the Danube. Rome
now stood on the defensive. The great service of the imperial
government, for which it was most valued, was to protect the
frontiers. This partly accounts for the consternation of Augustus,

199200

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

when, in the forests of Germany, the legions of Varus were de-
stroyed (p. 172). The essential fact is, that Rome became unable
to keep up the strength of its armies. First, there were lacking
the men to fill up the legions. The civil wars had reduced the
population in Italy and in other countries. rThe efforts of Augus-
tus to encourage marriage by bounties proved of little avail. Sec-
ondly f the class of independent Italian yeomen, which had made
up the bone and sinew of, the Roman armies, passed away. Slave-
ry supplanted free labor. Thirdly, in the third century terrible
plagues swept over the empire. In 166 a frightful pestilence
broke out, from which, according to Niebuhr\ the ancient world
never recovered. It was only the first in a series of like appalling
visitations. Fourthly, the death of liberty carried after it a loss
of the virtue, the virile energy, by which Rome had won her
supremacy. Fifthly, the new imperial system, after Diocletian,
effective as it was for maintaining an orderly administration,
drained the resources of the people. The municipal government
in each town was put into the hands of curiales, or the owners of
a certain number of acres. They were made responsible for the
taxes, which were levied in a gross amount upon the town. The
fiscus, or financial administration of the empire, was so managed
that the civil offices became an intolerable burden to those who
held them. Yet it was a burden from which there was no escape.
One result was, that, while slaves were often made coloni,—that is,
tillers or tenants, sharing with the owner the profits of tillage, —
and thus had their condition improved, many freeholders sank to
the same grade, in which serfdom had its origin. When to the
exhausting taxation by government, there were added the dispo-
sition of large proprietors to despoil the poorer class of land-
holders, and from time to time the predatory incursions of
barbarians, the small supply of Roman legionaries is easily ac-
counted for.

. Three Races of Barbarians.—While the empire] as regards the
power of self-defense, was sinking, the barbarians were not only
profiting by the military skill and experience of the Romans, but
were forming military unions among their several tribes. In the
East, there was one civilized kingdom, Persia, the successor of
the Parthian kingdom, but not powerful enough to be a rival, —
certainly not in an aggressive contest. But northward and north-
east of the Roman boundaries, there stretched "a vague and
unexplored waste of barbarism," " a vast, dimly-known chaos of
numberless barbarous tongues and savage races." A commotion
among these numerous tribes, the uncounted multitudes spreading
far into the plain of Central Asia, had begun as early as the days
of Julius Ccesar. They were made up of three races, — the Teu-
tons, or Germanic peoples; eastward of them, the Slavonians;THE TEUTONIC NATIONS.

201

and, farther beyond, the Asiatic Scythians. The Slavonians, an
Aryan branch, like the Teutons, had their abodes in the space
between Germany and the Volga. They were a pastoral and an
agricultural race, of whose religion little is known. Their incur-
sions and settlements belong to the sixth and seventh centuries,
and to the history of the Eastern Empire.

Teutonic Confederacies. — Of the confederacies of German
tribes, the Goths are first to be mentioned. In the third century
they had spread over the immense territory l>etween the Baltic and
the Black seas. They were divided into the West Goths (Visigoths)
and East Goths (Ostrogoths). Their force was augmented by the
junction of kindred tribes. To the east of them, towaids the Don,
was a tribe of mixed race, the Alani. In the third century the
Goths had made their terrible inroads into Motsia and Thrace^
and the brave emperor Decius had perished in the combat with
them. They had pushed their marauding excursions as far as the
coasts of Greece and Ionia. In the middle of the fourth century
they were united, with their allied. tribes, under the sovereignty of
the East Gothic chieftain, Hertnanric. A second league of Ger-
manic peoples was the Alemantti, which included the formidable
tribes called by Caesar the Sueru) and who, after various incursions,
had established themselves on the Upper Rhine, in what is now
Baden, Wlirtemberg, and north-east in Switzerland, and in the region
southward to the summits of the Alps. Their invasion of Italy in
255, when they poured through the passes of the Rhetian Alps, and
penetrated as far as Ravenna, was repelled by Aurclian, afterwards
emperor. A third confederacy was that of the Franks (or Free-
men) on the Lower Rhine and the Weser. In North Germany,
between the Elbe and the Rhine, were the Saxons. The Burgun-
dians, l>etween the Saxons and the Alemanni, made their way to
the same river near Worms. East of the Franks and Saxons, were
the valiant Lombards, who made their way southwards to the
center of Europe, and finally to the Danube. The Frisians were
situated on the shore of the North Sea and in the adjacent islands.
North of the Saxons were the Danes and other peoples of Scan-
dinavia,.— Teutons all, but a separate branch of the Teutonic
household. To bold and warlike tribes, now banded together,
such as were the Franks and the Alemanni, the Rhine, with its line
of Roman cities and fortresses, could form no permanent barrier.
When they crossed it, they might be driven back; but this was
only to renew their expeditions at the first favorable moment.
The prey which they saw near by, and of which they dreamed in
the distance, was too enticing. , No more could the Danube
fence off the thronging nations; all of whom had heard, and
some of whom had beheld, the wealth and luxury of the civilized
lands.202

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Beginning at the Euxitte, and moving westward along the line of the
Danube and the Rhine, we find, at the end of the fourth century, that the six
most prominent names of Teutonic tribes are the Goths, Vandals, Bttrgun-
dians, Franks, Saxons, and Lombards. Over the vast plains to the south and
west of the Caspian are spread the Huns, who belong to one branch of the
Scythian or Turanian group of nations.

Habits of the Germans.— We have notices of the Germans from
Julius Casar, the most full description of them in the Germania of Taci-
tus. They were tall and robust, and seemed to the Romans, who were of
smaller stature, as giants. Tacitus speaks of their "fiercely blue eyes."
They lived in huts made of wood, and containing the cattle as well as the
family. They tilled the soil, but their favorite employments were war and
the cnase. Capable of cruelty, they were still of a kindly temper, and fond
of feasts and social gatherings, where they were apt to indulge in excessive
drinking and in gambling. They were brave, and not without a delicate sense
of honor. Family ties were sacred. The women were chaste; and were com-
panions of their husbands, although subject to them. Most of the people
were Jreemen, who were land-owners, and carried arms The nobles were
those of higher birth, but with no special privileges The freemen owned
serfs, who were bound to the soil, and slaves who were generally prisoners
taken in war. There was an intermediate class, the litiy who held land of a
superior. Many freemen lived apart, but many were gathered in villages.
The land about a village was originally held in common. Each village had
a chief, and each collection of villages, or hundred, a count, or chief of high
rank; and there was a " king," or head of the tribe. All these chieftains
were elected by the freemen at assemblies periodically held. When the
duke or general was chosen, he was raised on a shield on the shoulders of
the men. The judges in the trial of causes sat, with assessors or jurymen
around them, in the open air. Hut private injuries were avenged by the
individual or by his family. One marked characteristic of the Germans was
the habit of devoting themselves to the service of a military leader. They
paid to him personal allegiance, and followed him in war. The Germans
were, above all, distinguished by a strong sense of personal independence.
If their mode of living resembled outwardly that of other savage races, yet
in their free political life, and in the noble promise of their language even in
its rudiments, the comparison does not hold. In their faithfulness, courage,
and personal purity, they are emphatically contrasted with the generality of
barbarous peoples.

Religion of the Germans. —We know more of the Scandinavian reli-
gion through the Eddas, the Iliad of the Northmen, than of the religion of
the Germans; but the two religions were closely allied. Among the chief
gods worshiped by the Germans were Woden, called "Odin" in the North,
the highest divinity, the god of the air and of the sky, the giver of fruits and
delighting in battle; Donar (Thor), the god of thunder and of the weather,
armed with a hammer or thunderbolt; Thiu (Tyr), a god of war, answering
to Mars; Fro (Freyr),god of love; and Frauwa (Freya), his sister. Particu-
lar days were set apart for their worship. Their names appear in the names
of the days of the week, —Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. Sun-
day is the day of the sun, and Monday the day of the moon. Saturday alone is
a name of Latin origin. Among the minor lyings in the German mythology
were fairies, elves, giants, and dwarfs. There were festivals to the gods.
Their images were preserved in groves. Lofty trees were held sacred to
divinities. The oak and the red ash were consecrated to Donar. Sacrifices,
and among them human sacrifices, were offered to the gods. Their will was
ascertained by means of the lot, the neighing of wild horses, and the flight of
birds. Priests were not without influence, but were not a professional class,
and were never dominant. Valiant warriors at death were admitted into
Walhalla (the hall of the slain), where they sat at banquet with the gods.THE THEODOSIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

Theodosius.

Theodosius I (the Great),
m. I, Flaccilla; 2, Galla, sister of Valentinian II.

cheria

1

Gratianus. Pul cheria. Arcadius, Honorius,	Placidia,

m. Eudoxia. m. Maria, m. I, Adolphus;

daughter of 2, Constantius.
Stilicho.

1	1	l

Theodosins II, Pulcneria, Three other
m. Eudocia. m, Marcian. daughters.

Talentinian III,
m. Eudoxia.

Eudoxia,	Flaccilla.

m. Talentinian III.

Serena,
m. Stilicho.

—1 .

Honoria.

Honorius.

Maria.

Therm antia.

Eudoxia,	Placidia,

m. I, Pall a di us, son of Maxiinos; 2, Huneric,son of Genseric. m. Olybrius.

Ilderic.

[From Rawlinson's Manual of Ancient History\204

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER IT.

THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS.

The Goths: Theodosius I. — Towards the close of the fourth
century, when Fa/ens (364-378) was reigning in the East, the
Huns moved from their settlements north of the Caspian, defeated
the Alans, a powerful nation, and, compelling them to enter
their service, invaded the empire of the Ostrogoths, then ruled
by Hermanric. The Huns belonged to one branch of the Scyth-
ian race. They had migrated in vast numbers" frtfm Central
Asia. Repulsive in form and visage, with short, thick bodies, and
small, fierce eyes, living mostly on horseback or in their wagons,
these terrible warriors, with their slings and bone-pointed arrows,
struck terror into the nations whom they approached. The Gothic
Empire fell. The Ostrogoths submitted, and Hermanric died, it
is thought by his own hand. The Visigoths crowded down to
the Danube, and implored Valens to give them an asylum upon
Roman territory. They had previously been converted to Chris-
tianity, mainly by the labors of Ulphilas, who had framed for them
an alphabet, and translated nearly the whole Bible into their
tongue. Fragments of this Mceso- Gothic version are the oldest
written monument in the Teutonic languages. Christianity was
taught to them by Ulphilas in the Arian type; and this circum-
stance was very imi>ortant, since it was the occasion of the spread
of Arianism among many other Teutonic peoples. Valens granted
their request to cross the Danube, and, under Fritigern and Ala-
vivus^X.0 settle in Moesia (370). By the connivance of the officers
of Valens, they were allowed to retain their arms. The avarice of
corrupt imperial governors provoked them to revolt; and, in the
battle of Adrianopki Valens was defeated. The house into which
the wounded emperor was carried was set on fire, and he per-
ished. Gratian, who, since the death of Valentinian I. (375),
had been the ruler of the West, summoned the valiant Theodosius
from his estate in Spain, to which he had been banished, to sus-
tain the tottering empire. Gratian made him regent in the East.
His father had cleared Britain of the Picts and Scots, and restored
it to the empire. Under him the son had learned to be a soldier.
He had been driven into retirement by court intrigues. He now
accomplished, as well as it could be done, the mighty task laid upon
him. He checked the progress of the Goths, divided them, incor-
porated some of them in the army, and dispersed the rest in
Thrace, Mcesia, and Asia -Minor (382). Four years later forty
thousand Ostrogoths were received into the imperial service.
Once Rome had conquered the barbarians, and planted its colonies
among them; now, after they had proved their power, and gainedTHE BARBARIAN INVASIONS.

20S

boldness by victory, it received them within its own borders. The
indolence and vice of Gratian produced a revolution in the West.
Maximus was proclaimed imperator by the legions of Britain, and
Gratian was put to death by his cavalry (383). After sanguinary
conflicts, Theodosins obtained, also, supreme power in the West.
He gave to orthodoxy, in the strife with Arianism, the supremacy
in the East; and, under his auspices, the General Council of Con-
stantinople re-affirmed the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity (381).
In the ancient church he had a glory second only to that of Con-
stantine. With the exception of his harsh and inquisitorial laws
for the forcible suppression of Arianism and paganism, his legisla-
tion was generally wise and beneficent.

Arcadius: Honorius.— Theodosius left the government of the
East to his son Arcadius, then eighteen years of age, and that of
the West to a younger son, Honorius. The empire of the East
continued ten hundred and fifty-eight years after this division;
that of the West, only eighty-one years. The Eastern Empire was
defended by the barriers of the Danube and the Balkan mountains,
by the strength of Constantinople, together with the care taken to
protect it, and by the general tendency of the barbarian invasions
westward. Rome, in the course of a half-century, was the object
of four terrible attacks, — that of Alaric and the Visigoths; of
Radagaisus with the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans; of Genseric with
the Vandals ; of Attila with the Huns.

Alario in Italy. — The Visigoths made Alaric — the head of
their most illustrious family, the Balti — their leader. Honorius
was controlled by the influence of Stilicho, a brave soldier, by birth
a Vandal; Arcadius was ruled by a Goth, Rufinus, a cunning and
faithless diplomatist. Alaric and his followers were enraged at
the withholding of the pay which was due to them yearly from
Arcadius. Rufinus> in order to keep up his sway, and out of hos-
tility to Stilicho, arranged that they should invade Eastern Illyri-
cutn, a province on which each of the emperors had claims, and
which he feared that Stilicho would seize. They ravaged Thrace
and Macedonia, passed through the undefended strait of Ther-
mopylae, spared Athens, but devastated the rest of Greece. The
only protector of the empire now was Stilicho, to whom Theodo-
sius had committed the care of his two sons, and whose power
was exercised in the West. He caused the perfidious Rufinus to
be put to death by Gainas, one of the Gothic allies of Arcadius.
The place of the minister was taken by Eutropius, an Armenian
who had been a slave. Stilicho fought the Goths in two cam-
paigns, but, perhaps from policy, suffered them to escape by the
Strait of Naupactus (Lepanto). To prevent further ravages, Arca-
dius had no alternative but to appoint Alaric master-general or
duke of Illyricum. This obliged Stilicho to retire. Raised upon206

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

the shield, and thus made king by his followers, Alaric led them
to the conquest of Italy. Honorius fled for refuge from Milan to
the impregnable fortress of Ravenna. Stilicho came to his relief,
and defeated the Visigoths at Pollentia (403). But Honorius
copied the example of Arcadius, made Alaric a general, and gave
him the commission to conquer Illyricum for the Western Empire.
After his defeat, he was moving against Rome with his cavalry,
when his retreat was purchased by a pension. It was when Hono-
rius was celebrating his triumph at Rome that a monk named
Telemachus leaped into the arena to separate the gladiators. He
was stoned to death by the spectators, but the result of his self-
devotion was an edict putting a final stop to the gladiatorial shows.
The emperor now fixed his residence, which had been at Milan,
at Ravenna, a city that was covered on the land side by a wide and
impassable morass, over which was an artificial causeway, easily
destroyed in case it could not be defended. It had served him
as an asylum during the invasion of Alaric.

Radagaisus. — The empire was not long left in peace. Alaric
was a Christian, and partially civilized. Radagaisus was a Goth,
but a heathen and a barbarian. The Suevi under his command,
took their course southward from the neighborhood of the Baltic,
and, drawing after them the Burgundians, Vandals, and Alans, —
tribes which began to be alarmed by the hordes of Buns that were
gathering behind them, —advanced to the pillage of the empire.
Leaving the bulk of their companions on the borders of the Rhine,
two hundred thousand of them crossed the Alps, and made their
way as far as Florence. Stilicho once more saved Rome and the
empire by forcing them back into the Apennines, where most of
them perished from famine. Radagaisus surrendered, and was
beheaded. The news of this disaster moved the host which had
been left behind, joined by the remainder of the army of Rada-
gaisus, to make an attack upon Gaul\ Despite the resistance of
the Ripuarian Franks, to whom Rome had committed the defense
of the Rhine, they crossed that river 011 the last day of the year
406. For two years Gaul was a prey to their ravages, until the
Suevi, the Alans, and the Vandals, sought for fresh booty on the
south of the Pyrenees (409). In Gaul they "destroyed the cities,
ravaged the fields, and drove before them in a promiscuous crowd,
the bishop, the senator, and the virgin, laden with the spoils of
their houses and altars." Brief as was this period of devastation,
it marks the severance of Gaul from the empire.

Alaric again in Italy. — Stilicho had kept up friendly relations
with Alaric, and had retained in Italy thirty thousand barbarians
in the pay of the empire. The brave general became an object of
suspicion to Honorius, who caused him to be assassinated, and
the wives and children of the barbarian troops to be massacred.THE HAR1JARIAN INVASIONS.

207

The men fled to Alaric. He came back with them to avenge
them. He appeared under the walls of Rome. " It was more
than six hundred years since a foreign enemy had been there, and
Hannibal had advanced so far, only to retreat." When the en-
voys of the Senate represented to Alaric how numerous was the
population, he answered, "The thicker the hay, the easier it is
mowed." But he consented to accept an enormous ransom, and
retired to winter quarters in Tuscany. The court at Ravenna re-
fused to assign lands to the Visigoths for a permanent settlement
in Northern Italy. Alaric demanded the post of master-general
of the Western armies. Once more he advanced to Rome, seized
the "Port" of Ostia, and compelled the Senate to appoint Attalus,
the prefect of the city, emperor. He besieged Ravenna without
effect, quarreled with Attalus, and deposed him, and for the third
time marched upon Rome. Slaves within the city opened the Sala-
rian gate to their countrymen, and on the 24th of August, 410, the
sack of the city began. To add to the horrors of the scene, a terrific
thunder-storm was raging. For three days Rome was given up
to pillage. Only the Christian temples were respected, which were
crowded by those who sought within them an asylum. Rome had
been the center of Paganism. The scattering and destruction of
its patrician families was the ruin of the old religion. Alaric did
not long survive his victory. He died at Consentia in Bruttium.
He was buried under the little river Basentius, which was turned
out of its course while the sepulcher was constructing, and then
restored to its former channel. The slaves employed in the work
were put to death, that the place of his burial might remain a
secret (410).

Athaulf: Wallia.—Athaulf (called Adolphus), the brother
and successor of Alaric, was an admirer of the empire. He en-
listed in the service of Honorius > and married his sister, Placidia,
who was in the hands of the Goths, either as a captive or as a
hostage. He put down usurpers in the south of Gaul who had
set themselves up as emperors, and entered Spain, in order to
drive out the barbarians from that country. But he was assassi-
nated (415). His successor, Wallia, carried forward his plans,
in the name of Honorius, against the Alans, the Suevi, and the
Vandals. He partly exterminated the Alans, chased the Suevi
into the mountains on the north-west, and the Vandals into the
district called after them, Andalusia.

Three Barbarian Kingdoms. — The kingdom of the Suevi thus
established (419), under the kings reigning from 438 to 455 con-
quered Lusitania, and would have subdued all Spain had they *
not been checked by the Visigoths. As a reward for their ser-
vices, the latter received from Honorius, Aquitaine in Gaul, as
far as the Loire and the Rhone, with Toulouse for their capital.208

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

If

They conquered the Suevi in 456, and in subjugated them ;
in 507 the Franks had driven them out of Gaul. Early in the fifth
century the Burgundian kingdom grew up in South-eastern Gaul.
At the end of that century the Rhone was a Burgundian river.
Lyons and Vienne were Burgundian cities. Thus in the first
twenty years of the fifth century there arose three barbadian king-
doms. Of these, that of the Suevi soon vanished ($85), being
absorbed by the Visigoths; that of the Burgundians continued
until 534; while that of the Visigoths in Spain lasted until the
conquest by the Arabs in 711.

Conquest of Africa by the Vandals.—Honorius died in 423.
He had shown himself a zealous defender of the Church against
heresy, and was the author of edicts for the suppression of hea-
thenism, and for the destruction of heathen temples and idols.
But he had proved himself inefficient in the defense of the em-
pire. His nephew Valentinian JII., the son of Placidia and of
the general Constantius9 whom she had married in 4x7, succeeded
him; but he was only six years old, and for twenty-five years the
government was carried on in his name by his unworthy mother.
She had two able generals, A'etius and Boniface, whose discord
was fatal in its effects. At the same time in the East, the govern-
ment was managed by Pulcheria for her brother, Theodosius //.,
who had succeeded Arcadius in 408. A'etius, who was a Hun,
by insidious arts persuaded Placidia to recall Boniface, who was
governor of Africa, at the same time that he advised Boniface to
disobey the order which he represented as a sentence of death.
Boniface sent to Gonderic, king of the Vandals in Spain, — who,
after the retreat of the Visigoths, were strong in that country,—an
offer of an alliance. Genseric, the Vandal leader, the brother and
successor of Gonderic, landed in Africa in 429 with fifty thousand
men. Too late the treachery of Aetius was explained to Boniface.
Genseric, with his allies, tribes of nomad Moors, defeated him in
a bloody battle, and besieged Hippo for fourteen months. Augus-
tine, the bishop of Hippo, animated the courage of its defenders
until his death in 430, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. Boni-
face was again defeated, and Hippo was taken. The Vandals
pushed on their conquest, but eight years passed before Carthage
was reduced (439). Valentinian had recognized by treaty the
kingdom of the Vandals. Genseric was characterized by genius
and energy as well as by cruelty and avarice. He built up a
navy, and made himself master of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and the
Balearic Isles. He was able to defy Constantinople, on account
• of his control of the Mediterranean. At the same time he entered
into relations with the barbarians in the north, in order that Aetius,
who endeavored to bring in some degree of order and obedience
in the empire, might be checked and restrained on all sides. TheTHE BARBARIAN INVASIONS.

209

Vandals were Arians, and made full use of the difference in faith
as a motive for plundering and maltreating the orthodox Christians
in Africa, whom their arms had subdued.

Attila: Chalons.—The enemy whom Genseric invoked to make
a diversion in his favor against the combined rulers of the East and
of the West, was Attila. For a half-century the Huns had halted,
in their migration, in the center of Europe, and held under their
sway the Ostrogoths, the Gepids, the Marcomanni, and other tribes.
The empire of Attila extended from the Baltic to the north of the
Danube, and as far east as the Volga. His name inspired terror
wherever it was heard. He was styled "the scourge of God."
The "sword of Mars"—the point of an ancient sword which, it
was said, was discovered by supernatural means, and was presented
to him—was deemed the symbol of his right to the dominion of the
world. Yet, notwithstanding his fierce visage and haughty mien,
he was an indulgent ruler of his own people, and not without pity
and other generous traits. Such was the dread of him that it was
said that no blade of grass grew on the path which his armies had
traversed. First', he attacked Theodosius IL in the East, to force
him to recall the troops which he had sent against Genseric.
He crossed the Danube, destroyed seventy cities, and forced the
Eastern emperor not only to pay a tribute heavier than he had
paid before, but also to cede to the Huns the right bank of the
river. Theodosius failed in a treacherous attempt to assassinate
him through Attila's ambassador, Edeem, whom he had bribed.
Attila discovered the plot, but pardoned with disdain the ambas-
sadors of the emperor who went to him in his wooden palace in Pan-
nonia. He contented himself with reproaching Theodosius with
" conspiring, like a perfidious slave, against the life of his master."
Regarding Constantinople as impregnable, he turned to the West.
He demanded of the Western emperor the half of his states; and,
moving to the Rhine with six hundred thousand barbarians, he
crossed that river.and the Moselle, advanced on his devastating
path into the heart of Gaul, crossed the Seine, and laid siege to
Orleans. Everywhere the inhabitants fled before him. The cour-
age of the people in Orleans was sustained by their bishop, who at
length, as the city was just falling into the hands of the assailants,
saw a cloud of dust, and cried, " It is the help of God." It was
A'etius, who, on the death of Boniface, had thought it prudent to .
fly to the Huns, had come, back to Italy at the head of sixty thou-
sand men, obtained forgiveness of Placidia, and been made master-
general of her forces. He had united to the Roman troops the
barbarians who had occupied Gaul, the Visigoths under Theodoric, *
the Saxons, the Burgundians, the Ripuarian and the Salian Franks.
On the Catalaunian fields, a vast plain near Chalons, whither
Attila now retreated to find room for the effective use of his2IO

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

cavalry, the two multitudinous armies, each composed of a motley
collection of nations, met. It was, like the conflict at Marathon,
one of the decisive battles of history. It was to determine whether
the Aryan or the Scythian was to be supreme in Europe. The
battle-field was strewn, it was said, with the bodies of a hundred
and sixty thousand men,— an exaggeration indicating that the
carnage was too great to be estimated. Attila was worsted. He
encircled his camp with a rampart of wagons; and in the morning
the victors saw him standing on the top of a mound composed of
the trappings of horsemen, which was to serve as his funeral-pile,
with torch-bearers at hand ready to light it in case of defeat.
Aetius was weakened by the withdrawal of the Visigoths: the
allies did not venture to attack the lion standing thus at bay, but
suffered him to return to Germany (451).

Attila in Italy. — The next year Attila invaded Upper Italy.
He destroyed Aquileia, the inhabitants of which fled to the lagoons
of the Adriatic, where their descendants founded Venice. Padua,
Verona, and other cities were reduced to ashes. At Milan he saw
a painting which represented the emperor on his throne, and the
chiefs of the Huns prostrate before him. He ordered a picture
to be painted in which the king of the Huns sat on the throne,
and the emperor was at his feet. The Italians were without the
means of defense. Leo /. (Leo the Great), bishop of Rome,
at the risk of his life accompanied the emperor's ambassadors to
Attila's camp. Their persuasions, with rich gifts and the promise
of a tribute, availed. The army of Attila was weakened by sickness,
and Aetius was approaching. The king of the Huns decided to
retire to his forests. The apparition of the two apostles, Peter
and Paul\ threatening the barbarian with instant death if he did
not comply with the prayer of their successor, is the subject of
one of the paintings of Raphael. Some months after he left Italy
Attila died at the royal village near the Danube, probably from the
bursting of an artery during the night (453). The nations which
he had subjugated regained their freedom. The chiefs of the
Huns contended for the crown in conflicts which dissipated their
strength. The expeditions of Attila were like a violent tempest,—
destructive for the moment, the traces of which soon disappear.

About the name of Attila, there gathered cycles of traditions, Gallo-Roman
or Italian, East German or Gothic, West German and Scandinavian, and Hun-
garian. Such traditions in Germany formed, later, the germ of the national
epic, the Ntbelungen-lied* They testify to the powerful impression which the
hero of the lluna made on the memory and imagination of the different
nations.

Genseric.— Attila did not see Rome; but Genseric, his ally,
visited it with fire and sword (455). The emperor was Petronius
MaximiiSy a senator, who had slain Valentinian 111. as the penaltyTHE BARBARIAN INVASIONS.	211

for a mortal offense. The weakness of Maximus as a ruler caused
him to be destroyed by the populace. Eudoxia, the widow of
Valentinian, whom Maximus had compelled to marry the author
of her husband's death, had secretly implored the aid of the king
of the Vandals. Once more Leo showed his fearless spirit by going
into the camp of the Vandal king, and interceding for Rome. He
only succeeded, however, in mitigating to a limited extent the hor-
rors that attended the pillage of the city by the fierce and greedy
soldiers, the Vandals and Moors, who followed Genseric. For
fourteen days (June 15-29, 455) Rome was given up to carnage
and robbery. The conqueror carried off every thing of value that
was capable of being transported. Eudoxia was rudely stripped
of her jewels, and with her two daughters, descendants of the great
Theodosius, was conveyed away with the conqueror to Carthage.
For twenty years longer Genseric ruled over the Mediterranean
- in spite of the hostility of both empires. An expedition sent
against him at the instigation of Ricimer, the Sueve, by the East-
ern emperor Leo, was ill commanded by Basiliscus, and failed.
But after the Vandal king died (477), his kingdom was torn by
civil and religious disorders, and by the revolts of the Moors,
and, fifty-seven years after the death of its founder, was conquered
by the general of the Eastern Empire.

y [Tall of Rome: Odoacer. — After the death of Maximus, Avitus
was appointed emperor by the king of the Visigoths in Gaul.
The barbarians hesitated to assume the purple themselves, but they
determined on whom it should be bestowed. Of the emperors that
succeeded, Majorian (457-461)—who was raised to the throne
by Ricimer, military leader of the German mercenaries in the
Roman army — presents an instance of a worthy character in a
corrupt time. At last another leader of mercenaries (Orestes, a
Pannonian) made his son emperor, — a boy six years old, called
Romulus Augustulus (475). Odoacer, who commanded the He-
ruli, Rugii, and other federated tribes, — mercenaries to whom
Orestes refused to grant a third part of the lands of Italy, — made
himself ruler of that country. The Senate of Rome, in pursuance
of his wishes, in an address to the Eastern emperor Ztno, declared
that an emperor in the West was no longer necessary, and asked
him to make Odoacer patrician, and prefect of the diocese of Italy.
It was in this character—not as king, but in nominal subordination
to Zerto, the head of the united Roman Empire — that Odoacer
governed (476). For more than a half-century people had been
accustomed to see the barbarians exercise supreme control, so
that the extinguishment of the Western Empire was an event less
marked in their eyes than it seemed to the view of subsequent ages.

Ostrogothio Kingdom of Theodoric. — When Odoacer had
reigned twelve years, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths in Mccsia,212

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

— who in his youth had lived at the court of Constantinople, had
defended the Eastern emperor, but had been provoked to hostility
to him, — was authorized by Zeno to move upon Italy. A host
consisting of two hundred thousand fighting-men, together with
their families and goods, followed the Gothic leader. Defeated at
Verona (489), Odoacer was forced to make a treaty for a division
of power, and to surrender Ravenna, where he had taken refuge ;
but very soon, in the tumult of a banquet, he was slain by Theod-
oric's own hand, either from fear of a rival, or because he sus-
pected that Odoacer was plotting against him. From this time the
long reign of Theodoric was one of justice and of peace. More
by negotiation than by war, he extended his dominion so that it
embraced Illyrium, Pannonia, Noricum, and Rhoetia, and, in the
West, South-eastern Gaul (Provence). The Bavarians paid him
tribute; the Alemanni invoked his assistance against the Franks,
against whom he afforded succor to the Goths of Aquitaine. In
his administration he showed reverence for the old imperial sys-
tem, and for its laws and institutions. He fostered agriculture,
manufactures, and trade. Although he could not write, he en-
couraged learning; and a learned Roman, Cassiodorus, he ap-
pointed to high offices. He permitted the Goths alone to bear
arms. He caused to be compiled from the Roman law a collection
of statutes for the Goths and for his new subjects, and established
mixed tribunals for causes in which both were parties. Cassiodo-
rus ascribes to Theodoric the words, "Let other kings seek to
procure booty, or the downfall of conquered cities: our purpose
is, with God's help, so to conquer that our subjects shall lament
that they have too late come under our rule." He did what he
could to promote peace among other barbarian nations. The
prosperity of Italy, and the increase of its population, were a proof
of the good government which it enjoyed. An Arian, he respected
the Catholics, confirmed the immunities enjoyed by the churches,
and generally allowed the Romans to elect their own bishop. He
also protected the Jews. The persecution of the Arians in the
East (524) by Justin /., awakened in his mind the belief that a
conspiracy was forming against him. He accused Boethius of
being a partner in it, and adjudged him to death (424). While
in prison at Pavia, this cultivated man, whom Theodoric had highly
esteemed, composed a work on the " Consolations of Philosophy,"
which has made his name immortal in literature. The course of
Theodoric at this time drew upon him the severe displeasure
of his orthodox subjects. Soon after his death (526) his ashes
were taken out of the tomb, and scattered to the winds. Hence
nothing remains of his sepulcher at Ravenna but his empty mau-
soleum.

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.ii.i.i-TIIE BARBARIAN INVASIONS.

213

tribe, the Lombards, founded a powerful state in Italy, which con-
tinued for more than two hundred years (568-774).

•The Franks: Clovis. — When Clovis (481-511), a warlike and
ambitious chief of the Merovingian family of princes, became
king of the Franks, they numbered but a few thousand warriors.
The remnant of the Roman dominion on the Seine and the Loire
he annexed, after having put to death Syagrius, the Roman gov-
ernor, who was delivered up to him by the Visigoths. He made
Soissons, and then Paris, the seat of his authority. A Salian Frank
himself, he joined to himself the Ripuarian Franks on the Lower
Rhine, and made war on the A/emanni, who were planted on both
sides of the river. Before a battle (formerly thought to have been
at Tolbice), he vowed, that, if the victory were given him, he would
worship the God of the Christians, of whom his wife Clotilde was
one. Clotilde was the niece of the Burgundian king, who was an
Arian ; but she was orthodox. The victory was won. Clovis, with
three thousand of his nobles, was baptized by Remigius (St. Remi)t
Archbishop of Rheims. Hearing a sermon on the crucifixion,
Clovis exclaimed, that, if he and his faithful Franks had been
there, vengeance would have been taken on the Jews. He was a
barbarian still, and the new faith imposed little restraint on his
ambition and cruelty. But his conversion was an event of the
highest importance. The Gallic church and clergy lent him their
devoted support. The Franks were destined to become the domi-
nant barbarian people. It was now settled that power was to be
in the hands of Catholic—as distinguished from heretical Arian—
Christianity. Clovis forced Gundobald, the Burgundian king, to
become tributary, and to embrace the Catholic faith. He extended
his kingdom to the Rhone on the east, and on the south (507-511),
confined the Visigoths in Gaul to the strip of territory called Septi-
mania, which they held for three centuries longer. Brittany alone
remained independent under its king. Clovis was hailed as the
" most Christian king " and the second Constantine, and was made
patrician and consul by the Eastern emperor Anastasius, in which
titles, with their insignia, he rejoiced. In the closing part of his
life he took care to destroy other Frank chieftains who might
possibly undertake to dispute or divide with him his sovereignty.

Distribution of Tribes. — If we look at the map at the close of the
fifth century, we find that all the western dominions of Rome are subject to
Teutonic kings. The Franks, still retaining Western and Central Germany,
rule in Northern Gaul, and are soon to extend their sway to the Pyrenees,
and to conquer Burgundy. The West Goths are the masters in Spain, and
still hold Aquitaine, the most of which, however, is soon to be lost to the
Franks. Italy and the lands north of the Alps and the Adriatic form the
East Gothic kingdom of Theodoric. Africa is governed by the Arian Vandals.
To the north of the Franks, the tribes of Germany, which were never subject
to Rome, have already begun their conquests in Britain. With the exception
of Britain, which is falling under the power of the Saxons, and Africa, these214

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

countries are still nominally parts of the Roman Empire, of which Constanti-
nople is the capital. In the east, the boundaries of the empire, notwithstand-
ing the aggressions and insults which it has suffered, are but little altered..

The Merovingians. — The dominion of Clovis was partitioned
among his four sons (511). Theodoric, the eldest, in Rheims,
ruled the Eastern Franks, in what soon after this time began to be
called Austrasia y on both banks of the Rhine. Neustria, or the
rest of the kingdom north of the Loire, was governed in parts
by the other three. Theodoric gained by conquest the land of
the .Thuringians, whose king, Herman/rid, he treacherously de-
stroyed. A part of this land was given to the Saxons. The his-
tory of the Franks for half a century lacks unity. The several
rulers rarely acted in concert. They made expeditions against
the Burgundians, the Visigoths, and the Ostrogoths. Twice they
attacked the Burgundians. The last time, in 534, they con-
quered them, deprived them of their national kings, and forced
them to become Catholic. In 531 they made war on the Visi-
goths to avenge the wrongs inflicted on Clotilde, a princess of
their family who suffered indignities at the hands of the Arian
king Amalaric. They crossed the Pyrenees, and brought away
Clotilde. A second division of the kingdom was made in 551
among the grandsons of Clovis, and consummated in 567. Aus-
trasia, having Rheims for its capital, had. a population chiefly
German. Neustria, where the Gallo-Roman manners were adopt*
ed, had Soissons for its capital; and Burgundy had its capital at
Orleans. The population in both these last dominions was more
predominantly Romano-Celtic, or " Romance." Family contests,
and wars full of horrors, — in which the tragic feud of two women,
Brunhild* of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, king of the
Visigoths, and Fredegunde of Neustria, played a prominent part,—
ensued. In 613 Clotaire II. of Neustria united the entire king-
dom. Brunhilde was captured, and put to death in a barbarous
manner. The son of Clotaire, Dagobert, was a worthless king.
The Frank sovereigns of the.royal line are inefficient, and the vir-
tual sovereignty is in the hands of the " Mayors of the Palace,"
the officers whose function it was to superintend the royal house-
hold, and who afterwards were leaders of the feudal retainers.
The family of the Pipins, who were of pure German extraction,
acquired the hereditary right to this office, first in Austrasia and
later in Neustria. The descendants of Pipin of J/erista/, as dukes
of the Franks, had regal power, while the title of king was left
to the Merovingian princes. The race of Pipin was afterwards
called Carolingians, or Karlings. The preponderance of power
at first had been with Neustria, but it shifted to the ruder and
more energetic Austrasians. The battle of Testry, in which Pipin
of Heristal at their head overcame the Neustrians, determinedTHE BARBARIAN INVASIONS.

215

the supremacy of Germany over France (687). His son and suc-
cessor, Charles Martel(714-741), made himself sole "Duke of the
Franks;" and Pipin the Short (741-768), the son of Charles Mar-
tel, became king, supplanting the Merovingian line (754).
^ Saxon Conquest of England. — In the fourth century, when the
power'of Rome was declining, the Picts and Scots from the North
began to make incursions into the Roman province of Britain. At
the same time Teutonic tribes from the mouths of the Weser
and the Elbe, began to land as marauders upon the coast. Honorius
withdrew the Roman troops from the island in 410; and it was
conquered by these invading tribes, especially the Angles, Saxons,
and Jutes. They became one people, called Anglo-Saxons, Angles
or English. They were fierce barbarians, who drove the Celts
whom they did not kill or enslave—and whom they called Welsh,
or strangers—into Wales and Cornwall. They formed kingdoms,
the first of which, Kent, was the result of the coming of Hengist
and Horsa, whom Vortigerni the native prince, had invited to
help him against the Picts (449). There were seven of these
Saxon kingdoms (the Heptarchy), not all of which were at any
one time regular communities. They were almost constantly at
war with one another and with the natives. They had a king
elected from the royal family. Freemen were either Earls or
Churls^ the " gentle " or the " simple." The churl was attached
to some one lord whom he followed in war. The thanes were
those who devoted themselves to the service of the king or
some other great man. The thanes of the king became gentle-
men and nobles. There were thralls, or slaves, either prisoners in
war, or made slaves for debt or for crime. Connected with the
king was a sort of Parliament, called the Witenagemdt^ox Meet-
ing of the Wise, composed originally of all freemen, and then of
the great men, the Ealdormen, the king's thanes. After the
Saxons Were converted, the bishops and abbots belonged to it.
In minor affairs, the " mark," or township, governed itself.
C Conversion of the Saxons.—The seven kingdoms, in the ninth
century, were united under Egbert, who became king of Wessex
in 802. He was called the king of England. Towards the Celtic
Christians, the heathen Saxons were hostile. The conversion of
the Saxons was due to the labors of Augustine and forty monks,
whom Pope Gregory the Great (Gregory I.) sent to the island as
missionaries in 597. Their first conversions were in Kent, whose
king, Ethelbert, had married Bertha, the daughter of a Frankish
king. Augustine, who had great success, became the first arch-
bishop of Canterbury, and he consecrated a bishop of London.
During the seventh century the other Saxon kingdoms were grad-
ually converted. York became the seat of a second archbishopric.
While Britain had been cut off from close relations with the con-216

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

tinent, the Celtic Church there had failed to keep pace with the
changes of rite and polity which had taken place among Christians
beyond the channel. The consequence was a strife on these points
between the converted Saxons, who were devoted to the holy see,
and the " Culdees " or Old British Christians.

Conversion of the Irish. — About the middle of the fiftli cen-
tury the gospel had been planted in Ireland, mainly by the labors
of Patrick, who had been carried to that country from Scotland
by pirates when he was a boy, and had returned to it as a mis-
sionary. The cloisters, and the schools connected *with them,
which he founded, flourished, became nurseries of study as well
as of piety, and sent out missionaries to other countries of West-
ern Europe.

Character of the Teutonic Kingdoms. — The Teutonic tribe was
made up of freemen and of their dependents. The rights of freemen, such
as the right to vote, continued; but these were modified as differences of
rank and wealth arose. Their leaders in peace and war were the duke
{dux), the count (comtes, or graf)% and the herzog (duke of higher grade)
over larger provinces. The companions of the king and the local chiefs,
grew into a nobility. Once or twice in the year there was a gathering of the*
freemen in assemblies, to decree war or to sanction laws. Land was partly
held in common, partly by individuals either as tenants of the community,
or as individual owners. The soil was shared in proportions by the con-
querors and the conquered.

The Church.—The Germanic tribes were generally more or less ac-
quainted with the Romans, and were Christians by profession. They were
subject to the influences of religion, of law, and of language, in the countries
where they settled. Power passed from the Empire to the Church. The
Church was strong in its moral force. Its bishops commanded the respect
of the barbarians. They were moral and social leaders. In the period of
darkness and of tempest, the voices of the Christian clergy were heard in
accents of fearless rebuke and of tender consolation. In the cities of Italy
and Gaul, the bishops, at the call of the people, informally took the first
place in civil affairs. Remarkable men arose in the Church, who were con-
spicuous as ambassadors and peace-makers, as intercessors for the suffering,
and courageous protectors of the injured. Such a man was Leo the Great.
The barbarians were awed by the kingdom of righteousness, which, without
exerting force, opposed to force and passion an undaunted front. There
was often a conflict between their love of power and passionate impatience
of control, and their reverence for the priest and for the gospel. They could
not avoid feeling in some measure the softening and restraining influence of
Christian teaching, and learning the lessons of the cross. Socially, the
Church, as such, "was always on the side of peace, on the side of industry,
on the side of purity, 011 the side of liberty for the slave, and protection for
the oppressed. The monasteries were the only keepers of literary tradition:
they were, still more, great agricultural colonies, clearing the wastes, and
setting the example of improvement. They were the only seats of human
labor which could hope to be spared in those lands of perpetual war."
Nevertheless, the religious condition of the West, the condition of the
Church and of the clergy, could not fail to be powerfully affected for the
worse by the influx of barbarism, and the corrupting influence of the barba-
rian rulers. A great deterioration in the Church and in its ministry ensued
after the first generation following the Germanic conquests passed away.
This demoralization was more among the secular clergy than the monastic.THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

217

The " History of the Franks/' by Gregory 0/ Tours (540-595), is an instructive memorial
of the times. He was himself an intrepid prelate, who did not quail before Chilperic I. and
Fredegundey but braved their wrath. Chilperic proposed to establish by his authority a new
view of the Trinity of his own devising, but was resisted by Gregory, who told him that no one
but a lunatic would embrace such an opinion. A still more crude reform of the alphabet, which
the Frankish king contrived, and proposed to put in force by having existing books rewritten,
Gregory effectually resisted.

Roman Law. — The barbarians were profoundly impressed by the system
of Roman law. This they recognized as the rule for the Roman population
in the different countries. More and more they incorporated its exact pro-
visions into their own codes. Among the West Goths in Spain the two
elements were ultimately fused into one body of laws (642-701). Under the
Franks, the Roman municipal system was not extinguished; the Teutonic
count or bishop standing in the room of the Roman president or consular,
and a more popular body taking the place of the restricted municipality. The
Roman civil polity, with its definite enactments for every relation in life and
every exigency, was always at hand, and exercised an increasing control.

State of'Learning. — The Latin language — the rustic Latin of the
lower classes — was spoken by the conquered peoples. Latin was the lan-
guage of the Church and of the Law. The consequence was, that the two
languages, the tongue of the conquerors and of the Roman subjects, existed
side by side in an unconscious struggle with one another. In the west and
south of Europe, the victory was on the side of the Latin. The languages
of these countries, the " Latin nations," grew out of the rustic dialects spoken
in Roman times. In these nations the result of the mixture of the races
was the final predominance of the Latin element in the civilization. In
Gaul,the Franks yielded to Latin influences: France was the product. With
the fall of the empire, classical culture died out. The cathedral and cloister
schools preserved the records of literature. The study of language, and the
mental discrimination and refinement which spring from it and from literary
discipline, passed away. Centuries of comparative illiteracy — dark centu-
ries— followed. Yet the monks were often active in their own rude style of
composition; and among them were not only good men, but men of eminent
natural abilities, who were unconsciously paving the way for a better time.

Saxon England. — In England, by the Saxon conquest, a purely Teu-
tonic kingdom was built up. The Saxons were heathen, who had never felt
the civilizing influence of Rome. The traces of the earlier state of things
in the province which had long been sundered from the empire, they swept
away in the progress of their conquest.

y	. .

CHAPTER III.

THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

Religious Disputes. — While the West was beginning to recover
from the shock of the barbarian invasions, society in the Eastern
Empire was growing more enervated and corrupt. For a consid-
erable period the Byzantine government was managed by the
influence of women. Thus Theodosius //., the successor of Arca-
dius (408-450), was governed during his whole reign by his sister
Pulcheria. In the East, there was an intense interest felt in the
abstruse questions of metaphysical theology. The Greek mind
was speculative; and eager and often acrimonious debate on such
questions as were raised by Nestorius respecting the two natures218

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

of the Saviour, was heard even in the shops and markets. The
court meddled actively in these heated controversies, and was
swayed to one party or the other by the theologians whom, for the
time, it took into its favor. The emperors assumed the high pre-
rogative of personally deciding in doctrinal disputes, and of dic-
tating opinions to the clergy, who gradually lost their independence,
and became abjectly subservient to the imperial will.

The Hippodrome. — The rage for doctrinal dispute in the sixth
century was only exceeded by the passions kindled in connec-
tion with the circus, or hippodrome, at Constantinople. In old
Rome the competitors in the chariot-races were organized, the
drivers wore their respective badges, — red, white, blue, or green,
— and emperors of the baser sort, like Caligula and Caracalla,
visited the stables, and were enrolled on the lists of the rival
factions. But in Constantinople the factions of the blue and the
green, not content with the contest of the race-course, were violent
political parties in which courtiers and the emperor himself took
sides. The animosity of the blues and the greens broke out in
frequent bloody conflicts in the streets. Their respective adher-
ents spread into the provinces. On one occasion, under Justinian,
they raised a sedition called Nika (from the watchword used by
the combatants), which well-nigh subverted the throne. In this
period the body-guard of the emperor played a part resembling
that of the old praetorians at Rome.

—A new dynasty began with Justin /., who succeeded
Anastasius in 518. A peasant from Dardania (Bulgaria), who to
the end of life was obliged to sign his name by means of an
engraved tablet, but, from being prefect of the Guard, became
emperor, Justin was still not without merit as a ruler. He edu-
cated his nephew, Justinian /. (527-565), and made him his suc-
cessor. Justinian married Theodora, who had been a comedian
and a courtesan, and was famous for her beauty. She was the
daughter of Acacius, who had had the care of the wild beasts
maintained by one of the factions of the circus. She joined the
blues, and it was her brave spirit that prevented Justinian from
taking flight when he was in imminent danger from the revolt of
the Nika. The most important proceedings and decisions in
affairs of state were determined by her will. Outwardly correct
in her life, and zealous for orthodoxy, her vigor of mind and
cleverness were not without service to the government; but her
vindictive passions had full indulgence. Justinian's reign was the
most brilliant period in the Byzantine history after the time of
Constantine. Under his despotic rule the last vestiges of republi-
can administration were obliterated. His love of pomp and of
extravagant expenditure, in connection with his costly wars, sub-
jected the people to a crushing weight of taxation.THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

219

- War with Persia. — The brilliant achievements in war during
Justinian's reign were owing to the skill and valor of his generals,
especially of the hero Belisarius. After a hundred years of amity
with Persia, war with that kingdom broke out once more under
Anas fast us and Justin. . Belisarius saved the Asiatic provinces,
and defended the empire on the east against Cobad, and against
his successor, Chosroes /. (531-579), who was, perhaps, the great-
est of the Persian kings of the Sastanid dynasty. The " endless
peace " made with him in 533 lasted but seven years. Chosroes
captured Antioch in 540. The worst consequences of this success
were again averted by Belisarius, who was recalled from Italy in
all haste. In the treaty of 562,Justinian ingloriously agreed to
pay for the honor of being the protector of the Christians in
Persia the annual tribute of three thousand pieces of gold.

Conquest of Africa.— From a military point of view the con-
quests of Justinian in Africa, in Italy, and in Spain, were the signal
events of his reign. Victory proved fatal to the barbarian con-
querors in those countries. They were weakened by the southern
climate, by sensual indulgence, and by strife among themselves.
Justinian was ready to profit by this diminished capacity of resist-
ance. Getimer, king of the Vandals, had put to death Hildimer,
a kinsman of Theodosius /. The emperor made this an occasion
of attacking the Vandal kingdom, which was distracted by reli-
gious differences and contention. Belisarius sailed to Africa with
a fleet of six hundred vessels, manned with twenty thousand sail-
ors and fifteen thousand troops. Three months after landing he
gained a decisive victory, and took possession of Africa, Sardinia,
and the Balearic Isles (534). He carried Gelimer as a captive to
Constantinople, and presented him to Justinian and Theodora,
seated side by side in the hippodrome to receive the triumphal
procession in honor of the victor. The captive ruler could only
exclaim, "Vanity, vanity ! All is vanity !"

Conquest of Italy. — Professedly to avenge the wrongs of
Amalasontha, the ambitious and intriguing daughter of Theodoric,
who had been killed as a consequence of the disaffection of the
Goths, Belisarius was sent to Italy. Sicily was conquered (535),
and Naples and Rome were taken (536). Vitiges, the new king
of the Goths, united the forces of the nation; but he was driven
to shut himself up in Ravenna, and Ravenna surrendered (540).
The Goths had offered the sovereignty of the country to Belisa-
rius, The jealousy of Justinian, and war with Persia, led to the
recall of Belisarius before he could complete the work of con-
quest. The Goths under Totilaf a nephew of the late king, re-
gained the greater part of Italy. Belisarius (544-549) was sent
for the second time to conquer that country. He gained impor-
tant successes, and recaptured Rome ; but he was feebly supported220

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

by the suspicious and envious ruler at Constantinople, and was at
length called home. Narses, a eunuch, insignificant in person,
but as crafty as he was brave, was commissioned to accomplish
what Belisarius had not been allowed to effect. He entered Italy
at the head of an army, made up mostly of Huns, Heruli, and
other barbarians, and defeated Totila, who died of his wounds
(552). The Ostrogothic kingdom fell. The Gothic warriors who
survived had leave to quit the country with their property, they
having taken an oath never to return. The Ostrogoths, as a na-
tion, vanish from history. The Exarchate, or vice-royalty of the
Eastern Empire, was established, with its seat at Ravenna. In
Spain, Justinian obtained Valencia and Eastern Bcetica (552), in
reward of the assistance which he had rendered to Athanagild
against a competitor for the throne. Constantinople was saved
by Belisarius from a threatened attack of the Bulgarians, who
had crossed the Danube on the ice (559). This great general,
whose form and stature and benign manners attracted the ad-
miration of the people, as his noble but poorly requited services
gave him a right to the gratitude of the sovereign, was accused,
in 563, of conspiracy against the life of Justinian. . His property
was confiscated, but his innocence was finally declared. The story
that he was deprived of his eyes, and compelled to beg his bread,
is not credited. He died in 565. A few months later Justinian
himself died at the age of eighty-three. He has been aptly com-
pared, as to his personal character and the character of his reign,
to Louis XIV, of France. Among the many structures which he
reared was the temple of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and count-
less fortresses for the defense of the capital, of the Danube, and
of other parts of the exposed frontier.

The Civil Law.— Justinian's principal distinction in history grows out
of his relation to legislation, -and to the study of the law. lie caused a
famous lawyer, Triboniany with the aid of a body of jurists, to make those
collections of ancient law which are still in force in many countries. The
Code included the imperial constitutions and edicts in twelve books (527, 528).
This was followed U33) by the Institutes, embracing the principles of Roman
jurisprudence, which was to be studied in the schools of Constantinople,
BerytuSy and Rome; and the Digest, or Pandects, comprising the most valu-
able passages from the writings of the old jurists, that were deemed of
authority. In this last work three million lines were reduced to a hundred
and fifty thousand. Finally a fourth work, The Novels, embraced the laws
of Justinian after the publication of the code (534-565). These works,
taken together, form the Civil Law, —the Corpus Juris Civilis. They are
the legacy of Rome to later times. Humane principles are incorporated
into the civil law, but, likewise, the despotic system of imperialism.

The Lombards in Italy. — In the great "Wandering of the
Nations," the German tribe of Lombards, or Langobards, had
made their way into Pannonia. To the east of them, in Dacia,
there had arisen the kingdom of the Gepidcz, a people akin to theTHE EASTERN EMPIRE.

221

Goths. In that region, also, were the Turanian Avars, with
whom the Lombards allied themselves, and overthrew the king-
dom of the Gepidae. After the conquest of Italy, Narses had
established there the Byzantine system of rule and of grinding
taxation. Discontent was the natural result. The enemies of
Narses at Constantinople persuaded Justin II and his queen
Sophia, who had great influence over him, that prudence de-
manded the recall of the able, but avaricious and obnoxious, gov-
ernor. The queen was reported to have said, that " he should
leave to men the exercise of arms, and return to his proper station
among the women of the palace, where a distaff should be placed
in the eunuch's hand." " I will spin her such a thread," Narses
is said to have replied, "as she shall not unravel her life long."
He forthwith invited the Lombards into Italy, an invitation which
they were not loth to accept. Alboin was their leader, who had
married the beautiful Rosamond, daughter of the Gepid king
whom he had slain. Narses repented of his rash proceeding, but
he died before he could organize a resistance to the invaders.
These founded the great Lombard kingdom in the north of
Italy, and the smaller Lombard states of Spoleto and Beneven-
turn. Ravenna, — the residence of the Exarchs,— Rome, Na-
ples, and the island city of Venice, were centers of districts still
remaining subject to the Greek emperor, as were also the southern
points of the two peninsulas of Southern Italy, and, for the time,
the three main islands. Alboin was killed in 5 74 at the instiga-
tion of Rosamond, to whom, it was said, at a revel he had sent wine
to drink in the skull of Cunimund, her father. The Ix)mbards
were not like the Goths. They#formed no treaties, but seized on
whatever lands they wanted, reserving to themselves all political
rights. The new-comers were Arian in religion, and partly
heathen. There was little intermixture by marriage between the
two classes of inhabitants. Lombard and Roman was each gov-
erned by his own system of law. Later, especially under the
kings Liutprandy Rachis9 and Aistulf (713-756), this antagonism
was much lessened, and the Roman law gained a preponderating
influence in the Lombard codes. Gradually the power of the
independent Lombard duchies increased. The strength! of the
Lombard kingdom was thus reduced. The Lombards more and
more learned the arts of civilized life from the Romans, and
shared in the trading and industrial pursuits of the cities. Their
gradual conversion to Catholic Christianity brought the two peo-
ples still nearer together. It was within half a century of the Lom-
bard conquest that Gregory I (Gregory the Great) held the papal
office (590-604).

After Justinian. — During the century and a half that followed
the death of Justinian, the history of the Byzantine court and222

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

empire is an almost unbroken tale of crime and degeneracy.
The cruelty of such emperors as Phocas (602-610) and Justinian
II surpasses the brutality of Nero and Domitian. The reign of
Heraclius is the only refreshing passage in this dreary and repul-
sive record. He led his armies in person in a series of cam-
paigns against Chosroes //., the Persian king. At the very time
when Constantinople was besieged in vain by a host of Persians
and Avars, he conducted his forces into the heart of the Persian
Empire ; and in a great battle near Nineveh in 627, he won a deci-
sive victory. With the reign of Heraclius, the transient prosperity
of the Greek Empire comes to an end. It was exhausted, even
by its victories. Overwhelmed with taxation, it was ruined in its
trade and industry. Despotism in the rulers, sensuality and base-
ness in rulers and subjects, undermined public and private virtue.
In addition to other enemies on every side, it was attacked by the
Arabians; and Heraclius lived to see the loss of Syria and of
Egypt, and the capture of Alexandria, by these new assailants.

Controversy on Image-Worship. — The period of theological
debate, when at its height in the fourth and fifth centuries, what-
ever extravagances of doctrinal zeal attended it, dealt with themes
of grave importance; and controversy was often waged by men of
high ability and moral worth. After that time, there succeeded
to the tempest an intellectual stagnation, under the blighting
breath of despotism, coupled with the effect of a lassitude, the
natural sequel of the long-continued, disputation. But, in the
eighth and ninth centuries, a new controversy took place, which
convulsed the Eastern Empire, and extended to the West. The
matter in dispute was the use of images in worship. Pictorial
representations had been gradually introduced in the earlier cen-
turies, but had been opposed, especially in Egypt and in the Afri-
can Church. After the time of Constantine, they came by degrees
into universal use. This formed a ground of reproach on the part
of the Mohammedans. The warfare upon images was begun by
Leo III, the Isaurian (717-741), a rough soldier with no appre-
ciation of art, who issued an edict against them. The party of
"image-breakers," or iconoclasts, had numerous adherents; and
the opposite party of "image-worshipers," who had a powerful
support from the monks in the convents, were ardent and inflex-
ible in withstanding the imperial measures. Neither the remon-
strances of John of Damascus, the last of the Greek Fathers, nor
of the Roman bishop, made an impression on Leo. The agita-
tion spread far and wide. Subsequent emperors followed in his
path. At length, however, the Empress Irene (780-802) restored
image-worship; and, in 842, the Empress Thedora finally con-
firmed this act. In the controversy, religious motives were active,
but they were mingled on both sides with political considerations.THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

223

The alienation of feeling on the part of the Roman bishops was
one cause of the separation of Italy from the Greek Empire.

Literature and Culture. — While there was a prevalence of illiteracy
in the West, there continued in the Eastern Empire an interest in letters, and
a respect for classical literature. Devoted Greek monks taught the Gospel
to the Bulgarians and to the Slavonian tribes on its borders. Cyril and
Methodius, faithful missionaries, gave the Bible to the Moravians in their own
tongue. In the seventh century, John of Damascus compiled from the Greek
Fathers a celebrated treatise on theology. But the period of original thought
in theology, as elsewhere, had passed by. This work of the Damascene was
made up chiefly of excerpts from the Fathers before him. In earlier days the
church in the East had been served by erudite theologians of great talents
and of great excellence, such as Basil the Great (328-379), Gregory of Nyssa,
Gregory of Nazianzum (326-390); all of whom were liberal-minded men, stren-
uous defenders of orthodox doctrine, and yet not unfriendly to philosophical
study. Of even wider fame was John Chrysostom (347-407), a preacher of
captivating eloquence and of an earnest Christian spirit, whose censure
of the vices of the Byzantine court provoked the wrath of the Empress
Eudoxia, and twice drove him into banishment. In the declining days of the
empire, literary effort was mainly confined to compilations and comments.
Eusebius, in the fourth century, had written a History of the Churchy and a
Chronicle, or General History; and, a century later (about 432), Zosimus
composed a History in a spirit of antipathy to Christianity and of sympathy
with the old religion. To Procopitts (who died about 565) we owe an inter-
esting history of the times of Justinian. After the seventh century, all traces
of life and spirit vanish from the pages of the Byzantine historians. In
mathematics and astronomy, in architecture and mechanics, the Byzantine
Greeks were the teachers of" the Arabians and of the new peoples of the
West. The Byzantine style of architecture was of a distinct type, and was
widely diffusecl.

The Slavonic Tribes. — In the sixth century the Slavonian tribes come
into view. The Avars stirred up such a commotion among those tribes as the
Huns had created among the Germans. The Slaves were driven to the north■
west, where later they came into relations with Germany; and to the south-
west, where, as conquerors and as learners, they stood, in some degree, in
relation to the Eastern Empire, in the same position as that of the Germans
in reference to the Western. North and East of the Adriatic arose Slavo-
nian States, as Servia, Croatia, Carinthia. Istria and Dahnatia, except the
cities on the coast, became Slavonic. The Slaves displaced the old Illyrian
race. In the seventh and eighth centuries, Macedonia and Greece were
largely occupied by Slavonians. The Bulgarians were a Turanian people,
who mixed with the Slavonians, and adopted their language. In 895 the
Magyars, a Turanian people, crowded into Dacia and Pannonia; and thus
the Bulgarians were confined to the lands south of the Danube. The Mag-
yars formed the kingdom of Hungary. The Slavonian Russians were cut off
from the Southern tribes of the same race.

CHAPTER IV.

MOHAMMEDANISM AND THE ABABIC CONQUESTS.

Condition of Arabia. — In the sixth century the influence of
the Greek and of the Persian Empires, especially of the Persian,
was prevalent in Arabia. It was then inhabited mostly by tribes224

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

either distinct or loosely bound together, and contained no inde-
pendent state of any considerable importance. The Arabs of that
day had " all the virtues and vices of the half-savage state, its re-
venge and its rapacity, its hospitality and its bounty." In the Hejaz
district — situated between fertile and more civilized Yemen, or
Arabia Felix, in the south-west of the peninsula and the Sinai tic
region, — and in Nejd to the east of Hejaz, which were the two
districts in which Islam and the Arabian Empire took their rise,
dwelt tribes whose common sanctuary was the Kaaba at Mecca,
in the wall of which was the quadrangular black stone kissed
by all devotees, and supposed to have been received from the
angel Gabriel. The religion of the Arabs was polytheism in many
different forms, in which idol-worship was prominent; but all
agreed in acknowledging one supreme God, Allah, in whose name
solemn oaths were taken. Once in the year the tribes gathered
in Mecca for their devotions; and a great fair in the vicinity,
attended by a poetical contest, made the city prosperous. The
town was made up of separate Septs, or patriarchal families, each
under its own head, of which septs the Ommiads were of princi-
pal importance, and had charge of the Kaaba. Mohammed be-
longed to the Hashimites, another and poorer branch of the leading
tribe of Koreish. The Koreiskites, by their trading-journeys to
Syria, had acquired more culture then others, whether Bedouins,
or residents of Medina. At the time when Mohammed was born,
which was probably in 572, the religion of the Arabs had sunk
into idolatry or indifference. There were three hundred and sixty
images in the Kaaba. But there were some who were called
hanifs, who were serious and earnest, and turned away from idola-
trous worship. Besides the Sabian religion of the Persian sun-
worshipers, the leading tenets and rites of Christianity and of
Judaism, both in the degenerate types which they assumed on the
Syrian borders, were not unfamiliar to Arabs dwelling in the cara-
van routes on the borders of the Red Sea.

Career of Mohammed. — Mohammed was early left an orphan
under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. In his youth he tended
sheep, and gathered wild berries in the desert. In his twenty-fifth
year he became the commercial agent of a wealthy widow, Khadija,
made journeys for her into Palestine and Syria, — where he may
have received religious knowledge and impressions from Christian
monks and Jewish rabbis, — and, after a time, married her. He is
described as having a commanding presence, with piercing eyes,
fluent in speech,'and with pleasing ways. Eventually he came-into
close contact with the hanifs. He followed the custom of retiring
for meditation and prayer to the lonely and desolate Mount Htra.
A vivid sense of the being of one Almighty God and of his own re-
sponsibility to God, entered into his soul. A tendency to hysteriaMOHAMMEDANISM.

— in the East a disease of men as well as of women — and to epi-
lepsy helps to account for extraordinary states of body and mind of
which he was the subject. At first he ascribed his strange ecstasies,
or hallucinations, to evil spirits, especially on the occasion when an
angel directed him to begin the work of prophesying. But he was
persuaded by Khadija that their source was from above. He be-
came convinced that he was a prophet inspired with a holy truth
and charged with a sacred commission. His wife was his first
convert. His faith he called Islam, which signifies " resignation to
the divine will." His cousin Ali, his friend Abubekhr, and a few
others, believed in him. There is no doubt that the materials of
Mohammed's creed were drawn from Jewish and Christian sources :
Abraham was the hanij\ whose pure monotheism he claimed to
re-assert; but the animating spirit was from within. The sum of
his doctrine was, that there is only one God, and that Mohammed
is the apostle of God.

After the Hegira. — The Koreiskites f the rulers and the elders,
persecuted him. They flung out the reproach, that his adherents
were from the poor or from the rank of slaves. This provoked
him to denounce them, and to threaten them with the Divine judg-
ment and with perdition. He lost his uncle in 619 : his wife had
died before. He had found sympathy with his claims from pious
men from Medina. They offered him an asylum. Thither he
went in 622, the date of his Hegira, or Flight from Mecca, from
which the Mohammedan calendar is reckoned. • At Medina he
won influence: he was frequently resorted to as an adviser, and
as a judge to settle disputes. His activity in this direction was
beneficent. His injunctions respecting the rights of property, and
the protection due to women, were, in the main, discreet and
wholesome. Naturally and speedily he became a political leader
as well as a religious reformer. This new course on which he
entered made a breach between him and the Jews, whom he had
hoped to conciliate. He drew off from fellowship with them, made
Friday the principal day of public worship, and Mecca its principal
seat. For the Jewish fast he substituted the month of Ramadan.
His plan was to cement together the Arab tribes, superseding the
old tie of blood by the new bond of fellowship in adherence to#
him. The project of a holy war to conquer and to crush the
idolaters, and to establish his own authority, was the means to
this end. Mecca was the first object of assault. He attacked and
plundered a Meccan caravan in 623. The next year he defeated
the Koreishites in the battle of Bedr. In the battle of Ohud (626)
his followers were worsted. Other conflicts ensued, with attacks
on the Jews in the intervals, until, in 630, he entered Mecca at the
head of ten thousand men, and destroyed all the idols. This event
secured the adhesion of the Arabian tribes, together with the chiefs226	MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

of Yemen and of the other more civilized districts. Hearing that
the Emperor Heraclius was proposing to attack him, he went forth
to meet him, but found that the rumor was false. He was prepar-
ing a new expedition against the Greeks when he died, in 632.

Character of Mohammed. — From the time of the flight of
Mohammed to Medina, the prophet turned more and more into the
politician. Under the circumstances, this was, perhaps, an almost
inevitable change. But one consequence was the bringing out of
his natural vindictiveness, and the transformation of the enthusiast
into the fanatic. Beginning as the prophet of Arabia, he came to
think that he was the prophet of the whole world. There was a
call to a wider warfare against idolatry A crusade, partly political
and partly religious, involved a mixture of craft and cruelty which
exhibit his character in a new light. Yet it is probable that he
always sincerely felt that his work in general was one to which he
was called of God. Even the prosaic regulations and " orders of
the day," which are placed in the Koran, if not the reproduction,
in cataleptic visions, of his previous thoughts, may have been re-
garded by him as having a divine sanction. The extent of possible
self-deception in so extraordinary a combination of qualities, it is
not easy to define. His conduct was, for the most part, on a level
with his precepts. There was one exception; he allowed not more
than four wives to a disciple : he himself, at one time, had eleven.
While Khadija lived he was wedded to her alone.

The Koran. — The Koran is regarded as the word of God by a hundred
millions of disciples. It is very unequal in style. In parts it is vigorous, and
here and there imaginative, but generally its tone is prosaic. Its narrative
portions are chiefly about scriptural persons, especially those of the Old Tes-
tament. Mohammed's acquaintance with these must have been indirect, from
rabbinical and apocryphal sources. Adam, Noaht Abraham, Mosesy and Christ
are acknowledged as prophets. The deity of Christ and the doctrine of the
Trinity are repudiated. The miracles of Jesus are acknowledged. Moham-
med does not claim for himself miraculous power. Predestination is taught,
but this became a conspicuous tenet of Moslems after the death of the founder.
The immortality of the soul is admitted, the pains of hell are threatened to
the wicked and to "infidels;" and a sensual paradise is promised to the faith-
ful, although it is declared that higher spiritual joys are the lot of the most
favored. The faith of Mohammed was. in substance, Judaism, the religion
of the Old Testament; power being set before holiness, however, in the con-
ception of God, and the supernatural mission of Mohammed substituted for
the future Messianic reign of righteousness and peace, and coupled with the
emphatic proclamation of the last judgment. The law in the Koran is a
civil as well as a moral code. Notwithstanding his countenance of sensuality
by his own practice, as well as by his legalizing of polygamy, and his notion
of paradise, Mohammed elevatecl the condition of woman among the Arabs.
Before there was unbridled profligacy: now there was a regulated polygamy.
Severe prohibitions are uttered against thieving, usury, fraud, false witness; •
and alms-giving is emphatically enjoined. Strong drink and gambling were
prohibited.

The gem of the Koran is "The Lord's Prayer of the Moslems:" "In the
name of God, the compassionate Compassioner, the Sovereign of the day ofMOHAMMEDAN CONQUESTS.

227

judgment. Thee do we worship, and of Thee do we beg assistance. Direct
us in the right way; in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious,
in whom there is no wrath, and who go not astray."

The Arabic Conquests: Syria, Persia, Egypt. — Mohammed
made no provision for the succession. The Caliphs, or " success-
ors,n combined in themselves civil, military and religious authority.
They united the functions of emperor and pope. Ali, the husband
of Fatima, Mohammed's favorite daughter, had hoped to succeed
him. But, by the older companions of the prophet, Abubekr, Mo-
hammed's father-in-law was appointed. The Schiites were sup-
porters of Ali, while the Sunnites, who adhered to " the traditions
of the elders," were against him. These two parties have con-
tinued until the present day; the Persians being Schiites, and the
lurks, Sunnites. Mohammed, before he died, was inflamed with
the spirit of conquest. Full of the fire of fanaticism, mingled with
a thirst for dominion and plunder, the Arabians rapidly extended
their sway. These warriors, to their credit be it said, if terrible in
attack, were mild in victory. Their two principal adversaries were
the Eastern Empire and Persia. Mohammedanism snatched from
the empire those provinces in which the Greek civilization had not
taken deep root, and it made its way into Europe. It conquered
Persia, and became the principal religion of those Asiatic nations
with which history mainly has to do. Mohammed had made a
difference in his injunctions between heathen, apostates, and schis-
matics, all of whom were to be exterminated without mercy, and
Jews and Christians, to both of whom was given the choice of the
Koran, tribute, or death. They must buy the right to exercise their
religion, if they refused to say that " Allah is God, and Mohammed
is His prophet." Omar (634-644), the next caliph after Abu-
bekr, and a leader distinguished alike for his military energy and
his simplicity of manners and life, first brought all Arabia, which
was impelled as much by a craving for booty as by religious zeal,
into a cordial union under his banner. Then he carried the war
beyond the Arabian borders. Palestine and Syria were wrested
from the Greek Empire; the old cities of Jerusalem, Antioch, and
Damascus fell into the hands of the impetuous Saracens. A mosque
was erected on the site of Solomon's Temple. The Persian Empire
was invaded, and, after a series of sanguinary battles, especially the
battle of Cadesia (636), followed by the battle of Nehavend
(642), was destroyed. Ctesiphon, with all its riches, was cap-
tured, and Persepolis was sacked. The last" king of the line of
Sassanids, Yezdegerd ///., having lived for many years as a fugitive,
perished by the hand of an assassin (652). Meantime Egypt \\2l<\
submitted to the irresistible invaders under Amrov, who was aided
by the Christian sect of the Copts, out of hostility to the Greek
Orthodox Church. After a siege of fourteen months, Alexandria228

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

was taken; but it is probably not true that the library was burned
by Omar*s order. In the disorders of the times, the great collec-
tions of books had probably, for the most part, been dispersed
and destroyed. Six friends of Mohammed, selected by Omar,
chose Othman (644-656) for his successor, who stirred up enmity
by his pride and avarice. Under him the Christian Berbers in
Africa were won over to the faith of Islam, and paved the way for
its further advance. .

The Ommiads: Conquest of Africa and Spain. — Othman was
assassinated by three fanatics, and Ali was then raised to the cal-
iphate ; but Muawwiyah, representing the family of the Ommiads,
made himself the head of an opposing party, and, after the assassi-
nation of Alt', became sole caliph (661). He removed the seat
of the caliphate to Damascus. He carried the Arabian conquests
as far as the Indus and Bokhara. He created a fleet on the
Mediterranean, under an "Admiral," that is, a commander on
the sea. In seven successive years he menaced Constantinople
with his navy. At a later time, in 717, under the caliph Soli-
man, another great attempt was made on the capital of the Greek
Empire. With an army of a hundred and twenty thousand men,
he traversed Asia Minor and the Hellespont, and was supported in
his attack by a fleet of eighteen hundred sail. But the energetic
defense, which was aided by the use of "the Greek fire,"—an arti-
ficial compound which exploded and burned with an unquench-
able flame, — caused the grand expedition to fail; and the Eastern
Empire had another long lease of life. The successors of Muaw-
wiyah accomplished the subjugation of Africa. They were invited
by the native inhabitants, who groaned under the burdens of tax-
ation laid on them by the Greek emperors. About A.D. 700 the
Arab governor, Musa, completed the conquest of the African do-
minion of the Greeks as far as the Atlantic. The amalgamation
of the Berbers with the other inhabitants of that region, and with
the Arabs, resulted in the race called Moors. At this time the
Spanish Visigothic kingdom, which had become Catholic (586-
601), was much enfeebled, and a prey to discord. Under Tarik
— from whom Gibraltar, or the mountain of Tarik near which
he landed, is named — the Arabs crossed into Spain, and for the
first time found themselves face to face with the barbarians of the
North. In the great battle of Xeres de la Frontera, near the Gua-
dalquivir, in 711, which lasted for three days, the fate of the
Visigothic kingdom was decided. Eight years were occupied in
conquering Spain. In 720 the Saracens occupied Septimania north
of the Pyrenees, a dependency of the Gothic kingdom. Gaul now
lay open before them. The Mohammedan power threatened to
encircle Christendom, and to destroy the Church and Christianity
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met by the Austrasian Franks under Charles Martel (732). . The
impetuous charges of the Saracen cavalry were met and beaten
back by the infantry of the Franks, which confronted them like an
iron wall. The Mohammedan defeat saved Christian Europe from
being trampled under foot by the Mussulman; it saved the Chris-
tian people of the Aryan nations from being subjugated by the
Semitic disciples of the Koran. At the same time that Spain was
overrun, the Turkish lands on the east of the Caspian were sub-
dued. The old antipathy between the Iranians and Turanians,
the Schiite Persians and the Sunnite Turks, was afterwards carried
into Europe by the Ottoman Moslems.

The Abassides: Bagdad. — Misgovernment embittered the
faithful against the rule of the Ommiads in Damascus, although
Syria had become a source of higher culture for the Arabians:
there they became acquainted with Greek learning. The adher-
ents of Alt found vigorous champions in the Abassides, who, as
Hashemites, laid claim to the caliphate. One of them, Abul
Abbas, was made caliph by the soldiers in 750. The fierce cru-
elty of his party against the Ommiads led to the murder of all
of them except Abderrahman, who fled to Africa, and, in 755,
founded an independent caliphate at Cordova. The Abassides
attached themselves to the Sunnite creed. Under Almansor, the
brother and successor of Abbasy Bagdad\ a city founded by Al-
mansor (754-775) on the banks of the Tigris, was made the seat
of the caliphate, and so continued until the great Mongolian in-
vasion in 1258. Bagdad was built on the west bank of the Tigris,
but, by means of bridges, stretched over to the other shore. It
was protected by strong, double walls. It was not only the proud
capital of the caliphate : it was, besides, the great market for the
trade of the East, the meeting-place of many nations, where cara-
vans from China and. Thibet, from India, and from Ferghana in
the modern Turkestan, met throngs of merchants from Armenia
and Constantinople, from Egypt and Arabia. There trading-fleets
gathered which carried the products of the North and West down
the great rivers to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Bag-
dad was to the caliphs what Byzantium was to Constantine, or
Alexandria to the Ptolemies. It became the grandest city in the
world. Canals to the number of six hundred ran through it, and
a hundred and five bridges bound its two parts together. It
was furnished with many thousand mosques and as many baths.
The palace of the caliphs comprised in itself all the splendor
which Asiatic taste and extravagance could collect and combine
in one edifice.

The Eastern Caliphate. — Deprived of the western extremity
of their empire, the Abassides still ruled over Asia and Africa.
In their luxurious and splendid court, the caliphs, served by a230

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

vast retinue of officers with the Vizier at their head, copied the
magnificence of the ancient Persians. The most famous of the
caliphs of Bagdad is Haroun-al-Raschid\ or "Aaron the Just"
(768-809). His name is familiar even to children as the won-
derful hero of the "Arabian Nights." His reign, like that of
Solomon in ancient Judaea, was considered in after times the
golden age of the caliph dominion. As in the case of Charle-
magne, poetry and romance invested his character and reign with
all that can give glory and honor to a king and a sage. Brilliant
pictures were drawn of the boundless wealth and luxury of his
court, and of his admirable piety and wisdom. About him there
was assembled a host of jurists, linguists, and poets. Three hun-
dred scholars traveled at his expense through different lands.
Righteous judgments were ascribed to him, and oracular sayings.
He was made the ideal ruler of Oriental fancy. His real character
fell much below the later popular conception. He behaved like
an Eastern despot towards all his kindred who stood in his way.
The Persian family of Barmecides he exterminated, when his pas-
v sionate attachment to one of them turned to hatred on account
^ of an obscure affair connected with the harem. Stories told by
Western chroniclers of his relations with Charlemagne require
to be sifted. The Greek emperor Nicephorus, who had rashly
defied him, he addressed as the "Roman dog." Nine times
Haroun invaded the Greek Empire, left its provinces wasted as by
a hurricane, and extorted from it a tribute which he obliged the
emperors, who repented of their daring, to pay in coin stamped
with his image. His best distinction is in the liberal patronage
which he, no doubt, extended to learning. In this he was imi-
tated by his son AI Mamun (813-833), who founded numerous
schools, and expended vast sums in behalf of science and letters.
The caliphate was weakened by the introduction of the Turks,
somewhat as the Roman Empire fared from its relations with the
Germans. Montassem (833-842), the eighth of the Abassides,
brought in a Turkish guard of forty thousand slaves, purchased in
Tartary. These soldiers, instead of remaining servants, became
lawless masters, and disposed of the throne as the praetorians at
Rome had done. The palace of the caliphs was filled with vio-
lence. Revolution and anarchy, kept up during two centuries,
broke the caliphate into fragments. Conspiracies and insurrec-
tions were the order of the day. Africa had detached itself in
the time of Haroun-al-Raschid. In Asia various independent
dynasties arose, formed mostly by Turkish governors of provinces.

The Turkish Emirs. — In the eleventh century, the Seljukian
Turks despoiled the Arabs of their sovereignty in the East. The
caliph at Bagdad gave up all his temporal power to Togrul Bey
(1058), and retained simply the spiritual headship over orthodoxMOHAMMEDAN STATES.

231

Mussulmans. To the Turk who bore the title Emir al Omra,
was given the military command. He was what the Mayor of
the Palace had been among the Franks. In 1072 his son, Malek
Shah, made Ispahan his capital, and governed Asia from China
to the vicinity of Constantinople.

The Fatimite Caliphate. — In the ninth and tenth centuries
the Aglaites (800-909), whose capital was Cairoan (in Tunis),
were dominant in the Western Mediterranean, established them-
selves, in their marauding expeditions, in Corsica, Sardinia, and
Sicily, and several times attacked Italy. In 909 they, with the
Edrissites, adherents of A/i, in Fez, formed, under a Fatimite
chief, Moez, with Egypt, the African Caliphate, the seat of which
was at Cairo (968). The Fatimite caliphs extended their power
over Syria. The most famous of the caliphs of Cairo was Hakern
(996-1020), a monster of cruelty, who claimed to be the incarna-
tion of Deity. These caliphs claimed to be the descendants of A/i
and of Fatima. Their dynasty was extinguished by Sa/adin in
1171.

The Caliphs of Cordova. — In Spain the caliphs of Cordova
allowed to the Christians freedom of worship and their own laws
and judges. The mingling of the conquerors with the conquered
gave rise to a mixed Mozarabic population. The Franks conquered
the country as far as the Ebro (812). Under Mohammed/. (852),
the Saracen governors of the provinces sought to make themselves
independent; but the most brilliant period of the caliphate of Cor-
dova followed, under Abderrahman /. (912-961). In the eleventh
century, there was anarchy, produced by the African guard of the
caliphs, which played a part like that of the Turkish guard at Bag-
dad, and by reason of the rebellion of the governors. In 1031 the
last descendant of the Ommiads was deposed, and in 1060 the
very title of caliph vanished. The caliphate gave place to nu-
merous petty Moslem kingdoms. The African Mussulmans came
to their help, and thus gave the name of Moors to the Spanish
Mohammedans. Their language and culture, however, remained
Arabic. The Arabian conquests had moved like a deluge to the
Indus, to the borders of Asia Minor, and to the Pyrenees. In
Syria they were not generally resisted by the people. Egypt, for
the same reason, was an easy conquest. It took the Moslems
sixty years to conquer Africa. In three years, nearly all Spain
was theirs; and it was not until seven hundred years after this time
that they were utterly driven out of that country.

The Moslem Government.—The Moslem civilization rested on the
Koran. Grammar, lexicography, theology, and law stood connected at first
with the study and understanding of the Sacred Book. The Caliph was the
fountain of authority. There was a fixed system of taxation, the poll-tax
and land-tax being imposed only on non-Moslem subjects. All Moslems
received a yearly pension, a definite sum determined by their rank. The232

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a Prefect, who was a
petty sovereign, subject only to the Caliph. The Generals were appointed by
the caliph, by the prefects, or by the Vizier, who was the prime minister.
The Judges {cadis) were appointed by the same officers. There was a court
of appeal over which the caliph presided. There were inspectors of the
markets, who were also censors of morals. The Imdrn had for his function
to recite the public prayers in the mosque. The leader of the yearly pil-
grimage to Mecca was an officer of the highest dignity.

Theology: Law: Literature. — The Mohammedans entered into dis-
cussions of theology, which gave rise to differences, and to schools and sects.
The nature of the Deity, predestination, the future life, were subjects of pro-
found and subtle inquiry. More than once, pantheistic doctrine was broached
by speculative minds, such as Avicettna and Averrhoes. In Persia, Si'tfism, a
form of mysticism, made great progress. It extolled the unselfish love of God,
and a contemplative and ascetic life. Law was studied; and on the basis
of the Koran, and of reasonings upon it, systems of jurisprudence were cre-
ated. Science and Literature kept pace with legal studies. Poetry flourished
through the whole period of the Eastern caliphate. There were, also, Per-
sian poets who hold an important place in the history of literature, of whom
Firdousi (about 940 to 1020) and Saadi (who died in 1291) are the most emi-
nent. Under the Abassides in Syria, through Christian scholars and by trans-
lations, the Arabians became acquainted with the Greek authors. They cul-
tivated geography. The Moslems were students of astronomy, and carried
the study o? mathematics, which they learned from the Greeks and Hindus,
verv far. Hut they apparently felt no interest in the poets, orators, and his-
torians of antiquity. In the study of Aristotle, and in metaphysical philoso-
phy, they were proficients. Medicine, also, they cultivated with success.
They delved in Alchemy in the search for the transmutation of metals.

Commerce and the Arts. — The Moslems engaged actively in com-
merce. They acquired much skill in various branches of mechanical art.
The weapons of uamascns and of Toledo, the silks of Granada, the saddles
of Cordova% the muslins, silks, and carpets of the Moslem dominions in the
East, were highly prized in Christian countries. They manufactured paper.
Forbidden to represent the human form in painting and sculpture, their dis-
tinction in the fine arts is confined to architecture. Peculiar to them is the
Arabesque ornamentation found in their edifices: the idea of the arch was
borrowed from the Hyzantine style. One of their most famous monuments
is the mosque at Cordova. The ruins of the Alhatnbray in Spain, a palace
and a fortress, illustrate the richness and elegance of the Saracenic style
of building.

The Arabian Mind. — Neither in architecture, nor in any other depart-
ment, were the Arabs in a marked decree original. They invented nothing.
They were quick to learn, and to assimilate what they learned. They were
apt interpreters and critics, but they produced no works marked by creative
genius. Many of the scholars at the court of the caliphs were Christians
and Jews. Yet Bagdad, Samarcandt Cairoy Grenada, Cordova, were centers
of intellectual activity and of learning when the nations of Western Europe
had not escaped from the barbarism resulting from the Teutonic invasions.

Literature.— Lives of Mohammed by Muir, Sprenger (German), Irving: Encycl.
Britt.% Art. Mohammedanism >• Kuenen, National Religions and Universal Religions;
Ncildeke, Gesch. d. Qnorans (i860); Muir, The CorAn (1878): R. B. Smith, Mohammed
and Mohammedanism (1875); Stobart, Islam and its Founder / Ockley, History of the
Saracens (sixth edition, 1857) * Freeman, History and Conquests qf the Saracens (1870).f*>Y»rdun

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Pipin of Heristal, d. 714.

Charles Martel, d. 741.

Pipin the Short, king 752-768.

I	_

Charlemagne, 768-814 (emperor 800).	Carloman, 768-771.

Pipin, King of Italy, d. 811. Charles, King of Franconia.	Louis the Pious, 814-840.

Bernard, d. 818. Lotharingia.	Germany. | France.

££ Lothar I, 843-855. Louis	the German, 843-876. Charles the Bald, 843-877

^ _|_^ |	I (emperor 875).

^ Louis II, Lothar II, d. 869. Charles, d. 863. Carloman, Louis the Younger. Charles the Fat	I

855-875. \ d. 880.	(emperor 881-887),	Louis 11,877-879.

Ml I	*- 888- I

^ Hermingarde, m. Boso I, King of	(-»	1-1-1—'

^ Provence, 879-887. Arnulf, King of Germany, 887-899	Louis III, Carloman, Charles the Simple,

£ _J I (emperor 896).	879-882. 879-884. m. Eadgifu, daughter of Edward the Elder.

Louis, 887-905 (emperor 901) «-,	Louis IV (D'Outremer), 936-954.

vi. Eadgifu, daughter of Edward the	Louis the Child, 900-911.

Elder.

„ __^ „	Matilda,	Lothar, 954-986. Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine,

RIVAL KINGS OF FRANCE NOT	OF tti. Conrad the Peaceful.	|	d. 994.

THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE.	|	Louis V, 986-987.

Robert the Strong, d. 866.	Rudolph III, 993-1032.

Eudes,	Robert, king 922-923.

king 887-893.	|

Emma,	^ Hugh the Great
m. Rudolph of Burgundy; king 923-926. (lather of Hugh Capet).Period II.

FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO
THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE.

(A.D. 751-962.)

chapter I.

the carlovingian empire to the death op
charlemagne (a.d. 814).

Pipin the Short. — The great event of the eighth century was
the organization and spread of the dominion of the Franks, and
the transfer to them of the Roman Empire of the West. Three
Frank princes— Charles Martel, Pipin the Short\ and Charlemagne,
ox Karl the Great—were the main instruments in bringing in this
new epoch in European history. They followed a similar course,
as regards the wars which they undertook, and their general policy.
Charles Martel> the conqueror of the Saracens at Poitiers, rendered
great services to the Church; but he provoked the lasting dis-
pleasure of the ecclesiastics by his seizures of church property.
He rewarded his soldiers with archbishoprics. Pipin, however,
was earnestly supported by the clergy. He had the confidence
and favor of the Franks, and in 751, with the concurrence of
Pope Zachariasy deposed Childeric III., and assumed the title
of king. The long hair of Childeric, the badge of the Frank kings,
was shorn, and he was placed in a monastery. In 752 Pipin was
anointed and crowned at Soissons by Boniface, the bishop of
Mentz, who exerted himself to restore order and discipline in the
Frank Church, which had fallen into disorder in the times of
Charles Martel.

Pipin in Italy. — The controversy with the Greeks about the
use of images had alienated the popes from the Eastern Empire.
The encroachments of the Lombards threatened Rome itself, and
were a constant menace to the independence of its bishops.

• Pope Stephen III\ resorted to Pipin for help against these aggres-
sive neighbors; and, in 754, Stephen solemnly repeated, in the
cathedral of St. Denis, the ceremony of his coronation. The Car-
lovingian usurpation was thus hallowed in the eyes of the people

234CHARLEMAGNE.

235

by the sanction of the Church. The alliance between the Papacy
and the Franks, so essential to both, was cemented. Pipin crossed
the Alps in 754, and humbled Aistulf, the Lombard king; but, as
Aistulf still kept up his hostility to the Pope, Pipin once more led
his forces into Italy, and compelled him to become tributary to the
Frank kingdom, and to cede to him the territory which he had
won from the Greek Empire, — the exarchate of Ravenna and the
PentapoliSy or the lands and cities between the Apennines and the
Adriatic, from Ferrara to Ancona. This territory the Frank king
formally presented to St. Peter. Thus there was founded the tem-
poral kingdom of the popes in Italy. Pipin was called Patricius
of Rome, which made him its virtual sovereign, although the office
and title implied the continued supremacy of the Eastern Empire.
He united under him all the conquests which had been made by
Clovis and his successors. His sway extended over Aquitaine and
as far as the Pyrenees. It was the rule of the Teutonic North over
the more Latin South, which had no liking for the Frank sover-
eignty.

Charlemagne: the Saxons and Saracens. — Pipin died in 768.
By the death of his younger son, Carloman, his older son, Charles,
in 771 became the sole king of the Franks. Charlemagne is
more properly designated Karl the Great\ for he was a German in
blood and speech, and in all his ways. He stands in the foremost
rank of conquerors and rulers. His prodigious energy and activity
as a warrior may be judged by the number of his campaigns, in
which he was uniformly successful. The eastern frontier of his
dominions was threatened by the Saxons, the Danes, the Slaves,
the Bavarians, the Avars. He made eighteen expeditions against
the Saxons, three against the Danes, one against the Bavarians,
four against the Slaves, four against the Avars. Adding to these
his campaigns against the Saracens, Lombards, and other peoples,
the number of his military expeditions is not less than fifty-three.
In all but two of his marches against the Saxons, however, he
accomplished his purpose without a battle. That he was ambi-
tious of conquest and of fame, is evident. That he had the rough
ways of his German ancestors, and was unsparing in war, is equally
certain. Yet he was not less eminent in wisdom than in vigor;
and his reign, on the whole, was righteous as well as glorious.
The two most formidable enemies of Charlemagne were the Sax-
ons and the Saracens. The Saxon war " was checkered by grave
disasters, and pursued with undismayed and unrelenting deter-
mination, in which he spared neither himself nor others. It lasted
continuously — with its stubborn and ever-recurring resistance, its
cruel devastations, its winter campaigns, its merciless acts of ven-
geance — as the effort which called forth all Charles's energy for
thirty-two years " (772-804). The Saxons were heathen. The236

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

conquest of them was the more difficult because it involved the
forced introduction of Christianity in the room of their old reli-
gion. More than once, when they seemed to be subdued, they
broke out in passionate and united revolt. Their fiercest leader
in insurrection was Witikind\ A last and terrible uprising, in con-
sequence of the slaughter of forty-five hundred Saxons on the
Aller as a punishment for breach of treaty, was put down in 785,
when Witikind submitted, and consented to receive Christian bap-
tism. During the progress of the Saxon war, at the call of the
Arab governor of Saragossa for aid against the caliph Abderrah-
man, Charles marched into Spain, and conquered Saragossa and
the whole land as far as the Ebro. On his return, in the valley
of Ronceveaux, the Frank rear guard was surprised and destroyed
by the Basques. There fell the Frank hero Roland\ whose gallant
deeds were a favorite subject of mediaeval romances. The duchy
of Bavaria was abolished after a second revolt of its duke, Passilo
(788). One of the most brilliant of Charlemagne's wars was that
against the Hunnic Avars (791). Their land between the.Ems
and Raab he annexed to his empire. Bavarian colonists were
planted in it. Enormous treasures which they had gathered,- in
their incursions, from all Europe, were captured, with their " Ring,"
or palace-camp. The Slavonic tribes were kept in awe. Brittany
was subjugated in 811. In the closing years of Charles's reign,
the Danes became more and more aggressive and formidable. He
visited the northern coasts, made Boulogne and Ghent his harbors
and arsenals, and built fleets for defense against the audacious
invaders.

Charlemagne in Italy. — Some of the most memorable inci-
dents in Charlemagne's career are connected with Italy. While he
was busy in the Saxon war, he had been summoned to protect Pope
Hadrian /. (7 72-795) from the attack of the Lombards. To please
his mother, Charles had married, but he had afterwards divorced,
the daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius. She was the first
in the series of Charlemagne's wives, who, it is said, were nine in
number. By the divorce he incurred the resentment of Deside-
rius, who required the Pope to anoint the sons of Carloman as
kings of the Franks. In 772 Charlemagne crossed the Alps by
the Mont Cenis and the St. Bernard, captured Pavia, and shut up
Desiderius in a Frank monastery. The king of the Franks be-
came king of the Lombards, and lord of all Italy, except the
Venetian Islands and the southern extremity of Calabria, which
remained subject to the Greeks. The German king and the Pope
were now, in point of fact, dominant in the West. A woman, Irene,
who had put out the eyes of her son that she herself might reign,
sat on the throne at Constantinople. This was a fair pretext for
throwing off the Byzantine rule, which afforded no protection toCHARLEMAGNE.

237

Italians. Once more Charles visited Italy, to restore to the papal
chair Leo IIL, who had been expelled by an adverse party, and,
at Charles's camp at Paderborn, had implored his assistance. On
x Christmas Day in the year 800, during the celebration of mass in
the old Basilica of St. Peter, Leo IIL advanced to Charlemagne,
and placed a crown on his head, saluting him, amid the acclama-
tions of the people, as Roman emperor.

Meaning of Charles's Coronation. — The coronation of Charle-
magne made him the successor of Augustus and of Constantine.
It was not imagined that the empire had ever ceased to be. The
Byzantine emperors had been acknowledged in form as the rulers
of the West: not even now was it conceived that the empire
was divided. In the imagination and feeling of men, the creation
of the Caesars remained an indivisible unity. The new emperor
in the West could therefore only be regarded as a rival and usurp-
er by the Byzantine rulers ; but Charlemagne professed a friendly
feeling, and addressed them as his brothers, — as if they and he
were exercising a joint sovereignty. In point of fact, there had
come to be a new center of wide-spread dominion in Western
Europe. The diversity in beliefs and rites between Roman Chris-
tianity and that of the Greeks had been growing. The popes and
Charlemagne were united by mutual sympathy and common in-
terests. The assumption by him of the imperial title at their
instance, and by the call of the Roman people, was the natural
issue of all the circumstances.

Charles's System of Government — Charlemagne showed him-
self a statesman bent on organization and social improvement.
There was a system of local officers. The border districts of the
kingdom were made into Marks, under Margraves or Mar-
quesses, for defense against the outlying tribes. One of them, to
the east of Bavaria, was afterwards called Austria, Dukes gov-
erned provinces, some of which afterwards became kingdoms.
Their power the emperor tried to reduce. The empire was di-
vided into districts, in each of which a Count ( Graf) ruled, with
inferior officers, either territorial or in cities. Bishops had large
domains, and great privileges and immunities. The officers held
their places at the king's pleasure: they became possessed of
landed estates, and the tendency was, for the offices to become
hereditary.

The old German word Graf is of uncertain derivation, but means the same
as count (from the Latin comes), Mark is a word found in all the Teutonic
languages. From the signification of boundary, it came to be applied, like
its synonym march, to a frontier district. A margrave (Mark-Graf) was a
mark-county or an officer ruling for the king in such a district. A viscount
(vicecomes) was an officer subordinate to a count. Pfilz% meaning originally
palace (from the Latin palatium), was the term for any one of the king's
estates. The pfalsgrave (Pfalz-Graf) was first his representative in charge238

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

of one of these domains.^ The stallgrave {Stall-Graf) corresponded to the con*
stable (comes stabuli) in English and French. It signifies the officer in charge
of the king's stables, the groom. He had a military command. A later
designation of the same office is marshal (from two old German words, one
of which means a horse, as seen in our word mare, having the same etymology,
and the other means a servant).

Imperial deputies, or missi, lay and ecclesiastical together, vis-
ited all parts of the kingdom to examine and report as to their
condition, to hold courts, and to redress wrongs. There were ap-
peals from them to the imperial tribunal, over which the Palsgrave
presided. Twice in the year great Assemblies were held of the
chiefs and people, to give advice as to the framing of laws. The
enactments of these assemblies are collected in the Capitularies
of the Frank kings. In the Church, Charlemagne tried to secure
order, which had sadly fallen away, and had given place to confu-
sion and worldliness. He himself exercised high ecclesiastical pre-
rogatives, especially after he became emperor.

Learning and Culture. — One of the chief distinctions of Charlemagne
is the encouragement which he gave to learning. In his own palace at
Aachen (Aix), he collected scholars from different quarters. Of these the
most eminent is Alcuin, from the school of York in England. He was
familiar with many of the Latin writers, and while at the head of the school
in the palace, and later, when abbot of St. Martin in Tours, exerted a strong
influence in promoting study. Charlemagne himself spoke Latin with facility,
but not until late in life did he try to learn to write. It was his custom to
be read to while he sat at meals. Augustine's City of God was one of the
books of which he was fond. In the great sees and monasteries, schools were
founded, the benefits of which were very soon felt.

Charles's Personal Traits. — Charlemagne was seven feet in height,
and of noble presence. His eyes were large and animated, and his voice
clear, but not so strong as his frame would have led one to expect. His
bearing was manly and dignified. He was exceedingly fond of riding, hunt-
ing, and of swimming. Eginhardhis friend and biographer, says of him,
" In all his undertakings and enterprises, there was nothing he shrank from
because of the toil, and nothing that he feared because of the danger." He
died, at the age of seventy, on Jan. 28, 814. He had built at Aix la Chapelle
a stately church, the columns and marbles of which were brought from
Ravenna and Rome. Beneath its floor, under the dome, was his tomb.
There he was placed in a sitting posture, in his royal robes, with the crown
on his head, and his horn, sword, and book of the Gospels on his knee. In
this posture his majestic figure was found when his tomb was opened by
Otto III., near the end of the tenth century. The marble chair in which the
dead monarch sat is still in the cathedral at Aix: the other relics are at
Vienna. The splendor of Charlemagne's reign made it a favorite theme
of romance among the poets of Italy: a mass of poetic legends gathered
about it.

Extent of the Empire. — Charlemagne's empire comprised all
Gaul, and Spain to the Ebro, all that was then Germany, and the
greater part of Italy. Slavonic nations along the Elbe were his
allies. Pannonia, Dacia, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia, — except the
sea-coast towns, which were held by the Greeks, — were subject to
him. He had numerous other allies and friends. Even Haroun-CHARLEMAGNE.

239

,al-Raschidy the famous Caliph of Bagdad, held him in high honor.
Among the most valued presents which were said to have come
from the Caliph were an elephant, and a curious water-clock, which
was so made, that, at the end of the hours, twelve horsemen came
out of twelve windows, and closed up twelve other windows. This
gift filled the inmates of the palace at Aix with wonder.

Condition of the People. — The number of free Franks dimin-
ished under Charlemagne. They were thinned out in the wars, or
sunk into vassalage. The warnings and rebukes in the Capitula-
ries; or body of laws, show that the upper clergy were often sen-
sual and greedy of gain. The bishops would often lead in person
their contingent of troops, until they were forbidden to do so by
law. Nine-tenths of the population of Gaul were slaves. Charle-
magne made Alcuin the present of an estate on which there were
twenty thousand slaves. Especially in times of scarcity, as in 805
and 806, their lot was a miserable one. At such times, they fled
in crowds to the monasteries. The social state was that of feud-
alism "in all but the development of that independence in the
greater lords, which was" delayed by the strength of Karl, but
fostered, at the same time, by his wars and his policy towards the
higher clergy."

Conversion of Germany: Boniface.—The most active mission-
aries in the seventh and eighth centuries were from the British
islands. At first they were from Ireland and Scotland. Colum-
ban, who died in 615, and his pupil Gallus, labored, not without
success, among the Alemanni. Gallus established himself as a
hermit near Lake Constance. He founded the Abbey of St. Gaul.
The Saxon missionaries from England were still more effective.
The most eminent of these was Win/rid\ who received from
Rome the name of Bonifacius (680-755). He converted the
Hessians, and founded monasteries, among them the great
monastery of Fulda. There his disciple, Sturm, " through a long
series of years, directed the energies of four thousand monks, by
whose unsparing labors the wilderness was gradually reclaimed,
and brought into a state of cultivation.'' Boniface had proved
the impotence of the heathen gods by felling with the axe an
aged oak at Geismar, which was held sacred by their worshipers.
Among the Thuringians, Bavarians, and other tribes, he extir-
pated paganism by peaceful means. He organized the German
Church.under the guidance of the popes, and, in 747, was made
archbishop of Mentz, and primate. But his Christian ardor moved
him to carry the gospel in person to the savage Frisians, by whom
he was slain. He thus crowned his long career with martyrdom.

Conversion of the Scandinavians.—The apostle of the Scan-
dinavians was Ansgar (801-865). The archbishopric of Ham-
burg was founded for him by Louis the Pious, with the papal240

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

consent; but, as Hamburg was soon plundered by pirates, he be-
came bishop of Bremen (849). In that region he preached with
success. Two visits he made to Sweden, the first with little per-
manent result; but, at the second visit (855), the new faith was
tolerated, and took root. The triumph of the religion of the cross,
which Ansgar had planted in Denmark, was secured there when
Canute became king of England. The first Christian king in
Sweden was Olaf Schooskonig (1008). In Norway, Christianity
was much resisted; but when Olaf the Thick, who was a devote i
adherent of the Christian faith, had perished in battle (1033), his
people, who held him in honor, fell in with the church arrange-
ments which he had ordained; and he became St. Olaf \ the patron
saint of Norway.

The Benedictines. — Benedict, born at Nursia, in Umbria, in
543, the founder of the monastery of Monte Cassino, north-west
of Naples, was the most influential agent in organizing monasti-
cism in Western Europe. He was too wise to adopt the extreme
asceticism that had often prevailed in the East, and his judicious
regulations combined manual labor with study and devotion.
They not only came to be the law for the multitude of monas-
teries of his own order, but also served as the general pattern, on
the basis of which numerous other orders in later times were con-
stituted. His societies of monks were at first made up of laics, but
afterwards of priests. The three vows of the monk were chastity,
including abstinence from marriage; poverty, or the renunciation
of personal possessions; and obedience to superiors. The Bene-
dictine cloisters long continued to be asylums for the distressed,
schools of education for the clergy, and teachers of agriculture
and the useful arts to the people in the regions where they were
planted. Their abbots rose to great dignity and influence, and
stood on a level with the highest ecclesiastics.

CHAPTER II.

DISSOLUTION OP CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE: RISE OF THE
KINGDOMS OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY.

Divisions in the Empire.—The influence of Charlemagne was
permanent; not so his empire. It had one religion and one
government, but it was discordant in language and in laws. The
Gallo-Romans and the Italians spoke the Romance language, with
variations of dialect. The Germans used the Teutonic tongue.
Charlemagne left to the I^ombards, to the Saxons, and to other
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24I

the force of his own character and the vigor of his administration.
His death was, therefore, the signal for confusion and division.
The tendency to dismemberment was aided by the ambition of the
princes of the imperial family. The Austrasian Franks, to whom
Charlemagne belonged, craved unity. The Gallo-Romans in the
West, the Teutons in the East, aspired after independence.

Louis the Pious (814-840), Charlemagne's youngest son, — who,
in consequence of the death of his elder brothers, was the sole
successor of his father, — lacked the energy requisite for so diffi-
cult a place. He was better adapted to a cloister than to a throne.
He had been crowned at Aix before his father's death; but he
consented to be crowned anew by Pope Stephen IV. zX Rheims, in
816. His troubles began with a premature division of his states
between his sons, Lothar, Pipin, and Louis. His nephew, Bern-
hard\ who was to reign in Italy in subordination to his uncle, re-
belled, but was captured and killed (818). In order to provide
for his son Charles the Bald\ whose mother Judith he had married
for his second wife, he made a new division in 829. The elder
sons at once revolted against their father, and Judith and her son
were shut up in a cloister (830). Louis the. son repented, the
Saxons and East Franks supported the emperor, and he was re-
stored. In 833 he took away Aquitaine from Pipin, and gave it
to Charles. The rebellious sons again rose up against him. In
company with Pope Gregory IV., who joined them, they took their
father prisoner on the plains of Alsace, his troops having deserted
him. The place was long known as the " Field of Lies." He was
compelled by the bishops to confess his sins in the cathedral at
Soissons, reading the list aloud. Once more Louis was released,
and forgave his sons ; but partition after partition of territory, with
continued discord, followed until his death. The quarrels of his
surviving sons, Lothar, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald,
brought on, in 841, the great battle of Fontenaille. The contest
was occasioned by the ambition of Lothar, the eldest, who claimed
for himself the whole - imperial inheritance. There was great car-
nage, and Lothar was defeated. The bishops present saw in the
result a verdict of God in favor of his two adversaries. The result
was the Treaty of Verdun for the division of the empire.

Terms of the Treaty of Verdun. — Louis the German took the
Eastern and German Franks, and Charles the Bald the Western
and Latinized Franks. Lothar, who retained the imperial title,
received the middle portion of the Frank territory, including Italy
and a long, narrow strip of territory between the dominions of his
brothers, and extending to the North Sea. This land took later
the name of Lotharingia, or Lorraine. It always had the char-
acter of a border-land. While Louis9 share comprised only Ger-
man-speaking peoples, Charles's kingdom was made up almost242

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

exclusively of Gallo-Roman inhabitants; while under Lothar the
two races were mingled. This division marks the birth of the Ger-
man and French nations as such. The German-speaking peoples in
the East, who were affiliated in language, customs, and spirit, more
and more grew together into a nation. In like manner, the sub-
jects of the Western kingdom more and more were resolved into
a Franco-Roman nationality. Lothar ruled at Aix-la-Chapelle,
and was styled emperor; but each of the other kingdoms was
independent, and the empire of Charlemagne was dissolved. Only
for a short time, under Charles the Fat (884-887), nearly the
whole monarchy of Charlemagne was united under one scepter.
When he was deposed it was again broken in pieces; and four
distinct kingdoms emerged, — those of the Eastern and Western
Franks, " the forerunners of Germany and France," and the king-
doms of Italy and of Burgundy, in South-eastern Gaul, which
were sometimes united and sometimes separate. Lotharingia was
attached now to the Eastern and now to the Western Frank king-
dom. In theory there was not a severance, but a sharing, of the
common possession which had been the object of contention.

Eastern Carlovingians.— Charles the Fat was a weak and
sluggish prince. He offered no effectual resistance to the destruc-
tive ravages of the Normans, or Scandinavian Northmen. He was
deposed in 887, and died in the following year on an island in
the Lake of Constance. His successor, the grandson of Louis the
German, Arnulf\duke of Carinthia, became king of the Germans,
and emperor (887-899) ; and, after his short reign, the line of
Louis died out in Louis the Child\ the weak son of Arnulf (899-
911). The house of Charlemagne survived only among the West-
ern Franks.

' During the reign of Louis the Child, Hatto (I.), archbishop of Mentz
and primate of Germany, was regent and guardian of the king. He was a
bold defender of the unity of the empire. He was charged, truly or falsely,
with taking the life of Adalbert, a Frank nobleman whom he had enticed into
his castle. There was a popular tradition that the devil seized Hatto's corpse,
and threw it into the crater of Mount ;Etna. The mistake is often made of
connecting the popular legend of the " Mouse-tower " at Bingen on the
Rhine, with him. It was told of a later Hatto (Hatto //.), who was likewise
archbishop of Mentz (968). He was charged with shutting up the poor in
a barn, in a time of famine, and of burning them there. As the story runs,
he called them "rats who ate the corn." Numberless mice swam to the
tower which he had built in the midst of the stream, and devoured him.
Southey has put the tale into a ballad, —M God's Judgment on a Wicked
Bishop."

Kingdom of France. — In 841 Rouen fell into the hands of the
Normans, and Paris lay open to their attacks. In 861 Charles
the Bald invested a brave soldier, Robert the Strong, whose de-
scent is not known, with the county of Paris, that he might resist
the invaders. He held the country between the Seine and theCENTRAL EUROPE

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243

Loire, under the name of the Duchy of France. The other
Francia ^ east of the Rhine, continued to be an important part of
Germany, the district called Franconia. Robert was the great-
grandfather of Hugh Capet, the founder of the kingdom of France.
Under the imbecile Charles the Fat, the audacious Northmen (885-
886) laid seige to Paris. It was Odo, or Eudes, count of Paris,
who led the citizens in their heroic and successful resistance. Him
the nobles of France chose to be their king. His family were
called " Dukes of the French." Their duchy — Western or Latin
Francia — was the strongest state north of the Loire. The feudal
lords were growing mightier, and the imperial or royal power was
becoming weaker. After Odo of Paris was elected to the Western
kingdom, there followed a period of about a hundred years during
which there was a king sometimes from his house and sometimes
fr^p the family of the Carlovingians. The latter still spoke Ger-
man, and, when they had the power, reigned at Laon in the north-
eastern corner of the kingdom. Odo ruled from 888 until 898.
He had to leave the southern part of France independent. During
the last five years of his life he was obliged to contend with Charles
the Simple (893-923), who was ejected king by the Carlovingian
party of the north. The most noted of the Carlovingian kings at
Laonvras Louis "from beyond seas" (936-954), Charles's son,
who had been carried to England for safety. His reign was a
constant struggle with Hugh the Great\ duke of the French, the
nephew of. King Odo. Hugh would not accept the crown himself.
On the death of Louis V. (986-987), the direct line of Charle-
magne became extinct. The only Carlovingian heir was his uncle,
Charles, duke of Lorraine. His claim the barons would not
recognize, but elected Hugh Capety duke of France, to be king,
who, on the 1st (or the 3d) of July, 987, was solemnly crowned in
the cathedral of Noyon, by the archbishop of Rheims. Just at
this juncture, when the contest was between the dukes of the
French and Charles of Lorraine, the Carlovingian claimant to
the sovereignty, the adhesion and support of Duke Richard of
Normandy (943-996) was of decisive effect. The Normans had
been on the side of Laon; now they turned the scale in favor of
the elevation of the Duke of France. The German party at Laon
could not withstand the combined power of Rouen 'and Paris.
Thus with Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian line, the king-
dom of France began, having Paris for its capital; and the name
of France came gradually to be applied to the greater part of
Gaul. But when Hugh Capet became king, there were many sov-
ereign states in France, that is, in Gaul, eight of which were above
the rest in power and extent. " The counts of Flanders, Cham-
pagne, and Vermandois, and the dukes of Normandy, Brittany,
Burgundy, and Aquitainef regarded themselves as the new king's244

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

peers or equals." Lorraine, Aries, and Franche Comte — parts of
modern France — " held of the emperor, and were, in fact, Ger-
man." Hugh Capefs dukedpm was divided by the Seine. He
was lay abbot of St. Denis, the most important church in France.

The German Kingdom. — With the death of Louis the Child
(911) the German branch of the Carlovingian line was extinguished.
The Germans had to choose a king from another family. Germany,
like France, was now composed of great fiefs. But there were two
parties, differing from one another in their character and manners.
The one consisted of the older Alemannic and Austrasian unions,
where the traces of Roman influence continued, where the large
cities were situated, and the principal sees. Here were formed
the duchies of Swabia and Bavaria, and Franconia (Austrasian
France). To Saxony were attached Thuringia and a part of
Frisia. These at the outset were the principal duchies. In France
the royal power, at the start, was so weak, that, not being dreaded,
it was suffered to grow. In Germany the royal power was so strong
that there was a constant effort to reduce it. Hence in France
the result was centralization; in Germany the tendency was to
division. In France the long continuance of the family of Hugh
Capet made the monarchy hereditaryk In Germany the frequent
changes of dynasty helped to make it elective.

Conrad L — When Louis died, Conrad of Franconia (911-919)
was chosen king by the clerical and secular nobles of the five
duchies, in which the counts elevated themselves to the rank of
dukes, — Franconia, Saxony, Lorraine, Swabia, and Bavaria. Ger-
many thus became an elective kingdom; but since, as a rule, the
sovereignty was continued in one family, the electoral principle
was qualified by an hereditary element. Conrad began the struggle
against the great feudatories, which went on through the Middle Ages.
The dukes always chafed under the rule of a king; yet, for the glory
of the nation and for their own safety against attacks from abroad,
they were anxious to preserve it from extinction. The Hungarians,
to whom Louis the Child had consented to pay tribute, renewed
their incursions. They marched in force as far as Bremen.
Conrad had wished to reduce the power of Saxony, and to detach
from it Thuringia. He was constantly at war with his own subjects.
Yet on his* death-bed he showed his disinterested regard to the
interests of the kingdom. He called to him his brother Eberhard\
and charged him to carry his crown and crown jewels to his enemy
Henry, duke of the Saxons, who was most capable of defending
the country against the Hungarian invaders.

Italy. — After the empire of Charles the Fat was broken up, a
strong anti-German feeling was manifest in Italy. The people
wanted the king of Italy, and, if possible, the emperor of the
Romans, to be of their own nation. But they could not agree:ITALY: THE PAPACY.

245

there was a violent contest between the supporters of Berengar
of Friuli and the supporters of Guido of Spoleto. Arnulf came
twice into Italy to quell the disturbance, and on his second visit,
in 896, was crowned emperor. Civil war soon broke out again.
Within twenty years the crown had been given to five different
aspirants. They were Germans, or were Italians only in name.
Berengar /. (888-924) was crowned emperor by the Pope, but
had to fight against a competitor, Rudolph, king of Burgundv,
whom the turbulent nobles set up in his place. Berengar was
finally defeated and assassinated. His grandson, Berengar JL (of
Ivrea) (950-961), had to fly to Germany (943) to escape a com-
petitor for the throne, Hugh, count of Provence, brother of Er-
mengarde, Berengar's step-mother, to whom she had given the
crown. His relations with Otto /. (the Great) led to very impor-
tant consequences, to be narrated hereafter.

State of Learning in the Tenth Century.—Under Charles the
Bald, there were not wanting signs of intellectual activity. John Scotus Eri-
getia,— or John Scot, Erinborn, — who was at the head of his palace-school,
was an acute philosopher, who, in his speculations in the vein of New Pla-
tonism, tended to pantheistic doctrine. His opinions were condemned at
the instance of Hincmar, the eminent archbishop of Rheims. But after
the deposition of Charles the Fat (887), there followed a period of darkness
throughout the West. The universal political disorder was enough to ac-
count for this prevalent ignorance. But, in addition, the Latin language
ceased to be spoken by the people, while the new vernacular tongues were
not reduced to writing. Latin could only be learned in the schools; and these
fell more and more into decay, in the confusion of the times. The mental
stimulus which the study of the Latin had communicated, there was nothing,
as yet, in the new languages to replace.

The Papacy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. — While Italy
was under the rule of Justinian and his successors, the popes were
subject to the tyranny of the Eastern emperors. After the Lombard
conquest, their position, difficult as it was on account of the small
protection afforded them from Constantinople, was favorable to
the growth of their influence and authority. By their connection
with Pipin and Charlemagne, they were recognized as having a
spiritual headship, the counterpart of the secular supremacy of
the emperor. The election of the Pope was to be sanctioned by the
emperor, and that of the emperor by the Pope. But Charlemagne
was supreme ruler over all classes and persons in Italy, as in his
own immediate dominions. In the disorder that ensued upon his
death, the imperial authority in all directions was reduced. The
Frank bishops were frequently appealed to as umpires among the
contending Carolingian princes. The growth of the power of
the great bishops carried in it the exaltation of the highest bishop
of all, the Roman pontiff. A pallium, or mantle, was sent by the
Pope to all archbishops on their accession, and was considered to
be a badge of the p°pal authority. In the earlier part of the246

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

ninth century, there appeared what are called the pseudo-Isidorian
decretals, consisting of forged ecclesiastical documents purporting
to belong to the early Christian centuries, which afforded a sanc-
tion to the highest claims of the chief rulers of the Church. These
are universally known to be an invention; but, in that uncritical
day, this was not suspected. They contained not much in behalf
of hierarchical claims which had not, at one time or another, been
actually asserted and maintained. In the spirit of the decretals
Pope Nicholas /. (858-867) acted, when this energetic pontiff
overruled the iniquitous decision of two German synods, and
obliged Lothary king of Lotharingia, to take back his lawful wife,
Theutberga, whom he had divorced out of regard to a mistress,
Waldrada. In the tenth century (904-962), when Italy, in the
absence of imperial restraint, was torn by violent factions, the
Papacy was for half a century disposed of by the Tuscan party,
and especially by two depraved women belonging to it, Theodora,
and her daughter Maria (or Marozia). The scandals belonging
to this dismal period in the history of the papal institution are to
be ascribed to the anarchy prevailing in Italy, and to the vileness
of the individuals who usurped power at Rome.

CHAPTER III.

INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN AND OTHERS: THE
FEUDAL SYSTEM.

Incursions of the Northmen. — The Scandinavians, ox North"
men, were a Teutonic people, by whom were gradually formed the
kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Their incursions,
prior to Charlemagne, were towards the Rhine, but at length as-
sumed more the character of piracy. They coasted along the
shores in their little fleets, and lay in wait for their enemies in
creeks and bays; whence they were called vikings, or children of
the bays. By degrees they ventured out farther on the sea, and
became bolder in their depredations. They sent their light ves-
sels along the rivers of France, and established themselves in bands
of five or six hundred at convenient stations, whence they sallied
out to plunder the neighboring cities and country places. They
did not cause, but they hastened, the fall of the Frank Empire.
In 840 they burned Rouen; in 843 they plundered Nantes,
Saintes, and Bordeaux. Hastings, a famous leader of these hardy
sea-robbers, sailed along the coast of the Spanish peninsula, took
Lisbon and pillaged it, and burned Seville. Making a descent
upon Tuscany, he captured, by stratagem, and plundered the cityTHE NORTHMEN.

247

of Luna, which he at first mistook for Rome. In 853 the daring
rovers captured Tours, and burned the Abbey of St. Martin; and,
three years later, they appeared at Orleans. In 85 7 they burned
the churches of Paris, and carried away as captive the abbot of
St. Denis. As pagans they had no scruple about attacking churches
and abbeys, to which fugitives resorted for safety and for the hid-
ing of their treasures. Robert the Strong fell in fighting these
marauders (866). Their devastations continued down to the year
911, in the reign of Charles the Simple; then the same arrange-
ment was made which the Romans had adopted in relation to the
Germanic invaders. By the advice of his nobles, Charles decided
to abandon to the Northmen, territory where they could settle, and
which they could cultivate as their own. Rolf, or Polio, one of
their most formidable chiefs, accepted the offer; and the North-
men established themselves (911) in the district known afterwards
as Normandy. Polio received baptism, wore the title of duke,
and thus became the liege of King Charles, who reigned at Laony
and whom he loyally served. Later the Normans joined hands
with ducal France, and helped Paris to throw off its dependence
on royal France and the house of Charlemagne which had ruled
at Laon. It was by Norman help that the duchy of France was
raised to the rank of a kingdom, and Hugh Capet\ in the room of
being a vassal of kings of German lineage, became the founder
of French sovereigns. Under the Normans, tillage flourished; and
the feudal system was established with greater regularity than else-
where.

The Danes in England. — When, in 827, Egbert, the king of
Wessexy united all the Saxons in England under his rule, the Dan-
ish attacks had already begun. In his later years these ravages
increased. Alfred (871-901) was reduced to such straits in 878,
that, with a few followers, he hid himself among the swamps and
woods of Somersetshire. It was then, according to the legend,
that he was scolded by the woman, who, not knowing him, had
set him to watch her cakes, but found that he, absorbed in other
thoughts, had allowed them to burn. Later, Alfred gained advan-
tages over the Danes; but, in the treaty that was made with them,
they received, as vassals of the West Saxon king, East Anglia,
and part of Essex and Mercia. Already they had a lodgment in
Northumberland\ so that the larger part of England had fallen
into Danish hands. The names of towns ending in by, as Whitby,
are of Danish origin. Alfred compiled a body of laws called
dooms, founded monasteries, and fostered learning. He himself
translated many books from the Latin. His bravery in conflict
with the Danes enabled him to spend his last years in quiet.
Athelstan, the grandson of Alfred (925-940), was victorious over
the Danes, and over the Scotch and Welsh of the North. Under248

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Edgar (959-975), the power of England was at its height. He
kept up a strong fleet; but, in the time of Althelred II, (the
Unready), the Danish invasions were renewed. He and his bad
advisers adopted the practice of buying off the invaders at a large
price. In 994 Swegen invaded the country. He had been bap-
tized, but had gone back to heathenism. In 1013 England was
completely conquered • by him. Aithelred fled to Duke Richard
the Good of Normandy.

Canute. — The son of -^Ethelred, Edmund\ surnamed Ironside,
after the death of Swegen, kept up the war with his son Cnut, or
Canute. After fighting six pitched battles with him, Edmund con-
sented to divide the kingdom with him; but in the same year
(1016) the English king died. Canute (1017-1035) now became
king of all England. He had professed Christianity, and unexpect-
edly proved himself, after his accession, to be a good ruler. One
of the legends about him is, that he once had a seat placed for him-
self by the seashore, and ordered the rising tide not to dare to wet
his feet. Not being obeyed by the dashing waves, he said, " Let
all men know how empty and worthless is the power of kings, for
there is none worthy of the name but He whom heaven, earth, and
sea obey by eternal laws." After that he never wore his crown,
but left it on the image of Jesus on the cross. Canute inherited
the crown of Denmark, and won Norway and part of Sweden; so
that he was the most powerful prince of his time. His sons, how-
ever, did not rule well; and in 1042 the English chose for king one
of their own people, Edward, called the Confessor, the son of
ALthelred. In .the time of Canute, the power of the Danes, and
of the Northmen generally, was at its height. Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, and England were ruled by them; and Scandinavian
princes by descent governed in Normandy and in Russia. Al-
though a most vigorous race, the Northmen showed a wonderful
facility in adopting the language and manners of the people among
whom they settled. The effect of their migrations was to diminish
the strength and importance of their native countries which they
had left.

Other Settlements of Northmen. — The Northmen made many
other voyages which have not yet been mentioned. As early as
852 there was a Scandinavian king in Dublin. They early con-
quered the Shetland Isles, the Orkneysy and the Hebrides. On the
northern coast of Scotland, they founded the kingdom of Caith-
ness% which they held to the end of the twelfth century. Iceland
was discovered by the Northmen, and was settled by them in 874.
About the same time Greenland was discovered, and towards the
end of the tenth century a colony was planted there. This led
to the discovery of the mainland of America, and to the occu-
pation, for a time, of Finland, which is supposed to have beenTHE NORTHMEN.

249

the coast of New England. In Russia, where the Northmen
were called Varangians, Rurik, one of their leaders, occupied
Novgorod in 862, and founded a line of sovereigns, which con-
tinued until 1598.

Incursions of Saracens. — The Saracens were marauders in
Italy, as the Northmen were in France. From Cairoan (in Tunis),
as we have seen, they sent out their piratical fleets, which ravaged
Malta, Sicily, and other islands of the Mediterranean. These
corsairs, checked for the moment by the fleets of Charlemagne,
afterwards began anew their conquests. From Sicily, of which
they made themselves masters in 831, they passed over to the
Italian mainland. Among their deeds are included the burning of
Ostia, Civita Vecchia, and the wealthy abbey of Monte Cassino.
They landed on the shores of Provence, established a military
colony there, pillaged Aries and Marseilles, and continued their
depredations in Southern France and Switzerland.

Incursions of Hungarians.—The Magyars, called by the Greeks
Hungarians, a warlike people of the Turanian group of nations,
crossed the Carpathian Mountains about 889. They overran the
whole of Hungary and Transylvania. In 900, in the course of
their predatory invasions, they penetrated into Bavaria, and the
king of Germany paid them tribute. They carried their incur-
sions into Lombardy and the valley of the Danube. They even
crossed the Rhine, and devastated Alsace, Lorraine, and Burgundy.
Such terror did they excite that their name remained in France
a synonym of detestable ferocity.

Character of the Later Invasions.—The incursions in the ninth
century differed from the great Germanic invasions which had
subverted the Roman Empire. The Northmen and the Saracens
moved in small bands, whose main object was plunder, and not
either permanent conquest, or, as was the aim of the Arabians,
the spread of a religion by the sword. The Hungarians alone
established themselves in the valley of the Theiss and the Danube,
after the manner of the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Goths ;
and there they remained. The great effect of the last invasion was
to accelerate the breaking up of political unity, and the introduc-
tion of feudal organization, or the preponderance of local rule as
opposed to centralized power.

THE NORTHMEN IN ENGLAND AND ITALY.

Later than the events narrated above, there were two great
achievements of the Northmen, which it is most convenient to
describe here, although they occurred in the eleventh century.
They are the conquest of England, and the founding of the king-
dom of Naples and Sicily.250

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

I. THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.

The Norman Invasion. — The duchy of Normandy had become
very strong and prosperous, and, under the French-speaking North-
men, or Normans, had grown to be one of the principal states in
Western Europe. Edward\ king of England, surnamed the Con-
fessor, or Saint (1042-1066) had been brought up in Normandy,
and favored his own Norman friends by lavish gifts of honors and
offices. The party opposed to the foreigners was led by Godwin,
earl of the West Saxons. After being once banished, he returned
in arms; and Norman knights and priests were glad to escape
from the country. Edward's wife was Edith, daughter of Godwin.
They had no children; and on his death-bed he recommended
that Earl Harold\ the son of Godwin, should be his successor.
The Normans claimed that he had promised that their duke,
, William, should reign after him. It was said that Harold himself,
on a visit to William, had, either willingly or unwillingly, sworn to
give him his support. Edward\ who was devout in his ways,
though a negligent ruler, was buried in the monastery called West-
minster, which he had built, and which was the precursor of the
magnificent church bearing the same name that was built after-
wards by King Henry IIL Harold was now crowned. Duke
William, full of wrath, appealed to the sword; and, under the
influence of the archdeacon Hildebrand\ Pope Alexander //. took
his side, and sanctioned his enterprise of conquest. At the same
time the north of England was invaded by the king of the Nor-
wegians, a man of gigantic stature, named Hardrada. The Nor-
man invaders landed without resistance on the shore of Sussex,
on the 28th of September, 1066, and occupied Hastings. Harold
encamped on the heights of Senlac. On the 14th of October
the great battle took place in which the Normans were completely
victorious. The English stood on a hill in a compact mass, with
their shields in front and a palisade before them. They repulsed
the Norman charges. But the Normans pretended to retreat.
This moved the Saxons to break their array in order to pursue.
The Normans then turned back, and rushed through the palisade
in a fierce onset. An arrow pierced the eye of Harold\ and he
was cut to pieces by four French knights. The Norman duke,
IVilliam the Conqueror, was crowned king on Christmas Day; but
it was four years before he overcame all resistance, and got full
control over the country. The largest estates and principal offices
in England he allotted to Normans and other foreigners. The
crown of William was handed down to his descendants, and
gradually the conquerors and the conquered became mingled to-
gether as one people.THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

251

EFFECT OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

Character of the Saxons. — The Saxons at the time of the
Conquest were a strong and hardy race, hospitable, and fond of
good cheer, which was apt to run into gluttony and revels. Their
dwellings were poor, compared with those of the better class of
Normans. They were enthusiastic in out-door sports, such as
wrestling and hunting. They fought on foot, armed with the
shield and axe. The common soldier, however, often had no bet-
ter weapon than a fork or a sharpened stick. The ordeals in
vogue, as a test of guilt and innocence when one was accused of a
crime, were, plunging the arm into boiling water, or holding a hot
iron in the hand for three paces. London was fast growing to be
the chief town, and eclipsing Winchester, the old Saxon capital.
A king likeA/fred, and scholars like Bede and Alcuin, not to speak
of old chronicles and ballads, show that literature was valued; but
the Danish invasions in Northumberland\ where schools and letters
had flourished, did much to blight the beginnings of literary progress.

The Norman Spirit and Influence. — The tapestry at Bayeux
represents in a series of pictures the course of the Norman con-
quest. There we see the costume of the combatants. The Nor-
man gentlemen were mounted, and fought with lance and sword.
Of their bravery and military skill, their success affords abundant
proof. Although the Normans were victors and masters in Eng-
land, not only was the conquest gradual, but the result of it was
the amalgamation of the one people with the other. The very
title of conqueror, attached to William, was a legal term (conquces-
tor), and meant purchaser or acquirer. There was an observance
of legal forms in the establishment and administration of his gov-
ernment. The folkland\ or the public land, was appropriated by
him, and became crown-land. So all the land of the English was
considered to be forfeited, and estates were given out liberally to
Norman gentlemen. The nobility became mainly Norman, and
the same was true of the ecclesiastics and other great officers. All
the land was held as a grant from the king. In 1085 the making
of Domesday was decreed, which was a complete statistical survey
of all the estates and property in England. The object was to
furnish a basis for taxation. The Domesday Book is one of the
most curious and valuable monuments of English history. Among
the changes in law mad6 by William was the introduction of the
Norman wager of battle, or the duel, by the side of the Saxon
methods of ordeal described above. In most of the changes,
there was not so much an uprooting as a great transformation of
former rules and customs.

England and the Continent. — One of the most important re-
sults of the Norman Conquest was the bringing of England into252

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

much more intimate relations with the continent. The horizon of
English thought and life was widened. One incidental conse-
quence was the closer connection of the English Church with the
Papacy. Foreign ecclesiastics, some of them men of eminence
and of learning, were brought in. It was this connection with the
continent that led England to take so important a part in the Cru-
sades.

The Norman Government. — As regards feudalism, one vital
feature of it — the holding of land by a military tenure, or on
condition of military service — was reduced to a system by the
conquest. But William took care not to be overshadowed or
endangered by his great vassals. He levied taxes on all, and
maintained the place of lord of all his subjects. He was king of
the English, and sovereign lord of the Norman nobles. He sum-
moned to the Witan, or Great Assembly, those whom he chose to
call. This summons, and the right to receive it, became the foun-
dation of the Peerage. Out of the old Saxon IVitan, there grew in
this way the House of Lords. The lower orders, when summoned at
all, were summoned in a mass; afterwards we shall find that they
were called by representatives; and, in the end, when the priv-
ilege of appearing in this way was converted into a right, the House
of Commons came into being. In like manner, the King's Court
gradually came to be, in the room of the Assembly itself, a judicial
and governing Committee of the Assembly. From this body of
the king's immediate counselors emerged in time the Privy Coun-
cil and the Courts of Law. Out of the Privy Council grew, in
modern times, the Cabinet\ composed of what are really " those
privy councilors who are specially summoned." Committees of the
National Assembly, in the course of English history, acquired
" separate being and separate powers, as the legislative, judicial,
and executive branches of the government." Thus the English
Constitution is the product of a steady growth.

Mingling of Blood and Languages. — A multitude of Normans
emigrated into England, especially to London. The Normans be-
came Englishmen, as a natural consequence. But they affected
the spirit and manners of the people by whom they were absorbed.
By opening avenues for French influence, chivalry, with its pecu-
liar ideas and ways, was brought into England. But it must never
be forgotten that the Normans were kinsfolk of the Saxons. Both
conquerors and conquered were Teutons. The conquest was very
different, in this particular, from what the conquest of Germany by
France, or of France by Germany, would be. The French lan-
guage which the Normans spoke had been acquired by them in
their adopted home across the channel. To this source the Latin
element, or words of Latin etymology, in our English tongue is
mainly due. The loss of the old Saxon inflections is anotherTHE NORMANS.

253

marked change ; but this is not due, to so large an extent, solely to
the influence of Norman speech. But the English language con-
tinued to be essentially Teutonic in its structure. For a long
time the two tongues lived side by side. At the end of the twelfth
century, if French was the language of polite intercourse, English
was the language of common conversation and of popular writings.
Learned men spoke, or could speak, and they wrote, in Latin.

Norman Buildings. — The Normans built the cathedrals and
castles. Down to the eleventh century, the Romanesque, or "round-
arched " architecture, derived from Italy, had been the one preva-
lent style in Western Europe. In the modification of it, called the
Norman style, we find the round arch associated with massive
piers and narrow windows. Durham cathedral is an example of
the Norman Romanesque type of building. The Norman con-
querors covered England with castles, of which the White Tower
of London, built by William, is a noted specimen. Sometimes
they were square, and sometimes polygonal; but, except in the
palaces of the kings, they afforded little room for artistic beauty
of form or decoration. They were erected as fortresses, and were
regarded by the people with execration as strongholds of oppres-
sion.

II. THE NORMANS IN ITALY AND SICILY.

The Norman Kingdom of Naples arid Sicily. — Early in the
eleventh century, knights from Normandy wandered into Southern
Italy, and gave their aid to different states in battle against the
Greeks and Saracens. In 1027 the ruler of Naples gave them a
fertile district, where they built the city of Aversa. By the reports
of their victories and good fortune, troops of pilgrims and warriors
were attracted to join them. The valiant sons of the old count,
Tancred of Hauteville, were among the number. They supported
the Greek viceroy in an attack on the Arabs in Sicily; but, on
his failing duly to reward them, they turned against him, and con-
quered Apulia for themselves. Under Robert Guiscard (1056-
1085), they made themselves masters of all Southern Italy. They
defeated the army of Pope Leo IX. at Civitella, and received from
him as fiefs their present and anticipated conquests in Apulia, Cala-
bria, and Sicily. Twelve years after, Robert\ with the help of his
brother Roger, wrested Sicily, with its capital, Palermo, from the
Saracens, who were divided among themselves (1072). The sea-
ports of Otranto and Bari were also taken by Robert. He even
entered on the grand scheme of conquering the Byzantine Empire,
but his death frustrated this endeavor. His nephew Roger IL
(1130-1154) took the remaining possessions of the Greeks in
Southern Italy and Sicily, united them in the kingdom of Naples
and Sicily, and received from the Pope the title of king. In this254

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

kingdom the feudal system was established, and trade and in-
dustry flourished. In culture and prosperity it surpassed all the
other Italian communities. At Salerno was a famous school of
medicine and natural science ; at Amalfi and Naples were schools
of law. But the Norman nobility was corrupted and enervated by
the luxury of the South, and by the influence of Mohammedan
customs, and modes of thought. During fifty-six years Roger and
his two successors, William the Bad (1154-1166) and William
the Good (1166-1189), ruled this flourishing kingdom, which then
fell by inheritance to the Hohenstaufen German princes. On the
mainland and in Sicily, numerous stately buildings and ruined
castles and towers point back to the romantic period of Norman
rule.

Norman Traits.— It is a remarkable fact, that the Normans,
although so distinguished as rovers and conquerors, have vanished
from the face of the earth. They were lost in the kingdoms which
they founded. They adopted the languages of the nations which
they subdued. But while in England they were merged in the
English, and modified the national character, this effect was not
produced in Italy and Sicily. In Sicily they found Greek-speak-
ing Christians and Arabic-speaking Mussulmans; and Italians came
into the island in the track of the conquerors. The Normans
did not find there a nation as in England; and they created not a
nation, but a kingdom of a composite sort, beneficent while it lasted,
but leaving no permanent traces behind. " The Normans in Sicily,"
says Mr. Freeman, " so far as they did not die out, were merged,
not in a Sicilian nation, for that did not exist, but in the common
mass of settlers of Latin speech and rite, as distinguished from the
older inhabitants, Greek and Saracen." Independent, enterpris-
ing, impatient of restraint, gifted with a rare imitative power which
imparted a peculiar tinge and a peculiar grace to whatever they
adopted from others, they lacked originality, and the power to
maintain their own distinctive type of character and of speech.

Mr. Freeman has eloquently described the spread of the Normans, "the
Saracens of Christendom," in all corners of the world. They fought in
the East against the Turks. " North, south, east, the Norman lances were
lifted." The Norman "ransacked Europe for scholars, poets, theologians,
and artists. At Rouen, at Palermo, and at Winchester he welcomed merit
in men of every race and every language." " And yet that race, as a# race,
has vanished."' "The Scottish Bruce or the Irish Geraldine passed*from
Scandinavia to Gaul, from Gaul to England, from England to his own por-
tion of our islands; but at each migration, he ceased to be Scandinavian,
French, or English; his patriotism was in each case transferred to his new
country, and his historic being belongs to his last acquired home." Norman
blood was in the veins of the Crusaders who first stood on the battlements
of Jerusalem, and of the great German emperor, Frederic IIFEUDALISM,

255

THE NORMANS,

Tancred of Hautbvillb.

Sicily.

Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia,
d. 1085.

lloger, the Great Count, d. 1101,

»|ei

Roger (of Apulia, 1127; king, 1130), 1101-1154.

William I the Bad, 1154-1166,	Constance (d. 1108), m. Emperor

fH. Margaret, daughter of Garcia IV of Navarre.	Henry VI.

William II the Good, 1166-1189,
tn. Joanna, daughter of Henry II of England.

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

Origin of Feudalism. — When the Franks conquered Gaul, they
divided the land among themselves. This estate each free Ger-
man held as allodial property, or as a free-hold. The king took
the largest share. His palaces were dwellings connected with
large farms or hunting-grounds, and he went with his courtiers
from one to another. To his personal followers and officers he
allotted lands. These benefices, it seems, were granted at first with
the understanding that he might resume them at will. As holders
of them, the recipients owed to him personal support. Other
chiefs, and land-owners of a minor grade, took the same course.
This was the germ of feudalism. More and more it grew to be
the characteristic method of living and of government in Western
Europe after the fall of Charlemagne's empire. The inheritors
of his dominion were not the kings of France, of Germany, or
of Italy, but the numerous feudal lords. Against the invasions of
the Norman, Saracen, and Hungarian plunderers, the kings and
the counts proved themselves incapable of defending territory or
people. Meantime, the principle of heredity—the principle that
benefices should go down from father to son, or to the next heir
— had gained a firm footing. Another fact was that the royal
offices became hereditary, and were transmitted to the heirs of
allodial property. Thus the exercise of government and the pos-
session of land were linked together. In times of danger, small
proprietors more and more put themselves under the protection
of the richer and stronger: that is, allodial property became
feudal\ This custom had begun long before, in the decadence
of the Roman empire, when not only poor freemen, but also men
of moderate means, ruined by taxation, put themselves under the
protection of the great, and settled on their lands. They became2 $6

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

thus colone's (colont). In the later times of disorder of which we
are now speaking, farmhouses in the country gave place to forti-
fied castles on hill-tops or other defensible sites, about which clus-
tered in villages the dependents of the lord, who tilled his land,
fought for him, and, in turn, were protected by him.

The Substance of Feudalism. — "Feudality recognizes two
principles, the land and the sword, riches and force, — two prin-
ciples on which every thing depends, to which every thing is re-
lated, and which are united and identified with one another; since
it is necessary to possess land in order to have the right to use the
sword in one's own name (that is to say, to have the right of
private war), and since the possession of land imposes the duty
of drawing the sword for the suzerain, and in the name of the
suzerain of whom the land is held." Feudalism is a social system
in which there is a kind of hierarchy of lands in the hands of
warriors, who hold of one another in a gradation. There is a
chain reaching up from the tower of the simple gentleman to the
royal donjon, or keep. In this social organization, there are the
two grand classes of the suzerains and the serfs ; but the suzerain,
with the partial exception of the highest, is also a vassal.

Suzerain and Vassal. — The suzerain and the vassal\ or liege,
were bound together by reciprocal obligations. The vassal owed
(i) military service on the demand of the lord ; (2) such aid as
the suzerain called for in the administration of justice within his
jurisdiction; (3) other aids, such as, when he was a prisoner, to
pay the ransom for his release; and pecuniary contributions
when he armed his eldest son, and when he married his eldest
daughter. These were legal or required aids. They took the
place of taxation in modern states. There were other things that
the vassal was expected to do which were gracious or voluntary.
If the liege died without heirs, or forfeited the fief by a violation
of the conditions on which it was held, it reverted to the lord.
The liege was invested with the fief. He knelt before the suzerain,
put his hands within the hands of the suzerain, and took an oath
to be his man. This was homage, — from homo in the Latin, and
homme in French, signifying man. The suzerain might at any
time require its renewal. Under the feudal system, every thing
was turned into a fief. The right to hunt in a forest, or to fish
in a river, or to have an escort on the roads, might be granted
as a fief, on the condition of loyalty, and of the homage just de-
scribed.

Private War. — The vassal had the right to be tried by his
peers; that is, by vassals on the same level as himself. He
might, if treated with injustice, go to the superior: he might
appeal to the suzerain of his immediate lord. But suzerains pre-
ferred to take justice into their own hands. Hence the customFEUDALISM.

257

of private 7uar prevailed, and of judicial combats, or duels, so
common in the middle ages.

Entanglements of Feudalism. — Many suzerains were mutually
vassals, each holding certain lands of the other. The same baron
often held lands of different suzerains, who might be at war with
each other, so that each required his service. The sovereign
prince might be bound to do homage to a petty feudal lord on
account of lands which the prince had inherited or otherwise
acquired. The power of the suzerain depended on a variety of
circumstances. The king might be weak, since feudalism grew
out of the overthrow of royal power. The king of France, with the
exception of titular prerogatives and some rights with regard to
churches, which were often disputed, had no means of attack or
defense beyond what the duchy of France furnished him. Yet
logically and by a natural tendency, the king was the supreme
suzerain. " Feudalism carried hid in its bosom the arms by which
it was one day to be struck down."

Ecclesiastical Feudalism. — The clergy were included in the
feudal system. The bishop was often made the count\ and, as
such, was the suzerain of all the nobles in his diocese. Cities
were often under the suzerainty of bishops. Besides their tithes,
the clergy had immense landed possessions. The abbots and
bishops often availed themselves of the protection of powerful
vassals, of whom they were the suzerains. On the other hand,
bishops, who were also themselves dukes or counts, sometimes did
homage for their temporalities to lay suzerains, especially to the
king. In France and in England\ in the middle ages, the feudal
clergy possessed a fifth of all the land ; in Germany, a third. The
church, through bequests of the dying and donations from the living,
constantly increased its possessions. It might be despoiled, but it
could defend itself by the terrible weapon of excommunication.

Serfs and Villains. — In the eleventh century Europe was thus
covered with a multitude of petty sovereigns. Below the body of
rulers, or the holders of fiefs, was the mass of the people. These
were the serfs, — the tillers of the ground, the artisans, or the
servants, who differed from slaves only in being attached to the
soil: they could not be bought or sold. . The villains were a
grade above the serfs. The term (from villa) originally meant
villagers. They paid rent for the land which the proprietor
allowed them to till; but they were subject, like the serfs, to the
will of the suzerain; and the constant tendency was for them to
sink into the inferior condition. Slavery, as distinguished from
serfdom, gradually passed away under the emancipating spirit
fostered by Christianity and the Church.

The Inheritance of Fiefs.—At first the Salic principle, which
excluded females from inheriting fiefs, prevailed. But that gave2$S

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

way, and daughters were preferred in law to collateral male rela-
tives. When a female inherited, the fief was occupied by the
suzerain up to the time of her marriage. It never ceased to be
under the protection of the sword. In France, the right of pri-
mogeniture was established, but with important qualifications,
which varied in different portions of the country. The eldest,
however, always had the largest portion. In Germany, the ten-
dency to the division of fiefs was more prevalent. Among the
Normans in England, and under their influence in Palestine, the
law of inheritance by the eldest was established in its full rigor.

Spirit of Feudalism. — Feudalism had more vitality than the
system of absorbing all the land by a few great proprietors, which
existed in the period of the decline of the Roman Empire. Indi-
viduality, courage, the proud sense of belonging to an aristocratic
order, were widely diffused among the numerous feudal land-
owners. The feeling of loyalty among them was a great advance
upon the blind subjection of the slave to his master. But the
weight of feudalism was heavy on the lower strata of society. The
lord was an autocrat, whose will there was neither the power nor
the right to resist, and who could lay hold of as much of the
labor and the earnings of the subject as he might choose to exact.
The petty suzerain, because his needs were greater, was often more
oppressive than the prince. The serf could not change his abode,
he could not marry, he could not bequeath his goods, without the
permission of his lord.THE SAXON, FRANCONIAN, AND HOHENSTAUFEN IMPERIAL HOUSES.

ON
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tx
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Henry I,1 918-936.
f__

Conrad I,1 911-918. .
C. Werner (?) m. daughter.

Otto I, 936-973, Emperor, 962,

m. 1, Eadgyth, d. of Edward the Elder; 2, Adelheid,2 d. of Rudolph II, King of Burgundy.

1

n

Henry the Wrangler, Duke of
Bavaria.

Henry the^ Wrangler.

Conrad the Red, (killed at the Lechfeld, 955), m. Liutgarde.	Otto II, 973-983,

I	m. Theophania, daughter of Romanus II, Eastern Emperor. (St.) Henry II, 1002-1024,

Otto.	| m. Cunigunda of

I	Otto III, 983-1002. Luxemburg.

Henry.

I

Conrad II, the Salic, 1024-1039, m. Gisela, d. of Hermann II, Duke of Swabia.

Henry III, 1039-1056, m. 1, Gunhilda, daughter of Cnut; 2, Agnes, daughter of William, Count of Poitiers.

1-,-1

Henry IV, 1056-1106, m. x, Bertha, daughter of Otto, Marquis of Susa; 2, Adelaide, a Russian princess.

Henry V, 1106-1125,	Agnes,

n. Matilda, d. of Henry I of England. in. x, Frederick of Hohenstaufen, Duke of Swabia, X0I0-1105; 2, m. Leopold III, Marquis of Austria, d. 1136.

Frederick the One-eyed, Duke of Swabia, d. 1147, m. x, Judith, daughter of Henry the Black.
Beatrix, daughter of Rainald III, Count of Burgundy, m. Frederick I, Barbarossa, X152-1190.

Conrad III,3 1137-1152.

Constance of Sicily, d. 1198, m. Henry VI, 1190-1197.

Frederick II, 1214-1250,

nt. 1, Constance, d. of Alfonso II of Aragon; 2, Iolande de Brienne; 3, Isabella, d. of John of England.

Philip, 1198-1208,

m. Irene, d. of Isaac II, Angelus, Eastern Emperor.

Ln

Beatrix, m. Otto IV,* 1208-1214, d. 1218.

Conrad IV, 1250-1254, m. Elizabeth, daughter of Otto II of Bavaria.
Conradin, d. 1268.

Manfred,s d. 1266.

1	Conrad I and Henry I seem to have been related. By one account their
mothers were the daughters of Emperor Arnulf.

2	Widow of Lothar, King of Italy.

3	Elected 1127 in opposition to Lothar; accepted as his successor.

[Abridged from George's Chronological Tables.]

* Elected in opposition to Philip; accepted as his successor, 1208; ruined
by battle of Bouvines.

s King of Naples and Sicily after Conrad IV; killed in battle of Benevento
against Charles of Anjou. Manfred's mother was Bianca Langia, daughter
of a Lombard noble.Period III.

FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ROMANO-GERMANIC
EMPIRE TO THE END OF THE CRUSADES.

(A.D. 962-1270.)

chapter I.

the church and the empire: predominance op
the empire:

TO THE CRUSADES, A.D. 1096.

I. KINGS AND EMPERORS OF THE SAXON HOUSE (918-IO24).

Henry the Fowler (918-936). — The envoys who carried to
Duke Henry of Saxony the announcement of his election as king of
Germany are said to have found him in the Hartz Mountains with
a falcon on his wrist: hence he was called Henry the Fowler. He
is a great figure in mediaeval history, and did much to make Ger-
many a nation. He won back Lorraine, which had broken off
from the kingdom. With it the Netherlands—Holland, Flanders,
etc. — came to Germany. He united all the five great duke-
doms, and governed with wisdom and moderation. At the end
of five years, the Hungarians poured in with irresistible force.
There was no alternative but to conclude with them a truce for
nine years, during which he was to pay tribute. He set to work
at once, however, to strengthen the defenses of his kingdom. He
built walled towns and fortresses in the eastern districts of Saxony
and Thuringia, and drafted one out of nine of the men from the
population in the marches for military service. The fortresses
were to be kept stored with provisions. The oldest towns of Saxony
and of Thuringia are of this date. Then he disciplined his soldiers,
and trained them to fight, like the Hungarians, on horseback. He
conquered the Slavonian IVends who dwelt east of the Elbe and the
Saale, and established the margraviate of Meissen to repel their
attacks. His victory over the Slaves at Lenzen (929) made the
north-eastern frontiers of Germany secure. Editha, the daughter
of Athelstan, king of England, was given in marriage to his eldest
son, Otto. Henry now felt himself strong enough to throw off the

260THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.	261

Hungarian yoke, and answered with defiance their demand for the
annual tribute. The struggle with them was hard; but they were
completely vanquished at Merseburg in 533, and their camp taken.
Henry founded the mark of Schleswig as a defense against the
Danes. This wise and vigorous monarch laid the foundations
of the German Empire. He was not only a mighty warrior: he
built up industry and trade. He was buried at Quedlinburg in
the abbey which he had founded.

Otto L: the Palsgraves. — Otto I. (936-973) carried forward
with equal energy the work which his father had begun. Having
been chosen king by the German princes and chiefs at Aix, he
was presented to the people in the church by the archbishop of
Mentz; and they gave their assent to the election by raising the
hand. Otto had a contest before him to maintain the unity of
the kingdom. He aimed to make the office of duke an office to be
allotted by the king, and thus to sap the power of his turbulent
lieges. The dukes of Bavaria and Franconia, with Lorraine, and
with the support of Louis IK, king of France, rose in arms against
him. He subdued them ; and the great duchies which had revolted
against him becoming vacant, he placed in them members of his
own family. He confirmed his authority by extending the power
of the palsgraves, or counts palatine, — royal officers who superin-
tended the domains of the king in the several duchies, and dis-
pensed justice in his name. He favored the great ecclesiastics as
a check to the aspiring lay lords. He invested the bishops and
abbots with ring and staff, and they took the oath of fealty to him.

Wars of Otto L — Against the Hungarians, Otto achieved a
triumph. He gained a victory over them at Augsburg in 955, in
which they were said to have lost a hundred thousand men. This
put an end to their incursions into Germany. He was likewise the
victor in conflict with Slavonians. He sudbued Doleslav /. of
Bohemia, who had thrown off the German suzerainty, and obliged
him to pay a tribute. Under the pious Boleslav II, Christianity
was established there, and a bishopric founded at Prague (967).
The Duke of Poland was forced to do homage to him, and to
permit the founding of the bishopric of Posen. Against the Danish
king, Harold the Blue-toothed, he carried his arms to the sea, the
northern boundary of Jutland. He erected three new bishoprics
among the Danes, and founded the archbishopric of Magdeburg,
with subordinate sees in the valleys of the Elbe and the Oder.
These achievements gave Otto great renown in Western Europe.
The kings sent ambassadors to him, and presents came from the
sovereigns at Constantinople and Cordova.

Otto I. in Italy. — Otto now turned his eyes to Italy. After
Arnulf, the Carlovingian emperor, left Italy (in 896), that country
had been left to sixty years of anarchy. The demoralization and dis-262

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

order of Italy, the profligacy of the Romans and of the pontiffs, —
every thing being then subject to the riotous aristocratic factions,
— rendered unity impossible. For a time (926-945) Hugh of Pro-
vence was called king: then followed his son Lothar (945-950).
The next Italian king, Berengar II of Ivrea (950), who, like his
two predecessors, was an offshoot of the Carlovingian house, tried
to force Adelheid\ the beautiful young widow of Lothar, into a
x marriage with his son Adalbert. She (being then nineteen years
of age) escaped with great difficulty from the prison where she
was confined, took refuge in the castle of Canossa, and appealed
to the great Otto, king of the Germans, for help, — to Otto, " that
model of knightly virtue which was beginning to show itself after
the fierce brutality of the last age." He descended into Italy,
married the injured queen, and obliged Berengar to own him as
suzerain (951). Berengar proved faithless and rebellious. Once
more Otto entered Italy with an overpowering force, and was pro-
claimed king'of the Lombards at Pavia. Pope John XIL had
proposed to him to assume the imperial office. He was crowned,
with his queen, in St. Peters, in 962. He had engaged to confirm
the gifts of previous emperors to the popes. When John XII.
reversed his steps, allied himself with Berengar, and tried to stir
up the Greeks, and even the Hungarians, against the emperor,
Otto came down from Lombardy, and captured Rome. He caused
John to be deposed by a synod for his crimes, and Leo VIII. to
be appointed in his place (963). But, while Otto was again ab-
sent, Leo was driven out by the Romans, and John returned ; but,
. soon after, he died. The Romans then elected Benedict pope.
Otto captured Rome once more, deposed him, and restored Leo.
Benedict was held in custody, and died in Hamburg. On a third
journey to Italy, in 966, Otto crushed the factions which had so
long degraded Rome and the Church. On this occasion, he ne-
gotiated a marriage between Theophania, a Greek princess, and
his son, also named Otto. Thus he acquired the southern extremity
of Italy."v

The Holy Roman Empire. — Otto had taken Charlemagne for
his model. The " Holy Roman Empire of the German nation,"
the great political institution of the middle ages, was now estab-
lished. In theory it was the nnion of the world-state and the world-
church, — an undivided community under Emperor and Pope,
its .heaven-appointed secular and spiritual heads. As an actual
political fact, it was the political union of Germany and Italy, in
one sovereignty, which was in the hands of the German king. The
junction of the two peoples was not without its advantages to
both. It was, however, fruitful of evils. The strength of Ger-
. many was spent in endless struggles abroad, which stood in the
way of the building up of a compact kingdom at home. ForTHE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.

263

Italy it was the rule of foreigners, of which she might feel the
need, but to which she was never reconciled.

Otto II.: Otto ni.: Henry II.— Otto II. (973-983) was highly
gifted intellectually, but lacked his father's energy and decision.
Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, revolted, but was put
down, and deprived of his duchy. Otto obliged Loihar, the West
Frankish king, to give up his claim to Lotharingia, which he
attempted to seize. Otto, in 980, went to Italy, and, in the effort
to conquer Southern Italy from the Greeks and Saracens, barely
escaped with his life. This was in 982. He never returned to
Germany. While Otto 111. (983-1002) was a child, his mother,
Theophania, was regent for a time in Germany, and his grand-
mother, Adelheid, in Italy. One of Otto's tutors was Gerbert, an
eminent scholar and theologian. The proficiency of the young
prince caused him to be styled the " Wonder of the World." He
was crowned emperor in Rome in 996, when he was only sixteen
years old. He dreamed of making Rome once more the center
of the world, for his interest was chiefly in Italy. But his schemes
were ended by his early death. As the year 1000 approached,
there was deep agitation everywhere in Europe, owing to the gen-
eral expectation that at that date the world would come to an end.
On this account pilgrims flocked to Rome. Henry II. (1002-1024),
as nearest of kin to the Saxon house, was the next emperor. Be-
sides waging war with his own insurgent lieges, he had to carry on
a contest for fourteen years with Boleslavf king of Poland, who
had to give up Bohemia and Meissen. He founded the bishopric
of Bamberg (1007). From this time the German kings, before
their coronation as emperors, took the title of King of the Romans.
The highest nobles were styled " Princes." The nobles lived in
the castles, which were built for strongholds, as the power of the
lords grew, and private wars became more common.

V II. THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS (1024-II25).

Conrad II.: Burgundy: the Poles. — At a great assembly of
dukes, counts, and prelates at Oppenheim on the Rhine, Conrad\ a
Franconian nobleman {ConradII.), was elected emperor (1024-
1039). He was in the prime of life, and went to work vigorously
to repress disorder in his kingdom. He had the support of the
cities, which were now increasing in importance. At his corona-
tion in Rome, in 1027, there were two kings present, Canute of
England and Denmark, and Rudolph III. of Burgundy (or Aries,
as the kingdom was called which had been formed by Rudolph II.,
by uniting Burgundy with a great part of Provence). After the
death of Rudolph, who had appointed Conrad his successor, the
emperor was crowned king of Aries, which remained thus attached
to Germany. But at a later time the Romance, or non-German264

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

portions, were absorbed by France. The Duchy of Burgundy, a
fief of the French king, was not included in the kingdom. The
Poles invaded Germany in great force. Miesko, their leader, was
repelled, and obliged to do homage for his crown, and to give up
Lusatia, which had been received by Boleslav from Henry II.
In Italy, Conrad issued an edict making the smaller fiefs there
hereditary. He seems to have designed to do away with dukes,
and to make the allegiance of all vassals to the king immediate.

Henry III.: the Truce of God. — With Henry III (1039—
1056) the imperial power reached its height. He was for a time
duke of Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia, as well as emperor.
In Hungary he conquered the enemies of Peter the king, and re-
stored him to the throne, receiving his homage as vassal of the
empire. He had great success in putting down private war. In
1043 he proclaimed a general peace in his kingdom. He favored
the attempt to bring in the Truce of God. This originated in
Aquitaine, where the bishops, in 1041, ordered that no private
feuds should be prosecuted between the sunset of Wednesday and
the sunrise of Monday, the period covered by the most sacred
events in the life of Jesus. This "truce," which was afterwards
extended to embrace certain other holy seasons and festivals,
spread from land to land. It shows the influence of Christianity
in those dark and troublous times. Although it was imperfectly
carried out, it was most beneficent in its influence, and specially
welcome to the classes not capable of defending themselves against
violence.

Synod of Sutri.— In 1046 Henry was called into Italy by the
well-disposed of all parties, to put an end to the reign of vice and
disorder at Rome. He caused the three rival popes to be deposed
by a synod at Sutri, and a German prelate, Suidger, bishop of
Bamberg, to be appointed under the name of Clement II., by
whom he was crowned emperor. After Clement died, Henry
raised to the Papacy three German popes in succession. While in
the full exercise of his great authority, and when he was not quite
forty years of age, he died.

Henry IV.: His Contests in Germany. — Henry IV. (1056-
1106), at his father's death, was but six years old. He had been
crowned king at the age of four. Agnes of Poitou, his mother,
the regent, had no ability to curb the princes, who were now re-
leased from restraint, and eager for independence. By a bold
stratagem, an ambitious prelate, Hanno, archbishop of Cologne,
carried off the young king, and assumed the guardianship over
him. He had a rival in the person of Adalbert\ archbishop of
Bremen, whom Henry liked best, as being more indulgent and
complaisant; and who at length became his chosen guide. But
in 1066 the princes caused Adalbert to be banished fromTHE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.

265

court. They obliged Henry to marry Bertha, the daughter of
the margrave of Turin, to whom he had been betrothed by his
father. The union was repugnant to him, and he sought a divorce ;
although her patience eventually won the victory, and she became
a cherished wife. Henry, arrived at man's estate, was involved
in a contest with three of the great dukes. It was evident that he
meant to tread in the footsteps of his father, and to reduce the
princes to submission. Hostility arose, especially between the
young king and the Saxons, who did not relish the transfer of
the imperial office to the Franconian line. The passionate and
wilful disposition of Henry, and his sensual propensities, were his
worst enemies. The strongholds which he erected among the
SaxonSy in themselves a menace, were made haunts of his boon
companions and comrades in the chase. The extortion and dep-
redations to which the Saxons were a prey provoked a great insur-
rection, which at first prevailed; but the excesses of the elated
insurgents — as seen, for example, in the plundering and burning of
churches — caused a reaction. Henry suppressed the revolt, and
dealt with the Saxons with the utmost harshness, treating their
dukedom as conquered territory. The Saxon chiefs were now in
durance : his enemies on every side had willingly yielded, or were
prostrate. The hour seemed to have come for Henry to exer-
cise that sovereignty as Roman emperor over Church and State
which his father had wielded; but he found himself confronted by
a new and powerful antagonist in the celebrated Pope Gregory VII.
(1073-1085).

Hildebrand: Investitures. — The state of affairs in the Roman
Church had called into existence a party of reform, the life and
soul of which was Hildebrand. He was the son of a carpenter of
Soanoy a small town in Tuscany, and was born in 1018. He was
educated in a monastery in Rome, and spent some time in France,
in the great monastery of Cluny. He became the influential adviser
of the popes who immediately preceded him. The great aim of
Hildebrand and of his supporters — one of the most prominent
of whom was the zealous Peter Damianiy bishop of Ostia — was to
abolish simony and the marriage of priests. By simony was meant
the purchase and sale of benefices, which had come to prevail in
the different countries. The old church laws requiring celibacy had
been disregarded, and great numbers of the inferior clergy were
living with their wives. In Hildebrand's view, there could be no
purity and no just discipline in the Church without a strict enforce-
ment of the neglected rule. The priests must put away their
wives. Connected with these reforms was the broader design of
wholly emancipating the Church from the control of the secular
power, and of subordinating the State to the Church. • For this
end there must be an abolition of investiture by lay hands. This266

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

demand it was that kindled a prolonged and terrible controversy
between the emperors and the popes. The great ecclesiastics
had temporal estates and a temporal jurisdiction, which placed
them in a feudal relation, and made them powerful subjects. It
was the custom of the kings to invest them with these temporalities
by giving to them the ring and the staff. This enabled the kings
to keep out of the benefices persons not acceptable to them, who
might be elected by the clergy. On the other hand, it was com-
plained that this custom put the bishops and other high eccle-
siastics into a relation of dependence on the lay authority; and,
moreover, that, the ring and staff being badges of a spiritual func-
tion, it was sacrilegious for a layman to bestow them.

Contest of Hildebrand and Henry IV. — In the period of law-
lessness at Rome, Hildebrand had welcomed the intervention of
Henry ///., and even of Henry JV,y at the beginning of his reign.
But this he regarded as only a provisional remedy , made necessary
by a desperate disorder. On acceding to the Papacy, he began
to put in force his leading ideas. The attempt to abolish the
marriage of priests was resisted, and stirred up great commotion
in all the countries. The legates of the Pope set themselves to
stem the tide of opposition by inveighing, in addresses to the com-
mon people, against the married clergy, as unfit to minister at the
altar. By this means, a popular party in favor of the reform was
created. In 1075, in a synod at Rome, Hildebrand pronounced
the ban against five councilors of Henry IV. for simony. At the
same time he threatened Philip of France with a similar penalty.
He forbade princes to invest with any spiritual office. To oaths
of allegiance he did not object, but to any investiture of a spiritual
kind. Gregory selected Henry JK as the antagonist with whom
to fight out the battle. Henry was one of the worst offenders in
the matter of simony. He had sold, for example, the archbishopric
of Milan: the incumbent thus installed, Gregory deposed. More-
over, the rank of the emperor would make a victory over him a
signal triumph of the cause. Another important fact was the
disaffection of the German princes, and, most of all, of the Saxons.
The fire of rebellion in Saxony had not been quenched: it was
still smouldering. Gregory summoned Henry to Rome to answer
to the charges made against him. In three German synods held
in 1076, the incensed emperor caused empty accusations to be
brought against the Pope, and a declaration to be passed depos-
ing him. He sent to the pontiff a letter filled with denunciation,
and addressed " to the false monk, Hildebrand." Gregory issued
decrees excommunicating Heniy, deposing him, and declaring his
subjects free from their obligation of allegiance. It was the re-
ceived doctrine, that a heretic or a heathen could not reign over
Christian people. The discontented German princes took sidesTHE CIIURCII AND THE EMriRE.

267

with Gregory. In an assembly at Tribur in 1076, they invited the
Pope to come to Augsburg, and to judge in the case of Henry : he
was to live as a private man; and, if he remained excommunicate
for a year, he was to cease to be king altogether.

Humiliation of Henry IV. — Henry was now as anxious for rec-
onciliation with the Pope as before he had been bold in his de-
fiance. In the midst of winter, with his wife and child and a few
attendants, he crossed the Mt. Cenis pass, undergoing extreme
difficulty and hardship, and presented himself as a penitent before
Gregory, who had arrived, on his way to Augsburg, at the strongly
fortified castle of Canossa. The Pope kept him waiting long, it is
said, barefoot and bareheaded in the court-yard of the castle.
Finally he was admitted and absolved, but only on the condition
that Gregory was to adjust the matters in dispute between the
emperor and his subjects.

Continued Conflict. — When Henry found that his imperial
rights were still withheld, his fiery spirit rebounded from this
depth of humiliation. The Lombards, with whom Gregory was
unpopular, joined him. A majority of the German princes, adher-
ing to the Pope, in 1077 elected Rudolph, duke of Swabia, emperor.
The Pope took up his cause, and in 1080 once more excommuni-
cated and deposed Henry. The emperor proclaimed anew,
through synods, the Pope's deposition, and things were back in
the former state. The emperor's party appointed a counter-pope,
Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna, under the name of Clement 111.
Rudolph was killed in battle (1080). Henry*s power now vastly
increased. He invaded Italy (1081), and laid waste the territory
of Matilda, countess of Tuscany, a fast friend of Gregory. In
1084 he captured Rome. The Pope had found a defender in
Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke of Lower Italy, whom he had
excommunicated, but whom (in 1080) he forgave, and took into his
service. Robert released Gregory, who had been besieged in the
Castle of St. Angelo. Hildebrand died at Salerno, May 25, 1085.
When near his end he uttered the words which are inscribed on
his tomb : " I have loved righteousness, and hated iniquity; there-
fore do I die in exile." Of the rectitude of his intentions, there
is no room for doubt, whatever view is taken of the expediency
of his measures. He united with an unbending will the power of
accommodating himself to circumstances, as is witnessed in his
treatment of Robert Guiscard\ and in his forbearance towards
William the Conqueror, king of England, with whom he did not
wish to break.

0£ this great pontiff, Sir James Stephen says: "He found the Papacy
dependent on the empire: he sustained it by alliances almost commensu-.
rate with the Italian peninsula. He found the Papacy electoral by the
Roman people and clergy: he left it electoral by a college of papal nomina-268

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

tion. He found the emperor the virtual patron of the* holy see: he wrested
that power from his hands. He found the secular clergy the allies and depen-
dants of the secular power: he converted them into the inalienable auxiliaries
of his own. He found the higher ecclesiastics in servitude to the temporal
sovereigns: he delivered them from that yoke to subjugate them to the
Roman tiara. He found the patronage of the Church the mere desecrated
spoil and merchandise of princes: he reduced it within the dominion of the
supreme pontiff. He is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and pro-
fane abuses of his age: he is more justly entitled to the praise of having left
the impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages which
have succeeded him."

Last Days of Henry IV. — In 1085 Henry IV. returned to Ger-
many, having been crowned emperor by his Pope, Clement III.
The Saxons were tired of strife; and, on the assurance that their
ancient privileges should be restored, they were pacified. Her-
mann of Luxemburg, whom they had recognized as their king, had
resigned the crown (1087). The last days of Henry were clouded
by the rebellion of his sons, first of Conrad (1091), and then of
Henry (1104), who was supported by the Pope, Paschal II. The
emperor was taken prisoner, and obliged to sign his own abdica-
tion at Ingelheim in 1105. The duke of Lotharingia and others
came to his support, and a civil war was threatened; but Henry
died at Luttich in 1106. His body was placed in a stone coffin,
where it lay in an unconsecrated chapel, at Spires, until the re-
moval of the excommunication (1111).

Concordat of Worms. — Henry V\ (1106-1125) was not
least disposed to yield up the right of investiture. Hence he was
soon engaged in a controversy with Paschal II Henry went to
Rome with an army in 1110, and obliged the Pope to crown him
emperor, and to concede to him the right in question. When he
went back to Germany, the Pope revoked the concession, and
excommunicated him. The German princes, as might be ex-
pected, sided with the pontiff. The conflict in Germany went
on. The emperor's authority, which was established in the South
by means of his powerful supporters, was not secured in the
North; but, during the last three years of his life, he was at
peace with the Church. By the Concordat of Worms in 1122, it
was agreed that investiture should take place in the presence of
the emperor or of his deputies; that the emperor should first
invest with the scepter, and then consecration should take place
by the Church, with the bestowal of the ring and the staff. All
holders of secular benefices were to perform feudal obligations.

Lothar of Saxony. — The princes over whom Henry V. had
exercised a severe control opposed the elevation of Frederick of
Hohenstaufen, the son of his daughter Agnes. At a brilliant
.assembly at Mentzy Lothar of Saxony was chosen emperor (1125-
1137). He allowed all the Pope's claims, and was crowned at
Rome by Innocent II., accepting the allodial possessions of MatildaTHE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.	269

of Tuscany, as a fief from the pontiff. He carried on a war with
the Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick of Swabia, and his brother
Conrady who finally yielded. Lothar was helped in the conflict
by Henry the Proud\ the duke of Bavaria, who also became duke
of Saxony. Germany under Lothar extended its influence in the
north and east.

Culture in the Eleventh Century.—The tenth century, owing
to causes which have been explained, was a dark age. In the
eleventh century circumstances were more favorable for culture.
Under the Saxon emperors, intercourse was renewed with the
Greek Empire. There was some intercourse with the Arabs in
Spain, among whom several of the sciences were cultivated, espe-
cially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine (p. 232). The study
of the Roman law was revived in the Lombard cities, and this had
a disciplinary value. The restoration of order in the Church, after
the synod of Sutri (1046), had likewise a wholesome influence in
respect to culture. There were several schools of high repute
in France, especially those at Rheims, Chartres, Tours, and in the
monastery of Bee, in Normandy, where Lanfranc, an Italian by
birth, a man of wisdom and piety, was the abbot.

CHAPTER II.

THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OP THE

CHURCH:

TO THE END OF* THE CRUSADES, A.D. 1270.

The Two Religions. — The Crusades were a new chapter in
the long warfare of Christendom with Mohammedanism. " In the
Middle Ages, there were two worlds utterly distinct, — that of the
Gospel and that of the Koran." In Europe, with the exception
of Spain, the Gospel had sway; from the Pyrenees to the mouths
of the Ganges, the Koran. The border contests between the two
hostile parties on the eastern and western frontiers of Christendom
were now to give place to conflict on a larger scale during centu-
ries of invasion and war.

State of the Greek Empire. — The Greek Christian Empire lay
between the Christian peoples of the West and the dominion of
the Arabs. That empire lived on, a spiritless body. After Jus-
tinian, there is an endless recurrence of wars with the Arabs, and
with the barbarians on the North, and of theological disputes,
either within the empire itself, or with the Church of the West.
The Greeks complained that a phrase teaching the procession of
the Spirit from the Son had been added in the West to the Nicene270

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

Creed. The Latins complained of the use of leavened bread in
the sacrament, of the marriage of priests, and of some other Greek
peculiarities. The separation of the two churches was consum-
mated when, in 1054, the legate of the Pope laid on the altar of
St. Sophia, at Constantinople, an anathema against "the seven
mortal heresies " of the Greeks.

Attacks of Russians and Bulgarians. — Left to itself, the em-
pire showed some energy in repelling the attacks of the Russians
and Bulgarians. A number of capable rulers arose. The Russians,
of the same race of Northmen who had ravaged Western Europe,
kept up their assaults until their chief, Vladimir, made peace, ac-
cepted Christianity, and married the daughter of the emperor,
Basil II. (1019). The empire between 988 and 1014 was in-
vaded twenty-six times by King Samuel of Bulgaria. But the
Bulgarian kingdom was overthrown, in 1019, by Basil II. In the
twelfth century it regained its independence.

The Greek Emperors. — In the ninth century the Greeks made
head against the Arabs, especially by means of their navy. In
the tenth century John I (Zimisces) crossed the Euphrates, and
created alarm in Bagdad. The tenacity of life in the Greek Em-
pire was surprising in view of the languishing sort of existence that
it led. After Heraclius, there were three dynasties, the last of
which, the Macedonian (867-1056), produced three remarkable
men, Nicephorus Phocas, Zimisces, and Basil II But the dynasty
of Commeniy which, in the person of Isaac /., ascended the throne
in 1057, had to combat a new and vigorous enemy, the Turks, who
had made themselves masters of Asia (p. 270). One of this line
of emperors, Alexius I, appealed to the Germans for help. This
had some influence in giving rise to the first of the Crusades. In
these conflicts the Latins bore the brunt. The exhausted Greek
Empire played a minor part.

Conquests of the Turks.—The Mussulman dominion of the
Arabs had become enfeebled. The Ommiad dynasty at Cordova
had disappeared under the assaults of Christians, and of the Moors
of Africa. The Fatimite caliphs were confined to Egypt. The rule
of the Abassids of Bagdad had been well-nigh demolished by the
Seljukian Turks in 1058. They founded in the eleventh century an
extensive empire. The sultan, Alp Arslan, took the emperor, Ro-
tnanus IV. Diogenes, prisoner (1071), and conquered Armenia.
Malek Shah invaded Syria, Palestine, Jerusalem, and carried his
arms as far as Egypt, while a member of the Turkish family of
Seljuk wrested Asia Minor from the Greeks, and established the
kingdom of Iconium, which was called Roum, extending from
Mount Taurus to the Bosphorus. After the death of Malek
Shah, there were three distinct sultanates, Persia, Syria, and
Kerman, — the last being on the shores of the Indian Ocean.itrassbi

JJaHcz

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THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.

271

The Pilgrims to Jerusalem.—The immediate occasion of the
Crusades was the hard treatment of the Christian pilgrims who
visited the sepulcher of Christ in Jerusalem. There the Empress
Helena, the mother of Constantine, had erected a stately church.
Pilgrimages — which had become more and more a custom since
the fourth century — naturally tended to the sacred places in Pales-
tine. Especially was this the case as the year 1000, the time when
the world was expected to end, drew near. In 1064 a great pil-
grimage, in which seven thousand persons, priests and laity, of all
nations, were included, under Siegfried\ archbishop of Mentz,
made its way through Hungary to Syria. Not more than a third
of them lived to return. The reports of returning pilgrims were
listened to with absorbing interest, as they told of the spots to
which the imagination of the people was constantly directed.
What indignation then was kindled by the pathetic narrative of
the insults and blows which they had endured from the infidels
who profaned the holy places with their hateful domination ! In
the ninth century, under caliphs of the temper of Haroun Al-Ras-
chid\ Christians had been well treated. About the middle of the
tenth century the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt were the rulers at
Jerusalem. JHakem was fierce in his persecution, but his succes-
sors were more tolerant. When the Seljukian Turks got control
there, the harassed pilgrims had constant occasion to complain of
insult and inhumanity.

The Call of the Greeks. — The Greek emperor, Alexius Com-
menus, threatened by the Mussulmans on the opposite bank of the
Bosphorus, sent his call for succor to all Christian courts. Two
popes, Sylvester II. and Gregory VII., had in vain exhorted the
princes to rise in their might, to do away with the wrong and the
shame which the disciples of Jesus were suffering at the hands of
his enemies.

Motives to the Crusades. — After this, only a spark was need-
ed to kindle in the Western nations a flame of enthusiasm. The
summons to a crusade appealed to the two most powerful senti-
ments then prevalent, — the sentiment of religion and that of chiv-
alry, The response made by faith and reverence was reinforced
by that thirst for a martial career and for knightly exploits which
burned as a passion in the hearts of men. The peoples in the coun-
tries formed by the Germanic conquests were full of vigor and life.
Outside of the Church, there was no employment to attract aspir-
ing youth but the employment of a soldier. Western Europe was
covered with a net-work of petty sovereignties. Feudal conflicts,
while they were a discipline of strength and valor, were a narrow
field for all this pent-up energy. There was a latent yearning for
a wider horizon, a broader theater of action. Thus the Crusades
profoundly interested all classes. The Church and the clergy, the272

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

lower orders, the women and the children, shared to the full in the
religious enthusiasm, which, in the case of princes and nobles, took
the form of an intense desire to engage personally in the holy war,
in order to crush the infidels, and at the same time to signalize
themselves by gallant feats of arms. There was no surer road to
salvation. There was, moreover, a hope, of which all in distressed
circumstances partook, of improving their temporal lot.

The Council of Clermont. — The prime author of the first Cru-
sade was Pope Urban II. He authorized an enthusiast, Peter the
Hermit\ of Amiens, to travel on an ass through Italy and Southern
France, and to stir up the people to the great undertaking of
delivering the Holy Sepulcher. With an emaciated countenance
and flashing eye, his head bare, and feet naked, and wearing a
coarse garment bound with a girdle of cords, he told his burn-
ing tale of the inflictions endured by the pilgrims. At the great
council of Clermont\ in 1095, where a throng of bishops and
nobles, and a multitude of common people who spoke the Ro-
manic tongue, were assembled, Urban himself addressed the
assembly in a strain of impassioned fervor. He called upon every-
one to deny himself, and take up his cross, that he might win
Christ. Whoever would enlist in the war was to have a complete
remission of penances, — a "plenary indulgence." The answer
was thundered forth, "God wills it." Thousands knelt, and
begged to be enrolled in the sacred bands. The red cross of
cloth or silk, fastened to the right shoulder, was the badge of all
who took up arms. Hence they were called crusaders (from an
old French word derived from croix, a cross).

The Undisciplined Bands. — The farmer left his plow, and the
shepherd his flock. Both sexes and all ages were inspired with
a common passion.' Before a military organization could be
made, a disorderly host, poorly armed and ill-provided, led by
Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, a French knight,
started for Constantinople by way of Germany and Hungary.
They were obliged to separate ; and, of two hundred thousand, it
is said that only seven thousand reached that capital. These per-
ished in Asia Minor. They left their bones on the plain of
Niccea, where they were found by the next crusading expedition.

First Crusade (1096-1099).—"The Crusades were primarily
a Gaulish movement: " in French-speaking lands, the fire of
chivalric devotion was most intense. The first regular army of
soldiers of the cross departed by different routes under separate
chiefs. First of these was Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lower
Lorraine, the bravest and noblest of them all. With him were
his brothers, Baldwin, and Eustace, count of Boulogne. Promi-
nent among the other chiefs were Hugh, count of Vermandois ;
Robert\ duke of Normandy, who had pawned his duchy to hisTIIE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.

273

brother, William //., the king of England; Robert\ count of
Flanders ; Raymond, count of Toulouse ; Bohemond of Tarentum,
son of Robert Guiscard ; and Tancred\ Robert Guiscard's nephew.
The Spaniards were taken up with their own crusade against the
Moors. In consequence of the late absorbing struggles between
emperors and popes, the Germans and Italians did not now em-
bark in the enterprise. The relation of the Norman dynasty in
England to the conquered Saxons prevented the first crusading
host from receiving substantial aid from that country. The leaders
of the army finally consented to become the feudal dependents of
the emperor Alexius while they should be within his lx>rders, and
to restore to him such of their conquests as had been lately wrested
by the Turks from the Eastern Empire. Alexius was more alarmed
than gratified on seeing the swarm of warriors which he had brought
into his land. After a siege of seven weeks, Nicaa was surren-
dered, not, however, into the hands of the European soldiers who
had conducted the siege, but to the shrewd Alexius. At Dorylaum,
in a desperate battle the Turks were defeated ; but, on their march
eastward, they wasted the lands which they left behind them. The
crusaders suffered severely from disease consequent on the heat.
A private quarrel broke out between Tancred and Baldwin. Bald-
win, invited to Edessa by the Greek or Armenian ruler, founded
there a Latin principality. After besieging Antioch for several
months, by the treachery of a renegade Christian, Bohemond, with
a few followers, was admitted into the city. The Christians slew
ten thousand of its defenders ; but, three days after, Antioch was
shut in by a great army of Turks under the sultan Kerboga. The
crusaders were stimulated by the supposed discovery of the " holy
lance," or the steel head of the spear which had pierced the side
of Jesus. The Turks were vanquished, and the citadel of Anti-
och was possessed by Bohemond\ The wrangling chieftains were
now compelled by the army to set out for Jerusalem. When they
reached the heights where they first caught a glimpse of the
holy city, the crusaders fell on their knees, and with tears of joy
broke out in hymns of praise to God. But, not accustomed to
siege operations, and destitute of the machines and ladders req-
uisite for the purpose, they found themselves balked in the first
attempts to capture the city. Yet after thirty days, their needs
having been meantime in a measure supplied, Jerusalem was
taken by storm (July 15, 1099). The infuriated conquerors
gave the rein to their vindictive passions. Ten thouand Saracens
were slaughtered. The Jews were burned in the synagogues, to
which they had fled. When the thirst for blood and for plun-
der was sated, feelings of penitence and humility took possession
of the victors. The leaders, casting aside their arms, with bared
heads and barefoot, entered into the church of the Holy Sepul-274

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

cher, and on their bended knees thanked God for their success.
After debate, the princes united in choosing Godfrey of .Bouillon
as ruler of the city. He would not wear a royal crown in the
place where the Saviour of the world had worn on his bleeding
forehead a crown of thorns. He designated himself Protector of
the Holy Sepulcher. Shortly after, at Ascalon, he won a great
victory against the vastly superior forces of the Egyptian sultan.
Godfrey died the next year (noo), and was succeeded by his
brother Baldwin, who first took the title of King of Jerusalem.
The force of the Moslems, and the almost incessant strife and
division among the crusaders themselves, made the kingdom hard
to defend.

The New Kingdom. — Venice, Genoa, and Pisa had the most
to do with the defense and enlargement of the new kingdom. It
was organized according to the method of feudalism. It contin-
ued until the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187.

The Military Orders.—The principal supporters of the new
kingdom at Jerusalem were the orders of knights, in which were
united the spirit of chivalry and the spirit of monasticism. To
the monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, they added
a fourth vow, which bound them to fight the infidels, and to protect
the pilgrims. These military orders acquired great privileges and
great wealth. Each of them had its own peculiar apparel, stamped
with a cross. The two principal orders were the Knights of St.
John, or the Hospitallers, and the Knights I'eniplar. The Hospi-
tallers grew out of a hospital established in the eleventh century
near the Holy Sepulcher, for the care of sick or wounded pilgrims.
The order, when fully constituted, contained three classes of mem-
bers, — knights, who were all of noble birth, priests and chaplains,
and serving brothers. After the loss of the Holy Land, the island
of Rhodes was given up to them. This they held until 1522, when
they were driven out by the Turks, and received from the empe-
ror, Charles V,, the island of Malta. The Templars gained high
renown for their valor, and, by presents and legacies, acquired im-
mense wealth. After the loss of their possessions in Palestine,
most of their members took up their abode in Cyprus: from
there many of them went to France. Not a few of them became
addicted to violent and profligate ways. They were charged,
whether truly or falsely, with unbelief, and Oriental superstitions
caught up in the East from their enemies. These accusations,
coupled with a desire to get their property, led to their suppression
by Philip V. in the beginning of the fourteenth century. A third
order was that of Teutonic Knights, founded at Jerusalem about
1128. In the next century they subjugated the heathen Wends in
Prussia (1226-1283).THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.	275

Welfs and Waiblings.—The emperor Lothar died on a jour-
ney back from Italy in 1137. Henry the Proud, of the house of
Welf, to whom he had given the imperial insignia, hoped to be his
successor, and hesitated to recognize Conrad IIL (1137-1152)
of the house of Hohenstaufen, who was chosen. Conrad required
him to give up Saxony, for the reason that one prince could not
govern two duchies. When he refused, Bavaria, also, was taken
from him, and given to Leopold\ margrave of Austria. This led to
war, in which the king, as usual, was strongly supported by the
cities. Henry the Proud left a young son, known later as Henry
the Lion. Count Welf, the brother of Henry the Proud, kept up
the war in Bavaria. He was besieged in Weinsberg. During the
siege, it is said that his followers shouted " Welf" as a war-cry,
while the besiegers shouted " Waiblings," — Waiblingen being the
birthplace of Frederick, duke of Swabia, brother of Conrad. These
names, corrupted into Guelphs and Ghibellines by the Italians, were
afterwards attached to the two great parties, — the supporters, re-
spectively, of the popes and the emperors. Henry the Lion after-
wards received Saxony; and the mark of Brandenburg was given
in lieu of it to Albert the Bear.

Welf /. was a powerful nobleman, who received from Henry IVthe fief
of Bavaria. When Henry V. died, the natural heirs of the extinct Franco-
nian line were his nephews, Frederick of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and
Conrad. But the Saxons supported the wealthy Lothar, who was chosen
emperor, and won over to his side Henry the Proudy grandson of Welf /., to
whom Lothar gave his daughter in marriage, and gave, also, the dukedom of
Saxony, in addition to his dukedom of Bavaria. In these events lay the
roots of the long rivalship between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens. Henry
the Liotiy as stated above, was the son of Henry the Proud.

GENEALOGY OP THE WELFS.

"Welf, Duke of Bavaria, 1070-1101.

Henry the Black, Duke of Bavaria, 1120-1136.

• r--

Judith, m. Frederic, Duke
of Swabia (</. 1147), the
son of Agnes, who was
the daughter of Henry
IV. Frederio I (Bar-
barossa) was the son of
Judith, and this Frederic
of Swabia. The Swabian
dukes were called Hoktn~
ttau/ens, from a castle on
Mount Staufen in Wiir-
temberg.

Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria 1x26, of Saxony 1137;
•	deprived, 1x38.

"Henry the Lion,

m. Matilda, daughter of Henry II of England.

I-

Henry the Young, d. 1227.

-1

Otto IV9 d. 12x8.276	MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Second Crusade (1147-1149). — The preacher of the second
Crusade was St. Bernard, whose saintly life and moving eloquence
produced a great effect. Louis VIL of France and Conrad III,
were the leaders. The expedition was attended by a series of
calamities. The design of recapturing Edessa from Noureddin,
the sultan of Aleppo, was given up. The siege of Damascus failed
(i 148). Conrad returned home with broken health. Soon after,
Damascus fell into the hands of Noureddin, who was a brave and
upright leader. Through one of his lieutenants, he conquered
Egypt. After his death, Saladin, who sprung from one of the tribes
of Kurds, and was in his service, rose to power there, and set
aside the Fatimite caliphate (1174). He was not less renowned
for his culture and magnanimity than for his valor. Saladin united
under his scepter all the lands from Cairo to Aleppo. In the battle
at Ramla, not far from Ascalon (1178), the crusaders gained their
last notable victory over this antagonist, which served to prolong
for some years the existence of the kingdom of Jerusalem. After-
wards victory was on his side: the crusaders were overthrown
in the fatal battle of Tiberias, and Jerusalem was taken by him
(1187). Thus the Latin kingdom fell. The Saracen conqueror was
much more humane after success than the Christian warriors had
been in like circumstances.

Frederick Barbarossa.— Frederick /. — Barbarossa, cr Red-
beard, he was called in Italy— (1152-1190) was one of the grand
figures of the Middle Ages. He was thirty-one years of age at his
election as emperor, and had already been with the crusaders to
the Holy Land. In him great strength of understanding and a
capacity for large undertakings were combined with a taste for
letters and art. His aim was to bring back to the empire the
strength and dignity which had belonged to it under the Saxon
and Franconian emperors. The rulers of Bohemia and Poland he
obliged to swear fealty as vassals. He put down private war, and
restored order in Germany. The palatinate on the Rhine, formerly
a part of Franconia, he gave to his half-brother Conrad\ who
founded Heidelberg (115 5 ).

Struggle with the Lombard Cities.—The principal conflict of
Frederick I. was in Italy, where he endeavored to restore the im-
perial supremacy over the Lombard cities, which had grown pros-
perous and freedom-loving, and were bent on managing their own
municipal affairs. They had thrown off the rule of bishops and
counts. The burghers of Milan, the principal town, had obliged
the neighboring nobles and cities to form a league with them. The
smaller cities, as Como and Lodi, preferred the emperor's control
to being subject to Milan. Pavia clung to the empire. But most
of the cities prized their independence and republican administra-
tion. The Pope and the emperor were soon at variance, and theTHE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.	277

cities naturally looked to the pontiff for sympathy and leadership.
In 1158 Frederick again crossed the Alps, bent on establishing the
imperial jurisdiction as it had stood in the days of Charlemagne.
The study of the Roman law was now*pursued with enthusiasm at
Bologna and Padua. At a great assembly in the Roncalian Fields,
Frederick caused the prerogatives of the empire to be defined
according to the terms of the civil law. The emperor was pro-
claimed as "lord of the world,"—dominus mundi. In the room
of the consuls, a Podesta was appointed as the chief officer in
each city, to represent his authority. Milan> which had submitted,
revolted, but, after a siege of two years, was forced to surrender,
and was destroyed, at the emperor's command, by the inhabitants;
of the neighboring cities (1162). Inii59 Alexander III. was
elected Pope by a majority of the cardinals. Victor IV. was
chosen by the imperial party, and was recognized at a council con-
vened by Frederick at Pavia. On the death of Victor, another
anti-pope, Paschal IIIwas elected in his place; and, on the
fourth visit of Frederick to Italy (1166-1168), he conducted Pas-
chal to Rome. In 1167 the cities of Northern Italy, which main-
tained their cause with invincible spirit, united in the Lombard
League* They built the strongly fortified place, Alessandria,—
named after the Pope, — and took possession of the passes of the
Alps. The emperor, whose army was nearly destroyed by a pes-
tilence at Rome, escaped, with no little difficulty and danger, to
Germany.

Frederick I. and Pope Alexander III — For nearly seven years
Frederick remained in Germany. He put an end to a violent feud
which had been raging between Henry the Lion and his enemies
(1168). In 1174 he was ready to resume his great Italian enter-
prise. But he did not succeed in taking Alessandria. All his
. efforts to induce Henry the Lion to come to his support failed.
He was consequently defeated in the battle of Legnano (1176).
The extraordinary abilities and indefatigable energy of the great
emperor had been exerted in the vain effort, as he himself now
perceived it to be, to break down the resistance of a free people to
a system which they felt to be an obsolete despotism. A reconcili-
ation took place at Venice in 1177 between Pope Alexander III.
and Frederick, in which the latter virtually gave up the plan which
he had so long struggled to realize. It was a day of triumph for
the Papacy. At Constance, in 1183, a treaty was made with the
Lombard cities, in which their self-government was substantially
conceded, with the right to fortify themselves, and to levy armies,
and to extend the bounds of their confederacy. The overlordship
of the emperor was recognized. There was to be an imperial
judge in each town, to whom appeals in the most important causes
might be made. The " regalian rights " to forage, food\. and278

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

lodging for the emperor's army, when within their territory, were
reduced to a definite form. The cities grew stronger from their
newly gained freedom; yet the loss of imperial restraint was, on
some occasions, an evil.

Frederick in Germany.—After his return to Germany, Frederick
deprived Henry the Lion of his lands; and when Henry craved
his forgiveness at the Diet of Erfurt in 1181, he was allowed to
retain Brunswick and Luneburg. He was to live for three years,
with his wife and child, at the court of his father-in-law, Henry II,
king of England. His son William, born there,-is the ancestor
of the present royal family in England. In 1184 the emperor,
in honor of his sons, King Henry, and Frederick, duke of Swabia,
who were of age to become knights, celebrated at Mentz a mag-
nificent festival, where a great throng of attendants was gathered
from far and near. In a last and peaceful visit to Italy, his son
Henry was married to Constance, the daughter of Roger II, and
the heiress of the Norman kingdom of Lower Italy and Sicily.

Third Crusade (1189-1192). — The old emperor now under-
took another Crusade (1189), in which he was supported by Philip
II (Philip Augustus), king of France, and Richard the Lion-
Hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king of England, but of French de-
scent. Having spent the winter at Adrianople, Frederick crossed
into Asia Minor, and conquered Iconium. In his advance he
showed a military skill and a valor which made the expedition a
memorable one ; but at the river Calycadnus in Cilicia, either while
bathing or attempting to cross on horseback, the old warrior was
swept away by the stream, and drowned (1190). His son Fred-
erick died during the siege of Acre. Richard and Philip quarreled,
before and after reaching Acre, which surrendered in 1191. . Philip
returned to France. Richard, with all his valor, was twice com-
pelled to turn back from Jerusalem. Nothing was accomplished
except the establishment of a truce with Saladin, by which a strip
of land on the coast, from Joppa to Acre, was given to the Chris-
tians, and pilgrimages to the holy places were allowed. Richard
was distinguished both for his deeds of arms and for his cruelty.
On his return, he was kept as a prisoner by Leopold, duke of Austria,
by the direction of the emperor, Henry VI, for thirteen months,
and released on the payment of a ransom, and rendering homage.
He was charged with treading the German banner in the filth at
Acre. His alliance with the Welfs in Germany is enough to explain
the hostility felt towards him by the imperial party.

Henry VL: Pope Innocent IIL — Henry VI. (1190-1197) had
the prudence and vigor of his father, but lacked his magnanimity.
He was hard and stern in his temper. Twice he visited Italy to
conquer the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the inheritance of his
wife. He waged a new war with Henry the Lion (1192-1194),THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.	279

which ended in a marriage of Agnes, the emperor's cousin, with
Henry, the son of Henry. It was a project of the emperor to
convert Germany and Italy, with Sicily, into a hereditary mon-
archy ; but the princes would not consent. He aspired to incor-
porate the Eastern Empire in the. same dominion. While engaged
in strife with the aged Pope, Ccelestin II, respecting the Tuscan
lands of Matilda, which she had bequeathed to the Church, the
emperor suddenly died. His son Frederick was a boy only three
years old. On the death of Ccelestin II., early in 1198, Innocent
IIL, the ablest and most powerful of all the popes, acceded to
the pontifical chair. Innocent was a statesman of unsurpassed
sagacity and energy. He was imbued with the highest idea of the
pontifical dignity. He made his authority felt and feared in all
parts of Christendom. He exacted submission from all rulers,
civil and ecclesiastical. The Empress Constance, in order to
secure Italy for Frederick, accepted the papal investment on con-
ditions dictated by the Pope. After, her death Innocent ruled
Italy in the character of guardian of her son. He dislodged the
imperial vassals from the Tuscan territory of Matilda, and thus
became a second founder of the papal state.

Fourth Crusade (1202-1204).— Under the auspices of Inno-
cent III., a Crusade was undertaken by French barons, with whom
were associated Baldwin, count of Flanders, and Boniface, marquis
of Montferrat. Arrived at Venice, the crusaders were not able to
furnish to the Venetians the sum agreed to be paid for their trans-
portation. The Venetians, whose devotion was strongly tempered
with the mercantile spirit, under the old doge, Henry Dandolo,
greatly to the displeasure of the Pope, persuaded them to assist in
the capture of Zara, which the king of Hungary had wrested from
Venice. Then, at the call of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor,
Isaac Angelus, they went with the Venetian fleet to Constantinople,
and restored these princes to the throne. The result of the con-
tentions that followed with the Greeks was the pillage of Constan-
tinople, and the establishment of the Latin Empire under Baldwin.
Principalities were carved out for different chiefs; the Venetians
taking the coasts of the JEge&n, and afterwards Candia (Crete).
The patriarch of Constantinople had to take his pallium from
Rome. The Latin service was established in the churches. There
was no real union between the Greeks and the invaders, but con-
stant strife, until, in 1261, Michael Falceologus, the head of a
Greek empire which had been established at Niccea, put an end to
the Latin kingdom.

Children's Crusade.—The failure of the stupenduous under-
takings for the conquest of the infidels was attributed to the
wicked wrangles, and still more to the vicious lives, of the cru-
saders, whose defeat was regarded as indicative of the frown of28o

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

Heaven on their evil courses. This feeling gave occasion to the
Children's Crusade, in 1212. Many thousands of French and
German boys made their way, in two distinct expeditions,, to
Marseilles and the seaports of Italy, in order to be conveyed
thence to the Holy Land. But few returned : nearly all perished
by the way, or were seized, and carried off to slave-markets. The
enterprise grew out of a wild construction of the injunction of
Jesus to let little children come to him.

Otto IV.: Civil War in Germany. — Frederick had been elected
king; but, on the death of his father, his claims were disregarded.
The Hohenstaufens chose Philip, brother of Henry VI.: the
IVel/s appointed Otto, the second son of Henry the Lion. Inno-
cent claimed the right, not to appoint the emperor, but to decide
between the rival claimants. He decided, in 1201, in favor of Otto
IV. (1198-1214). Philip's party, however, seemed likely to suc-
ceed; but, in 1208,-he was murdered. Otto, having made large
promises of submission to the Pope's requirements, was crowned
emperor, and universally acknowledged. When he failed to fulfill
his pledges, and began to assert the old imperial prerogatives. in
Italy, he was excommunicated and deposed by Innocent (1210).

Frederick (II.) made King. — Innocent was now led to take
up the cause of young Frederick (1212). The latter won Ger-
many over to his side, and received the German crown at Aix-
la-Chapelle in 1215. Otto was restricted to his ancestral territory
in Brunswick.

Character of Frederick IL (1214-1250). — Frederick //., on
account of his extraordinary natural gifts and his accomplishments,
was called the wonder of the world. He knew several languages,
and, in intercourse with the Saracens in Sicily, had acquired a famil-
iarity with the sciences. In many of his ideas of government he
was in advance of his time. But his reign was largely spent in a
contest with the Lombard cities and with the popes. He is styled
by an eminent modern historian, " the gay, the brave, the wise, the
relentless, and the godless Frederick." He was often charged with
skepticism in relation to the doctrines of the Church. The main
ground of this imputation seems to have been a temper of mind
at variance with the habit of the age, — a very moderate degree of
reverence for ecclesiastical authority, and the absence of the usual
antipathy to heresy and religious dissent.

Fifth Crusade (1228-1229). — Having caused his son Henry to
be elected king of Rome, Frederick, in 1220, left Germany for fif-
teen years. It was the policy of the popes to keep the Sicilian
crown from being united with the empire, and the emperor from
gaining the supremacy in Lombardy. Frederick, at his coronation
at Aix, and afterwards, had engaged to undertake a crusade. But
he had postponed it from time to time. Pope Honorius III hadTHE CIIURCII AND THE EMPIRE.

281

patiently borne with this delay. But when Frederick, in 1227, was
about to start, and was prevented, as he professed, by the con-
tagious disease in his army, from which he himself was suffering,
Gregory IX., the next pope, placed him under the ban of the
Church. Nevertheless, the emperor, in the following year, em-
barked on his crusade. His vigor as a soldier, and, still more, his
tact in conciliating the Saracens, enabled him to get possession of
Jerusalem. No bishop would crown an excommunicate, and he
had to put the crown on his own head. That he left a mosque
unmolested was a fresh ground of reproach. He negotiated an
armistice with the sultan, Kameel (El K&mil), who ceded Naza-
reth and a strip of territory reaching to the coast, together with
Sidon. Fifteen years later (in 1244) Jerusalem was finally lost
by the Christians. •

Contest of Frederick with the Popes. — On his return to Italy,
Frederick drove the papal troops out of Apulia. In a personal
interview with Gregory IX. at San Gertnano, a treaty was made
between them, the ban was removed, and the treaty of Frederick
with the Sultan was sanctioned by the Pope. Frederick now dis-
played his talent for organization in all parts of his empire. His
constitution for the Sicilian kingdom, based on the ruins of the old
feudalism, is tinged with the modern political spirit. His court,
wherever he sojourned, mingled an almost Oriental luxury and splen-
dor with the attractions of poetry and song. A sore trial was the
revolt of his son Hetiry (1234), whom he conquered, and confined
in a prison, where he died in 1242. The efforts of Frederick to
enforce the imperial supremacy over the Lombard cities were
met with the same stubborn resistance from the Guelfs which his
grandfather had encountered. In 1237 he gained a brilliant vic-
tory over them at Cortenuova. But the hard terms on which Fred-
erick insisted, in connection with other transactions offensive to
the Pope, called out another excommunication from Gregory JX.
(1239). The Genoese fleet, which was conveying ecclesiastics to
a council called by the Pope at Rome, was captured by direction
of Frederick; and the prelates were thrown into prison. Pope
Innocent IV. (1243-1254) fled to Lyons, and there published
anew the ban against the emperor, declared him deposed, and
summoned the Germans to elect another emperor in his place.
The ecclesiastical princes in Germany chose Henry Raspe (1246-
1247), landgrave of Thuringia, who was defeated by Conrad\
Henry's son. The next emperor thus chosen, William of Holland
(1247), made no headway in Germany. During this period of
civil war, many German cities gained their freedom from episcopal
rule, attained to great privileges, and came into an immediate
relation to the emperor. A fearful war raged in Italy between the
Guelfs and Ghibellinesr in the midst of which Frederick died, in282

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

the fifty-sixth year of his age. Had he been as conscientious and
as capable of curbing his passions and appetites as he was highly
endowed in other respects, he might have been a model ruler. As
it was, although his career was splendid, his private life, as well as
his public conduct, was stained with flagrant faults.

The Sicilian Kingdom. — The kingdom of the Two Sicilies was
bravely defended by Manfred\ son of Frederick II., in behalf of
young Conradin, the son of the new emperor, Conrad IV. The
Pope gave the crown to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of.
France. Charles, after the fall of Manfred at Beneventum (1266),
gained the kingdom. Conradin went to Italy, but was defeated
and captured in 1268, and was executed at Naples. Such was the
tragic end of the last of the Hohenstaufens. The unbearable tyr-
anny of the French led to a conspiracy called the Sicilian Vespers ;
because at Easter Monday, at vesper time, the rising took place.
All the French in Sicily were massacred. Peter of Aragon, who had
married the daughter of Manfred\ became king of Sicily. The
dominion of Charles of Anjou was restricted to Naples.

Spain. — The Spaniards had a crusade to carry forward in their
own land, which lasted for eight hundred years. In the tenth and
eleventh centuries, especially under Abderrahman III (912-961),
the Moorish civilization was most brilliant. In Cordova, there
were six hundred mosques. There were said to be seventeen uni-
versities and seventy large libraries in Spain. The caliph's fleets
were dominant in the Mediterranean. He was mild in his policy
towards Jews and Christians. In the eleventh century the caliphs
gave themselves up to luxury, and the control of their forces was
in the hands of the viziers. Of these, Almanzor, the general of
Hakem II. (976-1013), was the most famous. He took the city
of Leon, and plundered the church of St. James of Compostella,
the patron saint of Spain. After this time the caliphate of Cor-
dova broke up into numerous kingdoms. The Christian Visigoths
in the north-west had built up the little kingdom of Oviedo, which
later took the name of Leon. The rest of Christian Spain was
united under Sancho the Great (970-1035). To one of his sons,
Ferdinand Z, he left Castile, to which Leon and the Asturias were
united ; to another, Aragon; and, to a third, Navarre and Biscay.
It was under Ferdinand that the exploits of the Spanish hero, the
Cid (.Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar), in conflict with the infidels, began.
The complete conquest of the Moors was prevented by the strife
of the Christian kingdoms with one another. Under Alfonso VI.
(1072-1109), they were all once more united.

Great Defeat of the Moors. — The invasion of the Almoravids,
invited over from Africa by the Mussulman princes (1086), checked
the progress of the Christian conquest. These allies of the Arabs
built up a kingdom for themselves, reconquered Valencia, andTHE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.	283

taxed to the utmost the power of the Christians to resist their
progress. New sects of fanatical Moslems, the Almohads, having
conquered Morocco, passed over into Spain. The Mohammedans
were thus at war among themselves, and were divided into three
parties. Military orders were established in Spain ; and the kings
of Castile, Leon, and Navarre, aided by sixty thousand crusaders
from Germany, France, and Italy, defeated Mohammed, the chief
of the Almohads, with great slaughter, in a decisive battle near
Tolosa (1212). The Spanish crusade built up the little kingdom
of Portugal\ and the states of Castile and of Aragon. They were
destined to play an important part in the history of commerce and
discovery. The Spanish character owed some of its marked traits
to this prolonged struggle with the Moslems.

The Mongolian Invasions. — At the beginning of the thirteenth
century, Genghis Khan, the leader of Mongolian hordes which
roamed over the Asiatic plateau between China and Siberia, con-
quered China, and overthrew the ruling dynasty. He subdued
Hindustan and the empire of the Chowares9 which had been
founded by a Seljukian slave, and spread his power from the Cas-
pian Sea through Persia to India (1218). Bokhara and Samar-
cand were among the populous cities which were burned with all
their treasures by these ruthless invaders. Libraries were con-
verted into stalls for the horses of the brutal conquerors. The
sons and successors of Ghengis Khan swept over the countries
north of the Black Sea, captured Moscow and Kiev, burned Cra-
cow, and pursued their murderous and devastating path over
Poland and Hungary. At the battle of Wahlstatt (1241), the
Germans under Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz, were defeated.
The victories of the Tartars were frightful massacres. It was a
custom of the Mongols to cut off an ear of the slaughtered enemy.
It was said that at Liegnitz these trophies filled nine sacks. The
Mongol hosts retired from Europe. They attacked the' caliphate
of Bagdad\ a city which they took by storm, and plundered for forty
days. They destroyed the dynasty of the Abassids. They marched
into Syria, stormed and sacked Aleppo, and captured Damascus.
For a time the central point of the Tartar conquests was the city
or camping-ground of Karakorum in Central Asia. After a few
generations their empire was broken in pieces. The "Golden
Horde," which they had planted in Russia, on the east of the
Volga, remained there for two centuries. Bagdad was held by
the Mongols until 1400, when it was conquered, and kept for a
short time, by Tamerlane.

The religion of the Tartars was either Lamaism-* a corrupted
form of Buddhistic belief and worship,—or Mohammedanism. In
China and Mongolia they were Lamaists: elsewhere they gen-
erally adopted the faith of Islam. Their original religion was
Shamaistnf a worship of spirits, akin to fetichism.284

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

Europe owes it to the valor and military spirit of its western
peoples that these merciless destroyers of mankind did not push
their conquests to the shores of the Atlantic.

Sixth Crusade (1248-1254): Seventh Crusade (1270).—Two
additional Crusades were undertaken under the leadership of that
upright and devout king, Louis IX. of France. The first (1248-
1254) resulted in the taking of Damietta in Egypt (1249) ; but
the next year Louis, with his whole army, was captured, and
obtained his release after much delay, by the surrender of his con-
quests, and in return for a large ransom. Not disheartened by
this failure, the pious monarch, in 1270, sailed to Tunis, where he
and most of his army perished from sickness. In 1291 Acre, the
last town held by the Christians, was taken by the Egyptian Mame-
lukes ; and the Crusades came to an end.

Effects of the Crusades. — The Crusades were a spontaneous
movement of Christian Europe. It was a great tide, which bore
away all classes of people. It lends to the Middle Ages an ideal
and heroic character. An overpowering sentiment, submerging
calculation and self-interest, swept over society. There was infi-
nite suffering: countless lives were the forfeit. The results, how-
ever, were beneficent. 1. It is true that the conquests made in
the East were all surrendered. The holy places were given up.
Yet the Turks had received a check which was a protection to
Europe during the period when its monarchies were forming, and
were gaining the force to encounter them anew, and repel their dan-
gerous aggressions. 2. The Feudal System in Europe was smitten
with a mortal blow. Smaller fiefs, either by sale or by the death
of the holders, were swallowed up in the larger. The anarchical
spirit was counteracted. Political unity was promoted. 3. There
was a lessening of the social distance between suzerain and serf \
They fought side by side, and aided one another in common
perils. The consequence was an increase of sympathy. 4. There
was an expansion of knowledge. There was a widening of geo-
graphical knowledge. An acquaintance was gained with other
peoples and countries. To the more civilized Saracens, the cru-
saders seemed brutal and barbarous. The crusaders in turn were
impressed with the superior advancement and elegance of the Sara-
cens. It was not the lord only who beheld distant lands : the serf
was taken from the soil to which he had been tied. He drew
stimulus and information from sojourning under-other skies. 5. A
great impulse was given to trade and commerce. An acquaintance
was gained with new products, natural and artificial. New wants
were created. 6. The cities advanced in strength and wealth.
Important social consequences resulted from their growth.

Why the Crusades Terminated. — After the thirteenth cen-
tury it was impossible to rekindle the crusading enthusiasm. TheTHE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.

285

fire had burned out. It seemed as if the idea had exhausted
itself in action. This effect was due, (1) to the absence of novelty
in such undertakings; (2) to the long experience of the hard-
ships belonging to them, which tended to dampen the romantic
zeal that had formed a part of the motive; (3) to the disappoint-
ments following upon the practical failure of so prodigious and
costly exertions: (4) to an altered condition of public feeling of
a more general character. Antipathy to the infidel, the more
exclusive sway of religious sentiment, were giving way to a min-
gling of secular aims and interests. There were new and wider
fields of activity at home. The mood of men's minds was no
longer the same.

Luxuries introduced by the Crusades.—The effect of the Crusades
in bringing in new comforts and luxuries, and in thus altering the style of
living, was remarkable. At the very outset, a great deal of money, obtained
by the sale or pawning of estates, was spent in the outfit of the hundred
thousand nobles, who, at the beginning, took the cross. Costly furs, em-
broidered cushions, curtains of purple dye, pavilions worked with gold,
banners of purple or of cloth-of-gold, showy costumes, and shining armor, —
such was the splendor that met the eyes of thousands who had never before
beheld such a spectacle. The journey to the East brought under the observa-
tion of the crusaders, arts and fashions to which they had been strangers,
They saw the gilded domes and marble palaces of Constantinople, and the
treasures of ancient art which had been gathered within the walls of that
ancient capital. Antiochy with all its wealth, fell into their hands. Later,
the merchants of both religions followed in the wake of the armies, and met
one another. The superb fabrics of the East were carried to the West by
routes which now became safe and familiar. The precious ores and tissues
of Damascus, and the beautiful glassware of Tyre, were conveyed to Venice,
and thence to places more distant. Silk stuffs of exquisite beauty were
brought from Mosul and Alexandria. The elegance of the East, with its
rich fabrics, its jewels and pearls, was so enchanting that an enthusiastic
crusader termed it " the vestibule of Paradise." It was not the nobles alone
in the West who acquired these attractive products of skill and industry.
The cities shared in them. Even the lower classes partook of the change in
the way of living.

Life in the Castle.— Even in the earlier days of feudalism, the seclu-
sion of the castle was not without an influence in promoting domestic inter-
course and affection. A new sentiment respecting woman sprang up in the
Middle Ages, and was fostered by the honor which the New Testament and
the teaching of the Church rendered to saintly women. A spirit of gallantry
and devotion to woman, partly natural to the Germanic race, and partly
arising from causes like that just named, sprang up in the midst of prevailing
ignorance and perpetual strife. In the course of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries life in the castle is found to be very much improved. In the
eleventh century it lacked comfort, to say nothing of luxury. The lights
were torches of dry wood: even candles were not in general use. Houses
in France, England, and Germany commonly had thatched roofs. They
were made of logs covered with a sort of clay or mud. They were built
with low and narrow doors, and with small windows which admitted but little
light. In the middle of the smoky hall was a large, round firepjace. There
was no chimney, but only a funnel, which pierced the ceiling. The seats
were benches and stools. The feet of the family and guests were kept warm
by hay spread beneath them. In the later period the substitution of dry286	MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

rushes and straw was thought to be a marvelous gain. Beds of straw were
introduced into all the apartments of nobles, and even of kings. To sleep
on a straw couch was deemed a regal luxury. One consequence of the Cru-
sades was to introduce carpets and hangings into the dwellings of the great.
Improved timepieces took the place of the water-clocks, which were a wonder
in the days of Charlemagne. In the twelfth century the castle begins to look
less like a dungeon. Within and without, it ceases to wear so exclusively
the aspect of a fortress. The furniture has more beauty. In the great hall
are the large tables attached to the floor, the sideboards, the cupboards, the
stately chair of the lord, the couch with its canopy, the chests for the wearing-
apparel, the armor on the walls. In the thirteenth century France was
covered with chateaux, which, in the case of princes and nobles of highest
rank, had their spacious courts, their stables, their lodgings for the servants.
All these were within the precincts of the palace. In the great hall were
held the assemblies of vassals, banquets, judicial trials. In the wealthiest
mansions, there was a main saloon on the floor above, reached by a spiral
stairway, and serving also for the principal bed-chamber. There the stone
floor gave place to marble of varied colors. Mosaics and other ornaments
were introduced. Sculptures, carvings, and mural paintings decorated the
apartments. Glass mirrors, imported by way of Venice, took the place of
the mirrors of polished metal. Larger windows, of painted glass, became
common among the rich, in the room of the small pieces of glass, or of ala-
baster, which had before served to let in a few rays of light. Tallow candles
came into vogue. Lamps were not unknown. On great occasions, lanterns
and wax candles were used for a festive illumination. Chimneys were in use,
and about the vast fire-place the family group could gather. The hospitality
of the castle was often bountiful. The chase, the favorite amusement, gave
life and animation to the scene, and prepared the inmates for the feast that
followed. Minstrels enlivened the social gathering. Troops of mounte-
banks and buffoons furnished amusement, and were sometimes lavishly
rewarded. There were singers and buffoons who were attached permanently
to the household. There were others who traveled from place to place,
and were even organized into corporations or guilds. The fool, or jester, to
whom a large license was allowed, was long deemed a necessary adjunct of
the castle-ball. Carriages were little used: rank was indicated by the
accouterments of the war-horse or of the palfrey. From the twelfth century
onward, the improvement in the comforts of living was not confined to the
nobles and to rich burghers in cities. It was shared by the rural classes,
notwithstanding the miseries — such as insecurity, and dangers of famine —
that belonged to their condition.

Poverty and Disease. — A French writer on the history of luxury, speaking of France
in this period, says, " In the cities, we meet at once luxury, certain beginnings of prosperity,
and frightful misery. Beggary exists in a form the most hideous: there is an organization
of it with grades, and a sort of hierarchy. In the face of sumptuous costumes, of chateaux
better adorned, of the nascent wealth of industry, France included more than two thousand
lepers, and knew not how to treat maladies born of the most imperfect hygiene and the most
sordid filth. Such were the extremes. The course of general progress went forward between
them." The condition of the poorest class in England was no better. " The absence of vege-
table food for the greater part of the year, the personal dirt of the people, the sleeping at night
in the clothes worn in the day, and other causes, made skin-diseases frightfully common. At
the outskirts of every town in England, there were crawling about emaciated creatures covered
with loathsome sores, living Heaven knows how. They were called by the common name of
lepers; and probably the leprosy, strictly so called, was awfully common." Such being the
life of the poor in villages, and in the absence of drainage and other modern safeguards of
health, in large towns, it is no wonder that in the Middle Ages there were terrible pestilences,
and that the average length of life was much less than at present.00
CM

FRANCE. —DESCENDANTS OF HUGH CAPET.

Hugh the Great [d. 956), m. 3, Hedwiga, daughter of Henry I of Germany.
Hugh Capet, 987-996.

Robert, 996-1031.

Henry 1,1031-1060.

£

^	Philip I, 1060-1108, m. Bertha, daughter of Florence I, Count of Holland.

^	Louis VI, 1108-1137.

Q	,-1

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^	Louis VII, 1137-1180, m. 3, Alice, daughter of Theobold II, Count of Champagne.

Q	Philip II (Augustus), 1180-1223, m. x, Isabella, daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Hainault-

*Zt	I

5	Louis VIII, 1223-1226, tm. Blanche, daughter of Alfonso IX of Castile.

►j	,-1

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£5	(St.) Louis IX, 1226-1270, m. Margaret, daughter of Raimond Berengar IV, Count of Provence.

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2, Philip III, 1270-1285, m. 1, Isabella, daughter of James I of Aragon.	Robert, Count of Clermont, founder of the house of Bourbon.

Philip IV, 1285-1314,	Charles, Count of Valois (d. X325), founder of the house of Valois,

m. Jeanne, heiress of Champagne and Navarre.	m. Margaret, daughter of Charles II of Naples.

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Louis X, 1314-1316. Philip V, 1316-1322. Charles IV, 1322-1328.	Philip VI, succeeded 1328.ENGLAND. — FROM THE CONQUEST TO EDWARD I.

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William I, 1066-1087, m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders.

(Malcolm Canmore m. St. Margaret.)

William II (Rufus), Henry I, 1100-1135, m. Matilda.	Mary,	Adela,

1087-1100.	I	m. Eustace, Count of Boulogne, m. Stephen, Count of Blois.

Matilda (d. 1167),

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m. I, Emperor Henry V; 2, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. Maud, m. Stephen, 1135-1154.

Henry II, 1154-1189,

m. Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine, etc., wife of Louis VII of France.

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3, Richard I, 1189-1199.

5, John, 1199-1216, tn. Isabella of Angouleme.

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Henry III, 1216-1272, m. Eleanor, daughter of Raimond Berengar IV of

Provence.

Edward I, succeeded 1272.ENGLAND AND FRANCE.

289

CHAPTER III.

ENGLAND AND PRANCE: THE FIRST PERIOD OP THEIR
RIVALSHIP (1066-1217).

The emperors, the heads of the Holy Roman Empire, were
the chief secular rulers in the Middle Ages, and were in theory
the sovereigns of Christendom. But in the era of the Crusades, the
kingdoms of England and France began tb be prominent. In them,
moreover, we see beginnings of an order of things not embraced
in the mediaeval system. In France, steps are taken towards a com-
pact monarchy. In England, there are laid the foundations of
free representative government.

Connection of England and France. — For a long time the for-
tunes of England and of France are linked together. The kings
of the French, with their capital at Pans, had been often obliged
to contend with their powerful liegemen, the dukes of Normandy,
at Rouen. When the Norman duke became king of England, he
had an independent dominion added to the great fief on the other
side of the channel. It sometimes looked as if England and France
would be united under one sovereignty, so close did their relations
become.

Death of William the Conqueror. — It was while William the
Conqueror, angry with the king of the French, was burning Mantes,
in the border-land between Normandy and France, that, by the
stumbling of his horse in the ashes, he was thrown forward upon the
iron pommel of his saddle, and received the hurt which ended, in
the next month, in his death (Sept., 1087). On his death-bed he
was smitten with remorse for his unjust conquest of England, and
for his bloody deeds there. He would not dare to appoint a suc-
cessor : it belonged, he said, to the Almighty to do that; but he
hoped that his son William might succeed him. The burial ser-
vice at Caen, in the church which he had built, was interrupted by
Ascelint a knight, who raised his voice to protest against the inter-
ment, for the reason that the duke had wrongfully seized from his
father the ground on which the church stood. The family of
William made a settlement with Ascelin on the spot by paying a
sum of money, and the service proceeded. The whole ground
was afterwards paid for. William had left money for the rebuilding
of the churches which he had burned at Mantes. He gave his
treasures to the poor and to the churches in his dominions. These
circumstances illustrate in a striking way how, in the Middle Ages,
ruthless violence was mingled with power of conscience and a
sense of righteous obligation.

William Rufus. — William the Conqueror was succeeded by his
son, William Rufus (1087-1100), who was as able a man as his290

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

father. He promised to be liberal, and to lay no unjust taxes ; but
he proved to be — especially after the death of the good Lanfranc,
the archbishop of Canterbury — a vicious and irreligious king.
The Norman nobles would have preferred to have his brother
Robert, who was duke of Normandy, for their king; but the English
stood by William. He left bishoprics and abbacies vacant that he
might seize the revenues. One of his good deeds was the appoint-
ment of the holy and learned Anselm to succeed Lanfranc; but
he quarreled with Anselm* who withdrew from the kingdom. Nor-
mandy, which he had tried to wrest from his elder brother Robert\
was mortgaged to him by the latter, in order that he might set out
upon the first Crusade. That duchy came thus into the king's
possession. William, while hunting in the New Forest, was killed,
if not accidentally, then either, as it was charged, by Walter Tyrrel\
one of the party, or by some one who had been robbed of his home
when the New Forest was made. He was found in the agonies of
death, pierced by an arrow shot from a cross-bow.

Henry I. of England (1100-1135): Louis VX (the Pat) of France
(1108-1237): Louis VII. (1137-1180). — Henry was the youngest
son of the Conqueror. His wife was English, and was a great-
granddaughter of Edmund Ironside. Her name was Edith, but
she assumed the Norman name of Matilda. Her mother Mar-
garet, wife of Malcolm of Scotland, was of the stock of the West
Saxon kings. Thus the blood of Alfred, as well as of William the
Conqueror, flowed in the veins of the later English kings. In the
absence of his older brother Robert\ who was in Jerusalem, he took
the crown, and put forth a Charter of Liberties, promising the
Church to respect its rights, and giving privileges to his vassals
which they in turn were to extend to their own vassals. Robert
came back from the Holy Land, and tried to wrest England from
his brother. He failed in the attempt After this, Henry got pos-
session of Normandy by the victory of Tinchebrai in 1106, and
kept Robert a prisoner in Cardiff Castle until his death (1135).
Louis the Fat, king of France, espoused the cause of William of
Clito, son of Robert, but was beaten in 1119 at Bienneville. Peace
was made between the two kings; but in 1124 Henry of England
combined with his son-in-law, Henry V. of Germany, for the inva-
sion of France. Louis called upon his vassals, who gathered in
such force that the emperor abandoned the scheme. Louis then
undertook to chastise those great vassals who had not responded
to his summons. William, the duke of Aquitaine, seeing the
power of his suzerain, came into his camp, and offered him his
homage. Louis inflicted a brutal punishment in Flanders, where
the count, Charles the Good, had been assassinated in 112 7, and
which had failed to furnish its contingent inn 24. He obliged
the Flemish lords to elect as their count, William of Clito, whoseENGLAND AND FRANCE.

291

rule, however, they presently cast off. Louis the Fat united his
son Louis in marriage with Eleanor, the only daughter of Wil-
liam (X.), the duke of Aquitaine, and thus paved the way for a
direct control over the South. The duchy of Aquitaine included
Gascony and other districts, and the suzerainty over Auvergne,
Perigord\ etc. Louis the VIL (1137-1180) was not able to pre-
serve the dominion, extending from the north to the south of
France, which he inherited. He plunged into a dispute with Pope
Innocent II. in relation to the church of Bourges, where he claimed
the right to name the archbishop. St Bernard took the side of
the Pope. Suger, abbot of St. Denis, an able minister, the coun-
selor of the last king, supported Louis. The king attacked the
lands of Theobald of Champagne, who sided with the Pope, and in
his wrath burned the parish church of Vitry\ with hundreds of poor
people who had taken refuge in it. His own remorse and the ex-
communication of the Pope moved him to do penance by departing
on a Crusade. Suger., not liking the risk which the monarchy in-
curred through the absence of the king, opposed the project. St.
Bernard encouraged it. The Crusade failed of any important
result \ but it helped to infuse a national spirit into the French
soldiers, who fought side by side with the army of the emperor,
Conrad III\ On his return, on the alleged ground that Eleanor
was too near of kin, he divorced her, and rendered back her dowry

Louis VII of Prance (1137-1180): Stephen (1135-1154) and
Henry IL of England (1154-1189).—The king of England, Henry
/., after the-death of his two sons by shipwreck, declared his daugh-
ter Matilda his heir. She was the widow of Henry V.y the em-
peror of Germany. In 1127 she married Geoffrey, count of
Anjou, surnamed Plantagenet on account of his habit of wearing
a sprig of broom {genet) in his bonnet. Henry left Matilda,
whom he called the " Empress," under the charge of his nephew,
Stephen of Blois, who got himself elected king by the barons or
great landowners, — as there was no law regulating the succession
of the crown, — and was crowned at Westminster. They had
sworn, however, to support Matilda. Her uncle David\ king of*
Scots, took up her cause ; but the Scots were defeated at the Battle
of the Standard in 1138. England was thrown into utter disorder
by these circumstances: some of the barons fought on one side,
and some on the other. There were thieves along the highways,
and the barons in their castles were no better than the thieves.
The empress landed in England in 1139, to recover her rights.
In the civil war that ensued, Stephen was taken prisoner (1141) ;
but Matilda, whose imperious temper made her unpopular in
London, was driven out of the city, Stephen was released in ex-
change for the Earl of Gloucester. Matilda was at one time in292	MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

great peril, but contrived to escape in a winter night from Oxford
Castle (1142). In 1153 peace was made, by which Stephen was
to retain the kingdom, but was to be succeeded by Matilda's eldest
son.

Cruelty of the Nobles.— In the time of Stephen and Matilda,
the barons, released from the strong hand of his predecessor, were
guilty of atrocities which made the people mourn the loss of Henry.

44 They built strong castles, and filled them with armed men. From these
they rode out as robbers, as a wild beast goes forth from its den. 'They
fought among themselves with deadly hatred, they spoiled the fairest lands
with fire and rapine; in what had been the most fertile of counties they
destroyed almost all the provision of bread.' Whatever money or valuable

foods they found, they carried off. They burnt houses and sacked towns,
f they suspected any one of concealing his wealth, they carried him off tcr
their castle j and there they tortured him, to make him confess where his
money was. 4 They hanged up men by their feet, and smoked them with foul
smoke. Some were hanged up by their thifmbs, others by the head, and
burning things were hung on to their feet. They put knotted strings about
men's heads, and twisted them till they went to the brain. They put men
into prisons where adders and snakes and toads were crawling, and so they
tormented them. Some they put into a chest short and narrow, and not
deep, and that had sharp stones within, and forced men therein so that they
broke all their limbs. In many of the castles were hateful and grim things
called rachentegesy which two or three men had enough to do to carry. It
was thus made: it was fastened to a beam, and had a sharp iron to go about
a man's neck and throat, so that he might noways sit or lie or sleep; but he
bore all the iron. Many thousands they starved with hunger.' The unhappy
sufferers had no one to help them. Stephen and Matilda were too busy with
their own quarrel to do justice to their subjects. Poor men cried to Heaven,
but they got no answer. 4 Men said openly that Christ and his saints were
asleep.'"

^ Dominions of Henry n. — Henry, the son of the empress and
of Count Geoffrey of Anjou, was the first of the Angevin kings of
England. They had Saxon blood in their veins, but were neither
Norman nor Saxon, except in the female line. It was eighty-eight
years since the Conquest; and, although the higher classes talked
French, almost every one of their number was of mixed descent..
The line between Saxon and Norman was becoming effaced. A
vassal of the king of France, Henry held so many fiefs that he
was stronger than the king himself, and all the other crown vassals
taken together. From his father he had Anjou ; from his mother,
Normandy and Maine; the county of Poitou and the duchy of
Aqnitaine he received by E/eanorf the divorced wife of Louis
VII., whom he married. Later, by marrying one of his sons to
the heiress of Brittany, that district, the nominal fief of Nor-
mandy, came practically under his dominion. He was a strong-
willed man, who reduced the barons to subjection, and pulled
down the castles which had been built without the king's leave.
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ENGLAND AND FRANCE.

293

long-continued discord in England, — discord in the royal family,
between the king and the clergy, and, later, between the king and
the barons. On the Continent, the king of England required a
great and united force to break the feudal bonds which grew
stronger between the king of France and the French provinces of
England. We shall soon see how France enlarged her territory,
and how the English dominion on the Continent was greatly re-
duced.

Reforms of Henry. — In order to control the barons, he ar-
ranged with them to pay money in lieu of military service. In
this way they were weakened. At the same time, he encouraged
the small landowners to exercise themselves in arms, which would
prepare them for self-defense and to assist the king. Moreover,
he sent judges through the land to hear causes. They were to
ask a certain number of men in the county as to the merits of
the cases coming before them. These men took an oath to tell the
truth. They gradually adopted the custom of hearing the evi-
dence of others before giving to the judges their verdict,— that is,
their declaration of the truth (from vere dictum). Out of this
custom grew the jury system.

Becket: Constitutions of Clarendon.—The Conqueror had
granted to ecclesiastical courts the privilege of trying cases in
which the clergy were concerned. On this privilege the clergy had
been disposed to insist ever since the fall of the Roman Empire.
Under Stephen the energetic restraint exercised upon them was
removed. In the early years of the reign of Henry II., there were
great disorders among the Norman clergy, and crimes were of
frequent occurrence. These were often punished more lightly
than the same offenses when committed by a layman, as church
courts could not inflict capital punishment. Henry undertook
to bring the clergy under the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts.
In this attempt he was resisted by Thomas a Becket, who had
been his chancelor, and whom he raised to the archbishopric of
Canterbury (1162), in the full expectation of having his support.
He had been gay and extravagant in his ways, and zealous in
behalf of whatever the king wished. But the brilliant chancelor
became a strict and austere prelate, the champion of the clergy,
with a will as inflexible as that of Henry. The only bishop that
voted against him at his election, remarked that " the king had
worked a miracle in having that day turned a layman into an
archbishop, and a soldier into a saint." In this controversy, the
clergy had reason to fear that Henry, if he got the power, would
use it to punish and plunder the innocent. At a great council of
prelates and barons, the Constitutions of Clarendon were adopted
(1164), which went far towards the subjecting of the ecclesias-
tics, as. to their appointment and conduct, to the royal will.294

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

Becket\ with the other prelates, swore to observe these statutes;
but he repented of the act, was absolved by the Pope from his
oath, and fled to France. Later a reconciliation took place be-
tween him and the king. Becket returned to England, but with
a temper unaltered. A hasty expression of Henry, uttered in
wrath, and indicating a desire to be rid of him, was taken up by
four knights, who attacked the archbishop, and slew him, near
the great altar in the cathedral at Canterbury (Dec. 29, 1170).
The higher nobles welcomed the occasion to revolt. Henry was
regarded as the instigator of the bloody deed, and was moved to
make important concessions to the Pope, Alexander III. His
life was darkened by quarrels with his sons. In 1173 the kings
of France and Scotland, and many nobles of Normandy and Eng-
land, joined hands with them. Henry, afflicted with remorse,
did penance, allowing himself to be scourged by the monks at
the tomb of Becket, or "St. Thomas,"—for he was canonized.
The people rallied to him, and the nobles were defeated. The
rebellion came to an end. The king of Scotland became more
completely the vassal of England. In another rebellion the king's
sons rebelled against him: in 1183 John, the youngest of them,
joined with his elder brothers. Then Henry's heart was broken,
and he died (in 1189).

Conquest of Ireland. — In the first year of Henry's reign, he
was authorized by Pope Hadrian IV. to invade Ireland. In 1169
Dermot of Leinster, a fugitive Irish king, undertook to enlist
adventurers for this service. He was aided by Richard of Clare,
earl of Pembroke, called Strongbow, and others. They were
successful; and in 1171 Henry crossed over to Ireland, and was
acknowledged as sovereign by all the chiefs of the South. A
synod brought the Irish Church into subjection to the see of Can-
terbury. But there was constant warfare, and the North and East
of the island were not subdued. The whole country was not con-
quered until Elizabeth's time, four centuries later.

Weakening of Great Vassals in France. — The weakening of
Henry's power was the salvation of Louis VJI., who had more the
spirit of a monk than of an active and resolute monarch. At his
death a new epoch is seen to begin. The dominion of the great
vassals declines, and the truly monarchical period commences. It
was the change which ended in making the king the sole judge,
legislator, and executive of thp country. Louis the Fat\ Philip
Augustus > and St. Louis (Louis IX.) are the early forerunners
of Louis XIV., under whom the absolute monarchy was made
complete.

Philip Augustus of France (1180-1223): Richard the Lion-
hearted of England (1189-1199). — Philip Augustus was the last
king of France to be crowned before his accession. . The customENGLAND AND FRANCE.

295

had helped to give stability to the regal system. Now it was no
longer needful. Philip was only fifteen years old when he began to
reign alone. For forty-three years he labored with shrewdness and
perseverance, and with few scruples as to the means employed, to
build up the kingly authority. His first act was a violent attack'
on thz Jews, whom he despoiled and banished. This was counted
an act of piety. He acquired Vermandois, Valois, and Amiens;
refusing to render homage to the Bishop of Amiens, who claimed
to be its suzerain. During the life of Henry 11., Philip had allied
himself closely with his son Richard (the Lion-hearted), who
succeeded his father. Richard was passionate and quarrelsome,
yet generous. He was troubadour as well as king. After his
coronation (1189), the two kings made ready for a Crusade
together. To raise money, Richard sold earldoms and crown
lands, and exclaimed that he would sell London if he could find
a buyer. The two kings set out together in 1190. They soon
quarreled. Philip came home first, and, while Richard was a
prisoner in Austria, did his best to profit by his misfortunes,
and to weaken the English reigning house. In the absence of
Richard\ John, his ambitious and unfaithful brother, was made
regent by the lords and the London citizens. As nothing was
heard of the king, John claimed the crown. Hearing of the
release of Richard\ Philip wrote to John (1194), "Take care of
yourself, for the devil is let loose." Richard made war on Philip
in Normandy, but Pope Innocent 11 L obliged the two kings to
make a truce for five years (1199). Two months after, Richard
v was mortally wounded while besieging a castle near Limoges,
where it was said that a treasure had been found, which he as
the suzerain claimed. He had never visited England but twice ;
and, although he always had the fame of a hero, the country had
no real cause to regret hjs^death.

John of England (11^^1216). — John (surnamed Sansterre, or
Lackland\ a name given to younger sons who died before they
were old enough to hold fiefs) was chosen king. Anjou, Poitou,
and Touraine desired to have for their duke young Arthur, duke of
Brittany, the son of Geoffrey, John's elder brother. Philip Augustus
took up the cause of Arthur, but deserted him when he had gained
for himself what he wished. Arthur was taken prisoner; and it
was said that John ordered his keeper, Hubert de Burgh, to put
out his eyes. His uncle was also accused of drowning him or
stabbing him with his own hand. It is certain that Arthur did
not live long after this time. Philip summoned John, as being a
vassal, to clear himself of this crime before his peers in France.
John did not appear,'and his fiefs were declared to be forfeited.
Philip seized on Normandy, which thenceforward was French, and
Brittany, which became an immediate fief of the king (1204).296	# MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

He took the other possessions of England in Northern Gaul.
There were left to the English the duchy of Aquitaine, with Gas-
cony and the Channel Islands. The lands south of the Loire,
John had inherited from his mother.

Tyranny of John. — John robbed his subjects, high and low,
under the name of taxation. Not content with forcing money out
of the Jews, one of whom he was said to have coerced by pulling
out a tooth every day, he treated rich land-owners with hardly less
cruelty. He had not, like Henry 1L, the support of the people,
and added to his unpopularity by hiring soldiers from abroad to
help him in his oppression.

John's Quarrel with the Pope: Magna Charta. — As rash as
he was tyrannical, John engaged in a quarrel with Pope Innocent III.
The monks of Canterbury appointed as archbishop, not the king's
treasurer, whom he bade them choose, but another. The Pope
neither heeded the king nor confirmed their choice, but made them
elect a religious and learned Englishman, Stephen Langton. John,
in a rage, drove the monks out of Canterbury, and refused to rec-
ognize the election. The Pope excommunicated him, and laid
England under an interdict; that is, he forbade services in the
churches, and sacraments except for infants and the dying; mar-
riages were to take place in the church porch, and the dead were to
be buried without prayer and in unconsecrated ground. As John
paid no regard to this measure of coercion, Innocent absolved his
subjects from their allegiance, and handed his kingdom over to
the king of France (1212). Resisted at home, and threatened
from abroad, John now made an abject submission, laying his
crown at the feet of Pa7idulph, the Pope's legate. He made him-
self the vassal of the Pope, receiving back from him the kingdoms
of England and Ireland, which he had delivered to Innocent, and
engaging that a yearly rent should be paid to Rome by the king of
England and his heirs. Philip had to give up his plan of invad-
ing England. John's tyranny and licentiousness had become intol-
erable. Langton, a man of large views, and the English Church,
united with the barons in extorting from him, in the meadow of
Runnymede,—an island in the Thames, near Windsor, — the Mag-
na Chartay the foundation of English constitutional liberty. It
secured two great principles: first, that the king could take the
money of his subjects only when it was voted to him for public
objects ; and secondly, that he could not punish or imprison them
at his will, but could only punish them after conviction, according
to law, by their countrymen.

The Great Charter is based on the charter of Henry I. It precisely defines and secures
old customs, x. It recognizes the rights of the Church, a. it secures person and property
from seizure and. spoliation without the judgment of peers or the law of the land.
3. There are regulations for courts of law. 4. Exactions by the lord are limited to the three
customary feudal aids (p. 956). The benefits granted to the vassal are to be extended to the lower
tenants. 5. How the Great Council is to be composed, aud how convened, is defined. 6. TheENGLAND AND FRANCE.

29 7

"liberties and free customs" of London and of other towns are secured. 7. Protection is
given against certain oppressive exactions of the Crown. 8. The safety of merchants against
exactions in coming into England, and in goin^ out, and in traveling through it, is guaranteed.
9. There is some provision in favor of the villain.

War with France. — John joined in a great coalition against •
Philip Augustus. He was to attack France in the south-west;
while the emperor, Otto IK, and the counts of Flanders and
Boulogne, with all the princes of the Low Countries, were to make
their attack on the north. It was a war of the feudal aristocracy
against the king of the French. At the great battle of Bouvines
(1214) the French were victorious. The success, in the glory of
which the communes shared, added no territory to France ; but it
awakened a national spirit. John was beaten in Poitou, and went
home.

Deposition of John.— In England, John found that all his
exertions against the Charter, even with the aid of Rome, were
unavailing. In a spirit of vengeance, he brought in mercenary
freebooters, and marched into Scotland, robbing and burning as
he went. Every morning he burned the house in which he had
lodged for the night. At length the English barons offered the
crown to Louis, the eldest son of Philip Augustus ; but John died
in 1216, and Louis found himself deserted. He had shown a dis-
position to give lands to the French.

The Albigensian War. — The war against the Albigenses began
in the reign of Philip ; but he pleaded that his hands were full, and
left it to be waged by the nobles. That sect had its seat in the
south of France, and derived its name from the city of Albi. It
held certain heterodox tenets, and rejected the authority of the
priesthood. In 1208, under Innocent III, a crusade was preached
against Raymond VI, count of Toulouse, in whose territory most
of them were found. This was first conducted by Simon de Mont-
fort, and then by Philip's son, Louis VIII, the county of Tou-
louse being a fief of France. The result of the desolating conflict
was, that, after the accession of Louis IX., the county of Tou-
louse was incorporated in the French kingdom (1229). In that
year, at the council of Toulouse, the Inquisition, a special eccle-
siastical tribunal, was organized to complete the extermination of
the Albigensians who had escaped the sword. The advantages
resulting from the crushing of the sovereignties of the South were
sure to come to the French monarchy. But Philip left it to the
nobles and to his successors to win the enticing prize.

The first period of rivalry between England and France ends
with John and Philip Augustus. For one hundred and twenty
years, each country pursues its course separately. Monarchy
grows stronger in France: constitutional government advances in
England.298

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

Louis IX. of Prance (1226-1270).—-In Louis IX. (St. Louis)
France had a king so noble and just that the monarchy was
sanctified in the eyes of the people. At his accession he was but
eleven years old, and with his mother, Blanche of Castile, had to
encounter for sixteen years a combination of great barons deter-
mined to uphold feudalism. Most of them staid away from his
coronation. When the young king and his mother approached
Paris, they found the way barred; but it was opened by the de-
voted burghers, who came forth with arms in their hands to bring
them in. The magistrates of the communes swore to defend the
king and his friends (1228). They were supported by the Papacy.
In 1231 the war ended in a way favorable to royalty. The treaty
of 12*9 with Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, led to the grad-
ual absorption of the South. Theobald of Champagne became
king of Navarre, and sold to the crown Chartres and other valu-
able fiefs. In the earlier period of his reign Louis was guided by
his wise, even if imperious, mother, who held the regency.

England and France. — In 1243 Louis defeated Henry III. of
England, who had come over to help the count of La Marche and
other rebellious nobles. In 1245 Charfcs of Anjou, the king's
brother, married Beatrice, through whom Provence passed to the
house of Anjou. The king's long absence (1248-1254), during
the sixth Crusade, had no other result but to show to all that he
combined in himself the qualities of a hero and of a saint. After
his return, his government was wise and just, and marked by sym-
pathy with his people. In 1259 he made a treaty with Henry III,
yielding to him the Limousin, Perigord\ and parts of Saintonge,
for which Henry relinquished all claims on the rest of France.
Louis fostered learning. The University of Paris flourished under
his care. In his reign Robert of Sorbon (1252) founded the
Sorbonney the famous college for ecclesiastics which bears his name.

Civil Policy of Louis. — In his civil policy Louis availed him-
self of the Roman law to undermine feudal privileges. The legists
enlarged the number of cases reserved for the king himself to
adjudicate. He established new courts of justice, higher than the
feudal courts, and the right of final appeal to himself. He made
the king's " Parliament" a great judicial body. He abolished in
his domains the judicial combat, or duel, — the old German method
of deciding between the accused and the accuser. He liberated
many serfs. But, mild as he was, he had no mercy for Jews and
heretics. In his intercourse with other nations, he blended firm-
ness and courage with a fair and unselfish spirit. He refused to
comply with the request of the Pope to take up arms against the
emperor, Frederic II.; but he threatened to make war upon him
if he did not release the prelates whom he had captured on their
way to Rome. The " Pragmatic Sanction" of St. Louis is ofENGLAND AND FRANCE.

299

doubtful genuineness. It is an assertion of the liberties of the
Gallican Church. With loyalty to the Holy See, and an exalted
piety, Louis defended the rights of all, and did not allow the clergy
to attain to an unjust control. Voltaire said of him, " It is not
given to man to carry virtue to a higher point." He stands in
the scale of merit on a level with Alfred of England.

Parliaments in Prance. — The word parliament in French history has
a very different meaning from that which it bears when applied to the
English institution of the same name. There were thirteen parliaments in
France, each having a jurisdiction of its own. They were established at
different times. Of these the Parliament of Paris was the oldest and by far
the most important. The king and other suzerains administered justice,
each in his own domain. The Parliament of Paris was originally a portion
of the king's council that was set apart to hear causes among the fiefs. It
considered all appeals and judicial questions. But in the reign of Louis
■IX., commissioners, or bail/is, of the king, held provincial courts of appeal
in his name. The great suzerains established, each in his own fief, like tri-
bunals, but of more restricted authority. Louis IX. made it optional with
the vassal to be tried by his immediate suzerain, or in the king's courts,
which were subordinate to his council. As time went on, the authority of
the royal tribunals increased, as that of the feudal courts grew weaker. In
the Parliament of Paris, a corps of legists who understood the Roman law
were admitted with the lords, knights, and prelates. More and more these
" counselors " were left to themselves. Parliament was divided into Cham-
bers, of which the Grand Chamber for the final hearing and decision of ap-
peals was of principal importance. Philip the Fair (1302) restricted Parlia-
ment to purely judicial duties. He provided that it should hold two annual
sittings at Paris. Thus there grew up a judicial aristocracy. After 1319
the members were appointed for life. At length, under Henry IV, the seats
in Parliament became hereditary. The great magistrates thus constituted
wore robes of ermine, or of scarlet adorned with velvet. The Palace of Jus-
tice (Palais de Justice), on an island in the Seine, was given to Parliament for
its sessions by Louis IX. In its hall scenes of tragic interest, including, in
modern times, the condemnation of Marie Antoinette and of Robespierre, have
taken1 place. The crown was represented by a great officer, a public prose-
cutor or attorney-general (frocureur gMral). He and his assistants were
termed the " king's people (gens du roi). They had the privilege of speak-
ing with their hats on. It was an ancient custom to enroll the royal ordi-
nances in the parliamentary records. Gradually it came to be considered
that no statute or decree had the force of law unless it was entered on the
registers of Parliament. Great conflicts occurred with the kings when Par-
liament refused "to register" their edicts or treaties. Then the king would
hold "a bed of justice," — so called from the cushions of the seat where he
sat in the hall of Parliament, whither he came in person to command them
to register the obnoxious enactment. This royal intervention could not be
resisted: commonly the enrollment would be made, but sometimes under a
protest. Each of the local parliaments claimed to be supreme in its own
province: they were held to constitute together one institution, and all the
judges were on a level. Attempts at political interference by Parliaments,
the kings resisted. At the French Revolution in 1789, the Parliaments were
finally abolished.

Henry 111.(1216-1272).—John's eldest son, Henry, when he
was crowned by the royalists, was only nine years old. For a
short time he had a wise guardian in William, Earl of Pembroke.30o

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

In two battles, one on the land and one on the sea, Louis VIIL
(1123-1126), son of Philip Augustus of France, was defeated. He
made peace, and returned to France. Henry married Eleanor,
the daughter of Raymond\ count of Provence, — a beautiful and
accomplished woman, but she was unpopular in England. The
king, as well as his wife, lavished offices, honors, and lands upon
foreigners. He was a weak prince, and unwisely accepted for his
second son, Edmund\ the crown of the Two Sicilies, which could
be won only at the expense of England. This measure induced
the barons to compel Henry to a measure equivalent to the pla-
cing of authority in the hands of a council. This brought on a war
between the king and the barons. The latter were led by Simon
de Montfort (the second of the name), who had inherited the earl-
dom of Leicester through his mother. Through him Parliament
assumed the form which it has since retained. The greater barons,
the lords or peers, with the bishops and principal abbots, came
together in person, and grew into the House of Ix>rds. The free-
holders of each county had sent some of the knights to represent
them. The attendance of these knights now began to be regular ;
but besides the two knights from each county, who were like the
county members of our own time, Simon caused each city and
borough to send two of their citizens, or burgesses. Thus the House
of Commons arose. Simon defeated Henry at Lewes (1264) : but
the barons flocked to the standard of Prince Edward\ who escaped
from custody; and Simon was defeated and slain at the battle of
Evesham in 1265. Henry was restored to power. He died in
1272, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had begun
to rebuild. Under Henry, the Great Charter, with some altera-
tions, was three times confirmed. A Charter of the Eorest was
added, providing that no man should lose life or limb for taking
the king's game. Cruel laws for the protection of game in the
forests or uncultivated lands had been a standing grievance from
the days of the Norman Conquest. The confirming of the Great
Charter in 1225 was made the condition of a grant of money from
the National Council to the king. When the bishops, in 1236,
desired to have the laws of inheritance conformed to the rules of
the Church, the barons made the laconic answer, "We will not
change the laws of England" (Nolumus leges Anglice mutare).STATE. OF SOCIETY.

301

CHAPTER IV.

RISE OP THE BURGHER CLASS; SOCIETY IN THE ERA
OP THE CRUSADES.

Rise of the Cities. — Under feudalism, only two classes present
themselves to view,—the nobility and the clergy on the one hand,
and the serfs on the other. This was the character of society in the
ninth century. In the tenth century we see the beginnings of an
intermediate class, the germ of " the third estate." This change
appears in the cities, where the burghers begin to increase in intel-
ligence, and to manifest a spirit of independence. From this
time, for several centuries, their power and privileges continued
to grow.

Growth of the Cities. — The same need of defense that led
to the building of towers and castles in the country drove men
within the walls of towns. Industry and trade developed intelli-
gence, and produced wealth. But burghers under the feudal rule
were obliged to pay heavy tolls and taxes. For example, for pro-
tection on a journey through any patch of territory, they were
required to make a payment. Besides the regular exactions, they
were exposed to most vexatious depredations of a lawless kind.
As they advanced in thrift and wealth, communities that were
made up largely of artisans and tradesmen armed themselves for
their own defense. From self-defense they proceeded farther,
and extorted exemptions and privileges from the suzerain, the
effect of which was to give them a high though limited degree
of self-government.

Origin of Municipal Freedom. — It has been supposed that
municipal government in the Middle Ages was a revival of old
Roman rights and customs, and thus an heirloom from antiquity.
The cities — those on the Rhine and in Gaul, for example — were
of Roman origin. But the view of scholars at present is, that
municipal liberty, such as existed in the Middle Ages, was a native
product of the Gerpianic peoples. The cities were incorporated
into the feudal system. They were subject to a lay lord or to a
bishop. In Italy, however, they struggled after a more complete
republican system.

Cities and Suzerains. — In the conflicts which were waged by
the cities, they were sometimes helped by the suzerain against the
king, and sometimes by the king against the nearer suzerain. In
England the cities were apt to ally themselves with the nobility
against the king: in Germany and France the reverse was the
fact. But in Germany the cities which came into an immediate
relation to the sovereign were less closely dependent on him than
were the cities in France on the French king.302

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Two Classes of Cities. — Not only did the cities wrest from
the lords a large measure of freedom: it was often freely con-
ceded to them. Nobles, in order to bring together artisans, and
to build up a community in their own neighborhood, granted ex-
traordinary privileges. Charters were given to cities by the king.
Communities thus formed differed from the other class of cities in
not having the same privilege of administering justice within their
limits.

- German Cities.—The cities in Germany increased in number
on the fall of the Hohenstaufen family. They made the inclo-
sure of their walls a place of refuge, as the nobles did the vicinity
of their castles. They eventually gained admittance to the Diets
of the empire. They formed leagues among themselves, which,
however, did not become political bodies, any more than the
Italian leagues.

The Roman Law.—-The revised study of the Roman law
brought in a code at variance with feudal principles. The middle
class, that was growing up in the great commercial cities, availed
themselves, as far as they could, of its principles in regard to the
inheritance of property. The legists helped in a thousand ways
to emancipate them from the yoke of feudal traditions.

Municipal Government — The cities themselves often had
vassals, and became suzerains. Government rested in the hands
of the magistrates. They were chosen by the general assembly
of the inhabitants, who were called together by the tolling of the
bell.. The magistrates governed without much restraint until
another election, unless there were popular outbreaks, "which
were at this time," as Guizot remarks, 44 the great guarantee for
good government." Where the courage and spirit of burghers
were displayed was in the maintenance of their own privileges, or
purely in self-defense. In all other relations they showed the
utmost humility; and in the twelfth century, when their emanci-
pation is commonly dated, they did not pretend to interfere in the
government of the country.

Travelers and Trade. — The East, especially India, was con-
ceived of as a region of boundless riches; but commerce with
the East was hinaered by a thousand difficulties and dangers.
Curiosity led travelers to penetrate into the countries of Asia.
Among them the Polo family of Venice, of whom Marco was the
most famous, were specially distinguished. Marco Polo lived in
China, with his father and his uncle, twenty-six years. After his
return, and during his captivity at Genoa, he wrote the celebrated
accounts of his travels. He died about 1324. Sir John Mande-
ville, an Englishman, who was born about 1300, traveled in Eastern
countries, and on his return wrote a narrative of his adventures,
which he dedicated to Edward 111\ Merchants did not ventureSTATE OF SOCIETY.

303

so far as did bold explorers of a scientific turn. Commerce in the
Middle Ages was mainly in two districts, — the borders of the North
Sea and of the Baltic, and the countries upon the Mediterranean.
Trade in the cities on the African coast, in the tenth and eleventh
centuries, was flourishing; and the Arabs of Spain were industri-
ous and rich. Aries, Marseilles, Nice, Genoa, Florence, Amalfi,
Venice, vied with one another in traffic with the East. Interme-
mediate between Venice and Genoa, and the north of Europe,
were flourishing marts, among which Strasburg and other cities on
the Rhine — Augsburg, Ulm, Ratisbon, Vienna, and Nuremberg —
were among the most prominent. Through these cities flowed the
currents of trade from the North to the South, and from the South
to the North.

The Hanseatic League. — To protect themselves against the
feudal lords and against pirates, the cities of Northern Germany
formed (about 1241) the Hanseatic League, which, at the height
of its power, included eighty-five cities, besides many other cities
more or less closely affiliated with it. This league was dominant,
as regards trade and commerce, in the north of Europe, and
united under it the cities on the Baltic and the Rhine, as well as
the large cities of Flanders. Its merchants had control of the
fisheries, the mines, the agriculture, and manufactures of Germany.
Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic were its principal places.
Lubeck was its chief center. In all the principal towns on the
highways of commerce, the flag of the Hansa floated over its
counting-houses. Wherever the influence of the league reached,
its regulations were in force. It almost succeeded in monopoliz-
ing the trade of Europe north of Italy.

Flanders: England: Prance. — The numerous cities of Flan-
ders— of which Ghent\ Ypres, and Bruges were best known —
became hives of industry and of thrift. Ghent\ at the end of the
thirteenth century, surpassed Paris in riches and power. In the
latter part of the fourteenth century, the number of its fighting
men was estimated at eighty thousand. The development of
Holland was more slow. Amsterdam was constituted a town in
the middle of the thirteenth century. England began to exchange
products with Spain. It sent its sheep, and brought back the
horses of the Arabians. The cities of France—Rouen, Orleans,
Rheims, Lyons, Marseilles, etc. — were alive with manufactures
and trade. In the twelfth century the yearly fairs at Troyes, St.
Denis, and Beaucaire were famous all over Europe.

New Industries. — It has been already stated that the crusaders
brought back to Europe the knowledge as well as the products of
various branches of industry. Such were the cloths of Damascus,
the glass of Tyre, the use of windmills, of linen, and of silk, the
plum-trees of Damascus, the sugar-cane, the mulberry-tree. Cotton3°4

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

stuffs came into use at this time. Paper made from cotton was used
by the Saracens in Spain in the eighth century. Paper was made
from linen at a somewhat later date. In France and Germany it
was first manufactured early in the fourteenth century.

The Jews.—-The Jews in the Middle Ages were often treated
with extreme harshness. An outburst of the crusading spirit was
frequently attended with cruel assaults upon them. As Christians
would not take interest, money-lending was a business mainly left
to the Hebrews. By them, bills of exchange were first employed.

Obstacles to Trade. — The great obstacle to commerce was the
insecurity of travel. Whenever a shipwreck took place, whatever
was cast upon the shore was seized by the neighboring lord. A
noble at Leon, in Brittany, pointing out a rock on which many ves-
sels had been wrecked, said, " I have a rock there more precious
than the diamonds on the crown of a king." It was long before
property on the sea was respected, even in the same degree as
property on the land. Not even at the present day has this
point been reached. The infinite diversity of coins was another
embarrassment to trade. In every fief, one had to exchange his
money, always at a loss. Louis VII\ ordained that the money of
eighty lords, who had the right to coin, should be current only in
their own territories, while the coinage of the king should be re-
ceived everywhere.

Guilds. — A very important feature of mediaeval society was the
guilds. Societies more or less resembling these existed among the
Romans, and were called collegia, — some being for good fellow-
ship or for religious rites, and others being trade-corporations.
There were, also, similar fraternities among the Greeks in the
second and third centuries 'B.C. In the Middle Ages,* there were
two general classes of guilds: First, there were the peace-guilds,
for mutual protection against thieves, etc., and for mutual aid in
sickness, old age, or impoverishment from other causes. They
were numerous in England, and spread over the Continent.
Secondly, there were the trade-guilds> which embraced the guilds-
merchant, and the craft-guilds. The latter were associations of
workmen, for maintaining the customs of their craft, each with a
master, or alderman, and other officers. They had their provisions
for mutual help for themselves and for their widows and orphans, and
they had their religious observances. Each had its patron saint,
its festivals, its treasury. They kept in their hands the monopoly
of the branch of industry which belonged to them. They had
their rules in respect to apprenticeship, etc. Almost all profes-
sions and occupations were fenced in by guilds.

Monasticism. — Society in the Middle Ages presented striking
and picturesque contrasts. This was nowhere more apparent than
in the sphere of religion. Along with the passion for war andSTATE OF SOCIETY.

305

the consequent reign of violence, there was a parallel self-conse-
cration to a life of peace and devotion. With the strongest relish
for pageantry and for a brilliant ceremonial in social life and in
worship, there was associated a yearning for an ascetic course
under the monastic vows. As existing orders grew rich, and gave
up the rigid discipline of earlier days, new orders were formed by
men of deeper religious earnestness. In the eleventh century,
there arose, among other orders, the Carthusian and Cistercian ;
in the twelfth century, the Premonstrants and the Carmelites, and
the order of Trinitarians for the liberation of Christian captives
taken by the Moslems. The older orders, especially that of the
Benedictines in its different branches, became very wealthy and
powerful. The Cistercian Order, under its second founder, St.
Bernard (who died in 1153), spread with wonderful rapidity.

The Mendicant Orders. — In the thirteenth century, when the
papal authority was at its height, the mendicant orders arose.
The order of St. Francis was fully established in 1223, and the
order of St. Dominic in 1216. They combined with monastic
vows the utmost activity in preaching and in other clerical work.
These orders attracted young men of talents and of a devout spirit
in large numbers. The mendicant friars were frequently in conflict
with the secular clergy, — the ordinary priesthood, — and with the
other orders. But they gained a vast influence, and were devotedly
loyal to the popes. It must not be supposed that the monastic
orders generally were made up of the weak or the disappointed
who sought in cloisters a quiet asylum. Disgust with the world,
from whatever cause, led many to become members of them; but
they were largely composed of vigorous minds, which, of their own
free choice, took on them the monastic vows.

The Rise of the Universities.—The Crusades were accompanied
by a signal revival of intellectual activity. One of the most im-
portant events of the thirteenth century was the rise of the univer-
sities. The schools connected with the abbeys and the cathedrals
in France began to improve in the eleventh century, partly from
an impulse caught by individuals from the Arabic schools in Spain.
After the scholastic theology was introduced, teachers in this
branch began to give instruction near those schools in Paris.
Numerous pupils gathered around noted lecturers. An organization
followed which was called a university, — a sort of guild, — made
up of four faculties, — theology, canon law, medicine, and the arts.
The arts included the three studies (trivium) of grammar, rheto-
ric, and philosophy, with four additional branches (the quadri-
vium), — arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy. Paris became
the mother of many other universities. Next to Paris, Oxford
was famous as a seat of education. Of all the universities, Bologna
in Italy was most renowned as a school for the study of the civil law.306

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Scholastic Theology. —The scholastic theology dates from the
middle of the eleventh century. It was the work of numerous
teachers, many of them of unsurpassed acuteness, who, at a time
when learning and scholarship were a£ a low ebb, made it their
aim to systemize, elucidate, and prove on philosophical grounds,
the doctrines of the Church. Aristotle was the author whose
philosophical writings were most authoritative with the schoolmen.
In theology, Augustine was the most revered master.

The main question in philosophy which the schoolmen debated was that
of Nominalism and Realism. The question was, whether a general term, as
man> stands for a real being designated by it (as man, in the example given,
for humanity), or is simply the name of divers distinct individuals.

The Leading Schoolmen. — In the eleventh century Anselm of Can-
terbury was a noble example of the scholastic spirit. In the thirteenth
century Abelard was a bold and brilliant teacher, but with less depth and
discretion. He, like other eminent schoolmen, attracted multitudes of pu-
pils. The thirteenth century was the golden age of scholasticism. Then
flourished Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, St. Bonaventura, and others
very influential in their day. There were two schools of opinion,—that of the
Thomists, the adherents of Aquinas, the great theologian of the Dominican
order; and that of the Scotists% the adherents of Duns Scotus, a great light of
the Franciscans. They differed on various theological points not involved
in the common faith.

The discussions of the schoolmen were often carried into distinctions
bewildering from their subtlety. There were individuals who were more
disposed to the inductive method of investigation, and who gave attention to
natural as well as metaphysical science. Perhaps the most eminent of these
is Roger Bacon, He was an Englishman, was born in 1219, and died about
1294. He was imprisoned for a time on account of the jealousy with which
studies in natural science and new discoveries in that branch were regarded
by reason of their imagined conflict with religion. Astrology was cultivated by
the Moors in Spain in connection with astronomy. It spread among the
Christian nations. Alchemyy the search for the transmutation of metals,
had its curious votaries. But such pursuits were popularly identified with
diabolic agency.

The Vernacular Literatures: the Troubadours. — Intellectual
activity was for a long time exclusively confined to theology. The earliest
literature of a secular cast in France belongs to the tenth and eleventh
centuries, and to the dialect of Provence. The study of this language, and
the poetry composed in it, became the recreation of knights and noble ladies.
Thousands of poets, who were called Troubadours (from trobar, to find or
invent), appeared almost simultaneously, and became well known in Spain
and in Italy as well as in France. At the same time the period of chivalry
began. The theme of their tender and passionate poems was love. They
indulged in a license which was not offensive, owing to the laxity of manners
and morals in Southern France at that day, but would be intolerable in a
different state of society. Kings, as well as barons and knights, adopted the
Proven5al language, and figured as troubadours. In connection with jousts
and tournaments, there would be a contest for poetical honors. The " Court
of Love," made up of gentle ladies, with the lady of the castle at their head,
gave the verdict. Besides the songs of love, another class of Proven9al
poems treated of war or politics, or were of a satirical cast. From the
Moors of Spain, rhyme, which belonged to Arabian poetry, was introduced,
and spread thence over Europe. After the thirteenth century the trouba-
dours were heard of no more, and the Provensal tongue became a mere
dialect.STATE OF SOCIETY.	307

The Norman Writers.—The first writers and poets in the French
language proper appeared in Normandy. They called themselves Trou-
vires. ^ They were the troubadours of the North. They composed romances
of chivalry, and Fabliaux, or amusing tales. They sang in a more warlike
and virile strain than the poets of the South. Their first romances were
written late in the twelfth century. About that time Villehardouin wrote in
French a history of the conquest of Constantinople. From the poem en-
titled " Alexander," the name of Alexandrine verse came to be applied to
the measure in which it was written. A favorite theme of the romances of
chivalry was the mythical exploits of Arthur, the last Celtic king of Britain,
and of the knights of the Round Table. Another class of romances of chiv-
alry related to the court of Charlemagne. The Fabliaux in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries were largely composed of tales of ludicrous adventures.

German, English, and Spanish Writers. — In Germany, in the age
of the Hohenstaufens, the poets called Minnesingers abounded. They were
conspicuous at the splendid tournaments and festivals. In the thirteenth
century numerous lays of love, satirical fables, and metrical romances were
composed or translated. Of the Round Table legends, that of the San Graal
(the real blood) was the most popular. It treated of the search for the
precious blood of Christ, which was said to have been brought in a cup or
charger into Northern Europe by Joseph of Arimathea. During this period
the old ballads were thrown into an epic form; among them, the Nibelungen-
lied\ the Iliad of Germany. The religious faith and loyalty of the Spanish
character, the fruit of their long contest with the Moors, are reflected in the
poem of the Cid, which was composed about the year 1200. It is the oldest
epic poem in any of the Romance languages. In England during this period,
we have the chronicles kept in the monasteries. Among their authors are
William of. Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth^ and Matthew Paris, a Bene-
dictine monk of St. Albans.

Dante. — Dante, the chief poet of Italy, and the father of its vernacular
literature, was born in Florence in 1265. The Divine Comedy is universally
regarded as one of the greatest products of poetical genius.

The family of Alighieri, to which Dante belonged, was noble, but not of the highest rank.
He was placed under the best masters, and became not only an accomplished student of Virgil
and other Latin poets, but also an adept in theology and in various other branches of knowl-
edge. His training was the best that the time afforded. His family belonged to the anti-
imperial party of Guelfs. The spirit of faction raged at Florence. Dante was attached to the
party of Whites" (Biancht"), and. having held the high office of prior in Florence, was ban-
ished, with many others, when the "Blacks" (Neri) got the upper hand (1302). Until his
death, nineteen years later, he wandered from place to place in Italy as an exile. Circum-
stances, especially the distracted condition of the country, led him to ally himself with the Ghi-
bellineSy and to favor the imperial cause. All that he saw and suffered until he breathed his
last, away from his native city, at Ravenna, combined to stir within him the thoughts and
passions which find expression in his verse.

No poet before Dante ever equaled him in depth of thought and feeling. His principal
work is divided into three parts. It is an allegorical vision of hell, purgatory, and heaven.
Through the first two of these regions, the poet is conducted by Virgil. In the third, Beatrice
is his ^uide. When he was a boy of nine years of age. he had met, at a May-day festival,
Beatrice % who was of the same age; and thenceforward he cherished towards her a pure and
romantic affection. Before his twenty-fifth year she died; but, after her death, his thoughts
dwelt upon her with a refined but not less passionate regard. She is his imaginary guide
through the abodes of the blest. His Young Life (Vita Nuova) gives the histoiy of his
love. The " Divine Comedy" — so called because the author would modestly place it below
the rank of an epic, — besides the lofty genius which it exhibits, besides the matchless force
and beauty of its diction, sums up, so to speak, what is best and most characteristic in the
whole intellectual and religious life of the Middle Ages. Thotnas Aquinas was Dante's
authority in theology. The scholastic system taught by the Church is brought to vieW in his
pictures of the supernatural world, and in the comments connected with them.

Painting. — After the Lombard conquest of Italy, art branched off into
two schools. The one was the Byzantine, and the other the Late Roman.
In the Byzantine paintings, the human figures are stiff, and conventional forms
prevail. The Byzantine school conceived of Jesus as without beauty of per-308

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

son,—literally " without form or comeliness." The Romans had a directly
opposite conception. Byzantine taste had a strong influence in Italy, espe-
cially at Venice. This is seen in the mosaics of St. Mark's Cathedral. The
first painter to break loose, from Byzantine influence, and to introduce a more
free style which flourished under the patronage of the Church, was Cimabue
(1240-1302), who is generally considered the founder of modern Italian paint-
ing. The first steps were now taken towards a direct observation and imita-
tion of nature. The artist is no longer a slavish copyist of others. " Cima»
bue" says M. Taine, "already belongs to the new order of things; for he
invents and expresses." But Cimabue was far outdone by Giotto (1276-1337),
who cast off wholly the Byzantine fetters, studied nature earnestly, and
abjured that which is false and artificial. Notwithstanding his technical de-
fects, his force, and " his feeling for grace of action and harmony of color,"
were such as to make him, even more than Citnalme," the founder of the true
ideal style of Christian art, and the restorer of portraiture." " His, above
all, was a varied, fertile, facile, and richly creative nature." The contempo-
rary of Dante, his portrait of the poet has been discovered in recent times on
a wall in the Podesta at Florence. " He stands at the head of the school of
allegorical painting, as the latter of that of poetry." The most famous pupil
of Giotto was Taddeo Gaddi (about 1300-1367).

Sculpture. — In the thirteenth century, the era of the revival of art in
Italy, a new school of sculpture arose under the auspices especially of two
artists, Niccolo of Pisa and his son Giovanni. They brought to their art the
same spirit which belonged to Giotto in painting and to Dante in poetry. The
same courage that moved the great poet to write in his own vernacular
tongue, instead of in Latin, emboldened the artists to look away from the
received standards, and to follow nature. In the same period a new and
improved style of sculpture appears in other countries, especially in the
Gothic cathedrals of Germany and France.

Architecture. — The eailiest Christian churches were copies of the
Roman basilica,—a civil building oblong in shape, sometimes with and some-
times without rows of columns dividing the nave from the aisles: at one
end, there was usually a semicircular apse. Most of the churches of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries were built after this style. Then changes were
introduced, which in some measure paved the way for the Gothic, the pecul-
iar type of mediaeval architecture. The essential characteristic of this style is
the pointed arch. This mav have been introduced by the returning crusaders
from buildings which they nad observed in the East. Its use and develop-
ment in the churches and other edifices of Europe in the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries were without previous example. The Gothic style was carried
to its perfection in France, and spread over England and Germany. The
cathedrals erected in this form are still the noblest and most attractive build-
ings to be seen in the old European towns.

The cathedral of Rheints was commenced in tan: the choir was dedicated in 1341, and the
edifice was completed in 1430. The cathedral of Amiens was begun in iaao; that of Char•
tres was begun about ioao, and was dedicated in ia6o; that of Salisbury was begun in iaao;
that of Cologne, in 1348; the cathedral of Strasburg was only half finished in 1318, when the
architect, Erwin 0/ S/einbach, died; that of Notre Dame in Paris was begun in 1163; that
of Toledo, in 1358. These noble buildings were built gradually: centuries passed before the
completion of them. Several of them to this day remain unfinished.FRANCE.— THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.

• - * -	Philip VI, 1326-1350, vt. Jeanne, daughter of Robert II, Duke of Burgundy.

John, 1350-1364, m. Bona, daughter of John, King of Bohemia.

Charles V, 1364-1380, m. Jeanne, daughter of Peter I, Duke of Bourbon.

I---1.

Charles VI, 1380-1422,	^	^ Louis, Duke of Orleans (d. 1407),

m. Isabella, daughter of Stephen, Duke of Bavaria.	m. Valentina, daughter of Gian Galeazzo, Duke of Milan.

Charles VII, 1422-1461, nt. Mary, daughter of Louis II of Anjou.	Charles, Duke of Orleans (d. 1467), John, Count of AngoulSme

m. Mary of Cleves.	_I (<£1467).

Lou

is XI, 1461-1483, m. (2), Charlotte, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy.

r

Charles, count {d. 1496),

n. Louisa, daughter of Philip II, Duke of Savoy.

3, Charles VIII, 1483-1498,	2, Anne of Bretagne, m. Louis XII, 1498-1515.

m. Anne of Bretagne.

Claude, m. Francis I, 1515-1547.	Margaret, m. (2), Henry II of Navarre.

Henry II, 1547-1559, m. Catherine de Medici, d. 1589. Jeanne, m. Antony of Bourbon.

1 _1

Francis II, 1550-1560, Charles IX, 1560-1574,	Henry III, 1574-1580,

tn. Mary, Queen of Scots, m. Elizabeth, daughter of Emperor th. Louis, daughter of Nicholas,

Maximilian II.	Duke of Mercoeur.

1

Margaret, m. Henry IV, succeeded 1589.ENGLAND. — DESCENDANTS OF EDWARD I.

Edward I, 1272-1307,

m. 1, Eleanor, daughter of Ferdinand III of Castile; 2, Margaret, daughter of Philip III of France.

4, Edward II, 1307-1327, m. Isabel, daughter of Philip IV of France.
Edward III, 1327-1377, m. Philippa, daughter of William III of Hainault.

1—:-

Edward, the Black Prince,
m. Joan of Kent.

Lionel,

Duke of Clarence.

1

Richard II, 1377-1399,
m. Anne, daughter of Emperor
Charles IV.

John of Gaunt,
Duke of Lancaster.

1—'

Henry IV, 1399-1413.
Henry V, 1412-1422.
Henry VI, 1422-1461.

Edmund, Duke of York.
Richard, Earl of Cambridge.
Richard, Duke of York.

1 :	I

Edward IV, 1461-1483. Richard III, 1483-1485.
Edward V (d\ 1483).

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&Period IV.

FROM THE END OF THE CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF
CONSTANTINOPLE.

(A.D. 1270-1453.)

the decline of ecclesiastical authority: the growth
of the national spirit and of monarchy.

Character of the New Era. — The Church was supreme in the
era of the Crusades. These had been great movements of a soci-
ety of which the Pope was the head, — movements in which
the pontiffs were the natural leaders. We come now to an era
when the predominance of the Church declines, and the Papacy
loses ground. Mingled with religion, there is diffused a more secu-
lar spirit. The nations grow to be more distinct from one another.
Political relations come to be paramount. The national spirit
grows strong, — too strong for outside ecclesiastical control. With-
in each nation the laity is inclined to put limits to the power and
# privileges of the clergy. In several of the countries, monarchy in
the modern European form gets a firm foothold. The enfran-
chisement of the towns, the rise of commerce, the influence gained
by the legists and by the Roman law, of which they were the ex-
pounders, had betokened the dawn of a new era. The develop-
ment of the national languages and literatures signified its coming.
Germany and the Holy Roman Empire no longer absorb attention.
What is taking place in France and England is, to say the least, of
• equal moment.

CHAPTER I.

england and france: second period of rivalship:
the hundred years' war (a.d. 1339-1453).

Philip III. of France (1270-1285).— In France royalty made a
steady progress down to the long War of a Hundred Years. Philip
IIL (1270-1285) married his son to the heiress of Navarre. His
sway extended to the Pyrenees. He failed in an expedition against

3U312

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Peter, king of Aragon, who had supported the Sicilians against
Charles of Anjou; but the time for foreign conquests had not
come.

- Philip IV. of France (1285-1314): War with Edward I. of Eng-
land.— Philip IV. (the Fair) has/been styled the "King of the
Legists." He surrounded himself with lawyers, who furnished him,
from their storehouse of Roman legislation, weapons with which
to face baron and pope. In 1292 conflicts broke out between
English and French sailors. Philip, in his character as suzerain,
undertook to take peaceful possession of Guienne, but was pre-
vented by the English garrisons. Thereupon he summoned
Edward I. of England, as the holder of the fiefs, before his court.
Edward sent his brother as a deputy, but the French king de-
clared that the fiefs were forfeited in consequence of his not
appearing in person.

In the war that resulted (1294-1297), each party had his natu-
ral allies. Philip had for his allies the Welsh and the Scots, while
Edward was supported by the Count of Flanders and by Adolphus
of Nassau, king of the Romans. In Scotland, William Wallace
withstood Edward. Philip was successful in Flanders and in
Guienne. Edward, who was kept in England by his war with the
Scots, secured a truce through the mediation of Pope Boniface
VIII. Philip then took possession of Flanders, with the exception
of Ghent. Flanders was at that time the richest country in Europe.
Its cities were numerous, and the whole land was populous and
industrious. From England it received the wool used in its thriv-
ing manufactures. To England its people were attached. Philip
loaded the Flemish people with imposts. They rose in revolt, and
Robert d'Artois, Philip's brother, met with a disastrous defeat in a
battle with the Flemish troops at Courtrai, in 1302. The Flemish
burghers proved themselves too strong for the royal troops. Flan-
ders was restored to its count, four towns being retained by
France.

Conflict of Philip IV. and Boniface VIIL — The expenses of
Philip, in the support of his army and for other purposes, were
enormous. The old feudal revenues were wholly insufficient for
the new methods of government. To supply himself with money,
he not only levied onerous taxes on his subjects, and practiced
ingenious extortion upon the Jews, but he resorted again and
again to the device of debasing the coin. His resolution to tax
the property of the Church brought him into a controversy, mo-
mentous in its results, with Pope Boniface VIII. (p. 313).

Boniface's idea of papal prerogative was fully as exalted as that
formerly held by Hildebrand and Innocent III. But he had less
prudence and self-restraint, and the temper of the times was now
altered. If Philip was sustained by the Roman law and its inter-ENGLAND AND FRANCE.	313

preters, whose counsels he gladly followed, Boniface, on the other
hand, could lean upon the system of ecclesiastical or canon law,
which had long been. growing up in Europe, and of which the
Canonists were the professional expounders. The vast wealth of
the clergy had led to enactments for keeping it within bounds*
like the statute of mortmain in England (1279) forbidding the
giving of land to religious bodies without license from-the king.
The word mortmain meant dead hand, and was applied to possess-
ors of land, especially ecclesiastical corporations, that could not
alienate it. The jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts, which kings,
because they happened to have a less liking for feudal law, had
often favored, had now come to be another great matter of con-
tention. In 1296 Boniface VIII., in the bull clericis laicos, —so
named, like other papal edicts, from the opening words, — for-
bade the imposition of extraordinary taxes upon the clergy with-
out the consent of the Holy See. Philip responded by forbidding
foreigners to sojourn in France, which was equivalent to driving
out - of the country the Roman priests and those who brought in
the obnoxious bull. At the same time he forbade money to be
carried out of France* This last prohibition cut off contributions
to Rome. The king asserted the importance of the laity in the
Church, as well as of the clergy, and the right of the king of
France to take charge of his own realm. There was a seeming
reconciliation for a time, through concessions on the side of the
Pope; but the strife broke out afresh in 1301. Philip arrested
Bernard Saisset, a bold legate of the Pope. Boniface poured forth
a stream of complaints against Philip (1301), and went so far as
to summon the French clergy to a council at Rome for the settle-
ment of all disorders in France. The king then appealed to the
French nation. On the 10th of April, 1302, he assembled in the
Church of Notre Dame, at Paris, a body which, for the first time,
contained the deputies of the universities and of the towns, and
for this reason is considered to have been the first meeting of the
States General. The clergy, the barons, the burghers, sided cor-
dially with the king. The Pope then published the famous bull,
Unam Sanctamy in which the subjection of the temporal power to
the spiritual is proclaimed with the strongest emphasis. Boniface
then excommunicated Philip, and was preparing to depose him,
and to hand over his kingdom to the emperor, Albert /.

Death of Boniface VIII.— Meantime Philip' had assembled
anew the States General (1303). The legists lent their counsel
and active support. It was proposed to the king to convoke a
general council of the Church, and to summon the Pope before
it. William of Nogaret, a great lawyer in the service of Philip,
was directed to lodge with Boniface this appeal to a council, and
to publish it at Rome. With Sciarra Colonna, between whose fam-3H

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

ily and the Pope there was a mortal feud, Nogaret, attended also
by several hundred hired soldiers, entered Anagni, where Boniface
was then'staying. The two messengers heaped upon him the se-
verest reproaches, and Colonna is said to have struck the old pon-
tiff in the face with his mailed hand. The French were driven
out of the town by the people; but from the indignities which he
had suffered, and the anger and shame consequent upon them,
Boniface shortly afterwards died.

The "Babylonian Captivity" (1309-1379). — From the date of
the events just narrated, the pontifical authority sank, and the
secular authority of sovereigns and nations was in the ascendant.
After the short pontificate of Benedict XL, who did what he
could to reconcile the ancient but estranged allies, France and
the Papacy, a French prelate, the Archbishop of Bordeaux, was
made pope under the name of Clement V., he having previously
engaged to comply with the wishes of Philip. While the Papacy
continued subordinate to the French king, its moral influence in
other parts of Christendom was of necessity reduced. Clement V,
was crowned at Lyons in 1305, and in 1309 established himself
at Avignon, a possession of the Holy See on the borders of France.
After him there followed at Avignon seven popes who were subject
to French influence (1309-1376). It is the period in the annals
of the Papacy which is called the " Babylonian captivity." Philip
remained implacable. He was determined to secure the condem-
nation of Boniface VLLL, even after his death. Clement V\ had
no alternative but to summon a council, which was held at Vienne
in 1311, when Boniface was declared to have been orthodox, at
the same time that Philip was shielded from ecclesiastical censure
or reproach.

Suppression of the Knights Templars. — One of the demands
which Philip had made of Clement V., and a demand which the
council had to grant, was the condemnation of the order of Knights
Templars, whose vast wealth Philip coveted. On the 13th of
October, 1307, the Templars were arrested over all France, — an
act which evinces both the power of Philip, and his injustice.
They were charged with secret immoralities, and with practices
involving impiety. Provincial councils were called together to
decree the judgment preordained by the king. The Templars
were examined under torture, and many of them were burned at
the stake. A large number of those who were put to death re-
voked the confessions which had been extorted from them by
bodily suffering. Individuals may have been guilty of some of
the charges, but there is no warrant for such a verdict against the
entire order. The order was abolished by Clement V.

Law Studies: Mercenary Troops. — During the reign of Philip
the Fair, it was ordained that Parliament should sit twice every yearENGLAND AND FRANCE.

315

at Paris (1303). A university for the study of law was founded at
Orleans. The king needed soldiers as well as lawyers. Mercenary
troops were beginning to take the place of feudal bands. Philip
brought the Genoese galleys against the ships of Flanders.

The Three Sons of Philip: the "Salic Law." — Three sons of~
Philip reigned after him. Louis X. (1314-1316) was induced to*
take part in an aristocratic reaction, in behalf of " the good old
customs," against the legists; but he continued to emancipate the
serfs. At the accession of Philip V\ (1316-1322), it was decreed
that no female should succeed to the throne of France. This was
imagined to be a part of the old "Salic Law." The rule was
really the result of the "genealogical accident" that for three
hundred and forty-one years, or since the election of Hugh Capet\
every French king had been succeeded by his son. In several
cases the son had been crowned in the lifetime of the father. Thus
the principle of heredity, and of heredity in the male line, had
taken root.

Under Philip V. and his successor, Charles IV\ (1322-1328), there was
cruel persecution of the Jews, and many people suffered death on the charge
of sorcery.

Edward L of England (1272-1307): Conquest of Wales: Wil-
liam Wallace. — Edward\ who was in the Holy Land when his
father died, was a gallant knight and an able ruler, — " the most
brilliant monarch of the fourteenth century." Llywelyn, prince of
Wales, having refused to render the oath due from a vassal, was
forced to yield. When a rebellion broke out several years later,
Wales was conquered, and the leader of the rebellion was executed
(1273). Thus Wales was joined to England; and the king gave to
his son the title of " Prince of Wales," which the eldest son of the
sovereign of England has since worn. Edward was for many years
at war with Scotland, which now included the Gaelic-speaking peo-
ple of the Highlands, and the English-speaking people of the Low-
lands. The king of England had some claim to be their suzerain, a
claim which the Scots were slow to acknowledge. The old line of
Scottish princes of the Celtic race died out. Alexander III. fell
with his horse over a cliff on the coast of Fife. Two competitors for
the throne arose, both of them of Norman descent,—John Baliol
and Robert Bruce. The Scots made Edward an umpire, to decide
which of them should reign. He decided for Baliol (1292), stip-
ulating that the suzerainty should rest with himself. When he
called upon Baliol to aid him against France, the latter renounced
his allegiance, and declared war. He was conquered at Dunbar
(1297), and made prisoner. Hie strongholds in Scotland fell
into the hands of the English. The country appeared to be sub-
jugated, but the Scots were ill-treated by the English. William
Wallace put himself at the head of a band of followers, defeated3i6

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

them near Stirling in 1292, and kept up the contest for several
years with heroic energy. At length Edward, through the skill
acquired by the English in the use of the bow, was the victor at
Falkirk in 1298. Wallace, having been betrayed into his hands,
was "brutally executed in London (1305).

Edward carried off from Scone the stone on which the Scottish kings had always been
crowned. It is now in Westminster Abbey, under the coronation chair of the sovereign of
Great Britain. There was a legend, that on this same stone the patriarch Jacob laid his head
when he beheld angels ascending and descending at Bethel. Where that stone was, it was
believed that Scottish kings would reign. This was held to be verified when English kings of
Scottish descent inherited the crown.

Robert Bruce. — The struggle for Scottish independence was
taken up by Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who had claimed
the crown. His plan to gain the throne was disclosed by John
Comyn, nephew of Baliol: this Cornyn young Bruce stabbed in a
church at Dumfries. He was then crowned king at Scone, and
summoned the Scots to his standard. The English king sent his
son Edward to conquer him; but the king himself, before he could
reach Scotland, died.

Parliament: the Jews. — Under Edward, the form of govern-
ment by king, lords, and commons was firmly established. Parlia-
ment met in two distinct houses. Against his inclination he swore
to the " Confirmation of the Charters/' by which he engaged not to
impose taxes without the consent of Parliament. The statute of
mortmain has been referred to already. The clergy paid their
taxes to the king when they found, that, unless they did so, the judges
would not protect them. Edward had protected the Jews, who, in
England as elsewhere, were often falsely accused of horrible crimes,
and against whom there existed, on account of their religion, a vio-
lent prejudice. At length he yielded to the popular hatred, and
banished them from the kingdom, permitting them, however, to
take with them their property.

Edward II. (1307-1327). — Edivard //., a weak.and despicable
sovereign, cared for nothing but pleasure.

He was under the influence of the son of a Gascon gentleman, Peter of
Gaveston, whom, contrary to the injunction of his# father, he recalled from ban-
ishment. Gaveston was made regent while the king was in France, whither he
went, in 1308, to marry Isabel, daughter of Philip the Fair. After his return,
the disgust of the barons at the conduct of Gaveston, and at the courses into
which Edward was led by him, was such, that in 1310 they forced the king to
give the government for a year to a committee of peers, by whom Gaveston
was once more banished. When he came back, he was captured by the
barons, and beheaded in 1312.

Bruce : Bannockburn: Deposition of Edward II. —- After vari-
ous successes, Robert Bruce laid siege to Stirling in 1314. This
led to a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons.
Edward set out for Scotland with an army of a hundred thou-
sand men. A great battle took place at Bannockburn, whereENGLAND AND FRANCE.

317

Bruce, with a greatly inferior force of foot-soldiers, totally defeated
the English. He had dug pits in front of his army, which he had
covered with turf resting on sticks. The effect was to throw, the
English cavalry into confusion. Against the Despencers, father
and son, the next favorites of Edward, the barons were not at first,
successful; but in 1325 Edward's queen, Isabel, who had joined
his enemies, returned from France with young Edward, Prince of
Wales, and at the head of foreign soldiers and exiles. The barons
joined her: the Despencers were taken and executed. The king
was driven to resign the crown. He was carried from one castle to
another, and finally was secretly murdered at Berkeley Castle, by
Roger Mortimer, in whose custody he had been placed.

On the suppression of the Knights Templars by Pope Clement V., their property in
England was confiscated. The Temple, which was their abode in London, became afterwards
the possession of two societies of lawyers, the Inner and Middle Temple.

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR!

PERIOD I. (TO THB PEACH OP BRETTIGNY. I860).

Origin of the War: Edward III. of England (1327-1377).—

England and France entered on one of the longest wars of which
there is any record in history. It lasted, with only a few short
periods of intermission, for a hundred years. At the outset, there
were two main causes of strife. First, the king of France naturally
coveted the English territory around Bordeaux, — Guienne, whose
people were French. Secondly, the English would not allow Flan-
ders — whose manufacturing towns, as Ghent and Bruges, were the
best customers for their wool — to pass under French control.
Independently of these grounds of dispute, Edward III laid claim
to the French crown, for the reason that his mother was the sister
of the last king, while Fhilip VI (1328-1350), then reigning, was
only his cousin. The French stood by the "Salic law," but a
much stronger feeling was their determination not to be ruled by
an Englishman.

Edward III. claimed the throne of France in right of his mother, Isabel
the daughter of Philip IV. The States General in France, on the ground
of the 44 Salic law," decided that the crown 6hould be given to Philip { VI.),
his nephew, of the house of Valois, a younger line of the Capets. Edward
rendered to him, in 1328, feudal homage for the duchy of Guienne, but took
the first favorable occasion to re-assert his claim to the throne. Robert //.,
Count of Artois, was obliged to fly from France on a charge of having poi-
soned his aunt and her daughters, as a part of his unsuccessful attempt to
get possession of the fiefs left to them by his grandsire. He went over to
England from Brussels, and stirred up the young English king to attack
Philip (1334). David Bruce, whom Edward sought to drive out of Scotland,
received aid from France. Philip ordered Louis, Count of Flanders, be-
tween whom and the burghers there was no affection, to expel the English
from his states. James Van Arteveld, a brewer of Ghent, convinced the
people that it .was better to get rid oI the count* and ..ally themselves with318

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

the English. Edward even then hesitated about entering into the conflict,
but the demands and measures of Philip showed that he was bent on war.
The princes in the neighborhood of Flanders, and the emperor Louis V.t to
whom the Pope at Avignon was hostile, declared on the side of Edward.

The following tables (in part repeated, in a modified form, from previous tables,
and here connected) will illustrate the narrative: —

THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.

Charles, Count of Valois (d. 1325), younger son of Philip III, King of France.
i	(Sec below.)

Philip VI, 1328-1350.

John the Good, 1350-1364.

1-1-1-f

Charles V the Wise, Louis. Duke of Anjou, John, Duke Philip, Duke of Burgundy
1364-1380.	founder of the second of Berry.	(d. 1404).

Royal House of Naples.

'r^-1

Charles VI, 1380-1422. Louis, Duke of Orleans (assassinated 1407), founder of the
|	House of Valois-Orleans.

Charles VII, 1422-1461.

Louis XI, 1461-1483.

Charles, Duke of Orleans {d. 1467).

Charles VIII, 1483-1498.

Jeanne, tn. Duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis XII,
1498-1515.

Philip III, 1270-1285.

I-

Philip IV, 1285-13x4.

Charles, Count of Valois (d. 1325),
m. (x), Margaret of Naples.

Isabel,	Philip V, Charles IV,

tn. Edward II of England. 1316-1322.	1322-1328.

Philip VI, 1328-1350.

Edward III of England.

Early Events of the War. — Hostilities began in 1337. Ed-
ward entered France, and then for the first time publicly set up
his claim to be king of France, quartering the lilies on his shield ;
and he was accepted by the Flemish as their suzerain. The first
battle was on the sea near Fort Sluys (1340), where Edward wonENGLAND AND FRANCE.

319

a victory, and thirty thousand Frenchmen were slain or drowned.
This established the supremacy of the English on the water.
The fleet of the French was made up of hired Castilian and
Genoese vessels. In 1341 the conflict was renewed on account
of a disputed succession in Brittany, in which the " Salic law"
was this time on the English side.

Jane of Penthievre was supported by Philip ; while Jane of Mont fort, an
intrepid woman who was protected by Edward\ contended for the rights of
her husband. This war, consisting of the sieges of fortresses and towns, was
kept up for twenty-four years.	*

Battle of Cr^cy: Calais: Brittany. — In 1346 the Count of
Derby made an attack in the south of France, while Edward\ with
his young son Edward\ the Prince of Wales, landed in Normandy,
which he devastated. King Edward advanced to the neighbor-
hood of Paris; but the want of provisions caused him to change his
course, and to march in the direction of Flanders. His situation
now became perilous. He was followed by Philip at the head of ,
a powerful army; and, had there been more energy and prompti-
tude on the side of the French, the English forces might have been
destroyed. Edward was barely able, by taking advantage of a ford
at low tide, to cross the Somme, and to take up an advantageous
position at Crecy. There he was attacked with imprudent haste
by the army of the French. The chivalry of France went down
before the solid array of English archers, and Edward gained an
overwhelming victory. Philip's brother Charles, count of Alen-
con, fell, with numerous other princes and nobles, and thirty thou-
sand soldiers (1346). In the battle, the English king's eldest son
— Edward\ the Black Prince as he was called from the color of
his armor — was hard pressed; but the father would send no aid,
saying, " Let the boy win his spurs." It was the custom to give
the spurs to the full-fledged knight. After a siege, Calais, the port
so important to the English, was captured by them. The deputies
of the citizens, almost starved, came out with cords in their hands,
to signify their willingness to be hanged. The French were driven
out, and Calais was an English town for more than two centuries.
France was defeated on all sides. The Scots, too, were van-
quished ; and David Bruce was made prisoner (1346). In Brit-
tany the French party was prostrate. A truce between the kings
was concluded for ten months.	\

The 44 Black Death." — In the midst of these calamities, the
fearful pestilence swept over France, called the "Black Death."
It came from Egypt, possibly from farther east. In Florence
three-fifths of the inhabitants perished by it. From Italy it passed
over to Provence, and thence moved northward to Paris, spread-
ing destruction in its path. It reached England, and there it is
thought by some that one-half of the population perished (1347-

1349)-320

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

English and French Armies. — At this time, when the power of
France was so reduced, the king acquired Montpellier from James
of Aragon, and the Dauphin^ of Vienne by purchase from the
last Dauphin, Humbert II, who entered a monastery. Dauphin
became the title of the heir of the French crown. It was con-
stantly evident how deep a root the royal power had struck into
the soil of France. At times, when the kingdom was almost gone,
the kingship survived. But, unhappily, there was no union of
orders and classes. Chivalry looked with disdain upon the com-
mon people. The poor Genoese archers who had fought with the
French at Crecy, and whose bow-strings were wet by a shower,
were despised by the gentlemen on horseback. In the French
armies, there was no effective force but the cavalry, and there was
a fatal lack of subordination and discipline. In England, on the
contrary, under kings with more control over the feudal aristocracy,
and from the combination of lords and common people in resist-
ance to kings, the English armies had acquired union and discipline.
The bow in the hands of the English yeoman was a most effective
weapon. The English infantry were more than a match for the
brave and impetuous cavaliers of France. At Crecy the entire
English force fought on foot. Cannon were just beginning to
come into use. This brought a new advantage to the foot-soldier.
But there is no proof that cannon were employed at Crecy.

Battle of Poitiers: Insurrection in Paris. — Philip left his
crown to his son, John (II.) of Normandy, called "the Good"
(1350-1364) ; but the epithet (le Bon) signifies not the morally
worthy, but rather, the prodigal, gay and extravagant. He was
a passionate, rash, and cruel king. His relations with Charles
" the Bad,", king of Navarre,—who, however, was the better man
of the two, — brought disasters upon France. This Charles II of
Navarre (1349-1387) was the grandson, on his mother's side, of
Louis X. of France. John had withheld, from him promised fiefs.
Later he had thrown him into prison. Philip of Navarre, the
brother of Charles, helped the English against John in Normandy.
Meanwhile the Prince of Wales (the-Black Prince) ravaged the
provinces near Guienne. The national spirit in France was roused
by the peril. The States General granted large supplies of men
and money, but only on the condition that the treasure should be
dispensed under their superintendence, and that they should be
assembled every year. The army of the Black Prince was small,
and he advanced so far that he was in imminent danger; but the
attack on him at Poitiers (1356), by the vastly superior force of
King John, was made with so much impetuosity and so little pru-
dence that the French, as at Crecy, were completely defeated. Their
cavalry charged up a lane, not knowing that the English archers
were, behind the hedges on either side. Their dead to the numberENGLAND AND FRANCE.

321

of eleven thousand lay on the field. The king, and with him a
large part of the nobility, were taken prisoners. John was taken
to England (1357). From the moment of his capture he was
treated with the utmost courtesy. The French peasantry, however,
suffered greatly; and in France the name of Englishman for cen-
turies afterwards was held in abhorrence.

Insurrection in Paris.—-The incapacity of the nobles to Save
the kingdom called out the energies of the class counted as ple-
beian, the middle class between the nobles and serfs. It was not
without competent leaders, chief of whom were Robert le Coq,
bishop of Laon, and president of Parliament; and Etienne Marcel\
an able man,.provost of the traders, or head of the municipality of
Paris. The States General at Paris, at the instigation of such as
these, required of the Dauphin the punishment of the principal
officers of the king, the release of the King of Navarre, and the
establishment of a council made up from the three orders, for the
direction of all the important affairs of government. The States
General, representing the South, at Toulouse voted a levy of men
and means without conditions; but the Dauphin Charles was
obliged, at the next meeting of the States General of Paris (1357)*
to yield to these and other additional demands. The king, how-
ever, a prisoner in England, at the Dauphin's request refused to
ratify the compact. The agitators at Paris set the King of Na-
varre free, and urged him to assert his right to the throne. Mar*
eel and the Parisian multitude wore the party-colored hood of red
and blue, the civic colors of Paris. They killed two of the Dau-
phin^ confidential advisers, the marshals of Champagne and Nor-
mandy. A reaction set in against Marcel\ and in favor of the
royal cause. A civil war was the result.

Revolt of the Jacquerie. — At this time, there burst forth an
insurrection, called the Jacquerie, of the peasants of the provinces,
—Jacques Bonhomme being a familiar nickname of the peasantry.
It was attended with frightful cruelties : many of the feudal cha-
teaux were destroyed, and all of their inmates killed. The land
was given over to anarchy and bloodshed. Marcel made different
attempts to effect a combination with Charles of Navarre; but
the revolutionary leader was assassinated, and the Dauphin Charles,
having destroyed opposition in Paris, made peace with the King of
Navarre, who had kept up in the provinces the warfare against him.
The movement of Marcel\ with whatever crimes and errors be*
longed to it, was " a brave and loyal effort to stem anarchy, and
to restore good government." By its failure, the hope of a free
parliamentary government in France was dashed in pieces.

Treaty of Br6tigny (1360). — The captive king, John, made a
treaty with Edward, by which he ceded to the English at least one-
half of his dominions. The Dauphin assembled the States Gen-322

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

eral, and repudiated the compact. Edward ///., in 1359, again
invaded France with an immense force. But Charles prudently
avoided a general engagement, and Edward found it difficult to
get food for his troops. He concluded with France, in 1360, the
treaty of Bretigny, by which the whole province of Aquitaine, with
several other lordships, was ceded to Edwardt clear of all feudal
obligations. Edward\ in turn, renounced his claim to the French
crown, as well as to Normandy, and to all other former possessions
of the Plantagenets north of the Loire. The King was to be set at
liberty on the payment of the first installment of his ransom.

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR:

PERIOD II. (TO THE PEACE OP TROYBS, 1420).

Duchy of Burgundy. — There was an opportunity to repair a
part of these losses. In 1361 the ducal house of Burgundy be-
came extinct, and the fief reverted to the crown. But John gave
it to his son, Philip the Bold\ who became the founder of the Bur-
gundian branch of the house of Valois. Philip married the heiress
of Elanders, and thus founded the power of the house of Burgundy
in the Netherlands. «

Du Guesclin: Contest in Spain. — The provinces of France
were overrun and plundered by soldiers of both parties, under the
names of routiers (men of the road) and great companies. King
John returned to England, because one of his sons, left as a
hostage, had fled. There his captivity was made pleasant to him,
but he died soon after.

Charles V., or Charles the Wise (1364-1380), undertook to re-
store prosperity to the French kingdom. He reformed the coin,
the debasement of which was a dire grievance to the burghers.
Against the free lances in the service of Charles of Navarre, the
king sent bands of mercenary soldiers under Du Guesclin, a valiant
gentleman of Brittany, who became one of the principal heroes of
the time. The war lasted for a year, and the King of Navarre
made peace. In Brittany, Du Guesclin was taken prisoner by the
English party and the adventurers who fought with them. The
king secured his release by paying his ransom; and he led the
companies into Spain to help the cause of Henry of Transtamare,
who had a dispute for the throne of Castile with Peter the Cruel\
The Black Prince supported Peter, and, for a time, with success.
In 1369 Henry was established on the throne, and with him the
French party. The principal benefit of this Spanish contest was
the deliverance of France from the companies of freebooters.

Advantages gained by the French. — King Charles reformed
the internal administration of his kingdom, and at length felt him-
self ready to begin again the conflict with England. Edward III\ENGLAND AND FRANCE.

323

was old. The Black Prince was ill and gloomy, and, his Aquita-
nian subjects disliked the supercilious ways of the English. Charles
declared war (1369). The English landed at Calais. But the
cities were defended by their strong walls; and the French army,
under the Duke of Burgundy, in pursuance of the settled policy of
the king, refused to meet the enemy in a pitched battle. The next
year (1370) they appeared again, and once more, in 1373, both
times with the same result. The Duke of Anjou reconquered the
larger part of Aquitaine. Du Guesclin was made constable of
the French army, and thus placed above the nobles by birth.
The English fleet was destroyed by the Castilian vessels before
Rochelle (1372). Du Guesclin drove the Duke of Montfort, who
was protected by the English, out of Brittany. In 1375 a truce
was made, which continued until the death of Edward III. (1377).
Then Charles renewed the war, and was successful on every side.
Most of the English possessions in France were won back. The
last exploit of the Black Prince had been the sacking of Limoges
(1370). After this cruel proceeding, broken in health, he re-
turned to England.

State of England. — The Black Prince, after his return, when
his father was old and feeble, did much to save the country from
misrule, so that his death was deplored. The Parliament at this
time was called " the Good." It turned out of office friends of
John of Gaunt\ — or of Ghent (the place where he was born),—
the third son of Edward. They were unworthy men, whom John
had caused to be appointed. At this time occurred the first in-
stance of impeachment of the king's ministers by the Commons.
When the Black Prince died, his brother regained the chief power,
and his influence was mischievous. During Edward's reign, Flem-
ish weavers were brought over to England, and the manufacture of
fine woolen cloths was thus introduced.

John Wickliffe. — In this reign the English showed a strong
disposition to curtail the power of the popes in England. When
Pope Urban F., in 1366, called for the payment of the arrears of
King John's tribute, Parliament refused to grant it, on the ground
that no one had the right to subject the kingdom to a foreigner.
It was in the reign of Edward 1IL that John Wickliffe became
prominent. He took the side of the secular or the parish clergy
in their conflict with the mendicant orders,—"the Begging Friars,"
as they were styled. He also advocated the cause of the king
against the demands of the Pope. He contended that the clergy
had too much wealth and power. He adopted doctrines, at that
time new, which were not behind the later Protestant, or even
Puritan, opinions. He translated the Bible into English. He was
protected by Edward IIL and by powerful nobles, and he died in
peace in his parish at Lutterworth, in 1384; but, after his death,324	MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

his bones were taken up, and burned. His followers bore the nick-
name of Lollards, which is probably derived from a word that
means to sing, and thus was equivalent to psalm-singers.

Richard II. (1377-1399): the Peasant Insurrection: Deposi-
tion of Richard. — Richard\ the young son of the Black Prince,
had an unhappy reign. At first he was ruled by his uncles, espe-
cially by John of Gaunt\ Duke of Lancaster. Four years after his
accession, a great insurrection of the peasants broke out, from
discontent under the yoke of villanage, and the pressure of taxes.
The first leader in Essex was a priest, who took the name of Jack
Straw. In the previous reign, the poor had found reason to com-
plain bitterly of the landlords; but their lot was now even harder.
When the insurgents reached Blackheathy they numbered a hun-
dred thousand men. There a priest named John Ball harangued
them on the equality of rights, from the text, —

When Adam delved, and Eve span,

Who was then a gentleman ?

Young Richard managed them with so much tact, and gave them
such fair promises, that they dispersed. One of their most fierce
leaders, Wat Tyler, whose daughter had been insulted by a tax-
gatherer, was stabbed during a parley which he was holding with
the king."

There was a Gloucester party—a party led by his youngest uncle,
the Duke of Gloucester—which gave Richard much trouble; but
he became strong enough to send the duke to Calais, where, it
was thought, he was put to death. In 1398 he banished two no-
blemen who had given him, at a former day, dire offense. One
of them was Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk ; the other was
Henry of Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford\ afterwards called Duke
of Lancaster, son of John of Gaunt. When John of Gaunt died,
Richard seized his lands. In 1399, when Richard was in Ireland,
Bolingbroke landed, with a few men-at-arms and with Archbishop
Arundel; and, being joined by the great family of Percy in the
North, he obliged Richard to resign the crown. He was deposed
by Parliament for misgovernment. Not long after, he was mur-
dered. Lancaster was made king under the name of Henry IV.
It was under Richard that the statute of prcemunire (of 1353)
was renewed, and severe penalties were imposed on all who should
procure excommunications or sentences against the king or the
realm.

The English Language and Literature. — In the course of the reign
of Edward III.) the French language, which had come in with the Normans,
ceased to be the speech of fashion; and the English, as altered by the loss
of inflections and by the introduction of foreign words, came into general
use. The English ceased to speak the language of those who were now held
to be national enemies. In 1362 the use o£ English was established in theENGLAND AND FRANCE.

325

courts of law. The Old English, ceased to be written or spoken correctly.
The Latin still continued to be familiar to the clergy and to the learned.
William Langland wrote a poem entitled the Vision of Piers Plowman
(1362). Pierce the Plowman's Crede is a poem by another author. The two
principal poets are Chaucer and Gower, both of whom wrote the new English
in use at the court. Chaucer's great poem, the Canterbury Tales, is the latest
and most remarkable of his works.

Henry IV. (1399-1413): Two Rebellions: The Lollards. — By
right of birth, the crown would have fallen to Roger Mortimer,
Earl of March, the grandson of Lionel\ Duke of Clarence, Lionel
having been a son of Edward III., older than John of Gaunt. But
there was no law compelling Parliament to give the throne to the
nearest of kin. So it fell to the house of Lancaster.

Henry had to confront two rebellions. One was that of the
Welsh, under Owen Glendower, which he long tried to put down,
and which was gradually overcome by Henry, Prince of Wales, the
story of whose wild courses in his youth was perhaps exaggerated.
The other rebellion was that of the powerful Northumberland fam-
ily of the Percys, undertaken in behalf of Richard if he was alive,
— for it was disputed whether or not he had really died, — and if
not alive, in behalf of the Earl of March* The Percys joined Glen-
dower. They were beaten in a bloody battle near Shrewsbury, in
1403, where Northumberland's son "Hotspur " (Harry Percy) was
slain. While praying at the shrine of St. Edward in Westminster,
the king was seized with a fit, and died in the "Jerusalem Cham-
ber " of the Abbot. Under Henry the proceedings against heretics
were sharpened; but the Commons at length, from their jealousy of
the clergy, sought, although in vain, a mitigation of the statute. In
the next reign, the Lollards, who were numerous, had a leader in
Sir John OIdeas lie, called Lord Cobha?nf who once escaped from
the Tower, but was captured, after some years, and put to death as
a traitor and heretic. Whether he aimed at a Lollard revolution
or not, is uncertain. The Lollards were persecuted, not only as
heretics, but also as desiring to free the serfs from their bondage
to the landlords.

The Burgundians and Armagnacs.—In the last days of Charles
V. of France, he tried in vain to absorb Brittany. Flanders and
Languedoc revolted against him. The aspect of public affairs was
clouded when Charles VL (1380-1422), who was not twelve years
old, became the successor to the throne. His uncles, the Dukes
of Anjou, Berrit and Burgundy, contended for the regency. Their
quarrels distracted the kingdom. A contest arose with the Flem-
ish cities under the leadership of Philip Van Artevelde; but they
were defeated by the French nobles at Roosebeke, and Artevelde
was slain. This victory of the nobles over the cities was followed
by the repression of the municipal leaders and lawyers in France.
Two factions sprang up, — the Burgundians and the Armagnacs.326

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

Margaret\ the wife of the Duke of Burgundy, received Flanders
by inheritance, on the death of her father the Count (1382). The
king was beginning to free himself from the control of the factions
when he suddenly went mad. Thenceforth there was a struggle
in France for supremacy between the adherents of the dukes of
Burgundy and the adherents of the house of Orleans. The
latter came to be called Artnagnacs (1410), after the Count
d'Armagnac, the father-in-law of Charles, Duke of Orleans. The
strength of the Burgundians was in the North and in the cities.
They adhered to Urban VI, the pope at Rome, in opposition to
' the Avignon pope, Clement VII.; for these were the days of the
papal schism. They were also friends of the house of Lancaster
in England, — of Henry IV. and Henry V. The strength of the
Armagnacs was in the South. At the outset, it was a party of the
court and of the nobles: later it became a national party. Louis,
Duke of Orleans, was treacherously assassinated by a partisan of
the Burgundians (1407). This act fomented the strife.

Battle of Agincourt: Treaty of Troyes (1420). — It was in 1393
that the king partially lost his reason. For the rest of his life, ex-
cept at rare intervals, he was either imbecile or frenzied. By the
division of counsels and a series of fatalities, gigantic preparations
for the invasion of England had come to naught (1386-1388).
Henry V. of England (1413-1422) concluded that the best way to
divert his nobles from schemes of rebellion was to make war across
the Channel. Accordingly he demanded his "inheritance" ac-
cording to the treaty of Bretigny, together with Normandy. On
the refusal of this demand, he renewed the claim of his great-
grandfather to the crown of France, although he was not the
eldest descendant of Edward III\ Henry invaded France at the
head of fifty thousand men. By his artillery and mines he took
Harfleur, but not until after a terrible siege in which thousands of
his troops perished by sickness. On his way towards Calais, with
not more than nine thousand men, he found his way barred at
Agincourt by the Armagnac forces, more than fifty thousand in
number, comprising the chivalry of France (1415). In the great
battle that ensued, the horses of the French floundered in the
mud, and horse and rider were destroyed by the English bowmen.
The French suffered another defeat like the defeats of Crecy and
Poitiers. They lost eleven thousand men, and among them some
of the noblest men in France. France was falling to pieces.
Rouen was besieged by Henry, and compelled by starvation to
surrender (1419). The fury of factions continued to rage. There
were dreadful massacres by the mob in Paris. The Duke of Bur-
gundy, John the Fearless (Jean sans Peur), was murdered in 1419
by the opposite faction. The young Duke Philip, and even the
Queen of France, Isabella, were now found on the Anglo-Burgun-ENGLAND AND FRANCE.

327

dian side. By the Treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Catherine, the daugh-
ter of Charles VI, was given in marriage to Henry V., and he was
made the heir of the crown of France when the insane king, Charles
VI, should die. Henry was made regent of France. The whole
country north of the Loire was in his hands. The Dauphin Charles
retired to the provinces beyond that river.

THE HUNDRED YEARS* WAR:

PERIOD III. (TO THE END, 1463).

Prance in 1422. — Both Henry and Charles VI died in 1422.
The Duke of Bedford was made regent in France, ruling in the
name of his infant nephew {Henry VI). Charles VII (1422-
1461) was proclaimed king by the Armagnacs south of the Loire.
His situation was desperate, but he represented the national cause.
Bedford laid siege to Orleans, the last bulwark of the royal party.
The English were weakened, however, by the withdrawal of the
Duke of Burgundy and his forces.

Joan of Arc. — When the national cause was at this low point,
Providence raised up a deliverer in the person of a pure, simple-
hearted, and pious maiden of Domremy in Lorraine, seventeen
years of age, Jeanne Dare by name (the name Joan of Arc being
merely a mistake in orthography). The tales of suffering that she
had heard deeply moved her. She felt herself called of Heaven to
liberate France. She fancied that angels' voices bade her under-
take this holy mission. Her own undoubting faith aroused-faith
in others. Commissioned by the king, she mounted a horse, and,
with a banner in her hand, joined the French soldiers, whom she
inspired with fresh courage. They forced the English to give up
the siege of Orleans, and to march away. Other defeats of the
English followed. The Maid of Orleans took Charles to Rheims,
and stood by him at his coronation. The English and Burgun-
dians rallied their strength. Joan of Arc was ill supported, and
was made prisoner before Paris by the Burgundians. They deliv-
ered her to the English. She was subjected to grievous indignities,
was condemned as a witch, and finally burned as a relapsed heretic
at Rouen (1431). The last word she uttered was "Jesus." Her
character was without a taint. In her soul, the spirit of religion
and of patriotism burned with a pure flame. A heroine and a saint
combined, she died " a victim to the ingratitude of her friends,
and the brutality of her foes."

The English driven out. — In 1435 Duke of Burgundy was
reconciled to Charles VII, and joined the cause of France. The
generals of Charles gained possession of one after another of the
provinces. During a truce of two years, Henry VI of England
(1422-1461) married Margaret of Anjou, the daughter of King328

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Rene. Henry was of a gentle temper, but lacked prudence and
vigor. The king of France and the dauphin began the organization
of a standing army, which greatly increased the military strength of
the country (1439). *449 the war with England was renewed.
With the defeat of the English, and the death of their commander,
Talbot, in 1453, the contest of a century came to an end. All
that England retained across the Channel was Calais with Havre
and Guines Castle. France was desolated by all this fruitless strife.
Some of the most fertile portions of its territory were reduced to
a desert, "given up to wolves, and traversed only by the robber
and the free-lance."

Rebellion of "Jack Cade." — The peasants in England were
now free from serfdom. Under Henry VI\ occurred a formidable
insurrection of the men of Kent, who marched to London led by
John Cade, who called himself John Mortimer. They complained
of bad government and extortionate taxes. One main cause of
the rising was the successes of the French. The condition of the
laboring class had much improved. The insurgents were defeated
by the citizens, and their leader was slain. In this reign began the
long " Wars of the Roses," or the contest of the houses of York
and Lancaster for the throne.CENTRAL
EUROPE
1360.



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Matteo I, Visconti	(nephew of Archbishop Otto), Lord of Milan, 1295-1333.

Stefano (d. 1327).

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< I	I 1

N Matteo II,1 I354-I355*	Bernabo,1 1354-1385. , Galeazzo II,1 1354-1378.

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Catharine, m. (2), Gian Galeazzo, 1378-1402 (first duke, 1396).

§	I

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^	Jacopo (Muzio) Attendolo di Cotignola, Giovanni Maria, 1402-1412. Filippo Maria, 1412-1447. Valentina •

Ui	called Sforza. 1 tn. Louis. Duke of Orleans.

§	I I

{j	---|	|--Charles, Duke of Orleans.

jj/3	Francesco Sforza, 1450-1466, m. Bianca Maria. • I

"Loul* XII of France,

y	. j_j__Duke of Milan 1500-1512.

Galeazzo Maria, 1466-1476,	Ludovico II Moro, 1494-15003 (</. 1510), m. Beatrice d'Este.

H	vi. Bona, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy.

si. si v	*	Massimiliano,4 Christina, daughter of Christian II of Denmark (i), I

Gian Galeazzo, 1476-1494.	1512-1515 (d. 1530).	Francesco Maria,* 1521-1535.

1 The Milanese territory was divided between the three brothers, and! 3 Louis XII of France took Ludovico prisoner, and held Milan 1500-1512.
reunited on the death of Bernabo.	I « Puppet dukes. Milan being, in fact, the subject of contention between

a Hence the French claim to Milan.	| France and the Hapsburgs.

[Abridged from George's Genealogical Tables.]THE THREE NORTHERN KINGDOMS BEFORE THE UNION OF CALMAR.

[D. means King of Denmark; N., King of Norway; S., King of Sweden.]

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Haco IV, N. (</. 1263).

Magnus VI, N., 1263-1281.

1---1

Eric II, Haco V, N., 1299-1320. Magnus I, S., 1279-1290.	Eric V, D., 1259-1286.	^

N., 1281-1299. I	^ I	I	g

I j-j—--1	r-j—I-a

Ingeburga, tn. Eric. Berger, S., 1290-1320 (deposed; d. X326), m. Martha. Christopher II, D., 1320-1340. Eric VI,	N*

1	I	D., 1286-1320.	5

I-:-^-,	I-,	>

Albert, Duke of Mecklenburg, m. Euphemia. Magnus VII (II), N. S., 1320-1365 (deposed).	Waldemar III» D., 1346-1375.

I-1.

Eric, D. N. S., 1412-1439 (deposed; d. 1459).	Catharine, tn. John, son of Emperor Robert.

Christian I,3 D. N. S., m. (2) Dorothea, daughter of John Alchymista, Margrave of Brandenburg (1) m. Christopher, D. N. S. (d. 1448).

1	Elected to Sweden in opposition to Haco VI; deposed by Margaret. I 3 Elected king on death of Christopher, whose widow he married; said

2	Having united all three kingdoms in her own person, framed formal j to be descended from Eric V of Denmark.

Union of Calmar, 1397.

[Abridged from George's Genealogical Tables.]
*

1-\- -1 1--a

Albert,1 Henry, m Ingeburga, daughter of Waldemar III, D. Haco VI, N. (d. 1380), tn. Margaret,2 D. N., 1387, S., 1388 (</. 1412).	/-n

S.f 1365-1388 I	g

(deposed). I I	3
Mary, m. Wratislas of Pomerania. Olaf yj, D. 1376, N. 1380 {d. 1387).GERMANY.

331

CHAPTER II.

GERMANY: ITALY: SPAIN: THE SCANDINAVIAN COUN-
TRIES: POLAND AND RUSSIA: HUNGARY: OTTOMAN

TURKS: THE GREEK EMPIRE.

I. GERMANY.

The Great Interregnum. — After the death of Frederick II.
(1250), Germany and Italy, the two countries over which the
imperial authority extended, were left free from its control. Italy
was abandoned to itself, and thus to internal division. The case
of Germany was analogous. During the "great interregnum,"
lasting for twenty-three years, the German cities, by their indus-
try and trade, grew strong, as did the burghers in France, and
in the towns in England, in this period. But in Germany the
feudal control was less relaxed. This interval was a period of
anarchy and trouble. William of Holland wore the title of em-
peror until 1256. Then the electors were bribed, and Alfonso X.
of Castile, great-grandson of Frederick Barbarossa, and Richard\
Earl of Cornwall\ younger son of King John of England, were
chosen by the several factions; but their power was nominal. The
four electors on the Rhine, and the dukes and counts, divided
among themselves the imperial domains. The dismemberment
of the duchies of Swabia and Franconia (1268), and at an
earlier day (1180) of Saxony, created a multitude of petty sove-
reignties. The great vassals of the empire, the kings of Den-
mark, of Poland\ of Hungary, etc., broke away from its suzerainty.
There was a reign of violence. The barons sallied out of their
strongholds to rob merchants and travelers. The princes, and
the nobles in immediate relation to the empire, governed, each in
his own territory, as they pleased. New means of protection
were created, as the League of the Rhine, comprising sixty cities
and the three Rhenish archbishops, and having its own assemblies;
and the Hanseatic League, which has been described (p. 303).
Moreover, corporations of merchants and artisans were established
in the cities. In the North, where the Crusades, and war with the
Slaves, had thinned the population, colonies of Flemings, Holland-
ers, and Frisians came in to cultivate the soil. During the long-
continued disturbances after the death of Frederick //., the desire
of local independence undermined monarchy. The empire never
regained the vigor of which it was robbed by the interregnum.

House of Hapsburg.— Rudolph, Count of Hapsburg (1273-
1291), was elected emperor for the reason, that, while he was a
brave man, he was not powerful enough to be feared by the aris-
tocracy. He wisely made no attempt to govern in Italy. He
was supported by the Church, to which he was submissive. He332

MEDIEVAL WSTORY.

devoted himself to the task of putting down disorders in Ger-
many. Against Ottocar //., king of Bohemia, who now held
also Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and who refused to
acknowledge Rudolph, the emperor twice made war successfully.
In a fierce battle at the Marchjield, in 1278, Ottocar was slain.
Austria, Styria, and Carniola fell into the hands of the emperor.
They were given as fiefs to Rudolph's son Albert; and Carinthia
to Albert's son-in-law, the Count of Tyrol. This was the founda-
tion of the power of the house pf Hapsburg. Rudolph strove
with partial success to recover the crown lands, and did what he
could to put a stop to private war and to robbery. Numerous
strongholds of robbers he razed to the ground. His practical
abandonment of Italy, his partial restoration of order in Germany,
and his service to the house of Hapsburg, are the principal fea*
tures of Rudolph's reign.

Henry VE (1308-1313): Italy.-^Adolphus of Nassau (1292-
1298) was hired by Edward I. to declare war against France,
His doings in Thuringia, which he tried to buy from the Land*
grave Albert, led the electors to dethrone him, and to chpose
Albert I (1298^-1308), Duke 0/ Austria, son of Rudolph. His
nephew John, whom he tried to keep out of his inheritance, mur»
dered him. Henry VII. (1308-1313), who was Count of Luxevu
burgthe next emperor, did little more than build up his family
by marrying his son John to the granddaughter of King Ottocar,
John was thus made king of Bohemia. In these times, when the
emperors were weak, they were anxious to strengthen and enrich
their own houses. Henry went to Italy to try his fortunes beyond
the Alps. He was crowned in Pavia king of Italy, and in Rome
emperor (1312), But the rival parties quickly rose up against
him : he was excommunicated by Clement V., an ally of France,
and died—it was charged, by poison mixed in the sacramental cup

in 1313. He was a man of pure and noble character, but the
time had passed for Italy to be governed by a German sovereign.

Civil War: Electors at Hense. — One party of the electors
chose Frederick of Austria (1314-1347), and the other Louis of
Bavaria (1314-1330). A terrible civil war, lasting for ten years,
was the consequence. In a great battle near Muhldorf the Aus-
trians were defeated, and Frederick was captured. Louis had now
to encounter the hostility of Pope John XXII. (at Avignon), who
wished to give the imperial crown to Philip the Fair of France.
Louis maintained that he received the throne, not from the popes,
but from the electors. He was excommunicated by John, who
refused to sanction the agreement of Louis and of Frederick, now
set at liberty, to exercise a joint sovereignty. Louis was in Italy
from 1327 to 1330, where he was crowned emperor by a pope of
hia own creation. All efforts of Louis to make peace with PopeGERMANY.

333

John and his successor, Benedict XII., were foiled by the opposi-
tion of France. The strife which had been occasioned in Ger^
many by this interference from abroad created such disaffection
among the Germans, that the electors met at Reuse, in 1338, and
declared that the elected king of the Germans received his
authority from the choice of the electoral princes exclusively, and
was Roman emperor even without being crowned by a pope.

Deposition of Louis of Bavaria. — The imprudence of Louis in
aggrandizing his family, and his assumption of an acknowledged
papal right in dissolving the marriage of the heiress of Tyrol with
a son of King John of Bohemia, turned the electors against him.
In 1346 Pope Clement VL declared him deposed. The electors
chose in his place Charles, the Margrave of Moravia, the son of
King John of Bohemia. Louis did not give up his title, but he
died soon after.

Charles IV. (1347-1378). — Charles IV. visited Italy, and was
crowned emperor (1355); but, according to a promise made to the
Pope, he tarried in Rome only a part of one day. He was crowned
king of Burgundy at Aries (1365). In Italy "he sold what was
left of the rights of the empire, sometimes to cities, sometimes to
tyrants." His principal care was for building up his own heredir
tary dominion, which he so enlarged that it extended, at his death,
from the Baltic almost to the Danube. He fortified and adorned
Prague, and established there, in 1348, the first German university.

The Golden Bull. — The great service of Charles IV\ to Ger-
many was in the grant of the charter called the Golden Bull
(1356). This expressly conferred the right of electing the em-
peror on the seven electors, who had, in fact, long exercised it.
These were the archbishops of Mentz, of Trier, and of Cologne,
and the four secular princes, the King of Bohemia, the Count
Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of
Brandenburg. The electoral states were made indivisible and
inalienable, and hereditary in the male line. The electors were
to be sovereign within their respective territories, and their persons
were declared sacred.

The Black Death. — Germany, like the other countries, was terribly
afflicted during the reign of Charles by the destructive pestilence that swept
over the most of Europe (p. 319). One effect was an outbreaking of religious
fervor. At this, time the movement of the " Flagellants," which started in
the thirteenth century, reached its height in Germany and elsewhere. They
scourged and lacerated themselves for their sins, marching in processions, and
inflicting their blows to the sound of music. Another result of the plague
was a savage persecution of the Jews, who were falsely suspected of poisoning
wells. Many thousands of them were tortured and killed.

Anarchy in Germany.—The son f Charles IV. (1378-1400),
Wenceslaus, or Wenzel\ was a coarse aiid cruel king. Under him
the old disorders of the Interregnum sprang up anew. The towns334

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

had to defend themselves against the robber barons, and formed
confederacies for this purpose. Private war raged all over Ger-
many.

Accession of Sigismund.— Wenceslaus was deposed by the
electors in 1400. But Rupert, the Count Palatine, his successor
(1400-1410), was able to accomplish little, in consequence of the
strife of parties. Sigismund (1410-1437), brother of Wenceslaus,
margrave of Brandenburg, and, in right of his wife, king of Hun-
gary, was chosen emperor, first by a part, and then by all, of the
electors. The most important events of this period were the
Council of Constance (1414-1418) and the war with the Hussites.

John Huss. — The principal end for which the Council of Con-
stance was called was the healing of the schism in the Church, —
in consequence of which there were three rival popes, — and the
securing of ecclesiastical reforms. But at this council John Huss,

•	an eminent Bohemian preacher, was tried for heresy; The doctrines
of Wickliffe had penetrated into Bohemia ; and a strong party, of
which Huss was the principal leader, had sprung up in favor of in-
novations, doctrinal and practical, one of which was the giving of
the cup in the sacrament to the laity. Huss made a great stir by
his attack upon abuses in the Church. Under a safe-conduct from
Sigismund\ he journeyed to Constance. There he was tried, con-
demned as a heretic, and burnt at the stake (1415). Jerome of
Prague, another reformer, was dealt with in the same way by the
council (1416).

Hussite War. — The indignation of the followers of Huss was
such that a great revolt broke out in Bohemia. The leader was a
brave man, Ziska. The imperial troops, after the coronation of
Sigismund as king of- Bohemia, were defeated, and driven out.
The Hussite soldiers ravaged the neighboring countries. The
council of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the more
moderate portion of the Hussites, in which concessions were made
to them. The Taborites, the more fanatical portion, were at length
defeated and crushed.

Switzerland. — Switzerland, originally a part of the kingdom of
Aries, had been ceded, with this kingdom, to the German Empire
in 1033. Within it, was established a lay and ecclesiastical feudal-
ism. In the twelfth century the cities—Zurich, Basel, Berne, and
Freiburg—began to be centers of trade, and gained municipal

*	privileges. The three mountain cantons — Uri, Schweitz, and
Unteriualden — cherished the spirit of freedom. The counts , of
Hapsburg, after the beginning of the thirteenth century, exercised
a certain indefinite jurisdiction in the land. They endeavored to
transform this into an actual sovereignty. Two of the cantons
received charters placing them in an immediate relation to the
empire. After the death of Rudolph /., the three cantons aboveITALY.

335

named united in a league. Out of this the Swiss Confederacy
gradually grew up. There were struggles to cast off foreign con-
trol ; but the story of William Tell\ and other legends of the sort,
are probably fabulous. Albert of Austria left to his successor in
the duchy the task of subduing the rebellion. The Austrians were
completely defeated at 'Morgarten, " the Marathon of Switzerland "
(I3I5)» The Swiss Confederacy was enlarged by the addition of
Lucerne (1332), Zurich and Glarus (1351), Zug (1352), and of
the city of Berne in 1353. The battle of Sempach\i$86) brought
another great defeat upon the Austrians. There, if we may be-
lieve an ancient song, a Swiss hero, Arnold of Winkelried, grasped
as many of the spear-points as he could reach, as a sheaf in his
arms, and devoted himself to death, opening thus a path in which
his followers rushed to victory. Once more the Swiss triumphed
at Nafels (1388). From that time they were left to the enjoyment
of their freedom.

II. ITALY.

Guelfs and Ghibellines: Freedom in the Cities.—The inveter-
ate foes of Italy were foreign interference and domestic faction.
After the death of Frederick II., the war of the popes against his
successors lasted for seventeen years. After the defeat of Man-
fred (1266), Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufens, died on the
scaffold at Naples. Charles of Anjou lost Sicily through the re-
bellion of the Sicilian Vespers (1282) ; and dominion in that island,
separated from Naples, passed to the house of Aragon. The papal
states, after the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg, became a distinct
sovereignty of the pontiffs. The bitter strife of the Guelfs and
Ghibellines went on in the Italian cities. The Genoese, who were
Guelfic, defeated the Pisans in 1284; and "Pisa, which had ruined
Amalfi, was now ruined by Genoa." Florence, which was Guelfic,
grew in strength. Genoa and Venice became rivals in the contest
for the control of the Mediterranean. In Florence, new factions,
the Neri and Bianchi (Blacks and Whites), appeared; the Neri
being violent Guelfs, and the Bianchi being at first moderate
Guelfs and then Ghibellines. Pope Boniface VIII. invited into
Italy Charles of Valois. He was admitted to Florence (1301),
and gave the supremacy there to the Guelfic side. The coming of
the Emperor Henry VII. into Italy (1310) was marked by a tem-
porary, but the last, revival of imperial feeling. The connection
of the popes with the French houses of Anjou and Valois led to
the " Babylonian Exile " at Avignon, during which Italy was com-
paratively free, both from imperial and papal control. During the
period of the civil wars, while there was nominally a conflict be-
tween the party of the pope and the party of the emperor, the Guelfs
were devoted to the destruction of feudalism, and to the building-336

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

up of commerce and republican institutions; while the Ghibellines,
dreading anarchy, resisted the incoming of the new order of things.
It was in this period that Dante produced his immortal poem, which
sprang out of the midst of the contest of Guelf and Ghibelline (p.
307). Dante was himself a Ghibelline and an imperialist. In the
course of these conflicts, the plebeian class, before without power,
is advanced. Older families of nobility die out, or are reduced in
influence. New families rise to prominence and power. The
burghers band together in arts or guilds; and out of these, in their
corporate character, the governments of the cities are formed.
"Ancients," and " priors/' the heads of the "arts," supersede the
consuls. The " podesta " is more and more limited to a judicial
function. In some of the Guelf cities, there is " a gonfalonier of
justice," to curb the nobility. In Florence, there were also twenty
subordinate gonfaloniers.

The final triumph of Guelfs and of republicanism in Florence was in 1253.
The body of the citizens established their sovereignty. When, in 1266, citi-
zenship was confined to those who were enrolled in the guilds, the nobles, or
Grandi, were wholly excluded from the government. This led them to drop
their titles and dignities in order to enroll themselves in these industrial
societies. The feuds of factions, especially of the " Whites " and " Blacks,"
sprang up next. In the latter part of the fourteenth century, strife arose
between the "Lesser Arts,1' or craftsmen whose trades were subordinate
to the "Greater Arts," and these last. The mob in Florence drove the
" Signory," or chief magistrates, out of the public palace. This was the " Tu-
mult of the Ciompi,"— Ciompi signifying wool-carders, who gave their name
to the whole faction. Afterwards, of their own accord, they gave back the
government to the priors of the Greater Arts. The effect of these disturb-
ances was to reduce all classes to a level. The way was open for families,
like the Albizzi and Medici, to build up a virtual control by wealth and per-
sonal qualities.

The Generate in the Cities. — In the cities, there were " cap-
tains of the people," who carried on war, — leaders of the Guelfs or
Ghibellines, as either might be uppermost. They were persons
who were skilled in arms : these were often nobles who had been
merged in the body of citizens. In this way, there arose in the
cities of Northern Italy ruling houses or dynasties; as the Delia
Scala in Verona, the Polenta at Ravenna, etc. In Tuscany, where
the commercial power of Florence was so great, the communes as
yet kept themselves free from hereditary rulers; yet, from time to
time, their liberties were exposed to attack from successful gen*
erals.

The Tyrants. — At the beginning of the fourteenth century, as
the fury of the civil wars declined, the cities were left more and
more under the rule of masters called " tyrants." Tyranny, as of
old, was a term for absolute authority, however it might be wielded.
The visits of the emperors Henry VI/., and Louis IV. of Bavaria,
and of John of Bohemia, son of Henry VII., had no importantITALY.	33 7

political effect, except to bring increased power to the Ghibelline
despots. Thus, after the interference of Louis IV. (1327), the Vis-
conti established their power in Milan. But the changes in Italy
after this epoch gave to the Ghibellines no permanent advantage
over their adversaries. The leader of the Guelfs for a long time
was Robert\ king of Naples (1309-1343).

The Classes Of Despots. — The methods by which the Emperor Frederic //.
governed in Italy, and which he had partly learned from the Saracens in Sicily, furnished an
example which the Italian despots followed later. He was imitated in his system of taxation, in
his creation of monopolies, in the luxury and magnificence of his court, and in his patronage of
polite culture. His vicar in the North of Italy, Ezzelitio da Romano (i 194-1259), who was
captain, in the Ghibelline interest, in Verona, Padua, and other cities, was guilty of massa-
cres and all sorts of cruelties, the story of which exercised a horrible fascination over others
who came after. At last he was hunted down by Venice and a league of cities, and captured;
but he refused to take food, tore his bandages from his wounds, and died under the ban of the
Church. The despots of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have been divided by Mr. Sy->
monds into six classes. The first class had a certain hereditary right from the previous exer-
cise of lordship, as the house of Este in Ferrara. The second class, as the Visconti family in
Milan, had been vicars of the empire. The third class were captains, or podestas, chosen by
the burghers to their office, but abusing it to enslave the cities. Most of the tyrants of Lom-
bardy got their power in this way. The fourth class is made up of the Condottieri, like Fran-
cesco Sforza at Milan. The fifth class includes the nephews or sons of popes, and is of later
origin, like the Borgia of Roinagna. Their governments had less stability. The sixth class
is that of eminent citizens, like the Medici at Florence and the Bentivogli of Bologna. These
acquired undue authority by wealth, sometimes by personal qualities and noble descent.
Among those who are called "despots" were individuals of worth, moderation, and culture.
The records of many of them are filled with tragic scenes of violence and crime. To maintain
'their hated rule, they were impelled to the practice of barbarities hardly ever surpassed. (J.
A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, vol. i. chap, ii.)

Condottieri. — With the end of the civil wars, there appear " the
companies of adventure," or mercenary troops. The burghers,
having put down the nobility and achieved their independence,
lay aside their arms. They are busy in manufactures and trade.
The despots and the republics prefer to hire foreign adventurers,
the " free companies/'' who were a curse to Italy. Their occupa-
tion, which was a profitable one, was taken up by natives. These
were the condottieri. Their leaders introduced cavalry and more
skillful methods of fighting. But the battles were bloodless games
of strategy, and military energy declined. At the same time in-
trigue and state-craft were the instruments of political aggrandize-
ment. One of these new leaders was S/orza Attendolo, whose son
became Duke of Milan.

Five States in Italy. — In the middle of the fifteenth century,
we find, as the political result of the changes of the preceding cen-
tury and a half, five principal communities in Italy. These powers
are the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, the republic of
Florence, the republic of Venice, and the principality of the Pope.
A brief sketch will be given of each of these states down to 1447,
when Nicholas V, reestablished the papacy in its strength at Rome,
after the exile at Avignon (1305), and the ecclesiastical convul-
sions that followed it.

Lower Italy.—Robert the Wise (of Anjou) (1309-1343), the
successor of Charles IL of Naples and the champion of the
Guelfs, could not extend his power over Sicily, where Frederick338

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

II (1296-1337), the son of Peter of Aragott, reigned. Robert's
granddaughter, Joan /., after a career of crime and misfortune,
was strangled in prison by Charles Durazzo, the last male descend-
ant of the house of Anjou in Lower Italy (1382), who seized on
the government. Joan //., the last heir of Durazzo (1414-1435),
first adopted Alfonso V, of Aragon, and then Louis III of Anjou
and his brother Rene. Alfonso, who inherited the crown of Sicily9
united both kingdoms (1435), after a war with Rene and the Vis-
conti of Milan. By this contest, Italy was divided into two parties,
composed of the respective adherents of the houses of Anjou and
Aragon. The rights of Rene were to revert later to the crown of
France, and to serve as a ground for new wars. For twenty-three
years Alfonso reigned wisely and prosperously in Southern Italy.
He was a patron of letters, and promoted peace among the Italian
states.

The Milanese: Sforza. — Another great power was growing up
in the North. The greatness of the Visconti family dates from
John, Archbishop of Milan, who reigned there, and died in 1354.
Gian Galeazzo Visconti became sole master of Milan in 1385, and
extended his dominion over Lombardy. He bought of the Em-
peror Wenceslaus the ducal title. Twenty-six cities, with their
territories, were subject to him. But at Galeazzo*s death, his state
fell to pieces. The condottieri, whom he had kept under, broke
loose from control; and in 1447, one of them, Francesco Sforza,
with the help of the Venetians, seized on the supreme power,
which his family continued to hold for fifty years.

Venice*— Venice, in the fourteenth century, was as1 strong as
any Italian state. Its constitution was of gradual growth. The
doge, elected by the people, divided power in 1032 with a senate ;
and in 1172 the Grand Council was organized. This council by
degrees absorbed the powers of government, which thus became
an aristocracy. In 1297 the Senate became hereditary in a
few families. In 1311 the powerful Council of Ten was con-
stituted. For a long period Venice was not ambitious of power
in Italy, but was satisfied with her commerce with the East. Her
contest with Genoa began in 1352, and lasted for thirty years.
In the war of Chioggia, — so called from a town twenty-five miles
south of Venice, — the Venetians were defeated by Luciano Doria
in a sea-fight on the Adriatic. He blockaded Venice; but Doria,
in turn, was blockaded in Chioggia by the Venetians, and forced to
surrender. After reducing the naval power of Genoa, they added
Verona, Vicenza, and Padua to their territories (1410). Under
Francesco Foscari, who was doge from 1423 to 1457, Venice took
an active part in Italian affairs.

Florence: the Medici. — In Florence, the Medici family gained
an influence which gave them a practical control of the govern-ITALY.

339

ment. In 1378 Salvestro de Medici signalized himself by a suc-
cessful resistance to an oligarchical faction composed partly of
the old nobility. The brilliant period in the history of Florence
begins with this triumph of the democracy. Pisa was bought from
the Duke of Milan, and forced to submit to Florentine rule (1406).
John de Medici, a very successful merchant, was twice chosen gon-
falonier (1421). His son Cosmo /., who was born in 1389, was
also a merchant, possessed of great wealth. He attained to the
leading offices in the state, having overcome the Albizzi family,
at whose instigation he was for a while banished. Cosmo ruled
under the republican forms, but with not less authority on that
account. He was distinguished for his patronage of art and let-
ters. By his varied services to Florence, he earned the title of
"Father of his Country," which was given him by a public decree.

The Roman Principality: Rienzi. — After the popes took up
their abode in Avignon, in the first half of the fourteenth century,
Rome was distracted by the feuds of leading families who built
for themselves strongholds in the city. In 1347 the Romans, .
fired by the enthusiast Rienzi, who sought to restore the old
Roman liberty, undertook to set up a government after the an-
cient model. Rienzi was chosen tribune. He found much favor
in other cities of Italy. But his head was turned by the seeming
realization of .his dreams. He was driven out of Italy by the car-
dinals and the nobles. He returned afterwards, sent by Pope
Innocent VI., to aid in winning back Rome to subjection to the
Holy See. But his power was gone. He disgusted the people •
with his pomps and shows, and, while trying to escape in dis-
guise, was put to death (1354). Cardinal Albornoz succeeded
in reuniting the dissevered parts of the papal kingdom. But in
the period of the Schism (1378-1417), in the cities old dynas-
ties were revived, and new ones arose; towns and territories were
ceded to nobles as fiefs; and a degree of freedom almost amount-
ing to independence was conceded to old republics, as Rome,
Perugia y and Bologna. It was the work of Pope Nicholas V.
and his successors (from 1477) t0 regain and cement anew the
fragments of the papal principality.

Literature and Art. — In this period, in the midst of political
agitation in Italy, there was a brilliant development in the de-
partments of literature and art. The major part of Danteys life
(1265-1321) falls within the thirteenth century. Petrarch (1304-
1374), Boccaccio (1313-1375), a master in Italian prose, and
Dante, are the founders of Italian literature. They are followed
by an era of study and culture, rather than of original production.
In the arts, Venice and Pisa first became eminent. The church
of St Mark was built at Venice, in the Byzantine style, in 1071.
At about the same time the famous cathedral at Pisa was begun;34°

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

which was followed, in the twelfth century, by the Baptistery and
the Leaning Tower. The Campo Santo, or cemetery, was built
in 1278. In the thirteenth century, when architectural industry
was so active, numerous high brick towers were built in Florence
for purposes of defense. Some of them remain "to recall the
bloody feuds of the irreconcilable factions of the nobility. In
these conflicts, the strife was carried on from tower to tower, from
house to house: streets were barricaded with heavy chains, and
homes made desolate with fire and sword." Churches and great
public buildings were constructed in this period. At the end of
the thirteenth century the church of Santa Croce was built at Flor-
ence ; and in the century following, Brunelleschi, the reviver of
classical art in Italy, placed the great cupola on the Cathedral.
The Gothic cathedral of Milan, with its wilderness of statues, was
begun in 1346. Cimabue, who died about 1302, and Giotto, who
died about 1337, laid the foundations of the modern Italian schools
of painting.

Trade and Commerce. — The seaports, Venice and Genoa,
were centers of a flourishing commerce, extending to the far East
and to the coasts of Spain and France. The interior cities —
Milan with its two hundred thousand inhabitants, Verona, Flor-
ence— were centers of manufactures and of trade. The Italians
were the first bankers in Europe. The bank of Venice was estab-
lished in 1171, and the bank of Genoa, although it was pro-
jected earlier, was founded in 1407. The financial dealings of
• Italian merchants spread over all Europe.

Morality. — The one thing lacking in Italy was a broader spirit
of patriotism and a higher tone of morality. Advance in civiliza-
tion was attended with corruption of morals.

Historical Geography. — Resistance to the Arabs in Spain
began in the northern mountainous region of Cantabria and
Asturia, which even the West Goths had not wholly subdued,
although Asturia was called Gothia, Asturia^ a Christian princi-
pality (732), expanded into the kingdom called Leon (916), of
which Castile was an eastern county. East of Leon, there grew
up the kingdom of Navarre, mostly on the southern, but partly
on the northern side of the Pyrenees. On the death of Sancho
the Great, it was broken up (1035). At about the same time
the Ommiad caliphate was broken up into small kingdoms (1028).
After the death of Sancho, or early in the eleventh century, we
find in Northern Spain, beginning on the west and moving east-
ward, the kingdom of Leon, the beginnings of the kingdom of
Castile, the reduced kingdom of Navarre, the beginnings of the
kingdom of Aragon, and, between Aragon and the Mediterranean,

III. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

341

Christian states which had been comprised in the Spanish March
over which the Franks had ruled. The two states which were des-
tined to attain to the chief importance were Castile and Aragon.
Of these, Castile was eventually to be to Spain what France was to
all Gaul. Ultimately the union of Castile and Aragon gave rise
to the great Spanish monarchy of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies. The four kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Aragon, and Na-
varre, after the death of Sancho, as time went on, were joined
and disjoined among themselves in many different ways. Castile
and Leon were finally united in 1230. Portugal\ lying on the
ocean, was partly recovered from the Arabs towards the close of
the eleventh century, and was a county of Leon and Castile until,
in 1139, it became a kingdom. From this time Castile', Aragon,
and Portugal were the three antagonists of Moslem rule. Each
of these kingdoms advanced. Portugal spread especially along
the Atlantic coast; Aragon, along the coast of the Mediterranean;
Castile, the principal power, spread in the interior, and included
by far the greater part of what is now Spain. In the latter part
of the thirteenth century the Moslems were confined to the king-
dom of Granada in the South, which was conquered by Castile
and Aragon (1492), whose sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella,
were united in marriage. Their kingdoms were united in 1506.
In the latter part of the Middle Ages, Aragon, from its situation on
the eastern coast, played an important part in the politics of Eu-
rope. Castile and Portugal led the way in maritime exploration.

The Moors. — It has been already related (p. 282), that, after
the fall of the Ommiad caliphate, African Mohammedans came
over to the help of their Spanish brethren. These Moors did not
supplant the Arabic speech or culture. The two principal inva-
sions of the Moors were the invasion by the Almoravides, (1086-
1110), and that by the Almohades (1146).

Aragon: Navarre. — The kingdoms of Aragon and Castile
existed for centuries side by side. Aragon sought to extend its
conquests along the eastern coast; Castile, to enlarge itself toward
the south. James /., or James the Conqueror (1213-1276), joined
the Moslem states of Valencia and Mercia to his kingdom of
Aragon, to which Catalonia had already been added. The union
of these peoples developed a national character of a definite type.
In its pride of birth and of blood, its tenacious clinging to tradi-
tional rights, and in its esteem of military prowess before intel-
lectual culture, it resembled the old Spartan temper. Peter 111,,
(1276-1285), the son of James /., united with the three states
Sicily, which, though it became a separate kingdom, gave to the
house of Aragon its influence in Southern Italy. Nearly the
whole of the fourteenth century was taken up by Aragon in
the acquisition of Sardinia, which the Pope had ceded, and in the342

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

endless wars, connected with this matter, which it waged with the
Genoese. In 1410 the ruling house of Barcelona became ex-
tinct. In the revolutions that followed, Navarre and Aragon
were united under John //., second son of Ferdinand /., king of
Aragon. John, by his marriage with Blanche of Navarre, shared
her father's throne with her after his death. He was guilty of the
crime of poisoning his own son Don Carlos, Prince of Vianne.
John was the father of Ferdinand "the Catholic," under whose
scepter the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Navarre were
brought together.

Castile. — Ferdinand 11L (St. Ferdinand) (1217-1252), in war-
fare with the Moors extended the kingdom of Castile and Leon
over Cordova, Seville, and Cadiz. His son Alfonso X., or Al-
fonso the Wise (1252-1284), cultivated astronomy and astrology,
was fond of music and poetry, enlarged the University of Sala-
manca, gave a code of laws to his kingdom, and caused historical
books to be written; but he wasted his treasures in pomp and
luxury, and in ambitious designs upon the German imperial crown.
He allowed the Merinides, new swarms of African Saracens, to
spread in the South of Spain. Alfonso XL (1312-1350), after
a stormy contest with the nobles during his minority, distinguished
himself by the victory of Tarifa over the Moors (1340), and the
taking of the city of Algeciras (1344). His enemies respected
him ; and when he died of the plague, in his camp before Gibral-
tar, the king of Granada went into mourning (1350). The reign
of Peter the Cruel (1350-1369) was filled up with perfidies and
crimes. The league of the nobles against him only incited him
to fresh barbarities. He committed the most atrocious murders,
sometimes with his own hand. Protected by the Black Prince, he
was at first victorious against Henry of Transtamare his rival; and
Du Guesclin was defeated in the battle of Najara in 1367. After-
wards Peter was obliged to surrender, and was killed by the dagger
of Henry in a personal encounter. The power of the nobility in
Castile had so increased during the civil troubles that Henry III.
(1390-1406) had to sell his cloak to procure for himself a dinner.
Roused by this humiliation to assert his authority, he succeeded
with the help of the Cortes in humbling the nobility; but John
1L (1406-1454) was compelled by the most powerful lords, after
a protracted contest, to strike off the head of an unworthy favorite,
Alvaro de Luna, under whose despotic control he had placed the
government (1454). There was a worse state of anarchy under
Henry IV., John's successor (1454-1474).

Constitutions of Aragon and Castile. — The political insti-
tutions of Aragon and Castile are specially worthy of note. The
kings of Aragon were very much restricted in their authority by
the Cortes, or general assembly, composed of the higher and lowerSPAIN AND PORTUGAL.	343

classes of nobles, the clergy, and the cities, which by their trade
and manufactures had risen to wealth and power. With the Cortes
was lodged the right to make laws and to lay taxes. At Saragossa
in 1287, it was likewise ordained that they should enjoy certain
important privileges. The concurrence of the estates was to be
required in the choice of the king's counselors; and in case the
king without the warrant of a judgment of the highest judicial
officer, the justiciary, and of the estates, should adjudge to pun-
ishment any member of the body, they should have the right
to elect another king. These " privileges " were lost under Peter
IV. (1336-1387), but the old rights were confirmed. To the
justiciary was given the power to determine all conflicts of the
estates with the king or with one another. His influence increased
as time went on. He was the first magistrate in the kingdom.

In Castile, as early as 1169 the deputies of the cities were
admitted into the Cortes. We find the cities, at the end of the
thirteenth century, forming a confederation, called a " fraternity,"
against the nobles. Their deputies at that time had more power
in the assemblies than the nobles and clergy. But the power of
the nobles increased, especially from the accession of Henry of
Transtamare. In the overthrow of Alvaro de Luna, their triumph
was complete: they proved themselves to be stronger than the
king.

The Castilians.—The Spanish Mohammedans were superior in refinement to their
Christian adversaries. The latter learned much from their enemies, without losing the patriotic
and religious ardor which was fostered by the popular minstrelsy, and by the romantic
exploits and encounters with the " infidels.' The result was the peculiar spirit of Castilian
chivalry. The early development of popular government in Castile increased the feeling of
personal independence. Outside of Italy, no cities of Europe in the Middle Ages were so rich
and flourishing as the cities of Castile. Materials of commerce were afforded by the famous
breed of 6heep, and by the products of the soil and of manufactures. The nobles gained great
wealth, and had vast estates in the country. They held court as petty sovereigns: Alvaro de
Luna had twenty thousand vassals. They were inured to war, they were haughty and over-
bearing, and complaints of their oppressions were frequent on the part of the lower orders.
The Castilian ecclesiastics were often lax in their morals. The higher prelates were possessed
of great riches and authority. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the people in Castile
had more power, compared with the power of the sovereign, than in any other European coun-
try. But the representation of the commons was exclusively from the cities% and not, as in
England, largely from the landed proprietors.

The Aragonese. — The extraordinary authority exercised by the justiciary, or justice,
of Aragon was perhaps the most remarkable feature of its constitution. Dwelling on the ocean,
the Aragonese built up a naval power. Barcelona, after its union with Aragon, was the seat
of a flourishing commerce, and framed the first written code of maritime law now extant. Its
municipal officers were merchants and mechanics. Membership in the guilds was sought by
nobles, as rendering them eligible to the magistracy. The burghers became proud and inde-
pendent. The Catalans did not hesitate to assert their rights against encroachments of the
kings. In 1430 the University of Barcelona was founded. " After the genuine race of trouba-
dours had passed awav," says Mr. Prescott, " the Provencal or Limousin verse was carried to
its highest excellence by the poets of Valencia " (Prescott's History 0/ the Reign qf Ferdi•
nand and Isabella, Introduction).

Portugal: Commeroe and Navigation. — About 1095 Alfonso
VJ.y king of Castile and Leon> gave the territory between the
Minho and the Douro to his son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who
assumed the title of Count of Portugal. His son and successor,
Alfonso /., who defeated the Moors at Ourique in 1139, was344

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

hailed as king by his army, and later was confirmed in the title by
the Pope (1185). He was acknowledged as independent by the
king of Castile. In a diet at Laimego, he gave an excellent con*
stitution and body of laws to his people (1143). Soon after, he
conquered Lisbon, and made it his capital. His son, Sancho L
(1185-1211), was distinguished both for his victories over the
Moors and for his encouragement of tillage and of farm-laborers.
Until we reach the fifteenth century, Portuguese history is occupied
with wars with the Moors and the Castilians, contests of the kings
with the nobles, and struggles between rival aspirants for the throne,
and between the sovereigns on the one hand and the clergy and
the popes on the other. Under Dionysius 1IL (1279-1325) there
began a new era, in which the Portuguese became eminent for in-
dustry and learning, and in commerce and navigation. He founded
the University of Lisbon. Alfonso IV. (1325-1357) continued
on the same path. But he caused Ines de Castro, who had been
secretly married to his son, to be murdered (1354) ; a crime which
th^son, Peter I. (135 7-1367), after his accession, avenged by caus-
ing the hearts of the murderers to be torn out. John /. (1385-
1433) repelled a great invasion of the Castilians, in a battle near
Lisbon, and became at first regent and then king. He was the
founder of a new family. By him Ceuta in Africa was captured
from the Moors. Madeira was discovered (1419), and by the
burning of the forests was prepared for the cultivation of sugar-
cane and the vine. In 1432 the Portuguese occupied the Azores.
A most active interest in voyages of discovery was taken by Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), fourth son of King John L
and of Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt.

1

IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.

The Baltic Lands.—There are three divisions of Europe which
neither Charlemagne's Empire nor the Eastern Empire included.
The first is Spain, which had been comprised in the old Roman
Empire. The second is Great Britain and the adjacent islands.
Only a portion of Britain was held as a province by old Rome.
The third is the two Scandinavian peninsulas, — Denmark, and
Norway and Sweden, with the Slavonic lands to the east and
south, which may be said to have had a common relation to the
Baltic. The Scandinavians had their period of foreign conquest
and settlement, but their settlements abroad remained in no con-
nection with the countries whence they came. Sweden was cut
off from the ocean. " The history of Sweden " — as Mr. Free-
man, to whom we owe a lucid exposition of this subject, has
pointed out — " mainly consists in the growth and the loss of her
dominion in the Baltic lands out of her own peninsula. It is
only in quite modern times that the union of the crowns, thoughSPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

345

not of the kingdoms, of Sweden and Norway, has created a power
wholly peninsular and equally Baltic and oceanic." The Germans
and Scandinavians spread their dominion over the Aryan and non-
Aryan tribes on the south and east of the Baltic. Finland, inhab-
ited by a Turanian or Scythic people whose language is akin to
that of the Hungarians, was long under Swedish dominion. Now
Finland and the east of the Baltic are in Russia, while the southern
and south-eastern shore of the Baltic is German. Russia, in
modern days, having no oceanic character like Great Britain and
Spain, has expanded her dominion westward to the Baltic, but
mainly to the east over Central Asia. She has built up a continental,
instead of a maritime and colonial, empire.

Conversion of Scandinavia.—In the earlier part of the Middle
Ages, the two Scandinavian peninsulas are known only through the
piratical expeditions which they send forth upon the two adjacent
seas. By the way of the North Sea, the Northmen reached France,
England, Greenland, and America; by the way of the Baltic,
Russia. The conversion of Denmark to Christianity was com-
pleted in the eleventh century, under Canute; that of Norway in
the tenth, and of Sweden in the eleventh. After the foreign
settlements were made, and with the introduction of the gospel,
piracy ceased, and civilization began (p. 239).

Denmark. — After Canute VI. (1182), Waldemar II., the Vic-
torious, was the prominent personage in Danish history. He con-
quered Holstein and Pomerania, — in fact, every thing north of
the Elbe and the Elde. In 1219 he overran Esthonia, in a cru-
sade for the forcible conversion of the pagans, when the Danish
standard, the Donnebrog, — a white cross on a blood-red field, —
began to be used. On his return, he was treacherously captured,
and with his son was kept in prison in Mecklenburg for three
years, by Henry, Count of Schwerin. Waldemar was defeated in
1227, in the war undertaken to recover the conquests which he
had given up as the price of his release. He was the author of
a code of laws.

Union of Crowns. — Waldemar III(1340-13 75) regained
the conquests of Waldemar II. This brought on a general war,
in which the Hanseatic League, as well as Sweden, were among his
antagonists (1363). Denmark, having control of the entrance to
the Baltic, and exacting tolls of vessels, was a second time involved
in war with that great mercantile confederacy and its allies, and
was worsted in the conflict (1372). Waldemar's second daughter,
Margaret, married Ilakon VI., King of Norway. Hakon's son
Ola/, was a child at his father's death, and the regency was held
by his mother. Olaf (1376-1387) was elected by the Estates
king of Denmark. His mother, now regent in both countries,
became queen in both after Olafs death. In 1388 Margaret346

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

accepted the crown of Sweden; the Swedes having revolted against
the king, Albert\ who was defeated and captured at Falkazping

(1389)-

Sweden. — War existed for centuries between the Swedes and
the Goths, the inhabitants of the southern part of the peninsula.
Each race contended for supremacy. Political union began with;
Waldemar (1250-12 75), son of Birger yarl (Earl Birger).
Stockholm was founded in 1255. Private wars and judicial com-
bats were suppressed, commerce was encouraged, and the condition
of women improved. Large duchies were established, afterwards
a source of discord. Magnus I. (1279-1290) was surnamed
Ladulas, or Barnlock, for protecting the granaries of the peasants
from the rapacious nobles. His reign was succeeded by war be-
tween his sons. As the result of a popular revolt in 1319, Magnus
Smek, an infant, became king, and during the regency succeeded,
by right of his mother, to the crown of Norway, where he estab-
lished on the throne his son Hakon. But when Magnus attempt-
ed to rule without the senate, he was deposed, and Albert of
Mecklenburg was elected king (1363). But the nobles were
supreme: in 1378 they deposed Albert\ and gave the crown to
Margaret of Norway and Denmark. Albert was held a prisoner
for six years, and then renounced his claim to the throne.

Norway. — Magnus III. (1095-1103), called from his Scottish
dress Barefoot\ united the Hebrides and Orcades into a kingdom
for his son Sigurd\ and invaded Iceland, where he died. Sigurd
inherited the spirit of Harold Fairhair (86o-about 933), through
whom Norway had been made a united kingdom. He made a
voyage to Jerusalem through the Mediterranean, and was a renowned
crusader. After his death (1130), there were fierce contests for the
throne, the more fierce as illegitimate sons had. the same right in
law as those born in wedlock. In 115 2 a papal legate established
a hierarchy in Norway, which interfered in the struggle. • Conflicts
arose between the clerical party and the national party, in which
the latter at length gained the day. Under Hakon VI, Iceland
was conquered (1260). Magnus VI (1263-1280) brought in an
era of quiet, without stifling popular freedom. The cities en-
gaged actively in manufactures and commerce. Magnus strength-
ened and organized the military and naval force. By him the
Hebrides were ceded to Scotland. Under Eric (1280-1299),
called Priest-hater, there was a struggle to curb the power of the
clergy and nobles, in which the king was aided by the peasants.
He was worsted in the conflict with the Hanse towns, and com-
pelled to join their League. The accession of Magnus Smek, the
son of his daughter, to the throne of Norway (1319), led event-
ually to the Union of Calmar (1397), in which Sweden, Norway,
and Denmark were brought together.POLAND AND RUSSIA.

347

"The situation of Norway, during the Middle Ages, might be
shortly described as an absolute monarchy resting almost directly
on one of the most democratic states of society in Europe." The
greater families, by the partition of their estates, became a part of
the class of small land-owners. Between thern 2nd the king there
was no intermediate class.

After the Union of Calmar. — After the death of Margaret, who
governed the united kingdoms after the union, Eric XIII. of Pome-
rania succeeded. The union was shaken by the revolt of Schlep
wig and of Holstein, and was dissolved on the death of Christopher
of Bavaria (1448), who had been chosen king. The Swedes broke
off, and made Charles Canutson king, under the name of Charles
VIII. Denmark and Norway remained united; and under Chris-
tian /. of the house of Oldenburg, whom they made king, Sehleswig
and Holstein were again attached to Denmark (1459).

V. POLAND AND RUSSIA.

The Slavonic Tribes.—The settlement of the Hungarians (Magyars)
in Europe had the effect to divide the Slavonic tribes into three general
groups. The northern Slaves were separated from the Slaves south of the
Danube, — the inhabitants of Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia, etc. The north-
western Slaves bordered on the Western Empire. The states of Bohemia
and Poland grew up among them. On the east of this group of Slaves were
the Russians. Both Poland and Russia became independent kingdoms. In
the course of history, a part of the north Slavonic lands, those which are
represented by Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony, were
Germanized. Lands in the south-west, as Bohemia and Moravia, remained
predominantly Slavonic in speech. A central region formed the kingdom
of Poland. On the east were the Slavonic tribes which were the nucleus
of modern Russia.

Lithuanians and Prussians. — Both Poland and Russia were originally
cut off from the Baltic by other races. Such were the non-Aryan Fins in
Esthonia (Esthland) and Livonia (Livland). Such, also, were the Aryans
of the Lettic branch, of whom the Lithuanians and the Prussians were the
principal divisions. The Lithuanians formed at one time a strong state.
The Prussians finally gave their name to the Teutonic kingdom in which they
were absorbed.

The Poles. — The Poles derive their name from a word meaning plains.
They were inhabitants of the plains. They were the strongest of a group of
tribes dwelling between the Oder and the Vistula, and holding the coast be-
tween their mouths. Between them and the sea, on the east of the Vistula,
were the Prussians.

Poland: its Constitution. — In the tenth century the Lechs, or
Poles, on the Vistula, had acquired considerable power, and had
a center at Gnesen, which remained the metropolis of Poland.
There are legends of a first duke, Piast by name. A dynasty
which bore his name continued in Poland until 1370; in Silesia,
until 1675. Miecislas /. was converted to Christianity by his wife,
a Bohemian princess. He did homage to the Emperor Otto /.
(978). Boleslav I (992) aspired to the regal dignity, and had348

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

himself crowned as king by his bishops,. Gregory VJI. excommu-
nicated him, deprived him of the title of king, and laid Poland
under an interdict. Boleslav ///., the Victorious (1102-1138),
subdued the Pomeranians, and compelled them to receive Chris-
tianity. He divided his kingdom among his four sons.. Silesia
became an independent. duchy. A long crusade was carried on
against the Prussians, a heathen people, who attacked the Poles,
by the " Brethren of the soldiers of Christ," and the " Teutonic
knights," two orders which were united (about 1226). The Teu-
tonic knights at length became the enemies of the Poles. The
savage Lithuanians assailed them on the north. From the anarchy
that reigned,. Poland was rescued by Casimir III., the Great (1333-
1370), who defeated the Russians, and carried his eastern boundary
as far as the DnieperK Prior to this time, Poland was an important
kingdom. Casimir framed a code of written laws for his people,
and gave an impulse to commerce. But in order to secure the
election of his nephew, Louis king of Hungary (1370-1382), he
had to increase the powers and privileges of the nobles. The ac-
cession of Louis terminated the long rivalry of Poland and Hun-
gary. He, like Casimir, died without children.. The nobles made
Jagellon, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, his successor (1386),
who took the name of Vladislav IL Under a series of conquering
princes, Lithuania had extended its dominion over the neighbor-
ing Russian lands, and become a strong state. Vladislav was
chosen on the condition that he should espouse the daughter of
the last king, and, with his nation, embrace Christianity. This
event doubled the territory of Poland. The Teutonic Knights,
who ruled from the Oder to the Gulf of Finland, were now over-
come. The treaty of Thorn (1466) confined their dominion to
Eastern Prussia. The misfortune of Poland was its political con-
stitution. Although the monarchy was not yet completely elective,
but hereditary in the house of Jagellon, the election of every king
had to be sanctioned by the nobles. They alone took part in the
diet, and held the offices and honors. . There was no burgher class,
no " third estate." Every man who owned and was able to equip
a horse was counted as a noble. The burden of taxation fell on
the peasants.

Natural Features of Russia. — Russia in Europe comprises at pres-
ent more than half the territory of that entire continent. Yet it has but a
small share of seaboard, and of this a large part is frozen in winter. The
surface of Russia is of a piece with the boundless plateaus of Northern and
Central Asia. It has been defined as the " Europe of plains, in opposition
to the Europe of mountains." The mountains of Russia are chiefly on its
boundaries. It is a country subject to extremes of heat and cold. From the
scarcity of stone, all buildings were formerly of wood, and hence its towns
were all combustible. The rivers of Russia have been of immense impor-
tance in its history. u The whole history of this country is the history of itsPOLAND AND RUSSIA.

349

three great rivers, and is divided into three periods, — that of the Dnieper
with Kiev, that of the Volga with Moscow, and that of the Neva with Nov-
gorod in the eighth century, and St. Petersburg in the eighteenth."

Russians and Poles.—The Russian Slaves in the ninth century occu-
pied but a small part of what is now Russia. There was probably little
difference then between them and the Poles; but the one people were
molded by the Greek Church and Greek civilization, the other by the Latin
Church and by the collective influences of Western Europe.

Russian History. — The Northmen under Rurik had founded
their dominion in Russia. Novgorod was their center. Thence
they pushed their conquests to the south. Their descendants
made Kiev, on the Dnieper, their capital. In Russia, as else-
where, the Scandinavians quickly blended with their native sub-
jects. Under Vladimir /. (980-1015), who was converted to
Greek Christianity, with his people, and Iaroslaf /. (1019-1051),
they attained to considerable power; but the custom of the sove-
reigns to divide their dominions among their sons, broke up their
territory into a multitude of petty principalities. The result was
a monotonous series of fierce contests, without any substantial re-
sult. In the midst of the bloody and profitless civil wars occurred
the great invasion of the Mongols, who destroyed the principality
of Kiev, and made that of Vladimir tributary. For two centuries
the Russians continued under the yoke of the " Golden Horde,"
which the Mongols established on the Volga. They were obliged
to pay tribute, and the Russian princes at their accession had to
swear fealty to the khan on the banks of the river Amoor. At
the time of the Mongol conquest, Novgorod was the center of
Russian dominion. Towards the end of the thirteenth century,
Moscow became a new center of Russian power. From Moscow
comes the name Muscovy. " Muscovy was to Russia what France
in the older sense was to the whole land which came to bear that
name." In the fourteenth century, while Lithuania and Poland
were absorbing by conquest the territories of earlier or Western
Russia, the Duchy of Moscow was building up a new Russia in the
East, out of which grew the Russia of to-day. Ivan /., regarded
as the founder of the Russian monarchy, made Moscow his capi-
tal in 1328. Most of the other princes were subject to him. De-
metrius (or Dimtri) /. gained two great victories over the Mongol
horde (1378 and 1380) ; but in 1382 they burned Moscow, and
slew twenty-four thousand of its inhabitants. It was not until the
reign of Ivan III, Ivan the Great (1462-1505), that Novgorod
submitted to Moscow, and Russia was wholly delivered from the
control and influence of the Mongols.MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

VI. HUNGARY.

The Arpad Dynasty. — The chiefs of the Turanian Magyars,
about 889, elected Arpad as successor of the leader under whom
they had crossed the Carpathian Mountains. They overran Hungary
and Transylvania, and terrified Europe by their invasions (p. 249).
After their defeats by the emperors Henry I and Otto the Great
(p. 261), they confined themselves to their own country. The
first king, Stephen, — St. Stephen, — was crowned, with the consent
of Pope Sylvester II, in the year 1000. He divided the land into
counties, organized the Church, and founded convents and schools.
He conferred on the bishops high offices. He established a na-
tional council, composed of the lords temporal and spiritual, and
of the knights, out of which sprung the diets. Ladislaus I. con-
quered Croatia (1089), and a part of the "Red Russian" land
of Galicia (1093). Coloman, "the Learned,"a brave and able
man, annexed Dalmatia, which he wrested from the Venetians
(1102). In the reign of Andrew II. (1205-1235), the "Golden
Bull" was extorted by the nobles, which conferred on them ex-
traordinary rights and privileges, including exemption from arrest
prior to trial and conviction, and the control of the diet over ap-
pointments to office. It even authorized armed resistance on their
part to tyrannical measures of the king, — a right that was not
abrogated until 1687. Hungary was devastated by the great Tar-
tar invasion (1241-42) (p. 283). The kings of Hungary sup-
ported the cause of Rudolph of Austria against Ottocar of Bohemia

(p- 332)-

Invasions of the Turks. — The last king of the Arpad dynasty
died in 1301. There was a division of parties in the choice of
a successor. Pope Boniface VIII. and the clergy supported the
claims of Count Charles Robert of Anjou, who was related to the
former reigning family. Under the son of Charles Robert, Louis,
who also succeeded Casimir III. as king of Poland (1370), Hun-
gary became a very powerful state. Galicia was regained, Mol-
davia and Bulgaria were conquered. • After the death of Louis,
his daughter Maria reigned from 1386 conjointly with Sigismundy
afterwards emperor, and king of Bohemia. He established his
supremacy over Bosnia. From this time the invasions of the
Turks begin. There had been a party in favor of raising to the
throne Vladislaus, king of Poland; and after the death of Sigis-
mundy successor, Albert II. of Austria (1437), and the death of
the queen, he gained the crown (1442). He was slain at Varnat
in the great battle in which the Hungarians were vanquished by
the Turks (1444). John Hunyady,vr\\o\\dL& several times defeat-
ed the Turks, and who escaped on the field of Varna, was made for
the time " governor; " but on the release of the son of Albert,THE OTTOMAN TURKS.

351

Ladislaus Posthumus, who had been kept from the throne by the
Emperor Frederick IIL, he was recognized as king (1452). Hun-
yady was made general-in-chief. Frederick had also retained in
his hands the crown, which had been intrusted to his care, and
which Hungarians have always regarded with extreme veneration.
A little later, great advantages were gained over the Turks, to be
lost again in the sixteenth century.

Osman: Murad L — Towards the end of the thirteenth cen-
tury, the Osman (or Ottoman) Turks, warlike nomad hordes, in
order to escape from the Mongols, moved from the region east of
the Caspian Sea, and conquered in Asia Minor the remnant of the
kingdom of the Seljukians (p. 2 70). Impelled by fanaticism and
the desire of booty, Ottoman (or Osman)} their leader, advanced into
Bithynia, and took Pruse, or Broussa, one of the most important
cities of Asia Minor. The Greeks, with their Catalonian auxiliaries,
were not able to dislodge him from his new possession. The
Byzantine court was disabled from making an energetic effort for
this end, by the partisan rancor, and mingled lethargy and cruelty,
which characterized the old age of the Greek Empire. Nicomedia,
JVicaa, and Ilium were conquered by-the Sultan (or Padishah).
Murad /. (1361-1389) founded the corps of janizaries, composed
of select Christian youth chosen from the captives for their beauty
and vigor. These became the most effective soldiers, — some-
times dangerous, however, to the sultans themselves. Adrianople
was taken by Murad\ and made the seat of his authority. The
Christian principalities of Thrace, and the ancient but depopulated
cities founded by the Greeks and Romans, were overrun. The
Servians and Bulgarians made a stand against the fierce Ottoman
warriors, but were beaten in the battle of Kosovo, where Murad
was slain.

Bajazet—Bajazet, the son and successor of Murad\ outdid his
predecessor in his martial prowess. He conquered Macedonia
and Thessaly, and Greece to the southern end of Peloponnesus.
The Emperor Sigismund and John of Burgundy, with one hundred
thousand men, were utterly defeated in the sanguinary battle of
Nicopolis (1396). Sigismufidescaped by sea; the French counts
and knights had to be redeemed from captivity with a large ran-
som ; and ten thousand prisoners of lower rank were slaughtered by
Bajazet Bosnia was now in the hands of the victor. Constanti-
nople had to pay tribute, and seemed likely to become his prey,
when a temporary respite was obtained for it by the coming of a
host even more powerful than that of Bajazet

Mongolian Invasion. — Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of
Genghis Khan (p. 283), revived the fallen Tartar kingdom. At the

VII. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.352

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

head of his wandering Tartars, which grew into an army, he left
Samarcand\ where he had caused himself to be proclaimed sove-
reign, and, in a rapid career of conquest, made himself master of
the countries from the Wall of China to the Mediterranean, and
from the boundaries of Egypt to Moscow. Everywhere his path
was marked with blood and with the ruins of the places which he
destroyed. At Ispahan, in Persia, seventy thousand persons were
killed. At Delhi, one hundred thousand captives were slain, that
his relative, the " Great Mogul," might reign in security. It was
his delight to pile up at the gates of cities pyramids of twenty or
thirty thousand heads. Later (1401), at Bagdad, he erected such
an obelisk of ninety thousand heads. He gained a great victory
over the " Golden Horde " in Russia (p. 283), conquered the un-
subdued parts of Persia, entered Bagdad\ Bassorah9 and Mosul\
vanquished the khan of Kaptchak, and penetrated Russia in his
devastating progress, as far as Moscow (1396). Then followed
the conquest of Hindustan.

Tamerlane and Bajazet.—The two powerful monarchs, Tamer-
lane and Bajazet\ now measured their strength in combat with one
another. Trembling ambassadors of the Greek emperor, and of
certain Seljukian princes, had waited on Tamerlane in Gengia at
the foot of the Caucasus. On the 16th of June, 1402, the two
armies — four hundred thousand Tartars, and eight hundred thou-
sand Mongols, if one may credit the reports — met at Ancyra.
The Ottomans were defeated, and Bajazet was taken prisoner.
Led into the presence of Tamerlane, he found the Mongol quietly
playing chess with his son. Asia Minor submitted to the con-
' queror, who penetrated as far as Smyrna. An old man, he was
looking towards China as another field for invasion, when he died
(1405), Bajazet died soon after.

Turkish Conquests: the Greeks and Latins. — The grandson
of Bajazet\ MuradII. (1421-1451), took up anew his projects of
conquest. The empire of Tamerlane quickly fell to pieces. His
course had been like that of a hurricane, terrible in its work of
destruction, but soon at an end. The Byzantine dominion was
soon confined to Constantinople and small districts adjacent. On
all sides the Ottoman power was supreme. The Greek emperor,
John VIA (Palceologus), now endeavored, in imitation of previous
attempts, to bring about a union of the Greek and Latin churches,
and thus remove a principal obstacle to the obtaining of military
help from the West. He went to Italy, attended by the patriarch
and many bishops. After long debates and conferences on the
abstruse points of doctrinal difference, a verbal agreement was
reached between the two parties (1439). But result was re-
ceived with so much disfavor and indignation in Constantinople,
that the effort to bring the sundered churches together came to

0FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE.

353

naught.. The Pope, however, stirred up the Christian princes to
engage in war against the Turk. The defeat of Vladislav, king
of Hungary, and of Hunyady, at Varna (1444), caused by the rash
onset of the king upon the janizaries, was succeeded by another
Turkish victory at Kosovo, four years later (p. 350).

Pall of Constantinople.— Murad II. was succeeded by his
ambitious and unmerciful son, MohammedII. (1451-1481), who
determined that Constantinople should be his capital. The city
had seven thousand defenders, comprising two thousand Genoese
and Venetians, who were commanded by an able man, the Geno*
ese Justiniani. The Emperor Constantine XII. worshiped ac-
cording to the Roman rites; while his court observed the Greek
forms, and spurned a union with the hated Latin Christians, whose
help the emperor was to the end anxious to obtain. The city was
stoutly defended for fifty-three days; and when it could be held
no longer against the furious assault of the Turks, the gallant Con*
stantine, casting aside his golden armor, fell, bravely fighting with
the defenders on the ramparts (May 29, 1453). Constantinople
became the capital of the Turks. The crescent supplanted the
cross, and the Church of St. Sophia was turned into a mosque.

Turkish Government. — The Sultan, or padischah, among the
Turks is absolute master, and proprietor of the soil. There is no
order of nobles, and there are no higher classes except .the priests
(imams) and the religious orders (dervishes). In the seraglio of
the Sultan, with its palaces and gardens, the harem is separated
from the other apartments. The grand vizier presides over the
council of ministers (divan). The provinces are governed by
pashas with large powers. Beneath them is a gradation of inferior
rulers in the subdivisions of the provinces. The mufti with his
subordinate associates is a high authority on questions -of religion
and law.

Turkish Literature. — The literature of the Ottoman Turks is in
merit below the literature of other Mohammedan peoples. It
lacks originality, being based on Persian and partly on Arabic
models.

Changes in the Middle Ages. — We have seen great changes
gradually taking place in the Middle Ages. One is thz centralizing
of political authority by the subjection of the local rulers, or lords,
to the will of the king. Another is the enfranchisement of the serfs,
and the growing power and self-respect of a middle class. The
invention of gunpowder took away the superiority of the mail-clad
and mounted warrior. The peasant on the battle-field was a match
for the knight.

Clergy and Laity.-—There was a change from the time when
the clergy were the sole possessors of knowledge,-and the exclusive354

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

guides of opinion. In the lay part of society, there was an awak-
ing of intellectual activity and a spirit of self-assertion.

A brief sketch of important ecclesiastical changes, some of which
have been adverted to, will be here in place.

Popes in the Thirteenth Century.—From Gregory VII to
Boniface VIII, or from near the end of the eleventh to the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century, the highest authority was claimed
and exercised by the popes. Frederick Barbarossa, the greatest
of the German emperors, held the stirrup of Hadrian IV., and
humbled himself before Alexander III Innocent III compared
the authority of popes, in contrast with that of kings, to the sun in
relation to the moon. He excommunicated Philip Augustus of
France, John of England* and other monarchs. He claimed the
right to refuse to crown the emperor if he should judge him not
worthy of the imperial office. The papacy continued to exert
these lofty prerogatives until Boniface VIII He asserted that
" the two swords," the symbols of both secular and spiritual rule,
were given to St. Peter and to his successors: the temporal au-
thority must therefore be subject to the spiritual. The body of
canon law was framed in accordance with these views. It em-
braced the right of the Pope to depose kings and princes. To the
sovereign pontiff was accorded the right to dispense from Church
laws. With the growth of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the differ-
ent countries, the Pope, as the supreme tribunal in all matters
affecting the clergy and covered by the canon law, gained a vast
increase of judicial prerogatives.

The Babylonian Exile: the Great Schism. — During the resi-
dence of the popes at Avignon, there was great complaint on ac-
count of the dependence of the papacy on France, as well as on
account of the heavy taxes levied for the support of the pon-
tifical court, and of the immorality which at times prevailed in it.
Gregory XI, to the joy of all good men, returned to Rome (1376).
But at his death, two years later, a majority of the cardinals elected
an Italian, Urban VI, in his place. The adherents of the French
party made a protest, and chose the Cardinal of Geneva, under the
name of Clement VII England, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia,
Holland, and almost all Italy, acknowledged Urban. France,
Spain, Scotland, Savoy, and Lorraine obeyed Clement. This great
schism of the West created sorrow and alarm among well-disposed
Christian people. It tended strongly to diminish the reverence
felt for the papal office, and to weaken its influence.

The Reforming Councils. — The first important effort to termi-
nate the division was made by the University of Paris. Its rector,
Nicolas de Clemangis, was prominent in the movement. Gerson
and other eminent scholars and ecclesiastics took part in it. Three
great councils were held; the first at Pisa (1309), the second atCHINA.

355

Constance (1414), and the third at Basle (1418), At these
assemblies, the French theologians proceeded upon the " Gallican
theory" of the constitution of the Church, according to which
supreme authority was held to reside in a general council, — not
in the Pope, but in the collective episcopate. At the Council of
Constance, where it is a significant fact that the votes were taken
by nations, there were gathered not only a throng of prelates and
inferior clergy, but also the Emperor Sigismundy and a multitude
of princes, nobles, and spectators of every rank. "The whole
world," it was said, "was there." Three popes, each of whom
claimed to be legitimate, were deposed; and under the auspices
of the council, which affirmed its own sovereign authority, another
pope, Martin V., was elected in the room of them. The results
of the two councils of Pisa and Constance, as regards the reforma-
tion of the Church "in head and members," disappointed the hopes
of those who were disaffected with the existing state of things.
The Council of Basle exhibited the same spirit as that of Constancey
and passed various measures in the interest of national churches,
for the restriction of papal prerogatives, and for practical reforms.
.The council, however, broke into two parts; and the hopes con-
nected with it were likewise, to a great extent, frustrated. In 1438
the French synod of Bourges issued' " the Pragmatic Sanction,"
containing a strong assertion of the rights and immunities of national
churches, — a document which gave occasion to much controversy
down to its repeal under King Francis /.

Had it been practicable for good men in the fifteenth century to
unite in wholesome measures for promoting the purity and unity
of the Church, the religious revolutions of the sixteenth might have
been postponed, if not avoided.

CHAPTER III.

THE COUNTRIES OP EASTERN ASIA,

I. CHINA.

The Tang Dynasty (618-907).— The confusion in China, after
the establishment of the three kingdoms, was brought to an end
by the Sui dynasty, which, however, was of short duration. Be-
tween the Hans and the new epoch beginning with the T'angs,
diplomatic intercourse was begun with Japan; Christianity was
introduced by the Nestorians; a new impulse was given to the
spread of Buddhism; the first traces of the art of printing are
found; and the Yang-tse and the Yellow Rivers were connected
by a canal.356

MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

Events in This Period.—Under the Twangs, the empire was
united, peaceful, and prosperous. One of the most remarkable
occurrences was the usurpation (649) and successful reign of a
woman, the Empress Wu. Her policy was wise, and her generals
were victorious. The Emperor Hiuert Tsung had a long reign
(713~756), and was an ardent patron of literature, but in his later
years fell into immoral ways, as was seen in the character of the
poems written under his patronage. Under this dynasty, there were
productions in poetry of an excellence never surpassed in China.
Buddhism, although resisted by the Confucianists and Taouists,
gained ground. A bone of Buddha was brought into China with
great pomp and ceremony. Early in the reign of the T'angs, Mo-
hammedanism first appeared in China. In the transition period
before the accession of the next- dynasty (900-960), the art of
printing came more into use. The practice of cramping women's
feet is said by some to have originated at this time.

The Sung Dynasty (960-1280). — In the early part of this era,
China was prosperous. But the Tartars began their invasions; and
it was finally agreed that one of their tribes, which had helped to
drive out another, should retain its conquests in the North. These
Tartar conquerors, the Kinstyftrz invaded by the Mongol Tartars
under Genghis Khan (1213). After'a long struggle, both the
Kins and the Sungs were conquered by the Mongols, and the em-
pire of Kublai Khan (1259-1294), the ruler of nearly all Asia
except Hindustan and Arabia, was established. Under the Su?igs,
a system of military drill for all the citizens was ordained. Liter-
ature flourished; Buddhism and Taouism concluded to live in
peace with one another; and the system of competitive examina-
tions and literary degrees was more fully developed. After the
complete conquest of China, the dominion of Kublai Khan lasted
for about a century. The celebrated Venetian traveler, Marco
Polo, visited his court. In this period, mathematics was more
studied, and romances were first written. Three out of the " Four
Wonderful Books," which are leading novels, were then composed.
The Grand Canal was finished by Kublai Khan, and thus Peking
was connected with Southern China. His great naval expedition
against Japan failed.

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1650). — Hung-wu, the son of a Chi-
nese laborer, shook off the Mongol yoke, and founded a new
dynasty with its capital at Nanking; whence it was afterwards
transferred by the third emperor, Yung-lo (1403-1425), to Peking.
He conquered and annexed Cochin China and Tonquin, and even
portions of Tartary. The Tartars continued their attack; and in
M5° Ching-tung, the emperor, was taken prisoner, and held until
he was released in consequence of a Chinese victory.JAPAN AND INDIA.

357

II.	JAPAN.

Changes in Government. In the seventh century A.D., there
began changes in Japan which resulted in a dual government, and
•eventually in a feudal system which continued until recent times.
The Mikados retired from personal contact with their subjects; and
the power by degrees fell into the hands of the families related
to the Mikado, and combined into clans. Military control was
exercised by the generals (Shoguns), and towards the end of the
eighth century devolved on the two rival clans of Gen and Heiy or
Taira and Minamoto. About the same time (770-780) the agri-
cultural class became distinct from the military, and were com-
pelled to labor hard for their support. One family, the Fujiwara,
by degrees absorbed the civil offices. They gradually sank into
luxury. From the middle to the end of the twelfth century, there
was terrible civil war between the Taira clan and the Minamoto
clan, in which the former were destroyed. The military power
passed from one family to another; but a main fact is that the
Shoguns acquired such a control as the "mayors of the palace"
had possessed among the Franks. The Mikados lost all real
power, and the Shoguns or Tycoons had the actual government in
their hands. In recent times (1868) a revolution occurred which
restored to the Mikado the power which had belonged to him in
the ancient times, before the changes just related took place.

Civil War: Feudalism. — The final struggle of the two clans,
the Hei or Taira, and the Gen or Minamoto, was in the naval
battle of Dannoura> in 1185, which was followed by the extermi-
nation of the Taira. Yoritomo, the victor, was known as the Sho-
gun after 1192. The supremacy of his clan gave way in 1219 to
that of their adherents, the Hdjd family, who ruled the Shogun
and the emperor both. The invasion of the Mongol Tartars failed,
their great fleet being destroyed by a typhoon (1281). ThzJidjd
rule terminated, after a period of anarchy and civil war, in 1333.
The "war of the chrysanthemums " — so called from the imperial
emblem, the chrysanthemum — was between two rival Mikados,
one in the North, and the other in the South (1336-1392). There
ensued a period of confusion and internal war, lasting for nearly
two centuries. Gradually there was developed a system of feudal-
ism, in which the daimios, or lords of larger or smaller principalities,
owned a dependence, either close or more loose, on the Shogun.
But feudalism was not fully established until the days of the Toku-
gama dynasty, early in the seventeenth century,

III.	INDIA.

Mohammedan States. — During the Middle Ages, India was
invaded by a succession "of Mohammedan "conquerors. The first.358	MEDIEVAL HISTORY,

invasions were in the Seventh and the early part of the eighth
centuries. A temporary lodgment was effected in the province of
Sind, on the north-west, in 711; but the Moslems were driven out
by the Hindus in 750. The next invader was the Afghan sultan,
Mahmud of Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to have led his armies'
seventeen times into India. From his time the Punjab, except
for a brief interval, has been a Mohammedan province. The last
of his line of rulers, Bahram, was conquered by the Afghan
Allah-ud-din of Ghor (1152). Bahram's son fled to Lahore, but
the Ghoride dynasty soon absorbed his dominion. One of the
Ghoride rulers, Mohammed Ghori, the Shahab-ud-din of the
Mohammedan writers, spread his dominion so that it reached from
the Indus to the Brahmaputra. After his death, Kutab-ud-din,
who had been a Turkish slave, became the founder of the " slave "
dynasty (1206-1288), whose capital was Delhi. Allah-ud-din,
by whom he was assassinated (1294), had a brilliant reign of
twenty years, and conquered Deccan and Guzerat. Of the
Togluk dynasty, which gained the throne in 1321, Mohammed
Togluk (1325-1351) is said to have had the "reputation of one .
of the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that ever
adorned or disgraced human nature." Desiring to remove the
seat of empire to the Deccan, he compelled the inhabitants of
Delhi to leave their old home, and to make the journey of seven
hundred miles.

Tamerlane. — Revolts in India made the triumph of Timour
(Tamerlane) easy (1398). The Mongol leader sacked Delhi,
and made a full display of his unrivaled ferocity. A half century
of anarchy followed this invasion.

Literature. — On Mediaeval History: The General Subject. (See list of works on Uni-
versal History, p. 16.) Gibbon's Decline and Fallottc : " The Students' Gibbon" (Smith,
x vol.); Freeman, General Sketch of European //istory} and Historical Geography of
Europe; Duruy, Histoire du Moven Age, etc. (xith edition, x83a); Hallam, View of the
State of Europe during the Middle Ages (3 vols.); Koeppen, The World in the Middle
Ages : an Historical Geography with Accounts, etc. (fol.); Sheppard. The Fall of Rome
and the Rise of the New Nationalities (x vol.); White.77;* Eighteen Christian Centuries ;
G. W. Greene, History of the Middle Ages (1876); Dunham, History of Europe during
the Middle Ages (4 vols.); Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire; Putz and Arnold, Mediaeval
History ; E. A. Freeman, Historical Essays (series x and 3).

Works on Church History. The Church Histories of Gieseler, Neander; Milman,
History of Latin Christianity / Alzog [a Roman Catholic], Manual, etc. (3 vols., 1874-
78); Hardwick (vol. i., Midd'e Ages)', Students' History of the Church; Stanleys
Eastern Church ; Trench, Lectures on Mediaval Church History.

On Portions of the Mediaeval Period. Froissart, Chronicles, etc.; Curteis, History of the
Roman Empire [305-800]; R. W. Church, The Beginnings of the Middle Ages; A.
Thierry, Histoire a'Aiiilat etc., St, Jerome, etc., St. Jean Cnrysostome, etc.: Church,
Life of Anselm ; Morison, Life and Times of St. Bernard; Gfrdrer, Pabst Gregorius
vll. u. seitt Zeitalter (1859); Villemajn, Life of Gregory Vlt. (a vols.); Johnson, The
Normans t'n Europe (x vol.); Teste, History of the Wars of Frederic /. and the Com•
tnunes of Lombardy; Kington, History of Frederick //. / Mullinger, The Schools of
Charles the Great, and the Restoration of Education in the qtk Century (1877); Mon-
talembert, The Monks of the West (7 vols.) ; Sartorius, Gesch. des hanseatischen Bundes
(3 vols.); E. L. Cutts, Charlemagfie; Mrs. Oliphant, Life of Francis of Assist; Hasse,
Leben Anselm.

General Character of the Beriod. Robertson, A View of the Progress of Society in
Europe from the Subversion of the Roman Empire, etc. (Introduction to th« History of
Charles v.); Kingsley, C., The Roman and the Teuton; a Series qf Lecturest etc.; Sui/»WORKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES.	359

livan, Historical Causes and Effects ; from the Fall of the Roman Empire A.D. ,476 to
1517; Ozanam, A. F., History of Civilization in the Fifth Century; Laurent, Etudes,
etc. (vol. vii.); Sir Tames Stephen, Ecclesiastical Essays; Wright, Essays on the Middle
Ages. Scott's novels, — Ivanhoc, The Talisman, Anne of Geierstein: they are historically
much less correct pictures than his romances which relate to Scotland.

Particular Aspects of the Period. Savigny, Gesch. d. rdmischen Rechts im Mitt el alter
(7 vols.); Sismondi, Literature in the South 0/ Europe; Hallam, Introduction to the
Study of Literature, etc.; Geflchen, Church and State (a vols.); Guizot, History of the
Origin of Representative Government in Europe; Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle
Ages ; J. E. 'JLhorold Rogers, A History of Agriculture and Prices tn England [1259-
1791] (4 vols., 1866); Lab arte, Histoire des Arts Industrials au Moyen Age, etc. (4 vols.);
L. L. Cutts, Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages; Viollet-le-Duc, Annals of a
Fortress : H. C. Lea, History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, etc , Studies in Church History, and
Superstition and Force; Lacroix. Works on the Middle Ages, richly illustrated (5 vols.,
London, 1880); Mills, History of Chivalry, etc. (a vols., 1825); Bulfinch, Age of Chivalry,
or Legends of King Arthur ; Legends of Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages
(a vols.); Cox and Jones, Pofulhr Romances of the Middle Ages; Nasse, On the Agri-
cultural Community of the Middle Ages (1871); Roth, Gesch. d. Beneficialwesens, etc.}
Secretan, Essai sur la FeodaliU; Smith, T., English Guilds (1870); Wilda, Das Gilden-
wesen im Mittelalter (1831).

Works on the Crusades G. W. Cox, The Crusades (1878); also, art. Crusades in the
Encycl.Brit,; Michaucl, History of the Crusades (3 vols.); Von Sybel, The History
and Literature of the Crusades; Mills, A History of the Crusades{ etc. (a vols);
Heeren, in Vermischte historische Schriften (3 vols.); Procter's History qf the Crusades I
Gray's Children's Crusade ; Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzziige (1803).

For works on Mohammedanism and the Arabic kingdom, see p. 83a.

The works here mentioned respecting the several countries either relate to their entire his-
tory, or to their history prior to the close of the Middle Ages.

I.	England and Scotland.—1 Green's History of the English People (4 vols.), and
Short History of England (1 vol.); the 44 Students' Hume; " the histories of Bright, Knight,
Lingard, Hume, Guizot, White, Creasy, Thompson (in Freeman's Series); Gairdner, Out-
line, etc.; Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons; Palgrave's Rise and Progress of the
English Commonwealth ; Palgrave's History of Normandy and of England; Freeman's
History of the Norman Conouest (6 vols.), and History of William Rufus ; Green, The
Making of England, and The Conquest of England; Pearson's History of England
during the Early and Middle Ages; Stubbs, The Earlv Plantagenets; Longman's
History of Edward III.; Gairdner's History of Richard III., and The Houses of Lan-
caster and York ; Yeatman, Introduction to the Study of Early English History; Life of
Wickliffe, by Lechler, by Loserth, by Wilson.

Kemble's The Saxons in England ; Stubbs's Constitutional History of England in its
Origin and Development (3 vols.); Stubbs's Select Charters; Creasy's Rise and Prog-
ress of the English Constitution ; Thompson's Essay on Magna Charta; Bissct, His-
tory of the Struggle for Parliamentary Government in England (1877); Taswell-
Langmead's English Constitutional History, etc.; Freeman's Growth of the English
Constitution, etc.; Bagehot, The English Constitution.

Scotland. — j. H. Burton. History of Scotland (8 vols.); Miss Macarthur, History
of Scotland (x vol.); E. M. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (a vols.)*

Ireland. —C. G. Walpole, The Kingdom of Ireland. •

II.	France. — General histories by Crowe (5 vols.); Duruy (a vols.); Guizot (to 1789,
5 vols.; X78Q-X848, 3 vols.); and Outlines of the History of France (x vol.); Bonnechosc
(to 1848); Jervis (Students' History); Martin (17 vols.); Kitchin, Lacombe, Michelet
(17 vols.); Sismondi (31 vols.).

Thierry's Histoire des Gnu lot's ; Wallon's St. Louis et son Temps (a vols.); Sismondi,
The French under the Carlovingians (x vol.), France under the Feudal System (1 vol.);
Barante's Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne de la Maison de Valois, 1364-1477; Wallon's
Jeanne d'Arc (a vols.); Tuckey'n Joan of Arc; Jameson's Life and Times qf Du
Guesclin,

Coulanges' Histoire des Institutions Politiques de I'Ancienne France (1877); Am-
pere's Histoire LitUraire de la France avant Charlemagne (a vols.); Ampere's Hist.
Litt. de la France sous Charlemagne et durant les Xe et Ale Site les ; Guizot's History
of Civilization in France (3 vols.), and Essai sur /'Histoire de France ; Thierry's The
Formation and Progress of the Third Estate in France; Sir James Stephens's Lectures
on the History of France.

III.	Germany. — Dunham's History of the Germanic Empire; Histories by C. T.
Lewis (founded on D. Muller), Kohlrauscn, Menzel, Sime, x6mo; B. Taylor, Brewer, Zim-
mermann, Popular History of Germany (4 vols.).

Geisebrecht's Geschichte d. deutschen Kaiserzeit (4 vols.); Von Raumer's Geschichte
der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit (6 vols.).

Coxe's History of the House of Austria ; Krones's Handbuch d. Geschichte Oster-
reichs (3 vols.); Marlath's Geschichte Osterreichs.

Arnold, Ansiedelungen und Wanderungen deutscher StHmme (1875); also. Deutsche
Urzeit (1879); # Ozanam, Les Germains avant le Christianisme (187a); Sohm, Die
altdeutsche Reichs- und Gerichtsverfassung; Maurer's histories of German local institu-
tion* (the Marls, the Villages, the Cities); Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (8360	- . MEDIEVAL HISTORY.

vols.); Wirth, Die Geschichteder Deutschen (1853); Sugenheim, Geschichte d. deutSchen

Volkes und seiner Kultur, etc.

IV.	Italy. — Cantu, Histoire des Italiens (1a vols., 1859); Hunt's History 0/ Italy
(in Freeman's Series); Butt's History of Italy (9 vols.); Leo's Geschichte von Italien (5
vols.); Sismondi's Histoire des Ripubliqites ftaliennes dtt Moyen A^e (ro vols.); Spal-
ding's Italy and the Italians; Bosco and Morell, Compendium 0/ Italian History,

Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (a vols.); Testa, History of the War of Frederic
/. against the Communes 0/ Lomburdy; Hkyd, Geschichte des Levantshandels im Mit-
ielalter (a vols.); C. Hegel, Geschichte der.Stadteverfassung von Italien, etc.

Daru, Histoire de la Rtpublique de Venise (a vols.); Hazlitt's History of the Vent'
tian Republic; Ranke, Zur Venitianer Geschichte; Machiavelli's History 0/ Florence ;
Napier's Florentine History (6 vols.); Perrens, Histoire de Florence (4 vols.); Reumont's
Lorenzo the Magnificent (a vols.); Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo df Medici; Trollopr's
History of Florence; Campbell's Life of Petrarch ; Gregorovius' Geschichte d. Stadt
Rom tm Mittelalter (from fifth to sixteenth century); Gallenga, History of Piedmont (3
vols.); Amari, History of the War of the Sicilian Vespers (3 vols.); Malleson, Studies
from Genoese History (t vol.); Oliphant, Makers of Florence, etc.; Symonds, Sketches
and Studies in Southern Europe; Taine, Florence and Venicet and Rome ana Naples;
Freeman, Historical and Architectural Studies (chiefly Italian, 1 vol.).

V.	Russia. — Bell's History of Russia (3 vols.); Howorth's History of the Mongols ;
Karamsin, Histoire de TEmpire de Russte (11 vols.); Histories of Russia, by Kelly,
Lamartine, Levesque; Rambaud, History of Russia (a vols., 1879)» Ralston, Early
Russian History.

VI.	Poland. — Histories of Poland, by Dunham (zamo), Fletcher, Joachim (a vols.),

R6pell and Caro.

VII.	Spain and Portugal. — Lembke und Schafer, Geschichte von Spanien (3 vols.);
Mariana, The General History of Spain ; Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal;
Crawford, Portugal, Old and New; Copp^e, History of the Conquest of Spain by the
Arab Moors (a vols.); Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature (3 vols.); Prescott's His-
tory of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (introductory chapter).

VIII.	Switzerland.—History of Switzerland, in Lardners Cyclopedia (183a); His-
tories of Switzerland^ by Morin (5 vols.); J. Miiller; Zschokke; Rochholz, Tell und Gessler
in Sage und Geschichte (*877).

IX.	Scandinavia. — Dunham's History of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway (3 vols.);
Dahlmann's Geschichte von Danemark bis zur Reformation (with Norway and Iceland, 3
vols.); Histories of Sweden, by Fryxell, Geijer and Carlson (5 vols.); Laing's History
of Norway; Mallet's Northern Antiquities; Maurer's History of Iceland; Rink's
Danish Greenland; Sinding's Scandinavia; Whbaton's History of the Northmen;
Worsaac's Danes and Northmen in Great Britain.

X.	Ottoman Turks. — Hammkr-Purgstall's Geschichte des osmanischen Retches
(10 vols.); Creasy's History of the Ottoman Turks; Freeman, The Ottoman Power in
Europe (1877); Zinkeisen, Geschichte d. osmanisch. Retches in Europa (7 vols.).

XI.	China. Japan, and India. — (See lists on pp. 35, 3a.) Dickson, 7*Pant etc. (vol. L,
1869); Griffis, The Mikado's Empire (1876).PART III.

MODERN HISTORY.

FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1453) TO THE PRESENT
-	TIME.

INTRODUCTION.

Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediaeval, is marked
by several plainly defined characteristics. They are such as ap-
pear, however, in a less developed form, in the latter part of the
Middle Ages.

1.	In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tendency
to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms.

2.	There has been a gradual secularizing of politics. Govern-
ments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control.

3.	As another side of this last movement, political unity in
Europe has superseded ecclesiastical unity. The bond of union
among nations, in the room of being membership in one great
ecclesiastical commonwealth, became political: it came to be mem-
bership in a loosely defined confederacy of nations, held together
by treaties or by a tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of
public law and outlines of policy.

4.	In this system, one main principle is the balance of power.
This means that any one state may be prevented from enlarging
its bounds to such an extent as to endanger its neighbors. We
have seen the action of such a principle among the ancient states
of Greece. Even in the Middle Ages, as regards Italy, the popes
endeavored to keep up an equilibrium. They supported the Nor-
man kingdom in Southern Italy, or the Lombard leagues in the
North, as a counterpoise to the German emperors. In the six-
teenth century, there were formed combinations to check the power
of Charles V.t king of Spain and emperor of Germany, and after-
wards to restrain his successor on the Spanish throne, Philip IL
In the seventeenth century, there were like combinations against
Louis XIV\ of France, and, in the present century, against the
first Napoleon.

361362	MODERN HISTORY.

5.	The vast influence and control of Europe, by discovery,
colonization, and commerce, in other quarters of the globe, is a
striking feature of modern times.

6.	With the increase of commerce and the growing power of the
middle classes, there has arisen the " industrial age." Interests
connected with production and trade, and with the material side
of civilization, have come into great prominence.

7.	Both the pursuits of men, and culture, have become far more
diversified than was the case in the Middle Ages.

8.	The influence of Christianity in its ethical relations — as an
instrument of political and social reform, and a motive to philan-
thropy— has become more active and conspicuous.Period I.

FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFOR-
MATION

(1453-1517):

THE CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHY: INVENTION AND DIS-
COVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

• Character of This Period. — In this period monarchy, especially
in France, England, and Spain, acquires new strength and exten-
sion. The period includes the reigns of three kings who did much
to help forward this change : Louis XL of France, Llenry VLL. of
England, and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. The Italian wars
begin with the French invasion of Italy : the rivalship of the king-
doms, and the struggles pertaining to the balance of power, are
thus initiated. In this period fall new inventions which have
altered the character of civilization, and great geographical dis-
coveries, of which the discovery of the New World is the chief.
It is the epoch, moreover, of the Renaissance, or the re-awakening
of learning and art. There is a new era in culture. All these
movements and changes foretoken greater revolutions in the age
that was to follow.

chapter i.

FRANCE: ENGLAND: SPAIN: GERMANY: ITALY: THE
OTTOMAN TURKS: RUSSIA: THE INVASIONS OP ITALY.

I. FRANCE.

Charles VII. and the Nobles. — The result of the hundred-
years' war was the acquisition of Aquitaine by the French crown.
Aquitaine was incorporated in France. Southern Gaul and North-
ern Gaul were now one. During the last years of Charles VLL., his
kingdom was comparatively peaceful. Its prosperity revived. A
new sort of feudalism had sprung up in the room of the old no-
blesse,'whose power had been crushed. The new nobility was
made up of relatives of the royal family, as the Dukes of Burgundy,
Berry, Bourbon, and the house of Anjou. On the east of France

363364

MODERN HISTORY.

was Burgundy, which had expanded into a great European power.
"The duchy of Burgundy, with the county of Charolois, and the
counties of Flanders and Artois, were joined under a common
ruler with endless imperial fiefs in the Low Countries, and with the
imperial county of Burgundy." The Burgundian boundary was
on the south of the Somme, and little more than fifty miles north
of Paris. The Burgundian dukes were constantly striving to bring
it still nearer. On the east and south, the house of Atijou held
the duchy of Bar and Provence, besides other possessions. On
the south, too, was the province of Dauphiny ; and on the west the
strong, half-independent duchy of Bretagne, or Brittany. Charles
had a standing quarrel with his son Louis, who early showed his
power to inspire dread, but gave no signs of the policy which he
triumphantly pursued, after he became king, of putting down
feudal insubordination. His young wife Margaret, daughter of
James /. of Scotland, was twelve years old when he, a boy of thir-
teen, was married to her. He aroused such terror and aversion,
in her mind that she died at twenty-one of a broken heart. Louis
— to whom, much to his disgust, 'Dauphiny instead of Normandy
was given to rule — abetted the great lords in their resistance to
his father's authority; and, when threatened with coercion, fled
to Brussels, to the court of his father's cousin, Philip of Burgundy,
where he was kindly entertained. Charles VIL> who knew the
traits of his son, said, " As for my cousin of Burgundy, he harbors
a fox that will one day eat up his .chickens." Even then the
relations of Louis and Charles, Count of Charolois, the heir of
Burgundy, were cool and unsympathetic. The king occupied
Dauphiny, and in 1457 it was fully incorporated in France. The
rulers of France and Burgundy, taken up with their own schemes
of territorial gain, turned a deaf ear to the calls of Pope Pius II.
for a crusade against the Turks. It has been said that most of the
kings of the house of Valois were either bad or mad. The indo-
lent and heartless Charles VIL would seem to have been both.
In his last days he suspected that the Dauphin's plots were aided
by persons about himself, and that his food was poisoned. He
refused to eat, and died in 1461.

Character of Louis XI. — Louis XL (1461-1483) showed him-
self a master of " statecraft," or the cunning, diplomatic manage-
ment which pursued its ends stealthily, held no engagements
sacred, and was deterred by no scruples of conscience from what-
ever perfidy was thought requisite to attain the objects in view.
Louis was one of the earliest examples of the kingcraft which in the
succeeding age was deemed a gift to be coveted by princes. It was
an art in which the Italians were masters; and its secrets were set
forth, somewhat later than the time of Louis, in " The Prince " of
Machiavelli, a work in which that eminent statesman and historianFRANCE.

365

describes the' means by which despots may entrap and crush their
enemies. Whether he meant to afford aid to tyrants, or aid to
their subjects through an exposure of the tricks of their rulers, the
" Machiavellian " spirit designates the policy of intrigue that pre-
vailed all through the sixteenth century, and infected even some
of the best of the public men of that age. Louis was mean-
looking, shabby in his dress, with a cunning aspect; in his whole
deportment and character, in sharp contrast with the chivalrous
princes, Philip and Charles of Burgundy. If he was vindictive,
he was perhaps not more cruel than others; but he was ungenial,
regarding men as his tools. He took pleasure in the society-
of his provosts or hangmen, —Tristan VHermite and Olivier le
Daim. He often ordered men to execution without so much as
the form of a trial. There was in him a vein of superstition. He
was punctilious in his devotions. He would not swear a false
oath over the cross of St. Loup of Angers, because he thought that
death would be the penalty. He* did not quail before an enemy
in battle; yet such was his alarm at the prospect of death, that he
collected about him relics and charms, magicians and hermits, to
help him prolong his days.

Strife with the Nobles.—The first years oi Louis's reign
(1461-1467) were passed in a struggle with the great lords whom
he was determined to subdue. At the beginning his measures for
this end were imprudent. They combined against him in the
League of the Public IVealm 1464. Their force was so great that
he stood in imminent peril. He counted on the support of Paris,
and was trying to reach that city when the hostile armies encoun-
tered one another at Montl'h£ri (1465), It was an absurd battle,
where at night both parties thought themselves beaten. The king
secured his place of refuge. He deemed it prudent to make
peace on the terms demanded by the Count of Charoloisy and the
other nobles. This treaty of Conflans (1465) he caused the Par-^
liament of Paris to refuse to ratify or regisf?r. He had trusted to
his ability to regain what he might surrender. The strife between
the Duke of Brittany and the king's brother Charlesy now made
Duke of Normandy, enabled Louis soon to recover Normandy.

Charles the Bold, and Louis. —The death of Philip made his
son, Charles * the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Charles was in the
prime of life, of a chivalrous temper, courteous and polished, fond
of reading and music, as well as of knightly sports, and with his
head full of dreams of ambition. With certain noble qualities, his
pride was excessive, his temper not only hot but obstinate, and, as
he grew older, he became more overbearing and cruel. He was
the most powerful prince in Europe. The most of his lands were
German, In the early part of his reign he pursued the same
scheme as that which was at the root of the League of the Public366

MODERN HISTORY.

Weal. He aimed to hem in Louis, and to build up his own
power in the-direction of France. He allied himself, in 1466, with
the House of York, then uppermost in England. An English force
was sent to Calais in 1467. Threatened by this coalition of adver-
saries, Louis hastened to attack Brittany, and forced its duke to
conclude a separate peace. Trusting too much to his powers of
negotiation, and yielding to the treacherous advice of Cardinal
Balue, one of his chief counselors, the king determined to go in
person to confer with Charles of Burgundy. He soon learned
that his safe-conduct was of little value. At Peronne, he found
himself in the midst of enemies, and in reality a prisoner. While
there, Liege was in revolt, as Charles ascertained, at the king's
instigation. The wrathful duke could be appeased only by agree-
ing to every thing that he required. Louis had to undergo the
humiliation of attending Charles and his army, and of basely tak-
ing part in the vengeance inflicted on the city which he had him-
self stirred up to revolt. He was glad to escape with his life.
After his return, he ordered Balue to be put in an iron cage, where
he was kept for ten years, — a mode of punishment of Balue's own
invention. Louis repudiated the treaty of Peronne, under the ad-
vice of a body of Notables, all of whom he had nominated and
summoned. A new league was organized against him; but the
king by his wariness, and by his promptitude in attacking Brittany,
gained advantages, so that a truce was concluded with the Bur-
gundian duke in 1472. Philip de Commines, 2X that time a com-
panion and counselor of Charles, left his service for that of Louis.
To his Memoirs we owe most instructive and interesting details
respecting these princes, and the manners and occurrences of the
time.

Charles the Bold, and the Swiss. — From this time Charles
turned his attention eastward\ and devoted himself to building up a
great principality on the Rhine, which might open the way for his
succession to the empire. It seemed to be his plan to bring to-
gether the old kingdom of Lotharingia and that of the Burgundies.
He found no sympathy in his schemes from the emperor Fred-
erick III. • The great barrier in Charles's way was the freedom-
loving spirit of the inhabitants of the Swiss mountains. Availing
himself of a plausible pretext, he endeavored to get possessions?
Cologne by first laying siege to Neuss, which lies below it. Wast-
ing his strength in the unsuccessful attempt to capture this place,
he failed to make a junction of his forces with the English troops
who landed in France under his ally, King Edwartl JK The
English king was persuaded to make a truce with France by the
wily Louis, who was constantly on the watch for any mistakes or
mishaps of his impetuous Burgundian adversary. The cruelty of
Charles to the Swiss inhabitants of Granson, who had surrendered,FRANCE.

367

brought upon him an attack of their exasperated countrymen near
that place (1476). The Burgtindians were routed; and the duke's
camp, with all its treasures, including his sword, the plate of his
chapel, and precious stones of inestimable value, fell into the hands
of the hardy mountaineers, who knew nothing of the worth of these
things. The next year the Duke once more flung his reckless
valor against the strength of the Swiss infantry, and barely escaped
from an utter defeat at Morat Made desperate by misfortune,
he risked another battle near Nanciy in 1477, at the head of an
inferior force, composed partly of treacherous mercenaries, and was
vanquished and slain. He had intended to make Nanci his capi-
tal ; but his body was found near by in a swamp, stripped of its
clothing, frozen, and covered with wounds.

Extension of Prance. — Louis XL could hardly stifle expres-
sions of joy at the news of the death of his hated and formidable
rival. While Charles had been busy in Germany, Louis had
taken the opportunity to put down, one by one, the great nobles
who had shown themselves ill-affected. He secured to France
Roussillon and the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. It was now
his purpose to lay hold of as many as possible of the possessions
of the late duke. Mary, the daughter of Charles the Bold, the
heiress of Burgundy, gave her hand in marriage to Maximilian
of Austria, an event which carried after it the most important
consequences. The result of the conflicts of Louis and Maxi-
milian was the Peace of Arras (1482), which left in the hands
of France the towns on the Somme, and the great Burgundian,
duchy. For a time Maximilian, as holder of the French fiefs of
Flanders and Artois, was a vassal of the French king. On the
death of King Rene, in 1480, and the extinction of the house of
Anjouy Louis annexed the three great districts of Anjou, Maine,

rand Provenee} the last of which was a fief of the empire.

Last Days of Louis XI.— In his last days, old King Louis, in
wretched health, tortured with the fear of death, and in constant
dread of plots to destroy him, shut himself up in the castle of
Blessis-les-lours, which he strongly fortified, and manned with
guards who were instructed to shoot all who approached without
leave. He kept up his activity in management, and in truth de-
vised schemes for the advantage of his realm. His selfish and
malignant temper brought to him one unexpected joy from the
sudden death of Mary of Burgundy (1482), from which, how-
ever, France did not reap the advantages which he expected.
He died in 1483, at the age of sixty-one. He, more than any
other, was the founder of the French monarchy in the later form.
He centralized the administration of the government. He fought
against feudalism, old and new. He strengthened, however, local
authority where it did not interfere with the power of the king.
In matters of internal government he was often just and wise.368

MODERN HISTORY.

Charles vm. (1483-1498): Anne of Beaujeu.— Charles VIII'.
at the death of his father was only fourteen years old. But in
his older sister, Anne of Beaujeu, the wife of Peter of Bourbon, he
had an energetic guide who for ten years virtually managed public
affairs. She proved too strong for the opposition of the royal
princes, of the nobility, and of the States General. The nobles
turned for support to Richard III. of England. Anne strengthened
with men and money Henry of Richmond, the rival and conqueror
of Richard. The Duke of Brittany, with his allies, the Duke of
Orleans, the Prince of Orange, and others, was defeated in a
hardly contested battle in 1488, which was followed by a treaty
advantageous to France. The crowning achievement of Anne of
Beaujeu was the marriage of Anne of Brittany to Charles VIIL
This was accomplished although she had already been married by
proxy to Maximilian, while Charles was pledged to marry Mar-
garet, the emperor's daughter. If Anne of Brittany should out-
live Charles, she engaged to marry his successor. This second
marriage actually took place : she became the wife of Louis XIL
Brittany was thus incorporated in France. The Italian expedi-
tions, the great events in the reign of Charles VIII., will be
related hereafter.

II. ENGLAND.

Wars of the Hoses: the House of York. — The crown in Eng-
land had come to be considered as the property of a family, to
which the legitimate heir had a sacred claim. The Wars of the
Roses (1455-1485) grew out of family rivalries. It was a fight
among nobles. But other reasons were not without influence.
The party of York (whose badge was the white rose) was the
popular party, which had its strength in Kent and in the trading
cities. It went for reform of government. The party of Lancas-
ter (whose badge was the red rose) was the more conservative
party, having its strength among the barons of the North. Rich-
ard, Duke of York, thought that he had a better claim to the Eng-
lish crown than Ilenry VI, because his ancestor, Lionel, was an
older son of Edward III. than John of Gaunt, the ancestor of
Henry. The king was insane at times, and Richard was made
Protector or Regent of Parliament. But Henry, becoming better,
drove him from his presence. He organized an insurrection, but
was defeated in a battle at Wakefield by the troops of the strong-
hearted queen. He was crowned with a wreath of grass, and then
beheaded. His brave son, Rutland, was killed as he fled. But
Richard's eldest son, Edward—Edtvard IV. (1461-1483) —
supported by the powerful Earl of Warwick, " the king-maker,"
defeated the queen in two battles, imprisoned Henry VI. who had
fallen into imbecility, and took possession of the throne. EdwardENGLAND.

369

was popular because he kept order. But the favors which he
lavished on the Woodvilles, relatives of his Lancastrian wife Eliza-
beth, enabled the opposing party, to which Warwick deserted,
to get the upper hand (1470) ; and Edward fled to Holland.
But he soon returned, and triumphed in the battle of Towton
(1471). Henry VL was secretly murdered in the Tower. The
house of York was now in the ascendant. A quarrel between the
king and his ambitious brother Clarence, who had married War-
wick's daughter, led to the trial and condemnation of the latter,
who was put to death in the Tower. It was during the reign of
Edward J V. that Caxton set up the first printing-press in Eng-
land. Edward was succeeded by his brother, Richard IIL (1483-
1485), a brave but merciless man, who made his way to the throne
by the death of the two young princes Edward and Richard,
whose murder in the Tower he is with good reason supposed to
have procured. He had pretended that Edward IV, had never
been lawfully married to their mother. Henry Tudorf Earl of
Richmond, descended by his mother from John of Gaunt\ aided
by France, landed in Wales, and won a victory at Bosworth over the
adherents of the white rose, —a victory which gave him a kingdom
and a crown. Thus the house of Lancaster in the person of Henry
VII. (1485-1509), gained the throne. He married Elizabeth, the
eldest daughter of EdwardIV, and so the two hostile houses were
united. He was the first of the Tudor kings.

Character of the Civil Wars. — The Wars of the Roses are, in
certain respects, peculiar. They extended over a long period, .but
did not include more than three years of actual fighting. The
battles were fierce, and the combatants unsparing in the treatment
of their foes. Yet the population of the country did not diminish.
Business and the administration of justice went on as usual. Trade
began to be held in high esteem, and traders to amass wealth. The
number of journeymen and day-laborers increased, and there was
a disposition to break through the guild laws.

Effects of the Civil Wars. — The most striking result of the
civil wars was the strengthening of the power of the king. Not
more than thirty of the old nobles survived. Laws were made for-
bidding the nobles to keep armed " retainers;" and against "main-,
tenance" or the custom of nobles to promise to support, in their
quarrels or law-cases, men who adhered to them. The court of
the Star Chamber .was set up to prevent these abuses. It was
turned into an instrument of tyranny in the hands of the kings.
Henry VII\ extorted; from the rich, " benevolences," or gifts soli-
cited by the kihg, which the law authorized him to collect as a tax.
He contrived to get money in such ways, and thus to carry forward
the government without Parliament, which met only once during
the last thirteen years of his reign. Royal power, in relation to the37°

MODERN HISTORY.

nobles, was farther exalted by the introduction of cannon into
warfare, which only the king possessed. Two pretenders to the
throne, Lambert Simnel (i486), and Perkin Warbeck (1492), were
raised up; but the efforts made to dethrone Henry proved abor-
tive. He kept watch over his enemies at home and abroad, and
punished all resistance to his authority. Circumstances enabled
the founder of the Tudor line to exalt the power of the king over
the heads of both the nobles and the commons.

III. SPAIN.

Ferdinand of Aragon (1479-1516).—The union of Aragon and
Castile, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1474-1504),
was nominal, as. each sovereign reigned independently in his own
dominion. But both sovereigns were bent on the same end,—
that of. subjecting the powerful grandees and feudal lords to their
authority. . In this policy they found efficient helpers in the shrewd
and loyal counselor Mendoza, Cardinal and Archbishop of Toledo,
and in Ximenes, who combined the qualities of a prelate of strict
orthodoxy with those of a profound and energetic statesman. To
bring both nobles and clergy into subservience to the crown, was
their great aim; and for this end the sagacious Ferdinand pro-
cured from the Pope the privilege of filling the bishoprics and the
grand masterships of the military orders. He deprived the nobles
of their judicial functions, which he committed to impartial and
severe tribunals of his own creation. He re-organized and strength-
ened the Holy Hermanadad, or militia of the cities, and thus had
at his service against the grandees a standing military force. He
used the nobles and the cities to keep one another in check. Over
both stood the lnquisitiony — a tribunal established against the
Moors and the Jews who had made an outward profession of
Christianity, but which under Torquemada, who had been con-
fessor of the queen, became a terror to all Spain. The king had the
power to name the Grand Inquisitor and all the judges; and he
thus acquired in this institution not only a fearful weapon against
heretics of every description, but also a political instrument for
the subjugation of the nobles and the clergy. By this alliance of
the throne and the altar, the despotic power of Ferdinand had the
firmest prop.

Conquest of Granada. — After a ten-years' bloody war, the
Moorish kingdom of Granada was conquered. The capital, with
the famous castle of Alhambra, was captured (1492). The de-
throned Moorish king, Boabdil, robbed of his possessions, sailed
to Africa, where he fell in battle. By the terms of their surrender,
the Moors were to have the free exercise of their religion. But
the promise was not kept. Choice was given to the Moslems to
become Christians, or to emigrate. Many left to wage war else-SPAIN. —GERMANY.

371

where against their Spanish persecutors, either as corsairs in Africa,
or as bands of robbers in Sierra Nevada. The professed converts
were goaded by cruel treatment into repeated insurrections. It was
a fierce war of races and religions. The frightful sufferings of the
Moors, under the pressure of this double fanaticism, form a long
and gloomy chapter of Spanish history. The dismal tale continues
until the cruel expulsion from the kingdom of nearly a million of
this unhappy people by Philip III., in 1609.

Ferdinand, Regent of Castile. — Most of the children of Fer-
dinand and Isabella died young. Their daughter Joanna mar-
ried Philip of Burgundy; son of Maximilian and Mary; but he
died in 1506, at the age of twenty-eight. They had been recog-
nized as the rulers of Castile. But the mind of Joanna, who
had always been eccentric, became disordered, so that the govern-
ment devolved on Ferdinand\ her father. He placed her in the
castle at Tordesillas, where the remainder of her life, which con-
tinued forty-seven years longer, was spent. Ferdinand was, in
form, constituted by the Cortes (1510), regent of the kingdom
in the name of his daughter, and as guardian of her son ( Charles).
Ferdinand administered the government with wisdom and moder-
ation. As . there were no children by his second marriage with
Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII. of France, the succession
of Joanna's son remained secure. Ferdinand availed himself of
the disturbances in France to annex to Castile the portion of Na-
varre lying on the south of the Pyrenees. >

IV. GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE.

Frederick III. (1440-1493).—While England\ France, and Spain
were organizing monarchy, Italy and Germany kept up the anar-
chical condition of the Middle Ages. Hence these countries, first
jItaly and then Germany, became enticing fields of conquest for
I other nations. Frederick III was the last emperor crowned at
! Rome (1453), and only one other emperor after him was crowned
< by the Pope. Frederick reigned longer than any other German
king before or after him. He lacked energy, neglected the empire,
5 and busied himself in enlarging his Austrian domains, which he
erected into an archduchy (1453). When he sought to interfere
with the German princes, they set him at defiance. He did little
more than remain an indolent spectator of the conflict in which
the Swiss overthrew Charles the Bold. The gre^it danger to Europe
was now from the Turks. Christendom was defended by the Poles
and the Hungarians. Frederick left the Hungarians, under the
gallant John Hunyady, without his help, to drive them, in 1456,
from Belgrade. He tried to obtain the Bohemian and Hunga-
rian crowns; but Podiebrad, a Utraquist nobleman, was made king
of Bohemia, and Matthias Corvinus succeeded Hunyady, his fa-372 .	MODERN HISTORY.

ther, on the throne of Hungary. By the death of Albert, the
brother of Frederick, to whom the emperor had been compelled
to give up Vienna, he became master of all the Austrian lands
except Tyrol. He was bent on getting the Hungarian crown ; but
Vienna was taken by Matthias, in 1485, and the emperor had to
fly for his life. A great confederation, composed of princes, no-
bles, and cities, was made in Swabia, for repressing private war,
and did much good in South Germany. The western part of
Prussia was taken from the Teutonic Knights by the Peace of
Thorny in 1454, and annexed to Poland by Casimir IV.

Maximilian I. (1493-1519).—Maximilian /. was a restless prince,
eager for adventure. Although not crowned, he was authorized by
Pope Julius //. to style himself " Emperor Elect." In his reign,
efforts, only in part successful; were made to secure peace and order
in Germany. At the Diet of Worms in 1495, a perpetual public
peace, or prohibition of private feuds, was proclaimed ; and a court
called , the Imperial Chamber, the judges of which, except the
president, were appointed by the states, was constituted to adjust
controversies among them. The benefits of this arrangement were
partly defeated by the Aulic Council, an Austrian tribunal estab-
lished^by Maximilian for his own domains, but which interfered
in matters properly belonging to the Chamber. Germany was
also divided into circles, or districts, for governmental purposes.
In 1499 Maximilian endeavored, without success, to coerce the
Swiss League into submission to the Imperial Chamber, and to
punish it for helping the French in their Italian invasion. Al-
„ though he was brave, cultured, and eloquent, he lacked persever-
v ance, and not a few of his numerous projects failed. The most
fortunate event in his life, as regards the aggrandizement of his
house, was his marriage to Mary of Burgundy (1477). His grand-
son Ferdinand married the sister of Louis II., the last king of
Bohemia of the Polish line, who was also king of Hungary ; and
by the election of Ferdinand to be his successor (1526), both
these countries were added to the vast possessions of the Austrian
family. To Maximilian's doings in Italy, we shall soon refer.

German Cities.-— From the middle of the thirteenth century there was
a rapid growth of German cities, and an advance of the trading-classes. The
cities gained a large measure of self-government, and were prosperous little
republics. They were centers .of commerce and wealth, and often exercised
power much beyond their own precincts, which were well defended by ditches,
walls, and towers. The old Gothic town-halls in Aix, Nuremburg, Cologne,
etc., are monuments of municipal thrift and dignity. Their churches and
convents grew rich, and schools with numerous pupils were connected with
them. Dwellings became more comfortable and attractive. All branches of
art and manufacture flourished. The city nobles and the guilds had their
banquets. . In the church festivals all the people took part. The German
cities, such as Mayence, Worms, Strasburg, Liibeck, Augsburg, excited the
admiration even of Italian visitors.CO

THE MEDICI.

U

2
w
s

w
H

Giovanni d' Medici, d. 1429.

Cosmo (" Father of his Country "), d. 1464.
Piero, d. 1469.

I-

Lorenzo (the Magnificent), d. 1492.

Giuliano, killed by Pozze 1478.

Giulio (Pope Clement VII),
d. 1534.

Lorenzo, d. 1440.

Piero Francesco, d. 1474.

• .1

Giuliano, d. 1498.

Giovanni (the Invincible), d. 1526.
Cosimo I, First Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1537-1574.

Maddelena. Piero, Giovanni (Pope Leo X), Giuliano, Duke of Nemours,	[

d. 1503.	d. 1521.	I d. 1516.	Francesco,

1

Lorenzo II, Duke of Urbino, d. 1510. Ippolito (Cardinal), d. 1535.

'rancesco, t574-1587, Ferdinand 1,1587-1600,
. Joanna, daughter of m. Christina, daughter of Charles II
Emperor Ferdinand I.	{of Lorraine.

r

"i

Catharine,	Alessandro,

m. Henry II of France. First Duke of Florence,
. X53I-I537.

Henry IV of France, m. Mary.

Coslino IX, 1609-1621,

k. Mary Magdalen, sister of Emperor Ferdinand IL

Ferdinand II, 1621-16701.

Cosimo HI, 1670-1723.
John Gaston, 1723-1737.374

MODERN HISTORY.

V. ITALY.

Condition of Italy.— Italy, at the epoch of the French inva-
sions, was the most prosperous as well as the most enlightened
and civilized country in Europe. Its opulent and splendid cities
were the admiration of all visitors from the less favored countries
of the North. But national unity was wanting. The country was
made up of discordant states. Venice was ambitious of conquest;
and the pontiffs in this period, to the grief of all true friends of
religion, were absorbed in Italian politics, being eager to carve
out principalities for their relatives. Italy was exposed to two
perils. On the one hand, it was menaced by the Ottoman Turks;
not to speak of the kings of France and Spain, who were rival
aspirants for control in the Italian peninsula. On the other hand,
voyages of discovery were threatening to open new highways of
commerce to supersede the old routes of traffic through its mari-
time cities.

Milan. — The fall of Constantinople'produced a momentary
union in Italy. At Lodi, in 1454, the principal states took an
oath of perpetual concord, — Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan;
Cosmo de Medici, to whom Florence had given the name of
"Father of his Country;" Alfonso V the Magnanimous, king of
Naples and Sicily; the Popes Calixtus III. and Pius IL (1455—
1464). But conflicts soon arose among them. An abortive
attempt was made by John of Calabria to deprive Ferdinand of
Naples of his inheritance (1462). In 1478 there was a coalition
against Florence; in 1482, a coalition against Venice. The Turks
made the best use of these quarrels, and captured Otranto (1480),
killing or enslaving twelve thousand Christians. The idea of the
ancients that tyrannicide is a virtue, whether the master be good
or bad, was caught up, and gave rise to conspiracies. At Milan, in
1476, the cruel Duke Galeazzo Maria was assassinated by three
young men, near the Church of St. Stephen. Giovanni Ga/eazzo,
his son, a minor, married a daughter of the king of Naples. But
his uncle, Ludovico it Moro, had seized on power, and ruled in
the name of Giovanni (1480). He imprisoned Giovanni and
his young wife; and being threatened by the king of Naples, who
had for an ally Peter de Medici, he formed an alliance with the
Pope and the Venetians; and, not confiding in them, he invited
Charles VIII. of France to invade the kingdom of Naples. Genoa
fell under the yoke of Ludovico, who was invested with it by
Charles VIII as a fief of France.

Venice.— Venice, which up to the fall of Constantinople had
been the strongest of the Italian states, forgot its duties and its
dangers in relation to the Turks, in order to aggrandize itself in
Italy. It could not avoid war with them, which broke out in 1464.ITALY.

375

The Turks took Negropont and Scutari, passed the Piaviy and
the fires kindled by their troops could be seen from Venice. The
city made a shameful treaty with them, paying them a large sum
(1479). f°ur years after, it conquered Cyprus, which it did
not scruple to demand the privilege of holding as a fief of the
Sultan of Egypt. The great power of Venice at this time was a
cause of alarm to all the other states; but their first combina-
tion against it in 1482, in defense of the Duke of Ferrara, was of
no effect. In 1454 the government of Venice was placed practi-
cally in the hands of three " inquisitors," who exercised despotic
power under the old forms, and, by such means as secret trials and
executions, maintained internal order and quiet at the cost of
liberty. Its soldiers were condottieri, under foreign leaders, whom
it watched with the utmost jealousy.

Florence. — Cosmo de Medici had continued to be a man of
the people (p. 339). But the members of his family who fol-
lowed him, while they copied his munificence and public spirit,
behaved more as princes. Against Peter J. plots were formed by
the nobles, but were battled (1465). Jerome Riario, a nephew
of Pope Sixtus /K, strove with papal help to conquer for himself
a principality in the Romagna. The Florentines protested against
it as a breach of the treaty of Lodi. Hence Riario took part in
the conspiracy of the Pazzi against the lives of Lorenzo and
Julian, sons of Cosmo. They were attacked in the cathedral of
Florence by the assassins, during the celebration of mass ; Julian
was killed, but Lorenzo escaped. The Archbishop of Pisa, one of
the accomplices, was hung from his palace window in his pon-
tifical robes. The Pope excommunicated the Medici, and all the
Italian states plunged into war. The capture of Otranto at this
time by the Turks frightened the princes. L.orenzo de Medici
repaired in person to Naples to negotiate with Ferdinand, the
Pope's ally, and peace was concluded. Lorenzo earned the name
of " The Magnificent" by his lavish patronage of literature and
art.

Savonarola. — Against the rule of Lorenzo, one voice was
raised, that of the Dominican monk Jerome Savonarola, a preach-
er of fervid eloquence, who aimed in his harangues, not only to
move individuals to repentance, but to bring about a thorough
amendment of public morals, and a political reform in the direc-
tion of liberty. In his discourses, however, he lashed the ecclesi-
astical corruptions of the time, not sparing those highest in power.
There were two parties, that of the young nobles, — the arribiati,
or " enraged ;" and that of the people, — the frateschior friends
of the monks. Savonarola proclaimed that a great punishment
was impending over Italy. He predicted the invasion from north
of the Alps.376

MODERN HISTORY.

Florence in the Age of Lorenzo.—Florence in the time of Lorenzo
presented striking points of resemblance to Athens in its most flourishing
days. In some respects, the two communities were quite unlike. Florence
was not a conquering power, and had no extensive dominion. Civil and mili-
tary life were distinct from one another: the Italian had come to rely more
upon diplomacy than upon arms, and his wealth and mercantile connections
made him anxious to avoid war. In Florence, moreover, trade and the me-
chanic arts were in high repute; industry was widely diffused, and was held
in honor. But in equality and pride or citizenship, in versatility of talent
and intellectual activity, in artistic genius and in appreciation of the prod-
ucts of art, in refinement of manners, cheerfulness of temper, and a joyous
social life, the Florentines in the fifteenth century compare well with the
Athenians in the age of Pericles. In Florence, the ourgess or citizcn had at-
tained to the standing to which in other countries he only aspired. Nobility
of blood was counted as of some worth; but where there was not wealth or
intellect with it, it was held in comparatively low esteem. Prosperous mer-
chants, men of genius and education, and skillful artisans were on a level
with the best. Men of noble extraction engaged in business. The common-
wealth conferred knighthood on the deserving, according to the practice of
sovereign princes. Persons of the highest social standing did not disdain to
labor in their shops and counting-houses. Frugal in their domestic life, the
Florentines strove to maintain habits of frugality by strict sumptuary laws.
Limits were set to indulgence in finery, food, etc. The population of Flor-
ence somewhat exceeded one hundred thousand. In the neighborhood of
. the city, there was a multitude of attractive, richly furnished villas and country-
houses. Among the industries in which the busy population was engaged in
1472, a chronicler enumerates eighty-three rich and splendid warehouses of
the silk-merchants' guild, thirty-three great banks, and forty-four goldsmiths'
and jewellers' shops. The houses of the rich were furnished with elegance,
and decorated with beautiful works of art. There was a great contrast be-
tween the simplicity of ordinary domestic life, especially as regards provisions
for the table, and the splendor displayed on public occasions, or when guests
were to be hospitably entertained. The effect of literary culture was seen
in the tone of conversation. It is remarkable that the great sculptors were
all goldsmiths, and came out of the workshop. A new generation of painters
had a like practical training. In those days, there was a union of manual
. skill with imagination. The art of the goldsmith preceded and outstripped
all the others. In such a society, there was naturally a great relish for public
festivals, both sacred and secular. Everywhere in Italy the Mysteries, or
religious plays, exhibiting events of scriptural history, were in vogue; bril-
liant pantomimes were enjoyed, and the festivities of the yearly carnival were
keenly relished. In the government of Florence, the liberty of the citizens
was mainly confined to the choosing of their magistrates. Once in office,
they ruled with arbitrary power. There was no liberty of the press, nor was
there freedom of discussion in the public councils. It was a community
where, with all its cultivation and elegance, morality was at a low ebb.
, Lorenzo himself, although "he had all the qualities ot poet and statesman,
connoisseur and patron of learning, citizen and prince," nevertheless "could
not keep himself from the epicureanism of the time," and was infected with
its weaknesses and vices. "These joyous and refined civilizations," writes
M. Taine, "based on a worship of pleasure and intellectuality, — Greece of the
fourth century, Provence of the twelfth, and Italy of the sixteenth, —were not
enduring. Man in these lacks some checks. After sudden outbursts of genius
and creativeness, he wanders away in the direction of license and egotism; the
degenerate artist and thinker makes room for the sophist and the dilettant."

The Popes.—• The Popes,Nicholas V. (*1447-1455), a protect-
or of scholars and a cultivated man, and Hus //. (1458-1464),THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.

377

THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.

Othman, 1307-1325.

I	'	1

Orchan, 1335-1359. Alacddin.
|_

Am lirath I, 1359-1389.
Bajazet I, 1389-1402.

Soliman, 1402-1410.	Musa, 14x0-1413. Issa. Mohammed I, 1413-1421.

I-'

Amurath If, 1421-1451.
Mohammed II, 1451-1481.

_1 »_.

Bajazet II, X48X-1512.	Djem.

■ 1--:-1

Sellm I, 1512-15204
Soliman I, 1520-1566.

Sellm II, 1566-1574.

Amurath III, 1574-1595.

Mohammed III, 1595-1603.

Achmet I, 1603-1617.	Mustapha I, i6i7-x6x8, 1622-1623.

Othman II, 1618-1622. Amurath IV, 1623-1640. Ibrahim, 1640-1649, deposed.

Mohammed IV, 1649-1687, deposed.	Soliman II,	Achmet II,

1687-1691.	1691-1695.

Mustapha II, 1695-1703, deposed.	Acliniet III, 1703-1730, deposed.

Mahmoud I, Othman III, Mustapha III, Abul llamid I, 1774-1789.
X730-X754.	x754-*757.	*757-*774*

Sellm III,	Mustapha IV,	Mahmoud II, 1808-1839.

1789-1807, deposed.	1807-1808, deposed.	1

Abdul Med j Id, 1839-1861.	Abdul Aziz, 1861-1876.

Murad V (June 4,1876-Aug. 31,1876). Abdul llamid II (Aug. 31,1876-).

[Mainly from George's Genealogical Tables.]3 78

MODERN HISTORY.

zealously but in vain exhorted to crusades against the Turk.
■Paul II (1464-1471) pursued the same course; but after him,
for a half-century, there ensued the deplorable era when the pon-
tiffs were more busied with other interests than with those per-
taining to the weal of Christianity. The pontificates of Sixtus
IK (1471-1484), Innocent VIII\ (1484-1492), and especially of
Alexander VI. (1492-1503), the second pope of the Borgia
family, present a lamentable picture of worldly schemes and of
" nepotism," as the projects for the temporal advancement of
their relatives were termed. The Roman principality was the prey
of petty tyrants, and the theater of wars, and of assassinations
perpetrated by the knife or with poison. Alexander VI suc-
ceeded in subduing or destroying all these petty lords. He was
seconded in these endeavors by his son Casar Borgia, brave,
accomplished, and fascinating,, but a monster of treachery and
cruelty. No deed was savage or base enough to cost him any
remorse. Hardly had he acquired the Romagna, when Pope
Alexander died. He drank of* a poison which it was charged
that he and Ccesar Borgia had intended for a cardinal. The
latter was betrayed, was imprisoned for a time by Ferdinand the
Catholic, and, while he was in the service of the King of Navarre,
was slain before the castle of Viana.

Naples. — In Naples, Ferdinand /., who was established on his
throne by the defeat of his competitors in 1462, provoked a revolt
of his barons by his tyranny, invited them to a festival to cele-
brate a reconciliation with them, and caused them to be seized at
the table, and then to be put to death. He treated the people
with equal injustice and cruelty. He allowed the Turks to take
Otranto (1480), and the Venetians to take Gallipoli and Poli-
castro (1484).

Weakness of Italy. — Italy, at the close of the fifteenth cen-
tury, with all its proficiency in art and letters, and its superiority
in the comforts and elegances of life, was a prey to anarchy.
This was especially true after the death of Lorenzo de Medici.
Diplomacy had become a school of fraud. Battles had come to
be, in general, bloodless; but either perfidy, or prison and the
dagger, were the familiar instruments of warfare. The country
from its beauty, its wealth, and its factious state, was an alluring
prize to foreign invaders.THE OTTOMAN TURKS.

379.

'( :

VI. THE qiTOMAN TURKS.

Their Conquests. — The empire of Mohammed II (145i-
1481) extended from the walls of Belgrade > on the Danube, to the
middle of Asia Minor. To the east was the Seljukian principality
of Caramania in the center of Asia Minor, and, when that was
finally overthrown (i486), Persian, whose hostility was inflamed
by differences of sect. The conquest of the Greek Empire was
achieved by Mohammed. Matthias Corvinus (1458-1493), the
successor of Ilunyady, was the greatest of the kings of Hungary,
and defended the line of the Danube against the Turkish assaults.
For twenty-three years Scanderbeg, the intrepid Prince of Alba- ,
nia> repulsed all the attacks of the Moslems. It was not until ten
years after his death (1467) that his principal stronghold was
surrendered to the invaders. The attacks on the Venetians have
already been mentioned, as well as the capture of Otranto.
Bajazet II was more inclined to study than to war: his brother
Djettiy who tried to supplant him, passed as a prisoner into the
ha:.ids of Pope Alexander VI An annual tribute was paid by the
Sultan for keeping him from coming back to Turkey; and when,
at last, he was released, he was perfidiously poisoned. Selim I
(1512-1520) entered anew on the path of conquest. He de-
feated the Persians, and made the Tigris his eastern boundary.
He annexed to his empire Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. The
Sultan now became the commander of the faithful, the inheritor
of the prophetic as well as military leadership. The conquest
of Alexandria by Selim (1517) inflicted a mortal blow on the
commerce of Venice, by intercepting its communication with the
Orient. The despotic domination of Selim stretched from the Dan-
ube to the Euphrates, and from the Adriatic to the cataracts of the
Nile. Such was the empire which the Ottoman conqueror handed
down to his son, Soliman I the Magnificent (1520-1566). Mo-
hammed II and Selim were the two conquerors by whom the
Ottoman Empire was built up. Each of them combined with an
iron will and revolting cruelty a taste for science and poetry, and
the genius of a ruler. They take rank among the most eminent
tyrants in Asiatic history. While they were spreading their do-
minion far and wide, the popes and the sovereigns of the West
did nothing more effectual than to debate upon the means of
confronting so great a danger.RUSSIA.

Ivan III, Vassilievitch, 1462-1505, m. Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palaeoloeus. brother of Emperor Constantine XIII.

BasU IV, 1505-1533.	.	House of RomanoB.

I	I	'	I

Ivan IV,1 1533-1584, m. Anatasxa.	Nicetas.

Boris, Godounof,3 1598-1605.	Irene,2 m. Theodore, 1584-1598.	Mary-* (Marta the Nun), m. Theodore (Philaret die Metropolitan).

Michael, 1613-1645.

Alexis, 1645-1676.

Peter I (the Great) 1689-1725,
n. (1), Eudocia; (2), Catharine I, 1725-1;

1-1-

Theodore, 1676-1682. Ivan V, 1682-1689, resigned; d. 1696.

'__i	........ -1727.

Charles Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, m. Catharine. Anna, 1730-1740.

Anna, m. Antony Ulric, son of Ferdinand Albert II, of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel.

Ivan VI, 1740-1741, deposed.

Charlotte, d. of Lewis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, m. Alexis, executed 1718.	Anna, d. 1738,	Elizabeth,

I-J	m. Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. 1741-1762.

f	Peter II, 1727-1730. Peter III, January-July, 1762, m. Catharine II of Anh?lt, 1762-1796.

(deposed, and died soon after) |

Paul, 1796-1801.

Alexander I, X801-1825. Nicholas, 1825-1855, m. Charlotte, daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia.

Alexander II, 1855-1881, w. Mary of Hesse Darmstadt.

Alexander III, x88i- , m. Mary (Dagmar), daughter of Christian IX of Denmark.

1 First czar.	^	Is Succeeded by an impostor pretending to be Demetrius, son of Ivan

* Declined the crown on Theodore's death, which was seized by her IV, who reigned one year; then Basil V, 1606-1610; then chaos until 1613.
brother.	j 4 Said to be a descendant of the old royal house.

[Mainly from George's Genealogical Tables.}RUSSIA.

38l

VII. RUSSIA.

Hussia: Ivan III. — For two centuries Russia paid tribute to the
Tartar conquerors in the South, the "Golden Horde " (p. 283).
The liberator of his people from this yoke was Ivan ///., — Ivan
the Great,— (1462-1505). In the period when the nations of the
West were becoming organized, Russia escaped from its servitude,
and made some beginnings of intellectual progress. Ivan was a
cold and calculating man, who preferred to negotiate rather than
to fight; but he inflicted savage punishments, and even "his
glance caused women to faint." He was able to subdue the rich
trading-city of*Novgorod (1478), which had been connected
with the Hanseatic League, and where a party endeavored to
bring to pass a union with Poland. He conquered unknown
frozen districts in the North, and smaller princedoms, including
Tver, in the interior. The empire of the Horde was so broken up
that Ivan achieved an almost bloodless triumph, which made
Russia free. In wars with Lithuania, Western Russia was recon-
quered up to the Soja. Ivan married Sophia Palceologus, a niece
of the last Christian emperor of the East. She taught him "to
penetrate the secret of autocracy." Numerous Greek emigrants
of different arts and professions came to Moscow. Ivan took for
the new arms of Russia the two-headed eagle of the Byzantine
Caesars, and thenceforward Russia looked on herself as the heir of
the Eastern Empire. The Russian metropolitan, called afterwards
Patriarch, was now elected by Russian bishops. Moscow became
"the metropolis of orthodoxy," and as such the protector of
Greek Christians in the East. Ivan laid out in the city the fortified
inclosure styled the Kremlin. He brought into the country Ger-
man and Italian mechanics. It was he who founded the greatness
of Russia. Vassali Ivanovitch (1505-1533), his son, continued
the struggle with Lithuania, and acquired Smolensk (1514).
He exchanged embassies with most of the sovereigns of the West.

Ivan IV. (1533-1584). — Ivan IV., Ivan the Terrible, first took
the title of Czar, since attached to " the Autocrat of all the Rus-
sias." It was the name that was given, in the Slavonian books
which he read, to the ancient kings and emperors of the East and
of Rome. Moscow was now to be a third Rome, the successor of
Constantinople. Ivan conquered the Tartar principalities of Kazan
and Astrakhan in the South, and extended his dominion to the
Caucasus, The Volga, through its entire course, was now a Russian
river. He brought German mechanics into Russia, established
printing-presses, and made a'commercial treaty with Queen Eliza-
beth, whom he invited to an alliance against Poland and Sweden.
It was in this reign (1581-1582) that a brigand chief, Irmak by
name (a Cossack, in the service of the Czar), crossed , the Urals382

MODERN HISTORY.

with a few hundred followers, and made the conquest of the vast
region of Siberia, then under the dominion of the Tartars. Ivan
sent thither bishops and priest^ He had to cede Livonia to the
Swedes, who, with their allies were too strong to be overcome. In
Russia, he put down the aristocracy, and crushed all resistance to
his personal rule. Whatever tyranny and cruelty this result cost,
it prevented Russia from becoming an anarchic kingdom like
Poland, Ivan, by forming the national guard of streltsi or strelitz,
laid the foundation of a standing army. In his personal conduct,
brutal and sensual practices alternated with exercises of piety. In
a fit of wrath, he struck his son Ivan a fatal blow, and in conse-
quence was overwhelmed with sorrow. After a short reign of his
second son, Feodor (1584-1598)^110 was weak in mind and body,
the throne was usurped by one of the aristocracy, the able and
ambitious regent, Boris Godounof (1598-1605).

The Cossacks.—These were brought into subjection by Ivan IV.
and his successors. They were robber hordes of mixed origin,
partly Tartar and partly Russian. Their abodes were near the
rapids of the Dnieper, and on the Don, and at the foot of the
Caucasus. They were fierce warriors, and did a great service to
Russia in subduing the wild nomad tribes on the north and east
of the regions where the Cossacks dwelt.

Times of Trouble.'— After the death of Boris Godounof \ two
pretenders, one after the other, each assuming to be Demetrius,
the younger son of Ivan,—a son who had been put to death,—
seized on power. This was rendered possible by the mutual strife
of Russian factions, and by the help afforded to the impostors by
thq Poles. Sigismund IH.y king of Poland, openly espoused the
cause of the second Demetrius. Moscow was forced to surrender
(1610) ; and the czar whom the nobles had enthroned, Basil K,
died in a Polish prison. These events gave rise to a lasting enmity
between the two Slavonic nations. In 1611 the Poles were driven
out by a national rising, which led to the elevation to the throne
of Michael Romanoff (1613-1645), the foundef of the present dy-
nasty of czars. Peace was concluded with Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden, and with the Poles. Commercial treaties were made with
foreign nations. In Russia there was a great increase of internal
prosperity.

Serfdom in Russia. — The lower classes in Russia consisted of three
divisions: 1, Slaves, captives taken in war, who were bought and sold.
2. The inscribed peasants, who were attached to the soil and became serfs.
They belonged to the commune, or village, which held the land, and as a unit
paid to the lord his dues. They made up the bulk of the rural population.
The peasant was an arbitrary master, a little czar in his own family. 3. The
free laborers, who could change their masters, but who soon fell into the
rank of serfs. While the higher classes in Russia advanced, the condition
of the rustics for several centuries continued to grow worse.	.....INVASIONS OF ITALY.

383

Russian Society. — The great nobles kept iu their castles a host of
servants. These were slaves, subject to the caprices of their master. Russian
women were kept in seclusion. 1 here was an Asiatic stamp imprinted on civil
and social life. "Thanks to the general ignorance, there was no intellectual
life in Russia: thanks to the seclusion of women, there was no society." By
degrees intercourse with Western Europe was destined to soften, in some
particulars, the harsh outlines of this picture.

Effect of . Absolute Monarchy.—The establishment of absolute
monarchy in Western Europe placed the resources of the nations
at the service of their respective kings. The desire of national
aggrandizement led to great European wars, which took the place
of the feudal conflicts of a former day. These wars began with
the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII, king of France.

Motives of the Invasion. — To this unwise enterprise Charles
VIIL was impelled by a romantic dream of conquest, which was
not to be limited to the Italian peninsula. He intended to attack
the Turks afterward, and to establish once more, under his pro-
tection, a Latin kingdom at Jerusalem. His counselors could not
dissuade him from the hazardous undertaking. In order to set
his hands free, he made treaties that were disadvantageous to
France with Henry VII., Maximilian, and Ferdinand the Cath-
olic. He was invited to cross the Alps by Ludovico il Moro
(p. 374), by the Neapolitan barons, by all the enemies of Pope
Alexander VI The special ground of the invasion was the claim
of the French king, through the house of Anjou, to the throne of
Naples. In 1494 Charles crossed the Alps with a large army,
and, with the support of Ludovico, advanced from Milan, through
Florence and Rome, to Naples. He caused himself to be crowned
King of Naples, Emperor of the East, and King of Jerusalem.
The rapid progress of the French power alarmed the Pope and
the other princes, including Ludovico himself, who was afraid that
the king might cast a covetous eye on his own principality. A
formidable league was formed against Charles, including, besides
the Italian princes, Ferdinand\ Maximilian, and Henry VIII of
England. It was the first European combination against France.
Charles left eleven thousand men under Gilbert de Montpensier,
at Naples; and after being exposed to much peril, although he
won a victory at Fornuova (1495), ma^e way *°
France. Ferdinand II, aided by Spanish troops, expelled the
French from Naples; and the remnant of their garrisons, after
the death of Montpensier, was led back to France. The con-
quests of Charles were 'lost as speedily as they were gained. His
great expedition proved a failure.

Death of Savonarola. — Civil strife continued in the Italian
states. Savonarola had been excommunicated by Alexander VL

VIII. FRENCH INVASIONS OF ITALY.3^4

MODERN HISTORY.

The combination of parties against him was too strong to be over-
come by his supporters, and he was put to death in 1498.

Louis XII. (1498-1515): his First Italian War.— On the death
of Charles VII/., who left no male children, the crown reverted to
his nearest relative, Louis of Orleans. He entered once more on
the aggressive enterprise begun by his predecessor. He laid claim
not only to the rights of Charles VIII. at Naples, but also claimed
Milan through his grandmother Valentine Visconti. In alliance
with Venice, and with Florence to which he promised Pisa, then
in revolt against the detested Florentine supremacy, and with the
support of CcBsar Borgia, he entered Italy, and defeated Ludovico
il Moro at Novara (1500). Ludovico had before been driven out
of Milan by the French, but had regained the city. He was im-
prisoned in France; and on his release twelve years afterward, he
died from joy. Louis bargained with Ferdinand the Catholic to
divide with him the Neapolitan kingdom. Ferdinand, the king of
Naples, was thus dethroned. But Ferdinand of Spain was as
treacherous in his dealing with Louis as he had been in relation
to his Neapolitan namesake; and the kingdom fell into the hands
of. Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Spanish general.

The Second, Italian War of Louis.—Anxious for revenge, Louis
sent two armies over the Pyrenees, which failed of success, and a
third army into Italy under La Tremoille, which was defeated by
Gonsalvo, notwithstanding the gallantry of Bayard\ the pattern of
chivalry, the French knight " without fear and without reproach."

The Third Italian War of Louis. — The third Italian war of
Louis began in 1507, and lasted eight years. It includes the his-
tory of the League of Cambray, and also of the anti-French
League subsequently formed. France was barely saved from great
calamities in consequence of foolish treaties, three in number,
made at Blois in 1504. The party of the queen, Anne of Brit-
tany, secured the betrothal of Claude, the child of Louis XIL, to
Charles of Austria, afterwards Charles V., the son of Philip, with
the promise of Burgundy and Brittany as her dowry. The arrange-
ment was repudiated by the estates of France (1506). Claude
was betrothed to Francis of Angoulhne, the king's nearest male
relative, and the heir of the French crown. On the marriage of
Ferdinand to Germaine of Foix, Louis agreed to give up his
claims on Naples. The sufferings of Italy had redounded to the
advantage of Venice. Among her other gains, she had annexed
certain towns in the Romagna which fell into anarchy at the ex-
pulsion of Ccesar Borgia. The energetic Pope, Julius IL, organized
a combination, the celebrated League of Cambray (1508), between
himself, the Emperor Maximilian, the kings of France and of
Aragon: its object was the humbling of Venice, and the division
of her mainland possessions among the partners in the League. A00
CO

ENGLAND. —THE TUDORS AND STUARTS.

Henry Til, 1485-1509, m. Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.

CO

£

£
H

co

Q

£
<

CO

O

a
d

H

I--

Margaret^

m. James IV of Scotland.

James V.

Mary, Queen of Scots.

I

Henry Till, 1509-1547,
n. 1, Catharine, daughter of Ferdlnana and Isabella;

2,	Anne Boleyn;

3,	Jane Seymour;

4,	Anne, sister of William, Duke of Cleves;

5,	Catharine Howard;

6,	Catharine Parr.

James I, 1603-1625,
'iter of Fr< *
enmark.

m. Anne, daughter of Frederick II
of Den *

r

--1

Mary,

m. 1,"Louis XII of France;

2, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.

Frances, tn. Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk.

Jane (m. Guilford Dudley), executed 1554.

1

3, Edward TI, 1547-1553. 1, Mary, 1553-1558, m. Philip II of Spain. 2, Elizabeth, 1558-1603.

3, Charles 1, 1625-1649, m. Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV of France. 2, Elizabeth, m. Frederick V, Elector Palatine.

I	I	. I	I

Charles II, 1660-1685,	# Mary,	James II, 1685-1688 (deposed, d. 1701),	Sophia,

m. Catharine,	m. William II, Prince of Orange. m. Anne Hyde, daughter of Earl of m. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover.

Clarendon.	I

daughter of John iv of
Portugal.

r

T

George I, succeeded 1714.

William III, 1688-1702, m. Mary, d. 1694. Anne, t702-1714, nt. George, son of Frederick III of Denmark.386

MODERN HISTORY.

fine army of Louis, composed of French, Lombards, and Swiss,
crossed the Adda, and routed the Venetians, who abandoned all their
towns outside of Venice. Each of the other confederate powers
now seized the places which it desired. France, mistress of Milan,
was at the height of her power. The Venetians, however, retook
Padua from the emperor. The Pope made peace with them, and,
fired with the spirit of Italian patriotism, organized a new league
for the expulsion of the French — "the barbarians," as he called
them — from the country. Old man as he was, he took the field
himself in the dead of winter. He was defeated, and went to
Rome. Louis convoked a council at Pisa, which was to depose
Julius. A Holy League was formed between the Pope, Venice,
Ferdinand of Aragon, and Henry VIII. of England. The arms
of the French under Gaston of Foix, the young duke of Nemours,
were for a while successful. Ravenna was in their hands. But
Gaston fell at the moment of victory. The Swiss came down, and
established Maximilian Sforza at Milan. Leo X., of the house
of Medici, and hostile to France, was chosen Pope (1513). The
French troops were defeated by the Swiss near Novara, and driven
beyond the Alps. France was attacked on the north by the Eng-
lish, with Maximilian, who had joined the League in 1513 : and
Bayard was taken captive. James IV. of Scotland, who had
made a. diversion in favor of France, was beaten and slain at
Flodden Field (1513). The eastern borders of France were
attacked by the Swiss Leagues, who, aided by Austrians, pene-
trated as far as Dijon. They were bought off by La Tremoille
the French commander, by a large payment of money, and by
still more lavish promises. France concluded peace with the
Pope, the emperor, and the king of Aragon (1514), and in the
next year with Henry VIIL, whose sister, Mary, Louis XII. mar-
ried, a few months after the death of Anne of Brittany. He
abandoned his pretensions to the Milanese, in favor of his younger
daughter Renee, the wife of Hercules II., the duke of Ferrara.
Louis died (1515), shortly after his marriage. .The policy of the
belligerent pontiff, Julius //., had triumphed. The French were
expelled from Italy, but the Spaniards were left all the stronger.

The events just narrated bring us into the midst of the struggles
and ambitions of ruling houses, diplomatic intercourse among
states, and international wars. These are distinguishing features
of modern times. 'THE RENAISSANCE.	387

CHAPTER II. \/'

INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

We have glanced at the new life of Europe in its political mani-
festations. We have now to view this new life in other relations :
we have to inquire how it acted as a stimulus to intellectual effort
in different directions.

( The term Renaissance is frequently applied at present not only to the " new
birth " of art and letters, but to all tne characteristics, taken together, of the
period of transition from the Middle Ages to modern life. The transformation <
in the structure and policy of states, the passion for discovery, the dawn of a
more scientific method of observing man and nature, the movement towards
more freedom of intellect and of conscience, are part and parcel of one com-
prehensive change, — a change which even now has not reached its goal. It
was not so much " the arts and the inventions, the knowledge and the books,
which suddenly became vital at the time of the Renaissance," that created
the new epoch: it was "the intellectual energy, the spontaneous outburst of
intelligence, which enabled mankind at that moment to make use of them."

Inventions: Gunpowder. — In the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, there were brought into practical use several inventions
most important in their results to civilization. Of these the prin-
cipal were gunpowder, the mariner's compass, and printing by
movable types. Gunpowder was not first made by Schwartz, a t
monk of Freiburg, as has often been asserted. We have notices,
more or less obscure, of the use of an explosive material re-
sembling it, among the Chinese, among the Indians in the East
as early as Alexander the Great, and among the Arabs. It was
first brought into use in fire-arms in the middle of the fourteenth
century. The effect was to make infantry an effective force, and
to equalize combatants, since a peasant could handle a gun as well
as a knight. Another consequence has been to mitigate the bru-
talizing influence of war on the soldiery, by making it less a hand-
to-hand encounter, an encounter with swords and spears, attended
with bloodshed, and kindling personal animosity; and by rendering
it possible to hold in custody large numbers of captives, whose
lives, therefore, can be spared.

The Compass. — The properties of the magnetic needle were
first applied to navigation, it is thought, by Flavto Gioja> from the
district of Atnalfi, in Italy, in the beginning of the fourteenth cen-
tury. The compass came into general use. Navigation was no
longer confined to the Mediterranean and to maritime coasts.
The sailor could push out into the ocean without losing himself on
its boundless waste.

Printing. — Printing, which had been done to some extent by
wooden blocks, was probably first done with movable types (about
1450) by John Gutenberg^ who was born at Mentz, but who lived .388

MODERN HISTORY.

long at Strasburg. He was furnished with capital by an asso-
ciate, Faust; and worked in company with a skillful copyist of
manuscripts, Schoffer. Gutenberg brought the art to such per-
fection, that in 1456 a complete Latin Bible was printed. Within
a short time, printing-presses were set up in all the principal cities *
of Germany and Italy. As an essential concomitant, linen and
cotton paper came into vogue in the room of the costly parch-
ment. Books were no longer confined to the rich. Despite the
censorship of the press, thought traveled from city to city and
from land to land. It was a sign of a new era, that Maximilian
in Germany and Louis XI. in Franee founded a postal system.

New Route to India. — The discovery by the Portuguese of
the islands of Porto Santo andMadeira (1419-1420), of the Ca-
nary Islands and of the Azores, was followed by their discovery of
the coast of Upper Guinea, with its gold-dust, ivory, and * gums
(1445). The Pope, to whom was accorded the right to dispose
of the heathen and of newly discovered lands, granted to the Por-
tuguese the possession of these regions, and of whatever discoveries
they should make as far as India. From Lower Guinea {Congo),
Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern point of Africa (i486),
which King John II. named the Cape of Good Hope. Then,
under Emanuel the Great (1495-1521), Vasco da Gama found
the way to East India, round the Cape, by sailing over the Indian
, Ocean to the coast of Malabar, and into the harbor of Calcutta
(1498). The Portuguese encountered the resistance of the Mo-
hammedans to their settlement; but by their valor and persistency,
especially by the agency of their leaders Almeida and the brave
Albuquerque, their trading-posts were established on the coast.

Disoovery of America.—The grand achievement in maritime
exploration in this age was the discovery of America by Christo-
pher Columbus, a native of Genoa. The conviction that India
could be reached by sailing in a westerly direction took possession
of his mind. Having sought in vain for the patronage of John II.
of Portugal, and having sent his brother Bartholomeiv to apply for
aid from Henry VII. of England, he was at length furnished with
three ships by Queen Isabella of Castile, to whom Granada had
just submitted (1492). Columbus was to have the station of
grand admiral and viceroy over the lands to be discovered, with
a tenth part of the incomes to be drawn from them, and the rank
of a nobleman for himself and his posterity. The story of an
open mutiny on his vessels does not rest on sufficient proof: that
there were alarm and discontent among the sailors, may well be
believed. On the nth of October, Columbus thought that he
discovered a light in the distance. At two o'clock in the morning
of Oct. 12, a sailor on the Pinta espied the dim outline of the
beach, and shouted, " Land, land I" It was an island calledVOYAGES OF DISCOVERY.

389

Guanahaniy named by Columbus,'in honor of Jesus, San Salva-
dor. Its beauty and productiveness excited admiration; but
neither here nor on the large islands of Cuba (Hispaniola) and
J/ayti (St. Domingo), which were discovered soon after, were there
found the gold and precious stones which the navigators and their
patrons at home so eagerly desired. Columbus built a fort on the
island of Hispaniola> and founded a colony. The name of West
Indies was applied to the new lands. Columbus lived and died in
the belief that the region which he discovered belonged to India.
Of an intermediate continent, and of an ocean beyond it, he did
not dream. The Pope granted to Ferdinand and Isabella all the
newly discovered regions of America, from a line stretching one
hundred leagues west of the Azores. Afterwards Ferdinand al-
lowed to the king of Portugal that the line should run three hundred
and seventy, instead of one hundred, leagues west of these islands.
In two subsequent voyages (1493-1496, 1498-1500), Columbus
discovered Jamaica and the Little Antilles, the Caribbean Islands,
and finally the mainland at the mouths of the Orinoco (1498).
In 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian captain living in England, while
in quest of a north-west passage to India, touched at Cape Breton,
and followed the coast of North America southward for a distance
of nine hundred miles. Shortly after, Amerigo Vespucci', a Floren-
tine, employed first by Spain and then by Portugal, explored in
several voyages the coast of South America. The circumstance
that his full descriptions were published (1504) caused the name
of America, first at the suggestion of the printer, to be attached to
the new world.

Later Voyages of Columbus. — On his return from his first
voyage, Columbus was received with distinguished honors by the
Spanish sovereigns. But he suffered from plots caused by envy,
both on the islands and at court. Once he was sent home in fetters
by Bobadilla, a commissioner appointed by Ferdinand. He was
exonerated from blame, but the promises which had been made
to him were not fulfilled. A fourth voyage was not attended by
the success in discovery which he had hoped for, and the last two
years of his life were weary and sad. Isabella had died ; and in
1506 the great explorer, who with all his other virtues combined
a sincere piety, followed her to the tomb.

The Pacific. — The spirit of adventure, the hunger for wealth
and especially for the precious metals, and zeal for the conversion
of the heathen, were the motives which combined in different pro-
portions to set t>n foot exploring and conquering expeditions to
the unknown regions of the West. The exploration of the North-
American coast, begun by John Cabot, Sebastian Cabot (1498),
and the Portuguese Cortereal (1501), continued from Labrador to
Florida. In 1513 Balboa, a Spaniard at Darien> fought his way390

MODERN HISTORY.

to a height on the Isthmus of Panama, whence he descried the
Pacific Ocean. Descending to the shore, and riding into the water
up to his thighs, in the name of the king he took possession of
the sea. In 1520 Magellan, a Portuguese captain, sailed round the
southern cape of America, and over the ocean to which he gave
the name of Pacific. He made his way to the East Indies, but
was killed on one of the Philippine Islands, leaving it to his com-

panions
Spaniar<

land of

to finish the voyage around the globe. A little later the
Is added first Mexico, and then Peru, to their dominions.

Conduest of Mexico. — The Spanish conqueror of Mexico, the

the Aztecs, was Hernando Cortes (1485-1547). The

principal king in that country was Montezuma, whose empire was
extensive, with numerous cities, and with no inconsiderable ad-
vancement in arts and industry. From Santiago, in 1519, Cortes
conducted an expedition composed of seven hundred Spaniards,
founded Vera Cruz, where he left a small garrison, subdued the
tribe of Tlascalans who joined him, and was received by Monte-
zuma into the city of Mexico. Cortes made him a prisoner in
his own palace, and seized his capital. The fire-arms and the
horses of the Spaniards struck the natives with dismay. Never-
theless, they made a stout resistance. To add to the difficulties
of the shrewd and valiant leader, a Spanish force was sent from
the West Indies, under Narvaez, to supplant him. This force he
defeated, and captured their chief. In 1520 Cortes gained over
the Mexicans, at Otumba, a victory which was decisive in its
consequences. The city of Mexico was recaptured (1521) ; for
Montezuma had been slain by his own people, and the Spaniards
driven out. Guatimozin, the new king, was taken prisoner and
put to death, and the country was subdued. Cortes put an end to
the horrid religious rites of the Mexicans, which included human
sacrifices. Becoming an object of jealousy and dread at home,
he was recalled (1528). Afterwards he visited the peninsula of
California, and ruled for a time in Mexico, but with diminished
authority.

Conquest of Peru.—-The conquest of Peru was effected by
Francisco Pizarro, and Almagro, both illiterate adventurers, equally
daring with Cortes, but more cruel and unscrupulous. The Peru-
vians were of a mild character, prosperous, and not uncivilized,
and without the savage religious system of the Mexicans. They
had their walled cities and their spacious temples. The empire
of the Incas, as the rulers were called, was distracted by a civil
war between two brothers, who shared the kingdom. Pizarro
captured one of them, Atahualpa, and basely put him to death
after he had provided the ransom agreed upon, amounting to more
than $17,500,000 in gold (1533). Pizarro founded Lima, near
the sea-coast (1535). Almagro and Pizarro fell out with eachREVIVAL OF LEARNING.

391

other, and the former was defeated and beheaded. The land and
its inhabitants were allotted among the conquerors as the spoils of
victory. The horrible oppression of the people excited insurrec-
tions. At length Charles K sent out Pedro de la Gasca as viceroy
(1541), at a time when Gonzalo Pizarro, the last of the family,
held sway. Gonzalo perished on the gallows., Gasca reduced
the government to an orderly system.

The Amazon.—Orellena, an officer of Pizarro, in 1541 first
descended the river Amazon to the Atlantic. His fabulous de-
scriptions of an imaginary El Dorado, whose capital with its
dazzling treasures he pretended to have seen, inflamed other
explorers, and prompted to new enterprises. The cupidity of the
Spaniards, and their eagerness for knightly warfare, made the New
World, with its floral beauty and mineral riches, a most enticing
field for adventure. To devout missionaries, to the monastic
orders especially, the new regions were not less inviting. They
followed in the wake of the Spanish conquerors and viceroys.

Revival of Learning. — The stirring period of invention and
of maritime discovery was also the period of "the revival of learn-
ing." Italy was the main center and source of this intellectual
movement, which gradually spread over the other countries of
Western Europe.. There was a thirst for a wider range of study
and of culture than the predominantly theological writings and
training of the Middle Ages afforded. The minds of men turned
for stimulus and nutriment to the ancient classical authors. Pe-
trarch, the Italian poet (1304-1374), did much to foster this new
spirit. In the fifteenth century the more active intercourse with
the Greek Church, and the efforts at union with it, helped to bring
into Italy learned Greeks, like Chrysoloras and Bessarion, and
numerous manuscripts of Greek authors. The fall of Constanti-
nople increased this influx of Greek learning. The new studies
were fostered by the Italian princes, who vied with one another in
their zeal for collecting the precious literary treasures of antiquity,
and in the liberal patronage of the students of classical literature.
The manuscripts of the Latin writers, preserved in the monasteries
of the West, were likewise eagerly sought for. The most eminent
of the patrons of learning were the Medici of Florence. Cosmo
fQunded a library and a Platonic academy. All the writings of
Plato were translated by one of that philosopher's admiring dis-
ciples, Marsilius Planus. Dictionaries and grammars, versions
and commentaries, for instruction in classical learning, were multi-
plied. These, with the ancient poets, philosophers, and orators
themselves, were diffused far and wide by means of the new art of
printing, and from presses, of which the Aldine — that of Aldus
%Minutius— at Venice was the most famous. "By the side of the
Church, which had hitherto held the countries of the West together392

MODERN HISTORY.

(though it was unable to do so much longer) there arose a new
spiritual influence, which, spreading itself abroad from Italy, be-
came the breath of life for all the more instructed minds in
Europe."

Contest of the New and the Old Culture. — In Germany, the
new learning gained a firm foothold. But there, as elsewhere,
the Humanists, as its devotees were called, had a battle to fight *
with the votaries of the mediaeval type of culture, who, largely on
theological grounds, objected to the new culture, and were stig-
matized as "obscurantists." In Italy, the study of the ancient
heathen writers had engendered, or at least been accompanied
by, much religious skepticism and indifference. This, however, was
not the case in Germany. But the champions of the scholastic
method and system, in which logic and divinity, as handled by
the schoolmen, were the principal thing, were strenuously averse
to the linguistic and literary studies which threatened to supplant
them. The advocates of the new studies derided the lack of learn-
ing, the barbarous style, and fine-spun distinctions of the school-
men, who had once been the intellectual masters. The disciples
of Aristotle and of the schoolmen still had a strong hold in Paris,
Cologne, and other universities. But certain universities, like
Tubingen and Heidelberg, let in the humanistic studies. In 1502
Frederick, the elector of Saxony, founded a university at Witten-
berg, in which from the outset they were prominent.. In England\
the cause of learning found ardent encouragement, and had able
representatives in such men as Colet, dean of St. Paul's, who
founded St. Paul's School at his own expense; and in Thomas
More, the author of Utopia, afterwards lord chancelor under
Henry VIII.

Reuchlin: Ulrich von Hutten. — A leader of humanism in
Germany was John Reuchlin (1455-1522), an erudite scholar,
who studied Greek at Paris and Basel, mingled with Politian,
Pico de Mir an do la, and other famous scholars at Florence, and
wrote a Hebrew as well as a Greek grammar. This distinguished
humanist became involved in a controversy with the Dominicans
of Cologne, who wished to burn all the Hebrew literature except
the Old Testament. The Humanists all rallied in support of
their chief, to whom heresy was imputed, and their success jn
this wide-spread conflict helped forward their cause. Ulrich von
Hutteny one of the young knights who belonged to the literary
school, and others of the same class, made effective use, against
their illiterate antagonists, of the weapons of satire and ridicule.

Erasmus. —• The prince of the Humanists was Desiderius Eras-
mus (1457-1536)'. No literary man has ever enjoyed a wider
fame during his own lifetime. He was not less resplendent for his
wit than for his learning. Latin was then the vehicle of intercourseREVIVAL OF LEARNING.	393

among the educated. In that tongue the books of Erasmus were
written, and they were eagerly read in all the civilized countries.
He studied theology in Paris; lived for a number of years in
England, where, in company with More and Colet, he fostered the
new studies; and finally took up his abode at Basel\ In early
youth, against his will, he had been for a while an inmate of a
cloister. The idleness, ignorance, self-indulgence, and artificial
austerities, which frequently belonged to the degenerate monasti-
cism of the day, furnished him with engaging themes of satire.
But in his Praise of Folly, and in his Colloquies, the two most
diverting of his productions, he lashes the foibles and sins of many
other classes, among whom kings and popes are not spared. By
such works as |iis editions of the Church Fathers, and his edition
of the Greek Testament, as well as by his multifarious correspond-
ence, he exerted a powerful influence in behalf of culture. If he
incurred the hostility of the conservative Churchmen, he still ad-
hered to the Roman communion, and won unbounded applaiuse
from the advocates of liberal studies and of practical religious
reforms.

Literature in Italy. — The first effect of the revival of letters
in Italy was to check original production in literature. The charm
of the ancient authors who were brought out of their tombs, the
belles-lettres studies, and the criticism awakened by them, natur-
ally had this effect for a time. Italy had two great authors in the
vernacular, the poet Ariosto (1474-1533), and Machiavelli: it
had, besides, one famous historian, Guicciardini (1482-1540).

Renaissance of Art. — This period was not simply an era of
grand exploration and discovery, and of the new birth of letters :
it was the brilliant dawn of a new era in art. Sculpture and paint-
ing broke loose from their subordination to Church architecture.
Painting, especially, attained to a far richer development.

Architecture and Sculpture. — In architecture and sculpture, the
influence of the antique styles was potent. Under the auspices of Brunei-
leschi (1377-1446), the Pitti Palace and other edifices of a like kind had been
erected at Florence. At Rome, Bramante (who died in 1515), and, in par-
ticular, Michael Atigelo (1475-1564), who was a master in the three arts of
painting, sculpture, and architecture, and a poet as well, were most influ-
ential. The great Florentine artist Ghiberti (1378-1455), in the bronze gates
of the baptistery, exhibited the perfection of bas-relief. The highest power
of Michael Angeloy as a sculptor, is seen in his statue of Moses at Rome,
and in the sepulchers of Julian and Lorenzo de Medici at Florence. A
student of his works, Cellini (1500-1 <572) is one of the men of genius of that
day, who, like his master, was eminently successful jn different branches
of art. In the same period, there were sculptors of high talent in Germany,
especially at Nuremberg, where Adam Kraft (1429-1507), and Peter Vischer
(1435-1529), whose skill is seen in the bronze tomb of Sebaldusy in the church
of that saint, are the most eminent. After the death of Michael Angelo, in
Italy theie was a decline in the style of sculpture, which became less noble
and more affectcd.394

MODERN HISTORY.

Painting in Italy. — The ancients had less influence on the schools of
painting than on sculpture. In painting, as we have seen (p. 308), Giotto
(1266-1337), a contemporary of the poet Dante> and Cimabue (who died
about 1302), had led the way. The art of perspective was mastered; and
real life, more or less idealized, was the subject of delineation. In Italy,
there arose various distinct styles or schools. The Florentine school reached
its height of attainment in the majestic works of Michael Angelo, the frescos
of the Sistine Chapel at Rome. The Roman school is best seen in the
stanzas of the Vatican, by Raphael (1483-1520), and in the ideal harmony and
beauty of his Madonnas. Prior to Michael Angelo and Raphael, there was|
the symbolic religious art of the Umbrian painters. Of these, the chief!
was/rtf Angelico (1387-1455), the devout monk who transferred to the canvas
the tenderness and fervor ot his own gentle spirit. The Venetian school, with
its richness of color, has left splendid examples of its power in the portraits
of Titian (1477-1576), the works of Paul Veronese (who died in 1588), and the
more passionate products of the pencil of Tintoretto (who died in 1594). The
Lombard school has for its representatives the older contemporary of Raphael,
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who combines perfection of outward form with
. deep spirituality, and by whom The Last Supper was painted on the wall of the
cloister at Milan; and Correpgio (1494-1534), whose play of tender sensibility;
and skill in the contrasts 01 light and shade in color, are exhibited in The
Night, or Worship of the Magi (at Dresden), and in his frescos at Parma. The
school of Bologtta, founded by th? three Caracci, numbers in its ranks Guido
Reni (1575-1042), gifted with imagination and sensibility, and Salvator Rosa
(1615-1673), who depicted the more wild and somber aspects of nature and
of life.

Michael Angelo and Haphael. — The two foremost names in the
history of Italian art are Michael Angelo and RaphaeL "If there is one man
who is a more striking representative of the Renaissance than any of his
contemporaries, it is Michael Angelo. In him character is on a par with
genius. His life of almost a century, and marvelously active, is spotless.
As an artist, we can not believe that he can be surpassed. He unites in his
wondrous individuality the two master faculties, which are, so to speak, the
poles of human nature, whose combination in the same individual creates
the sovereign greatness of the Tuscan school, — invention and judgment, — a
vast and fieryimagination, directed by a method precise, firm, and safe."
Raphael lacks the grandeur and the many-sided capacity of the great master
by whom he was much influenced. Raphael " had a nature which converted
every thing to beauty." He produced in a short life an astonishing number
of works of unequal merit; but to all of them he imparted a peculiar charm,
derived from "an instinct for beauty, which was his true genius."

Painting in the Netherlands.—In the Netherlands, aschoolof paint-
ing arose under the brothers Van Eyck (1366-1426, 1386-1440). One of
them, Johny was the first artist to paint in oil. At a later day, a class of
painters, of whomRubens (1577-1040) is the most distinguished, followed
more the track of the ancients and of the Italian school. These belonged
to Flanders and Brabant; while in Holland a school sprang up of a more
original and independent cast, in which genius of the highest order was
manifested in the person of Rembrandt (1607-1669), its most eminent master.

Painting in Germany and France. — In Germany, a school marked
by peculiarities of its own was represented by Hans Holbein (who died in
1543), and by Albert Diirer the Nuremberg artist (1471-1528). In Spain,
Murillo (1617-1682) combined inspiration with technical skill, and stands on
a level with the renowned Italians. Velasquez (1599-1660), an artist of ex-
traordinary power, is most distinguished for his portraits. The French artists
mostly followed the Italian styles. ^ Claude Lorraine (1600-1682) was the
painter of landscapes that are luminous in sunlight and atmosphere. In
England, the humorous Hogarth (1697-1764) was much later.REVIVAL OF LEARNING,

395 •

Musio.Music shared in the prosperity of the sister arts. The interest
awakened in its improvement paved the way m Italy for Palestrina (1514-1594)*
whose genius and labors constitute an epoch. In Germany, Luther became
one of the most efficient promoters of musical culture in connection with
public worship. The great German composers, Bach (1685-1750) and
Handel (1685-1759), belong to a subsequent period: they are, however, in
some degree the truit of seed sown earlier.

Litkrature. — For works on general history, see p. x6. For general histories of particular
countries, see p. 359.

On Modern Times. Dyer's History of Modern Europe ; Duruy's Histoire des Temps
Modernes [1453-1789]: Heeren's Vermischte kistorisck. Schriften (3 vols., 1821-24);
Manual of the History of the Political System of Europe and its Colonies [to the fall of
Napoleon J (a vols.); Historical Treatises (1 vol.); Heeren u. Ukert, Geschichte der
europaisch. Staaten (76 vols. 1829-75); T. Arnold's Lectures on Modern History;
Michelet's Modern History (* vol.) ; Yonge's Three Centuries of Modern History.

On the Age of the Renaissance. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy (5 vols.); Burckhardt's
The Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance in Italy (2 vols.); Reumont's Lorenzo
de' Medici (2 vols.); Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici; Villari's Machiavelli and his
Times; Machiavelli, History of Florence ; Oliphant > Makers of Florence: Dante., Giotto,
Savonarola, and their city (x vol.); Voigt; Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums
(1859); Lawa, History of Painting (3 vols.); Vasari, Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and
Architects; Crowe and CavalcasseTle, History of Painting in North Italy [1300-1500] (2
vols. 1871); Crowe, Handbook of Painting: the German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools
(2 parts, 1874); Eastlake, Handbook of Painting, the Italian Schools (based on ICugler,
2 parts, 1874); Crowe and Cavalcassefie, Life of Titian (2 vols.); Illustrated Biographies
of the Great Artists (14 vols.); Mrs. Jameson, Lives of Italian Painters; Grimm,
Life of Michael Angelo (2 vols.); Crowe and Caval&asselle, Life and Works of Raphael;
Fergusson, History of Modern Styles ofArchitecture ; Rugs s Geschichte d. Zeitalters d.
Entdeckungen (1 vol. in Oncken's Series); Geiger's Renaissance und Humanismus in
Italien una Deutschland (1 vol. in Oncken's Series); Lives of Erasmus, by Le Clerc, Jortin,
Knight, Burigny (2 vols.), A. MUller, Milman (1870), Drummond (2 vols.); Lives of Colum-
bus, by Irving, Major (1847), Helps (1868), Crompton (1859), J°^n (*850); Prescott's
History of Ferdinand and. Isabella, History of the Conquest of Mexico, and History of
the Conquest qf Peru ; Robertson, History of A merica.Period II.

THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION.

{1517-1648.)

introduction.

• The general stir in men's minds, as indicated in the revival
of, learning and in remarkable inventions and discoveries, was
equally manifest in great debates and changes in religion. One
important element and fruit of the Renaissance is here seen. At
the beginning of the sixteenth century, the nations of Western
Europe were all united in one Church, of which the Pope was the
acknowledged head. There were differences as to the extent of
his proper authority; sects had sprung up at different times; and
there had arisen leaders, like Wickliffe and Iluss, at war with the
prevailing system. Ecclesiastical sedition, however, had been
mostly quelled. Yet there existed a great amount of outspoken
and latent discontent. First, complaints were loud against mal-
administration in Church affairs. There were extortions and other
abuses that excited disaffection. Secondly, the authority exercised
by the Pope was charged with being inconsistent with the rights of
civil rulers and of national churches. Thirdly, disputes sprang up,
both in regard to various practices deemed objectionable, like
prayers for the dead, and the invocation of saints, and also con-
cerning important doctrines, like the doctrine of the mass or the
Lord's Supper, and the part that belongs to faith in the Christian
method of salvation, Out of this ferment arose what is called the
Protestant Reformation. The Teutonic nations generally broke o(T
from the Church of Rome, and renounced their allegiance to the
Pope. The Latin or Romanic nations, for the most part, still
adhered to him. As the common idea was that there should be
uniformity of belief and worship in a state, civil wars arose on
the question which form of belief should dominate. Germany
was desolated for thirty years by a terrible struggle. Yet, in all the
conflicts between kingdoms and states in this period, it was plain
that political motives, or the desire of national aggrandizement,
were commonly strong enough to override religious differences.

396THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY.	397

When there was some great interest of a political or dynastic sort
at stake, those that differed in religion most widely would frequently
assist one another. It is in this period that we see Spain, under
Charles V. and Philip //., reach the acme of its power, and then
sink into comparative weakness.

CHAPTER I.

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, TO THE TREATY OP
NUREMBERG (1517-1532).

Beginning of the Reformation. — The Reformation began in
Germany, where there was a great deal of discontent with the way
in which the Church was governed and managed, and on account
of the large amounts of money carried out of the country on various
grounds for ecclesiastical uses at Rome. The leader of the move-
ment, Martin Luthery was the son of a poor miner, and was born
at Eisleben in 1483. He was an Augustinian monk, and had been
made professor of theology^ and preacher at Wittenberg, by the
Elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise (1508). Luther was a
man of extraordinary intellectual powers, and a hard student, of a
genial and joyous nature, yet not without a deep vein of reflection,
tending even to melancholy. He had a strong will, and was vigor-
ous and vehement in controversy. He had been afflicted with
profound religious anxieties; but in the study of St. Paul and
St. Augustine, and after much inward wrestling, he emerged from
them into a state of mental peace. The immediate occasion of
disturbance, the spark that kindled the flame, was the sale of in-
dulgences in Saxony by a Dominican monk named TetzeL Indul-
gences were the remission, total or partial, of penances, and, in
theory, always presupposed repentance; but, as the business was
managed in Germany at that time, it amounted in the popular
apprehension to a sale of absolution from guilt, or to the ransom
of deceased friends from purgatory for money. These gross abuses
were painful to sincere friends of religion. In 1517 Luther posted
on the door of the church at Wittenberg his celebrated ninety-five
theses. It was customary in those days for public debates to take
place in universities, where, as in jousts and tournaments among
knights, scholars offered to defend propositions in theology and
philosophy against all comers. Such were the " theses " of Luther
on indulgences. The public mind was in such a state that a great
commotion was kindled by them. Conflict spread; and the name
of Luther became famous as a stanch antagonist of ecclesiastical
abuses, and a fearless champion of reform. The Elector, a religious '398

MODERN HISTORY.

man, calm and cautious in his temper, was friendly to Luther,
often sought to curb him, but stretched over him the shield of his
protection.

Luther and Leo X. — Pope Leo X, was of the house of Medici,
the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He had been made nomi-
nally a cardinal at the age of thirteen, and had advanced to the
highest station in the Church. He was much absorbed in matters
pertaining to learning and art, and in political affairs, and at first
looked upon this Saxon disturbance as a mere squabble of monks.
He attempted ineffectually to bring Luther to submission and
quietness, first through his legate Cajetan, a scholarly Italian, who
met him at Augsburg (1518), and then by a second messenger,
Miltitz (1519), a Saxon by birth. A turning-point in Luther's
course was a public disputation at Leipsic, before Duke George;
for ducal Saxony was hostile to him. With Luther, on that occa-
sion, was Philip Melanchthon, the young professor of Greek at
Wittenberg, who was a great scholar, and a man of mild and
amiable spirit. He became a very effective and noted auxiliary
of the reformer, and acquired the honorary title of " preceptor of
Germany." In the Leipsic debate, when Luther was opposed by
the Catholic champion Eck, and by others, his own views in oppo-
sition to the papacy became more distinct and decided. He soon
disputed the right of the Pope to make laws, to canonize, etc.,
denied the doctrine of purgatory, and avowed his sympathy with
Huss. He issued a stirring Address to the Christian Nobles of the
German Nation. In 1520 he was excommunicated by the Pope,
but the elector paid no regard to the papal bull. Luther himself
went so far as publicly to burn it at the gates of the town, in
the presence of an assembly of students and others gathered to
witness the scene. Both parties had now taken the extreme
step : there was now open war between them. Jurists, who were
aggrieved by the interference of ecclesiastical with civil courts,
supported Luther. So the Humanists who had defended Reuch-
lin, among whom were the youthful literary class of which Ulrich
von Hutten was one, became his allies. Many among the inferior
clergy and the monastic orders sympathized with him.

Condition of Germany. — It was now for the Empire to decide
between Luther and the Pope. The efforts to create a better politi-
cal system under Maximilian had proved in the main abortive.
There was strife between the princes and the knights, as well as
between princes and bishops. The cities complained bitterly of
oppressive taxation and of lawless depredations. There was wide-
spread disaffection, threatening open revolt, among the peasants.
Maximilian had been thwarted politically by the popes. At first
he was glad to hear of Luther*s rebellion. He said to Frederick
the Wise, "Let the Wittenberg monk be taken good care of: weTHE REFORMATION IN GERMANY.

399

may some day want him." In the latter part of his reign his
interests drew him nearer to Rome.

Election of CharlesV. —On the death of Maximilian (1519),
as the Elector Frederick would not take the imperial crown, there
were two rival candidates, — Francis /., the king of France, and
Charles /. of Spain, the grandson of Maximilian. Francis was
a gallant and showy personage, but it was feared that he would be
despotic; and the electors made choice of Charles. The extent
of Charleses hereditary dominions in Germany, and the greatness
of his power, would make him, it was thought, the best defender of
the empire against the Turks. The electors, at his choice, bound
him in a " capitulation " to respect the authority of the Diet\ and
not to bring foreign troops into the country. Charles was the
inheritor of Austria and the Low Countries, the crowns of Castile
and Aragon, of Navarre, of Naples and Sicily, together with the
territories of Spain in the New World; and now he was at the head
of the Holy Roman Empire. The concentration of so much power
in a single hand could not but provoke alarm in all other poten-
tates. The great rival of Charles was Francis /., and the main
prize in the contest was dominion in Italy. Charles was a saga-
cious prince ; from his Spanish education, strongly attached to the
Roman-Catholic system, and, in virtue of the imperial office, the
protector of the Church. Yet with him political considerations,
during most of his life, were uppermost. He made the mistake
of not appreciating the strength that lay in the convictions at the
root of the Protestant movement. He over-estimated the power
of political combinations.

Diet of Worms.— Charles V. first came into Germany in 1521,
and met the Diet of the empire at Worms. There Luther appeared
under the protection of a safe-conduct. He manifested his wonted
courage; and in the presence of the emperor, and of the august
assembly, he refused to retract his opinions, planting himself on
the authority of the Scriptures, and declining to submit to the
verdicts of Pope or council. After he had left Worms, a sentence
of outlawry was passed against him. Charles at that moment was
bent on the re-conquest of Milan> which the French had taken;
and the Pope was- friendly to his undertaking, although Leo X. had
been opposed to Charles's election.

Francis I. — Francis /. (1515-1547) aimed to complete the
work begun by his predecessors, and to make the French mon-
archy absolute. By a concordat with the Pope (1516), the choice
of bishops and abbots was given into the king's hand, while the
Pope was to receive the annatesy or the first year's revenue of all
such benefices. Francis established the practice of selling judi-
cial places and offices of every sort. He was bent on maintaining
the unity of Franee, and, as a condition, the Catholic system.:400

MODERN HISTORY.

But he was always ready to help the Protestants in Germany when
he could thereby weaken Charles. For the same end, he was even
ready to join hands with the Turk.

Rivalry of Charles and Francis. — Charles claimed the old
imperial territories of Milan and Genoa. He claimed, also, a
portion of Southern France, — the duchy of Burgundy, which he
did not allow that Louis XL had the right to confiscate. Francis
claimed Naples in virtue of the rights of the house of Anjou ;
also Spanish Navarre, which Ferdinand of Aragon had seized,
and the suzerainty of Flanders and Artois. He had gained a
brilliant victory over the Swiss at the battle of Marignano, in
1515, and reconquered Milan. He concluded a treaty of peace
with the Swiss, — the treaty of Freiburg (1516), which gave to
the king, in return for a yearly pension, the liberty to levy troops
in Switzerland. This treaty continued until the French Revolution.

First War of Charles and Francis (1521-1526).— Hostilities
between Francis and Charles commenced in Ltaly in 1521. The
French were driven from Milan in 1522, which was again placed
in the hands of Francesco Sforza; and the emperor was soon
master of all Northern Italy. England and the Pope sided with
Charles; and on the death of Leo X., a former tutor of the
emperor was made his successor, under the name Adrian VI.
(1522). The most eminent and the richest man in France, next
to the king, Charles of Bourbon^ constable of the kingdom, joined
the enemies of Francis. He complained of grievances conse-
quent on the enmity of Louisa of Savoy, the mother of the king,
and attempted, with the aid of the emperor and Henry VIJL, to
create a kingdom for himself in South-eastern France. But the
national spirit in France was too strong for such a scheme of
dismemberment and foreign conquest to succeed, and all that
Charles gained in the end was one brave general. In the winter
of 1524-25 Francis crossed the Alps at the head of a brilliant
army, and recaptured Milan; but he was defeated and taken
prisoner at Pavia, and the French army was almost destroyed.
Charles was able to dictate terms to his captive. It was stipu-
lated in the Peace of Madrid (1526), that Francis should renounce
all claim to Milan, Genoa, and Naples, and to the suzerainty of
Flanders and Artois, cede the duchy of Burgundy, and deliver his
sons as hostages.

Luther at the Wartburg. — We have now to glance at the
events in Germany during the absence of Charles V. Luther,
although under the ban of the empire, was in no immediate peril
while he staid in Saxony. The elector, however, thought it pru-
dent to place him in the castle of the Wartburgy where he could
have a safe and quiet asylum. There he began his translation of
the Bible, which, apart from its religious influence, from theTHE REFORMATION IN GERMANY.

401

vigor and racy quality of its style made an epoch in the literary
history of the German people. It was a work of great labor.
"The language used by Luther in both the Old and New Testa-
ments did not exist before in so pure, powerful, and genuine a
form." While Luther was engaged in this work, a radical move-
ment broke out at Wittenberg, of which Carlstadt, one of his
supporters, was the principal leader. He was for carrying changes
in worship to such an extreme, and for introducing them so ab-
ruptly, that the greatest disorder was threatened. Against the
wish of the elector, Luther left his retreat, and by his discourses
and personal presence quieted the disturbance.

Progress and Reaction. — No attempt was made to carry out
the Worms decree. The reason was that the influential classes
were so much in sympathy with Luther's cause. The Imperial
Chamber, which ruled in the emperor's absence, would do nothing
against him. Its committee refused to carry out the decree; and
a list of " one hundred grievances " was sent to Pope Adrian VL,
of which the German nation had reason to complain (1523);
Events, however, soon occurred that were unfavorable in their
effect on the Lutheran movement. The knights banded together
in large numbers, under Franz von Sickingen, and tried by force of
arms to reduce the power of the princes. Luther showed no favor
to their plans and doings; but, as their leaders had applauded him,
a reaction against innovations, including changes in doctrine, was
the natural consequence. Pope Adrian VL was earnestly desirous
of practical reforms; but his successor, Clement VII, (1523-1534),
was of the house of Medici, and a man of the world, like Leo X
An alliance was made by the Catholic princes and bishops of South
Germany at Ratisbon in 1524, to do away with certain abuses, but
to prevent the spread of the new doctrine.

The Peasants' War. — In 1524 a great revolt of the peasants
broke out, and the next year it became general. They were
groaning under intolerable burdens of taxation, and other forms
of oppression. They demanded liberty in church affairs, and for
the preaching of the new doctrine, and release from feudal tyranny*
Ijither felt and said that they were wronged grievously; but when
they took up arms, he, and with him the great middle class which,
he led, took sidfcs strongly against them. The revolt was put down,
and its authors inhumanly punished. For a time the peasants had
wonderful success. Napoleon wondered that Charles V, did not seize
the occasion to make Germany a united empire. Then seemed to be
a time when the princes could have been stripped of their power.,
One of the foremost leaders of the rebellion was Thomas Munzer.
On the defeat of the peasants, he was captured and beheaded.

Second War between Charles and Francis (1527-1529).—In
the Peace of Madrid\ Charles and Francis had agreed to proceed402

MODERN HISTORY.

against the Turks and against the heretics. But, after the release
oi Francis, he repudiated the concessions before mentioned (p.
400), which were made, he alleged, under coercion; and with
Clement VII. he formed a conspiracy against the emperor. The
Diet of Spires, in 1526, decided to leave each of* the component
parts of the empire, until the meeting of a general council, to de-
cide for itself as to the course to be taken in the matter of religion
and in respect to the edict of Worms. In 1527 a German army,
largely composed of Lutherans, led by Constable Bourbon and
George Frundsberg, stormed and captured Rome. The Pope made
an alliance with Henry VIII. A French army under Lautrec ap-
peared at Naples, but it was so weakened by a fearful pestilence
that it was easily destroyed. The Pope concluded peace with
Charles in 1529. The emperor promised to exterminate heresy.
In the Peace of Cambrayy Francis. renounced his claims on Italy,
Flanders, and Artois: Charles engaged for the present not to
press his claims upon Burgundy, and set free the French princes.

To the Peace of Nurembetg (1532). — The Diet of Spires in
1529 reversed the policy of tacit toleration. It passed an edict
forbidding the progress of the Reformation in the states which had
not accepted it, and allowing in the reformed states full liberty of
worship to the adherents of the old confession. The protest by
the Lutheran princes and cities, against the decree of the Diet,
gave the name of Protestants to their party. The successful
defense of Vienna against an immense army of the Turks under
Soliman delivered Charles for the moment from anxiety in that
quarter. A theological controversy between the Lutheran and the
Swiss reformers, on the Lord's Supper, made a division of feeling
between them. A conference of the two parties at Marburg, in
which Luther and Melanchthon met Zwingli and his associates,
brought no agreement. Every thing was propitious for an effort
at coercion; and this was resolved upon at the Diet of Augsburg
in 1530, where the emperor was present in person, and where
Melanchthon presented the celebrated Protestant Confession of
Faith. The threats against the Protestant princes induced them
to form the League of Smalcald for mutual defense. But it
was found impracticable to carry out the measures of repression
against the Lutherans* Bavaria was jealous of the house of
Hapsburg, and opposed to the plan of the emperor to make his
brother, Ferdinand of Austria, his successor. The Turks under
Soliman were threatening. France and Denmark were ready to
help the Protestants. Accordingly the Peace of Nuremberg was
concluded in 1532, in which religious affairs were to be left as
they were, and both parties were to combine against the common
enemy of Christendom.THE SWISS REFORMATION.	403

CHAPTER II.

THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZER-
LAND, DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND.

The Swiss Reformation: Zwingli.—The founder of Protestant-
ism in Switzerland was Ulrich Zwingli. He was born in 1484. His
father was the leading man in a mountain village. The son, at
Vienna and at Basel\ became a proficient in the humanist studies.
He read the Greek authors and the Bible in the original. A curate
first at Glarus, and then at Einsiedeln, he became pastor at Zurich.
As early as 1518 he preached against the sale of indulgences. He
was a scholarly man, bluff and kindly in his ways, and an impres-
sive orator. The Swiss were corrupted by their employment as mer-
cenary soldiers, hired by France, by the Pope, or by the emperor.
Of the demoralizing influence of this practice, Zwingli became
deeply convinced; and his exertions as a Church reformer were
mingled with a patriotic zeal for the moral and political regenera-
tion of Switzerland. Mainly by his influence, Zurich separated
from the jurisdiction of the bishop of Constance, and became
Protestant in 1524. The example of Zurich was followed by
Berne (1528) and by Basel (1529). Zwingli agreed with Luther
on the two main points of the sole authority of the Scriptures, and
the doctrine of salvation by faith alone '; but on the sacrament of
the Lord's Supper he went farther in his dissent from the Church
of Rome. This made Luther and his followers stand aloof when
cordial fellowship was proposed between the two parties.

Civil Strife: Death of Zwingli.—The aim of Zwingli was to
establish a republican constitution in the several cantons, and also
in the confederation as a body, where the five Forest Cantons had
an undue share of power. These adhered to the old Church. In
Beme the oligarchic party was supplanted by the republican, re-
forming party,— an event of decisive importance. As the irrita-
tion increased between the Forest Cantons and the cities, the
former entered into a league with Ferdinand of Austria, and the
cities leaned for support on the German states in sympathy with
their opinions. A treaty was made (1529), but each side accused
the other of breaking it. At length war began: Berne failed to
come to the help of Zurich. Each city wished to be the metrop-
olis of the reformed confederation. The forces of Zurich were
vanquished at Capped where Zwingli himself, who was on the field
in the capacity of a chaplain, was slain (1531). 33y the peace of
Cappel in 1531, Protestantism was not coerced, but a check was
put upon its progress. Neither party was strong enough to subdue
the other.

Protestantism in Soandinavia. — In the Scandinavian countries,
monarchical power was built up by means of the Reformation.404

MODERN HISTORY.

The union of Calmar (1397) under Queen Margaret, between
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, had been a dynastic union. The
several peoples were not united in feeling. The sovereign, more-
over, had his power limited by a strong feudal nobility, and by a
rich Church impatient of control. First the Church was over-
come by means of Protestantism, and then the nobles.

The Reformation in Denmark. — On the accession of Chris-
tian /. of Oldenburg (1448-1481), the duchies of Holstein and
Schleswig became connected with Denmark in a personal union.
His grandson, Christian II (1513-1523), did not rule the duchies,
which were governed by Frederic /., who afterwards succeeded
Christian II as king of Denmark. Christian II was bent on
putting down the aristocracy, lay and clerical, but lacked the moral
qualities necessary to success in so difficult a task. He at first
favored Protestantism from political motives. He hoped to bring
the Swedes into subjection by the aid of the Danes, and then to
subdue the Danish nobility. In Sweden the nobles practically
ruled; and the regency was in the hands of the Stures, who be-
friended the common people, and were opposed by the other
nobles and the clergy. Christian made use of these divisions,
and of the help of German and French troops, to get possession
of Stockholm {1520). He took the Catholic side. But his per-
fidy, and the massacre of eminent Swedes, — known as the Mas-
sacre of Stockholm, — excited an inextinguishable hatred against
Denmark. The Danish nobles feared the same sort of treatment.
The king's attempts at reform offended them without pleasing the
peasants, and a revolution took place which dethroned him.
Duke Frederic of Schleswig was made king (1523) : the duchies
and Denmark were again together. Frederic swore not to intro-
duce the Reformation, nor to attack Catholicism. But he was an
ardent Lutheran. The new doctrine had come into the land, and
was spreading. The nobles, who coveted the possessions of the
Church, espoused it. At the Diet of Odensef in 1527, toleration was
granted to Lutheranism. On Frederic's death, in 1533, an effort
of the bishops to restore the exclusive domination of the old sys-
tem of religion was defeated. Christian IIL was made king; and
at a Diet at Copenhagen in 1536, the Reformation was legalized,
and the Lutheran system, with bishops or superintendents, was
established.

The Reformation in Sweden. — After the massacre of Stock-
holm, Denmark was detested by the Swedes. A great political
revolution occurred, which involved also a religious revolution.
The author of the change, and the real founder of the Swedish
monarchy,-was Gustavus Vasa} a young Swede of noble family,
who had been held as a captive in Copenhagen, but had escaped and
returned to his country. He was of imposing presence, prudentTHE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND.

405

yet daring, and with a natural gift of eloquence. Amid great
dangers and sufferings, such as tradition ascribed to King Alfred
of England, he succeeded, at the head of a force gathered to him
in the province of Dalecarlia, in gaining the most important places
in the country, and was proclaimed king in 1523. He was not
deeply interested in the religious controversy, although he favored
Lutheranism; but he made it his steady aim to break down the
clerical aristocracy, to weaken the nobles, and to organize a strong
and prosperous monarchy. He proceeded carefully: but the
peasants, who had been his warmest supporters, were strongly
attached to the old Church; and the opposition to his measures
from all quarters was such that at the Diet of IVesteras, in 1527,
he took the bold step of offering to lay down the crown. At this
Diet he had assembled representatives of the citizens and peasants,
as well as the clergy and nobles. He proposed to pay an enor-
mous debt which was due to L 'ubeck, by using the colossal wealth
of the Church for this purpose, and to shake off the monopoly of
trade which the Hanse towns enjoyed. Finding himself withstood,
he renounced the throne. The distraction and tumults which fol-
lowed his act of relinquishing the crown were such that a great
party of the nobles joined him. Three days after his abdication,
he was recalled to the throne : the clergy submitted abjectly, and
the Church was no longer a power in the state, or possessed of
wealth. Trade was released from its bondage to Lubeck and the
other towns; commerce was opened with foreign countries \ and a
market was provided for iron, the main product of the country.
The nobles were held in subjection. The Lutheran doctrine
made very rapid progress, and became dominant.

England: Henry VlII. and Luther. — Three great things had
been gained in the progress of English constitutional history,—
that the king can make no law without the consent of parliament;
that he can lay no tax without their consent; that he must govern
according to the laws, and that, if he fails to do so, his ministers
are to be held responsible. But all the Tudor princes had a
strong love of personal power. Of these, none had a more obsti-
nate and tyrannical will than Ilenry VI//. The advantages de-
rived from the effect of the civil wars, which had reduced the
strength and numbers of the nobility, and the natural English
jealousy, always shown, of foreign and papal supremacy, enabled
Ilenry to break off the connection of England with Rome; while,
at the same time, he resisted Protestantism and persecuted its
adherents. He had been trained in the humanistic studies, and
was proud of his theological acquirements. He took the field,1 in
1522, as an author against Luther, in a book in defense of the
Seven Sacraments, for which he received from the Pope the title
of Defender of the Faith. The vituperative character Qf Luther's40 6

MODERN HISTORY.

answer confirmed him in his hatred of the new doctrine. "When
God," said the blunt Saxon reformer, "wants a fool, he turns a
king into a theological writer."

The Divorce Question. — What made the breach between
Henry VIII. and the papacy was the question of the king's di-
vorce. He had been married in his twelfth year to Catherine of
Aragon, the aunt of Charles V\ and the widow of Henry's de-
ceased brother Arthur (who had been married to her in 1501,
when he was fifteen years old, and had died the next year). A dis-
pensation permitting the marriage of Henry had been granted by
Pope Julius II How far Henry's passion for Anne Boleyti, whom
he desired to wed, was at the root of his scruples respecting the
validity of his marriage, it may not be easy to decide. His appli-
cation to Clement VII for a separation reached the Pope after the
Peace 0i Madrid^ when there was a desire to lessen the power of
the emperor. Cardinal Wolsey, the favorite counselor of Henry,
who himself aspired to the papal office, was obliged to help on
the cause of his imperious master. But whatever disposition there
was at Rome to gratify Henry, there was no inclination to hurry
the proceedings. There were long delays in England, whither
a papal legate, Campeggio, had been sent to investigate and deter-
mine the cause. In 1529 the legates decided that the case must
be determined at Rome. This the queen had before demanded in
vain. Aside from other objections to the divorce, Clement VII\
was now at peace with Charles V., whom it was undesirable to
offend. The incensed king took the matter into his own hands.
Wolsey, having been one of the legates, was deprived of all his
dignities: he was charged with treason, his strength melted away
on his fall from the heights of power, and he died a broken-spirited
man.

Separation of England from Home. — Henry now gave free rein
to the spirit of opposition in Parliament to Rome. He took for
his principal minister, who became vicegerent in ecclesiastical
affairs, Thomas CromwelL Cromwell, unlike Wolsey, was hostile
to the temporal power of Rome. He made Thomas Cranmer
Archbishop of Canterbury, who was at heart a Protestant in doc-
trine, but, though sincere in his beliefs, was a man of pliant tem-
per, indisposed to resist the king's will, preferring to bow to a
storm, and to wait for it to pass by. By Cranmer the divorce was
decreed, but this was after the marriage with Anne Boleyn had
taken place. Henry was excommunicated by the Pope. Acts of
Parliament abolished the Pope's, and established the king's, su-
premacy in the Church of England. In 1536 the cloisters were
abolished,- Their property was confiscated, and fell to a large
extent into the hands of the nobles and the gentry. This measure
bound them to-the policy of the sovereign. The mitered abbotsTHE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND.	407-

were expelled from the House of Lords, which left the preponder-
ance of power with the lay nobles. The hierarchy bowed to the
will of the king.

The Two Parties. —- There were two parties in England among
the upholders of the king's supremacy. There were the Protestants
by conviction, who were for spreading the new doctrine. This
had already taken root and spread in the universities, and in some
other places in the country. The new literary culture had paved
the way for it. In the North, there were still left many Lollards,
disciples of IVickliffe. Cromwell, Cranmer, and one of the bish-
ops, Latimer, were prominent leaders of this party. Against them
were the adherents of the Catholic theology, such as Gardiner,
Tunstal of Durham, and other bishops. At first the king inclined
towards the first of these two parties. One of his most important
acts was the ordering of a translation of the Bible into English, a
copy of which was to be placed in every church. But a popular
rebellion in 1536 was followed by a change of ecclesiastical policy.
The Six Articles were passed, asserting the Roman Catholic doc-
trines, and punishing those who denied transubstantiation with
death. The queen, Anne Boteyn> who was an adherent of the
Protestant side, was executed on the charge of infidelity to her
marriage vows (1536). A few years later Cromwell was sent to
the scaffold for the part which he took in the negotiation of a
marriage of the king with a German Protestant princess (1540).
Lutheran bishops were thrown into the Tower: Cranmer alone
was shielded by the king's personal favor, and by his own prudence.
This system of a national church, of which the king, and not the
Pope, was the head, where the doctrine was Roman Catholic, and
the great ecclesiastical officers were appointed, like civil officers,
by the monarch, was the creation of Henry VIII\ His strong
will was able to keep down the conflicting parties. Despite his
sensuality and cruelty, he was a popular sovereign. One of his
principal crimes was the execution of Sir Thomas More for
refusing to assert the invalidity of his marriage with Catherine.
More was one of the noblest men in England, a man who com-
bined vigor with gentleness. He was willing to swear that the
children of Anne. were lawful heirs to the throne, because Parlia-
ment, he believed, could regulate the succession; but this did not
satisfy the tyrannical monarch. In the latter portion of his reign,
he grew more suspicious, willful, and cruel.408

MODERN HISTORY

CHAPTER III,

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF
NUREMBERG- TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555).

The Parties in Germany, 1532-1542. — For ten years after the
Peace of Nuremberg, the Protestants in Germany were left unmo-
lested, The menacing attitude of the 7urks% and the occupations
of the emperor m Italy and in other lands, rendered it impossible
to interfere with them. Philip> the Landgrave of Hesse, a chival-
rous Protestant prince, led the way in the armed restoration of Duke
Ulrich of Wilrtemberg, who had been driven out of his dominion.
Thus a Protestant prince was established in the heart of Southern
Germany (1534). In Westphalia, a fanatical branch of the Ana-
baptist sect at Munster, with whom the Lutherans did not sympa-
thize, was broken up by the neighboring Catholic princes. The
overthrow of the power of Liibeck and of the Hanseatic League
did not check the advance of Lutheranism. It continued to make
great progress in different directions. The Smalcald League was
extended. A league of the Catholic states was formed at Nurem-
berg in 1538. During three years (1538-1541) efforts were made
by the emperor to secure peace and union. Of these the Confer^
ence and Diet of Ratisbon in 1541 is the most remarkable. The
Protestants and Catholics could not agree upon statements of
doctrine ; but the necessity of getting Protestant help against the
Turks compelled Charles to sanction the Peace of Nuremberg,
and to make to the Lutherans other important concessions. This
arrangement the emperor regarded as only a temporary truce.
Among the conquests of Protestantism after the Peace of Nurem-
berg, and prior to 1544, were Brandenburg and Ducal Saxony,
whose rulers adopted the new doctrine. It was spreading in
Austria, in Bavaria, and in other states. Duke Henry of Bruns-
wick fell into conflict with the Smalcaldic League, and was con^
quered, so that his principality became Protestant. Even the
ecclesiastical elector of Cologne was taking steps towards joining
the Protestant side. This would have given to the Lutherans a
majority in the electoral college. The bishoprics with temporal
power were numerous in Germany. If they were secularized, the
old religious system would be deprived of a principal support

The Smalcaldio War.-— Charles V. was now secretly resolved
to coerce the Protestants in Germany, and silently made his prepa-
rations for war. Before hostilities commenced, Luther died (1546).
The emperor concluded the Peace of Crespy, after a fourth war
with Francis /. It was a part of the agreement, that they should
act jointly against the heretics. But as Francis in the last two
wars against the emperor (1536-1538, 1542-1544) had taken forTHE REFORMATION IN GERMANY.

409

allies the Turks under Soliman, it could not be predicted how
long he would abide by his engagements. For the present,
Charles was safe in this quarter. He now took pains to shut the
eyes of the Protestant princes to their danger. The Smalcaldic
League was over-confident of its strength. Its members were
discordant among themselves. Of the two chief leaders, the
elector of Saxony, John Frederic, was a slow and unskillful gen-
eral ; and Philip, the Landgrave of Hesse, a brave and capable
soldier, could not take command over an elector. Above all,
Maurice, the Duke of Saxony, was in the midst of a quarrel with
his relative, the elector, and coveted a part of his territories.
Maurice was an able and adroit man, a Protestant, but without
the earnest religious convictions that belonged to the electors and
to that generation of princes which was passing away. Maurice was
won by the emperor, through promises of enrichment and favor,
and pledges not to interfere with religion in his principality,
Charles might have been prevented from bringing in foreign
troops from the Netherlands and from Italy, but the military
conduct of the elector was feeble and indecisive. He was de-
feated and captured in 1547 at Muhlberg, and the surrender of
the Landgrave Philip soon followed. The Protestant cause was
prostrate. The clever Maurice had his reward: the electoral
office was transferred to him; he obtained a goodly portion of
the elector's territory.	. .

. The Result: the Interim. — Charles was victorious, and ap-
parently master of Germany. The country was occupied by his
forces as far north as the Elbe. He was engaged in the work of
pacification and of confirming his authority. In 1548 he issued
the Interim of Augsburg, in which concessions were made to both
parties, which proved satisfactory to neither. Skillful as the em-
peror was in diplomacy, he always showed weakness in dealing
with the religious question. He proceeded to force the new
measure on the refractory cities in the South. In the North it
had little effect. Maurice modified it in his own dominion.
When Charles seemed to himself to be on the eve of a complete
triumph, he was deserted by the allies on whom he counted, —t
Rome, France, and the princes, especially Maurice.

Breach of Charles with Home. — The emperor's assuming to
regulate the affairs of religion was regarded with disfavor at Rome.
There had been a constant call for a general council to adjust the
religious controversies. Rome, from fear of imperial influence,
and for other reasons, had opposed the measure. At length, in
1545, the famous Council of Trent assembled. The emperor
wanted that body to begin with measures for the reformation of
abuses. He looked for co-operation in his scheme for uniting the
parties in Germany. But the council took another path: it beganMODERN HISTORY.

with anathemas against the heretical doctrines. Charles found
himself at variance with the policy of Rome, at the moment when
he was trying to bring Germany to submission.

Disaffection of Maurice. — The emperors course in Germany
produced general alarm. He separated the Netherlands from the
jurisdiction of the empire, but settled the succession in the govern-
ment in the house of Hapsburg. He drove the Diet into other
measures which looked towards the acquiring of military supremacy
for himself in Germany. He violated his pledges respecting the
two captive princes. Philip of Hesse, the father-in-law of Mau-
rice, he treated with great severity and indignity. Threats were
thrown out by the counselors of Charles against the other princes,
and even against"Maurice, who complained of the treatment of
Philip, and was sore under the load of unpopularity that rested
on him on account of his warfare against his co-religionists, by
whom he was considered another Judas.

The Peace of Augsburg. —Maurice laid his plans with secrecy
and with masterly skill. He secured the cooperation of other Ger-
man princes. He concluded an alliance with Henry II. of France.
He arranged with Magdeburg, which he had been besieging, to
make it a place of refuge if there should be need of an asylum.
When all was ready, without having excited any suspicion on the
part of Charles, he suddenly took the field, marched southward
with an army that increased as he advanced, crossed the Alps, and
forced the emperor, tormented with the gout, to fly hastily from
Innspruck (1552). The captive princes were released. It was de-
cided that Germany was not to be ruled by Spanish soldiery. The
dream of imperial domination vanished. The Protestants were
promised by Ferdinand of Austria, in the name of his brother,
toleration, and equality of rights. At the Diet of Augsburg in 1555,
the Religious Peace was concluded. Every prince was to be allowed
to choose between the Catholic religion and the Augsburg Con-
fession, and the religion of the prince was to be that of the land
over which he reigned : that is, each government was to choose the
creed for its subjects. Ferdinand put in the " ecclesiastical reser-
vation," which provided that if the head of an ecclesiastical state
should become a Protestant, he should resign his benefice. On
the other hand, the subjects of ecclesiastical states were to enjoy
religious liberty. The " reservation " was to please the Catholics:
the additional provision was to meet the wishes of the Protestants.
In the Imperial Chamber, there was to be a legal equality between
the two Confessions.

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ABOUT THE MIDDLE

aoizovTHE REFORMATION IN GENEVA.

411

CHAPTER IV.

OAIiVINISM IN GENEVA: BEGINNING OP THE CATHOLIC
COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Calvin. — Second in reputation to Luther only, among the
founders of Protestantism, is John Calvin. He was a Frenchman,
born in 1509, and was consequently a child when the Saxon Ref-
ormation began. He was keen and logical in his mental habit,
with a great organizing capacity, naturally of a retiring temper, yet
fearless, and endued with extraordinary intensity and firmness of
will. A more finished scholar than Luther, he lacked his geniality
and tenderness, and his imaginative power. Calvin first studied
for the priesthood at Paris; but when his father determined to
make him a jurist, he studied law at Orleans and Bourses. Es-
pousing the Protestant doctrines, he was obliged to fly from Paris,
and, when still young, published his celebrated Institutes of Theol-
ogy, in which he expounded the Protestant creed in a systematic
although fervid way. In his type of theology, he laid much stress
on the sovereignty of God, and predestination \ and taught a view
of the Lord's Supper not so far from that of the old Church as
the doctrine of Zwingli, but farther removed from it than was the
doctrine of Luther.

The Genevan Government — In 1536, reluctantly yielding to
the exhortations of Farel, a French preacher of the Protestant
doctrine at Geneva, Calvin established himself in that city. Ge-
neva was a fragment of the old kingdom of Burgundy. The dukes
of Savoy claimed a temporal authority in the city, which was sub-
ject to its bishop. The authority of the dukes was overthrown by
a revolution, and power passed from the bishop into the hands
of the people (1533). The change was effected with the aid of
Berne and Freiburg. There had been two parties in Geneva, — the
party of the " Confederates/' who were for striking hands with the
Swiss, and the party of the " Mamelukes," adherents of the dukes.
The civil was followed by an ecclesiastical revolution. Protes-
tantism, with the aid of Berne, was legally established (1535).
Geneva was a prosperous, gay, and dissolute city. Farel\ a pop-
ular orator of striking power, unsparing in denunciation, found
the people impatient of the restraints that the new religious sys-
tem which they had adopted laid upon them. The regulations
as to doctrine, worship, and discipline, which Calvin and his asso-
ciates proceeded to introduce, were so distasteful, that the preach-
ers were expelled by the Council and by the Assembly of Citizens
from the place. After he had been absent three years, Calvin, in
consequence of the increase of disorder and vice, and the distrac-
tion occasioned by contending factions, was recalled, and remained412	MODERN HISTORY.

in Geneva until his death. He became the virtual lawgiver of
the city. He framed a system of ecclesiastical and civil govern-
ment. It was an ecclesiastical state, in which orthodoxy of belief,
and purity of conduct, were not only inculcated by systematic
teaching, but enforced by stringent enactments. Offenses com-
paratively trivial were punished by strict and severe penalties. To
the system of church discipline, stretching over the life of every
individual, and carried out by the civil magistrates in alliance with
the pastors, there was much opposition, which led to outbreakings
of violent resistance. But the supporters of Calvin were rein-
forced by numerous Protestant refugees from France. The im-
provement of the city in morals and in public order was signal.
In the end, Calvin, who was as firm as a rock, triumphed over
all opposition. Geneva became a place of resort for exiles and
students from various countries. By his writings and correspond-
ence, Calvin's influence spread far and wide. In the affairs of
the French Protestants, in particular, his influence was predomi-
nant.

Servetus.—The Reformers were not, any more than their ad-
versaries, advocates of liberty in religious beliefs and professions.
A melancholy example of the prevailing idea, that it was. the duty
of the civil authority to inflict penalties upon heresy, is the case
of Michael Servetus. A Spaniard by birth, with a remarkable
aptitude for natural science and medicine, adventurous and fickle,
he had published books in which doctrines received by both the
great divisions of the Church, especially the doctrine of the Trinity,
were assailed. He escaped out of the hands of the Catholics, and
came to Geneva. There he was tried for heresy and blasphemy,
and was burned at the stake (1553). This was at a time when
Calvin was in the midst of his contest with the " Libertines," the
party actuated by hostility to him. They appear to have stood
behind Servetus in his defiant attitude towards the Genevan au-
thorities.

Influence of Calvinism. — The personal influence of Calvin
was directly exerted upon the more cultured and educated. His
religious system has wielded a great power, not only on this class,
but also over the common people in different countries. Calvin-
ism was never awed by monarchical authority. Like the Church of
Rome, it always refused to subordinate the Church and religion to
the civil power. It numbered among its votaries many men of
dauntless courage and of unbending fidelity to their principles.

The Catholic Reaotion.—The first effectual resistance to the
spread of Protestant opinions was made in Italy. In that'country,
there was opposition to the papacy from those who saw in it an
instrument of political disunion, and also from some who were
aggrieved by ecclesiastical abuses. The prevailing feeling, how-THE COUNTER REFORMATION.

413

ever, was that of pride in the papacy, which, in other countries,
was attacked as an Italian institution. The humanist learning
had done much to undermine belief in the old religious system. In
the train of the new studies, came much indifference and infidelity.
The books of the Protestant leaders, however, were widely circu-
lated. There were not a few sincere converts to the new doctrine
in the cities; but they were chiefly confined to the educated class,
and to persons in high station. It took no root among the com-
mon people. After the time of the Medici popes, a new1 spirit
of faith and devotion awoke in circles earnestly devoted to the
papacy and to the Church. There was at Rome an " Oratory of
Divine Love," — a group of persons who met together for mutual
edification. In this class were some, like Contarini, afterwards a
cardinal, who were not wholly without sympathy with the Lutheran
doctrine as to faith and justification; but out of the same class
came others who led in the great Catholic Reaction, which, while
it aimed at a rigid reform in morals, was inflexibly hostile to all
innovations in doctrine, and was bent on regaining for the Church
the ground that had been lost.

The Council of Trent: Caraffa. — The Council of Trent was
governed in its conclusions by this Catholic reactionary and re-
forming party. It allowed no curtailing of the prerogatives of
the Pope. On points of doctrine in dispute within the pale of the
Church, it adopted formulas which the different schools might
accept. 1 Practical reforms, for example in respect to the educa-
tion of the clergy, were adopted ; but dogma and teaching were to
remain unaltered. Cardinal Caraffa, the most energetic mover
in the Catholic reform and restoration, became Pope, under the
name of PaulIV. (1555-1559).

The Order of Jesus. — The Council of Trent, by providing a
clear definition of doctrine, cemented unity, and was the first great
bulwark raised against Protestantism. Another means of defense,
and of attack as well, was provided in new orders, especially the
order of Jesuits. This was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish
soldier of noble birth, who mingled with the spirit of chivalry
a strong devotional sentiment. It was the temper of mediaeval
knighthood, which still lingered in Spain. Wounded at the siege
of Pampeluna, and disabled from war, he had visions of a spiritual
knighthood; out of which grew the Society of Jesus, which was
sanctioned by Pope Paul III. in 1540. Its members took the
monastic vows. They went through a rigorous spiritual drill. They'
were bound to unquestioning obedience to the Pope. The organi-
zation was strict, like that of an army; each province having a pro-
vincial at its head, with a general over all. To him all the members
were absolutely subject. All other ties were renounced : to serve
the Church and the order, was the one supreme obligation.414

MODERN HISTORY.

Influence of the Jesuits. — The influence of the Jesuit order
was manifold. It was active in preaching, and in hearing confes-
sions. It made the education of youth a great part of its busi-
ness. Its members found their way into high stations in Church
and State they were in the cabinets of princes. From the be-
ginning, they showed an ardent zeal in missionary labors among
the heathen in distant lands, and for the reconquest of countries
won by the Protestants.

The Inquisition. — Under the auspices of Cardinal Caraffa
{Paul IV.), the Inquisition was introduced into Italy (1542), and
exerted the utmost vigilance and severity in crushing out the new
faith. One of its instruments was the censorship of the press.
So thorough was this work, that of books like Paleario's Bentfits
of Chrisf s Death, which had an immense circulation, it has been
possible in recent years to find but two or three copies. The
"Index" of prohibited books was established. The result of
these measures was, that Protestantism was suppressed in Italy, and
the type of Catholicism that was partially sympathetic with cer-
tain doctrinal features of the Saxon Reform likewise vanished.

CHAPTER V.

PHILIP II., AND THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS.

Character of Philip II. — In 1555 Charles V., enfeebled by
his lifelong enemy, the gout, resigned his crowns, and devolved on
his son, Philip II, the government of the Netherlands, together
with the rest of his dominions in Spain, Italy, and America. The
closing part of his life, the emperor passed in the secluded con-
vent of Yuste, in Spain, where, notwithstanding • the time spent by
him in religious exercises, and in his favorite diversion of experi-
menting with clocks and watches, he remained an attentive observer
of public affairs. Political and religious absolutism was the main
article in Philip's creed. He was more thoroughly a Spaniard in
his tone and temper than his father, who was born in the Nether-
lands, and always loved the people there, as he was loved by them.
Philip was cold and forbidding in his manners. He was shy, as well
as haughty, in his deportment to those who approached him. To
re-establish everywhere the old religion by the unrelenting exercise
of force, was his fixed purpose. Only one thing did he value>more;
and that was his own power, which he would not suffer Church or
clergy to curb or invade. He had few ideas, but was an adept in
concealment and treachery. A man of untiring industry, he was a
plodder without insight. He lived to see the vast strength whichREVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS.

415

fell to him as a legacy slip out of his hands, and to see Spain sink
to a condition of comparative weakness. Charles V. had consoli-
dated his dominion in that country by putting down democratic
insurrections. This he had done by military force and the arm of
the Inquisition. What Charles had left undone in this line, Philip
completed. He quelled the resistance of the Aragonese, and re-
duced them to submission. Spain swarmed with civil and ecclesi-
astical officials. The new religious doctrine, which assumed the
came type as in Italy, was stifled. The monarch displayed his
zeal by personal attendance at the autos da fe> the great public
ceremonials for the execution of heretics, where' the victims of his
intolerance perished. A system of brutal military administration
was adopted in the colonies.

State of the Low Countries. — Philip undertook to bring the
Netherlands under his despotic system, and to tread out every
spark of independence. The people of the Low Countries were
industrious, intelligent, prosperous, spirited. Each of the seventeen
provinces had its own constitution. In the North, it was more
democratic; in Flanders and Brabant\ there was a landed aris-
tocracy. In all parts of the country, there were local privileges
and cherished rights. The population numbered three millions.
Antwerp, with its hundred thousand inhabitants, had more trade
than any other European city. The Reformation, first in the
Lutheran but later in the Calvinistic form, had numerous adher-
ents in the Netherlands, whom severe edicts of Charles V., under
which large numbers were put to death, did not extirpate.

Tyranny of Philip. — Philip did not select for his regent in the
Netherlands one of the aristocracy of the country. Of this class
was Count Icgmont, a nobleman of brilliant courage and attractive
manners. William, Prince of Orange, united with far more self-
control the sagacity of a statesman. He was destined to be the
formidable antagonist of Spanish tyranny, and the liberator of
Holland. Philip passed by the nobles, whom he distrusted and dis-
liked, and appointed as regent the illegitimate daughter of Charles
V,, Margaret of Parma (1559-1567) ; placing at her side, as her
principal adviser, the astute Granvelley the Bishop of Arras, one
of his devoted servants, who was made cardinal in 1561. Three
nobles, William of Orange, and the Counts Egmont and Horn,
were in the council. The power was in Granvelle's hands. There
was soon a breach between him and the nobles. Two measures
of Philip created disaffection. He persisted in keeping Spanish
soldiers in the country; he increased the number of bishops, and
gave them inquisitorial powers. Moreover, he renewed and pro-
ceeded to enforce edicts, embracing minute provisions of a most
rigorous character, against the property and lives of the Protes-
tants. To carry out these, he introduced the Inquisition. The4i 6

MODERN HISTORY.

terror and indignation of the people found expression through the
nobles. They left the council. At length Granvelle had to be
withdrawn from the country (1564). Egmont went to Spain to
procure a mitigation of the king's policy, but found on his return
that he had been duped by false promises. The young nobility
formed an agreement called the Compromise, to withstand the
king's system, at first by legal means (1566). They were con-
temptuously called " beggars" by the regent, and themselves
adopted the name. The king professed a willingness to make
some concessions: he was only gaining time for measures of a
different sort. In the same year a storm of iconoclasm burst out:
the Calvinists made reprisals for what they had suffered; they
vented their zeal against what they called " idolatry," by sacking
the churches, and by destroying paintings and images, and other
symbols and implements of worship. Orange penetrated the de-
signs of Philip, and retired to Nassau. Egmont\ more credulous
and confiding, remained.

Alva's Rule. — Philip now sent into the Netherlands the Duke
of Alva, an officer of considerable military capacity, cold, arro-
gant, and merciless in his temper. His force consisted of ten
thousand men. A tribunal was erected by him, called the " Council
of Blood." Egmont and Horn were executed at Brussels (1568).
Great numbers of executions of men and women, of all ranks,
who were accused of some sort of insubordination, or some mani-
festation of heresy, followed. William of Orange was active in
devising means of deliverance. The first marked success was
the capture of Briel by the " sea-beggars," inhabitants of the
coasts of Holland and Zealand\ under their admiral, William de
la Mark. The barbarities and extortion of Alva by degrees
aroused universal and intense hatred. Holland and Zealand threw
off Alva's rule, and made William their stadtholder. The nomi-
nal connection with Spain was still kept up. The massacre of St.
Bartholomew (1572) cut off William from the help which he
expected from the French. It was felt, however, that Alva had
failed in his attempt to subjugate the people, and he was withdrawn
from the country by Philip (1573).

The Utrecht Union. — From the capture of Briel may be dated
the beginning of the long and arduous struggle which resulted in
the building-up of the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces,
and the ultimate prostration of the power of Spain. The hero
of the struggle was William of Orange. The successor of Alva,
Requesensy was really more dangerous than Alvat because he was
more magnanimous, and therefore excited less antagonism. In
1574 occurred the memorable siege of Leyden by the Spanish
forces. That city, when reduced to the last extremity, saved itself
by letting in the sea and by inundating the neighboring plains,TIIE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE.

417

which compelled the Spaniards to flee in dismay. As a memorial
of the heroic defense of the place, the University of Leyden was
founded. A new Protestant state was growing up in the North,
under the guidance of William. In the South, where Catholicism
prevailed, Requesens was more successful. But when he died, in
1576, a frightful revolt of his soldiers, who were loosed from re-
straint, in the cities, moved ail Netherlands to unite, in the Pacific
catioii of Ghent, against the Spanish dominion. Don John of
Austria, a brilliant and manly soldier, who had defeated the Turks
at Lepanto, was the next regent (1576-1578). He made large
concessions : these were welcome in the South, and weakened the
Union. Alexanaer of Parma (1578, 1579), his successor, was
the ablest general of the time. The Catholic South was at variance
with the Protestant North. In 1579, there was formed between
the seven provinces in the North the Utrecht Union, the germ of
the Dutch Republic. Philip proclaimed William an outlaw, and
set a price on his head. After six ineffectual attempts at assassi-
nation, this heroic leader, the idol of his countrymen, was fatally
shot, in his own house (1584). His work as a deliverer of his
people was mainly accomplished. When the Utrecht Union was
formed, the greater part of the Catholic provinces in the South
entered into an arrangement with Parma. Brabant and Flanders
were recovered to Spain. The attention of Philip had to be mainly
given to the affairs of France and England during the remainder
of his life.

THE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE, TO THE DEATH OP HENRY

IV. (1810).

Francis I.: Henry II. — In France, the old faith had strong
support in the Sorbonne, the principal theological school in the
University of Paris, and in the Parliament. The new culture, the
influx of Italian scholars and Italian influences, produced a party
averse to the former style of education, and, to some extent,
unfriendly to the old opinions. The Lutheran doctrines were first
introduced; but it was Calvinism which prevailed among the
French converts to Protestantism, and acquired a strong hold in
the middle and higher classes, although the preponderance of
numbers in the country was always on the Catholic side. Fran*
cis J. was a friend of the new learning. His sister Margaret;
Queen of Navarre, who was of a mystical turn, was favorably
inclined to the new doctrines, and befriended preachers who were
of the same spirit. The king did the same until after the battle

CHAPTER VI,418

MODERN HISTORY.

of Pavia, when he helped on the persecution of them; for his con-
duct was governed by the interest of the hour, and by political
motives. It was doubtful what course he would finally take amid
the conflict of parties; but his motto was, " One king, one code,
one creed." He would put down the new doctrine at home, and
sustain it by force, if expedient, abroad. Heniy II, who acceded
to the throne in 1547, unlike his father had no personal sympathy
with Protestantism. The Huguenots, as the Calvinists were called,
were led to the stake, and their books burned. Yet in 1558 they
had two thousand places of worship in France : they soon held a
general synod at Paris, and organized themselves (1559). That
same year, when, in the Peace of Cateati-Cambresis, Henry had
given up all his conquests except the three bishoprics of Metz,
Toul and Verdun, and Calais, he suddenly died from a wound
in the eye, accidentally inflicted in a tilt.

Catherine de Medio!: the Two Parties. — The widow of Henry
II. was Catherine de Medici, to whom he had been married from
political considerations. She was a woman of talents, full of ambi-
tion which had hitherto found no field for its exercise, trained
from infancy in an atmosphere of deceit, and void of moral prin-
ciple. Her aim was to rule by keeping up an ascendency over
her sons, and by holding in check whatever party threatened to
be dominant. For this end she did not scruple to accustom her
children to debauchery, and to resort to whatever other means,
however false and however cruel, to effect her purposes. She
proved to be the curse of the house of Valois, and the evil genius
of France. Francis //. was a boy of sixteen, and legally of age ;
but his mother expected to manage the government. She was
thwarted by the control over him exercised by the family of
Guise, sons of Claude of Guise, a wealthy and prominent noble-
man of Lorraine, who had distinguished himself at Marignano,
and in later contests against Charles V\ Francis, the Duke of
Guise, had defended Metz, and had taken Calais. Charles, the
Cardinal of Lorraine, was the king's confessor. Their sister had
married James V. of Scotland. Her daughter, Mary Stuart, a
charming young girl, was married to Francis //., who was infirm
in mind and body, and easily managed by his wife and her uncles.
The great nobles of France, especially the Bourbons, sprung in a
collateral line from Louis IX., and the Montmorencis, who num-
bered among them a man of extraordinary ability and worth, the
Admiral Coligni, looked on the Guises as upstarts. The Bourbons
and the nobles allied to them were, some from sincere conviction
and some from policy, adherents of Calvinism. Thus the Protes-
tants in France became a political party, as well as a religious
body, and a party with anti-monarchical tendencies, Anthony of
Bourbon, a weak and vacillating person, had married JeanneTHE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE.

419

d^Albrety the heiress of Beam and Navarre, a heroic woman and
an earnest Protestant, the mother of Henry IV. His brother
Louis, Prince of Cond£, a brave, impetuous soldier, whose wife,
the niece of the Grand Constable Montmorenci, was a strict Prot-
estant, joined that side.

Conspiracy of Amboise. — La Renaudie, a Protestant noble-
man who was determined' to avenge the execution of a brother,
contrived the Conspiracy of Amboise (1560) in order to dispos-
sess the Guises of their power by force. ,The plan was discovered,
and a savage revenge was taken upon the conspirators. A great
number of innocent persons, who had no share in the plot, were
put to death. The Estates were summoned to Orleans, and the
occasion was to be seized for extirpating heresy throughout the
kingdom. Conde was under arrest, and charged with high trea-
son. Just then, on Dec. 5, 1560, the young king died,

Charles IX.: Edict of St. Germain. — The coveted opportunity
of the queen-mother had come. Charles IX. (1560-1574) was
only ten years old. She assumed the practical guardianship over
him, and with it a virtual regency. The plan of the Guises had
failed, and they had to give way. There were now two parties
in the council. The States-general were called together in 1561,
and a great religious colloquy was held before a brilliant con-
course at Poissy, where Theodore Beza, an eloquent and polished
scholar and a man of high birth, pleaded the cause of the Cal-
vinists. In 1562 the Edict of St. Germain was issued, which
gave up the policy that had been pursued for forty years, of extir-
pating religious dissent. A very restricted toleration was given to
Protestants: they could hold their meetings outside of the walls
of cities, unarmed, and in the daytime. Calvin and his followers
expected the largest results from this measure of liberty. Cather-
ine wished for peace, without a rupture with the Pope and Philip II,
Civil War. — It was impossible to prevent outbreakings of vio-
lence against the hated dissenters. The Guises and their asso-
ciates were resolved not to allow toleration. The event that
occasioned war was the massacre of Vassy. On the 1st of March,
1562, the Duke of Guise, with a squadron of cavalry, attacked a
congregation of Huguenots Who were worshiping in a barn at the
village of Vassy. * A large number were slain, and their houses
were plundered. Thus began the series of terrible civil wars
which continued until the accession of Henry IV. to the throne.
France was a prey to religious and political fanaticism. Other
nations mingled in the frightful contest, and the country was well-
nigh robbed of its independence. At first, there was petty war-
fare at Paris, Sens, and other places. The Huguenots destroyed
altars and censers, monuments of art and sepulchers, which, as
they thought, ministered to idolatry. Rouen was captured by the420

MODERN HISTORY.

Catholics and sacked. At St. Dreux (1562) the Protestants were
defeated ; but in 1563 Guise, the leader of their adversaries, was
assassinated by a Huguenot nobleman. The charge that Coligni
had a part in the deed was false; but he was considered responsi-
ble for it, and vengeance was kept in store by the family of the
slain chief. The Edict of Amboise (1562) was favorable to the
^Protestant nobles, but less favorable to the smaller gentry and to
the towns. Paris, from which Calvinist worship was excluded,
became more and more a stronghold of the Catholic party.
Another war ended in the Edict of Longjumeau (1568), which was
essentially the same as the Edict of Amboise. Philip II and the
Duke of Alva spared no effort to induce France to set about the
extermination of the heretics. In the third war, the Huguenots *
were beaten at Jarnac, where Condi fell, leaving his name to his
son Henry, a youth of seventeen (1569). The same year they
were defeated again at Moncontour. La Rochelle was a place of
safety to the Protestants, who were strong in the wise leadership
of Coligni. There the Queen of Navarre held her court. Thence
the Huguenot cavalry with the young princes Condi, and Henry
of Navarre, her son, sallied forth and traversed France.

England or Spain.—The ambition of Philip alarmed the French.
His complex schemes, if carried out, would involve the reduction
of their country under Spanish control. He wanted to liberate
Mary, Queen of Scots, then a prisoner of Elizabeth, to marry her
to his half-brother, Don John, and to marry his sister to Charles
IX\ The court, in 1570, agreed to the Peace of St. Germain,
which, for the security of the Huguenots, placed four fortified towns
in their possession. Thus France became a kingdom divided against
itself. England, as well as France, looked with alarm upon the
ambitious projects of Philip II, who was now in union with Venice
and with the Pope, and had beaten the Turks at Lepanto. It was
proposed to marry the brother of Charles IX., the Duke of Anjou,
to Queen Elizabeth ; and when this negotiation was broken off, it
was proposed that the Duke of Alen^on, a younger brother, should
marry her. Catherine de Medici fell in with this anti-Spanish
policy. It was agreed that her youngest daughter, Margaret of
Valois, should become the wife of Henry of Navarre. The policy
favored by the Huguenots was in the ascendant. Their leaders were
invited to Paris to be present at the nuptials. Coligni came, with
Henry of Navarre, Conde, and a large number of their adherents.
There was no place where the animosity against them was so
rancorous.

The Massacre of St, Bartholomew. — The massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew was devised by Catherine de Medici, who brought to her
aid the Duchess of Nemours, widow of Francis of Guise and mother
of Henry of Guise, Anjou (afterwards Henry III), and ItalianTHE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE.

421

councilors who were no strangers to plots of assassination. The
motive of the queen-mother was her dread of the ascendency
which she saw that Coligni was gaining over the morbid mind of
the king, in whom the Huguenot veteran had inspired esteem, and
had stirred up a desire to enter into the proposed war against Philip
JL in the Netherlands. On the 2 2d of August (1572), a shot was
fired at Coligni, from the window of a house, by an adherent of the
Guises. He was wounded, but not killed. Charles was incensed.
At a visit made to the wounded chief, the king was warned by him,
as Catherine quickly learned, against her pernicious influence in the
government. Thereupon she arranged with her confederates for a
general slaughter of the. Huguenots, and almost coerced the half-
frantic and irresolute king to acquiesce in the plan. Perhaps, in
gathering them into the city, she had foreseen the possible expedi-
ency of a change of policy, and that such a crime as she now
undertook to perpetrate might be found desirable. In the night
of the 24th of August, at a concerted signal, the fanatical enemies
of the Huguenots were let loose, and fell upon their victims.
Several thousands, including Coligni, were murdered. Couriers
were sent through the country, and like bloody scenes were en-
acted in many other cities ancl towns. Navarre and Condi, to
save their lives, professed conformity to the Catholic Church.
If these atrocious events excited joy in the mind of Philip IL,
and of the numerous intolerant party of which he was the head,
they were regarded with horror and execration elsewhere, among
the Catholic as well as the Protestant nations.

The Politiques: the League: Henry III. — The queen-mother
did not even now forsake her general policy. She stood aloof
from the combinations of Philip. A new party, the Politiques,
or liberal Catholics, in favor of toleration, arose. Henry 1IL
(1574-1589) was incompetent to govern a country torn by fac-
tions, with an exhausted treasury, and a people groaning under the
burdens of taxation. By his double dealing he lost the confidence '
of both the religious parties. In May, 1576, he agreed to allow
the religious freedom which tht'Huguenots and Politiques de-
manded. But he had to reckon with the Catholic League which
was organized under Henry of Guise, Irresolute and helpless, the
king was drawn into cooperation with this League. In 1584
Henry of Navarre was left the next heir to the throne. The
League, with Spain and Rome, resolved that he should not reign.
Together with Conde, he was excommunicated. In the war of
the " three Henrys," he was supported by England, and by troops
from Germany and Switzerland. Henry ///., finding that Henry
of Guise was virtual master, and that the States-general at Blots
(1588) reduced the royal power to the lowest point, caused Guise
and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, to be assassinated.422

MODERN HISTORY.

Excommunicated, and detested by the adherents of the League,
the king took refuge in the camp of Henry of Navarre, where he
was killed by a fanatical priest (1589).

Abjuration and Accession of Henry IV. — The Duke of
Mayenne, brother of the slain Guises, was at the head of the gov-
ernment provisionally established by the League. Philip II. was
intriguing to bring the Catholic nations under his sway. There
was discord in the League, from the jealousy of Philip on the part
of Mayenne. Henry, a dashing soldier, gained a brilliant victory
at Ivry in 1590. The grand obstacle in his way to the throne was
his adhesion to Protestantism. A Calvinist by birth and educa-
tion, but without profound religious convictions, a gallant and
sagacious man, but loose in his morals, he yielded, for the sake of
giving peace to France, to the persuasions addressed to him, and,
from motives of expediency, conformed to the Catholic Church.
The nation was now easily won to his cause.

Heign of Henry IV. — When Henry IV. gained his throne, the
country was in a most wretched condition. In the desolating wars,
population had fallen off. Everywhere there were poverty and law-
lessness. Yet war with Spain was inevitable. In this war, Henry
was the victor; and the Peace of Vervins restored the Spanish con-
quests, and the conquests made by Savoy, to France (1598). The
idea of Henry*s foreign policy, which was that of weakening the
power of Spain and of the house of Hapsburg, was afterwards
taken up by a powerful statesman, Richelieu, and fully realized. In
the Edict of Nantes (1598), the king secured to the Huguenots the
measure of religious liberty for which they had contended. Forti-
fied cities were still left in their hands. Security was obtained by
the Calvinists, but they became a defensive party with no prospect
of further progress. Order and prosperity were restored to the
kingdom. In all his measures, the king was largely guided by a
most competent minister, Sully. But the useful reign of Henry IV.
was cut short by the dagger of an assassin, Ravaillac (1610). For
fifteen years confusion prevailed in France, and a contest of fac-
tions, until Richelieu took up the threads of policy which had fallen
from Henry's hand.

THE THIRTY-YEARS' WAR, TO THE PEACE OP WEST-
FHALIA (1018-1648).

Origin of the War. — In Germany, more than in any other
country, the Reformation had sprung from the hearts of the peo-
ple. Its progress would have been far greater had it not been

CHAPTER VII,THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.

423

retarded by political obstacles, and by divisions among Protestants
themselves. Germany, to be sure, was not disunited by the
Reformation : it was disunited before. But now strong states ex-
isted on its borders, — France, even Denmark and Sweden,—which
might profit "by its internal conflicts. The Peace of Augsburg,
unsatisfactory as it was to both parties, availed to prevent open
strife as long as Ferdinand I. (1555-1564) and Maximilian II.
(1564-1576) held the imperial office. The latter, especially,
favored toleration, and did not sympathize with the fanaticism of
the Spanish branch of his family. He condemned the cruelties
of Alva and the massacre of St. Bartholomew. With the acces-
sion of Rudolph II., a change took place. He had been brought
up in Spain. The Catholic counter-reformation was now making
its advance. The order of the Jesuits was putting forth great and
successful exertions to win back lost ground. There were out-
breakings of violence between the two religious parties. A Cath-
olic procession was insulted in Donauwdrth, a free city of the
empire. The city was put under the ban by the emperor; the
Bavarian Duke marched against it, and incorporated it in his own
territory (1607). On both sides, complaints were made of the
infraction of the Peace of Augsburg. The Donauworth affair led
to the formation of the Evangelical Union, & league into which,
however, all the Protestant states did not enter. The Catholic
League, under the leadership of Maximilian of Bavaria, was firmly
knit together and full of energy.

FIRST STAGE IN THE WAR (to 1629).

The Bohemian Struggle.—The Bohemians revolted against
Ferdinand II. in 1618, when their religious liberties were violated,
and shortly after (1619) refused to acknowledge him as their king.
He was a narrow and fanatical, though not by nature a cruel, ruler.
He gave himself up to the control of the Catholic League. The
two branches of the Ilapsburg family — the Austrian and Span-
ish — were now in full accord with each other. The Bohemians
gave their crown to Frederick Vthe Elector Palatine, the son-in-
law of James /. of England. Bohemia was invaded by Ferdi-
nand\ aided by the League, and abandoned to fire and sword. The
terrible scenes of the Hussite struggle were re-enacted. In the
protracted wars that ensued, it was estimated that the Bohemian
population was reduced from about four millions to between seven
and eight hundred thousand 1 The Palatinate was conquered and
devastated. The electoral dignity was transferred to th^ Duke of
Bavaria. At last, in 1625, England, Holland, and Denmark in-
tervened in behalf of the fugitive Elector Palatine. Christian IV\
of Denmark was defeated, and the intervention failed. The
power gained by Maximilian, the Bavarian Duke, made his in-MODERN HISTORY.

terests separate, in important particulars, from those of Ferdi-
nand. Ferdinand was able to release himself from the virtual
control of Maximilian and the League, through IVallenstein, a
general of extraordinary ability. He was a Bohemian noble, proud,
ambitious, and wealthy. He raised an army, and made it support
itself by pillage. The unspeakable miseries of Germany, in this
- prolonged struggle, were due largely to the composition of the
armies, which were made up of hirelings of different nations,
whose trade was war, and who were let loose on an unprotected
population. Captured cities were given up to the unbridled pas-
sions of a fierce and greedy soldiery. Germany, traversed for a
whole generation by these organized bands of marauders, was in
many places reduced almost to a desert.

Edict of Restitution. — Victory attended the arms of IVallen-
stein, and of Tilly, a brutal commander, the general of the League.
The territory of the Dukes of Mecklenburg was given to IVallen-
stein as a reward (1627). He was anxious to conquer the German
towns on the Baltic. . Stralsund offered a stubborn resistance,
which he could not overcome. The League moved Ferdinand to
the adoption of the Edict of Restitution (1629), which put far
off the hope of peace. This edict enforced the parts of the Peace
of Augsburg which were odious to the Protestants, especially the
Ecclesiastical Reservation (p. 410), and abrogated the provisions of
an opposite tenor. It was evident that the real aim was the entire
extinction of Protestantism. The League, moreover, induced
the emperor to remove Wallenstein, of whom they were jealous.
The effect of these measures was to rouse the most lukewarm
of the Protestant princes, including the electors of Brandenburg
and Saxony, to a sense of the common danger. It was plain
that Wallenstein was a sacrifice to the League, and to the ambition
of Maximilian of Bavaria.

SECOND STAGE IN THE WAR (1629-1632).

In the second act of this long drama, Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden is the hero. His reign is marked by the rise of his
country to the height of its power.

Events in Sweden: Career of Gustavus Adolphus. — Gusta-
vus Vasa made the mistake of undertaking to divide power among
his four sons. There was a vein of eccentricity, amounting some-
times to insanity, in the family. Eric XIV was hasty and jealous,
imprisoned his brother John, and committed reckless crimes. In
1569 he was himself confined, and. nine years after was secretly
put to death. John and another brother, Charles of Stiderman-
land, now reigned together. John was favorable to the Roman-
Catholic Church, and offended his Protestant subjects by efforts at
union and compromise. Moreover, he unwisely made concessionsTHE THIRTY YEARS* WAR.

425

to the nobles, and increased the burdens of the peasants. Finally,
he wanted to make his son Sigismund king of Poland, a country
which, from its anarchical constitution, was on the road to ruin.
Poland was a Catholic land ; and, in order to get the crown, Sigis-
mund avowed himself a Catholic. Charles, a strict Lutheran,
drew to his side all who were hostile to John's spirit and policy.
On the death of the latter (1592), Duke Charles came into col-
lision with Sigismund and with the nobles; whose power depended
on his concessions; and he gained the victory over them (1598).
In 1604 the Diet gave him the crown, which he wore for seven
years. He had to contend against faction, and to withstand the
attacks of Denmark and of Russia. In the midst of these
troubles he died, and was succeeded by his son Gustavus Adoi-
phus, then less than eighteen years of age (1611-1630)< He was
a well-educated prince, early familiar with war, a devoted patriot,
and, although tolerant in his temper, was a sincere Protestant, after
the type of the old Saxon electors. For eighteen years after his
accession, it had been his aim to control the Baltic. This had
brought him into conflict with Denmark, Poland, and Russia.
His interposition in the German war, a. step which was full of
peril to himself, was regarded by Brandenburg and Saxony with
jealousy and repugnance. But when the savage troops of Tilly
(1631) sacked and burned Magdeburg, the neutral party was driven
to side with Sweden. Gustavus defeated Tilly, and the advance
of his army in the South of Germany prostrated the power of the
League. The princes regarded the Swedish king with suspicion i
the cities regarded him with cordiality. Whether along with his
sagacious and just intentions he connected his own elevation to
the rank of King of Rome, and emperor, must be left uncertain,
Ferdinand was obliged to call back Wallenstein♦ The battle of
Lutzen, in 1632, was a great defeat of Wallenstein, and a grand
victory for the Swedes; but it cost them the life of their king.FRANCE. —THE BOURBON KINGS.

Henry IV, 1589-1610, (2), m. Mary, daughter of Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Louis XIII, 1610-1643, m. Anne, daughter of Philip III of Spain.	Charles I of England, m. Henrietta Maria.

|	Dukes of Orleans.

i : ' ; : : ' : ~ : i	g

Louis XIV, 1643-1715, m. Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain.	Philip, m. (1), Henrietta Maria,	^	q

(2), Elizabeth, daughter of Charles Lewis,	v-<

Elector Palatine.	^

&

2

I. • ----—\

-I

Louis, Dauphin, d. 1711,	Frangoise (Mademoiselle de Blois), nt. Phiup, regent, d. 1723.	JjJ

m. Maria Anna, daughter of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria.	j	CO

I	Louis, d. 1752.

Louis, Duke of Burgundy, d. 1712, m. Mary Adelaide, daughter of Victor Amadeus II of Savoy.	|	O

I	^	Louis Phiuppe, d. 1785.

Louis XV, 17x50x774, *>. Mary, daughter of Stanislas Leczinsky, King of Poland.	I

I	I-

Louis Philippe (Egalit£), executed 1795.

Louis, Dauphin, d. 1765,	I

m. Maria Josepha, daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Poland and Saxony.

Louis Philippe, 1830-1848 (deposed),

h. Maria Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand I of Two Sicilies.

1-r.-1

Louis XVI, 1774-1792 (deposed, executed 1793), Louis, Count of Provence (Louis XVIII), Charles, Count of Artois (Charles X),
m. Mane Antoinette, ^	1814-1824.	1824-1830 (deposed),

daughter of Emperor Francis I.	m. Maria Theresa, daughter of Victor Amadeus III

of Savoy.TIIE-THIRTY YEARS' WAR.

427

THIRD STAGE IN THE WAR (163 2-1648).

Prance after Henry IV. — After the death of Gustavus, in the
new phase of the war, the influence of Richelieu, the great minister
, of France, becomes more and more dominant. Germany was in
the end doomed to eat the bitter fruits of civil war, such as spring
from foreign interference, even when it comes in the form of help.
Henry IV, had died when he was on the point of directing the
power of France, as of old, against the house of Hapsburg. The
country now fell back for a series of years to a state akin to that
under the kings who preceded him, although it was saved from a
long civil war. Louis XIII. (1610-1643) was a child; and the
queen, Mary of Medici, who was the regent, an Italian woman,
with no earnest principles, deprived of the counsels of Sully, lav-
ished the resources of the crown upon nobles, who were greedy of
place and pelf. At the assembly of the States-general in 1614,
nobles, clergy, and the third estate were loud in reciprocal accusa-
tions. The queen fell under the influence of fhe Concinisy an
Italian waiting-maid, and her husband, the latter of whom she made
a marquis and a marshal of France. She leagued herself in various
ways with Spain. As the king grew older, a party rallied about
him, and the marshal was assassinated (1617). From that time
Louis was under the influence of a favorite, the Duke de Luynes, a
native Frenchman, with.whom the nobles were in sympathy. The
duke died in 1621. Then Richelieu, Bishop of Lugon (made a
cardinal in 1622), a statesman of extraordinary genius, began his
active career in politics, and after 1624 guided the policy of France,
as a sort of Mayor of the Palace. Louis XIII. was not personally
fond of him, but felt the need of him. Richelietfs aim, as regards
the government of France, was to consolidate the monarchy by
bringing the aristocracy into subjection to the king. Under him
began the process of centralization, the system of officers appointed
and paid by the government, which was fully developed after the
great revolution. He accomplished the overthrow of the Hugue-
no Is as a political organization, a state within the state. In 1628
Rochelle, the last of their towns, fell into his hands. He was
determined to make the civil authority supreme. He resisted
interference with its rights on the part of the Church. The nobles
were reduced to obedience by the infliction of severe punish-
ments. The common people were kept under. But the domes-'
tic government of Richelieu made it possible for the selfish and
ruinous policy of Louis XIV. to arise. The key of his foreign"
policy was hostility to Austria and Spain, to both branches of
the Hapsburgs. Before he took active measures against them, he
had to procure quiet in France, and to provide himself with
money and troops.428

MODERN HISTORY.

Intervention of Richelieu. — The pretext of Richelieu for taking
part in the German war was the alleged ambitious aim of the
Uapsburgs to destroy the independence of other nations. He
helped Gustavus with money; but the Swedish king would neither
allow him to take territory, nor to dictate the method of pros-
ecuting the contest. It was agreed that the Catholic religion as
such should not be attacked. Oxenstiern> the Swedish chancel-
or, in the Heilbronn Treaty (1633) adhered to the same policy.

Death of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein formed a plan to make
himself an independent prince. He designed to make peace with
France, Sweden, and the Protestants, and probably expected to
reign in Bohemia. In obedience to an imperial direction, as the
only way of averting the threatened danger, he was murdered in
his camp (1634).

, End of the War. — The imperial victory of Nordlingen (1634)
made the active assistance of France necessary. But it was not
until the death of Bernard of Weimar, the foremost general of the
Germans (1639); Richelieu found himself at the goal of his
efforts. The armies opposed to the emperor were now under the
control of the French. The character of the war had changed.
Protestant states were fighting on the imperial side : the old theo-
logical issues were largely forgotten. Yet the Court of Vienna
still clung to the Edict of Restitution (p. 424) for eight long years,
during which the confused, frightful warfare was kept up. At last
the military reverses of the emperor, Ferdinand III. (1637-1657),
who, unlike his father, was not indisposed to peace, wrung from
him a consent to the necessary conditions.

Effects of the War. — The barbarities of this long war are
indescribable. The unarmed people were treated with brutal
ferocity. The population of Germany is said to have diminished
in thirty years from twenty to fifty per cent. The population of
one city, Augsburg, fell from eighty to eighteen thousand. There
were four hundred thousand people in Wurtemberg in 1641:
only forty-eight thousand were left. In fertile districts, the destruc-
tion of the crops had caused great numbers to perish by famine.
It is only in recent years that the number of horned cattle in Ger-
many has come to equal what it was in 1618. Cities, villages, ,
castles, and dwellings innumerable, had been burned to the ground.

The Peace of Westphalia. — The Peace of Westphalia, con-
cluded in 1648, was a great European settlement. It was agreed,
that in Germany, whatever might be the faith of the prince, the
religion of each state was to be Catholic or Protestant, according
to its position in 1624, which was fixed upon as the " normal year."
In the imperial administration, the two religions were to be sub-
stantially equal. Religious freedom and civil equality were ex-
tended to the Calvinists. The empire was reduced to a shadowTHE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND.	429

by giving to the Diet the power to decide in all important matters,
and by the permission given to its members to make alliances with
one another and with foreign powers, with the futile proviso that
no prejudice should come thereby to the empire or the emperor.
The independence of Holland and Sivitzerland was acknowledged.
Sweden obtained the territory about the Baltic, in addition to
other important places, and became a member of the German
Diet. Among the acquisitions of France were the three bishop-
rics, Metz, Touly and Verdun, and the landgraviate of Upper and
Lower Alsace. Thus France gained access to the Rhine. Sweden
and France, by becoming guarantors of the peace, obtained the
right to interfere in the internal affairs of Germany.

Consequences of the Treaty. — By this treaty, what was left
of central authority in Germany was destroyed: the empire ex-
isted only in name; the mediaeval union of empire and papacy
was at an end. Valuable German territories were given up to
ambitious neighbors. France had extended her bounds, and dis-
ciplined her troops. Sweden had gained what Gustavus had
coveted, and, for the time, was a power of the first class. Spain
and Austria were both disabled, and reduced in rank.

-—-A-

CHAPTER VIII.

SECOND STAGE OP THE KEFOBMATION IN ENGLAND: TO
THE DEATH OP ELIZABETH (1547-1603).

Reign of Edward VI. (1547-1553). —Henry VIIL, with Par-
liament, had determined the order of succession, giving precedence
to Edward, his son by Jane Seymour, over the two princesses,
Mary, the daughter of Catherine, and Elizabeth, the daughter of
Anne Boleytu Edward VJ.f who was but ten years old at his
accession, was weak in body, but was a most remarkable instance
of intellectual precocity. The government now espoused the
Protestant side. Somerset\ the king's uncle, was at the head of
the regency. The Six Articles (p. 407) were repealed. Protes-
tant theologians from the Continent were taken into the counsels
of the English prelates, Crajimer and Ridley. Under the leader-
ship of Crantner, the Book of Common Prayer was framed, and
the Articles, or creed, composed. The clergy were allowed to
marry. The Anglican Protestant Church was fully organized, but
the progress in the Protestant direction was rather too rapid for
the sense of the nation. Somerset, who was fertile in schemes
and a good soldier, invaded Scotland in order to enforce the ful-
filling of the treaty which had promised the young Princess Mary43°

MODERN HISTORY.

of Scotland to Edward in marriage. He defeated the Scots at
Pinkie, near Edinburgh; but the project as to the marriage failed.
Mary was sent by the Scots to France, there to become the wife
of Francis //. Land belonging to the Church was seized by
Somerset to make room for Somerset House. A Catholic rebellion
in Cornwall and Devonshire, provoked by the Protector's course,
was suppressed with difficulty. The opposition to him on various
grounds, which was led by the Duke of Northumberland, finally
brought the Protector to the scaffold. But Northumberland proved
to be less worthy to hold the protectorate than he, and labored to
aggrandize his relatives. He was one of the nobles who made
use of Protestantism as a means of enriching themselves. Pie
persuaded the young king, when he was near his end, to settle die
crown, contrary to what Parliament had determined, on Lady Jane
Grey, Northumberland's daughter-in-law, a descendant of Henry''s
sister.

The Reign of Mary. — Notwithstanding the Protector's selfish
scheme, Mary succeeded to the throne without serious difficulty.
Northumberland was beheaded as a traitor. An insurrection
under Wyat was put down, and led to the execution of the un-
fortunate and innocent Lady Jane Grey. From her birth and all
the circumstances of her life, Mary was in cordial sympathy with
the Church of Rome and with Spain. She proceeded as rapidly
as her more prudent advisers, including her kinsman Philip II,
would allow, to restore the Catholic system. The married clergy
were excluded from their places, and the Prayer-Book was abol-
ished. The point where Parliament showed most hesitation was
in reference to the royal supremacy. The nobles were afraid of
losing their fields and houses, which had belonged to the Church.
It was stipulated that the abbey lands, which were now held by
the nobles and gentry as well as by the crown, should not be given
up. Personally, Mary was inclined to any measure which obliga-
tion to the Catholic religion might dictate. Contrary to the
general wish of her subjects, she married Philip //. Rigorous
measures of repression were adopted against the Protestants. A
large number of persons, eminent for talents and learning, were
put to death on the charge of heresy. Among them were the
three bishops, Cranmer, Ridley, and iMtimer, who were burned
at the stake at Oxford (1556). Gardiner, Bonner, and the rigid
advocates of persecution, had full sway. These severe measures
were not popular; and, although the queen was not in her natural
temper cruel, they have given her the name of the "Bloody
Mary." Each party used coercion when it had the upper hand.
A great number of the Protestant clergy fled to vthe Continent.
Mary sided with Spain against France, and, greatly to the disgust
of the English, lost Calais (1558). Pope Paul IV\ was disposed-REIGN OF ELIZABETH.

431

to press upon England the extreme demands of the Catholic
Reaction. He was, moreover, hostile to the Spanish-Austrian
house. There was great fear respecting the confiscated Church
property: her own share in it, the queen persuaded Parliament to
allow her to surrender. Cardinal Pole, a moderate man, no longer
guided her policy. He was deprived of the office of papal legate.
General discontent prevailed in the kingdom. The queen herself
was dispirited, and her life ended in anxiety and sorrow.

Character of Elizabeth (1558-1603). — The nation welcomed
Elizabeth to the throne. Her will was as imperious as that of her
father. Her character was not without marked faults and foibles.
She was vain, unwisely parsimonious, petulant, and overbearing, and
evinced that want of truthfulness which was too common among
rulers and statesmen at that period. But she had regal virtues,—
high courage, devotion to the public good, for which she had the
strength to sacrifice personal inclinations, together with the wisdom
to choose astute counselors and to adhere to them. Her title to
the throne was disputed. She had to contend against powerful
and subtle adversaries. Her defense lay in the mutual jealousy of
France and Spain, and in the determination of Englishmen not to
be ruled by foreigners. Her reign was long and glorious.

Her Religious Position. — In her doctrine, Elizabeth was a
moderate Lutheran, not bitterly averse to the Church of Rome,
but, in accordance with the prevalent English feeling which Henry
VIIL represented, clinging to the royal supremacy. The Protes-
tant system, with the Prayer-Book, and the hierarchy dependent
on the sovereign, was now restored.

Protestantism in Scotland. — In case Elizabeth*s cjaim to the
crown were overthrown, the next heir would be Mary, Queen of
Scots. Her grandmother was the eldest sister of Henry VIIL
Her claim to the English crown was a standing menace to Eliza-
beth. When Mary's father, James V., died (1542), she was only
a few days old. Her mother, Mary of Guise, became regent.
The Reformation had then begun to gain adherents in Scotland.
On the accession of Elizabethy at a time when the religious wars
in France were about to begin, the Scottish regent undertook
repressive measures of increased rigor. The principal agent in
turning Scotland to the Protestant side was John Knox> an in-
trepid preacher, honest, and rough in his ways, deeply imbued
with the spirit of Calvinism, and free from every vestige of super-
stitious deference for human potentates. He returned from the
Continent in 1555. Many of the turbulent nobles, partly from
conviction and partly from covetousness, adopted the new opin-
ions. More and more, however, Knox gained a hold upon the
common people. His preaching was effective : one of its natural
consequences was an outburst of iconoclasm. Even Philip //.432

MODERN HISTORY.

was willing to have the nobles helped in the contest with the
regent, Scotland being the ally of France. The queen-regent
died in 1560. The Presbyterians now had full control, and Cal-
vinistic Protestantism was legally established as the religion of the
country.

The Queen of Scots. — Such was the situation when Mary, the
young widow of Francis //., came back to Scotland to assume her
crown. A zealous Catholic, she undertook to rule a turbulent peo-
ple among whom the most austere type of Protestantism was the
legal and cherished faith. She had personal charms which Eliza-
beth . lacked, but as a sovereign she was wanting in the public
virtue which belonged to her rival. Mary was quick-witted and
full of energy; but she had been brought up in the court of Cath-
erine de Medici, in an atmosphere of duplicity and lax morals.
She had the vices of the Stuartsan extravagant idea of the
sacred prerogatives of kings, a disregard of popular rights, a will-
ingness to break engagements. Her levity, even if it had been
kept within bounds, would have been offensive to her Calvinistic
subjects. She had at heart the restoration of the Catholic system.
In Knox she found a vigilant and fearless antagonist, with so much
support among the nobles and the common people that her at-
tempts at coercion, like her blandishments, proved powerless.
Contrary to the wishes and plans of Elizabeth, she married Darn-
ley, a Scottish nobleman (1565), whom, not without reason, she
soon learned to despise. Her half-brother Murray, a very able
man, and the other Protestant nobles, had been opposed to the
match. She allowed herself an innocent, but unseemly, intimacy
with an Italian musician, Rizzio* With the connivance of her hus-
band, he was dragged out of her supper-room at Holyrood, and
,brutally murdered byRuthven and other conspirators. In 1567,
the house in which Darnley was sleeping, close by Edinburgh, was
blown up with gunpowder, and he was killed. Whether Mary
was privy to the murder, or not, is a point still in dispute. Certain
it is that she gave her hand in marriage to Bothwell, the prime
author of the crime. A revolt of her subjects followed. She was
compelled to abdicate : Murray was made regent, and her infant
son, James VJ., was crowned at Stirling (1567). Escaping from
confinement at Lochleven, she was defeated at Langside, and
obliged to fly to England for protection.

Execution of Mary. — Elizabeth had no liking for the new reli-
gious system in Scotland. She hated the necessity of aiding rebels
against their sovereign. But there was no alternative. In .1569
the defeat of the Huguenots in France was followed by a Catholic
rebellion in. the North ot England. Elizabeth was excommuni?
cated by Pope Pius V. There was a determination to dethrone
her, and to hand over her crown to Mary, The drift of eventsREIGN OF ELIZABETH.	433

was towards a conflict of England with Spain. The Duke of
Norfolk, a leader in conspiracy and rebellion, who acted in concert
with Philip and with J/rtry, was brought to the scaffold (1572).
Elizabeth secretly aided the revolted subjects of Philip in the
Netherlands, as Philip encouraged the malcontents in England and
Ireland. The Queen of Scots was the center of the hopes of the
enemies of England and of Elizabeth. When her complicity in
the conspiracy of Babington, which involved a Spanish invasion
and the dethronement and death of Elizabeth, was proved, Mary,
after having been a captive for nineteen years, was condemned to
death, and executed (1587) at Fotheringay Castle.

The Spanish Armada.— In 1585 Elizabeth openly sent troops
to the Netherlands under the command of her favorite, Leicester.
The contest with Spain was kept up on the sea by bold English
mariners, who captured the Spanish treasure-ships, and harassed
the Spanish colonies. It was a period of maritime adventure,
when men like Frobisher, Hawkins, and Raleigh made themselves
famous, and when Sir Francis Drake sailed around the world. In
the course of this voyage, Drake had seized from the Spanish
vessels, and from the settlements on the coast of Peru and Chili,
a vast amount of silver and gold. When it was known that Philip
was preparing to invade England, Drake sailed into the harbor
of Cadiz, and destroyed the ships and stores there (1587). He
burned every Spanish vessel that he could find. He boasted on his
return that he had " singed the king of Spain's beard." Philip
made ready a mighty naval expedition, the " Invincible Armada,"
for the conquest of England. The fame of it resounded through
Europe. A Spanish force in the Netherlands, under Parma, was
to cooperate with it. In England, there were preparations to*
meet the attack. Catholics and Protestants were united for the
defense of the kingdom. At Tilbury, Queen Elizabeth reviewed
her troops on horseback, saying to them in a spirited speech, " I
know I. have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have
the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too."
The tempest, aiding the valor of the English seamen, dispersed the
great fleet. No landing was effected, and the grand enterprise
proved a complete failure. Only fifty-four out of the one hundred
and fifty vessels succeeded in making their way back to Spain.

Monopolies.—-The queen knew how to yield-to the people when she
saw that they were determined upon a measure. This she did near the close
of her reign, when the Commons called upon her to put an end to the
monopolies which she had been in the habit of granting to individuals whom
she specially liked.	»

The Earl of Essex.— The queen had her personal favorites. Among
them, Robert Dudley, whom she made the Earl of Leicester, was the one
of whom she was most fond. She esteemed him much above his merits.
Another of her favorites was the young Earl of Essex, who was vain and434	MODERN HISTORY.

ambitious. He went in 1596 with Lord Howard in an expedition which took
and plundered Cadiz. Then he was sent to Ireland in command of an army.
He failed, and came back to England without leave. He made a foolish
attempt at insurrection, was tried for treason, and convicted; and Elizabeth
reluctantly signed the warrant for his execution (1601).

Conquest of Ireland. — After the return of Essex from Ireland,
where he had done nothing well, Lord Mountjoy was sent to con-
quer Tyrone, the Desmonds, and other Irish chiefs. It was a long
and fierce contest. He succeeded in subduing the country; but
the effect of his conquest was a terrible famine in the North, where
the food had been destroyed. At the end of Elizabeth's reign, all
Ireland was subject to England.

The Puritans. — Uniformity in the forms of religious worship
was ordained by law in England, and the queen was bent on
enforcing it. A Court of High Commission was established to
punish heresy and nonconformity. This policy early brought on
a conflict, not only with the Roman Catholics, but also with the
large and growing class of Protestants who were called " Puritans."
These wished to carry the Reformation farther than it had been
carried by the Tudors in England, and to make the English Church
more like the Calvinistic churches in Scotland and on the Con-
tinent. They disliked surplices and other vestments worn by the
clergy, which they pronounced " badges of popery," the sign of
the cross used in baptism, and like customs retained in the Church
as established by law. Many of them became opposed to the
whole prelatical organization. They did not admit the supremacy
of the sovereign, as Elizabeth claimed it, in things having to do
with the Church and religion. Many of the Puritans conformed
to the existing system of Church government and worship, but
under a protest and with the hope of seeing it changed. Others
were nonconformists; that is, they did not formally break off
from the English Church, but avoided taking part in the forms
of worship of which they disapproved. This class was numerous.
A third and smaller class, the " Independents," separated from the
Established Church, and disbelieved in national churches, or a
national organization of religion, altogether. They formed reli-
gious societies of their own. Thus English Protestants were
divided among themselves. Upon both Puritans and Roman
Catholics — upon the latter, partly on political grounds — severe
penalties were inflicted. Churchman and Puritan, while they
agreed substantially in theology, stood at variance in regard to
Church government and modes of worship.REIGN OF JAMES I.	435

v ■

CHAPTER -IX.

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH

(1603-1658).

James I. — James VI. of Scotland, and /. of England, was the
son of Mary Stuart and Darnley. Scotland and England were
now united under one king. He was not wanting in acquirements,
and plumed himself on his knowledge of theology. A conceited
pedant, he was impatient of dissent from his opinions. In Scot-
land, among insubordinate nobles and the ministers of the Kirk,—
who on one occasion went so far as to pull his sleeve when they
addressed to him their rebukes,—he had hardly tasted the sweets
of regal power. The deference with which the English clergy
treated him deepened his attachment to their Church. He had
high notions of the divine right of kings. " No bishop, no king,"
was his favorite maxim. Early, in the Hampton Court Conference
between the bishops and the Puritans, over which James presided,
he showed his antipathy to the Puritans. It may be here stated, that
a suggestion there made led to the making of the Authorized Ver-
sion of the Bible, for which previous translations, especially the
translation of Tyndale, furnished the basis. The king's severity
to the Catholics was the occasion of the "Gunpowder Plot," a
project that failed, for blowing up the Parliament House by means
of powder placed under it, to which one Guy Fawkes was to apply
the match (1605).

Ireland. — The Earl of Tyrone, an Irish chief, fell into a dis-
pute with the English authorities, and, with another Irish earl, fled
to Spain. The best of their lands in Ulster were given to English
and Scotch colonists. Only what was left of the land was granted
to the Irish, many of whom were dispossessed of their homes.
The Ulster colonies were industrious and prosperous; but among
the natives, seeds of lasting enmity were sown by this injustice.

James's Foreign Policy. — The nation became imbittered
against the king. One grievance was the sale not only of patents
of nobility, but also of monopolies to companies or individuals.
This was a continuance of an old abuse. The trial and conviction
of Lord Bacon, the Lord Chancelor, who was impeached on the
charge of receiving presents which were intended to influence his
decisions as a judge, was one evidence of the corruption of the
times, and of the displeasure occasioned by it. Instead of aiding
his son-in-law, Frederick V, the Elector Palatine, whose dominions
had been seized by a Spanish army sent to aid his enemies, James
busied himself with schemes for marrying his son Charles to the
Infanta, or Princess, Maria of Spain, the sister of Philip IV. As
a part of his truckling to Spain, he caused Sir Walter Raleigh to436

MODERN HISTORY.

be executed. Raleigh, who had no love for Spain, had long been
kept in the Tower on the charge of treason; but the king, who
wanted gold, had permitted him to go on a voyage to South
America to seek for it. There, without his fault, some of his men
had a collision with the Spaniards, up the Orinoco. Not having
procured any treasure, he was disposed to attack Spanish ships;
but the captains with him would not consent. On his return to
England, he was again thrown into prison, and brought to the block.
At length the marriage treaty with Spain, to the joy of the nation,
was broken off. Charles, it was agreed, should marry Henrietta
Maria, the sister of Louis XJJL, the king of France. The king
came to a better understanding with Parliament, which had con-
stantly opposed his policy and withstood his arrogant assumption
of absolute authority.

Charles I. (1625-1649). — Charles /. in dignity of person far
excelled his father. He had more skill and more courage; but he
had the same theory of arbitrary government, and acted as if in-
sincerity and the breaking of promises were excusable in defense
of it. His strife with Parliament began at once. They would not
grant supplies of money without a redress of grievances and the
removal of Buckingham, the king's favorite. War had begun with
Spain before the close of the last reign. An expedition was now
sent to Cadiz, but it accomplished nothing. Buckingham was
impeached; but before the trial ended, the king dissolved Parlia-
ment. A year later he went to war with France. He was then
obliged (1628) to grant to his third Parliament their Petition of
Right, which condemned his recent illegal doings, — arbitrary taxes
and imprisonment, the billeting of soldiers on householders, pro-
ceedings of martial law. A few months later Buckingham was assas-
sinated by one John Felton at Portsmouth. Certain taxes called
tonnage and poundage, Charles continued to levy by his own au-
thority. A patriotic leader and a prominent speaker in the House
of Commons was Sir John Eliot. The king dissolved Parliament
(1629), and sent Eliot and two other members of the House to
prison. No other Parliament was summoned for eleven years. The
king aimed to establish an absolute system of rule such as Richelieu
had built up in France. Two ministers were employed by him in
furthering this policy. One was a layman, lVentzuorth> Earl of
Strafford, who exercised almost unlimited power in the northern
counties. The other was William Laud, Bishop of London and
then Archbishop of Canterbury (1633), who undertook to force
the Puritans to conform to all the observances of the Church.
Two courts — the High Commission, before which the clergy were
brought; and the Star Chamber, which was made up from the
king's council—were the instruments for carrying out this tyranny.
Grievous and shameful punishments were inflicted on the victims
of it.THE CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND.	43/

John Hampden. — There was need of a fleet. Charles, With-
out asking any grant from Parliament, undertook to levy a tax
called " ship-money " in every shire. John Hampden, a country
gentleman, refused to pay it. The judges gave a verdict against
him, but he won great applause from patriotic Englishmen.

Beginning of the Long Parliament. — In 1637 Charles em-
barked in the foolish enterprise of endeavoring to force the Eng-
lish liturgy upon Scotland. This called out the Solemn League
and Covenant of the Scots for the defense of Presbyterianism*
For eleven years the king had governed without a Parliament, but
he needed money. The " Short Parliament" was assembled ; but,
as it refused to obey the king, it was quickly dissolved. The inva-
sion of the Scots in 1640 made it necessary for Charles to assem-
ble that body known as the Long Parliament, one of the most
memorable of all legislative assemblies. Strafford and Laud were
impeached. Strafford\ by a bill of attainder passed by both
Houses, was condemned and executed (1641). It was enacted
that the present Parliament should not be dissolved or prorogued
without its own consent, — an act which Charles reluctantly sanc-
tioned. The Star Chamber and High Commission Courts were
abolished. A great Irish insurrection broke out in Ulster. It has
already been related how Henry VIIL established in Ireland his
ecclesiastical system; how, during Elizabeths reign, there was
fierce and incessant war with the Desmonds, and other Anglo-Irish
families, who resisted Protestantism; and how James /., robbing
many Irish of their lands, planted in Ulster numerous English and
Scotch Protestant settlers. These were now massacred in great
numbers by the Irish, who almost succeeded in seizing Dublin.
Parliament would not trust Charles with an army to use in Ireland,
fearing that the troops would be used by him to defend his arbi-
trary government at home. The king came to the House of Com-
mons with a body of ,armed men, and made an abortive attempt
to seize five members on the charge of resisting his authority,
among whom were John Hampden, and John Pym, who was one
of the most influential orators on the popular side. A bill was
passed excluding the bishops from the House of Lords, where a
majority were for the king. To this Charles consented, but he
refused to allow*Parliament to control the militia.

The Civil War: Sucoess of Cromwell. — In July, 1642, Par-
liament appointed a Committee of Public Safety, and called out
the militia. Soon Charles raised the royal standard at Notting-
ham. In the civil war, on one side were the Royalists, who were
familiarly styled cavaliers (that is, horsemen, or gentlemen), and
on the other were the Parliamentarians, who were nicknamed
Roundheads, for the reason that the Puritans did not follow the
fashion of allowing their hair to fall in tresses on the shoulders.438

MODERN HISTORY.

The Earl of Essex, the Parliamentary general, fought an inde-
cisive battle with the king at Edge hill. Charles then made Oxford
his headquarters. Early in the war, two men of spotless character
fell, — Hampden, on the popular side (1642), and Lord Falkland
(1642), who, not without hesitation, had joined the Royalists. The
cavalry of Charles, under a gallant but rash leader, Prince Rupert\
son of the queen of Bohemia, and grandson of James /., was
specially effective. Charles made peace with the Irish insurgents
in order to get their help in fighting Parliament. Parliament united
with the Scots in the Solemn League and Covenant, by which there
was to be uniformity in religion in England, Ireland, and Scotland.

Presbyterians and Independents. — Presbyterianism was now
made the legal system; and about two thousand beneficed clergy-
v men in England, who refused to subscribe to the Covenant, were
deprived of their livings. The..Westminster Assembly met in
1643, ancl organized a church system without bishops and without
the liturgy. But Parliament did not give up its own supremacy in
ecclesiastical affairs. There was no " General Assembly " to rule
the Church, as in Scotland. Another party, the Independents,
were gaining strength, and by degrees getting control in the army.
Of their number was Oliver Cromwell\ a gentleman of Hunting-
donshire, who had been a member of the House of Commons,
where he spoke for the first time in 1629.

Cromwell: Naseby. — By many of his adversaries, and by nu-
merous writers since that day, Cromwell has been considered a
hypocrite in religion, actuated by personal ambition. The Puritan
poet, John Milton, who became his secretary after he acquired
supreme power, gives to him the warmest .praise for integrity and
piety, as well as for genius and valor. Of his religious earnestness
after the Puritan type, and of his sincere patriotism, there is at
present much less doubt. As to the transcendent ability and
sagacity that lay beneath a rugged exterior, there has never
been any question. He raised and trained a regiment of Puritan
troops, called the " Ironsides," who were well-nigh invincible in
battle, but whose camp was a " conventicle " for prayer and praise.
With their help, the Royalists were defeated at Mars ton Moor
(1644). The army was now modeled anew by the Independents.
The Self-denying Ordinance excluded members of Parliament
from military command. Cromwell was made an exception. He
came to the front, with no other general except Fairfax, who had
replaced Essex, above him. Laud was condemned for high trea-
son by an ordinance of Parliament, and beheaded (1645).
Royalist army experienced a crushing defeat at Naseby in June of
the same year.

Trial and Execution of Charles. — Charles surrendered to the
army of the Scots before Newark (1646) ; and by them lie wasTHE COMMONWEALTH IN ENGLAND.	439

delivered for a ransom, in the form of an indemnity for war
expenses, to their English allies. The king hoped much from the
growing discord between the Presbyterians, who favored an ac-
commodation with him if they could preserve their ecclesiastical
system ; and the Independents, who controlled the army, and were
in favor of toleration, and of obtaining more guaranties of liberty
against regal usurpation. In June, 1647, ^ie army took the king
out of the hands of Parliament, into their own custody. He
negotiated with all parties, and was trusted by none. In 1648 he
agreed, in a secret treaty with the Scots, to restore Presbyterianism.
There were Royalist risings in different parts of England, which
Cromwell suppressed. He defeated at Preston Pans a Scotch
army, led into England by the Duke of Hamilton to help Charles.
Cromwell*s army were now determined to baffle the plans of the
Parliamentary majority. Col. Pridey with a regiment of foot, ex-
cluded from the House of Commons about a hundred members.
This measure, dictated by a council of officers, was called Pride's
Purge. The Commons closed the House of Lords, and consti-
tuted a High Court of Justice for the trial of the king. He
refused to acknowledge the tribunal, and behaved with calmness
and dignity to the end. He was condemned, and beheaded on a
scaffold before his own palace at Whitehall\ Jan. 30, 1649. By
one party he was execrated as a tyrant, whose life was a constant
danger to freedom. By the other party he was revered as a
martyr. His two eldest sons were Charles, born in 1630, and
James, born in 1633.

The Commonwealth. — The monarchy was now abolished ; and
England was a free commonwealth, governed by the House of
Commons. A council of state, under the presidency of Bradshaw9
who had presided at the trial of the king, was appointed to carry
on the government. In Ireland, a rebellion in behalf of young
Charles, son of the late king, was organized by Butler, Marquis of
Ormond (1649). In nine months Cromwell subdued it, treating
the insurgents with unsparing severity. There was a savage mas-
sacre of the garrisons at Drogheda and Wexford. The massacre at
jDrogheda was by his orders. Soldiers of Parliament were settled
in Munster> Leinster, and Ulster. 'The country was reduced to
complete subjection. In 1650 Charles landed in Scotland/sub-
scribed to the Covenant, and was proclaimed king. Cromwell
fought the Scots at Dunbar, and totally routed them. Returning
to England, he overtook Charles and his army at Worcester, and
defeated them (1651). . Cromwell called this victory " a crowning
mercy." Charles escaped in disguise, and, after strange perils and
adventures, landed in Normandy.

War with Holland. — England, under its new government, en-
gaged in a contest for dominion on the sea. The new order of44°

MODERN HISTORY.

things, contrary to the expectation of Cromwell\ was regarded with
hostility in Holland\ where the Orange family were in power. In
1651 the English Navigation Act, requiring all goods from abroad
to be brought in, either in English ships, or in ships of the coun-
tries on the Continent in which the imported wares were produced,
struck a heavy blow at Dutch commerce. War followed, in which
the great Dutch admirals, Van Trompy De Ruyter, De Witt, found
more than a match in the English commander, Blake. The terms
of peace were dictated by Cromwell\ and Holland had to attach
itself to his policy . (1654).

The Lord Protector. — There was a growing discord between
the unworthy remnant of the Parliament — now called the " Rump
Parliament " —and the army. In 1653 Cromwell used his military
force to dissolve the assembly. By the " Little Parliament" which
he called together, he was constituted Lord Protector, with a
Council of State composed of twenty-five members. Later he de-
clined the title of king, out of respect to the feelings and prejudices
of his party. But he reigned in state, and exercised regal functions.
His attempts to restore the old forms of parliamentary government,
in an orderly form, with two houses, were baffled by difficulties
beyond control. He insisted on a large degree of toleration, so
long as " religion was not made a pretense for arms and blood."

Cromwell's Government. — Under the Protector, England once
more took the proud and commanding place in Europe which she
h$d not held since the death of Elizabeth. Cromwell made his
power to be everywhere respected. Blake chastised the pirates of
the Barbary States, and punished the Duke of Tuscany for attacks
on English commerce. In 1655 Jamaica was wrested from Spain;
and, two years after, Blake burned the Spanish treasure-ships in the
harbor of Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe. Cromwell efficiently protected
the adherents of the Protestant faith in Piedmont, and wherever
they were subjected to persecution. In the last year of his life, in
conjunction with the French, he took Dunkirk from the Spaniards.

Power of Cromwell. — Cromwell's power was not diminished
in his closing years. Macaulay, who pronounces him the greatest
prince that ever ruled England, says of him, " It is certain that he
was to the last honored by his soldiers, obeyed by the whole popu-
lation of the British Isles, and dreaded by all foreign powers; that
he was laid among the ancient sovereigns of England with funeral
pomp such as England had never before seen; and that he was
succeeded by his son, Richard as quietly as any king had ever
been succeeded by any Prince of Wales." (1658).

The talents of Cromwell, and the vigor of his administration, deeply im-
pressed those who heartily disliked him. A strong illustration of this fact
is presented in the character of the Protector as depicted by Lord Clarendon,
in the History of the Great Rebellion; and by the poet Cowley in his essay or
Discourse.	-COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

441

CHAPTER X.

COLONIZATION IN AMERICA: ASIATIC NATIONS; CUL-
TURE AND LITERATURE (1517-1048).

COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

The European nations kept up their religious and political
rivalship in exploring and colonizing the New World.

French Explorers. — The French and English sent their fisher-
men to the coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia* French
fishermen from Breton gave its name to Cape Breton. Francis /.
sent out Verrazano, an Italian sailor, who is thought to have
cruised along the coast of North America from Cape Fear north-
ward (1524). Later, Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence
as far as the site of Montreal (1535); other expeditions followed,
and thus was founded the claim of the French to that region.

Spanish Explorers. — The Spaniards brought negroes from the
coast of Africa to the West Indies, to take the place of the Indi-
ans ; and thus the slave-trade and negro slavery were established.
They gave the name of Florida to avast region stretching from
the Atlantic to Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to an un-
defined limit in the North. From Tampa Bay, in what we now
call Florida, they sent into this unexplored region an expedition
under Narvaez (1528); and afterwards, on the same trackman-
other party led by Hernando de Solo (1539), which made its way
to the Mississippi near the present site of Memphis. The compan-
ions who survived him descended to its mouth, and the remnant
of them reached Cuba. These expeditions were in quest of gold-
mines and of cities.

Contest in Florida. — The great Huguenot leader, Coligni,
made three attempts to found Huguenot settlements in America.
He wanted to provide for them an asylum, and to extend the
power of France. One company went to Brazil\ and failed; a
second perished at Port Royal \n Florida; a third (1564) built
Fort Caroline on the shores of the St. John. This last company
was mercilessly slaughtered by Menendez, the leader of a Spanish
expedition which founded St. Augustine (1565), the oldest town
in the United States. The act was avenged by the massacre of
the Spanish settlers at Fort Caroline, by Dominique de Gourgues
and the French company that came over with him.

English Voyages. — The English, full of zeal for maritime dis-
covery, tried to find a north-west passage to Asia. This was
attempted by Martin Frobisher, a sea-captain, from whom Fro-
bishe?s Strait takes its name. After him followed John Davis y
who gave his name also to a strait. As the English grew stronger
and bolder on the water, they ceased to avoid a contest with442

MODERN HISTORY.

Spain. In 15^7 Sir Francis Drake set out from the harbor of
Plymouth on his voyage around the globe. The defeat of the
Spanish Armada was in the next year; and after that, the Eng-
lish felt themselves to be stronger than their old adversary.

Gilbert and Raleigh. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert\ in 1583, took
possession of Newfoundland in the name of the queen of England.
Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, on his voyage in 1584, visited|
Roanoke Island, and named the whole country between the French
and the Spanish possessions, Virginia, in honor of "the Virgin
Queen," Elizabeth. A colony which he sent out to Roanoke
(1585) failed, and a second settlement had no better result.
Bartholomew Gosnold landed on Cape Cod, knd cruised along the
neighboring coast (1602).

The French in Canada. — In 1603 Champlain, a French gen-,
tleman, sailed to Canada, whither the fur-trade enticed explor-
ers. A few years later he founded Quebec (1608), and explored
the country as far as Lake Huron. The Jesuit missionaries com-
menced their efforts to convert the Indian tribes, in which they
evinced an almost unparalleled fortitude and perseverance. The
Huron and Algonquin Indians helped Champlain gain a victory
over the hostile and warlike Iroquois, who afterwards hated the
French. The French occupants of the country of the St. Law-
rence devoted themselves too exclusively to trading, and too little
to the tilling of the ground and to the forming of a community.

The Dutch Settlements. — The Dutch were as eager as the
other maritime powers to find a passage to India. In 1609 an
English captain in their service, Henry Hudson, balked in this
endeavor, sailed up the river now called by his name. The next
year, being in the service of an English company, he discovered
Hudsonfs Bay. Amsterdam traders established themselves on the
island of Manhattan (an Indian name); which led to the forma-
tion of the New Netherlands Company, by whom a fort (Orange)
was built at the place afterwards called Albany (1615). The West
India Company followed (1621), with authority over New Nether-
lands, as the country was called. The powerful land-owners were
styled patroons. Their territory reached to Delaware Bay; and
they had a trading-post on the Connecticut, on the site of the
present city of Hartford.

In 1637 the Swedes made a settlement at the mouth of the Delaware
River, but in 1655 they were subdued by the Dutch.

Settlement of Virginia. — The Virginia Company, divided into
two branches, — the London Company, having control in the South,
and the Plymouth Company, having control in the North,—received
its patent of privileges from James L (1603). A settlement by
the Plymouth Company on the Kennebec River (1607) — theCOLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

443

Popham Colony — was given up. In 1607 Jamestown in Virginia,
as the name Virginia is now applied, was settled. A majority
of the first colonists were gentlemen not wonted to labor. The
military leader was Qzpt.Jdhn Smithy whose life, according to his
own account, was spared by Powhatan, an Indian chief. Pow-
hatan's daughter Pocahontas married Rolfe, an Englishman. The
Jamestown colony seemed likely to become extinct, when, in 1610,
Lord Delaware arrived with fresh supplies and colonists. He was
the first of a series of governors who ruled with almost unlimited
authority. But the colony grew to be more independent, and in
sympathy with the popular party in England. In 1619 the Hotise
of Burgesses first met, which brought in government by the peo-
ple. At this time negroes began to be imported from Africa, and
sold as slaves.

The Pilgrim Settlement — The first permanent settlement in
Netv England was made at Plymouth in 1620, by a company of
English Christians, who landed from the "Mayflower." They
were Puritans of that class called " Independents," who had sepa-
rated from the English Church, and did not believe in any national
church organization. The emigrants left Leyden, in Holland, where
they had lived for some time in exile, and where the remainder of
their congregation remained under the guidance of a learned and
able pastor, John Robinson, In the harbor of Province town, they
agreed to a compact of government. Their civil polity was repub-
lican ; their church polity was Congregational\ They endured with
heroic and pious fortitude the severities of the first winter, when
half of their number died. Their military leader was Capt. Miles
Standish. In their dealings with the Indians, they were equally
just and brave.

Settlement of Massachusetts.—Somewhat different in its origin
and character from the " Pilgrim " settlement at Plymouth, was
the other Puritan settlement of Massachusetts. The emigrants to
Massachusetts were not separatists from the Church of England,
but more conservative Puritans who desired, however, many ecclesi-
astical changes which they could not obtain at home. Both classes
of settlers, transferred Xo.'JVew England, found no difficulty in
agreeing in religious matters ; for when left free, they desired about
the same things. But at Plymouth there was more toleration for
religious dissent, than in the later colony. In 1629 certain Lon-
don merchants formed a corporation called "the Governor and
Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England," and re*
ceived a charter directly from Charles /. They sent out John
Endicott to be governor of a settlement already formed at Salem.
Charles had dissolved Parliament, and was beginning the experi-
ment of absolutism. The new company was strengthened by the
accession of a large number of Puritan gentlemen who were444

MODERN HISTORY.

anxious to emigrate. They resolved to transfer the company and
its government to the shores of America. John Winthrop was
chosen governor, and in 1630 landed at Charlestown with a large
body of settlers. Winthrop and his associates soon removed to
the peninsula of Boston, The new colony was well provided with
artisans. Soon ships began to be built. In 1636 a college, named
in 1639, in honor of a benefactor, Harvard, was founded at Cam-
bridge. At first all the voters met together to choose their rulers
and frame their laws. As the towns increased in number, a Gen-
eral Court\ or legislative assembly, was established by the colony,
in which each town was represented. Each town had its church,
and only church-members voted. The General Court superin-
tended the affairs of both town and church. The political troubles
in England stimulated emigration. Within ten years, about twenty
thousand Englishmen, mainly Puritans, crossed the Atlantic, and
took up; their abode in New England, In the ecclesiastical system
each church was self-governing, except as the General Court was
over all. There were no bishops, and the liturgy was dispensed
with in worship.

Settlement of Connecticut. — After the Dutch had built a
trading-post on the site of Hartford, people from Plymouth
formed a settlement at Windsor, on the Connecticut, six miles
above. From Boston and its neighborhood, there was a migration
which settled Hartford. In 1637 the three towns of Windsor9
Wethersfield,\ and Hartford became the distinct colony of Con-
necticut. A colony led by the younger John Winthrop, under a
patent given to Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook, drove away
the Dutch from the mouth of the Connecticut, and settled Say*
brook (1635). This colony was afterwards united with the Con-
necticut colony. A third colony was established at New Haven
(1638), which had an independent existence until 1665.

Settlement of Rhode Island, of New Hampshire, and of Maine.
— Roger Williams, a minister who was not allowed to live in
Massachusetts, on account of his differences with the magistrates,
was the founder of Rhode Island (1636). He held that the State
should leave matters of. religious opinion and worship to the
conscience of the individual, and confine government to secular
concerns. This was not the view of the Puritans generally ; and
tlfe incoming of dissenters from their religious and political system
made them afraid that the colony would be broken up, or fall into
disorder. Williams, in most of his qualities a noble man, obtained
a patent for his government, which was framed in accordance
with his liberal ideas. On lands granted by the Plymouth Com*
pany to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, settlements were made in New
Hampshire and in Maine (1623). A line between the two was
drawn in 1631 y Gorges taking the territory on the east of the
Piscataqua River, and Capt. John Mason taking the remainder.COLONIES IN AMERICA.

445

Virginia. — After 1624 the king appointed the governor in
Virginia, which, however, had its own assembly. The colony
grew rapidly, its chief export being tobacco. The people lived
on their estates or plantations, employing indented servants and
negro slaves. '

Maryland. — Maryland was founded by George Calvert, Lord
Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, to whom Charles /. granted a
charter (1632). The first settlement was made by Calvert's sons,
after his death. They planted a colony near the mouth of the
Potomac. The Calverts sent out both Puritans and Roman Catho-
lics, and secured the safety of the adherents of their own faith by
the grant of toleration to the Protestants. Under Cromwell, a
Puritan governor was appointed by Lord Baltimore (1649).
There were boundary disputes with Virginia; and Clay borne, a
Puritan and a Virginian, at one time got control of the govern-
ment, which the Calverts regained under Charles IL (1660).

New England: New York. — During the war between king and
Parliament in England, the Puritan colonies were in sympathy
with the popular party, but were cautious in their avowals. They
took great pains to prevent the king, and later the Parliament
under the Commonwealth, from taking away their self-government.
The English navigation acts, which obliged them to use English
ships for their exports and imports, and to send all their products
to ports belonging to England, were a grievance to them. The
rivalries of the English and the Dutch gave the colonists a chance
to expel the Dutch from Connecticut Charles II, at length ceded
New Netherlands to the Duke of York, his brother; and in 1664
the English took possession of the territory. New Amsterdam
became New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. In 1674
the country was formally ceded to England by Holland.

The Indians. — When America was discovered, Mexico, Central
America, and Peru were empires, to a considerable degree civilized.
Relics taken from the mounds of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys
indicate, also, that races somewhat advanced in culture had once
dwelt in those regions. The most of both continents was inhab-
ited by very numerous tribes of Indians, who were savages, with
the ordinary virtues and vices of sayrige life. They were brave
and patient, but indolent, treacherous, and implacable. Thejp
was an immense variety of dialects among them, yet there are
traces of a common original unity of language. The tribes had
no fixed boundaries, but roamed over extensive hunting-grounds.
The Iroquo\s, or the Six Nations, occupied central New York from
the Hudson to the Genesee. The Algonquins were spread over
nearly all the rest of the country on the east of the Mississippi
River, and north of North Carolina. The Creeks, Choc taws, and
Chickasaws were in the South.446

MODERN HISTORY.

The Whites and the Red Men. — It was fortunate for the
settlers of New England, that, before their arrival, the Indians
had been much reduced in numbers by pestilence. Sometimes
they were treated wisely and humanely, and efforts were made by
noble men like John Eliot (1604-1690), who has been called
"the Apostle to the Indians," to teach and civilize them. But
this spirit was not always shown by the whites, and wrongs done
by an individual are avenged by savages upon his race. The first
important conflict between the English and the Indians was the
Pequot War (1636), when the English, helped by the Narra-
gans/tts, who were under the influence of Roger Williams, crushed
the PequotSy who were a dangerous tribe. A league between the
New-England colonies, for mutual counsel and aid, followed
(1643). Int0 this league, Massachusetts would not allow Rhode
Island, whose constitution was disliked, to be admitted. There
were to be two commissioners to represent each colony in common
meetings.

SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE.

Astronomy.—In this period wonderful progress was made in astronomy.
Copernicus, a German or Polish priest (1473—1543)> detected the error of %
the Ptolemaic system, which made not the sun, but the earth, the center of the
solar system. Thus a revolution was made in that science. Tycho Brake, a
Danish astronomer (1546-1601)1 was a most accurate and indefatigable ob-
server, although he did not adopt the Copemican theory. His pupil Kepler
(1571-1630) discovered those great principles respecting the orbits and mo-
tions of the planets, which are called the " Laws of Kepler." Galileo (1564-
1642), the Italian scientist, in addition to important discoveries in mechanics,
with the telescopes, which his ingenuity had constructed, discerned the moons
of Jupiter, and made other striking discoveries in the heavens. In promul-
gating the Copernican doctrine, he incurred the displeasure of ecclesiastics,
and was driven by the Inquisition to renounce his opinion. It was reserved
for Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) to discover the law of gravitation.

Jurisprudence. — In jurisprudence, the Roman law was more and more
studied in universities. In political science, Bodin, a learned Frenchman
(1530-1596), wrote a work on the State, advocating a strong monarchy. In
the Netherlands,//**^ Grotius (1583-1645), a great jurist and scholar, was
one of the principal founders of the science of IntermUional Law. An emi-
nent expounder of natural and international law in Germany was Pufendorf
(1632-1694).

Historioal Writings. — In history, Sletdan, a German (1506-1556), and
later a learned statesman, Seckendorf (1626-1692), wrote histories of the
Reformation. De Thouy a Frenchman (1553-1617), wrote a valuable history
of his own times. Grotius described the war for independence in the Nether-
lands. Church history, on the Protestant side, was written by a company of
authors called the Magdeburg Centuriators ; and on the Catholic side, in the
Annals of Baronius (who died in 1607). In the Tower of London, Sir
Walter Raleigh employed himself in writing a History of the World, remark-
able, if not for its researches, for passages of noble eloquence. In Italy, histo-
rians followed in the path opened by Machiavelliy through his Discourses on
Livy and his Florentine History. Davila (1576-1631) composed a narrative
of the Civil Wars in France, and the Cardinal Bentivoglio wrote the history
of the Civil War in the Netherlands. Sarpit a keen Venetian, of much inde-
pendence of thought, related the history of the Council of Trent, which wasSCIENCE AND LITERATURE.

447

followed by a history of the same Council by the more orthodox Pallavicini,
In Spain, there was at least one historian of superior value, Mariana, who
composed a history of his own country.

Medicine. — Medicine felt the benefit of the revival of learning. Hippo-
crates and Galen were studied, and were translated into Latin. Paracelsus, a
German physician (1490-1 541), besides broaching various theories more or
less visionary, advanced the science on the chemical side, introducing certain
mineral remedies. Vesalius, a native of Brussels (1514-1564), who became
chief physician of Charles V. and Philip //., dissected the human body, and
produced the first comprehensive and systematic view of anatomy. In the
sixteenth century clinical instruction was introduced into hospitals. Harvey%
an English physician (1578-1657), discovered the circulation of the blood. In
the seventeenth century activity in medical study was shown by the rise of
various discordant systems.

Philosophy. — In philosophy, Aristotle continued to be the master in the
most conservative schools, where the old ways of thinking were cherished.
His ethical doctrines were especially attacked by Luther. Giordano Bruno,
an Italian, not without genius, promulgated a theory of pantheism, which
identified the Deity with the world. He wandered from land to land, was a
vehement assailant of received religious views, and was burned at the stake
at Rome (1600). In some gifted minds, the conflict of doctrinal systems, and
the influence of the Renaissance, engendered skepticism. Montaigne (1533-
1592), the genial essayist on men and manners, the Plutarch of France, is an
example of this class. The opposition to Aristotle and to the schoolmen
found a great leader in the English philosopher, Francis Bacon (1561-1626).
The influence of Lord Bacon was more in stimulating to the use of the in-
ductive method, the method of observation, than in any special value belong-
ing to the rules laid down for it. He pointed out the path of fruitful invest!*
gation. Hobbes (1588-1679), an English writer, propounded, in his Leviathan
(1651) and in other writings, his theory of the absolute authority of the king,
and the related doctrine that right is founded on the necessity of "a common
power," if the desires are to be gratified, and .if-endless destructive conten-
tion is to l>e avoided. From the epoch of Ha'con, the natural and physical
sciences acquire a new importance. In metaphysical science, the modern
epoch dates from Des Cartes (1596-1650), born in France, who insisted that
philosophy must assume nothing, but must start with the proposition, " I
think, therefore I am." Before, philosophy had been "the handmaid of the-
ology." It had taken for granted a body of beliefs respecting God, man, and
the world. Des Cartes was a theist. Spinoza (1632-1677), of Jewish extrac-
tion, born in Holland, is the founder of modern pantheism. He taught that
there is but one substance; that God and the world — the totality of things-
are the manifestation of one impersonal being.

Literature in Italy.—In Italy, among many authors in different depart-
ments of poetry, Tasso (1544—1595), the author of the epic Jerusalem Deliv-
ered, is the most eminent. In it, the classic and the romantic styles are com-
bined; the spirit of the Middle Ages blends with the unity ancl harmony of
Homer and Virgil. In the seventeenth century, under the hard Spanish rule,
the literary spirit in Italy was chilled.

Literature in Spain and Portugal. — In Spain, it was poetry and the,.
* drama that chiefly flourished. Other sorts of literary activity were stifled
with the extinction of liberty. Lope de Vega (1562-1635), one of the most
facile and marvelous of all poets, the author of twenty-two hundred dramas,-"*-
was the precursor of a school. After him came Calderon (i6oo-i68l)» who
carried the Spanish drama to its perfection. Early in the seventeenth cen-
tury Cervantes published the classic tale of Don Quixote,H to render abhorred
of men the false and absurd stories contained in books of chivalry," an end
which he accomplished. Marianats (1536-1623) vivid and interesting //*>•
tory of Spain was continued in a less attractive style by Sandoval. Herrera448

MODERN HISTORY.

(154^-1625) composed a General History of the Indies. Other works relat-
ing to the New World and the Spanish conquests were written. In the
production of proverbs, the Spanish mind is without a rival. Not the least
of the bad effects of the despotic system of Philip J I. was the decay of
literature.

The most celebrated writer of Portugal is the poet Camoens (1524-1579),
who, in his epic the Lusiad, has treated of the>glorious events in the history
of his country, giving special prominence to the discovery by Vascoda Gam a of
the passage to India.

Literature in France.— In France, with the exception of Montaig?tey it
was Rabelais (1483—1553), a physician, philosopher, and humorist, who, not-
withstanding his profanity and obscenity, was the most popular author of
his day, and who well represents the tone of the Renaissance in that country.
Ronsard (1524-1585), an imitator of the Latins and Greeks, was the favorite
poet of Mary, Queen of Scots. In the first half of the seventeenth century
the light literature of the French is ruled by fashion, and is void of serious
feeling. In this time the literary societies of France take their rise. Ma-
, dame de Rambouillet (1610-1642), a lady of Italian birth, set the example in
establishing such reunions. She macfe her hotel a resort for writers and
politicians. Being an invalid, she kept her bed, which was placed in an
alcove of the salon where she received her visitors.

Literature in England. — In England, in the age of Elizabeth, there is
a galaxy of great authors in prose and verse. The events and debates of the
Reformation, the voyages and geographical discoveries of the period, gave
a powerful quickening to thought and imagination. The Renaissance cul-
ture, which made familiar the stories of Greek and Roman mythology, and
the romantic tales and poetry of Italy and Spain, was potent in its effect.
Some of the numerous theological writers, as Bishop Hall (1574-1656), Jer-
emy Taylor (1613-1671), and Richard Hooker (1553-1600), have gained a nigh
place in general literature. Bacon, apart from his philosophical writings,
towers above almost all his contemporaries in the field of letters. The chiv-
alrous Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) wrote the pastoral romance of Area*
dia. Burton (1576-1640), the author of The Anatomy of Melancholy, and
Sir Thomas Brown, who published (1642) the Religio Medici (the religion
of "a physician) and, at a later date, the Urn Burial, are quaint and original
authors. The merit of Shakspeare (1564-1616) is so exalted and unique
that he almost eclipses even the greatest names. The English drama did
not heed what are called the classic unities of time and place, which limit
the action of a play to a brief duration and a contracted area. Other
celebrated dramatic writers are Beaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1576-
1625), who wrote many plays jointly; Ben Jonscnt (1574-1637), and Massin-
ger (1584-1640). The imaginative poetry which is not dramatic, in this
period, begins with Spenser (1553-1599)* whose Faerie Queene is a poem of
chivalry; and it ends with Milton (1608-1674), the Puritan poet,imbued with
the culture of the Renaissance, whose majesty and beauty place him almost
on a level, at least in the esteem of readers of the Englisn race, with Dante.
Among the religious poets is George Herbert (1593-1635). One of the most
famous of the lyric authors was the last of them, Ctnvley (1618-1667).

Literature in Germany. — In Germany, the great literary product of
this period was Luther's translation of the Bible. The immediate effect of the *
controversy in religion was not favorable to the cause of letters. Attention
was engrossed by theological inquiries and discussion. But in most of the
countries, in the department of theology, preachers and writers of much abil-
ity and learning appeared on both sides of the controversy. Biblical study
and historical researches were of necessity fostered by the exigencies of reli-
gious debate.CHINA AND JAPAN.

449

* ASIATIC NATIONS.

I.	CHINA.

The Jesuit Missions. — The Ming dynasty continued in power
in China until 1643. Towards the end of the sixteenth century
the Portuguese came to the island of Macao, and commercial re-
lations began between China and Europe. They brought opium
into China, which had previously been imported overland from
India. In 1583 Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary,. began his
labors in China. He and his associates had great success. His
knowledge of the book language was most remarkable. The con-
cessions of the Jesuit fathers to the Chinese in matters of ritual
excited much opposition in the Church. But for this dissension
among the different Catholic orders, the Roman Catholic faith,
which had gained very numerous converts, would have spread far
more widely.

TheManchu Conquest.—There were notable literary achieve-
ments in this period, one of which was an encyclopedia in more
than twenty-two thousand books. Four copies were made : only
one, a damaged copy, now remains. The great political event of
the time was the seizure of the throne by the Manchu Tartars
(1644), who came in as auxiliaries against a rebellion, but have
worn the crown until now. The shaved head and the long cue
are customs introduced by the Tartar conquerors. Certain privi-
leges, and certain habits to which the natives clung, as the mode
of dress for women, and the compression of their feet, were retained
by express stipulation.

II.	JAPAN.

Feudal System.—In 1603 Iyeyasu, an eminent general, founded
the Tokugawa dynasty, which continued until the resignation of
the last Shogun (or Tycoon) in 1867. The rulers of that line held
their court at Yedoy which grew into a flourishing city. The long
period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded, was brought
to an end. Iyeyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which
his grandson lyemitsu (1623-1650) completed. Japan was divided
into fiefs, each under a daitnid for its chief, who enjoyed a large
degree of independence. The people consisted of four classes:
(1) the military families, who had the right to wear two swords,
the clansmen of the great nobles; (2) the farming class; (3) the
artisans; (4) the tradesmen.

Christianity in Japan.— Christianity was preached in Japan
by Xavier, a successful Jesuit missionary, in 1583. Other Jesuit
preachers followed. A multitude of converts were made. But on
account of immoralities of Europeans, and the dread of foreign
political domination, the government engaged in a series of severe450	MODERN HISTORY.

persecutions. In 1614 an edict proscribed Christianity. A por-
tion of the peasants who were converts were so oppressed, that
they revolted (1637). The result was an act of terrible cruelty,—
the massacre of all Christians; so that none remained openly to
profess the Christian faith.

III. INDIA.

The Mughal Empire. — In the latter half of the fourteenth and
in the fifteenth centuries, the most of India was ruled by distinct
Mohammedan dynasties. The dominion of the Afghan dynasty at
Delhi was thus greatly reduced. In 1525 the Mughal {Afogul)
Empire was founded by Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane. Babar
invaded India, and defeated the Sultan of Delhi in the battle of
PanipuL The new empire was not permanently established until
his grandson Akbar (1556-1605), in a series of conquests, spread
his dominion over all India north of the Vindhyar mountains.
Not until the reign of Aurungzeb (1658-1707), was the Deccan
subdued. After 1600 the Portuguese no longer had the monop-
oly of the foreign trade: the Dutch and English became their
rivals.

Literature. — See lists of works on general history, p. x6; on modern history, p. 393;
on the history of particular countries, p. 359.

General Works on the Period. De 'lhou's History of his own Times; Robertson's
History of Charles V. (Prescott's ed.); Von Raumer's Gesch. Eur op as seit d. Ende d.
jj tn Jahrh. (8 vols).; Hallam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteentht
Sixteenth t and Seventeenth Centuries; Ranke's series of works on this period, — the His-
tory of the Popes, and the Histories of Germany, France, and England; Histories of the
Reformation by D'Aubign^, Dollinger (Roman Catholic), Spalding (Roman Catholic), Fisher,
Hausser, Hardwick, Stebbing; Laurent, La Reforme; Tulloch s Leaders of the Reforma-
tion ; Seebohm's Era of Protestant Revolution.

On the German and Swiss Reformation: Waddington's History, etc.; Hagenbach, Vor»
Jesungen, etc.; Lives of Luther, by Meurer, Michelet, Sears, Kc5stlin; Lives of Zwingli, by
Christoffel, Mokikofer; Lives of Calvin, by Henry, Dyer, Kampschulte (Roman
Catholic).

Reformation in France. Works by Soldan, Von Polenz, Smiles, Browning; Bairds
History if the Huguenots', Laurent, Guerres de Religion.

The Revolt of the Netherlands. Brandt's History of the Reformation, etc.; Motley's
Rise of the Dutch Republic, and History of the United Netherlands ; Prescott's History
of Philip //.; Th. Juste, Hist, de la Rivol. des Pays-Das, etc. (2 vols.).

The Reformation in England. The Histories of Macaulay, Lingard, Froude, Burnet's
History of the Reformation in England. The English Rebellion and Commonwealth: Clar-
endon's History of the Great Rebellion ; a series of works on this period by Guizot; Neal'i
History of the Puritans f Stoughton, Ecclesiastical History of England (6 vols.); Tulloch,
English Puritanism and its Leaders ; Lives of Cromwell, by Carlyle, by Forster (in vol.
vi. of" British Statesmen"); Strype's Lives of the Leading Reformers, — Cranmer, etc.

On the Reformation in Scotland. Burton's History of Scotland; Robertson's History
of Scotland; McCrie's Life of John Knox ; W. M. Taylor, Life of John Knox.

On the Thirty Years War. Gindely's History, etc.; Gardiner, The Thirty Years
War ; Life of Gustavus Adoiphus.

For more extended lists, see Adams's Manual, etc.; and Fisher's The Reformation
(Appendix). For list of works on colonization in America, see the list at the end of Period III.Period III.

FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA* TO THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION.

(1648-1789.)

INTRODUCTION.

Character of the Period. — One feature of this period is the
1 efforts made by the nations to improve their condition, especially
\to increase the thrift and to raise the standing of the middle class.
iAn illustration is what is called the " mercantile system " in France.
Along with this change, there is progress in the direction of greater
breadth in education and culture. In both of these movements,
rulers and peoples cooperate. Monarchical power, upheld by
standing armies, reaches its climax. The result is internal order,
coupled with tyranny. Great wars were carried on, mostly con-
tests for succession to thrones. The outcome was an equilibrium
in the European state system, dependent on the relations of five
great powers.

First Section of the Period.— In the first half of the period,
the East and the West of Europe are slightly connected. In the
West, France gains the preponderance over Austria, until, by the
Spanish war of succession, England restores the balance. In
the East, Sweden is in the van, until, in the great Northern war
(i700-1721), Russia becomes predominant.

Second Section of the Period. — In the second half of the
period, the East and the West of Europe are brought together in
one state system, in particular by the rise of the power of Prussia.

Chief Events.;—The fall of Sweden and the rise of Russia and
Prussia are political events of capital importance. The maritime
supremacy of England, with the loss by England of the American
colonies, is another leading fact. In the closing part of the period
appear the intellectual and political signs of the great Revolution
which broke out in France near the end of the eighteenth century.

45*45 2

MODERN HISTORY.

CHAPTER L

THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE; FIRST PART OF THE

REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. (TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK,

1697): THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS: THE ENG-
LISH REVOLUTION OF 1688.

Louis XIV.: Mazarin. — The great minister Richelieu died in
1642. "Abroad, though a cardinal of the Church, he arrested
the Catholic reaction, freed Northern from Southern Europe, and
made toleration possible; at home, out of the broken fragments
of her liberties and her national prosperity, he paved the way for
the glory of France." He paved the way, also, for the despotism
of her kings. He had been feared and hated by king and people,
but had been obeyed by both. A few months later Louis XIII.9
a sovereign without either marked virtues or vices, followed him
(1643). Louis XIV. (1643-1715) was then only five years old; /
and Mazarin, the heir of Richelieu's power, stood at the helm
until his death (1661). To this Italian statesman, ambitious of
power and wealth, but astute, and, like Richelieu, devoted to France,,
the queen, Anne of Austria, willingly left the management of the
government. The rebellion of the Fronde (1648-1653) was a
rising of the nobles to throw off the yoke laid on them by Riche-
lieu. They were helped by the discontent of parliament and people
with the oppressive taxation. In Paris, there was a rising of the
populace, who built barricades; but the revolt was quelled. Its
leaders, Conti, the Cardinal de Retz, and the great Conde, a
famous soldier, were compelled to fly from the country. Maza-
tin, who had been obliged to fly to Cologne, returned in triumph.
After that, resistance to the absolute monarch ceased, — the mon-
arch whose theory of government was expressed in the assertion,
"'I am the State" (Petal c'est moi). In the Peace of the Pyrenees
(1659), Spain gave in marriage to Louis, the Infanta Maria Theresa,
the daughter of Philip IV., and ceded to France important places
in the Netherlands. Maria renounced all claims on her inherit-
ance, for herself and her issue, in consideration of a dowry of five
hundred thousand crowns to be paid by Spain. Shortly after,
Mazarin, who had negotiated the treaty, in full possession of his
exalted authority and the incalculable treasures which he had
amassed, died.

Louis XIV. and his Officers. — Louis XIV. was now his own
master. His appetite for power was united with a relish for pomp
and splendor, which led him to make Versailles, the seat of his
court, as splendid as architectural skill and lavish expenditure
could render it, and to make France the model in art, literature,
manners, and modes of life, for all Europe. With sensual pro-FRENCH ATTACK ON HOLLAND.

453

pensities he mingled a religious or superstitious vein, so that from
time to time he sought to compound for his vices by the persecu-
tion of the Huguenots. He was the central figure in the European
life of his time. Taking care that his own personal authority
should not be in the least impaired, he made Colbert controller-
general, to whom was given charge of the finances of the king-
dom. Louvois was made the minister of war. Colbert not only
provided the money for the costly wars, the luxurious palaces,
and the gorgeous festivities of his master, but constructed canals,
fostered manufactures, and built up the French marine. Louvois,
with equal success, organized the military forces in a way that
was copied by other European states. Able generals — Turenne,
Conde, and Luxemburg—were in command. The nobles who
held the offices, military as well as civil, vied with one another in
their obsequious devotion to the " great king." Vauban, the most
skillful engineer of the age, erected impregnable fortifications in
the border towns that were seized by conquest. In the arts of
diplomacy, the French ambassadors were equally superior. The
monarch was sustained by the national pride of the . people, and
by their ambition to dominate in Europe.

Attack on the Netherlands. — Louis had already purchased
of the English Dunkirk, — which was shamefully sold to him by
Charles II.,— when Philip IV, of Spain died (1665). He now
claimed parts of the Netherlands as being an inheritance of his
queen, according to an old law of those provinces. He conquered
the county of Burgundy, or Franche Cornte, and various places in
that country. Holland, afraid that he might push his conquests
farther, formed the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden.
In the Treaty of Aachen (Aix), Louis gave up to the Spaniards
Franche Comte, but retained the captured cities in the Nether-
lands (1668), which Vauban proceeded to fortify.

Attack on Holland. — The next attack of Louis was upon
Holland\ Holland and the Spanish Netherlands were at variance
in religion, as well as in their political systems, and rivals in trade
and industry. The first minister of the emperor, Leopold I, was
in the pay of Louis. Sweden, in the minority of Charles XL, was
in the hands of the Swedish nobles. England was on the side of
Louis, who, in return for help in the Netherlands, was to furnish
subsidies to assist Charles IL in establishing Catholicism in his
realm. In Holland, there was a division between the republicans,
of whom the grand pensionary, John de Witt, was the chief, and
the adherents of the house of Orange.

The War: the Peaoe of Nimwegen. — Louis, having first seized
Lorraine, — whose duke had allied himself to the United Prov-
inces,— accompanied by his famous generals, Conde, l^urenne,
and Vauban, put himself at the head of an army of one hundred454

MODERN HISTORY.

and twenty thousand men, which crossed the Rhine, and advanced
to the neighborhood of the capital of Holland. The Orange party
charged the blame of the failure to defend the land on their
adversaries, whom they accused of treachery. De Witt and his
brother, Cornelius, were killed in the streets of Hague. William
///., the Prince of Orange (1672-1702), assumed power. Gro-
ningen held out against the French troops. Storms on the sea
and on the land aided the patriotic defenders of their country.
The " Great Elector " of Brandenburg, Frederic William, lent them
help. At length the German emperor was driven by the French
aggressions to join actively in the war, on the side of the Dutch.
The English Parliament (1674) forced Charles IL to conclude
peace with them. In the battle of Sasback, Turenne fell (1675).
Sweden took the side of France, and invaded the elector's terri-
tory ; but the elector's victory at Fehrbellin (1675) the foun-
dation of the greatness of Prussia. William III. kept the field
against the great generals of France, and married the daughter of
James, the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II. In bringing-
the war to an end, Louis, by shrewd diplomacy, settled with the
United Provinces first. By the Peace of Nimwegen (1678 and
1679), Holland received back its whole territory; France kept
most of her new conquests in the Netherlands, with the county
of Burgundy, the city oi Besanqon, and some imperial towns in
Alsace not ceded in the Peace of Westphalia; the emperor lost
to France Freiburg in the Bresgau. The elector, left to shift for
himself, was forced to give back his profitable conquests to Sweden
(1679).

Effect of the War. — In the war with Holland, Louis had shown
his military strength, and his skill in making and breaking alliances.
He had made progress towards the goal of his ambition, which was
to act as dictator in the European family of states. To the end
of the century, France stood on the pinnacle of power and appar-
ent prosperity.

Condition of France. — Manufactures flourished to an astonish-
ing degree. France became a naval power with a hundred ships
of the line, at a time when England had only sixty, and with a
proportionate force of marines. Colbert finished the canal between
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Colonies were founded in St.
Domingo, Cayenne, Madagascar. Canada was increasing in strength.
A uniform, strict judicial system was established. Restless nobles
were cowed, and the common people thus drawn to the monarch.

The French Court.—In his court, the king established elaborate
forms of. etiquette, and made himself almost an object of worship.
The nobility swarmed about him, and sought advancement from his
favor. Festivals and shows of all sorts — plays, ballets, banquets,
dazzling fireworks — were the costly diversion of the gay throngsREIGN OF LOUIS XIV.

455

of courtiers, male and female, in that court, where sensuality was
thinly veiled by ceremonious politeness and punctilious religious
observances. Poets, artists, and scholars were liberally patronized,
and joined in the common adulation offered to the sovereign.
Stately edifices were built, great libraries gathered; academies of
art and of science, an astronomical observatory, and the botanic
garden for the promotion of the study of natural history, were
founded. The palace at Versailles, with its statues, fountains, and
gardens, furnished a pattern which all the rest of Europe aspired to
copy. Every thing there wore an artificial stamp, from the trim-
ming of the trees to the etiquette of the ballroom. But there
was a splendor and a fascination which caused the French fash-
ions, the French language and literature, with the levity and
immorality which traveled in their company, to spread in the
higher circles of the other European countries.

The Galilean Church. — Louis XIV\ desired, without any rup-
ture with Rome, to take to himself a power in ecclesiastical
affairs like that assumed in England by Henry VIIL Under the
pontificate of Innocent XL, the assembly of the French clergy
passed four propositions asserting the rights of the national Galli-
can Church, and limiting the Pope's prerogative (1682). The king
had for his ecclesiastical champion the able and eloquent Bossuet,
the Bishop of Meaux. Subsequently, under Innocent XII, Louis,
afraid of a schism and anxious to procure other advantages, yielded
up the four obnoxious propositions.

Jansenism.—The controversy raised by the Jansenists was an
important event in the history of France. They took their name
from Jansenius, who had been Bishop of Ypres, an ardent disciple
of St. Augustine's theology. They strenuously opposed the theology
and moral maxims of the powerful Jesuit order. Their leaders,
St. Cyran, Pascal\ Arnauld, Nicole, and others, were called Port
Royalists, from their relation to a cloister at Port Royal, where some
of them resided. They were men of literary and philosophical
genius, as well as theologians and devotees. Blaise Pascal wrote
the "Provincial Letters," a satirical and polemical work against the.
Jesuit doctrines. This has always been deemed in style a master-
piece of French prose. His posthumous Thoughts is a profound and
suggestive fragment on the evidences of religion. In the heated
controversy that arose, the Jansenist leaders were for a more limited
definition of the Pope's authority in deciding questions of doctrine.
The French court at length took the side of the Jesuits. In 1719
the Pope's bull against the Moral Reflections of Quesnel] a Jansenist
author, was a heavy blow at his party. Finally, the Jansenists were
proscribed by the king, and the cloister at Port Royal leveled to
the ground. The Jansenist influence made a part of the tendencies
to liberalism that led to the Revolution at the close of the century.456

MODERN HISTORY.

The Huguenots. — After MazaritCsdeath, the king fell under
the influence of a party hostile to the Huguenots. Louvois fostered
this feeling in him, as did Madame de Maintenon, whom he had
secretly married, and by whom he was influenced through life.
As he grew older, he sought to appease a guilty conscience by
inflicting tortures on religious dissenters. He issued edicts of
the most cruel character. He adopted the atrocious scheme of the
dragonade, or the billeting of soldiers, over whom there was no
restraint, in Huguenot families. In the course of three years,
fifty thousand families, industrious and virtuous people, had fled
the country. In 1685 the Edict of Nantes, the charter of Prot-
estant rights, was revoked. Emigration was forbidden; yet not
far from a quarter of a million of refugees escaped, to enrich by
their skill and labor the Protestant countries where they found
an asylum. Many of the refugees were received by the Elector
Frederick, and helped to build up Berlin, then a small city of
twelve thousand inhabitants. France was not only in a degree
impoverished by those who fled, but, also, by the much larger
number who remained to be harassed and ruined by the foolish
and brutal bigotry of their ruler.

The loss to France by the exile of the Huguenots was incal-
culable. " Here were the thriftiest, the bravest, the most intelli-
gent of Frenchmen, the very flower of the race; some of their
best and purest blood, some of their fairest and most virtuous
women, all their picked artisans. In war, in diplomacy, in litera-
ture, in production of wealth, these refugees gave what they took
from France to her enemies; for they carried with them that bit-
ter sense of wrong which made them henceforth foremost among
those enemies, the forlorn hope of every attack on their ancient
fatherland. Large numbers of officers, and those among the
ablest, emigrated; among them pre-eminent Marshal Schomberg,
4 the best general in Europe/ The fleet especially suffered: the
best of the sailors emigrated; the ships were almost unmanned.
The seamen carried tidings of their country's madness to the
ends of the earth: as Voltaire says, 'the French were as widely
dispersed as the Jews.* Not only in industry, but in thought and
mental activity, there was a terrible loss. From this time litera-
ture in France loses all spring and power."	•

In England, the Huguenot exiles quickened manufactures; in
Holland, commerce; in Brandenburg, they made a new era in
agriculture. Moreover, from this time the policy of Brandenburg
was changed: the hostility to the emperor and the house of
Austria gave way. An antagonism to France arose: "a process
begun by the Great Elector, carried on by Frederick the Great,
and brought to a triumphant close in our own days, dates from
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes."REIGN OF LOUIS XIV.

457

The Cost of National Unity in France. — From the beginning
of the Reformation, the problem for the nations to solve was, how
to combine religious freedom with national unity. The intolerance
of the Spanish branch of the Hapsburgs deprived them of Hoi-
land\ and broke down their power. This effort to secure uni-
formity of belief was shattered. A like effort in Germany resulted
in the Thirty Years' War, and the utter loss of the national unity
which it aimed to restore. The civil wars in France, aiming at
the same result, uniformity of belief, ended in an accommodation
between the parties, secured by Henry IV. in the Edict of Nantes.
There was a partial sacrifice of national unity. This was reestab-
lished by the policy of Richelieu and the acts of Louis XIV., but
at a fearful cost. The loss of the Huguenot emigrants; the loss
of character, with the loss of the spirit of independence, in the
nobles of France; the full sway of a monarchical despotism,—
this was the price paid for national unity.

Aggressions of Louis. — The readiness of the European states
to accept the provisions of the Nimwegen Treaty emboldened
Louis to further outrages and aggressions. Germany, split into a
multitude of sovereignties, and for the most part inactive as if
a paralysis lay upon her, was a tempting prey to the spoiler. He
claimed that all the places which had stood in a feudal relation to
the places acquired by France in the Westphalian and Nimwegen
treaties, should become dependencies of France. He constituted
Reunions, or courts of his own, to decide what these places were,
and enforced their decrees with his troops (1679). He went so
far, in a time of peace, as to seize and wrest from the German
Empire the city of Strasburg, to establish his domination there,
and to introduce the Catholic worship, in the room of the Protes-
tant, in the minster (1681). Instead of heeding the warning of
the Prince of Orange, the empire concluded with Louis the truce
of Regensburgy by which he was suffered to retain these conquests.
He evinced his arrogance in making a quarrel with Genoa, in bom-
barding the city, and in forcing the doge to come to Versailles
and beg for peace (1684).

Hungary and Austria.—The Emperor Leopold was busy in
the eastern part of his dominions. The success of the Turks,
who gained possession of Ix>wer Hungary, called out a more ener-
getic resistance; but a victory gained by the imperial general,
Montecuculi, at St Gothard) on the Raab (1664), only resulted
in a truce. The Austrian government, guided by the minister,
Lobkowitzy used the opportunity to rob the Hungarians of their
liberties and rights. Political tyranny and religious persecution
went hand in hand. Protestant preachers were sold as galley-
slaves. T'6kdly> an Hungarian nobleman, led in a revolt, and in-
voked the help of the Turks. In 1683 the Turks laid siege to458

MODERN HISTORY.

Vienna, which was saved by a great victory gained under its walls
by a united German and Polish army; the hero in the conflict
being John Sobieski, king of Poland. The German princes and
Venice now united in the prosecution of the war. The conquest
of»Hungary from the Turks enabled Leopold to destroy Hun-
garian independence. After their defeat by Charles of Lorraine
at Mohacs (1687), the Diet of Pressburg conferred on the male
Austrian line the crown of Hungary, and abandoned its old privi-
lege of resisting unconstitutional ordinances (1687). A great
victory gained over the Turks by Prince Eugene at Zenta was
followed by the Peace of Carlowitz, which gave Hungary and
Transylvania to Austria, Morea to Venice, and Azof to Russia.
Tokoly died in exile.

' The Restoration in England (1660). — Richard Cromwell

^quietly succeeded to the Protectorate. But the officers of the
army recalled the "Rump" Parliament, the survivors of the Long
Parliament. After eight months Richard gave up his office.
The " Rump " was soon in a quarrel again with the army, and was
expelled by its chief, Lambert. Monk, the commander of the
English troops in Scotland\ refused to recognize the government
set up by the officers in London. The fleet declared itself on the
side of Parliament. Lambert was forsaken, and Monk entered
London (1660). A new Parliament or Convention was convoked,
which included* the Upper House. The restoration of Charles //.
was now effected by means of the combined influence of the Epis-
copalians and Presbyterians, and through the agency of Monk.
Charles, in his Declaration from Breda, prior to his return, prom-
ised "liberty to tender consciences." This and subsequent pledges
were falsified : he had the Stuart infirmity of breaking his engage-
ments. With an easy good-nature and complaisant manners, he
was void of moral principle, and in his conduct an open profligate.
At heart he was a Roman Catholic, and simply from motives of
expediency deferred the avowal of his belief to his death-bed.
The army was disbanded. Vengeance was taken on such of the
" regicides," the judges of Charles /., as could be caught, and on
the bodies of Cromwell\ Ire ton, and Bradshaw. The Cavalier
party had now every thing their own way. The Episcopal system
was reestablished, and a stringent Act of' Uniformity was passed.
Two thousand Presbyterian ministers were turned out of their
parishes. If there was at any time indulgence to the noncon-
formists, it was only for the sake of the Roman Catholics. John
Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress," was kept in prison
for more than twelve years. The sale of Dunkirk to France
(1662) awakened general indignation.REIGN OF CHARLES II.

459

The "Year of Wonders:" the Conduct of Charles. — The year
1665 was marked as the year of the Great Plague in London,
where the narrow and dirty streets'admitted little fresh air. It
was estimated that not less than one hundred thousand people
perished. In less than a year after the plague ceased, there oc-
curred the Great Fire in London (Sept., 1666), which burned
for three days, and laid London in ashes from the Tower to the
Temple, and from the Thames to Smithfield. St. Paul's, the
largest cathedral in England, was consumed, and was replaced by
the present church of the same name, planned by Sir Christopher
Wren. The king showed an unexpected energy in trying to stay
the progress of the flames. But neither public calamities, nor the
sorrow and indignation of all good men, including his most loyal
and attached adherents, could check the shameless profligacy of
his palace-life. The diaries of Evelyn and of Pepys, both of whom
were familiar with the court, picture the disgraceful depravation
of morals, which was stimulated by the king's example. But the
nation was even more aggrieved by his conduct in respect to for-
eign nations. In a war with Holland, arising out of commercial
rivalry, the English had the mortification of seeing the Thames
blockaded by the Dutch fleet (1667). Hyde, Earl of Clarendon,
Charles's principal adviser, whose daughter married the Duke of
York, was driven from office, and went into exile to escape a trial.
The Triple Alliance against Louis (p. 453)' was gratifying to the
people; but in the Treaty of Dover (1670), Charles engaged to
declare himself a Roman Catholic as soon as he could do so with
prudence, and promised to join his cousin, Louis XIV., against
Holland, and to aid him in his schemes; in return for which he
was to receive a large subsidy from Lot/is, a pension during the
war, and armed help in case of an insurrection in England.

The "Cabal" Ministry. — A cabinet, as we now term it, — a
small number of persons,—had, before this reign, begun to exer-
cise the functions which belonged of old to the King's Council.
At this time, the cabal ministry — so called from the first letters
of the names, which together made the word — was in power.
In 1672 war with Holland was declared, and was kept up for
two years.

Declaration of Indulgence. — When Charles began this second
Dutch war, he issued orders for the suspension of the laws against
the Catholics and Dissenters. His design was to weaken the
Church of England. The anger of Parliament and of the people
at this usurpation obliged him to recall the declaration.

The Test Act. — Parliament, in 1673, passed an act which shut
out all Dissenters from office. This act the king did not venture
to reject; although the effect of it was to oblige his brother Jamesf
the Duke, of York, to resign his office of lord high admiral.460

MODERN HISTORY.

Danby's Ministry. — The cabal ministry was gradually broken
up; and Shaftesbury, an able minister, went over to the other side.
The Earl of Dandy became the chief minister. He was in agree-
ment with the House of Commons. He favored the marriage
which united Mary, the daughter of the Duke of York, to William,
Prince of Orange.

The "Popish Plot" (1678).—The already exasperated nation was
infuriated by an alleged " Popish Plot" for the subverting of the
government, and for the murder of the king and of all Protes-
tants. Titus Oates, a perjurer, was the main witness. Many inno-
cent Roman Catholics were put to death. This pretended plot
led to stringent measures shutting out papists from office. Halifax,
an able man who called himself " a trimmer," because he did not
always stay on one side or with one party, opposed a bill that
would have excluded the king's brother from the succession, and
it failed.

Habeas Corpus Act.*—In 1679 the Habeas Corpus Act was
passed, providing effectually against the arbitrary imprisonment of
subjects. Persons arrested must be brought to trial, or proved in
open court to be legally confined.

Parties: Russell and Sidney. — At this time the party names
of Whig and Tory came into vogue. Insurgent Presbyterians in
Scotland had been called " Whigs," a Scotch word meaning whey,
or sour milk. The nickname was now applied to Shaftesbury1 s
adherents, opponents of the court, who wished to exclude the
Duke of York from the throne on account of his being a Catholic.
Tories, also a nickname, the designation of the supporters of the
court, meant originally Romanist outlaws, or robbers, in the bogs
of Ireland. Many of the Whigs began to devise plans of insur-
rection, from hatred of Charleses arbitrary system of government.
Some of them were disposed to put forward Monmouth, the eldest
of Charles's illegitimate sons, and a favorite of the common peo-
ple. The " Rye-House Plot" for the assassination of the king and
his brother was the occasion of the trial and execution of two
eminent patriots, — William, Lord Ryssell, and Algernon Sidney, a
warm advocate of republican government. Both, it is believed,
were unjustly condemned. The Duke of York assumed once more
the office of admiral. Charles, before his death, received the
sacrament from a priest of the Church of Rome (1685),

James II. (1685-1688): Monmouth's Rebellion. — A few months
after James's accession, the Duke of Monmouth landed in Eng-
land ; but his effort to get the crown failed. His forces, mostly
made up of peasants, were defeated at Sedgemoor; and he perished
on the scaffold. Vengeance was taken upon all concerned in
•the revolt; and Chief Justice Jeffreys, for his brutal conduct in the
"Bloody Assizes," in which, savage as he was, he neverthelessREVOLUTION OF 1688.

became rich by the sale of pardons, was rewarded with the office
of lord chancelor.

James's Arbitrary Government — James paid no heed to his
promise to defend the Church of England. Of a slow and obsti-
nate mind, he could not yield to the advice of moderate Roman
Catholics, and of the Pope, Innocent XL ; but set out, by such
means as dispensing with the laws, to restore the old religion, and
at the same time to extinguish civil liberty. He turned out the
judges who did not please him. He created a new Ecclesiastical
Commission, for the coercion of the clergy, with the notorious
Jeffreys at its head. After having treated with great cruelty the
Protestant dissenters, he unlawfully issued a Declaration of Indul-
gence (1687) in their favor, in order to get their support for his
schemes in behalf of his own religion. He turned out the fellows
of Magdalen College, Oxford, for refusing to appoint a Catholic
for their president. He sent seven bishops to the Tower in 1688,
who had signed a petition against the order requiring a second
Declaration of Indulgence to be read in the churches. Popular
sympathy was strongly with the accused, and the news of their
acquittal was received in the streets of London with shouts of joy.

Revolution of 1688: William and Mary (1689-1694). — The
birth of a Prince of Wales by his second wife, Mary of Modenay
increased the disaffection of the English people. His two daugh-
ters by his first wife — Mary and Anne — were married to Protes-
tants ; Maryf to William, Prince of Orange and stadtholder of
Holland, and Anne to George, Prince of Denmark. By a com-
bination of parties hostile to the king, William was invited to take
the English throne. James was blind to the signs of the approach-
ing danger, and to the warnings of Louis XIV. of France. When
it was too late, he attempted in vain to disarm the conspiracy by
concessions. William landed in safety at Torbay. He was joined
by persons of rank. Lord Churchill\ afterwards the celebrated
Duke of Marlborough, left the royal force of which he had the
command, and went over to him. The king's daughter, Anne, fled
to the insurgents in the North. William was quite willing that
Tames should leave the kingdom, and purposely caused him to
be negligently guarded by Dutch soldiers. He fled to France,
never to return. Parliament declared the throne to be, on divers
grounds, vacant, and promulgated a Declaration of Right affirming
the ancient rights and liberties of England. It offered the crown
to William and Mary, who accepted it (1689). A few months
later, the estates of Scotland bestowed upon them the crown of
that country. Presbyterian ism was made the established form
of religion there. The union of the kingdoms was consummated
under their successor, Anney when Scotland began to be repre-
sented in the English Parliament.462

MODERN HISTORY.

The Massacre of Glenooe. — A Highland chief, Marfan of Glencoe,
with many of his followers, was treacherously slaughtered by order of Dal•
rympUi the Master of Stair, who governed Scotland, and had obtained by
misrepresentation from William leave to extirpate that "set of thieves," as
he had called them.

William in Ireland.—The sovereignty of Ireland passed, with
that of England, to William and Mary. There James //., sup-
ported by France, made a stout resistance. It was a conflict of
the Irish Catholics, together with the descendants of the Norman-
English settlers, comprising together about a million of people,
against the English and Scottish colonists, not far from two hun-
dred thousand in number. The latter, with steadfast courage,
sustained a siege in Londonderry until the city was relieved by
ships from England. Many of the inhabitants had perished from
hunger. The victory of William at Boyne (1690), where Schomberg,
his brave general, a Huguenot French marshal, fell, decided the
contest. William led his troops in person through the Boyne River,
with his sword in his left hand, since his right arm was disabled by
a wound. James was a spectator of the fight at a safe distance.

English Liberty. — In William's reign, liberty in England was
fortified by the Bill of Rights, containing a series of safeguards
against regal usurpation. Papists were made ineligible to the
throne. The Toleration Act afforded to Protestant dissenters a
large measure of protection and freedom. The press was made
free from censorship (1695), and newspapers began to be pub-
lished. Provision was made for the fair trial of persons indicted
for treason. The Act of Settlement (1701) settled the crown, if
there should be no heirs of Anne or of William, upon the Princess
Sophia, Electress of Hanover, the daughter of Elizabeth of Bohemia,
and granddaughter of James /., and on her heirs, being Protestants.

\( The Grand Alliance: to the Peace of Ryswick. — The next
iwar which Louis XIV. began was that of the succession in the
territory of the Palatinate, which he claimed, on the extinction
of the male line of electors, for Elizabeth Charlotte, the gifted
and excellent sister of the deceased Elector Charles, and the wife
of the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother.

The table which follows will show the nature of this claim: —

Frederic V, 1610-1632, Elector and King of Bohemia,

///. Elizabeth, daughter of James I. oi England.

Charles Lewis, 1649-1680.	Sophia, tn. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover.

Charles, 1680-1685.	Elizabeth.	George I of England.-

m, Philip, Duke of Orleans, d. 1701.

philip% Duke of Orleans, was the only brother of Louis XIV. From him descended King
Louts Philippe (1830-1848).LOUIS XIV.: THE GRAND ALLIANCE.	463

Another reason that Louis had for war was his determination to
secure the archbishopric of Cologne for the bishop of Strasburg,
a candidate of his own. In 1686 the League of Augsburg had
been formed by the emperor with Sweden, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony,
and the Palatinate, for defense against France. The Grand Alii-
ance, in which England and Holland were included, was now
made (1689). In the year before, by the advice of Louvois, the
French had deliberately devastated the Palatinate, demolishing
buildings, and burning cities and villages without mercy. The
ruins of the Castle of Heidelberg are a monument of this worse
than vandal incursion, the pretext for which was a desire to pre-
vent the invasion of France. In the war the English and Dutch
fleets, under Admiral Russell, defeated the French, and burned
their ships, at the battle of La Ilogue (1692). This battle was a
turning-point in naval history: " as at Lepanto," says. Ranke,
where the Turks were defeated (1571), "so at La Hogue, the
mastery of the sea passed from one side to the other." But in
the Netherlands, where William ///., the soul of the League,
steadfastly kept the field, after being defeated by Luxemburg;
in Italy, where the Duke of Savoy was opposed by the Marshal
Catinat; and in a naval battle between the English and French
at Lagos Bay,— the French commanders were successful. In 1695
William's troops besieged and captured the town of Namur. At
length Louis was moved by the exhaustion of his treasury, and the
stagnation of industry in France, to conclude the Peace of Ryswick
with England, Spain, and Holland (1697). The Duke of Savoy
had been detached from the alliance. Most of the conquests on
both sides were restored. William III. was acknowledged to be
king of England. In the treaty with the emperor, France retained
Strasburg. William was a man of sterling worth, but he was a
Dutchman, and was cold in his manners. The plots of the Jacob-
ites, as the adherents of James were called, did more than any thing
else to make him popular with his subjects.

CHAPTER II.

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF
UTRECHT, 1713); DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE:
POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF ENGLAND.

Occasion of the War. — The death of Charles II of Spain
(1700) was followed by the War of the Spanish Succession.'
The desire of Louis to have his hands free in the event of
Charles's death had influenced him in making the Treaty of464

MODERN HISTORY.

Ryswick. Charles had no children. It had been agreed in treaties,
to which France was a party, that the Spanish monarchy should
not be united either to Austria or to France ; and that Archduke
Charles, second son of the Emperor Leopold /., should have Spain
and the Indies. But Charles IL of Spain left a will making Louis's
second grandson, Philip Duke of Anjou, the heir of all his domin-
ions, with the condition annexed that the crowns of France and
Spain should not be united. Instigated by dynastic ambition,
Louis made up his mind to break the previous agreements, and
seize the inheritance for Philip. Philip V. thus became king of
Spain. On the death of James IL (1701), Louis recognized his
son James j called "the Pretender," as king of Great Britain. This
act, as a violation of the Treaty of Ryswick, and as an arrogant
intermeddling on the part of a foreign ruler, excited the wrath
of the English people, and inclined them to war. The Grand
Alliance against France (*1701) included the Empire, England,
Holland, Brandenburg (or Prussia), and afterwards Portugal and
Savoy (1703). France was supported by the electors of Bavaria
and Cologne, and at first by Savoy. William IIL died in 1702,
and was succeeded by Anne, the sister of his deceased wife, and
the second daughter of James II.

The following table will help to make clear the several claims to the
Spanish succession: —

Philip III, King of Spain, 1598-1611.

1—!-1-1 .

Louis XIII of France, m. Anne. Philip IV, J62X-X655, Maria, m. Emperor Ferdinand III.

Ix>uis

m. (a) Maria.

XIV, m. (x) Maria Charles II, Margaret Theresa, »*. Emperor I>eopol<i I,
'	m. (3) Eleanor,

daughter ot

Theresa. X655-X700.
Louis, the Dauphin.

Elector Palatine.

Philip of Anjou a Maximilian of Bavaria, m. Maria Antonia. Joseph I, Charles VI.a
(Philip V of Spain),	|	d. 1711.

d. 1746.	Joseph Ferdinand,1 Electoral Prince of

Bavaria.

1	Recognized as heir of Charles II of Spain until his death.

2	Rival claimants for the Spanish crown after Charles II, the elder brother of each having
resigned his pretensions.

Events of the War. — In this war, there were displayed the
military talents of two great generals, — the Duke of Marlborough
and Prince Eugene of Savoy. Marlborough had two glaring faults.
He was avaricious, and, like other prominent public men in Eng-
land at that day, was double-faced. After deserting the service
of James for that of Williamy he still kept up at times a corre-
spondence with the exiled house, lie was a man of stately and
winning presence, a careful commander, in battle cool and self-WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.	465

possessed. At the council board, he had the art of quietly com-
posing differences by winning all to an adhesion to his own views.
It is said of him, that he " never committed a rash act, and never
missed an opportunity for striking an effective blow.'* Eugene,
on his father's side, sprang from the house of Savoy. His mother
was a niece of Mazarin. He was brought up at the court of Louis
XIV.; but when the king repeatedly refused him a commission
in the army, he entered the service of Austria, was employed in
campaigns against the.Turks, and rose to the highest distinction.
Flattering offers from Louis XIV\ he indignantly rejected. His
career as a soldier was long and brilliant. The personal sympathy
of Eugene and Marlborough with each other was one important
cause of their success. Eugene was first sent to Italy. There
he drove Catinat\ the French general, back on Milan, and cap-
tured his successor in command, Villeroi (1702). After a drawn
battle between Eugene and Vendome (1702), a commander of
much more skill than his predecessor, the French had the advan-
tage in Italy. In 1703, Eugene came to Germany, and Marlbor-
ough invaded the Spanish Netherlands. In 1704 Marlborough
carried out the plan of a grand campaign which he had devised.
He crossed the Rhine at Cologne, moved southward, captured
Donauwdrth, and drove the Bavarians across the Danube. The
united forces of Marlborough and Eugene defeated the French
and Bavarian armies at Blenheim (or Hoc/is tadt), on the left
bank of the river, with great slaughter. There were captured
fifteen thousand French soldiers, with their general Tallard. This
victory raised Marlborough's reputation, already great on account
of his masterly conduct of his army, to the highest point. He was
made a duke by Queen Anne, and a prince of the Empire by
Leopold. In Spain, the English captured Gibraltar. Charles
of Austria (who had assumed the title of Charles IIL of Spain)
conquered Madrid (1706), but held it for only a short time. The
country generally favored Philip; the arms of Vendome were tri-
umphant ; and Anjou, Catalonia, and Valencia had to submit to
Castilian laws as the penalty of their adhesion to the Austrian
cause. In 1706 Marlborough vanquished Villeroi at Ramillies,
a village in the Netherlands, in a great battle in which the French
army was routed, and their banners and war material captured.
Netherlands now submitted to Austria. At Turin, Eugene gained
a victory over an army of eighty thousand men; and the fame of
this modest and unpretending, but brave and skillful leader was
now on a level with that of the English general. Lombardy sub-
mitted to Charles III,, and the French were excluded from Italy*
Another victory of the two commanders at Oudenarde \ 1708)
over Vendome and the Duke of Burgundy, broke down the hopes
of Louis, and moved him to offer the largest concessions, which466

MODERN HISTORY.

embraced the giving up of Strasburg and of Spain. But the allies,
flushed with success, went so far as to demand that he should aid
in driving his grandson out of Spain. This roused France, as well
afc Louis himself, to another grand effort. At Malplaquet, in a
bloody conflict, the French were again defeated by Marlborough
and Eugene.

To the Peace of Utrecht. — Circumstances now favored the
vanquished and humbled king of France. The Whig ministry
in England, which the victories of Marlborough had kept in
office, fell from power (1710) ; and its enemies, and the enemies
of Marlborough, were anxious to weaken him.- Anne dismissed
from her service the Duchess of Marlborough, a haughty woman
of a violent temper. Harley, Earl of Oxford, and St. John, after-
wards Viscount Bolingbroke, became the queen's principal minis-
ters. They wished to end the war. The Emperor Joseph (1705-
1711), who had succeeded Leopold Z, died; so that Charles, if
he had acquired Spain, would have restored the vast monarchy
of Charles V, and brought in a new source of jealousy and
alarm. Negotiations for peace began. Marlborough, who had
been guilty of traitorous conduct, was removed from his com-
mand, and deprived of all his offices (1712). In 1713 the Peace
of Utrecht was concluded between England and France, in which
Holland, .Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal soon joined. It was fol-
lowed by the Peace of Rastadt and Baden with the emperor
(1714). Spain and Spanish America were left to Philip Vthe
Bourbon king, with the proviso that the crowns .of France and
Spain should never be united. France ceded to England New-
foundlatul\ Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay Territory. Spain
ceded to England Gibraltar and Minorca. The Elector of Bran-
denburg was recognized as King of Prussia. Savoy received the
island of Sicily, which was exchanged seven years later for Sar-
dinia, and for the title of king for the duke. Holland gained
certain " barrier " fortresses on its border. Austria received the
appanages of the Spanish monarchy,—the Spanish Netherlands,
Naples, Sardinia, and Milan, but not Sicily. The emperor did
not recognize the Bourbons in Spain.

Last Days of Louis XIV. — In the next year after the peace,
Louis XIV. died. Within two years (1710-1712) he had lost his
son, his grandson the Duke of Burgundy (whom the pious Fene-
lon had trained), his wife, and his eldest great-grandson, and, two
years later (1714), his third grandson, the Duke of Berry. He
left France overwhelmed with debt, its resources exhausted, its
credit gone, its maritime power prostrate; a land covered with
poverty and wretchedness. This was the reward of lawless pride
and ambition in a monarch who owed his strength, however,
to the sympathy and subservience of the nation.FRANCE: ITALY.	467

Law's Bank. — During the minority of Louis XV. (1715-17 74),
Fhilip, Duke of Orleans, was regent, a man of extraordinary talents;
but addicted to shameful debauchery. He led the king into the
same evil courses. Influential with both was Cardinal Dubois,
likewise a man of unprincipled character. The state was really
bankrupt, when a Scottish adventurer and gambler, John Law,
possessed of unusual financial talents, but infected with the econ-
omical errors of the time, offered to rescue the national finances
by means of a bank, which he was allowed to found, the notes of
which were to serve as currency. Almost all the coined money
flowed into its coffers; its notes went everywhere in the kingdom,
and were taken for government dues; it combined with its busi-
ness " the Mississippi scheme," or the control of the trade, and
almost the sovereignty, in the Mississippi region; it absorbed the
privileges of the different companies for trading with the East;
finally it took charge of the national mint and the issue of coin, and
of the taxation of the kingdom, and it assumed the national debt.
The temporary success of the gigantic financial scheme turned the
heads of the people, and a fever of speculation ran^ through all
ranks. The crash came, the shares in the bank sunk in value, the
notes depreciatedand, in the wrath which ensued upon the gen-
eral bankruptcy, Law, who had been honored and courted by the
high and the low, fled from the kingdom. He died in poverty at
Venice. The state alone was a gainer by having escaped from a
great part of its indebtedness.

Italy.— Before the middle of the eighteenth century, the Span-
ish Bourbons again had possession of Naples and Sicily, besides
other smaller Italian states. Austria, besides holding Milan, was
the virtual ruler of Tuscany.

Spain in Italy. — Philip V. was afflicted with a mental derangement
peculiar to his family. The government was managed by the ambitious
queen, Elizabeth of Parma, and the intriguing Italian, Alberonit the minister
in whom she confided. He sought to get back the Italian states lost by the
Peace of Utrecht. But Sardinia and Sicily were restored when he was over-
thrown, through the fear excited by the Quadruple Alliance of France, Eng-
land, Austria, and Holland (1718). Later, the queen succeeded in obtaining
the kingdom of Naples and Sicily for her oldest son, Don Carlos, under the
name of Charles IIL Parma y Piacenzay and Guastallay she gained for her
second son, Philip (1735). When Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne
(1759""1788), he left Naples and Sicily to his third son, Ferdinand.

Austria in Italy.—The house of Savoy steadily advanced in power.
By the Peace of Ryswick, Victor Amadeus JL (1675-1730), among other
gains, obtained the Duchy of Milan. He became " King of Sardinia " (1720).
liy him the University of Turin was founded, and the administration of jus-
tice much improved. His next two successors carried forward this good
work. Venice lost Morea to the Turks, but retained Corfu and her conquests
in Dalmatia (1718). Liberty was gone, and there were decay and conscious
weakness in the once powerful republic. Genoa was coveted by Savoy,
Austria, and France. The consequent struggles are the material of Genoese
history for a long period. Corsica was oppressed, and Genoa called on France468

MODERN HISTORY.

to lend help in suppressing its revolt (1736). The Corsicans especially,
under Paoli, defended themselves with such energy that France found its
work of subjugation hard and slow (1755). The island was ceded to France by
Genoa (1760). Milan, with Mantua, was Austrian, after the Peace of Utrecht
(1713). Tuscany under FerdinandII. (1628-1670) bestowed its treasure on
Austria and Spain, and fell under the sway of ecclesiastics. Under Cosmo
III. (1670-1723), the process of decline went on. After the death of the last
of the Medici, John Gasto (1737), Tuscany was practically under the power of
Austria, notwithstanding the stipulation that both states should not have the
same ruler. It was governed by Francis Stephen (1738-1765), Duke of
Lorraine, husband of the Empress Maria Theresa; and, when he became
emperor {Francis /.), by his second son, Leopold (1765-1790). At Rome,
Pope Innocent XI (1679-1689) had many conflicts with Louis XVIy which
came to an end under the well-meaning Innocent XII. (1691-1700). Contests
arose on the part of Rome against the Bourbon courts respecting the Jesuit
order, and with the forces adverse to the Church and the Papacy, in the clos-
ing part of the eighteenth century. In 1735, the Emperor Charles VI. allowed
that Naples and Sicily should be handed over, as a kingdom, to Don Carlosy
the son of the Spanish Bourbon king, under the name of Charles ///., by
whom it was granted to his son Ferdinand IV. (1759).

Close of Anne's Reign. — Anne's husband, Prince George of
Denmark, had no influence, and deserved none. One of the im-
portant events of her reign was the Union of England and Scotland
in 1707 (p. 461). After the Tories came into power, the two leaders,
Oxford and Bolingbroke, were rivals. An angry dispute between
them hastened the queen's death (1714). One of the Tory
measures, prompted by hostility to Dissenters, was a law forbidding
any one to keep a school without a license from a bishop.

ENGLAND. — HOUSE OF HANOVER.

George I, 1714-1737, m. Sophia Dorothea of Ze 11.

George II, 1727-1760, tn. Caroline, daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Anspach.

Frederick, Prince of Wales, d. 1751, m. Augusta of Saxe Gotha.

■I—1---,

Augusta,	George III, 1760-1820,

m. Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick. m. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

I	|„ , ,	I	. .J ..................' | " -	' '

Caroline mt George IV, x820-1830. William IV, Edward, Duke of Kent, d. 1820,

1830-1837.	m. Victoria of Saxe Coburg.

Victoria, succeeded 1837,
tn. Albert of Saxe Coburg.

Reign of George I.— George /., the first king of the house of
Hanover, could not speak English. His private life was' immoral.
His first ministers were Whigs. Bolingbroke and Oxford were im-
peached, and fled the country. The " Pretender" James Edward
(son of James //.), with the aid of Tory partisans, endeavored toREIGN OF GEORGE II.

469

recover the English crown. His standard was raised in the High-
lands and in North England (1715), but this Jacobite rebellion
was crushed. After the rebellion of 1715, a law was passed,
which is still in force, allowing a Parliament to continue for the
term of seven years. A second conspiracy in 1717 had the same
fate.' England had an experience analogous to that of France with
Law, with the South Sea Company, which had a monopoly of trade
with the Spanish coasts of South America. A rage for specula-
tion was followed by a panic. The estates of the directors of
wthe company were confiscated by Parliament for the benefit of the
lasers. Robert Walpole was made first minister, a place which
toe held under George /. and George IL for twenty-one years.
William and Anne had attended the meetings of the Cabinet.
Gevrge /., who could not speak English, staid away. From this
time,, one of the ministers was called the " prime minister."

The Reign of George II. — George II. was systematic in his ways,
frugal, Willful, and fond of war. In his private life, he followed the
evil ways of his father. Walpole's influence was predominant.
The clevej: Queen Caroline lent him her support. Walpole re-
luctantly entered into war with Spain (1739), on account of the
measures adopted by that power to prevent English ships from
carrying goods, in violation of the treaty of Utrecht, to her
South American colonies. The principal success of England was
the taking of Porto Bello by Admiral Vernon.

When the war was declared, the people expressed their joy by the ringing
of bells. "They are ringing the bells now, said Walpole: "they will-be
wringing their hands soon. ' The blame for the want of better success in the
war was laid on the prime^ minister, and he was driven to resign. Then
followed the ministry of the Pelhams, Henry Pelham and the Duke of New-
castle, who, like Walpole, managed Parliament by bribing the members through
the gift of offices.

In the war of the Austrian succession (1741), England took
part with Austria, and the king in person fought in Germany. In
1745 Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the young Pretender (whose
father, the old Pretender, styled himself James JIf.), landed in
the Highlands. The Highlanders defeated the English at Preston
Pans, near Edinburgh. The Pretender marched into England
as far as Derby, at the head of the Jacobite force, but had to
turn back and retreat to Scotland. The contest was decided by
the victory of the English under the Duke of Cumberland, at
Culloden (1746), which was attended by an atrocious slaughter of
the wounded. Culloden was the last battle fought in behalf of the
Stuarts. Nearly eighty Jacobite conspirators, one of whom was
an octogenarian, Lord Lovat, were executed as traitors. These
Jacobites were the last persons who were beheaded in England.
The Pretender wandered in the Highlands and Western Islands for47°

MODERN HISTORY.

five months, under different disguises. He was concealed and
aided by a Scottish lady, Flora Macdonald. Then he escaped to
the Continent, where he led a miserable and dissipated life, and
died in 1788. His brother Henry, Cardinal York, the last of the
Stuarts in the male line, died in 1807.

CHAPTER III.	'

i

THE, GREAT NORTHERN WAR: THE FALL OP SWEDEN j
GROWTH OF THE POWER OF RUSSIA.	/

Sweden. — The eventful epoch in the history of Sweden, in this
period, is the reign of Charles XIL (1697-1718). At his acces-
sion, when he was only sixteen years old, Sweden ruled the Ualtic.
Its army was strong and well disciplined. What is now St. /Peters-
burg was a patch of swampy ground in Swedish territory, where a
few fishermen lived in their huts. The youth of Charles was pro-
phetic of his career. In doors, he read the exploits of Alexander
the Great; out of doors, gymnastic sports and the hunting of the
bear were his favorite diversions. He became an adventurous
warrior after the type of Alexander. His rashness and obstinacy
occasioned at last the downfall of his country. Three great powers,
Russia, Poland, and Denmark, with the support of Patkuly a dis-
affected Livonian subject of Sweden, joined - in an attack on the
youthful monarch (1699). Patkuly who was a patriot, unable to
secure the rights of Livonia, and condemned as a rebel, had
entered the service of the Elector Augustus of Saxony, who was
king of Poland. There were territories belonging to Sweden
which each of the confederates coveted. Frederick JV, of Den-
mark expected to incorporate Sweden itself in his dominions.

Russia: Peter the Great. — The first ruler of the house of
Romanoff\ which has raised Russia to its present rank, was Michael
(1613-1645). Under Alexis, his son (1645-1676), important
conquests were made from the Poles, and the Cossacks acknowl-
edged the sovereignty of the Czar. The principal founder of
Russian civilization was Peter the Great (1682-1725). Through
the machinations of his half-sister Sophia, who contrived to get the
armed aid of the streltzi9—the native militia, — he had to share
the throne with a half-brother, Ivan, who was older than himself,
and lived until 1696. Sophia pushed aside Peter's mother, and
grasped the reins of power. Peter learned Latin, German, and
Dutch, and acquired much knowledge of various sorts. As he
grew older, his life was in danger; but at the age of seventeen,
he was able to crush his enemies (1689). Sophia, who was atTHE NORTHERN WAR.	47*

their head, he shut up in a monastery for the remainder of her
days. From Lefort> a Swiss, and other foreigners, Peter derived
information about foreign lands, and was led to visit them in
order to instruct himself,, and to introduce into his own country
the arts and inventions of civilized peoples. He invited into
Russia artisans, seamen, and officers from abroad. He traveled
through Germany and Holland to England\ and with his own
hands worked at ship-building at the dock-yards of Zaandam
(near Amsterdam) and Deptford. On his way to Venice, he was
called home by a revolt of the streltzi, which he put down. He
was unsparing in his vengeance, and, despite his veneer of cul-
ture, never got rid of his innate barbarism. Azof he conquered,
and it was ceded to him by the Turks in the Peace of Carlowitz
(1699). Then his ambitious thoughts turned to the Baltic, for he
was bent on making Russia a naval power. He formed a secret
alliance with Denmark and Poland against Sweden.

Condition of Poland.— In 1697 Frederick Augustus II,—
Augustus the Strong, — Duke of Saxony, was elected king of
Poland: he became a Roman Catholic that he might get the
crown. But the Polish nobles took care to increase their power,
which was already far too great to be compatible with unity or
order. Under the anarchical but despotic nobility and higher
clergy, stood the serfs, embracing nine-tenths of the whole popu-
lation, who were without protection against the greed and tyranny
of their lords.

Events of the Northern War. — The Danes first attacked the
territory of Holstein Gottorp, whose duke had married the sister
of Charles XII. William III of England supported Sweden.
The Anglo-Dutch fleet came to Charles's assistance. He landed
his troops in Zealand. The Danes gave up their alliance, and
sued for peace. Europe was now astonished to discover that the
Swedish king was an antagonist to be feared. In the field he
shared the hardships of the common soldier, and was as brave as
a lion. Charles now attacked the Russian army before Narva, in
Livonia. With the Swedish infantry he stormed the camp of the
Russians, and routed their army, which was much larger in num-
bers than his own (1700). He then raised the siege of Riga,
which the Poles and Saxons were besieging, having first defeated
their troops on the Divina. These brilliant successes might have
enabled Charles to conclude peace on very advantageous terms.
But he lacked moderation. He was as passionate in his public
conduct as Peter the-Great was in his private life. He was re-
solved to dethrone Augustus in Poland. After the battle of Clis-
son (1703), he occupied that country, and made the Diet give the
crown to Stanislas Lesczinski, the Palatine of Posen. To prevent
Russia and Saxony from uniting against the new king, Charles472

MODERN HISTORY.

carried the war into Saxony, and forced Augustus, in the Peace of
Altranstadt, to renounce his claim to the Polish crown, and to
surrender Patkul\ the rebel, who had become a subject of Russia,
whom he put to death with circumstances of cruelty. In 1703
Peter laid the foundations of the new city of St Petersburg. But,
a few years later, Russia was invaded by Charles, who in 1708
almost captured the Czar at Grodno, defeated his army near Smo-
lensk, and was expected to advance to Moscow. But the impru-
dent Swede turned southward into the district of the Ukraine,
there to be joined by Mazeppa, the " hetman " of the Cossacks,
who led them in revolt against Peter. Mazeppa was able, however,
to bring him but few auxiliaries. The harshness of the winter,
and other untoward events, weakened the Swedish force. The
battle of Pultowa (1709) was a great victory for the Czar. Charles
escaped with difficulty to Turkey. There he remained for three
years, supported with his retinue, at Bender, by the Sultan. His
object was to bring about a war between the Sultan and the Czar.
He so far succeeded that Peter, when surrounded on the Pruth by
Turkish troops, was rescued only by the courage and energy of
Catherine, the mistress whom he afterwards married. Charles
was finally obliged to leave Turkey, after being exposed to immi-
nent peril in an attack by the janizaries, who stormed his camp
and took him captive. With a few attendants, riding by day and
sleeping in a cart or carriage by night, he journeyed back to Swe-
den, and arrived at Stralsund (1714). The hostile allies, together
with Hanover and Prussia, were once more in array against him.
Baron von Gortz, a German, became his principal adviser. He
negotiated a peace with Peter, of whom the other allies were be-
ginning to be jealous. Charles's plan was to invade Norway, then
to land in Scotland, and, with the help of Spain and of the Jacob-
ites, to restore the Stuarts to the English throne. While besie-
ging Friedrichshall, a fortress in Norway, he exposed himself near
the trenches, and was killed by a bullet (1718). It was long a
question whether the fatal shot was fired from the enemy or by an
assassin. Not until 1859 was it settled, by an examination of the
skull, that the gun was discharged from the fortress.

Results of the War. — One result of the Northern war was the
execution of Gortz, to whom the Swedish aristocracy were inimi-
cal, and a reduction of the king's authority. JIanover received
Bremen and Verden; Prussia, the largest part of Pomerania;
Sweden gave up its freedom from custom duties in the Sound.
Augustus was recognized as king of Poland. Russia, by the
Peace of Nystadt (1721), obtained Livonia, Esthonia, Jnger-
7?iannland, and a part of Carelia, but restored Finland\ Sweden
no longer had a place among the great powers. The place that
Sweden had held was now taken by Russia..RUSSIA.	473

Changes in Russia. — The Czar, Peter, took the title of em-
peror. He transferred the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg,
13y constructing canals, roads, and harbors, he promoted trade and
commerce. By fostering manufactures and the mechanic arts,
and by opening the mines, he increased the wealth of the country.
He altered the method of government, making the ukases, or
edicts, emanate from the sole will of the emperor. He abolished
the dignity of Patriarch, making the Holy Synod\ of which the
Czar is president, the supreme ecclesiastical authority. Peter
made a second journey through Germany, Holland, and France
(1716). His son Alexis, who allied himself with a reactionary
party that aimed to reverse the Czar's policy, he finally caused to
be tried for treason. He was condemned, but died either from
the bodily torture inflicted on him to extort confession, or, as many
have believed, by poison, or other means, used by the direction of
his father. His friends, after being barbarously tortured, were put
to death.

Great as was the work of Peter, " he brought Russia prematurely into the
circle of European politics. The result has been.to turn the rulers of Russia
away from home affairs, and the regular development of internal institutions,
to foreign politics and the creation of a great military power." In his last
years, the frugality of his own way of living in his new capital was in striking
contrast with the splendor with which his queeny Catherine> preferred to
surround herself. He died at the age of fifty-three, in consequence of plun-
ging into icy water to save a boat in distress.

The document called " The Testament of Peter the Great/' which explains what has to be
done in order that Russia may conquer all Europe, is not genuine. It is first heard of in 1819,
in a book published by Lesur. probably by direction of Napoleon I. " Lesur's book," says
Mr. E. Schuyler, " was merely a pamphlet to justify the invasion of Russia by Napoleon."
(Schuyler's Life of Peter tht Great, vol. ii. p. 512.)474

MODERN HISTORY.

CHAPTER IV.

WAR OP THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 5 GROWTH OP THE
POWER OP PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OP POLAND.

The Pragmatic Sanction. — On the death of Augustus II., there
were two competitors for the Polish crown,—his son, Augustas III.
of Saxony, and Stanislaus Lesczinski whom France supported.
After a contest, by the consent of the Emperor Charles VI,
Lesczinski, whose daughter had married Louis XV, obtained the
duchy of Lorraine, which thus became a possession of France
(1735). In return, the emperor's son-in-law, Francis Stephen
(afterwards Francis /.), was to have Tuscany; and France, in
connection with the other powers, assented to the Pragmatic
Sanction, according to which the hereditary possessions of Austria
were to descend intact in the female line. It was expected that
the empire would pass along with them.

Prussia: Frederick William I.—In 1611 the duchy of Prussia
and the mark or electorate of Brandenburg^were joined together.
The duchy was then a fief of Poland. But under the Great Elect-
or, Frederick William (1,640-1688), this relation of the duchy to
Poland ended. By him the military strength of the electorate was
increased. Frederick, his son (1688-1713), with the emperor's
license, took the title of King of Prussia (Frederick /.). He built
up the city of Berlin, and encouraged art and learning. King
Frederick William I (1713-1740), unlike his predecessor, was
exceedingly frugal in his court. He was upright and just in his
principles, but extremely rough in his ways, and governed his own
household, as well as his subjects generally, with a Spartan rigor.
Individuals whom he met in the street, whose conduct or dress he
thought unbecoming, he did not hesitate to scold, and he even
used his cane to chastise them on the spot. He cared nothing for
literature : artists and players were his abomination. He favored
industry, and was a friend of the working-class. Every thing was
done with despotic energy. He disciplined the military force of
Prussia, and gathered at Potsdam a regiment of tall guards, made
up of men of gigantic height, who were brought together from all
quarters. He left to his son, Frederick II. (1740-1786), a strong
army and a full treasury.

Character of Frederick the Great. — Young Frederick had no
sympathy with his father's austere ways. The strict system of
training arranged for him, in which he was cut off from Latin
and from other studies for which he had a taste, his time all par-
celed out, and a succession of tasks rigorously ordained for him,
he found a yoke too heavy to bear. Once he attempted to escape
to the court of his uncle, George II. of England; but the schemeWAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.

475

was discovered, and the incensed father was strongly inclined to
execute the decree of a court-martial, which pronounced him
worthy of death. Frederick, from the window of the place where
he was confined, saw Katte, his favorite tutor, who had helped
him in his attempt at flight, led to the scaffold, where he was
hanged. In the later years of the old king, the relations of father
and son were improved. The prince had for his abode the little
town of Rheinsberg, where he could indulge, with a circle of con-
genial friends, in the studies and amusements to which he was par-
tial. He grew up with a strong predilection for French literature,
and for the French habits and fashions — free-thinking in reli-
gion included — which were now spreading over Europe. On his
accession to the throne, Frederick broke up the Potsdam regiment
of giants, and called back to Halle the philosopher Wolf, whom his
father had banished. Frederick was visited by Voltaire, who at a
later day took up his abode for a time with him in Berlin. But
the king was fond of banter, and the foibles of each of these com-
panions were a target for the unsparing wit of the other; so that
eventually they parted company with mutual disgust. Later they
resumed their correspondence, and never wholly lost their intel-
lectual sympathy with each other. As a soldier, Frederick had
not the military genius of the greatest captains. He applied supe-
rior talents to the discharge of the duties of a king, and to the
business of war. He was cool, knew how to profit by his errors
and to repair his losses, and to press forward in the darkest hour.
Napoleon said of him that "he* was great, especially at critical
moments.'*

War of the Austrian Succession.—Charles VI was succeeded,
in 1740, by his daughter Maria Theresa, who united in her char-
acter many of the finest qualities of a woman and of a sovereign.
Notwithstanding the pragmatic sanction by which all the Austrian
lands were to be hers, different princes deemed the occasion favor-
able for seizing on the whole, or on portions, of her inheritance.
Charles, elector of Bavaria, claimed to be the lawful heir, and was
aided by Franee, which was afraid of losing Lorraine if Maria
Theresa's husband, Francis Stephen, should become .emperor.
Augustus IIL of Poland was a participant in the plot. Frederick
II. of Prussia claimed Silesia, and, after defeating the Austrians
at Molwitz (1741), seized the greater part of that district. Soon
after, the French and Bavarians overran Austria. The Bavarian
elector was chosen emperor. Even the elector of Hanover
(George //.'of England) engaged not to assist the empress.

The claims to Austria were as follows: — .

Augustus /If., king of Saxony, and Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, had married
daughters of the Kmperor Joseph / (the brother and predecessor of Charles VL). The wife
of Charles Albert was the younger daughter; but he appealed to an alleged provision in the
will of the Emperor Ferdinand /., according to which the posterity of his daughter Anna,476	MODERN HISTORY.

(who married a Bavarian duke) was to inherit the duchy of Austria and Bohemia, in case his
male descendants should die out. It was not to the male descendants, but to the legitimate
descendants, however, that the will referred. The Bourbons in France and Spain seized the
occasion to regain the possessions of Spain lost in the Peace of Utrecht (p. 466). Francis
Joseph, the husband of Maria Theresa, it was feared, might seek to get back Lorraine from
France (p. 474). Spain was anxious to recover Milan. Philip V. of Spain claimed the Aus-
trian possessions on the basis of certain stipulations of Charles V. and Philip III. in the
cession of them. To weaken the Austrian house in Germany, was an aim of France. The
courts of France and Spain were ready, on all these grounds, to support Charles of Bavaria.
They were ready, also, to support Frederick If. in legal claims which he set up to a portion of
Silesia. The empress rejected the offer of Frederick to defend Austria if she would give up
this territory.

Spirit of the Empress: Cession of Silesia. — Maria Theresa
proved herself a Minerva. She threw herself for support on her
Hungarian subjects, who responded with loyal enthusiasm to her
appeal made at the Diet of Presburg. Her forces drove the Ba-
varian and French troops before them in Austria, entered Bavaria,
and captured Munich. Reluctantly the queen, in the Peace of
Breslau (1742), ceded Silesia to Frederick, in order to lessen the
number of her antagonists. She was crowned (1743) in Prague,
and at length gained an ally in George II. of England. The
" Pragmatic Army," as it was called, defeated the French under
Marshal Noailles at Dettingen. Sardinia and Saxony joined the
Austrian alliance.

To the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.—These events widened the
dimensions of the contest. France declared war directly against
England and Austria. Frederick II. of Prussia was now the ally
of France, and began the second Silesian war. He took Prague,
but, being deserted by the French, was driven back into Saxony.
The son of Charles Albert of Bavaria, Maximilian Josephy made
peace with Austria, — the Peace of Fussen, — promising to give
his vote to Francis, the husband of Maria IVieresa, for the office
of emperor. Francis {1745-1765) was crowned at Frankfort.
Victories in Saxony on the side of Frederick led to the Treaty of
Dresden, which left Silesia in his hands (1745). The most of the
English army went back to England to fight the Pretender. The
war went on in the Netherlands and in Italy, and between France
and England; the English being victors on the sea under Anson
(1747), while the French were generally successful on the land.
The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) provided for a reciprocal
restoration of all conquests : Silesia was given to Prussia, and the
Prag7natic Sanction was sustained in Austria.

Alliance against Frederick.—Frederick the Great used the next
eight years in doing what he could to encourage industry and to
increase the prosperity and resources of Prussia, at the same
time that he strengthened his military force. Prussia had evinced
so much power in the late conflicts as to be an object of envy and
apprehension. Maria Theresa was anxious to recover Silesia.
Frederick had a foe in Elizabeth, empress of Russia, whose per-
sonal vices he made a subject of sarcastic remark, and who, be-THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.

477

sides, coveted Prussian provinces on the Baltic. An alliance was
formed between Russia and Austria. This was joined by Saxony,
and by France; sinez Louis XV. was induced by the Marchioness
of Pompadour, his mistress, whom Frederick's plainness of speech
had offended, to depart from the French traditional policy, and. to
unite with Austria. The only ally of Frederick was George IL of
England, which was then engaged in a contest with France respect-
ing the American colonies (1756).

The Seven Years' War. — Thus arose the Seven Years1 War.
Frederick, secretly informed of the plans of his enemies, anticipated
their action by invading Saxony and capturing Dresden (1756).
At Lobositz he defeated the • Austrians, and captured eighteen
thousand Saxon troops. He had now to encounter the military
strength of the various nations opposed to him. With the bulk
of. his forces he marched into Bohemia, and gained a great but
costly victory at Prague (1757). For the next six months, suc-
cesses and reverses alternated; but before the end of the year
(1757) Frederick won two of his most famous triumphs, — one
at Rossbachy over the French and the Imperialists; and the other
over the Austrians, at Leuthen. Frederick was now admired as a
hero in England, and was furnished by the elder William Pitt,
who had succeeded Newcastle, with money and troops. In
1758 the Prussians vanquished the Russians at Zorndorf, but
were, in turn, a few months later, defeated by them at 1iochkirch.
Of the numerous battles in this prolonged war, in which the
military talents of Frederick were so strikingly shown, it is possible
to refer only to a few of the most important. He was defeated
by the united Austrians and Russians at Kunersdorf; and so
completely that he was for the moment thrown into despair,
and wrote to his minister, Finkenstein, "All is lost." In 1760
Berlin was surprised and burned by the Russians ; but Frederick
soon defeated the Austrians at Liegnitz and Torgau. In 1761,
however, his situation was in the highest degree perilous. His
resources were apparently exhausted. Spain joined the ranks of
his enemies. He faced them all with determined resolution, but
he confessed in his private letters that his hopes were gone.

End of the War. — At this time there was a turn of events in
his favor. In Russia, Peter 1IL, who succeeded Elizabeth, was an
admirer of Frederick, — so much so that he wore a Prussian uni-
form, — and hastened to conclude a peace and alliance with him
(1762). Peter was soon dethroned and killed by Russian nobles ;
and his queen and successor, Catherine IL, recalled the troops
sent to Frederick's aid. Nevertheless, they helped him to a victory
over the Austrians, under the command of Daun, at Burkersdorf
(1762). Austria, too, was exhausted and ready for peace. The
negotiations between England and France, which ended in the478

MODERN HISTORY.

Peace of Paris (1763), made it certain that the French armies
would evacuate Germany. Prussia and Austria agreed to the
Peace of Hubcrtsburg, by which Prussia retained Silesia, and
promised her vote for the Archduke Joseph, son of Maria Theresa,
as king of Rome and successor to the empire (1763).

Position of Prussia.—Joseph II succeeded his father as em-
peror in 1765, and was associated by his mother, Maria Theresa,
in the government of her hereditary dominions. From the con-
clusion of the Seven Years* War, Prussia took her place as one of
the five great powers of Europe.

The British Indian Empire.— It was during this period that
the empire of the British in India grew up out of the mercantile
settlements of a trading corporation, the East India Company.
The result was effected after a severe struggle with the French.
After the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Mughal empire
at Delhi declined. Insubordinate native princes admitted only a
nominal control over them. The effect of successive Mahratta and
Afghan invasions was such, that when England and France went
to war in Europe, in 1745, India was broken up into different
sovereignties, to say nothing of the great number of petty chief-
tains who were practically independent. Pondicherry was the
chief French settlement. There was a perpetual struggle between
the French and English, even when the two nations at home were
at peace. In 1756 Calcutta was taken from the English by the
Nabob of Bengal\ and many Englishmen died in the close room
of the military prison in which they were shut up, — " the Black
Hole." In 1757 Clive defeated a great army of the natives, with
whom were a few French, in the decisive battle of Plassey. He
had previously shown his indomitable courage in the seizure of
Arcoty and in its defense against a host of besiegers. The victory
at Plassey secured the British supremacy, which gradually extended
itself over the country. The various local sovereignties became
like Roman provinces. On the death of Clive, Warren Hastings
was made governor-general (1772). After his recall, he was im-
peached (1788), on charges of cruelty and oppression in India,
and his trial by the House of Lords did not end until seven years
after it began. He was then acquitted. Among the conductors
of the impeachment on the part of the House of Commons, were
the celebrated orators Edmund Burke and Richard Brinsley
Sheridan. In 1784 the power of the East-India Company had
been restricted by the establishment of the Board of Control. Up
to that time the Indian Empire, made up of dependent and subject
states, had been governed by the sole authority of the company.

Catherine II. of Russia.— Catherine II (1762-1796) in her
private life was notoriously dissolute. If she did not connive at
the assassination of her husband, Peter III, she heaped gifts uponPARTITION OF POLAND.

479

his murderers. In her policy, she aimed to strengthen Russia,
especially towards the sea. This occasioned successful conflicts
with the Turks.

The Partition of Poland. — At first inimical to Frederick the
Great, Catherine afterwards made an alliance with him. She com-
pelled the election of one of her lovers, Poniatowski, to the throne
of Poland. Poland was mainly Catholic; and the Confederation of
Bar (1768), made by the Poles to prevent the toleration of Greek
Christians and Protestants, was defeated by a Russian army, and
broken up. The Turks were worsted in the war which they made
in defense of the confederacy. As one result, Russia gained a firm
footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea (1774). The "free
veto," oppression of the peasantry, their distress, and the general
want of union and public spirit, had reduced Poland to a miserable
condition. Catherine, however, favored no reforms there looking
to an improvement in the constitution. She preferred to prolong
the anarchy and confusion. She wished to make the death of
Poland in part a suicide. At length she invited Prussia and
Austria to take part with her in the first seizure and partition of
Polish territory (1772). Each took certain provinces. In 1792
the second, and in 1795 the final partition of Poland, was made
by its three neighbors. The capture of Warsaw, and the defeat
of the national rising under Kosciusko, obliterated that ancient
kingdom from the map of Europe. It should be Said that a large
part of the territory that Russia acquired had once been Russian,
and was inhabited by Greek Christians. By the division of Poland,
Russia was brought into close contact with the Western powers.
The Crimea was incorporated with Russia in 1783. After a second
war, provoked by her, with the Turks, who now had the Austrians
to help them, the Russian boundaries through the Treaty of Jassy
(1792) were carried to the Dniester.

V '

CHAPTER V.

contest op england and prance in america: war
of american independence: the constitution
op the united states.

In this period the United States of America achieved their
independence, and began their existence as a distinct nation.

The English Colonies. — The English colonies south of Canada
had become thirteen in number. In the southern part of what was
called Carolina, Charleston was settled in 1680. More than a
century before (1562), a band of Huguenots under Ribault had480

MODERN HISTORY.

entered the harbor of Port Royal> and given this name to it, and
had built a fort on the river May, which they called Charlesfort
—the Carolina — in honor of King Charles IX. of France. In
1663 the territory thus called, south of Virginia, was granted to
the Earl of Clarendon. In it were two distinct settlements in
the northern part. The English philosopher John Locke drew up
a constitution for Carolinay which was abandoned in 1693. The
rights of the proprietors were purchased by George II.; and the
region was divided (1729) into two royal provinces, North and
South Carolina, each province having a governor appointed by
the king, and an assembly elected by the people. Besides the
English, Huguenots and emigrants from the North of Ireland, as
well as from Scotland, planted themselves in South Carolina.
Georgia was settled by James Oglethorpe, who made his settlement
at Savannah. He had a charter from George II., in whose honor
the region was named (1733). Soon the " trustees " gave up their
charter, and the government was shaped like that of the other
colonies (1754). John Wesley, afterwards the founder of Method-
ism, sojourned for a time in Georgia. The settlement of New
Jersey was first made by members of the Society of Friends, or
Quakers, sent over by William Penn, the son of an English ad-
miral, and familiar at court. The Quakers gave up the government
to the crown, and from 1702 to 1738 it formed one province with
New York. Pennsylvania was granted to Penn himself, by the
[ king, in discharge of a claim against the crown. Penn procured
also a title to Delaware. He sent out emigrants in 1681, and the
next year came .himself. By him Philadelphia was founded. He
dealt kindly with all the settlers, and made a treaty of peace and
amity with the Indians. The government organized by Penn was
just and liberal. In 1703 the inhabitants of Delaware began to
have a governing assembly of their own.

The French Colonies. — Among the French explorers in Amer-
ica, La Salle is one of the most famous. , Having traversed the
' region of the upper lakes, he reached the Mississippi, and floated
in his boats down to its mouth (1681). The region of the great
river and of its tributaries, he named Louisiana, in honor of his
king, Louis XIV. This name was applied to the whole region
from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains. On his return, La
Salle built Fort St. Louis. Afterwards (1687) he took part in
an expedition from France which had for its purpose the build-
ing of a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi, but which was so
wrongly guided as to land on the coast of Texas. La Salle
himself perished, while seeking to find his way to Canada. - But
a French settlement was made near the mouth of the river
(1699), and a connection established by a series of forts with
Canada.ENGLISH AND FRENCH WAR IN AMERICA. 481

On the principle that the country belonged to the explorer, Spain claimed
all the southern part of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
The French claim stretched from the coast of Nova Scotia westward to the
Great Lakes, and embraced the valley of the Mississippi to its mouth. Eng-
land claimed the country from Labrador as far south as Florida, and west-
ward to the Pacific. This region included within it the claims of the Dutch,
founded on the discoveries of Henry Hudson.

War between England and France, whenever it occurred, was
attended with conflicts between the English and the French settle-
ments in America. , The Indians were most of them on the side
of the French. But the fierce Iroquois in central New York, who
wished to monopolize the fur-trade, were hostile to them. A mas-
sacre perpetrated by these at La Chine, near Montreal (1689),
provoked a murderous attack of French and Indians upon the
settlement at Schenectady, the most northern post of the English.
Two wars followed,—King William's War (1697), and Queen
Anne's War (1702-1713). Deerfield in Massachusetts was cap-
tured and destroyed by French and Indians (1704). By an
expedition fitted out in Massachusetts, and commanded by Sir
William Phipps, Port Royal in Nova Scotia was captured (1710).
The colonies incurred great expense in fitting out expeditions
(1709 and 1711) against Canada, which were abandoned. The
contest between France and England for supremacy in America
was further continued in a series of conflicts lasting from 1744 for
nearly twenty years. An early event of much consequence in the
contest known as King George's War, — a part of the war of
the Austrian succession (p. 476), — was the capture oi Louisburg,
an important fortified place on Cape Breton, by an expedition
from Boston (1745). The colonists, who were with reason proud
of their achievement, had the mortification to see this place re-
stored to the French in the treaty of peace (1748). In these
contests the French had the help of their Indian allies, who fell
upon defenseless villages. The English were sometimes aided by
the Iroquois. The English founded Halifax (1749).

The "Old French War" (1756-1763). —The " Old French and
Indian War " in America was a part of the Seven Years' War
in Europe. A British officer, Gen. Braddock, led a force which
departed from Fort Cumberland in Maryland, against Fort Du
Quesne at the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers.
Disregarding the advice of George Washington, who was on his
staff, he allowed himself to be surprised by the Indians and the
French, and was mortally wounded. The remains of his army
were led by Washington, whose courage and presence of mind
had been conspicuous, to Philadelphia (1755). Prior to the ex-
pedition, Washington had made a perilous journey as envoy, to ^
demand of the French commander his reasons for invading the
Ohio valley. The English held Nova Scotia, and expelled from482

MODERN HISTORY.

their homes the French Acadians, seven thousand in number, in
a way that involved severe hardships, including the separation of
families (1755). They were carried off in ships, and scattered
among the colonies along the Atlantic shore. The English also
took the forts in Acadia. There were two battles near Lake
George (1755), in the first of which the French were victors, but
in the second they were routed. Montcalm, the French com-
mander, captured the English fort near Oswego, from which an
expedition was to have been sent against the French fort at
Niagara (1756). In 1757 he took Fort William Henry on Lake
George.

The Campaigns of 1758 and 1759. — The English were dissat-
isfied at their want of success on. the Continent and in America.
But they had advantages for prosecuting the conflict. The French,
who had been successful at the outset, had to bring their troops
and supplies from Europe. They were, to be sure, disciplined
troops; but the English had the substantial strength which was
derived from the prosperous agriculture, and still more from the
brave and self-respecting spirit, of their American colonies. The
elder William Pitt\ afterwards Earl of Chatham, again entered the
cabinet, and began to manage the contest (1757). The French
held posts at important points, — Fort Du Quesne, where Pitts-
burg now stands, for the defense of the West; Crown Point and Ti-
conderoga on Lake Champlain, guarding the approach to Canada;
Niagara, near the Great Lakes and the region of the fur-trade; and
Louisburgy on the coast of Nova Scotia, which protected the fish-
eries, and was a menace to New England. To seize these posts,
and to break down the French power in America, was now the
aim of the English. In 1758 an expedition of Gen. Abercrom-
bie, at the head of sixteen thousand men, against Crown Point
and Ticonderoga, was repulsed; Lord Howe was killed, and the
army retreated. Louis burg, to the joy of the colonies, was cap-
tured anew by Lord Amherst (1758). Port Du Quesne was
taken (1758), and named Fort Pitt; Fort Frontenac on Lake
Ontario was destroyed. The object of the campaign of 1759 was
the conquest of Canada. Fort Niagara was captured by Sir Wil-
liam Johnston (1759). Ticonderoga and Crown Point were taken,
and the French driven into Canada. Then came the great expe-
dition under Major-Gen. Wolfe, a most worthy and high-spirited
young officer, which left Louisburg for the capture of Quebec,
" the Gibraltar of America." The attempt of Wolfe to storm the
heights in front of the city, which were defended by the army of
Montcalm% failed of success. From a point far up the river, he
embarked, a portion of his troops in the night, and, silently de-
scending the stream, climbed the heights in the rear of the city,
and intrenched himself on the "Plains of Abraham." In theTHE AMERICAN COLONIES.

483

battle which took place in the morning, both commanders, Wolfe
and Montcalm, were mortally wounded. Wolfe lived just long
enough to be assured of victory; Montcalm died the next day.
Five days after the battle the town surrendered (1759).

* An incident connected with Wolfe's approach by night to Quebec is
thus given by Mr. Parkman: "For full two hours the procession of boats,
borne on the current, steered silently down the St. Lawrence. The stars
were visible, but the night was moonless and sufficiently dark. The gen-
eral was in one of the foremost boats; and near him was a young midship-
man, John Kobison, afterwards professor of natural philosophy in the
University of Edinburgh. He used to tell in his later life how Wolfe, with
a low voice, repeated Gray's Elegy in a Country Churchyard to the officers
about him. Among the rest, was the verse which his fate was soon to
illustrate,—

' The paths of glory lead but to the grave.'

"'Gentlemen,' he said, as his recital ended, 'I would rather have written
those lines than take Quebec.' None were there to tell him that the hero is
greater than the poet." (Montcalm and Wolfe, p. 287.)

In the following year Montreal and all Canada were in the
hands of the English. The English colonies were safe. It was
decided that English, not French, should be spoken in aftertimes
on the banks of the Ohio. In the Peace of Paris (1763), France
kept Louisiana, but had already ceded it to Spain (1762).

Conspiracy of Pontiac—The Indians in the West were dis-
satisfied with the transference of Canada and the region of the
Lakes to England. Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, combined a
large number of tribes, and kindled a war against the English,
which spread from the Mississippi to Canada (1763). He captured
eight forts, but failed to take Detroit and Fort Pitt. Three years
passed before the Indians were completely beaten, and a treaty of
peace concluded with their leader (1766).

State of the Colonies: Population. — At the close of the French
war, the population of the thirteen colonies probably exceeded
two millions, of whom not far from one fourth were negro slaves.
The number of slaves in New England was small. They were
proportionately much more numerous in New York, but they
were found principally in the Southern colonies. Quakers were
always averse to slavery. The slave-trade was still kept up.
Newport in Rhode Island was one of the ports where slave-ships
frequently discharged their cargoes.

Government.—The forms of government in the different colo-
nies varied. All of them had their own legislative assemblies, and
regarded them as essential to their freedom. Under Charles JL%
the charter which secured to Massachusetts its civil rights was
annulled (1684). Under James Ithe attempt was made to
revoke all the New-England charters. Sir Edmund Andros was
appointed governor of New England, and by him the new system484

MODERN HISTORY.

began to be enforced. The revolution of 1688 restored to the
colonies their privileges; but Massachusetts (with which Plymouth
was now united), under its new charter (1702), no longer elected
its governor. Prior to the Revolution, there were three forms of
government among the colonies. Proprietary governments (that
is, government by owners or proprietors) still remained in Pennsyl-
vania, Delaware, and Maryland. In these the king appointed no
officers except in the customs and admiralty courts. In Rhode
Island and Connecticut, which like Massachusetts retained their
charters, the governors were chosen by the people. New Hamp-
shire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and South Carolina,
had royal or provincial governments: the governor and council
were appointed by the king.

< Occupations. — The chief occupation of the colonists was agri-
culture. In the North, wheat and corn were raised. From Virginia
and Maryland, great crops of tobacco were exported from the
plantations, in English ships which came up the Potomac and the
James. Rice was cultivated in the Carolinas. Indigo was also
raised. Cotton was grown in the South. Labor in the fields in
the Southern colonies was performed by the negroes. Building of
ships was a profitable occupation on the coast of New England.
The cod and other fisheries also gave employment to many, and
proved a school for the training of seamen. The colonists were
industrious and prosperous, but generally frugal and plain in their
style of living.

Eduoation and Religion. -— Common schools were early estab-
lished by law in New England, and by the Dutch in New York.
As Mr. Bancroft well observes, " He that will understand the po-
litical character of New England in the eighteenth century must
study the constitution of its towns, its congregations, its schools,
and its militia." Harvard College was founded in 1636 ; William
and Mary, in 1693 ; Yale, in 1700. Eighteen years after the land-
ing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, a printing-press was set up at
Cambridge. In 1704 the first American newspaper, "The Boston
News Letter," was established. In the Puritan colonies, the minds
of the people were quickened intellectually as well as religiously,
by the character of the pulpit discourses. Theology was an
absorbing theme of inquiry and discussion. In the town-meetings,
especially in the closing part of the colonial period, political affairs
became a subject of earnest debate. In all the colonies, the
representative assemblies furnished a practical training in political
life. In the Eastern colonies, the people were mostly Congrega-
tionalists and Calvinists: Presbyterians were numerous in the
Middle States. In Virginia the Episcopal Church was supported by
legislative authority; and it was favored, though not established
bylaw, in New York. In Pennsylvania, while there was freedomREVOLT AGAINST TAXATION.	485

in religion, the Quakers " still swayed legislation and public
opinion." Philadelphia, with its population of thirty thousand,
was the largest city in America, and was held in high esteem for
its intelligence and refinement.

Complaints of the Colonies. — The colonists all acknowledged
the authority of king and parliament, but they felt that they had
brought with them across the ocean the rights of Englishmen.
One thing that was more and more complained of was the laws
compelling the colonies to trade with the "mother country" ex-
clusively, and the enactments laying restraint on their manufac-
tures. In the conflicts with the Indians from time to time, the
. necessity had arisen for leagues; and, more than once, congresses
of delegates had met. One of these was held at Albany in 1754,
where Benjamin Franklin was present. In the Old French War,
there had been a call for concert of action, and a deepening of the
sense of common interests and of being really one people.

New Grounds of Disaffection.—The colonies had taxed them-
selves in the French War; but the condition of the finances in Eng-
land at the close of it inspired the wish there to enforce the laws of
trade more rigidly in America, and to levy additional taxes upon
the provinces. These English laws were so odious that they were
often evaded. The writs of assistance in Massachusetts authorized
custom-house officers to search houses for smuggled goods (1761).
In the legal resistance to this measure, a sentence was uttered by
a Boston patriot, James Otis, which became a watchword. " Taxa-
tion/' he said, " without representation is tyranny." Taxation, it
was contended, must be ordained by the local colonial assemblies
in which the tax-payers are represented. But the Stamp Act
(1765), requiring for legal and other documents the use of stamped
paper, was a form of taxation. It excited indignation in all the
colonies, especially in Virginia and in New England. In all the
measures of resistance, Virginia and Massachusetts were foremost.
Patrick Henry, an impassioned, patriotic orator, in the Virginia
Legislature, was very bold in denouncing the obnoxious Act, and
the alleged right to tax the colonies which it implied. This right
was denied in a Congress where nine colonies were represented,
which met in New York in 1765. They called for the repeal of
the Stamp Act, and declared against the importation of English
goods until the repeal should be granted. William Pitt, in the
House of Commons, eulogized the spirit of the colonies. The
Stamp Act was repealed. The discussions which it had provoked
in America had awakened the whole people, and made them
watchful against this sort of aggression. Political topics engrossed
attention. When Parliament ordered that the colonies should
support the troops quartered on them, and that the royal officers
should have fixed salaries, to be obtained, not by the voluntary486

MODERN HISTORY.

grants of colonial legislatures, but by the levy of new duties, there
was a renewed outburst of disaffection, especially in Neiv York and
Boston (1768). By way of response to a petition that was sent
to the king against these Acts of Parliament, four regiments of
troops were sent to Boston, Their presence was a bitter griev-
ance. In one case, there was bloodshed in a broil in the street
between the populace and the soldiers, which was called "The
Boston Massacre " (1770). An influential leader of the popular
party in Boston was the stanch Puritan patriot, Samuel Adams.

Progress of the Controversy. — After the other taxes were
repealed, the tax on tea remained in force. A mob of young
men, disguised as Indians, went on board three vessels in Boston •
Harbor, and threw overboard their freight of tea (1773). Before,
there had been outbreakings of popular wrath against the stamp-
officers. Their houses had been sometimes attacked: they had
been burnt in effigy, and in some cases driven to . resign. In
general, however, the methods of resistance had been legal and
orderly. When the news of the destruction of the tea reached
England, Parliament retaliated by passing the Boston Port Bill
(1774), which closed that port to the exportation or importation
of goods, except food or fuel. The courts, moreover, were given
the power to send persons charged with high crimes to England,
or to another colony, for trial. To crown all, General Gage, the
commander of the British troops, was made Governor of Massa-
, chusetts.

The First Continental Congress. — In order to produce con-
cert of action, committees of correspondence between the several
colonies were established. The First Continental Congress, com-
posed of delegates from the colonies, was convened in Philadelphia
(1774). The remedies to which they resorted were, addresses to
the king and to the people of Great Britain; an appeal for support
to Canada; and a resolve not to trade with Great Britain until
there should be a redress of grievances.

Concord and Bunker Hill. — The Legislature in Massachusetts,
which Gage would not recognize, formed itself into the " Provin-
cial Congress." The first armed collision took place at Concord
(April 19), where a detachment of British troops was sent to destroy
the military stores gathered by this body. On Lexington Green,
the British troops fired on the militia, and killed seven men.
Arriving at Concord, they encountered resistance. There the first
shot was fired by America in the momentous struggle, — "the shot
heard round the world." A number were killed on both sides, and
the attacking force was harassed all the way on its return to
Boston. The people everywhere rose in arms. Men flocked from
their farms and workshops to the camp which was formed near
Boston. Israel Putnam, who had been an officer in the FrenchDECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.	487

War, left his plow in the field at his home in Connecticut, and
rode to that place, a distance of sixty-eight miles, in one day*
Stark from New Hampshire, and Greene from Rhode Island,
soon arrived.

The Second Continental Congress, in session at Philadelphia,
assumed control of military operations in all the colonies. At the
suggestion first made by John Adams of Massachusetts, Colonel
George Washington of Virginia was unanimously appointed com-
mander-in-chief. His mingled courage and prudence, his lofty and
unselfish patriotism, his admirable sobriety of judgment, and his
rare power of self-control, connected as it was with a not less rare
power of command, and with a firmness which no disaster could
shake, made him one of the noblest of men. Before he reached
Cambridge, where he assumed command of the gathering forces
(July 3, 1775), he received the news of the battle of Bunker Ilill\
in which the provincial soldiers, under Putnam and Frescott, made
a stand against the " regulars," as the British troops were called,
and retreated only on the third assault, and when their ammuni-
tion had given out, Dr. Joseph Warreny a leading Boston patriot,
was slain in the battle. Before this time, Fort Ticonderoga had
been captured by Ethan Allen, and cannon been sent from it to
aid in the siege of Boston (1775). But an attack on Quebec by
Arnold and Montgomery, who entered Canada by different routes,
failed of its object. Before British reinforcements arrived, the
American troops abandoned Canada. In the attack on Quebec,
Montgomery fell, and Arnold was severely wounded (Dec. 31,1775).

Independence. — Only a brief sketch can here be given of the
seven years' struggle of the United Colonies. On the 4th of July,
1776, the Declaration of Independence, drawn up in the main
by Thomas Jefferson, and of which John Adams wSs the most
eloquent advocate on the floor of Congress, passed that body.
It was signed by the President, John Hancock, and fifty-five
members. The colonies easily converted themselves into States,
nearly all of them framing new constitutions. Thirteen Articles
of Confederation made them into a league, under the name of
the United States of America, each State retaining its sovereignty
(1777). Franklin, an old man, and respected in Europe as
well as at home for his scientific attainments as well as for his
sturdy sagacity, went to France as their envoy. Among the sol-
diers who came from Europe to join the Americans were La
Fayette, — a young French nobleman, who was inspired with a zeal
for liberty, and was not without a thirst for fame, which, however,
he desired to merit, — and Steuben, an officer trained under Fred-
erick the Great In Parliament, the Whig orators spoke out man-
fully for the American cause. The king hired German troops for
the subjugation of its defenders.488

MODERN HISTORY.

The Events of the War. — The maneuvers of Washington
forced Gage to evacuate Boston. The American general then
undertook the defense of New York. The British forces, to the
number of thirty thousand, under Gen. Howe, and Admiral Howe
his brother, were collected on Staten Island. The Americans were
defeated in a battle on Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776), and could
not hold the city. It remained in the hands of the British to the
end of the war. Washington withdrew his troops to White Plains.
Fort Washington and Fort Lee were lost. The American com-
mander, followed by Lord Cornwallis, retreated slowly through
New Jersey (1776). These were serious reverses. By bold and
successful attacks at Trenton and Princeton, the depressed spirits
of the army and the country were revived. In the spring of 1777
Howe sought to capture Philadelphia, and landed his forces at
the head of Chesapeake Bay. ' The Americans were defeated
at Brandywine (Sept. 10) ; and Philadelphia, which had been
the seat of Congress, was, like New York, in the possession of the
British. Their policy was to isolate New England. To this end,
Gen. Burgoyne, with a large army of French and Indians, came
down from the north of Lake Champlain. A detachment of his
forces was defeated by Stark at Bennington. Burgoyne himself
was obliged to. surrender, with six thousand men, to Gates, at
Saratoga (Oct. 17). This event made its due impression abroad.
France recognized the independence of the United States, and
entered into an alliance with them. This alliance was a turning-
point in the struggle. Washington's army, ill-clad and ill-fed, suf-
fered terribly in the winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge; but he
shared in their rough fare, and their discipline was much improved
by the drill which they received there from Steuben. Sir Henry
Clinton left'Philadelphia in order that the British forces might be
concentrated in New York. He was overtaken by Washington,
and the battle of Monmouth took place, which was, on the whole,
a success for the Americans. The design of the British to separate
New England from the rest of the States had failed. Washington
was again at White Plains. They now began operations in the
Southern States. Among the occurrences in this period of the war
were the massacre of the settlements in the valley of the Wyoming,
in Pennsylvania, by the Indian auxiliaries of the British; the sur-
render of Savannah, and with it Georgia and Charleston, by the
Americans; the gallant storming of Stony Point; on the Hudson,
by Wayne (July 15, 1779), and a brilliant naval victory of Paul
Jones in a desperate engagement with two British frigates near
the south-eastern coast of England (Sept. 1779). The American
" partisan leaders," Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, carried forward
an irregular but harassing warfare in South Carolina. At Camden,
Gates was defeated by Cornwallis; and Baron de Kalb, a braveCONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 489

French officer, of German extraction, in the American service, fell
(Aug. 16, 1780). In this year (1780) Benedict Arnold's treason
was detected; and Major Andre, a British officer through whom
Arnold had made arrangements for giving up the fortress of West
Point to the enemy, was taken captive, and executed as a spy. In
the next year Gen. Nathanael Greene conducted military opera-
tions in Georgia and the CaroUnas With much skill, and succeeded
in pressing the army of Lord Cornwallis into the peninsula formed
by the York and James Rivers in Virginia. Thither the French
fleet sailed under Count Rochambeau ; and Washington, by forced
marches, was enabled to join with the French in surrounding the
British works at Yorktoiun. On the day when Clinton left New
York, at the head of his forces, to unite with Cornwallis, that
officer surrendered, with his entire army of seven thousand men,
to Washington (1781). This blow was fatal to the British cause.
The independence of the United States was recognized by Holland,
Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Russia (1782). The war had been
prolonged by the personal obstinacy of George JII., against the
wishes of his minister, Lord North. The surrender of Cornwallis
made it plain that further effort to conquer America was hopeless.
By the treaty of peace, signed at Paris and Versailles (1783),
England recognized the independence of her former colonies.
Washington bade farewell to his army, laid down his commission,
and retired to his farm at Mount Vernon.

America at the Close of the War.—The Congress during the
war had issued paper money to the amount of twenty millions of
dollars. It had no power to lay taxes, or to compel the States to
pay their several portions of the public indebtedness. The States
themselves were poor, and largely in debt. They surrendered,
however, their unoccupied public lands to the United States. In
1787 Congress made one territory of the district north-west of
the Ohio River, which Virginia had ceded, and by an ordinance
excluded slavery from it for ever.

The Constitution. — The lack of one system of law for the
different States in reference to duties on imports, and on various
other matters of common concern, and disorders springing up in
different places, inspired an anxious desire for a stronger central
government. A convention, over which Washington presided,
met in Philadelphia in 1787, and formed the new Constitution.
Hamilton of New York and Madison of Virginia were leading
members. There was much opposition to the new plan of gov-
ernment which they agreed upon, but it was finally adopted by all
the States. It supplied the defects of the old confederation by
uniting national with federal elements. To the Senate, made up
of two delegates from each State, it added a House of Representa-
tives) where the number of members from each State was made490	MODERN HISTORY.

proportionate to the population. It put the general government,
within the limit of its defined functions, into a direct relation to
the citizens, and gave to it judicial and executive departments to
carry out and enforce its legislation. It committed to the central
authority the management of foreign affairs, and various other
powers necessary for the preservation of peace and unity in the
land, and for the securing of the common weal of the whole coun-
try. Washington was unanimously chosen as the first president
of the Republic, and John Adams was chosen vice-president. The
first Congress met in New York on March 4, 1789.

CHAPTER VI.

LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION.

LITERATURE.

I. FRANCE.

Poetry and the Drama.—The literature of France in the age of Louis
XIV. was classical in its spirit. The ancient Greek and Roman writers were
admired and imitated. The Renaissance was now to run its course. The
French Academy, founded by Richelieu, undertook to regulate and improve
the French language. Measure, finish, elegance, were demanded by the reign-
ing taste, in all literary productions. Corneille (1606-1684), the father of
French tragedy, was the most virile of the French dramatists. Racine
(1639-1699), who followed, if less grand, was more pathetic. We find, how-
ever, in writers of genius, — even in the great preachers, as Bourdaloue and
Massilloriy who formed a type of pulpit elociuence peculiar to France, — a tend-
ency to what seems now a stilted style. The master in comedy was Moliere
(1622-1673), an actor, as well as an author of inimitable humor. One of the
most popular of French authors has been La Fontaine (1621-169$), whose
fables have charmed multitudes by their smooth versification, as well as by
their contents. Boileau (1636-1711), the Horace of France, prescribed, as a
lawgiver, rules upon the 4t Art of Poetry," and himself wrote satires and other
poems of high merit.

Prose Literature. — Bossuet (1627-1704) was an eloquent preacher and
historical writer, and an expert theological polemic of the liberal Catholic
school. Of a very different tone is Rochefoucauld, whose Maxims, expressed
in pithy language, seek to trace all virtuous action to self-seeking. The
French fondness for epigram—for terse, paradoxical statement — is exem-
plified even in the best writers, as, for example, Blaise Pascal. La Bruyire
(1639-1696), a genial philosopher, wrote in a most attractive style a work
entitled The Characters of Our A/>e. The metaphysician Malfbranche (1613^
1645) taught that we know through our spiritual union with God, or that we
see all things in God. A disciple of Des Cartesy he did not strictly follow
his master. Finelon (1651-1715), illustrious for his piety as well as for his
versatile authorship, wrote on religious topics and on education. Of all
his writings, his Telemachus, composed for tne young Duke of Burgundy, his
pupil, has been the most read. The letters of Madame de Stvignl, addressed
to her daughter, and not meant for publication, present most graphic descrip-
tions of the characters and occurrences of the day.LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 491

The Eighteenth Century. — When we cross the limit of the eigh-
teenth century, we meet with growing signs of skepticism in religion, and of
innovation in political thought. Criticism of the past, of traditional creeds
and established institutions, is spreading. The Historical and Critical Dic-
tionary of Bayle, a storehouse of chronicle and anecdote, is leavened with the
spirit of doubt. Three great writers deserve special attention. Montesquieu
(1689-1755) satirized all dogma in his Persian Letters. His celebrated work
on the Spirit of Laws is just and humane in its tone, and full of original and
inspiring views on history and government. He is one of the founders of
modern political science. Voltaire (1694-1778), the most popular of all
the writers of his age, was the incarnation of its critical and skeptical spirit, the
highest example of its wit as of its levity, and of the artificial character of its
literary ideals. He was play-writer, poet, historian, critic, and brilliant con-
verses all in one. In religion, a scoffer not only at superstition, but at all
beliefs and rites which imply revelation, he still clung to the belief in a
personal God. His creed was deism, jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
was, like Voltaire, a deist in his creed; but in religion, as in all his mental
action, there was a vein of sentiment. By the fascination of his style, he was
able, in his various writings, including his autobiographical Confessions, to
interest profoundly multitudes of readers of both sexes, and even to move
them to sympathy with himself in a career which deserves not less abhor-
rence than commiseration. He was, perhaps, the first author to evoke in
others a genuine relish, which he felt himself, for the wild scenery of nature*
In his Social Contract he maintained that government grows out of a con-
tract of individuals with one another, all of whom in the state of nature are
free and independent. He carried to a great extreme an idea which in Eng-
land had been held by /looker, and more explicitly expounded by Locke.
His doctrine furnished a theory for the political revolution in France. The
" Encyclopaedists " went much beyond Voltaire and Rousseau. L>'Alembertf
I/elvetiuSy Holbach, advocated atheism and materialism. Condiliac {1715-*
1780) sought to reduce this species of infidelity to an exact philosophical sys-
tem by tracing even conscience to sensation and self-interest* All religious
sentiment was condemned as morbid illusion.

II. GERMANY.

In Germany, the great name in philosophy is that of Leibnitz (1646-1716),
a rival of Neivton in mathematics and natural science, and an eminent
thinker in metaphysics, theology, and in jurisprudence. In intellect and in
variety of attainments, he is almost the peer of Aristotle. Wolf (1679-1754)
his disciple, svstemized and modified nis philosophical views. Klopstock
(1724-1803), tne author of Messiah, written somewhat after the manner of
the Paradise Lost of Milton, excelled the other German poets of his day,
Frederick the Great treated with disrespect the native literary products of his
country. Yet a new era in German letters and criticism was opened by Les*
sing (1729-1781), a poet, and a critic of admirable insight, whose influence in
this direction in Germany has been likened in its power to that of Luther
in religion.

III. ITALY.

In the eighteenth century, there was a new revival of literature in Italy.
Vico (1668-1744) almost made an epoch in the scientific treatment of history
antf mythology; in political economy and in archeology, there were numerous
explorers; Florence became once more a seat of learning. Beccaria (1738-
1794) by his writings introduced more humane views in criminal jurispru-
dence. Volta (174J-1827), an electrician, constructed the instrument called
the voltaic pile. Metastasio (1698-1782) fostered the melodrama, or Italian
opera, by his dramatic writings. Goldoni (1707-1792), a Venetian, was the
most eminent writer of comedies. Tragedy reached its acme in the works
of Alfieri (1749-1803), the founder of a new school.492

MODERN HISTORY.

IV. ENGLAND.

In England, after the Restoration, the influence of French standards in
literature is obvious. The drama declined, partly from the earlier antagonism
of the Puritans, and partly from the rage for indecency which infected the
dramatic writers, — even those of much ability, as Congreve,— and defiled
the stage. The Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan (1628-88) is written in a plain,
unaffected style, and is the most popular work of that age. In sharp con-
trast with Bunyan is Butler's Hudibrasy a witty satire, in doggerel verse,
upon Puritanism. The principal writer, prior to Queen Anne, is Dryden
(1631-1700). We have passed now from the Romantic school of poetry, in
which Shakspeare is the most exalted name, to the Classical school. In
the age of Queen Anne, Pope (1688-1744), with his vigor, without elevation,
of thought, his smooth versification and bright wit, is the principal figure.
The same period produced the labored novels of Richardson (168(^-1761),
and the vigorous and lifelike fictions of Fielding (1707-1757), which are,
unhappily, disfigured by coarse and licentious passages. In the early part of
the century> Addison (1672-1719) and Steele (1676-1719) were the most dis-
tinguished essayists. In them, as in the novels of Defoe (1661-1731), the
author of Robinson Crusoe, and in the prose writings of Swift (1667-1774),
the richness and idiomatic force of the English tongue are seen; while in
Samuel Johnson^the literary dictator in the latter part of the century, the
author of the English Dictionary, of The Rambler; the Lives of the Poetsy and
Rasselas, we have a striking and contagious example of a stately, sounding,
Latinized diction. In pleasing contrast, as regards style, which charms from
its simplicity, are the writings of Goldsmith (1728-74). In poetry, Gray
(1716-71), the author of the Elegy in a Country Churchyard, and Collins
(1720-59), wrote little, but wrote well. The triumvirate of great English
historians of the century are Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Gibbon's Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire is a monument of masterly ability and of vast
research; a work, however, marred by a want of naturalness in style, and,
still more, by a lack of religious faith and reverence, and by impurity of
tone and allusion. Hume's style is one of his chief claims to esteem as
an historian; for he was indolent in his researches, and prejudiced in his
views. He merited distinction chiefly as an economist and a metaphysician.

Philosophy.—In English philosophy, there are several writers of ex-
traordinary talents and influence. John Locke (1632-1704), an upright man
and a lover of freedom, wrote the celebrated Essay on the Understandings
besides other important works in political science and theology. He traced
all our knowledge to two sources, sensation and reflection, ultimately to the
first of these. Berkeley (1684-1753) advocated with rare genius an ideal
theory of matter, and defended tneism. Hume (1711-76) indirectly gave
rise to much of the later philosophy, by his acute speculations in behalf
of skepticism as to the reality of human knowledge and the foundation of
accepted beliefs. Reid (1710-96) rescued philosophy from the attacks of
Hume by the doctrine of " common sense," and thus founded the Scottish
school of metaphysicians. Among the numerous authors who cultivated
both philosophy and theology, particular distinction belongs to Dr. Samuel
Clarke (1675-1729), and to liishop Joseph Butler (1692-1752) who wrote
briefly, but with marked power, on the nature of conscience, and on the
Analogy between religion and what we know of the constitution and course
of nature.	•

Newton: Adam Smith. — Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), the discoverer
of the law- of gravitation, made, through his Principia, one of the most
important contributions ever made to the advancement of physical science.
In 1776 Adam Smith, a Scotchman, who had previously written on meta-
physics and politics, published his treatise on The Wealth of Nations, theRELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

493

first complete system of political economy. He showed that money is not
wealth, but simply one product serving as a means of exchange. He made
it clear, that, for one nation to gain in trade, it is not requisite that another
should lose. Much light was thrown on political economy by essays of
Hume.

V; AMERICA.

The most notable American writers before the War of Independence
were Jonathan Edivards (1703-58), a great metaphysical genius, and the
founder of a school in theology; and Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), whose
writings, in excellent English, related mainly to ethical and economical
topics. As the Revolution approached, there sprung up authors of ability
on the political questions of the day. The Federalist, written after the war,
by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, in favor of the proposed Constitution, is a
work of high merit, as regards both matter and style.

NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

The inductive method, or the " Baconian " method of observation and
experiment, began to bear rich fruits. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) not
only discovered the law of gravitation: other discoveries by him in mechan-
ics and optics were of great moment in the progress of those sciences.
Fluxions, or the differential calculus, was discovered independently by both
Newton and Leibnitz. Euler, a Swiss mathematician of the highest ability
(1707-1783), contributed essentially to the advancement of mechanics. Napier
invented logarithms, to shorten mathematical calculations. Huygens, a Dutch
philosopher (1629-1695), invented the pendulum clock. Gregory (1633-1675)
invented the reflecting telescope. Halley, an English astronomer (1656-
1742), gave his name to a comet whose return he predicted. Guericke in-
vented (1680), and Robert Boyle (1626-1691) perfected, the * air-pump. Boyle
was active in founding the Royal Society (1660). Voltay by the invention
of the pile called by his name, and Franklin, signally advanced the study of
electricity. In the history of zoology, Buffon is a great name, as is that
of Lavoisier in chemistry. Linnaus, a Swede, born in the same year with
Buffon (1707), attained to the highest distinction by reducing botany to a
system. The lives of the eminent astronomers Lagrange (1736-1813), Laplace
(1749-1827), and Sir William Herschel (1738-1822), outlasted the eighteenth
century.

The radical improvement of the steam-engine by James Watt, a Scotch-
man (1736-1819), — who obtained his first patent in 1769,—-and the invention
of the spinning-jenny by Richard Arkwright (1732-1792), are indicative of a
new era of progress in the application of science to practical arts and uses.

RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

English Deism.-—The religious debates and the religious wars of the
seventeenth century were followed by much indifference and disbelief in
the eighteenth. Weariness with sectarian struggles, and revolt against the
yoke of creeds, were pushed to the extreme of a denial of revealed religion,—
finally, in France, to a denial of the truths of natural religion also. In Eng-
land, there appeard a school of deistical writers, beginning earlier with Lord
Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648), and continued through Tindal, Morgan,
Bolingbrokir, Shaftesbury, Collins, and others. On the other side, Butler,
Lardner (1684-1768), Bentley, the best of England's classical scholars and
critics (1662-1742), and, later, Paley (1743-1805), were among the authors
who defended the divine origin of Christianity on rational and historical
grounds. Of these writers, Butler was the most profound, Lardner and
Bentley the most learned, and Paley the most lucid.494

MODERN HISTORY.

The "Quakers/*—During this period, the Society o£ Friends, "Qua*
kers," was founded in England by George Fox (1624-1691), who in 1647, im-
pelled by what he considered a divine call, began the life of an itinerant
preacher. He and his followers were subjected frequently to cruel persecu-
tion, both in England and America. In exceptional cases, they fell into ex-
travagances of enthusiasm, interrupted public worship, walked in the streets
clothed in sackcloth, or in some instances naked. They condemned war,
practiced non-resistance, objected to oaths and to a paid ministry, and set an
example of the utmost plainness and simplicity in speech and dress. Among
their many converts were William Perm, and their able and learned theo-
logian, Robert Barclay (1648-1690). The Friends, by their Christian forbear-
ance and patience, their purity of conduct and their philanthropy, and their
tranquil piety, gradually won the respect of the other religious bodies, who
were at first offended by their novel tenets and manners, and by the occa-
sional occurrence of revolting manifestations of a half-insane enthusiasm.

Methodism.—Of the religious movements in Protestant countries, Meth-
odism is the most noteworthy. This movement was originated by a little
group of students at Oxford, of whom John Wesley, his brother Charles,
and George Whitefield were the chief. Of these, John Wesley (1703-1791)
united with intellectual ability and cultivation, and religious fervor, a remark-
able organizing capacity. Whitefield was an orator in the pulpit, of un-
rivaled eloquence. lie was a Calvinist in his theology, and separated from
Wesley on account of Wesley's Arminian views. They were nicknamed
"Methodists," from their strictness of life in the University, and their sys-
tematic ways. Wesley and his associates preached to the common people in
England, including the poor colliers and miners, with untiring ardor and
surprising effect. Their converts were very numerous, and were formed into
societies under a definite polity ^nd discipline. The Wesleyan movement
was much opposed in the Church of England by those who stood in dread
of enthusiasm. I3y ordaining lay preachers and superintendents for America,
and by putting its chapels uncler the protection of the Toleration Act,—
measures which Wesley deemed necessary, — Methodism became separate
from the Anglican Established Church/ As a distinct body, it gained a
multitude of adherents in England and America.

Moravianism.— In 1722 a company of persecuted Moravian Christians
was received by Count Zinzendorf (1670-1740) on his estate, situated on the
borders of Bohemia. They founded a town called I/errnhut. Zinzendorf
became their bishop. The new community was distinguished for sincere
piety and for missionary zeal. They did not formally separate from the
Lutneran churches, yet had an organization of their own. Some of them
settled in America. The Moravians never became a very numerous body;
but their influence in promoting spiritual religion and education, and in
carrying Christianity to the heathen, has been more potent than that of many
larger bodies of Christians. It was specially wholesome in Germany, at a
time when, under the auspices of Frederick the Great, the French type of
unbelief prevailed in the higher classes of societv.

Pietism.— Prior to Zinzendorfy Spener (1035-1705), a man of devout
feeling, had given rise to the " Pietists," as the promoters of a warmer type
of religious experience than was approved by the current opinion were
derisively named.

Swedenborg.—	(1689-1772), a Swedish noble, a mathema-

tician and naturalist of large attainments, communicated, in copious writings,
.what he sincerely professed to consider special revelations made to him
respecting God, the unseen world, and the sense of the Scriptures. His
adherents are called "The New Church," or Swedenborgians.

The Jesuit Order. — Under the influences that had sway in the eigh-
teenth century, the authority of the popes sank in the Catholic countries.
The spirit of innovation was rife. One of the remarkable incidents of thePOLITICAL REFORM. —EUROPE.

495

time, characteristic of its tendency, was the conflict of Portugal And the Bour-
bon courts of France and Spain, with the Society of Jesuits. The Jesuits
had secretly established, unobserved, a state under their own exclusive con-
trol in Paraguay, a part of which, by a treaty of Portugal with Spain, fell to
Portugal. Other charges, some relating to interference in political affairs,
and some to other and different grounds of complaint, led to the expulsion
of the order from all Portuguese territory (1757); and soon after, it was
suppressed in France and in Spain, and in several of the Italian states. The
Jesuit order was formally abolished by Pope Clement XIV, in 1773, to be
again restored by, papal authority in 1814.

ESSAYS AT POLITICAL REFORM.

Russia: Germany. — The minds of men were unsettled, not
only by the prevalent tone of literature and speculation, but by
governmental changes and reforms. The disposition was to in-
troduce French methods of administration. Catherine II, of
Russia (1762-1796) tried the experiment of various judicial and
educational reforms. Frederick the Great\ with more wisdom
and consistency, introduced many changes for the benefit of the in-
dustrial class. The most sweeping reforms were undertaken by
the Emperor Joseph II, (1780-1790), after the death of his
mother, Maria Theresa, His measures for the reduction of the
power of the clergy and of the nobility, the closing of monasteries,
and the weakening of the connection of the Austrian Church with
Rome, were of a very radical character. He himself finally be-
came convinced that they were too radical to be completely real-
ized, in the existing state of opinion among his subjects. Two of
his reforms — the abolition of serfdom, and the edict of religious
toleration — remained in force. The other changes did not sur-.
vive him. The attempts to impose his reforms in the Austrian
Netherlands provoked an insurrection. Leopold II, (1790-1792),
Joseph's successor, suppressed the Belgian revolt, but repealed the
ordinances of his brother which had occasioned it.

Tusoany.— In Tuscany, the brother of Joseph //., Leopold
prior to his becoming emperor, undertook likewise a great plan-
of ecclesiastical reform in the same line as that of Joseph (1786) ;
but there the opposition of the bishops prevented him from prac-
tically carrying out his scheme.

Portugal. — In Portugal, the house of Braganza had ascended
the throne in 1640. Josep>h Emanuel (1750-1777) left the man-
agement of the government to his minister, Pombal, His measures
were contrived to weaken the power of the nobles and the clergy.
By him the warfare against the Jesuits was carried forward. The
fall of Pombal\ which followed the death of the king, led to the
abolition of all his reforms, which had the same fate as those
undertaken later in Austria by Joseph II,

Literature. — Sec the lists of works on pp. 16,395,450, and Adams's Manual of Historical
Literature ; Schlosser's History of the Eighteenth Century (8 vols.); Nookdkn's Euro*
pdischg Gesch. im i8tn. jfahr.: Der Sfanischt Erbfolgekrieg (a vols.); Lord John49<5	MODERN HISTORY.

Russell, History of the principal Statest etc. [1713-23]; Mahon's War of the Succession ;
Pardoe's Louis XIV. and the Court of France , etc.; St. Simon, The Memoirs of the Reign
of Louis XIV. and the Regency [an abridgment, 3 vols. J; Voltaire, Age of Louis XIV. /
Philippson (in Oncken's Series), Das Zeitalter Ludwigs d. Vierzehten; A. de Broglie,
Louis XV. : The Kings Secret Correspondence with his Agents, etc. (a vols.); A. Thiers,
The Mississippi Bubble ; M or ley's Life of Voltaire, and Life of Rousseau.

A. v. Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresas (10 vols., 1863-79): Duncker, A us der Zeit
Friedrichs d. Grossen, etc.; Ranks, Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg, and His-
tory of Prussia during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (3 vols.); Carlyle's
History of Frederick the Second (6 vols.); Preuss, Friedrich d. Grosse (p vols.); Von
Raumer, Frederick the Second and his Times ; A. de Broglie. Frederick the Great and
Maria Theresa (a vols.); Onckkn, Das Zeitalter Friedrich a. Grossen (a vols.).

The Diaries of Pepys and Evelyn; R. Vaughan, Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell;
Macaulay's History of England from the Accession of James II. (4 vols.); Mahon's
History of England (1701-13), also History of England (17x3 to 1783) (7 vols.); Burton,
History of the Reign of Queen Anne ; E. E. Morns, The Age of Anne ; Alison, Military

•	Life of the Duke of Marlborough ; Life of Marlborough, by Gleig, by Coxe (3 vols.);
Lecky's History of England in the Eighteenth Century (a vols ); Froude, The English
in Ireland in the EigiiteetUh Century (a vols.); W. H. I). Adams, English Party Lead-
ers and English Parties; J. C. Earle, English Premiers [Walpole to Peell (a vols.);
Massey, History of England during the Reign of George HI. (4 vols.); H. Walpole, Me-
moirs of the Reign of George II. (3 vols.), and of George III. (4 vols.); J. G. Phillimore,
History of England during the Reign of George III. ; J. Adolphus, History of England

' [ 1760-83 T (3 vols.); WraxaYl (1751-1831), Historical Memoirs of his own Time (4 vols.),
and Posthumous Memoirs of his own Time (3 vols.); May, Constitutional History of Eng-
land [1760-1860] (a vols.); Stoughton, History of Religion in England from the opening
of the Long Parliament to the End of the Eighteenth Century (6 vols.); Tyerman's Life
of Wesley; Southey's Life of Wesley; Tyerman's Life of Whitefield; Tyler's History
of American Literature ; Van Laun, History of French Literature (3 vols.); Morleys
Series of English Men of Letters ; Taine's History of English Literature.

Schuyler's Life of Peter the Great; Catherine ll.t Memoirs written by herself ; Ram-
baud's History of Russia.

Histories of the United States by Bancroft, Hildreth, McMasters, Bryant and Howard,
Doyle, S. Eliot, Laboulaye, Neumann, Willard, Schouler, J. H. Patton; School histories
by Scudder and Anderson: Grahame's History of the United States to the Declaration of
Independence; A. Holmes's History of the United States (1493-1836); Higginson, Young
Folks* History of the United States; Neill's English Colonization of America; Lodge's
Short History of the English Colonies in America ; Parkman's Series of Histories of the
'French in America; Froth inghnm, Rise of the Republic [to 1700]; R. Johnson, History of
the French War; Palfrey s History of New England; Sabine's American Loyalists ;

•	Ramsay's History of the Revolution; History of the American Revolution, by Botta;
Lossing, Field Book of the American Revolution; Rosenthal, A merica and France [1776-
94] (x88a).

Lives of Washington, by Marshall, Sparks, Irving, Weems; Lives of John Adnms, by
C. F. Adams, by Morse; Life of Franklin, by himself (Bigelow's ed.), by Sparks, by Parton;
Lives of Jefferson, by Randall, Parton. Morse; Tudor a Life of Jamer Otis ; Life of Samuel
Adams, by Wells, by Hosmer; Life oi Hamilton, by Morse; Life*ai Madison, by Rives;
W. Jay's Life of John Jay (a vols.); H. Von Hoist, Constitutional and Political His-
tory of the United States ffrom 1759]; Sparks's American Biography (a series, 35 vols.).
Winsor's Reader's Handbook of the American Revolution (1761-83), a very useful work,
gives the literature on the subject (1880); Bancroft, History oj the Formation of the Con'
stitution of the United States.Period IV.

THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

(1789-1815.)

INTRODUCTION.

Character of the Revolution. — The French Revolution was a
tremendous upheaval of society, which brought with it the aboli-
tion of feudalism and monarchy, and the securing of an equality
of political rights. Its immediate result in France was the estab-
lishment of a democratic republic, followed by an empire resting
on military power. Its conquests, and the predominance of
France, provoked an uprising of the other European peoples in
behalf of national independence. This overthrew the French
empire, and produced a temporary restoration of the old dynasty.
But the effect of the Revolution, in which the other civilized nations
largely shared, was the substitution, in the room of the mediaval
state, of the modern state resting on a broader basis of equality
as regards the rights and obligations of different classes. In the
Western nations of the Continent, serfdom, and manifold abuses,
civil and ecclesiastical, were abolished.

Causes of the Revolution. — First among the causes of the
Revolution in France, was the hostility felt towards the privileged
classes, — the king, the nobles, and the clergy, — on account of
the disabilities and burdens which law and custom imposed on the
classes beneath them. When Charles VIL organized a standing
army, and laid direct taxes to support it, the burghers and peasants
rejoiced (p. 328). The monarchy was thus enabled to shield
them, and subdue the great nobles. Louis XJV., as long as he
was successful, was sustained by the pride and national spirit of
the country. Yet his domination over the nobility and the Church
left the higher orders in possession not only of the offices and
honors which helped to fasten them submissively to the monarch,
but also left them in the exercise of the numberless complicated
privileges of local rule and taxation, — privileges which were the
growth of ages, and which laid on the necks of the people a yoke
too heavy to be borne.

497498

MODERN HISTORY.

1.	The Land: the Peasants. — Nearly two-thirds of the land in
France was in the hands of the nobles and of the clergy. A great
part of it was ill cultivated by its indolent owners. The nobles
preferred the gayeties of Paris to a residence on their estates.
There were many small land-owners, but they had individually too
little land to furnish them with subsistence. The treatment of the
peasant was often such that when he " looked upon the towers of
his lord's castle, the dearest wish of his heart was to burn it down,
with all its registers of debt" There was not, as now, a middle
class of land-owners, possessed of farms which, although smalt, are
yet adequate to yield them a living. The clergy, besides having
the whole management of education, held an immense amount of
land, seigniorial control over thousands of peasants, and a vast
income from tithes and other sources. In some provinces, there
was a better state of things than,in others; but, in general, the
rich had the enjoyments, and the poor carried the burdens.

2.	Monopolies.—. Manufactures and trade, although encouraged
under Colbert, were fettered by oppressive monopolies and a strict
organization of guilds.

3.	Corrupt Government. — The administration of government
was both arbitrary and corrupt. Places in parliament and in the
army, and most higher offices, were sold, but sold, as a rule, only
to nobles. When parliament refused to register decrees of taxa-
tion, the king held "beds of justicc,"— a method of passing laws
against parliamentary protest (p. 299). Warrants of arrest and
imprisonment — lettres de cachet — were issued by his sole au-
thority*

4.	Loss of Respect for Royalty. — Respect for the throne was
lost. Under Louis XIV., the number of salable offices was in-
credibly multiplied. In his last days, " in many towns the trade
in timber, wine, and spirits was taken out of private hands; nay,
even the poor earnings of those who towed boats on the rivers, of
porters and funeral mutes, were made a monopoly, and secured to
certain families exclusively, in consideration of a large premium."
" Famine prevailed in every province. The bark of trees was the
daily food of hundreds of thousands." The debauchery of Louis
XV., and his feeble foreign policy, tended to dissipate what rever-1
ence for royalty was left.

5.	Abortive Essays at Reform. —The efforts at political and
social reform in France and in other countries, emanating from
sovereigns after the great wars, produced a restless feeling without
effecting their purpose of social reorganization.

6.	Political Speculation. — The current of thought was in a
revolutionary direction. Traditional beliefs in religion were boldly
questioned. Political speculation was rife. Montesquieu had
drawn attention to the liberty secured by the English constitution.MARIE ANTOINETTE.

499

Voltaire had dwelt on human rights, — the rights of the individual,
Rousseau had expatiated on the sovereign right of the majority.

7.	Example of America. —Add to these agencies, the influence
of the American Revolution, and of the American Declaration
of Independence, with its proclamation of human rights, and of
the foundation of government in contract and the consent of the
people.

8.	The Immediate Cause. — The immediate cause of the Revo-
lution was the immense public debt, and the virtual bankruptcy of
the government.

CHAPTER I.

FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE STATES GENERAL TO
THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. (1789-1793).

Louis XVI, (1774-92): the Queen. — Louis XVL differed from
his two predecessors in being morally pure, and benevolent in his
feelings; but he was of a dull mind, void of energy, and with an
obstinacy of character that did not supply the place of an en-
lightened firmness. He had married (1770) Marie Antoinette,
the daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa. The vivacious
young queen, as well as the youthful king, at first charmed the
people. But her disregard of court etiquette, and her gay, im-
pulsive ways, provoked the dislike of many high in station, and
exposed her to the natural but unmerited suspicion, on the part of
the people, that she had faults worse than mere indiscretion. A
great scandal connected with a diamond necklace, which an un-
principled woman, the Countess Laviotte, falsely asserted that the
queen desired the Cardinal de Rohan to purchase for her, did
much to make her the victim of gross defamation (1785). Her
forbearance towards unworthy favorites, and her intermeddling in
the affairs of government, in opposition to political reforms, gradu-
ally kindled against her wide-spread disrespect and aversion.

To the States General.'—Helpless under the pressure of the
heavy debt and the deficit in revenue, the king called to his side
Turgot (1774) as minister of marine and finance, a political
economist and statesman of remarkable integrity and insight. He
set to work to reduce the enormous and extravagant public ex-
penditures, and to introduce reforms for the purpose of increasing
the public income. He proposed to do away with internal duties
on articles of commerce; to break up many guilds ; to abolish
the corvee, or the hard and hateful requirement upon the peasant
to labor so many days on the land of the lord; and to introduce
a greater amount of local self-government. These, and other500

MODERN HISTORY.

wholesome reforms in the civil service and in the army, excited
the violent opposition of the nobles and the clergy, and of the
whole body of interested courtiers. The king weakly yielded:
the great minister was dismissed; and France lost its golden
opportunity to prevent infinitely greater calamities than any which
the selfish opponents of change dreaded for themselves. Necker,
a Genevan banker of far less financial ability, was now placed at
the helm (1776-1781). His remedies were not radical; yet his
movements in the direction of economy, and for giving publicity
to the financial situation of the government, provoked such hatred
in the classes affected that he had to withdraw. Calonne, a
prodigal and incapable successor, in connection with the increased
expenses of the government consequent on the American War,
brought things to such a pass that the king called together (1787)
an Assembly of Notables to get, their advice. But these select
nobles and great officers had no prescription save increased taxa-
tion, which the body of the noblesse and clergy selfishly refused to
sanction. Calonne fled to London. Necker> to the joy of the
people, who built on him vain hopes, was recalled (1788) ; and it
was resolved to summon the States Getieral\ who had not met
since 1614. To this measure the incompetence and selfishness
of the ruling classes had inevitably led.

The Triumph of the Third Estate. — The States General met
at Versailles, May 5* 1789. The clergy numbered three hundred,
the nobles three hundred, and the third estate (tiers etat)—whose
plain black dress was in contrast with the more showy costume of
the higher orders—numbered six hundred. A pamphlet of Abb£
Sieyes, in answer to the question, "What is the Third Estate?"
declared that it is the nation in its true sovereignty and supreme
authority. A contest arose at once on the question, whether there
should be two houses, or whether all the members should sit
together. The Third Estate at length organized separately. The
Parisian astronomer, Bailly, was made president. Among the
members were Sieyes y and Mirabeau, a man of great intellect and
of commanding eloquence. They declared themselves to be the
National Assembly / and they persisted, against the king's will, in
sitting apart until, at his request, the other orders gave way and
joined them. It was resolved not to adjourn until the nation
should be put in possession of its ancient rights; meantime,
however, that, so long as the body should not be dissolved, money
should be raised by increase of taxation, and the interest be paid
on the public debt. The attempts of Louis to dissolve the
assembly were firmly resisted by the third estate, which was
joined by Talleyrandy Bishop of Autun, Gregoire, afterwards Bishop
of Blois, and, of the nobility, by the rich, ambitious, and unprin-
cipled Duke of Orleans. The king again yielded, and advised
the nobles and clergy to remain.THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

SOI

Destruction of the Bastile: Emigration of Nobles. — The

aristocratic party, on account of this victory of the third estate,
and because they could not trust the guard of the king, procured
the substitution for it of German and Swiss troops. The excite-
ment caused by this proceeding, and the rumor of Necker1 s dis-
missal, led to a mob of the rough Parisian populace, who seized
weapons from the workshops, and forced the surrender of the
Bastile, the grim old prison where political offenders had been
immured, — the visible monument of ages of royal tyranny, —
which they razed to the ground. The heads of Delaunay the
governor, and of the garrison of seven men, were carried on pikes
through the streets by the frenzied crowd. The mob wore cockades
on their hats : these became the badges of the Revolution. This
first outbreaking of mob violence had at once important effects.
Necker was recalled. Lafayette was made commander of the mi-
litia of Paris, organized as a National Guard. The tricolor— red,
white, and blue — was adopted for the flag. Bailly became mayor
of Paris. The king came to Paris, and showed himself, with the
national colors on his breast, to the people, at the Hotel de Ville,
thereby giving a tacit sanction to what had been done. Then began
the emigration of the nobles to foreign countries : the king's brother,
the Prince of Conde} and others high in rank, left the country. The
vices which the nobles had learned'to practice at home were now
to be exhibited abroad. The passions of the revolutionary party
were to be inflamed by the suspicion of a complicity of the king
and court with the plots of their absent supporters, who strove to
enlist other nations in the work of trampling down liberty in
France. The emigrants had some reason to fear. Municipal
guards were formed in various towns by the party of progress.
Soon there were risings of peasantry in several districts. Indi-
viduals in Paris — among them one of the ministers who suc-
ceeded Necker—were massacred. Nevertheless, the emigration
was a grand error. The danger at the moment was not great;
and, whatever the peril, the evils of desertion were far more to be
deprecated.

The New Constitution: Assignats.— The National Assembly,
at the instigation of Lafayette, passed a Declaration of Rights, after
the pattern of the American Declaration of Independence. On
motion of his brother-in-law, the Vicomte de Noailles, the repre-
sentatives of the nobles, in an outburst of enthusiastic self-renuncia-
tion, gave up their feudal rights and privileges. They liberated
the peasants from their burdensome obligations: the clergy relin-
quished their tithes; the sale of offices and titles was abolished;
equality of taxes was ordained; all citizens were made eligible to
all stations, civil and military. The new constitution provided
for one legislative chamber, to which should belong the right to502

MODERN HISTORY.

initiate all enactments. The king's veto only suspended the
adoption of a measure for two legislative terms. The assent of
the chamber was necessary for the validity of all foreign treaties,
and for declaring war or concluding peace. The State assumed
the support of the clergy. It was a constitutional monarchy that
was framed, —such a system as La Fayette and moderate republi-
cans desired. The essence of republicanism was secured under old
forms. Assignats, or notes, were issued as a currency, for which
the public lands were to be the security, — a safeguard that was
broken oven

The Mob at Versailles. —The delay of the king to proclaim
the constitution, the call of a regiment of troops to Versailles,
imprudent speeches and songs at a court banquet, stirred up the
Parisian mob, who ascribed the scarcity of food to the absence
of the king from Paris. A countless throng, made up largely of
coarse women, went out to Versailles, intruded into the legislative
chamber, and at night (Oct. 5) made their way into the palace,
over the bodies of the guards. The royal family were rescued
by La Fayette and the National Guard. The next day they were
forced to go to Paris, attended by this wild and hungry retinue,
and took up their abode in the Tuileries. To Paris, also, the
National Assembly transferred itself. More and more, Paris
gained control.

Progress of the Revolution.—The independence of the clergy,
and the judicial authority of the parliaments, were now extin*
guished by the Assembly. The property of the Church was con-
fiscated, as the salaries of the clergy were to be paid by the State;
the cloisters and monastic orders were abolished; the clergy were
. to be chosen by the people; there was to be absolute religious
freedom; there was a new organization of bishoprics; the press
was to be free; France was divided, for purposes of government,
into eighty-three departments; civil officers were to be chosen,
directly or indirectly, by popular vote; hereditary nobility, with
titles and coats-of-arms, was swept away. The equality of all
citizens was ordained. There was to be uniformity in measures,
weights, and coinage. A uniform judicial system was instituted,
with jury trials in criminal cases.	»

The Clergy.—> Thenceforward the clergy were divided into two
classes, — those who took the required oath to the constitution
(about one third of the whole number), and the "refractory"
ones, who, in accordance with the Pope's will, refused it.

The Clubs: Paris. — While these constitutional changes were
taking place, the mass of the populace were becoming more and
more excited by vehement orators, who discoursed of human
rights, and by inflammatory journals. Clubs were organized for
democratic agitation, which were named, from the places whereFLIGHT OF THE KING.

503

they met, Jacobins and Cordeliers. The latter had for their head
Danton, with his stentorian voice, and the eminent advocate and
orator Camille Desmoulins. The Jacobins aimed at the utter
destruction of the old institutions. The moderate monarchists,
such as Bailly and La Fayette, had a club of their own (the
jFeuillants). The municipality or commune of Paris was divided
into forty-eight sections, each with an assembly which served as a
theater for demagogical harangues.

F6te of the Federation. — For a time the skies appeared
bright. On the 14th of July, 1790, a great Federative Commemo-
ration, or festival of civic fraternity, was held on the Champs de
Mars in Paris. Talleyrand at the head of three hundred priests
clad in white, with tri-color sashes, officiated at an altar in the
midst of the arena. First, La Fayette as president of the National
Guard, then the president of the Assembly, and last the king,
took an oath before the half-million of spectators to uphold the
constitution. Then the queen, partaking in the common enthu-
siasm, held up the dauphin in her arms, and pledged his future
obedience to the oath. There was unbounded joy at what was
supposed to be a new millennial era of political freedom and*
brotherhood. The grand festival awakened sympathy and hope
in all the countries of Europe.

Flight of the King. — The hope of unity and political bliss,
which exalted all minds to a high pitch of emotion, proved, before
long, to be an illusive dream. The king was not ready to confirm
the ordinance respecting priests, which made them civil officers;.
nor was he ready to declare the plotting emigrant nobles at Co-
blenz and Worms traitors. Mirabeau, who had, enlisted in behalf
of the king in a resistance to further measures for the reduction
of regal authority, and in behalf of a constitutional monarchy, in
which the legislative, judicial, and executive functions should be
kept apart, suddenly died (April 2, 1791), at the age of forty-
two. His death, caused partly by overwork of brain, and partly
by dissolute habits, deprived the conservative republicans and the
court of their ablest defender. No one like him was left to stem
the current of revolutionary passion, which threatened to burst
through all barriers. The Paris sections became more and more
violent. They hindered a proposed journey of Louis to St. Cloud.
This determined him, against the urgent wishes of the queen, to
escape, with his family, to the army of the Marquis de Bouille,
at Montmedy. But the fugitives were stopped in their flight, at
Varennes, and brought back in custody to Am. This unwise
and abortive proceeding of the king, coupled with his formal
annulling of all that he had done in the two years previous, had-
for its natural consequence his suspension from office. An insur-
rection of the mob, Jo put an end to the monarchy, was sup-504

MODERN HISTORY.

pressed by La Fayette. At the end of September, Louis swore to
the revised constitution, and was restored to the throne. The
Assembly then dissolved, to give place to another, which should
complete the new political creation by needful legislation : hence
it was called

The Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1791-Sept. 1792). It was
composed of seven hundred and forty-five members, mostly young
men, among them a number of eloquent orators. One-half of the
body were advocates. Unfortunately, the convention, by a kind
of self-denying ordinance, had voted to. exclude themselves from
membership in the new body, which thus lacked the benefit of
their knowledge and experience. In the Assembly, on the right,
were the different classes of supporters of constitutional monarchy,
the royalists, and the Fetiillants (of the school of La Fayette}.
On the left, were the majority, which steadily increased in num-
bers, and embraced (1) the Girondists, or moderate republicans;
(2) the Mountain, — so called from their higher seats in the hall,
—comprising the most decided democrats or radicals. Here were
the leaders of the Jacobins and Cordeliers. The Girondists, or the
"Plain" were for going beyond the Constitution of 1791, in the
direction of a republic after the model of the United States. They
were enamored of the spirit of the ancient commonwealths. They
were fond of recurring to the Roman orators and historians.
Roland\ Brissoty and Dumouriez were among their leaders.

The Parisian Populace.—The populace of Paris made Petion,
a democrat, their mayor. In the Jacobin club were Robespierre;
Marat, who denounced fiercely in his journal, "The Friend of
the People," as agstocrats, all classes above the common level,
whether by birth or property, and the former play-actor, D*Her-
bois. Danton, and Camille Desmoulins, who belonged to the
Cordeliers, took part in its sessions. From this company, the
Girondists separated after the fall of the king. The red Jacobin
cap came into vogue as a badge of republicanism, and the Mar-
seillaise as its favorite inspiring song. Declaimers and journals
were in full blast, stirring up the fears and wrath of the people.

The Assembly and the King. — The Assembly passed penal
acts against the recusant priests, — those who refused the oath;
and against the emigrants, who were trying to stir up the powers
of Europe against the French government in its new form. These
enactments were met by the king with a veto.

War with Austria and Prussia. — The authors of the French
Revolution have been so# generally objects of execration,, and so
terrible crimes were actually perpetrated in the course of it, that
it is only just to note the circumstances which explain the origin
of these atrocities, and which enabled violent leaders and wild
passions to usurp control. The efforts of the constitutionalists toCONDITION OF GERMANY.

S05

save the throne were balked by the exiles ancl the foreign govern-
ments. Frederick William II. of Prussia (1786-1797), and Leo-
pold II. the emperor (1790-1792), in the Declaration of Pilnitz
(Aug. 27, 1791), called on the other European powers to join
them in aiding Louis XVI. to establish a right sort of government.
From Russia, Sweden, Spain, and even Switzerland, there were
not wanting manifestations of hostility. The Pilnitz Declaration
had the effect to bring into power a Girondist ministry. They
wanted war as the best means of attaining the objects which they
had in view at home. On April 20, 1792, Louis was compelled
to go to the Assembly, and propose a declaration of war against
Austria. " The courts of Europe had heaped up the fuel: the
Girondists applied the torch." They were not averse to a cru-
sade in behalf of liberty.

The Condition of Germany. — Germany consisted of a multi-
tude of states, of which Austria (which had large territories not
German) and Prussia were the chief, and were in constant rivalry.
The Holy Roman Empire kept up its name and forms. Besides
smaller sovereignties, as Saxony and Bavaria, there were two hun-
dred and fifty petty principalities, fifty imperial cities, and several
hundred knights, each with an insignificant domain subject to him.
The empire was one body only in theory. National feeling had
died out. The Diet had little to do, and no efficiency. Austria,
which held the imperial office, and included in its extensive
dominions Milan and Southern Netherlands, had sunk into a
" gloomy and soulless despotism." The reforms of Joseph IL pro-
duced a ferment; but after the death of Leopold IL (1790-1792),
under Francis IL, a sickly and selfish ruler, a reactionary policy,
inspired by the dread of change, had full sway. Thuguty the min-
ister of Francis, cared only for the acquisition of territory: the
people were so many millions " to be taxed, to be drilled, to be
kept down by the police." In Prussia, Frederick William IL
(1786-1797) and his people had no feeling so strong as that of
hostility to Austria, whose influence was predominant in the minor
states. Prussia cared more for getting additional Polish territory
than for helping the French emigrants. The Prussian people were
separated by rigorous lines into three classes, — nobles, burghers,
and peasants. The nobles were poor. The lawful occupations of
each class were prescribed by law. " The mass of the peasantry,
at least in the country east of the Elbe, were serfs attached to the
soil." The offices in the army were confined to nobles, on whose
absolute obedience the king could count. Blows were inflicted on
the common soldier as if he were a slave. In some of the other
Protestant states, the character of the government had improved.
In the south and west, the serfs had been set free. In the eccle-
siastical states, including the electorates of Mentz, Treves, and506

MODERN JIISTORY.

Cologne, the prince-bishops and canons wfcre nobles, who led a
gay and luxurious life. Nowhere were poverty and wretchedness
so general as in the lands of the knights. The political life of
Germany, notwithstanding its abundant resources, mainly from the
decay of public spirit and the want of political unity, had become
stagnant and corrupt. Germany was almost incapable of vigorous,
united action.

Conflict of Louis and the Assembly.—There was no real union
between Louis XVL and the Assembly. Troops of the National
Guard, to the number of twenty thousand, were brought from the
provinces to Paris. This measure, as well as a decree for the
banishment of the non-juring clergy, the king refused to sanction.
The Girondist ministers laid down their office. A mob burst into
the Tuileries: they put on the king's head a Jacobin cap, but he
remained calm and steadfast in his refusal to assent to the decrees.
La Fayette came to Paris from the Northern army, to restore
order; but the queen treated him with habitual distrust, and he
fell under suspicion with the radicals. He went back to the army
without effecting any thing.

Imprisonment of the King. — Prussia had joined its rival, Aus-
tria, Ferdinand of Brunswick, an officer trained under Frederick
the Great, commanded the Prussian forces. He issued (July 25)
a threatening proclamation to the French people. There were
three French armies in the field, under Rochambeau, La Fayette,
and Luckner; but the fire of the Revolution had not yet entered
into the veins of the soldiers. Military reverses heightened the
revolutionary excitement in Paris. The municipal government was
broken up by Danton and his associates, with the mob of poor
and desperate partisans at their back; and its place was taken by
commissioners from the sections. An armed throng again attacked
the Tuileries. The king took refuge in the hall of the Assembly-
The Swiss guards were successfully fighting the assailants, when they
received an order from him to cease firing The result was that
they were slaughtered without mercy. The uniform composure of
the king in the most trying situations, and his conscientious feel-
ings, were a poor substitute for intellectual force. The Assembly
voted to suspend the exercise of his authority, to put him and his
family under surveillance, to hand over the young prince to the
custody of a person charged with his education, and to call a
national convention to draw up a constitution. The royal family
were given into the hands of the Paris commune, and lodged as
prisoners, in apartments scantily furnished, in the castle called the
Temple.

Massacres of September. — The blundering of the royalists,
their intrigues, and the pressure of the coalition of foreign enemies,
had thrown the power into the hands of the Jacobins4 The cityEXECUTION OF THE KING.

507

council, and Danton, the minister of justice, were really supreme,
although the Girondists had a share in the new ministry. La
Fayette was accused and proscribed, and fled from the country.
He was captured by the Austrians, and kept in prison at Olmutz
until 1796. The news of the advance of the allies led to the
" massacres of September," when the prisons in Paris, which had
been filled with priests and laymen arrested on charges of com-
plicity with the enemies of liberty, were entered by ruffians acting
under the orders oi Danton and the commune's "committee of
surveillance," and, after " a burlesque trial" before an armed jury,
were murdered. In Versailles, Lyons, Orleans, and other towns,
there were like massacres. The victims of these massacres num*
bered about three thousand.

Trial and Execution of the King.—The National Convention
was made up entirely of republicans. The monarchy was abol-
ished, and France was declared a republic. The Girondists had
at first the preponderance in numbers; but the Jacobins, led by
Robespierre, Danton, Marat, Couc/ion, Fouche, the Duke of Or*
leans (who called himself Philip Egalite), St. Just (once a mar-
quis), Bare re, were supported by the clubs and the city council,
and by the savage populace of the sections, — the sans culottes.
The guillotine — a machine for beheading, which Guillotin, a
physician, did not invent, but recommended for use — was the
instrument on which the fanatical revolutionists placed most of
their reliance for the extirpation of "aristocracy." The energy
of the Jacobins, aided by the general dread of a restoration of the
royalists to power, and by the fury of the Paris populace, proved
too strong for the more moderate party to withstand. The king,
designated as Louis Capet, was arraigned before the assembly,
tried, and condemned to death. There were seven hundred and
twenty-one votes: his death was decreed by a majority of one
(Jan. 15, 1793). Through all the terrible scenes of the trial, the
parting with his wife and children, and the execution (Jan. 21),
Louis manifested a serene and Christian temper.

Victories of France. — Meantime, in France the war was felt,
and justly, to be a war of self-defense. The enemies were a priv-
ileged class in alliance with foreign invaders. Volunteers flocked
to the field. The troops under Dutnouriez and others had been
successful. At Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792) the allies, under Bruns-
wick, were defeated. The victory of Dumouriez at Jemmappes was
followed by the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands (Nov., 1792)*
Savoy and Nice were annexed to France. The Scheldt was de-
clared free and open to commerce, and Antwerp was made an
open port.508

MODERN HISTORY.

CHAPTER II.

FROM THE EXECUTION OP LOUIS XVI. TO THE PALL
OP ROBESPIERRE (JAN. 21, 1793-JULY 27, 1794).

The First Coalition.—The execution of the king was the signal
for the union of the European powers against'France. The inten-
tion of the revolutionary party to propagate their system in other
countries afforded one excuse for this interference. The Con-
vention (Nov. 19, 1792) had offered their assistance to peoples
wishing to throw off the existing governments. Another reason
was the recent annexations, and the proceedings in respect to the
free navigation of the Scheldt. The main ground and cement of
the coalition was the dread which the governments felt of revolu-
tionary movements among their, own subjects, from their sympathy
with the new institutions in France.

Politics in England.—The reason just mentioned was operative
in Great Britain. The revolution of 1688 had given power to a
group of Whig families and their retainers. To shake off this
Whig control, which had long continued, was a constant aim of
George IIL In William Pitt, the younger, he found a minister
capable, under the favoring circumstances, of achieving this result.
He was made prime minister in 1783, when he was only twenty-
five years old. The king, in 1788, had been attacked with in-
sanity ; and while he was thus afflicted, George, Prince of Wales,
who was unpopular on account of his loose morals, ruled as regent.
The regent affiliated with the Whigs, but Pitt retained his office.
The leader of the liberal party was Charles James Fox^ a man of
noble talents and generous instincts, but notoriously irregular in
his habits. The sympathy in England with the Revolution of 1789
was widely" diffused. Edmund Burke, however, the great philo-
sophical statesman, who had defended the cause of freedom in the
American War, was alarmed by the events in France, and still
more by the theories of human rights propounded by the enthusi-
astic friends of the Revolution. These ideas were set forth in Eng-
land, in an offensive form, in the writings of Thomas Paine. Burke
published, in 1790, his Reflections on the French Revolution, in
which he attacked as visionary the political notions of the French
school in regard to human rights, and denounced them for their
dangerous tendency. He separated from his party, and publicly
broke friendship with Fox. Pitt was personally averse to war with
France, but was driven into it by the prevailing sentiment. The
anti-revolutionary feeling excited by the news of the death of Louis
moved England to an armed interference which involved the most
important consequences to all Europe. A Tory minister, Pitt was
supported in the long struggle in Europe by a majority of the Whigs.THE JACOBIN REVOLUTION.

509

In the'next twenty years, Great Britain, by her military strength
on the land, and much more on the sea, and in particular by her
wealth, freely poured out in subsidies to her allies on the Conti-
nent, was a powerful, as well as the most persevering, antagonist
of France.

Pall of the Girondists. —The advance of the allied armies in-
creased the violence and strengthened the hands of the Jacobins.
Dumouriez lost a battle in JNeerivinden (March 18, 1793), and
fell back, through Belgium, to the French frontier. He was in
sympathy with the Girondists, and complained of the doings of
the Jacobins in Paris and in his army. Being called to account,
he went over to the Austrians. This desertion weakened the
Girondist party, and put new force into the party of Jacobins.
At the same time, news came of a royalist revolt in the West, and
of conflicts between the Jacobins and their adversaries in the cities
of the South. Danton, who understood that " audacity " was the
secret of success, procured the appointment by the convention
of a Committee of Public Safety (April 6, 1793), which was to
exercise the most frightful dictatorship known in history. A "com-
mittee of general security " was put in charge of the police of the
whole country, The commune of Paris co-operated in the ener-
getic efforts of the Jacobin leaders to collect recruits and to
strengthen the military force. The three chiefs were Danton,
Marat, and Robespierre. There was a mortal struggle between
the advocates of order and the apostles of anarchy. The fate of
the moderates and Girondists was sealed by a great insurrection
in Paris, and an invasion of the Convention by an armed force.
The violent party had at their back eighty thousand National
Guards, who hemmed in the Convention. Twenty-two Girondist
leaders were placed under arrest. Their party fell. The boldest
and most reckless faction, which had the Paris commune behind
it, triumphed.

War of La Vendee.-— Outside of Paris y in other parts of France,
there were risings against the Jacobin rule. The most formidable
of these was in the West, where the relation of the nobles to the
peasants had been kindly, and where the common people looked
on the violent proceedings at Paris with anger and disgust. Thus
began the war of La Vendee, a terrible episode of civil strife, in
which the people of that region were subdued, but not until after
protracted conflict and immense slaughter.

The Jacobin Revolution.— Danton and the other revolutionary
leaders showed a tremendous energy in their attack on both do-
mestic and foreign enemies. A levy was ordered of the whole male
population capable of bearing arms. A maximum price was fixed
by law for commodities, and also for wages. . The government paid
its dues in depreciated assignats at the face value. Its emissariesMODERN HISTORY.

were in all parts of France, stirring up the people and forming
revolutionary committees. Thus a system of revolutionary govern-
ment was everywhere established. A new constitution, of an ex-
treme democratic type, was offered to the acceptance of the people.
This dominion of the Jacobins, it must be observed, was a second
revolution. The Revolution of 1792 was as different from that of
1789 as was the proposed constitution of 1793 from that of 1790.
The insurrections, except at Lyons and Toulon and in La Vendee,
were soon quelled. The Jacobin rule was identified with the cause
of patriotism in arms against foreign invasion, and with antipathy
to the restoration of Bourbon royalty and misrule. In Paris, the
revolutionary tribunal was filling the prisons with the suspected,
and sending daily its wagon-loads of victims to the guillotine.

Military Successes of France.-^-The achievements of the great
coalition were not at all in proportion to its apparent strength. It
was weakened by mutual jealousies and inefficient commanders.
In the South, the Spaniards and Piedmontese did not profit by their
successes. In the North and North-east, the summer of 1793 was
partly wasted by the English, Austrians, and Prussians, in long sieges
and in dissensions among themselves. Meantime the French army .
was growing stronger, and more and more on fire with patriotic
ardor. The Duke of York, an incapable general, was obliged to
raise the siege of Dunkirk (Sept. 8, 1793). The forces of the
coalition began to retire from ground that they had won. At Pans,
Carnofs efficient management of military affairs gave France an
advantage over her foes. The Prussians were inactive on the
Rhine; and Jourdan, reinforced by a French detachment from
that quarter, defeated the Austrians at Wattignies. By the move-
ments of Hoche, the allies were driven out of Alsace. Lyons, after
a stubborn defense, was captured and savagely punished, and the
brave Vendeans were completely defeated by Kleber at Savenay.
Near the end of the year, Toulon, then in revolt, was captured.
At the siege, a young artillery officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, first
distinguished himself by pointing out the proper spot for the plant-
ing of batteries that would drive away the English and Spanish
fleets, and by carrying out his project.

Bonaparte. — Napoleon was born on the island of Corsica, Aug.
15, 1769, two months after Corsica became subject to the French.
His family, on both sides, were Italians. Napoleon himself never
became so fully master of the French tongue that he did not betray
in his speech his foreign extraction. He was educated at the mili-
tary school of Brienne (1779-1784), and then went to the.military
school at Paris. His principal studies were mathematics and
history. ' He quickly made manifest his military talents* and
seems first to have aspired to gain distinction and power, in this
line, in Corsica. His connection was at first with the JacobinstTHE REIGN OF TERROR.	511

although he afterwards denied it. He had imbibed the ideas of
the Revolution, and saw that in the service of the leaders in the
war there was opened to him a military career. He turned against
his patriotic countryman, Paoli, when the latter sought to separate
Corsica from France, at that time under the Jacobin rule.

The Reign of Terror. — The Reign of Terror had now estab-
lished itself in France. The Committee of Public Safety wielded
absolute power. Every man, woman, and child was called upon
to take part in the defense of the country. The property of all
the " emigrants " and prisoners of state was seized. Whoever was
suspected of being hostile to the established tyranny was thrown
into prison. Even to be lukewarm in adhesion to it, was a capital
offense. Summary trials were followed by swift executions. The
tenderness of youth and the venerableness of age were no protect
tion. Day after day, the stream of human blood continued to flow.
A new calendar was ordained : Sept. 22, 1792, was the beginning
of the year one. There was a new division of months; in the
room of the week, each tenth day was made a holiday. The
commune of Paris, followed by other cities, formally proclaimed
atheism to be the truth. Fashions of dress, modes of speech,
and manners were revolutionized. Every vestige of " aristocracy "
was to be swept off the earth. There was a wild license given to
divorce and to profligacy. Paris was like a camp where young
soldiers were drilled, weapons were forged, and lint and bandages
made ready for the wounded. There were seen, even in the hall of
the Convention, throngs of coarse and fierce men, and of coarser
and fiercer women, with their songs and wild outcries and gestures*
The commune of Paris instituted an atheistic festival in the
ancient cathedral of Notre Dame, where a harlot was enthroned
as " Goddess of Reason." There were priests and bishops who
abjured the Christian faith, and there were others who adhered to
it at the peril of their lives. The prisons, which were packed with
all classes, were theaters of strange and thrilling scenes. In
many cases, death, made familiar, ceased to terrify. Crowds
escorted the batch of victims carried on carts each day to the
place of execution, and insulted them with their brutal shouts.
The arrested Girondist deputies were executed. Some of the
leaders of that party, including Roland, perished by suicide.
Among the eminent persons sent to the guillotine were the elo-
quent Vergniaud\ Brissot, Bailly, Malesherbes (the brave advocate
who had defended Louis XVI.), and Madame Roland; also the
infamous Duke of Orleans, who had intrigued to get himself raised
to the throne. Marie Antoinette, her hair turned white in the
tragic^scenes through which she had passed, miserably clad, was
dragged before the merciless tribunal. There she was insulted
with foul accusations which nobody believed. After the mockery5"

MODERN HISTORY.

of a trial, she was carried like a common criminal, in a cart, with
her arms bound, to the place of execution (Oct. 16). Her dignity
and serenity, her pallid countenance, and the simple, pathetic
words uttered by her at her arraignment, touched for the moment
the hardened hearts of the imbruted spectators. Her sad fate
has blinded many to the calamitous errors committed by her in
the days of her power.

The Jacobin Chiefs. — The Reign of Terror was not confined
to Paris. The unexampled atrocities there were repeated in the
other large towns with like circumstances of barbarity. A species
of fanaticism ruled and raged in the land. The mania, if one may
so call it, reached its height in the three chiefs of the revolution-
ary tribunal, Marat> Danion, and Robespierre. In Marat espe-
cially, the mastery gained by one idea almost amounted to mental
disorder. He demanded first five hundred heads, then (in Sept.,
1793) forty thousand; then, six weeks later, two hundred and
seventy thousand. It did seem to be a "homicidal mania."
Marat was assassinated by a young maiden, Charlotte Corday, who
devoted herself to the task of ridding the world of such a monster.

Death of Danton. — The Jacobin leaders found their ideal of
virtue in the Spartan spirit. Infatuated by Rousseau's theory of
the omnipotence of the state, in which the individual is merged
and lost under the despotism of the majority, they looked on the
massacre of countless persons, guilty of no crime, as a good deed.
At length men began to grow weary of this frightful tyranny. The
leaders became divided among themselves. Danton was a barba-
rian, but would have spared the Girondist victims, and, to his
credit be it said, halted at a point where the others advanced. He
made an objection to the confounding of the innocent with the
guilty. Hebert and the leaders of the commune, with their athe-
ism and unbounded licentiousness, were offensive to Robespierre,
who was a deist. He held a sort of middle position, had most
power with the Jacobins, and was enabled to crush and destroy
his associates. He was a dull man, of a quiet mien, often seen
with a nosegay in his hand, and bloodthirsty according to a pre-
cise theory. His ascendency gave him the power, after scenes of
tempestuous debate, to inflict first on Hebert, on Clootz, and his
other confederates, and then on Danton and the Dantonist chiefs,
the same death by the guillotine to which they had doomed so
many. Robespierre abolished the worship of Reason, and caused
the Convention to pass a resolution acknowledging the existence of
a supreme Being, in whose honor fetes were held. Christianity was
denounced as a base superstition.

Cruelties in the Provinces. — When Robespierre was supreme,
the Reign of Terror became still more terrible. In trials, the
hearing of evidence and of argument were dispensed with. TheFRENCH VICTORIES.

513

prisons were crowded with "suspects." Alleged conspiracies in
prisons were made a pretext for wholesale slaughter under the
guillotine. Suicide and madness were of common occurrence.
Fear brooded over the minds of all. In the provinces, there were
scenes of horror like those which occurred in the capital. The
revolted cities, as Lyons and Toulon, were punished with savage
ferocity. At Lyons, men, women, and children in masses were
shot down with artillery. Those who were not killed with the
shot were cut in pieces by the soldiery. At Nantes prisoners were
bound together in pairs, and huddled together in barges, which
were scuttled and set afloat down the Loire. Hundreds of infants
were drowned.

French Victories. — Yet, at this time, the arms of the republic,
except on the sea, where the French fleet was badly beaten by the
English, were mostly successful. The Duke of York was van-
quished on the Belgian frontier, and the defeat of the allies at
Fleurus (June 26, 1794) obliged them to evacuate Belgium,Crt

THE BONAPARTES.	&

Charles Bonaparte, m. Letitia Ranioglini.

i, Joseph,	3, Lucien,	Maria Louisa, m. (2), a, Napoleon I,

King of Spain, Prince of Canino, daughter of	1804-1814

d. 1844.	d. 1840.	Emperor

Francis II.

Z^naide, w. Charles,
d. 1857.

Luden."

-1
Pierre.

Lucien, Cardinal.

5, Caroline, _	6, Jerome,

a*. Joachim Murat, King of	King of Westphalia,

Naples, shot 1815.	d. 1860,

*t. Catharine of Wiirtemberg.
(1), m. (a), Josephine, (1), m. General Beauharnais.	.

(deposed, <L 1821),

Clotilda, d. of Victor Emanuel II of Italy, m. Napoleon.
Napoleon Victor Jerome Frederic.

r

1

Napoleon, Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon II), Eugfcne, Duke of Leuchtenber^, d. 1824,	Hortense, m\ 4, Louis,

d. 1832.	jw. Augusta, daughter of Maximilian Joseph	King of Holland,

of Bavaria.	d. 1846.

Josephine, m. Oscar I of Sweden*

r

Napoleon Charles, d. 1807. Napoleon Louis, d. 1831

T

Eug&nie, Countess of Teba, m. Louis Napoleon III, 1852-1870, d. 1873.

Napolc

Napoleon, d. 1879.

£
o
e
w
50

Cft
OFALL OF ROBESPIERRE.

515

CHAPTER III.

PROM THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE TO THE EMPIRE OF-
NAPOLEON (1794-1804).

Fall of Robespierre (9th Thermidor). — A reaction set in
against the cruelties of Jacobinism. Men — even the judges of
the murderous tribunal—grew weary of bloodshed. The authority
of Robespierre began to wane, even with his colleagues. The
assembly at length turned against him. On July 27 (the gth
Thermidor, according to the new calendar) he was arrested. He
was released, but was again seized, and, with St. Just, Couthon>
and most of the leaders of the commune, was guillotined.

Bare statistics, accompanied by no thrilling descriptions, convey a strong
impression of the atrocities of the Reign of Terror. According to M. Taine,
" there were guillotined at Paris, between April 16,1793, ancl the 9th Thermi-
dor, 2,625 persons. The same process went forward all over France. In Arras,
299 men and 93 women; in Orange, 531 persons ; in Nantes, 1,971; in Lyons,
1,684 (avowedly, but-a correspondent of Robespierre estimates the total at
6,000); in the fusillades (deaths by shooting) of Toulon, more than i,ooo; in
the ttoyades (drownings) of Nantes, nearly 5,000 perished. In the eight de-
partments of the West, it is reckoned that nearly half a million perished."
The deaths from want, under the Jacobin government, M. Tain* thinks,
much exceeded a million. " France was on the brink of a great famine on
the Asiatic scale."

Reaotion: Control of the Moderates. — The Reign of Terror
was brought to an end. The moderates controlled the Convention.
The prison doors were opened, and the multitude of suspects were
set free. The revolutionary tribunal was broken down. The com-
mune of Paris was so shaped as to strip it of its most dangerous
powers. The Jacobin and other incendiary clubs were suppressed.
Religion was declared to be free, and the churches were opened to
their congregations. The Girondist deputies who survived were
invited back to their seats in the Convention. The National
Guards were filled up from the middle class, — the bourgeoisie.
Little mercy was shown to the Jacobins anywhere. The reaction
was seen in the altered character of society and of manners. Those
who had acquired wealth in the late time by the changes of prop-
erty came to the front. The old fondness for dress and gayety
leappeared. Paris was again alive with balls and other festive
entertainments. The saloons were crowded with elegant youth of
the higher class (the jeunesse doree). The party of Terror were
cowed; but in consequence of the rise in the cost of provisions,
and of the distress caused by it, and by the sudden abrogation of
tyrannical laws settling the price of food and wages, there were two
fierce outbreakings of the mob of Paris (April 1, May 20, 1795).
These were quelled, and the power of the Jacobins was finally
crushed. The moderates had now to guard against the increasing-
strength and rising hopes of the royalists.	♦MODERN HISTORY.

Conquest of Holland: Prussia. — The armies of France were
everywhere successful. Through the victories of Jourdan and
Pichegru, Holland was conquered, and converted into the Bata-
vian Republic, and Dutch Flanders surrendered to France. The
Low Countries were now a dependency of the French Republic
(1794-1795). Hoche, an excellent general, partly by concilia-
tion, reduced the West — the theater of the La Vendue revolt—
to submission. The English and emigrants landed in Quiberon,
on the coast of Brittany, but were defeated. The coalition was
broken up, first by the withdrawal of Prussia, which ceded (April
5, 1795), and, in a secret article, ceded permanently, its territories
on the left bank of the Rhine to the French, for a compensation
to be obtained from secularized German states, — that is, states
in which the old ecclesiastical rule should be abolished. A few
months later (July, 1795), Spain concluded peace, ceding St. Do-
mingo to the Republic. The soldiers of France were fast becoming
trained, and their confidence rose, with their increasing success.
This success was due largely to the weak generalship of the allies.
The French were commonly hard masters in the conquered places.
On the other hand, however, they effected a welcome abolition of
old feudal inequalities and abuses.

Constitution of 1795. — Meanwhile, there was disaffection, es-
pecially in the cities, with the rule by the Convention. In the
cities there was distress, except in the moneyed class. There was
a yearning for a strong and stable government. The Convention
framed and submitted to the nation a new constitution, the third
in the order of political fabrics of this sort. There were to be
seven hundred and fifty legislators, divided into two bodies, — the
Council of Elders, or the Ancients, of two hundred and fifty, and
the Council of Five Hundred. The executive power was given to
a Directory of five persons. Two-thirds of the councils for the
first term were to be taken from the Convention. The constitu-
tion, thus conservative and anti-Jacobin in its character, was well
received. But there was dissatisfaction in the reactionary parties;
and a great insurrection of the royalist middle class in Paris
(Oct. 4, 1795, the J3Vendetnaire) was promptly put down by
the resolute action of Bonaparte, to whom had been given the
command of the troops of the city. It was the royalist and the
anti-republican parties which now threatened the government. But
a new authority, the will of the army, was beginning plainly to
disclose itself. The dread of Jacobinism still existed. What the
people more and more craved was internal tranquillity and order.

Bonaparte in Italy: to the Peace of Campo Formio. — The
assignats«became worthless. This bankruptcy had one benefit:
it relieved the state of its debt, and brought coin into circulation.
A triple attack was planned by Carnot against Austria, In Ger-BONAPARTE IN ITALY.

517

many, Jourdan and Moreau were driven back by the Archduke
Charles of Austria. But a splendid success attended the arms of
Bonaparte in the attack on the Austrian power in Italy. He had
been lately married to Josephine Beauharnais, the widow of a
French general guillotined in 1794, the only woman to whom he
appears ever to have been warmly attached. There were two
children by her former marriage, — Eugene (1781-1824), and
Ilortense (1783-1837) who married Louis Bonaparte. Starting
from Nice, and following the coast, Bonaparte defeated the Aus-
trians and Piedmontese separately, and forced the latter to con-
clude a distinct peace, which ceded Savoy and Nice to France.
He exemplified in this campaign the characteristics which in after-
years contributed essentially to his success as a general. He
struck the enemy before they could combine their forces. He did
not, after the old method, wait to capture all the fortresses in his
path, but by swift marches made his attacks at unexpected places
and times. He defeated the Austrians in a bloody struggle at the
bridge of Lodi on the Adda, captured Milan, overran Lombardy
as far as Mantua, and forced the Pope, and Parma, Modena, and
Naples, to purchase peace by giving up their treasures of art.
Thus began the custom of despoiling conquered capitals, and other
subjugated cities, of works of art, which went to adorn and enrich
Paris, — a new custom among civilized Christian nations. Wurm*
serf the veteran Austrian general, was defeated in a series of
engagements; and, after him, another great Austrian army, under
Alvinzi, was vanquished at Areola (Nov. 14-17, 1796) and at
Rivoli (Jan. 14, 1797). Bonaparte now crossed the Alps to meet
the Archduke Charles, who had cleared Germany of its invaders.
The French general, although his own situation was not free from
peril, was able to dictate the terms of peace. In the treaty of
Carnpo Fortnio (Oct. 17, 1797), Austria ceded the Belgian prov-
inces to France, recognized the Cisalpine Republic to be estab-
lished by Bonaparte in North Italy, and secretly consented to the
cession of the German provinces on the left bank of the Rhine.
In return, he gave Venice to Austria, in disregard of the principles
of international law, and perfidiously as regards that republic,
which had made its peace with him, and become a democracy
dependent on France. In this treaty with Austria, there was
another secret stipulation that Prussia should not be indemnified
in Germany for her losses on the west of the Rhine. Thus
Napoleon used the selfishness of the allies to divide them from
one another. In the preceding February, the Pope had ceded
to France, at Tolentino, the Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. A
young man of twenty-seven, Bonaparte had given proof of his
astonishing military genius by a series of victories over large armies
and experienced generals; and he had evinced equally his skill,MODERN HISTORY.

as well as his lack of principle, in the field of diplomacy. He had
won admiration from his enemies by his evident freedom from the
revolutionary fanaticism, and his contempt for declamation about
" the rights of man." Returning to Paris, he was received with
acclamation, but thought it politic to avoid publicity, and to live
quietly in his modest dwelling.

Coup d'etat: 17 Fructidor (Sept. 3,1797). — During Bonaparte's
absence, the royalist and reactionary faction had gained ground
in the governing bodies. Pichegru was plotting on that side.
These schemes had been baffled with the aid of Hoche, and of a
detachment of troops sent to Paris by Bonaparte under Augereau.
On Sept. 4 (the i8th Fructidor), the palace of the Tuileries, where
the councils met, was surrounded. The reactionary deputies were
. arrested; Pichegru and his fellow-conspirators were banished.
This coilp d'etat sealed the triumph of the republicans, but it was
effected through the army*

The Egyptian Expedition,—The Directory were conscious of
weakness, and looked with alarm and distrust on the young gen-
eral, who was fast becoming the idol of the people, as well as of
the army. They wished him to attempt a descent on England.
He preferred, in the room of this impracticable venture, to con-
duct an expedition to Egypt; with the design of getting control,
if possible, of the Eastern Mediterranean, and of striking at the
possessions of Great Britain in India. To this scheme the Direc-
tory, quite willing to have him at a distance, readily consented.
Hiding his plans until all \yas ready, he sailed from Toulon (May
19, 1798) with a strong fleet and army; on his way captured
Malta through treachery of the knights, and landed safely in
Egypt. With him were some of the best of the French generals,
and a large company of scientific men. He defeated the Mame-
lukes in a great battle fought within sight of the Pyramids. But
at Aboukir, in the Battle of the Nile, the French fleet was de-
stroyed by the English naval force under Nelson. The P>ench
army was thus cut off from the means of return. Bonaparte in-
vaded Syria, but was prevented by the English fleet from getting
a.foothold on the coast. He had to raise the siege of Acre, and
returned to Egypt, where he vanquished the Turks at Aboukir.

Reverses of France in Italy. — Here Bonaparte received infor-
mation which determined him to leave the army under the command
of Kleber> and himself to return to France. The European powers
had once more taken up arms. Among the causes of the renewal
of the war were the formation by the French of the Roman Repub-
lic out of the dominion of the Pope, the establishment of the
Helvetian Republic in Switzerland, and the change of Genoa by
its own act into the Ligurian Republic. Prussia, since 1795, from
selfish motives had cooperated with France, and stood aloof fromTHE CONSULATE.

519

the new — the second—'Coalition. Paul /., emperor of Russia,
was active against the French Republic, and Pitt was its indefat-
igable enemy. The Czar had been made Grand Master of the
Knights of Malta, and made much of this empty dignity. The
victory of Nelson at Aboukir cemented the union of the hostile
powers, with whom the Sultan was now joined. The management
of the French armies by the government at Paris was unskillful.
Naples, to be sure, was overcome, and transformed into the Par-
tlienopcean Republic. The king of Sardinia was driven out of
Piedmont. But Jourdan was defeated by the Archduke Charles,
and retreated across the Rhine. The Austrians and the Russian
army under Suwarrow, a veteran officer, were victorious south of
the Alps (June, 1799) ; Moreau and Macdonald were defeated at
Trebbia. The French were defeated again at Novi (Aug. 15), and
lost almost all Italy. The king of Naples came back, and thou-
sands of republicans there were cruelly put to death, — a proscrip-
tion in which Nelson had a part. It was the victory of Massena,
over the Russians at Zurich, that saved France itself from invasion.

Overthrow of the Directory: 18th Brnmaire. — These reverses
added to the unpopularity of the Directory. The discontent of
the Jacobins with their government had given rise to strong meas-
ures of repression. On the other hand, the wealthy class were
disgusted at the renewal of the war. A rising was threatened in
La Vendee. The feeling was widely diffused, that there was need
of a strong man at the helm to save the ship of state from another
terrible shipwreck. At this juncture Napoleon appeared in Paris,
and was greeted with enthusiasm. Sieyes and one other director,
with a majority of the Ancients, agreed to another coup d^etat
which should* make Bonaparte the first magistrate. The garrison
of Paris was ready to lend its aid. The resistance of the Council
of Five Hundred at St Cloud was bafiled by Lucien Bonaparte,
Napoleons brother, their president, and by the use of military
force. Thus there was accomplished the revolution of the 18th
Brumaire (Nov, 9, 1799).

The Consulate. — In the provisional government set up by the
remnant of the council, Napoleon became First Consul\ with two
associates. He was thus enabled to take and to hold supreme
power, because of the mutual fear of royalists and republicans, their
common dread of Jacobinism, and a prevailing conviction that
safety must be sought in the sway of an individual, r presenting
neither extreme, and strong enough to hold all in check. Yet the
event evinced the supremacy now gained by the military power.
Napoleon immediately made excellent financial reforms, and re-
pealed or softened the laws against the "emigrants" and the
priests. By such mild and conservative measures, the prosperity of
France began to be renewed. The constitution of the year VIII.,520

MODERN HISTORY,

as framed by Sieyks and modified by Bonaparte, kept up the sem-
blance, without much of the reality, of democracy. The checks
on the power of the First Consul were more nominal than real.
The mass of the people had power only to vote for lists of citizens,
out of whom all the higher officers were to be selected by succes-
sive steps. All legislation was initiated by the Council of State;
the Tribunate of a hundred members could discuss proposals made
thus, but could not act; the Legislative Chamber of three hundred
could vote, but not discuss; and the Senate of eighty was chosen
for life, with little to do. This constitution of 1799, in opposition
to the communal system of 1789 and 1791, established a central-
ized administration which destroyed local liberty and self-govern-
ment. France no longer represented in other countries the cause
of liberty. In this character its armies had been hailed in Italy,
where a yearning for national unity was awakened. Equality, not
liberty, was all that the cause of France now represented.

Napoleon could not have expected that his overtures of peace
would be accepted by Austria. The rough, impolitic response
made by England, helped him by rousing resentment in France.

Marengo: Peace of Lun^ville. — If Sieyes and others expected
that Napoleon would merely direct military operations from Paris,
they were soon undeceived. Massena was at the head of the
army in Italy, and found it most difficult to hold Genoa against
the Austrians. Moreau was at the head of the army in Germany.
Apart from other reasons for taking the field in person, it would
not have been safe for the new ruler of France to allow himself
to be eclipsed in military fame by Moreau. Napoleon, as usual
veiling his purpose, gradually collected a large army, and between
May 16 and 19, 1800, led his troops, and dragged his cannon,
over the Great St Bernard Pass into Italy, threw himself in the
rear of Melas, the Austrian general, and entered Milan. He ap-
pears, however, to have used less than his usual caution, probably
from fear 'that Melas might escape; so that he was attacked at
Marengo (June 14), by that general, at a moment when the French
forces were not sufficiently concentrated. What threatened to be
a disastrous defeat for the French, however, was turned into a
signal victory by the timely arrival of Desaix; and the name of
Marengo rang through Europe. In December, Moreau won the
great victory of Bohenlinden over the Archduke John. In Feb-
ruary, 1801, the peace of Ltmeville was concluded. France kept
its " natural boundaries," Belgium and the west of the Rhine.
The Italian republics, except Rome and Naples, were restored.
Tuscany was to be given to a prince of Spain, a country now de-
pendent on France. The German princes who lost territory were
to be indemnified by " secularizing " German ecclesiastical states,
and vied with one another in imploring favors of the conqueror.REFORMS OF NAPOLEON.

521

The Northern Alliance: the Peace of Amiens. — England now
stood alone against France. Her navies were supreme, and had
captured most of the Dutch as well as French colonies. The
French army in Egypt had been driven to capitulate on the con-
dition that it should be transported in English vessels to France.
Russia and Sweden had concluded (1799) a defensive alliance of
armed neutrality on the sea, to maintain the right of neutrals to
trade with belligerents, and the doctrine that the neutral ship
protects its freight (not being munitions of war) against seizure,
Prussia joined the Northern Alliance. Pitt had retired from office.
He had accomplished the legislative union of England and Ire-
land, by which the separate Irish Parliament had ceased to exist
(1800). But he had encouraged the Irish Catholics to expect
that they would be delivered from the restrictions which excluded
them from the House of Commons and from many other offices.
When the king refused to consent to the fulfillment of these expec-
tations, Pitt resigned (1801). Addington became prime minister.
England was tired of the war. Peace was concluded at Amiens
(March, 1802). France was to retain all her conquests on the
Continent. England surrendered to France and her allies all con-
quests except Trinidad and Ceylon. Malta was to be given back
by England to the Knights of Malta. A third great civil triumph
of Napoleon, added to Luneville and Amiens, was the Concordat
with the Pope.

Reforms of Napoleon. — Napoleon now was free to give his
attention to internal reforms in France. He called into his coun-
sels the ablest men in all departments of knowledge. In the
reconstruction of political and social order, his own clear percep-
tions and energy were everywhere seen. He brought back from
the old institutions whatever was good and valuable which the
tempest of revolution had swept away. He reformed the judicial
system. He caused to be framed the famous Code which bears
his name, and which still forms the basis of law in several Euro-
pean countries. He reduced the power of the communes, and cen-
tralized the administration of government by the system of prefects
and sub-prefects. Through the Concordat, he renewed the con-
nection of the Catholic Church of France with Rome, reserving,
however, to the executive the nomination of archbishops and
bishops, whom the government was to support, and guarding, in
the spirit of the Gallican theory, the supremacy of the civil
authority. Full toleration was secured for non-Catholics. Napo-
leon personally participated in the religious ceremonies which
attended the formal restoration of the old system of worship where
fi the Goddess of Reason" had been enthroned with atheistic
orgies. The ultimate effect of the Concordat was to build up the
ultramontane, or papal, theory and sway within the . church of522

MODERN HISTORY.

France. * Education was organized by the establishment of the
university, the comprehensive name for the entire educational sys-
tem of the country. All branches of technical instruction were
carefully fostered. The devotees of science were encouraged with
an enlightened sympathy and liberal aid. A better organization
and discipline were brought into the army.

Character of the Changes.—The changes made by Napoleon,
while they secured the*equality of all Frenchmen before the law,
did nothing to rescue civil liberty, such as the republicans had
aimed to secure. They were all in the direction of monarchy.
Distinctions, like the Legion of Honor, were invented; titles were
instituted; a new aristocracy, made up of relics of the old noblesse
and of fresh recruits, was created; Napoleon was declared to be
, consul for life, and the mechanism of the government was con-
verted into a practical dictatorship. Unsparing in his treatment
of Jacobins, he aimed still to moderate the passions of party. His
activity was seen in an excellent system of public works, such as
canals and noble highways, in new towns, and in magnificent build-
ings which he erected in Paris. At the same time, he went as far
as it was safe to go in bringing in monarchical manners and lux-
uries. He himself adopted a regal way of living. He had no
faith in democracy, and spoke with unaffected scorn of " ideology,"
or the theoretical statesmanship which based itself on ideas of
" human rights" in the matter of exercising government. The
press was placed under stringent police regulation. Napoleon's
family began to contend, with " Corsican shamelessness," for high
honors. A feud soon came to exist between them and the Beau-
harnais, — the family o>i Josephine. Was the principle of heredity
to come back ?

Renewed War with England. — In 1803 the war was renewed
with England. That Napoleon was resolved to dictate in Euro-
pean affairs, as he was practical dictator in the French Republic,
was plain. He controlled the republics dependent on France.
He annexed Piedmont. He made the Spanish Bourbons do his
'bidding. He intervened in Germany; among other things, offend-
ing Austria by enlarging the bounds of Prussia. He exercised
over the minor German states the influence of which Austria had
been robbed. He complained of the strictures of the English
press, and of the asylum granted in England to conspirators against
his rule. He was angry that Malta was not given up, which Eng-
land refused to do on account of an aggrandizement of France
not consistent with the Peace of Amiens. There were provoca-
tions on both sides, and war was inevitable.

Plan of Invading England.— Napoleon seized Hanover. He
planned a great descent on England. He gathered a vast army
near Boulogne, and constructed an immense flotilla for the trans*THE NEW FRENCH EMPIRE.	523

portation of it across the Channel. His design was to decoy away
the British fleet, and then to concentrate enough ships of his own
in the Channel to protect the passage of his forces.

CHAPTER IV.

FROM THE BEGINNING OP THE EMPIRE TO THE RUS-
SIAN CAMPAIGN (1804-1812). * ■ ■

The Empire (1804).—Various attempts had been made against
Napoleon's life. An "infernal machine" was exploded near his
carriage. On that occasion, only the swift driving of the coach-
man saved him from death (1801). There were now royalist
plots against his life, of which Count dArtois was cognizant.
Pichegru was an accomplice; and Moreau, although not favoring
the restoration of the Bourbons, was not entirely innocent.- The
former died in prison; Moreau escaped to America. Napoleon,
exasperated by these plots, caused the Duke d^Enghien, a young
prince of the Cond£ branch of the Bourbons, to be seized on Ger-
man territory,—in Baden,—and dragged away into France, where,
at Vincennes, after a hurried military examination, he was shot,
and buried in a grave that had been dug for him before the
sentence was pronounced. Of this act of Napoleon, it was said
by Fouche, " It was worse than a crime : it was a blunder." The
young prince was really innocent. He was a victim of the natural,
but violent, wrath of Napoleon, who wanted to strike a blow that
his enemies would feel. The event opened the way for him — as
it was perhaps intended that it should — to the object of his
ambition, the imperial title and throne. He was authorized to
adopt a successor. This, the different parties felt, would make his
government stable and secure. He was proclaimed emperor, the
election being ratified by popular vote. The crown was to be
handed down in his family. In imitation of Charlemagne, whom
he affected to consider a Frenchman and a predecessor, he was
crowned, with splendid pomp, by Pope Pius VII (Dec. 2, 1804),
in Notre Dame. He took the crown from the Pope's hands, and
placed it on his own head.

The New Royalty. — The emperor surrounded himself with
the insignia and ceremonies of royalty. The members of his
family became princes and princesses. A new nobility, with the
various ancient titles, was called into being. He made his gen-
erals — eighteen in number, mdst of whom had sprung from the,
ranks — marshals. He first diminished the number of the Tri-
bunate} then (1807) abolished it. The republic of 1789 had
now passed into an absolute military monarchy.524

MODERN HISTORY.

Third Coalition against France (1805). — Napoleon turned the
Italian Republic into a vassal monarchy, with himself for its ruler
(1805). He incorporated Genoa with France. His step-son,
Eugene Beauharnais, he made viceroy of Naples. Pitt had come
back to office. Events since the death of the Duke tfEnghien
made it possible for him to create the third coalition of England
(in union with Austria, Russia, and Sweden) for restoring the
balance of power in Europe. Paul /. of Russia had been won
over from the previous coalition by the adroit efforts ot Napoleon,
and by the Czar's hostility to England on account of Malta (1800),
he being grand master of the knights. His ordinary state of mind
bordered on derangement, so that he was not fit to reign. Re-
fusing to abdicate, he was assassinated by nobles (1801), and his
son Alexander I. (1801-24) succeeded him. Russia was now
reconciled to England, and the Northern Neutrality Convention
against her maritime oppression was dissolved.

Position of Prussia. — The king of Prussia, Frederick William
III. (1797-1840), and the ministers whom he trusted, refused to
listen to his spirited queen, Louisa, and the more earnest, patriotic
party, by which he was urged to unite with the coalition. He
clung to his policy of neutrality, and was to be bribed by the gift
of Hanover. The attitude of Prussia, which had been governed
by selfish considerations, was long the pivot on which the success
of Napoleon*s aggressions hung.

Failure of Villeneuve. — The plan of Napoleon for invading
England might have been carried out, had it not been for the
excessive caution, or timidity, of Villeneuve, the French admiral.
Nelson and his fleet were drawn away in pursuit of him, and Ville-
neuve was well on his way back from the West Indias. The ad-
miralty were warned of his movement by a vessel of light draught
which Nelson, when he could not find his foe, dispatched to
inform them of the danger. Villeneuve, after an indecisive action
against the force sent to meet him under Sir Robert Calder, put
first into the harbor of Ferrol, and then repaired to Cadiz. Nel-
son came back with his fleet to the Channel.

Ulm and Trafalgar. — The allies marked out four lines of in-
vasion. The second and principal advance was to be up the
valley of the Danube, and to be pursued by the Russians and
Austrians. Napoleon did not wait for them to unite. Finding
that there was to be no fleet to protect his passage across the
Channel, he suddenly broke up his camp at Boulogne, and swiftly
led his splendid and thoroughly drilled army across the Rhine,
to the rear of the Austrian forced, of which Mack was the com-
mander. Other detachments from Hanover and Holland came
down the Maine to take part in the movement. The Austrians
were surrounded in Ulmt and gave themselves up, thirty thousandTHE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON.

525

in number, as prisoners of war (Oct. 17, 1805). The strategy
was like that pursued in the campaign of Marengo: the result
was even more astonishing. It was not long, however, before
news came to him of a great disaster to the French on the sea.
Two days after the surrender at Ulm, Nelson achieved a grand
victory off Cape Trafalgar, over the French and Spanish fleets.
To induce Villeneuve to come out of the shelter of Cadiz, he had
been obliged to weaken himself by sending away a number of his
ships. The watchword sent from the flag-ship just before the
encounter — "England expects every man to do his duty" —
called forth shouts of enthusiasm from the decks of the British
fleet. Two-thirds of the French ships were captured or ruined.
Nelson himself was struck by a bullet, and died the same night.
His private life was not free from grave faults, but he was the
greatest naval hero England has ever produced.

Austerlitz: Confederation of the Rhine. 1— On the land, the
career of Napoleon was triumphant. The "Grand Army/' with
its system of corps and reserves, marched on Vienna, which was
occupied on the 13th of November. The Russians were still to
be encountered. The army of Alexander was a very powerful
one; but he made, instead of awaiting, the attack, and, on the
2d of December, was utterly defeated on the memorable field of
Austerlitz. The Peace of Pressburg followed (Dec. 26, 1805).
Austria gave up Venice, which was annexed to the new Italian
kingdom, of which Napoleon was the head. The Tyrol went to
Bavaria, whose elector was recognized as a king, as was also the
elector of Wiirtemberg. Soon after, the Bourbons were dethroned
at Naples, and Napoleon's brother Joseph took that kingdom.
Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, and other smaller states were united
into a Confederation of the Rhine (1806), with Napoleon for its
protector. The Holy Roman Empire from that time had no longer
even the shadow of a reality. Francis /. was simply emperor
of Austria, and Austria was greatly reduced in power.

Fall of Prussia.— Prussia now stood by herself. Out of alarm
at the progress of the French arms, and anger because French
troops had been led across her territory without her consent, she
had preferred to join the coalition. Austerlitz moved her to
retrace her steps. She received Hanover as the price of a re-
newed alliance. England now declared war against Prussia. But
Fox, who was an advocate of peace, had come into power in Eng-
land (Jan. 23, 1806) ; and Prussia discovered that Napoleon, who
was friendly to him, was negotiating for the surrender of Hanover
to that country. This crowning indignity moved Prussia, at this
inopportune moment, to take up arms against him. Prussia had
no ally but Russia. The Prussian army was full of pride and hope;
but its organization and method of warfare were after the old, tradi-526

MODERN HISTORY.

tional fashion which had come down from the days of Frederick
the Great, and its commander, the Duke of Brunswick, though
brave, was superannuated. In the two battles of Jena and Auer*
stadty {ought oh the same day (Oct. 14, 1806), the Prussian
forces were routed, and either captured or dispersed. A fortnight
later (Oct. 27), Napoleoti was in Berlin. Fortress after fortress
was surrendered, and corps after corps captured by his troops.
The royal family, including the Queen Louisa, were treated per-
sonally with harshness and disdain. The Prussian monarchy, to all
appearance, was in ruins. Its museums and picture-galleries were
robbed of their treasures, which went away as trophies to Paris.
The Saxon Elector, made a king, joined the Rhenish Confederacy.

Fox died on Sept 13, 1806. In 1807 (March 31), the Duke of Portland
became prime minister; the rival and rising statesmen, Castlereagh and
Canning) being both in the cabinet.

To the Peace of Tilsit. — It remained for the conqueror to
deal with Russia. He had intended to prosecute a winter cam-
paign in Poland, but the severity of*the winter and the lack of
supplies obliged him to fall back from Pultusk to the Vistula.
The Russians now took the initiative. A terrible battle at Eylau
(Feb, 7 and 8, 1807) was indecisive. Napoleon drew additional
troops from all parts of his empire to supply the losses of the
grand army. Benningsen, the Russian general, was incautious,
and at Friedland (June 14) was routed. Dantzic and the still
unconquered provinces of Prussia fell into the hands of the French.
This series of wonderful successes made the revolution in the art
of war, which Napoleon had introduced, obvious to the dullest
eyes. His peculiar method, of rapid movement, and subsistence
on the country, and the obstacles to its uniform success, were
likewise evident. The Emperor Alexander and Napoleon met on
the Niemen. Alexander was won by Napoleon's gracious and
friendly demeanor. At Tilsit, on the North-Prussian frontier,
peace was concluded (July 7 and 9, 1807). Prussia fared the
hardest. She lost half of her territory. She had to close her ports
and lands to British trade, to limit her army to forty-two thou-
sand men, and to consent to the erection of a duchy of Warsaw
out of her Polish territory. Out of the Elbe provinces, a king-
dom of Westphalia was constructed, of which Jerome Bonaparte
received the crown. Russia also recognized Louis Bonaparte,
another brother of Napoleon, as king of Holland. Alexander
promised to go to war with England in case England rejected the
offer of peace which he was to make as mediator. Alexander and
Napoleon were to be fast friends and allies. Russia was to expand
on the north and east, but not to have Constantinople. Napoleon
had no better apology for the dismemberment of Prussia than a
reference to the intemperate manifesto of the Duke of BrunswickTHEEMPIRE OF NAPOLEON.	527

in 1792, on the occasion of the first invasion of France. His real
object was thoroughly to divide and disable Germany, and to take
away the last obstacle to his complete control within its borders.

Power of Napoleon. — No ruler since Charlemagne had held
such power as was now wielded by Napoleon. "Sovereign of
France from the Scheldt to the Pyrenees, and of Italy from the
Alps to the Tiber," he had given the throne of Holland to his
brother Louis, that of Naples to Joseph, and made Jerome king of
Westphalia. Spain was content to do his will, and Germany was
under his feet. He was the leader of mighty armies, with no mili-
tary rival to endanger his supremacy over them. His conquests,
it was impossible to deny, carried with them the abolition of
numerous time-worn abuses, and the introduction of important
material improvements. France was in many respects prosperous
under the despotism established over it.

Elements of Weakness. — But there were certain elements of
weakness which Napoleon did not sufficiently discern. The feel-
ing of nationality and patriotism in the subject countries was cer-
tain to awake with a strength which he did not at all anticipate.
Old Rome had extinguished this feeling in most of her provinces,
but there were countries whose spirit even Rome could not break.
Napoleon undertook a task to which no man was equal. Mean-
time, he was exhausting the military resources of France. If its
male population continued to be willing to follow him to the
slaughter, where were the men to be found to fill the places of
the multitudes that fell? The time must come when the hunger
of the French for military glory would be sated, and dazzling victories
would cease to hide the fearful cost at which they were purchased.

The Continental System. — The Treaty of Tilsit was followed
by acts on the part of Napoleon which show the presumptuous
confidence and arrogant spirit of domination, which, however
natural on the pinnacle of might to which he had raised himself,
proved disastrous, and, in the end, fatal. One of these acts was
the " Continental System," ordained in the Berlin and Milan
Decrees.

A Prussian decree (1806), Prussia being then a vassal of Napoleon^ under-
took to close the ports and rivers of the North Sea to English shipping. In
retaliation, there was issued a Uritish " Order in Council," declaring the coast
from the Elbe to Mrest in a state of blockade; the portion from Ostend
to the Seine being declared to be under a rigorous blockade. This led to
the Berlin Decree of Napoleon (Nov. 21, 1806)- Then second "Orders in
Council" (Nov. 11, 1807), prohibiting trade with France, her allies and colo-
nies, as if they were blockaded, called out the Milan Decree of Napoleon
(Dec. 17, 1807).

The continental • system thus originated undertook to cut off
trade between the entire Continent and England, by ordering all
the merchandise of England and her colonies to be seized and528

MODERN HISTORY.

confiscated, wherever it might be found, — even ships which touched
at English ports. The design was to inflict injury on England.
It had this effect, but it had the same effect on France, and still
more in the other countries which profited by English trade.
Wide-spread disaffection at the attempts to enforce this system was
the inevitable consequence. Moreover, one result of it was to
stimulate Napoleon to further conquests to keep up and to extend
his commercial policy. Another motive was added to his growing
and insatiable ambition for universal dominion.

Invasion of Spain: Wagram.— Russia had declared war against
Great Britain, according to the promise of Alexander at Tilsit
The British seized the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen,
to prevent it from falling into the hands of Russia and France
(Sept., 1807). Napoleon made this act a partial excuse for invad-
ing the Spanish peninsula, under the pretense of guarding the coasts
against the English. His army entered Lisbon, and he declared
that the house of Braganza had ceased to reign. His forces ad-
vanced into Spain beyond Madrid. Dissensions between Charles
IV. and his son Ferdinand enabled Napoleon to get himself
chosen as arbiter; and having enticed the two contestants to Bay-
onne, he set them both aside, and gave the crown of Spain to his
brother Joseph,—Murat, who had married Napoleon's sister Caro-
line, taking the throne of Naples. This high-handed proceeding
roused the Spanish people to revolt. The officers of Napoleon
were several times defeated. A British force under Wellington —
then Sir Arthur Welles ley— appeared in Portugal to lend help to
the national movement. A French fleet in Cadiz was destroyed.
Napoleon invaded Spain with an overwhelming force, and estab-
lished his brother at Madrid (Dec. 2, 1808). But the people still
kept up a harassing guerilla war. From Spain Napoleon was called
away by the rising of Austria, which the events in Spain had once
more moved to begin hostilities. Within a month from the begin-
ning of the campaign, he again entered Vienna as a victor (May
11, 1809). He suffered a reverse at Aspern; but in the desperate
battle of Wagram, in which not far from three hundred thousand
men took part, he was triumphant. Austria purchased peace by
further cessions of territory, and by joining the Continental System.
The brave Tyrolese kept up the struggle with an heroic spirit;
but at last Hofer, their leader, was captured and shot at Mantua
(1810).

Pius VII. — As Pius VII. refused to close his ports against Eng-
land, and to ally himself with France, Napoleon proclaimed (May,
1809) that the Papal States were annexed to his empire. The
Pope, who had steadfastly resisted his attempts at coercion, excom-
municated him. The pontiff was arrested, and conveyed to Savona,
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Sweden: Bernadotte. — Another ally in upholding the "Con-
tinental System" against England, Napoleon gained in Sweden,
where one of his marshals, Bernadotte, had been chosen Crown
Prince.

Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771)* a council of nobles usurped many of
the functions of the king. A combined Russian and French party in Sweden
was against him. His son, Gustaims III. (1771-1792), being supported by
France, invaded Russian Finland, and, by the help of the Estates, reduced the
power of the nobles, giving, however, to the Estates in the new constitution,
the right to veto a project for offensive war. He was murdered in 1792.
His son Gustavus IVwho became of age in 1808, was a bitter opponent of
Napoleon, whom he considered to be the beast of the Apocalypse (Rev. xiii. 1).
After the Peace of Tilsit, he made war on Russia, and on Denmark, from
which he sought to wrest Norway. The nobles and the army rose against
him, and obliged him to abdicate (1809). His uncle, Charles XIII.t became
king. Finland was surrendered to Russia. The king having no children,
Bernadotte (1764-1844), a French marshal, made by Napoleon Prince of Poiu
tecorvo, but who often showed himself independent in his relations to him,
was elected Crown Prince of Sweden (1810). Sweden joined the Continental
System.

Napoleon's Divorce and Marriage. — Napoleon, who was child-
less, in the hope of founding a dynasty on a sure basis procured
a divorce from Josephine, and married Maria Louisa, the daughter
of Francis /. of Austria. To the son who was born of this mar-
riage he gave the sounding title of King of Rome, the old desig-
nation of the emperors-elect before their coronation.

Torres Vedras. — The first successful stand against the military
supremacy of Bonaparte was made in Spain. Wellington divined
the secret of the French victories, and devised the means of
effectual resistance. In Portugal\ between the Tagus and the sea
he fortified the position called Torres Vedras, which could be
defended against superior forces. This he held against all the
efforts of Massena to conquer and dislodge him. Deprived of
the means of subsistence, the French suffered great losses and pri-
vations, and were obliged to retreat (May, 1811). Their method
depended for success on the attaining of the desired result in a
short time by swift operations.

Reaction against Napoleon.—The campaign of Wellington
produced a strong moral effect in other parts of Europe. While
France was beginning to show signs of weariness with the endless
war, and with the despotic government under which it was kept
up, in Germany a new spirit of patriotism was stirring in the hearts
of the people. Under Stein, a great and patriotic minister, the
Prussian system of civil administration was reorganized on a sound
basis. The army was likewise reconstructed on the basis of uni-
versal military service. Secret patriotic societies were formed
among the people, for the liberation of the fatherland. A new
Germany was slowly waking to life, and collecting its energies for530

MODERN HISTORY.

the combat for freedom. The "Continental System" causccl in-
creasing irritation. Louis Bonaparte abdicated his throne in Hol-
land, rather than enforce its odious requirements (July, 1810).
The quarrel of Napoleon with the Pope, and the indignities suffered
by the pontiff, who lived for three years upon alms, added to the
discontent which the emperor's commercial policy provoked, even
in France.

-f-

CHAPTER V.

FROM THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1812) TO THE CONGRESS

OF VIENNA (1814-15).

The Russian Campaign. — The circumstances narrated above
did not prevent Napoleon from the fatal mistake of invading
Russia. The czar would not enforce the commercial restrictions.
Napoleon refused to promise not to restore the kingdom of Poland.
There were various other causes of mutual jealousy and coolness.
Sweden, under Bernadotte, which had been forced to declare war
against England (1810), now joined Russia. Austria and Prus-
sia y in their state of practical vassalage, had to furnish military
help to Napoleon. In June, 1812, when he crossed the Niemen,
he had brought together a force of five hundred and fifty thousand
men. He had reinforcements from Poland, and might have had
more had he not, from deference to Austria and Prussia, refused
to restore the Polish kingdom. The Russians retreated as he
advanced. Barclay, the Russian general, declined a battle, and
destroyed whatever places could afford an advantage to the invader.
At length, Kutusoff took the command, and was compelled by the
Russian feeling, against his will, to give battle. At Borodino,
where there was immense slaughter on both sides, the Russians
retired, but without disorder. When the French arrived at Mos-
cow, they found an empty town, which was set on fire by order of
the governor. The Czar refused to treat for peace. There was no
alternative but to retreat (Oct. 19, 1812). The sufferings of the
soldiers from cold and famine were terrible. The Russians availed
themselves of every opportunity to harass the retreating force.
When it reached the ruins of Smolensko, only forty thousand were
left of more than a hundred thousand that had left Moscow. The
army continued to dwindle. At Smorgoni, Napoleon left Murat
in command, and hastened in disguise to Paris. The expedition
cost the lives of not less than three hundred thousand men. This
gigantic failure was due to the foiling by the Russians of Napoleon's
habitual plan of forcing decisive battles by movements so rapid
that his troops could subsist upon the country which they overran,
and to the unexpected destruction of Moscow.THE FALL OF NAPOLEON.

S31

The German War of Liberation: Leipsic.—In Germany, there
now began the great War of Liberation. York — the commander
of the Prussian contingent reluctantly furnished to Napoleon —
went over to the Russians (Dec. 1812). During the first three
months of 1813, all North Germany rose in arms. Heart-stirring
appeals were issued by Frederick William III to his people. He
called for the formation of volunteer corps, and all young men
capable of bearing arms responded with alacrity to the summons.
Russia and Prussia formed a defensive alliance. Sweden made
a treaty with England, and agreed to assist the allies. Napoleon's
wonted success attended him at first in the encounter with the
Russian and Prussian forces. He gained a victory at Liitzen
(May 2), and another at Bautzen (May 20, 21). Austria sought
to mediate, but Napoleon unwisely preferred war. Austria now,
disregarding the family tie with Napoleon, was drawn by the cur-
rent of German patriotism, as well as by self-interest, into the
alliance against him. His imperious and arrogant domination was
felt to be insupportable. But the circumstance thai determined
the course of Austria was the victory gained by Wellington at
Vittoria, in Spain, over the French under Jourdan (June 21).
The news of it turned the scale in the Austrian councils. The
odds against Napoleon were now fearful, especially as his own
army was largely composed of recruits who were hardly above the
age of boys. He won one more triumph at Dresden (Aug. 27),
but this was his last victory on German soil. The allies avoided
the errors which he had taught them to avoid, and succeeded in
bringing their forces together, and in compelling Napoleon to fight
at Leipsic. The allied armies numbered three hundred thousand,
while the French force did not exceed a hundred and thirty
thousand. The "battle of the nations" lasted for three days
(Oct. 16, 18, 19), although the fighting was chiefly on the first
and third. On the last day it continued for nine hours. The
Saxon contingent abandoned the French on the field, and went
over to the allies. The defeat of the French, as night approached,
became a rout. Napoleon, with the remnant of his army, was
driven to the Rhine. The battle of Leipsic was really the decisive
contest in the wars of Europe against Napoleon. From the de-
feat there, it was impossible for him to recover.

Fall of Napoleon: Elba.—The members of the Confederacy of
the Rhine joined the allies. Holland rose in revolt, and drove out
the French officials. Even France was exhausted and full of dis-
content. Meantime Wellington defeated Soult in the Pyrenees, and
invaded France from that side. Napoleon was bent on resistance,
and by his superior skill succeeded in ousting the brave Prussian
soldier, but inexpert strategist, Blucher> as well as the Austrian
general Schwartzenberg (Jan. and Feb. 1814). But the prepon-532	MODERN HISTORY.

derance of numbers on the side of the allies was too great. Their
bold decision to march on Paris secured their triumph. The city
surrendered (March 30). Napoleon had lost his hold on the ruling
bodies. The senate, through the influence of the astute Talley-
rand, once his minister, declared that he and his family had for-
feited the throne. At Fontainebleau, he signed his abdication in
favor of his son (April 6), but this condition was rejected. The
small island of Elba was given to him by the allies as a sovereign
principality. After a pathetic farewell to his veteran Guard, he
betook himself to his small dominion. Louis XVIIL, the brother
of Louis XVLy was placed on the throne of France. France, by
the Peace of Paris (May 30), was left with its ancient boundaries
as they were before the Revolution.

The Charter. — According to a promise which the king had
given, he (June 14,1814) promulgated a constitutional Charter, a
name borrowed from the Middle Ages when charters were granted
to vassals. There was to be a legislature, with a house of peers or
lords appointed by the king, and a chamber of deputies chosen
by limited suffrage; the electors to be owners of property to a
certain amount, and to be thirty years old. The king was to have
the initiative in legislation. The Roman Catholic religion was
declared to be the religion of the state, but liberty was given to
dissenters. The right to make peace and war was given to the
king, and also the right to issue ordinances necessary for the
execution of the laws and the safety of the state. This last pro-
vision opened a door for arbitrary government, and paved the
way for the downfall of the dynasty. The points of resemblance
in the constitution to the English system were adapted to provoke
a constant contrast with it, in respect to the degree of liberty
actually secured and exercised by the people. The charter was
dated from the nineteenth year of Louis XVIII., as if there had
been no Republic or Empire.

Pius VII. — Pope Pius F//., who, after i8oq, was a virtual prisoner at
Savona, refused to comply with Napoleon's cfemands. He could not be
moved to invest the bishops whom the emperor had appointed. This was a
principal point in the dispute. Napoleon called a national council of French
bishops (1811). In 1812 the Pope was taken to Fontainebleau* and treated
by him with harshness. When the pontiff refused to give a full and final
sanction to the proposed agreement, until he should be free to confer with his
cardinals, he was treated with still greater severity. The fall of Napoleon
set him free, and he entered Rome, May 24, 1814.

Congress of Vienna. — In September, 1814, the congress of
Vienna met to readjust the map of Europe after the whirlwind of
change and revolution. There were present the emperors of Rus-
sia and Austria, the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and WQr-
temberg, and a great number of German princes. Castlereagh, and
later Wellington, represented England, and Talleyrand was one ofTHE FALL OF NAPOLEON.

533

the representatives of France. The conferences were far from be-
ing harmonious. In particular, the claims of Russia upon Poland,
and the claims of Prussia on Germany, threatened another war.
While the debates, alternating with gay festivities, were still proceed-
ing, the participants were startled by the news of the reappearance
of Napoleon in France.

Return of Napoleon from Elba. — The new Bourbon rule was
unpopular with the French. It was felt to be the effect and sign
of national humiliation. The offensive conduct of the returned
emigrant nobility, and measures looking towards a restoration of
bygone abuses in government, fomented the disaffection. Napo-
leon, while apparently busy in laying out roads and canals, and
regulating the affairs of his little kingdom, which was only sixty
miles in circumference, kept himself well informed as to the state
of public opinion in France. With a few hundred men of the
Imperial Guard, he landed at Cannes (March i, 1815), and was
joined by one regiment after another which were sent out to crush
him. Ney, one of the best of his marshals, was carried away by
the common feeling, and went over to the side of his old com-
mander. Louis XVIIL fled from Paris; and, on March 20, Na-
poleon was again installed in the Tuileries.

Waterloo. — Napoleon offered to the country a more liberal
constitution, but the Bourbons were more hated than he was
trusted. He professed to the great powers his desire for peace,
but they did not listen to these assurances. Each agreed to fur-
nish an army of one hundred and eighty thousand men to serve
against him. He put forth prodigious exertions to gather a force
with which to meet the host of his enemies; and although he
could appeal to no warm national feeling, such as had called into
being the armies of the Revolution, he succeeded in bringing
together a force of several hundred thousand men. He decided
not to wait for the attack, but to assail the two armies of Blucher
and Wellington in Belgium. His plan was to attack them sepa-
rately. Blucher so far fell into the trap, that, in his eagerness to
meet the detested foe, he offered battle to Napoleon at Ligny
(June 16), and, after a desperate contest, was forced to retire
from the field. On the same day, Wellington so far checked Ney
in his attack at Quatre Bras, that he could not strike the Prus-
sians on the flank, as Napoleon had designed. Napoleon thought
that the Prussians would not be able, after their defeat, at once to
aid Wellington. He sent Grouchy, however, with thirty-four thou-
sand men, to observe them and inflict on them a. final blow. On
the forenoon of June 18, he himself attacked the British forces at
Waterloo, The French got possession of La //aye Sainte, a farm-
house in front of Wellington's center, the scene of a bloody
contest; but all their charges on Wellington's main line were met534	MODERN HISTORY.

and repelled by the immovable squares of the British infantry. In the
afternoon Napoleon's right began to be assailed by the Prussians;
and finding, at seven o'clock, that they were coming in great force,
he ordered a charge of the Imperial Guard on Wellington's forces.
After a fierce struggle, the Guard was compelled to recoil and re-
tire. The Prussians, piercing the right flank of the French army,
turned its defeat into a rout. Grouchy was at Wavre, fighting
the Prussian corps of Thielman, which he seems to have mistaken
for the entire Prussian army.

Abdication of Napoleon: St. Helena.— On the 22d of June
Napoleon again abdicated in favor of his son. Carnot was for a
dictatorship. The French Assembly, with La Fayette at its head,
insisted on the abdication. On July 7 Blucher and Wellington
entered Paris. Napoleon fled to Rochefort\ and, finding himself
unable to escape to America, surrendered to the British admiral,
and was taken on board the war-ship Dellerophon. Louis XVLIL
was brought back to Paris. Napoleon, by the agreement of the
allies, was conveyed to the island of St Helena^ where he re-
mained, a fretful captive, until his death (May 5, 1821). Ney
escaped, but was captured, condemned, and shot (Dec. 7, 1815).
France engaged to pay a war indemnity of seven hundred million
francs. Its boundaries were fixed as at 1790.

Character of Napoleon. — Respecting certain traits of Napoleon,
there is no dispute. His military genius all allow, although his daring was
sometimes over-daring; and there are critics who profess to discern, after
the beginning of the Russian campaign, and especially in the last contest in
Belgium, signs of a decline in his almost superhuman vigilance and energy.
Yet all must admit "that transcendent geometrical faculty," as Sainte-Beuve
calls it, "which characterized Napoleon, and which that powerful genius
applied to war with the same ease and the same aptitude that Monge [a great
French mathematician] applied it to other subjects." No general ever had
greater power to fascinate soldiers, and secure their devotion to him. One
reason was, that he recognized and rewarded merit wherever he saw it.
His intellectual movements were as much swifter than the ordinary as his
marches were more rapid than those to which armies had been accustomed.
For civil organization and administration he had rare talents, and in many
directions enlightened views. Europe owes much to his innovations in this
sphere. He was not incapable of warm personal attachments; as was mani-
fested, for example, in his grief over Duroc> the favorite general, who fell
at Bautzen. Hut an insatiable appetite for war, and, still more, a conviction,
which he sometimes confessed, that he could retain and fortify his authority
only by dazzling France, and continuing to astonish mankind by brilliant
achievements, drove him forward on a path of aggression and bloodshed.
He had an unpitying nature: he was careless of human suffering. Early in
his career, in Italy, he ordered a needless and useless attack on the outposts
of the enemy," to treat a lady to a sight of real war." He did not shrink from
ordering two thousand prisoners at Jaffa to be shot. He shocked all Ger-
many by causing Palm, a bookseller 0$ Nuremberg\ to be shot for refusing to
tell the name of the author of a publication offensive to him. He frequently
displayed a petty rancor, — as, for example, in leaving a legacy in his will to
the man who was accused of an attempt to assassinate the Duke of Wellington.
His violence of temper, as in the murder of th« Dukt d'Enghien, hurried him%r

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into acts that were not less impolitic than criminal. His tyrannical will would
brook no contradiction, even in matters of trifling importance. He broke away
from engagements when he thought it advantageous to do so. It is not an
injustice to say, that he was habitually untruthful: his bulletins were dis-
figured by flagrant falsehoods, as well as gross exaggerations. In a letter to
Talleyrand from Italy (Oct. 17, 1797) he says, "This is history: what I say
in my proclamations and speeches is a romance." With his wonderful in-
tellectual powers, inexhaustible energy, and amazing achievements, he never
quite loses the characteristic spirit of an adventurer. He is haunted by a
secret consciousness that this character belongs to him

The judgment of an adversary must be taken with allowance; but Wellington spoke at
least without passion when he said, " Bonaparte's whole life— civil, political, and military —
was a fraud. There was not a transaction, great or small, in which lying and fraud were not
introduced." His " foreign policy was force and menace, aided by fraud and corruption."
— Croker'x Correspondence, etc., vol. ii. p. 86.

The Congress of Vienna. — The Congress of Vienna was dis-
solved in June, 1815. Its Acts were finally signed by the five great
powers, — Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia,—.
and by Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. The Austrian and Prussian
monarchies were restored. Austria received back Venice with
Milan, — forming the subject Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, — be-
sides receiving the Illyrian provinces and the Tyrol\ The old
possessions of Prussia were restored. She received the Rhenish
provinces, a part of the duchy of Warsaw (Posen), and a great
part of Saxony, besides other important additions. Holland and
Belgium were formed into the one kingdom of the Netherlands,
which had also a part of Luxemburg, and was ruled by the stadt-
holder William /. The German Confederacy was instituted, with
thirty-nine sovereign states, including the four free cities, — Austria
being the presiding state. The greater part of the duchy of War-
saw fell to Russia, under the name of the Kingdom of Poland.
Sweden retained Norway, which, however, kept its own free con-
stitution ; and Denmark acquired Lauenburg. England had vastly
enlarged her colonial possessions. The present Swiss Confedera-
tion, consisting of twenty-two cantons, was established; three new
cantons having been added to the former nineteen. The old
dynasties were restored in Spain, in Tuscany, Modena, and the
Papal States, in Naples, and in Sardinia. To Sardinia, Genoa,
against its will, was annexed.

Chronological Statement — The First Coalition was formed in 1793,
when all Europe, except Sweden, Denmark, Tuscany, Switzerland, Venice
and Genoa, and Turkey, joined against France. In 1792 France had been
at war with Austria and Prussia. In 1795 the coalition was broken: Prussia
and Spain made peace with France. In 1797 Austria also concluded peace
with France (the Peace of Campo Fortnio). In 1798 the Second Coalition was
formed, in which Turkey was included. Prussia and Spain were not parties
to it. The Peace of Amiens, made with England (1802), ended the contest
following it. The Third Coalition was formed in 1805, by England, Russia,
Austria, and Sweden. Peace was concluded between Austria and France
(Dec. 26, 1805). War followed in 1806-7, between France on one side, and
Prussia and Russia on the other. These allies, with England, made a Fourth536

MODERN HISTORY.

Coalition. In 1807 France and Russia were allies. The rupture between
Austria and France in 1809 gave rise to what is often called the Fifth Coali-
tion. In 1813 the Sixth Coalition, made up, after the accession of Austria,
of all the principal powers, was in arms against France. On March 25,
181 after Napoleons return from Elba, the powers again declared war
against him. As there was a fresh treaty, this may be called a Seventh
Coalition.

CHAPTER VI.

AMERICAN HISTORY IN THIS PERIOD (1789-1815).

The Two Parties. — The cabinet of Washington consisted of
four members. The secretary of the treasury was Alexander
Hamilton of New York. The secretary of state was Thomas Jef-
ferson of Virginia. The seat of government was at first at Phil-
adelphia ; but in 1800 it was removed to the District of Columbia,
which was ceded for the purpose by Virginia and Maryland.
Almost from the beginning, there were two political parties. The
Federalists were made up of those who had been most in favor
of the new Constitution, and desired to build up a strong central
government. Accordingly they advocated a liberal construction of
the Constitution as regards the extent of federal authority. They
cherished the traditional spirit of the English laws and English
political institutions. Washington and John Adams belonged to
this class, and Hamilton was their most active leader. The Anti-
Federalists, of whom Jejferson was the chief, were for a careful
guarding of the rights of the States, and a strict interpretation of
the powers allotted to the General Government. They had more
sympathy with the political ideas at that time fast coming into
vogue in France. They had a warm faith in the capacity of the
mass of the people for self-government and for suffrage. They
were called Republicans, and were sometimes styled Democrats.

Hamilton's Measures: the Conflict of Parties.—Hamilton pro-
posed and carried highly important measures for the restoration
of public credit and for the revival of industry and commerce.
Under his leadership, the debts of the old confederacy, and the
debts of the separate States which they had incurred in the com-
mon defense, were assumed. To provide revenue, a protective
tariff and a system of internal taxation were ordained. A national
bank was incorporated (1790), and a mint was established at
Philadelphia. These measures had a great effect at home, and
made a strong impression favorable to the new government abroad;
but they were opposed by the Anti-Federalists as an unwarrant-
able assumption of power by the General Government. The excise
on domestic spirits provoked an insurrection, called " the Whisky
Rebellion," in Western Pennsylvania, which was put down by theTHE UNITED STATES.

537

militia. As the French Revolution advanced from step to step,
the division of parties in America became more marked, and their
mutual hostility more intense. At first all were in sympathy with
France. La Fayette sent the key of the fallen Bastile as a gift to
Washington. But the Federalists were determined to maintain
a strict neutrality in the conflict between France and England.
As the Revolution proceeded, a strong antipathy was awakened in
America to the' radical theories, as well as to the bloody deeds,
of its promoters. This was enhanced by the strenuous efforts of
the French Republic, aided by the Anti-Federalists, to induce the
United States to take an active part in the war, on the side of
France.. Genet, the French minister, undertook to fit out priva-
teers in Charleston. Washington issued a proclamation of neu-
trality (1793), which was followed by a Neutrality Act of Congress
(1794). When Genet had the effrontery to appeal from the Presi-
dent to the people, at the demand of Washington he was recalled.

Jay's Treaty. — The contest of parties reached its climax in
connection with Jay's Treaty with Great Britain (1794), —a
treaty negotiated by John Jay, chief justice, whom Washington
had sent as envoy to London. There were mutual grounds of
complaint between the two countries. The British had not sur-
rendered the Western military posts, and were in the habit of
"impressing seamen." This last practice was founded on the
claim that a British subject can never become the subject of
another country, and that, moreover, his military service may
be always called for by his sovereign. When almost all Europe
was at war, the carrying trade naturally fell, to a large extent,
into American hands; hence, it was alleged, many English sailors
deserted to get employment in American ships. The British
claimed and exercised the right to visit foreign vessels, and to
take from their decks the sailors who were asserted to be British
subjects. The English, 011 their part, complained that the treaty
stipulations as to debts due in America to British subjects had not
been observed. Jay's Treaty provided for the giving-up of the
Western posts, according to the previous stipulation; but said
nothing respecting the right of impressment, which the British
at that time would never have consented to relinquish. It was
alleged, also, that in other features the treaty favored England
unwarrantably, and unfairly in relation to France. It encountered
violent opposition from the Republicans; but it was approved by
Washington, and the legislative measures for carrying it out were
passed in the House of Representatives by a slender majority,
obtained through the eloquence of Fisher Ames, a member from
Massachusetts.

New States: Inventions. — According to the census of 1790,
there were somewhat less than four millions of people in the538

MODERN HISTORY.

United States. Virginia was the most populous State; next to
Virginia stood Pennsylvania, then North Carolina, and, fourth in
order, Massachusetts.. A little more than one-fifth of the popula-
tion were negro slaves. Vermont, the territory of which had been
claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, was the first new
State admitted to the Union (1791). A genius for mechanical
invention early manifested itself in the country. Eli Whitney in-
vented the cotton-gin (1792), for separating the seed from the
fiber of the cotton-plant, — a machine which indirectly lent a
powerful impulse to the production of cotton. In 1788 John
Fitch was running a steamboat on the Delaware River; but the
construction of a steamboat with side-paddles was due to the in-
ventive talent of Robert Fulton (1807). Emigration from the
Atlantic border to the West took three principal routes, — one
from New England and New York, through the valley of the
Mohawk; the second, through the passes of the Alleghanies;
and the third, across the Blue Ridge to the rivers flowing from
the south into the Ohio. In 1792 Kentucky, settled mainly by
emigrants over the last-mentioned path, was made a State. The
next State to be admitted was Tennessee (1795). The new settlers
carried into the West the spirit and institutions of the several com-
munities which they had left. South of the Ohio, negro slavery
was introduced. A treaty with Spain (in 1795) secured the free
navigation of the Mississippi.

Washington's Retirement and Death.— Washington himself
was not exempt from bitter partisan attack in public prints. • On
his retirement from office, he prepared, with the assistance of
Hamilton, a Farewell Address to the people, in which he exhorted
them to maintain the Union as the only safeguard of liberty, and
warned them against "entangling alliances" with European powers.
The deep and universal sorrow which was felt when he died (1799)
was a tribute as exalted as any nation ever paid to a fallen hero
and benefactor.

Adams: Rupture of the Federal Party.—John Adams, a Fed-
eralist, succeeded Washington as president; and Jefferson became
vice-president (1797). The French had seized a large number of
American vessels, on the pretense that they were affording aid to
England. In order, if possible, to prevent war, the President sent
out a special mission to France ; but the commissioners—Pinckney,
Gerry, and Marshall—were told by the Directory that they must
pay money as a bribe before they could be received, and were
finally ordered to quit the country (1797). The phrase of Pinckney,
" Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," expressed
the universal feeling. The report of the insulted envoys roused the
indignation of the American people, and moved Congress to pre-
pare for war. Washington was made general of all the forces toL'laUt

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THE UNITED STATES.

539

be raised, and he appointed Hamilton to be second in command.
Hostilities had really commenced ; the Federalists were eager for
a declaration of war; but President Adams, without the knowl-
edge of his cabinet, suddenly nominated to the senate another
ambassador to France. He had previously become assured that
such a messenger would be well received. Napoleon having come
into power, a treaty was concluded with him (1800). The course
of the President, however, gave mortal offense to the adherents of
Hamilton, and fatally divided the Federal party. Hamilton and
his supporters became wholly alienated from Adams, so that the
triumph of the Republicans was rendered certain.

" Resolutions of '98." — The violence of the attacks upon the
administration, which were made partly by foreign emissaries, had
caused the Federalists (1797) to pass the alien and sedition laws.
The first authorized the President to order out of the country
aliens who were conspiring against its peace. Its operation was
limited to two years. The second punished seditious libels upon
the government with fine and imprisonment. These acts provoked
a storm of opposition. Under the auspices of Jefferson, and of
Madison, who was now one of his supporters, the Virginia and
Kentucky Resolutions of 1798-99 were passed by the Legislatures of
those States. These resolves affirmed the right of a State to judge
of the constitutionality and validity of an Act of Congress. They
were interpreted as an assertion of the extreme doctrine of State
rights.

Purchase of Louisiana. — In 1800 Jefferson was raised to the
Presidency, and Aaron Burr> a scheming politician of the Repub-
lican school, was made vice-president.

At that time, and until the amendment of the Constitution (1804), the
electors voted for two persons, without designating either for the presidency
or the vice-presidency. The candidate having the highest number of votes
became president. As Jefferson and Burr had an equal number, the choice
between them for the highest office was made by the House of Representa-
tives.

The obnoxious laws of the preceding administration were re-
pealed. One of the most important events under Jefferson's ad-
ministration was the purchase of Louisiana from France, which
had acquired it from Spain. Napoleon knew that he could not
keep it from falling into the hands of England, and readily sold it
for fifteen millions of dollars. Thereby the territory of the United
States was doubled in its extent. The whole region between the
Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, with New Orleans, was
added to the country, together with whatever claim France had to
West Florida, Texas, and the district west of the Rocky Moun-
tains. Ohio, composed of the south-eastern portion of the north-
west territory, was admitted to the Union in 1803.540

MODERN HISTORY.

In the first fifteen years after the government was organized, there are
four things that affected powerfully the character and career of the United
States. The first was the influence of Washington in inspiring attachment
to the Union. The second was the genius of Hamilton in creating an efficient
administration of the new civil polity. The third was the democratic politi-
cal tendency fostered by Jefferson. The fourth was the vast expansion of
the national territory by the Louisiana Purchase, insuring the extension of the
Union, and preventing the rise of rival political communities in its neighbor-
hood.

War with the Algerines. — The pirates of Algiers, Morocco,
and the other Barbary States, demanded tribute of American ves-
sels on the Mediterranean. The first exploits of the navy of the
United States were in combats with these marauders (1801-5).
Decatur performed the exploit of burning in the harbor of Tripoli
the American ship Philadelphia, which the Tripoli tans had cap-
tured (1804). Derne was captured, and Tripoli bombarded.
Finally a treaty put an end to the exaction of tribute (1805).

An event that deeply moved the whole country was the killing of HatniU
ilton by Burr in a duel (1804). Burr was afterwards charged with an inten-
tion to form a new government on the south-western borders of the United
States. He was tried for treason (1807), and not convicted, although many
have believed him to be guilty.

Causes of the War of 1812-15. — The great European wars
brought the United States into serious difficulties, principally in
regard to questions relating to commerce. Attempts were made
by the European nations to establish blockades by mere enact-
ment, without actual and sufficient occupation of the ports which
were declared to be closed. The tendency of the British Orders
in council\ and of Napoleon's Berlin and Milan Decrees (p. 528),
was " to grind to pieces the few remaining neutral powers." These
were in effect cut off from trade with both Continental and English
ports by the ordinances of one or the other of the two belligerents,
the penalty being the confiscation of the vessels employed in
such traffic. Such were the restrictions upon neutrals, that a
great number of American ships were seized and confiscated by
English and French cruisers. In addition to these grievances, the
Leander, a British ship, exercised the pretended right of impress-
ment by firing on an American trading-sloop (1806) ; and in
like manner another British vessel, the Leopard, fired on the
frigate Chesapeake, which was not prepared for resistance, and
took four men from its crew (June 22, 1807). In retaliation,
Jefferson ordered all British ships of war to leave the coast of the
United States. Then followed the Embargo, embracing a succes-
sion of enactments of Congress, which forbade American vessels
to leave the harbors of the United States for Europe, and forbade
European vessels to land cargoes in American ports. The result
of this measure was to smite American commerce with an utterTHE UNITED STATES.

541

paralysis. The ships rotted at the wharves. The unpopularity of
the Embargo, especially in the Eastern commercial States, was
such that in Jefferson's second term it was repealed. It was fol*
lowed (1809) by the Non-Intercourse Act\ prohibiting commerce
with France and England. The British Orders in Council were
then, in a measure, relaxed, as was the practical enforcement against
our vessels of the Berlin Decree. In 1812, the French rescinded
their obnoxious decrees; and the English immediately took the same
step, but not soon enough to prevent a war with the United States.

Events of the War in 1812 and 1813.—James Madison, a
wise and moderate statesman of the Republican party, became
president in 1809. He was personally averse to engaging in war
with Great Britain; but the exasperation of a large part of the
country, and the pressure of the younger leaders of his party, .
Calhoun, Clay, and Lowndes, — moved him to a reluctant consent.
The war, which was declared in 1812, was bitterly opposed in the
New-England States, where the strength of the Federalists chiefly
lay. By them the real motive of it was considered to be partiality
for France. The treasury was nearly empty ; there were but few
ships of war, and only a small land force of about ten thousand
men, made up in part of raw recruits. Before this time, the
North-western Indians, under Tecumsehy whom the British were
suspected of inciting to war, had been defeated at Tippecanoe
(1811), by William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana. The
war with England opened inauspiciously with the surrender of
Detroit by Gen. William Hull to Gen. Brock (Aug. 16, 1812),
and an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada at Queenstoiun.
On the sea, however, the Americans had successes which filled
them with pride and exultation. Captain Isaac Hull\ of the frigate
Constitution, captured the British frigate Guerriere, and brought
his prisoners to Boston. Decatur, captain of the United States,
brought the Macedonian as a prize into the harbor of New York.
The Constitution destroyed the Java ; but the Chesapeake, whose
captain was killed, surrendered to the Shannon. Privateers were
fitted out, which captured several hundreds of British ships and
several thousands of prisoners. In 1813 Perry defeated the
English fleet on Lake Erie. His victory gave the Americans the
command of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. Harrison defeated
the British and Indians, — who had been driven to abandon
Michigan, — near the River Thames in Canada. But, on the
whole, the navy was much more successful than the army. The
Americans had taken possession of Mobile, which they as well
as the Spanish claimed; but the Creek Indians were incited by
the Spaniards to engage in hostilities. Forces from Tennessee,
under Andrew Jackson, and troops from Georgia and Mississippi,
fought the Creeks with success.542

MODERN HISTORY.

The War in 1814-15. — In 1814 a third attempt of the Ameri-
cans under Gen. Brown, to invade Canada, produced no decisive
result. There was hard fighting. The British were routed at Chip-
pewa ; and they were repulsed at Lundfs Lane, opposite Niagara
Falls, by Lieut, (afterwards General) Winfield Scott. Napoleon had
now been defeated; and the English sent twelve thousand troops,
who had served under Wellington in Spain, to Canada, to invade
the United States from the north, while another army was to make
an invasion by way of New Orleans. A fleet under Admiral Cock-
burn sailed up the Potomac, and burned the Capitol and other
public buildings at Washington (Aug. 24, 1814). An attack was
made on Baltimore by a British fleet, but was bravely repelled.
The defeat of the British fleet near Plattsburg, on Lake Champlaint
by Commodore Macdonough (Sept. 11, 1814), resulted in the
retreat of the British army, which was besieging that place,
to Canada. New Orleans was defended by General Jackson. The
British under Pakenham and Gibbs attacked his works, but were
defeated and withdrew (Jan. 8, 1815). The town was protected
from the approach of the English fleet by the fort. Before the
battle, peace had been concluded, but the news had not reached
this country.

The Hartford Convention.—The antagonism to the war in the New
England States found expression in the call of a convention at Hartford,
where their delegates met (Dec. i£, 1814). These States complained, that
while their commerce and fisheries were ruined, there was no protection
afforded to their sea-coast. Stonington in Connecticut had been bombarded,
and Castitie in Maine had been captured. They denied, also, that the Gen-
eral Government had the power over the State militia which it claimed. For
these and other grievances, they sought for a remedy "not repugnant to
their obligations as members of the Union.'* They declared that measures
of the General Government which are palpable violations of the Constitution
are void, and that the States injuriously affected might severally protect their
citizens from the operation of them, by such means as the several States
should judge it wise to adopt; but they disavowed the right or intent to break
up the Union. The effect of the convention was to bring great popular dis-
credit on the Federalists, and to seal their doom as a distinct party.

Treaty of Peace: Algiers. — In the Treaty of Ghent (Dec. 24,
1814), provisions were made for defining boundaries as settled by
previous treaties, and an engagement was made on both sides to
suppress the slave-trade; but no mention was made of maritime
rights and the impressment of seamen. This last practice was,
however, discontinued, although it was never renounced. The war
left the disputes that caused it just where they were. Many then
and since have regarded it as really undertaken by the dominant
party in the United States, in order to help one of the belligerents
in the great struggle then going forward between England and
France. Whether this view be just, or not, it is certain that the
war imparted to Americans the consciousness of power and nation-LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE.

543

ality. The connection between America and Great Britain was
broken off at the Revolution, because, as Turgot once said, colo-
nies are like fruits which only stay on the tree until they are ripe.
But the conflict was not over at the conclusion of the Peace of
1783. Bancroft has called the war of 1812^-15 "the second war
of independence." Nothing lent it this character so much as the
naval victories won by the United States, which gave them a stand-
ing among the nations. In 1815 a squadron under Decatur was
sent to Algiers, and the Barbary States were compelled to give up
by treaties all their demands.

CHAPTER VII.

LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE (1780-1815).

New Spirit in Literature. — In the latter part of the eighteenth
and the early part of the nineteenth centuries, literature broke away
from the artificial rules and the one-sided intellectual tone of the
" classical" school, — that school which had prevailed through
the influence of the French writers of the age of Louis XIK
The new era was marked by more spontaneity, and a return to
nature, and by a more free rein given to imagination and feeling.
" Romanticism," a general designation of the results of this new
movement as contrasted with the "classical" period, sometimes
ran out into extravagances of sentiment, and an exaggerated relish
for the mediaeval spirit.

Writers in Italy and in France. — In Italy, there were few writers
of distinction. Monti (1754-1828) was a poet full of harmony and elegance,
a follower, but with unequal steps, of Aljieri. Another of the same school
is the patriotic poet, Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), a master of his native tongue.
The poems ol Pindemonte (1753-1828) are graceful and pathetic. Leopardi
(1798-1837) mingles sublimity with pathos. Of the Italian historians of .this
period, Botta (1766-1837), who published a history of the American Revolu-
tion, and histories of Italy, is a clear writer, with a talent for vivid descrip-
tion. In France, Chateaubriand (1768-1848), who figured both in political
life and as a prolific and brilliant author, by his Genius of Christianity and
many other productions gained great celebrity, —more, however, by charms
of style and sentiment, than by weight of matter. Madame de Stael (1766-
1817) was the daughter of Necker. Between her and Napoleon there was a
mutual hostility. She wrote Corinne, Delphine> —44 in which she idealizes her-
self,"—-a work on Germany, and various other productions. She was versa-
tile, vigorous in thought, and humane in her temper and spirit. In philosophy,
a believing and spiritual school, in opposition to materialism, was founded
by Maine de Biran (1766-1824), Royer-Collard (1763-1846), and Benjamin
Constant De Maistre (1755-1852) wrote ably on the side of authority and of
the Catholic Church.

English Poetry.— Literature in England, especially in the department
of poetry, casting off the trammels of the classical school, in which Dry den
ancl Pope were foremost, entered on a new and splendid era. Whether it544

MODERN HISTORY.

dwelt on external nature or human passions and experiences, it appealed to
sensibility. It was no more exclusively, or in the main, an address to the
understanding. Cowper (1731-1800) set the example of genuine naturalness,
and of interest in nature and in every-day life. Robert Burns, a Scottish
peasant (1759-1796), by his wonderful union of tenderness, passion, and
humor, with poetic fancy and simplicity of diction, was more than the poet
of a single nation. Wordsworth (1770-1850) blended in his poems a delight
in rural and mountain scenery, with a deep vein of pensive thought and sen-
timent. If he wrote dull pages, even the severest critics allow that in The
Excursion there are most beautiful " oases in the desert;" while in such poems
as the Ode on the Power of Sound, the Intimatiotis of Immortality from the
Recollections of Childhood\ and Laodamia, there are passages not excelled
since Milton. A more sustained fervor of feeling and imagination belonged
to Byron (1788-1824), who, notwithstanding his morbid egotism and offenses
against morality, combined passion with beauty, and was never dull. Wal-
ter Scott (1771-1832) exhibited in his narrative poems the spirit of the roman-
tic school, with none of its sentimentality or extravagance. Coleridge (1772-
1834), the author of Christabel and The Ancient Mariner, was a highly origi-
nal poet, as well as a philosopher. Southey (1774-1843), with less genius, was
a man of letters, prolific both in verse and in prose. Shelley and Keats had
a much higher gift of imagination. Campbell, Rogers, and Moore are names of
distinction, although less illustrious than those of Wordsworth and Coleridge,
Scott and Byron. Walter Savage Landor (1775-1864), a poet and the author
of Imaginary Conversations, and other prose writings, was master of a style
of extraordinary power and purity.

English Prose Writers.— In novel-writing, Miss Austen, Miss Porter,
and Miss Edgeworth preceded Walter Scott. Waver/ey, the first in the series
of Scott1s novels, appeared anonymously in 1814. In 1802 the Edinburgh
Review, the first of the noted critical quarterlies, began its existence, under
the editorship of Francis Jeffrey, and numbered among its writers Brougham,
Sydney Smith, and Sir James Mackintosh. In 1809 the Quarterly Review,
the organ of the Tories as the Edinburgh Review represented the Whigs,
began, with Gifford for its editor. Among the essayists of that time, in a
lighter vein, were John Wilson ("Christopher Nortn"), poet and critic in
one; and the genial humorist, the friend of Wordsworth and Coleridge,
Charles Lamb. John Foster (1770-1843) was an original essayist on grave
themes. In philosophy, Dugald Stewart (1753-1828), a clear and fluent ex-
positor, and Thomas Brown (1778-1821), kept up the reputation of the Scot-
tish school founded by Reid. Burke, Alison, and Jeffrey wrote on beauty,
and on the taste for the beautiful. Mackintosh, a statesman of liberal opin-
ions, wrote on ethics. Coleridge, inspired by the German thinkers Kant and
Schellingy through his philosophical fragments and theological essays did
much to create a new current in English philosophical and religious thought.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was less eminent as a metaphysician than as a
contributor, through his writings, to legislative reform.

American Writers.— In America, the political writings of Adams,
Jefferson, Hamilton, Jay, Madison, Marshall, and Ames, have a permanent
value. Their letters and the letters of Washington are written in clear and
manly English. Lindley Murray (1745-1826) published (1795) an English
Grammar, which superseded all others. In theology, there were a number
of vigorous thinkers and writers, such as the younger President Edwards,
Samuel Hopkins, Bellamy, Emmons, J. M. Mason, and JDwight. Dwighfs
System of Theology was much read in England and Scotland. Belles-lettres
literature in America was in its infancy. There was a triad of poets, — Trum-
bull, a humorous writer (1750-1831), Joel Barlow (1755-1812), and Dwight
(1752-1817); all of them survivors of the school of Pope. Their patriotic
feeling was their chief merit, but Barlow and Dwight each wrote one excel-
lent hymn.LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE.	545

German Authors. — One of the mdRt versatile and stimulating of Ger-
man writers was Herder (1741-1803). Full of imagination and spirit, he
made his quickening influence felt as a theologian, critic, philosopher, and
philologist. His name is in somem easure eclipsed by the fame of his two
great associates at Weimar, Goethe (1749-1832) and Schiller (1759-1805). By
the universality of his genius, which was equally exalted in the sphere of criti-
cism and of original production, Goethe is, by common consent, the foremost
of German authors. His dramas, especially Tasso, Egmont, and Faust, and
his pastoral epic, Hermann and Dorothea^ are the most celebrated of his
poems; but many of his minor pieces are marked by exquisite harmony and
beauty. Schiller, with less repose and a less profound artistic feeling, yet
from his humane impulses and fire of emotion stands closer to the popular
heart. A'orner (1791-1813), and Arndt (1769-1860), the author of the song,
"Where is the German's Fatherland," were patriotic lyrists of high merit.
l/hland (1787-1S62) is a ballad-writer, not surpassed in this species of com-
position by any of his contemporaries. The " Romantic School," with its
predilection for the Middle Ages, included Novalis, Tieck% and also the two
brothers Schlegel, who were critics rather than poets. One of the most unique
and original of the German writers was Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825),
essentially a philosopher and moralist, yet with a pervading element of humor
and pathos.

German Philosophy. — In philosophy, the first name in the order of
time and of merit is that of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). The Critique of
Pure Reason is the most important of his productions. He showed, against
Humey that the ideas of cause, substance, self, etc., are not products of ima-
gination, or due to a mere custom of thought, but are from within, and are
necessary and universale In the Critique of the Practical Reason he found the
real basis of faith in God, free-will, and immortality, in our moral nature. On
all the topics which he treated, he was both earnest and profound. On the
basis of a portion of his teaching, subsequent speculative philosophers reared
a system of idealism and pantheism. Of these, the most celebrated are Fichte
(1762-1814), who held that the world external to the mind has no existence;
Schelling (1775-1854), who taught that nature and mind are at bottom one
and the same substance, in different manifestations; and Hegel (1770-1831),
who resolved all being into a realm of ideas, a self-existent and self-develop-
ing thought-world.

Among the numerous writers in other departments in this period, the
brothers Alexander von Humboldt and William von Humboldt were eminent, —
the former in natural science and as an explorer; the latter in political
science, criticism, and philology.

Painting and Sculpture. — In Italy, a great sculptor — the greatest
since Michael Angelo — appeared in the person of Canova (1747-1822); who,
however, was equaled by an Englishman, John Flaxman (1755-1826). An
eminent follower of Canova was Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), a Dane. Dan•
neckery a German sculptor (1758-1844), excelled in portrait statues. Another
German sculptor, the founder of a school, was Ranch (1774-1857), whose
statues are faithful, yet idealized, likenesses. A famous French painter in
this period was David\ whose pictures, in the classic style, lack force and
warmth. Many of his scholars attained to high proficiency in the art, Horace
Vernet (1789-1863) and Paul Delaroche (1797-1856) chose their subjects from
modern European history. The modern German school of painting was
founded by Overbeck, Von Schadow, and Cornelius. The greatest English
painter after Hogarth was Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), whose portraits
have seldom, if ever, been surpassed. Almost or quite on a level with him
was Gainsborough (1727-1788). Benjamin West (1738-1820) was by birth an
American, as was Copley an artist of superior talents (1739-181 j). Lawrence
(1765-1830) was a British painter whose portraits have a high historical
value. The greatest of the English landscape painters is Turner (1775-1851).546	MODERN HISTORY.

John Trumbull (1756-1843), an American, painted spirited battle-pieces, and
miniature portraits of decided artistic merit. Washington Allston (1780-1843),
another American painter, produced works admired for their warmth of
color, and for the refined feeling expressed in them.

Music.— The great German musicians Haydn and Mozart were followed
by an equal or greater genius in music, Beethoven (1770-1827). At the head
of the school of German song-writers is Schubert (1797-1828). One of the
most popular of the German composers was Weber (1786-1826).

Physical and Natural Science.—The most brilliant discoveries in
astronomy were made by the French philosopher Laplace, whose Mecanique
Celeste made an epoch in that science. Dr. Thomas Young (1773-1829) did
much to explain the true theory of the tides, and to confirm the undulatory
theory of light. Others eminent in the progress of optics are Fresnel (1788-
1827), Biot, Arago,— all French physicists, — and Sir David Brewster. La-
voisier (1743-1794) infused a new spirit into chemical science. Priestley
(I733~I^C54) discovered oxygen and other gases. Dalton (1766-1844) is the
author of the atomic theory of the composition of matter. Sir Humphry
Davy added to chemical knowledge, and, simultaneously with George Stephen-
son, invented the safety-lamp for miners. Berzelius (1779-1848), a Swedish
chemist, and Gay-Lussac (1778-1850), a Frenchman, are great names in the
history of this science. Galvani, the discoverer of animal electricity, and Volta>
the inventor of the galvanic pile, stimulated others to fruitful experiments
in this branch of study. Lamarck (1744-1829) was one of the first of the
modern advocates of the origin of species by development. Cuvier (1769-
1832), the greatest naturalist of modern time's, made most important obser-
vations in comparative anatomy, and "established many of the positive laws
of geology and paleontology." Geology first assumed the place of a science
through the labors of Werner (1750-1817), a German mineralogist. There
were two classes of geologists, — the Neptuniansy or Wernerians, who as-
cribed rocks to aqueous deposition exclusively; and the Vulcaniatis, or
Huttonists, — adherents of the view of Dr. Hntt,m (1726-1797) of Edinburgh,
— who attributed many of them to the action of fire. The Geological Society
of London was founded in 1807. Among discoveries of practical utility in
science, the discovery of vaccination for the prevention of small-pox, by
Jenner (1749-1823), an English physician, is one of the most remarkable.

Literature: See the lists on pp. 16, 350,497; also President A. D. White's list, with criti-
cal notes, attached to Morris's The French Revolution and First Empire (in " Epochs of
History ), and Adams's Manual; the Histories of Alison (Tory), Louis Blanc, Car-
lyle, Jomini (Histoire Critique et Militaire des Gnerres de Revolution), Lanfrey,
Hist aire de Napolion> Leo, Michblet (7 vols.), Mignet, Morris, Von Sybel (4 vols.),
Thiers, Taine, L. Hausser; Madame de R^musat's Memoirs; Metternich's Memoirs
(5 vols.); Joyneville, Life and Times of Alexander /. (3 vols.); J. W. Croker, Early
Period of the French Revolution; Seeley, Life of Stein.

I)e Tocqueville's L'Ancien Regime et la Revolution; P.Janet's Philosophie de la
Revolution Francaise ; Quinet, La Revolution ; The Essays on the Revolution, by Burke,
Mackintosh, Croker; Macaulay's Essays on Mirabeau and Barfcre; Lamartine's The Giron-
dists ; A. Young's Travels in France in ij8j-88-8q (London, 1704); C. K. Adams's
Democracy and Monarchy in France ; J. Adolphus, History of England during the Reign
of George III. (7 vols.); Brougham's Historical Sketches of Statesmen (3 vols.); Reeve's
Royal and Republican France ; the novels of Erckmann-Cnatrian.

Taine, History of English Literature ; Mrs. Oliphant, Literary History of England
in the end of the 18th and beginning of the joth centuries ; Allibone, Dictionary of
British and American Authors; Duyckinck, Cyclopedia of American Literature.the recent teriod.

547

Period V.

FROM THE CONGRESSv OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE
PRESENT TIME.

introduction.

Political Changes in Europe. — The aspiration of the peoples
of Europe after constitutional freedom and national unity, after the
yoke of Napoleon had been thrown off, was for a long season
baffled. This was owing partly to the lassitude natural after the
protracted and exhausting wars, and more to the combination of
the principal sovereigns, instigated by the love of power and the
dread of revolution, for the purpose of preventing the popular
yearning from being gratified. But in 1830 — when half of the
lifetime of a generation had passed by — the overthrow of the old
Bourbon line of kings in France was the signal for disturbances
and changes elsewhere on the Continent. In England, at about
the same time, there began an era of constitutional and legislative
reforms which effected a wider diffusion of political power. In
1848 — after a second interval of about equal length — another
revolutionary crisis occurred. At the same time, movements in
favor of communism and socialism brought in a new peril. Alarm
felt on this account, by the middle class in France, was one im-
portant aid to the third Napoleon in reviving the empire in France.
The condition of Europe—in particular, the divided state of Ger-
many— enabled him to maintain a leading influence for a score
of years in European politics. The unification of Germany, which
began in the triumph of Prussia over Austria, was completed in
Napoleon's downfall through the Franco-German war. The uni-
fication of Italy, to which Louis Napoleon had contributed by the
French alliance with Piedmont against Austria, was consummated
under Victor Emmanuel, after his cooperation with Prussia in her
great struggle with Austria. Thus Germany and Italy reached
the goal to which they had looked with desire and hope at the
close of the Napoleonic wars in 1815.

America. — On the Western Continent, Mexico and the South-
American dependencies of Spain and Portugal gained their inde-
pendence in connection with political revolutions in the European

547548

MODERN HISTORY.

countries to which they had been attached. The United States,
in the enjoyment of peace, and favored by great material advan-
tages, advanced with marvelous rapidity in population and in
wealth. Discord, growing out of the existence of negro slavery
in the South, brought on at last the Civil War, which terminated in
the conquest of the Confederate States and their restoration to
the Union, in the freedom of the slaves, and in the prohibition of
slavery by Constitutional amendment.

Military System in Europe. — During this period, in Europe
there has been a wide diffusion of popular education. But a
serious hinderance in the way of physical comfort and general
improvement in the principal European states has long existed,
in the immense standing armies and costly military system which
their mutual jealousies and apprehensions have caused them to
keep up.

Science and Invention.—This period outstrips all previous
eras as regards the progress of the natural and physical sciences,
and of invention and discovery in the practical applications of
science. An almost miraculous advance has taken place in the
means of travel and of transmitting thought. There has been an
equally marvelous advance in devising machinery for use in agri-
culture and manufactures, and in connection with labor of almost
every sort.

Peace and Philanthropy. — The vast extension of commerce,
with its interchange of products, and the intercourse which is
incidental to it, has proved favorable to international peace. The
better understanding of economical science, by bringing to view
the mischiefs of war and the bad policy of selfishness, has tended
in the same direction. Philanthropy has manifested itself with
new energy and in new forms of activity. A quickened and more
enlightened zeal has been shown in providing for the infirm and
helpless, and for mitigating the sufferings of the soldier. Mis-
sionary undertakings, for the conversion and civilizing of heathen
nations, have been a marked feature of the age.

Socialism. — The " industrial age " had its own perils to con-
front. The progress of manufactures and trade, the accumulation
of wealth unequally distributed, brought forward new questions
pertaining to the rights and reciprocal aggressions of laborer and
capitalist. Socialism, with novel and startling doctrines as to the
right of property, and to the proper function of the state, inau-
gurated movements of grave concern to the order and well-being
of society.GERMANY: THE HOLY ALLIANCE.

549

CHAPTER I.

EUROPE, PROM THE CONGRESS OP VIENNA (1815) TO THE
FRENCH REVOLUTION OP 1830.

Germany: the Holy Alliance. — The years of peace which fol-
lowed the War of Liberation produced a signal increase of thrift
and of culture in Germany. But they brought also a grievous
disappointment of ardent political hopes. There was a feeling of
national brotherhood, which that struggle had engendered, — such
a feeling as Germans had not experienced for centuries before.
Constitutional government and German unity were objects of
earnest desire. Frederick William IIL, the king of Prussia (1797-
1840), had promised his people a constitution. But the two em-
perors, Francis L of Austria and Alexander of Russia, together
with Frederick William, had, at the instigation of Alexander, —
whose mind was tinged with religious mysticism, — formed at Paris
(Sept. 26, 1815) "the Holy Alliance" a. covenant in which they
pledged themselves, in dealing with their subjects and in their
international relations, to be governed by the rules of Christian jus-
tice and charity. They invited all the potentates of Europe, except
the Sultan and the Pope, to become parties to this sacred compact.
With the exception of George IV., the Prince Regent of England,
the sovereigns complied with the request. This alliance, although
sincerely meant, turned out to be an instrument of despotism.
The baleful result as regards Germany, not to speak now of the
other countries, was due mainly to the influence of Austria. Fran-
cis /., who lived until 1835, was stubbornly averse to every move-
ment that in the least favored popular freedom and constitutional
government. Supreme in his counsels for a whole generation was
Metternich, not a profound statesman, but an expert diplomatist,
who labored, generally with success, to stifle every effort for an in-
crease of freedom in Germany, and elsewhere on the Continent.
In the smaller German states, especially those which had belonged
to the Confederacy of the Rhine, there was a disposition to found
a constitutional system; but the Prussian government followed in
the wake of Austria, and Austria stood- in the way of every such
innovation.

Agitation and Reaction. — The agitation for liberty was spe-
cially rife among the students in the German universities. A
demonstration by them at the Wartburg (1817), in commemora-
tion of Luther and of the victory over Napoleon at Leipsic>-~ in
which there were songs and speeches, and a burning of anti-liberal
books, — was noticed by the Prussian and Austrian ministers; and'
the alleged revolutionary movements of students were denounced
by the Emperor Alexander. This reactionary zeal was whetted byMODERN HISTORY.

the murder of Kotzebue, a German poet, who was hated as a tool
of Russia and a foe of liberty, and was assassinated by George Sand\
a fanatical Prussian student (March 23, 1819). Young Sand was
executed for the deed, but his fate drew out many expressions of
pity and sympathy. The Diet of the confederacy (Sept. 20, 1819)
adopted what were called the Carlsbad Resolutions, which pro-
vided for a more rigid censorship of the press, committees of
investigation to suppress revolutionary agitation, and a strict super-
vision of the universities by the governments. All the states were
required to enforce these regulations. The liberal party, the party
of freedom and unity, still subsisted, especially in the smaller states,
where some of the princes, as William I of Wiirte?nberg (1819-
1864) and Louis /. of Bavaria (1825-1848), entertained compara-
tively liberal views.

France under Louis XVIII. — The Congress of Aix-la- Chapelle
(1818) withdrew the army of occupation left by the allies in France.
The Pentarchy, or Five Great Powers, pledged themselves to the
continued maintenance of peace by means of conferences and con-
gresses. Louis XVI!/; (1814-1824), although inactive, was not
void of good sense, and was disposed to accommodate himself to
the times. But the court party, with his brother the Count d'Artois
at its head, were unyielding in their despotic ideas. They were for
restoring the system of the old monarchy. The increase in the
liberal members of the Chamber, or legislative assembly, impelled
Richelieu, the ultra-royalist minister, to resign (Dec., 1818). A
more liberal man, Decazes, succeeded him. He was supported by
a party which arose at this time, called Doctrinaires on account of
a certain pedantic spirit, and a disposition to shape political action
by preconceived theories or ideas, which was imputed to them.
In their ranks were Royer- Co Hard, Guizot\ Vilie main, Bar ante, and
others. They advocated a constitutional monarchy. Among the
liberals not affiliated with them was La Fayette, who had joined
the Carbonari, a secret society for promoting liberty, that had its
origin in Italy.

Tyranny in Spain. — In 1820 revolts broke out against the
Bourbon governments in Spain and Italy. Ferdinand VII had
been restored to liberty by Napoleon in 1814, and had returned
to the Spanish throne. In 1812 the Cortes had established a con-
stitution with a system of parliamentary government, limited pre-
rogatives being left to the, king. In favor of the new system were
the educated and enlightened class generally. But — as was not
the case in Germany — the uprising against Napoleon in Spain had
owed its strength very much to the ignorant and superstitious peas-
antry, who, while they hated the foreign yoke, clung to the feudal
and ecclesiastical abuses which the French rulers in Spain, as farSOUTH AMERICA: MEXICO.

SSI

as time and opportunity permitted, swept away. Ferdinand thus
had a strong support in his movement to bring back the former
bigoted and exclusive system. He wrested the national property
from the holders to whom it had been sold. He restored the In-
quisition: not less than fifty thousand individuals were imprisoned
for their opinions. From his tyranny ten thousand Spaniards
escaped into France.

South American Independence. — The French, usurpation in
Spain cost that country its American colonies. They would not
submit to the French sovereignty, and after its fall maintained
their independence. Buenos Ayres broke loose from Spain in
1810, and in 1819 formed itself into the Argentine Republic.
Paraguay declined a union with Buenos Ayres, and continued
under the patriarchal absolutism introduced by the Jesuits, Dr.
Francia being its ruler until his death (1840). Uruguay became
a republic distinct from Buenos Ayres in 1829. In the northern
colonies, the principal hero of the struggle for independence was
Simon Bolivar, who sprang from a noble Creole family. He first
fought for the independence of Venezuela (1810), but was made
by New Granada its general in 1812, and became president of the
two countries, which were united under the name of Colombia
(1819). Quito was now taken, and Peru was set free from the
Spanish rule. Upper Peru, in 1825, was named, in honor of the
" Liberator," Bolivia. He found it impracticable to connect
the different states in one confederacy, and closed his eventful life
in 1830. Colombia divided itself into the three states, Venezuela,
New Granada, and Ecuador (1831).

Mexican Independence. — After the year 1808, there were
various attempts at revolution in Mexico. In 1821 its independ-
ence was achieved by an insurrection under Iturbide, a native
Mexican. He failed in the effort to make himself emperor (1822) ;
and the Republic of Mexico was organized in 1824, and was recog-
nized by the United States in 1829.

Military Revolt in Spain. — The loss of her American colonies,
and the efforts to restore them, reduced Spain to extreme poverty.
In 1820 a successful military insurrection, led by Quiroga, Riego,
and Mina, proclaimed anew the constitution of 1812. Ferdinand\
who was capable of any amount of hypocrisy as well as cruelty,
swore to uphold it. The revolution was supported by the intelli-
gent class of people, but the defenders of it were split into different
parties. The clergy and the peasantry were arrayed on the other
side. Guerilla bands were organized under the name of the " Army
of the Faith."

Congress of Verona.—The military revolt in Spain alarmed
the Holy Alliance. The three sovereigns were now leagued for the
defense of."the throne and the altar;" for Alexander^ who had552

MODERN HISTORY.

shown liberal inclinations on the subject of the emancipation of
the serfs, and even towards Greece in its aspiration for independ-
ence, now recoiled from every thing that savored of freedom. At
the Congress of Verona (Oct., 1822), the sovereigns resolved to
interfere in Spain. The Duke of Wellington declined to concur
with them, and, on his return from the congress, advised Louis
XVIII. to take the same course.

England: Canning.— George IV. (1820-1830) had been re-
gent since 1810. Already unpopular, he became still more so in
consequence of his abortive effort (1820) to procure a divorce
from Queen Caroline, whom he had married at the demand of his
father (1795). She was not allowed to be present at his corona-
tion. On account of the profligacy of her husband, there was a
strong sympathy with, her, although she was a coarse-minded
woman. For a number of years after the Peace of 1815, the
English government resisted movements towards reform at home;
and in its foreign policy, under the guidance of Castlereagh, it
sustained the reactionary cause abroad. Disaffection towards the
ministers gave rise to a plot, contrived by some desperate men, to
destroy them in a body. It was detected ; and Thistlewood\ with
some of his confederates, was executed (1820). On the death
of Lord Castlereagh in 1822, Canning, a disciple of Pitt, became
foreign secretary. He adopted a more liberal policy, and worked
against the schemes of the Holy Alliance for interference in the'
affairs of foreign states. He transferred England, says Guizot,
"from the camp of resistance and of European order into the
camp of liberty."

The Rebellion crushed in Spain. — The French unwisely re-
jected England's advice. Louis XVIII. sent an army into Spain,
under the Duke of An go u time t released Ferdinand at Cadiz, and
gave him the power to revoke all that he had done in favor of
liberty. The brave Riego was hung on a gibbet of enormous
height. The Spanish army was disbanded, and the " Army of the
Faith " took its place. Many thousands of constitutionalists were
thrown into prison, Canning recognized the republics of South
America, lest they, too, should fall under French control. It was
his boast, that he " called the New World into existence to redress
the balance of the Old."

Portugal: Brazil — The royal family of Portugal were residing
in Brazil when the Spanish revolution occurred. Portugal, in the
absence of King John VI, framed a liberal constitution. The
Brazilian soldiery, who sympathized with the movement, drove
John out of the country. Arrived in Portugal, he accepted the
new constitution ; but the anti-revolutionary party rallied about
his son Don Miguely who was supported by his mother, a sister
of Ferdinand VII. of Spain. JDom Miguel was at length drivenITALY: GREECE.

553

into exile, and went to Vienna. Meantime Dotn Pedro, a son of
John VI., had made himself emperor in Brazil by allying himself
with the constitutional party; and John was prevailed on by the
British, in 1825, to recognize the new South American empire.

Naples and Sicily. — In all the eight principalities of Italy, ex-
cept in Tuscany, the misrule of the restored governments was
galling to the people, whose hope of freedom had been raised
only to be cast down. Everywhere the tyrannical influence of
Austria was dominant. The rulers in Italy were slavishly submis-
sive to her will; and any rising of the people, if not put down by
them, was crushed by Austrian forces sent down from Lombardy.
Secret societies sprung up; the chief of which, the Carbonari,
aimed at national independence, but beyond that cherished no
definite, united purpose. The Spanish revolution served as the
occasion for a similar rebellion of the soldiery of Naples. A new
liberal constitution was established, which Ferdi?iand IV. (July
13, 1820) solemnly swore to maintain. The insurrection in Sicily
was not a popular one, but Palermo was surrendered to the revo-
lutionary government of Naples. The Neapolitan rebellion led to
the Congress of Troppau (Oct., 1820), which was transferred
to Laybach (Jan., 1821). There Austria, Prussia, and Russia
formed a league, the fruit of which was, that an Austrian army
of sixty thousand men marched into the South of Italy, and the
revolution was crushed. Ferdinand reestablished his despotism,
disbanded the greater part of his army, and punished with exile,
imprisonment, and death the leading supporters of the constitu-
tion which he had taken an oath to defend.

Piedmont. — In Piedmont, the demand for a constitution and
a rising at Alessandria impelled Victor Emmanuel L to abdicate
in favor of his brother, Charles Felix, who was favorable to Aus-
tria and her policy. Prince Charles Albert, — a distant cousin, —
who had liberal views, held the regency for a few months; but
Charles Felix, on his return from Modena (Oct., 1821), governed
according to despotic principles. The contest in Italy between
" despots and conspirators " went on until the renewed outbreak-
ings of revolt in 1830.

The Greek Insurrection. — The weakness of Turkey embold-
ened the Greeks to attempt to throw off the hated Ottoman yoke.
The sultans had become the puppets of their guards, the janizaries.
One after another of them had been dethroned by their soldiers.
The pashas were insubordinate : in Egypt, Mehemet Ali had almost
made himself independent. Russia, by the Peace of Bucharest
in 1812, had possessed herself of Bessarabia and of Eastern Mol-
davia as far as the Pruth. Among the Greeks, who were not more
than a million in number, and were only one among the various
peoples subject to Turkey, there were formed Hetaireiai> or secret554

MODERN HISTORY.

societies, for the purpose of organizing an insurrection. The
people were first summoned to rise by Alexander Ypsilanti (1820).
A " national congress " promulgated a new constitution for Greece
(1822). Great enthusiasm in behalf of the Greek cause was
awakened in most of the civilized countries; but the Congress of
Verona (1822), inspired by Metlernich, decided to give no help to
the "insurgents." In the war of the Greeks with the Turks, there
were atrocities committed on both sides. Scio was taken by the
latter in 1822. Not far from twenty thousand of the inhabitants
were massacred, and twice that number were enslaved. In 1824
the Greeks began to receive foreign help. Among those who
volunteered with a chivalrous sympathy to aid them in their com-
bat was Lord Byron, who died at Missolonghi (1824). Nicholas
/. of Russia, who in 1825 succeeded Alexander /., was more
inclined to take an active part in the Greek contest, as he con-
sidered himself the head of all Christians of the Greek faith.
The Sultan Mahmoud 11., by crushing the janizaries, strengthened
himself at home, but weakened his means of attack and defense
abroad. In 1826 he made important concessions to Russia;
among other things, allowing her to occupy the east coast of the
Black Sea, and giving to her vessels a free admission to Turkish
waters.

Greek Independence. — Mehemet Ali hoped to succeed Mah-
moud. His son Ibrahim had defeated the Greeks at Navarino

(1825).	The next year, in conjunction with the Turks, he cap-
tured Missolonghi. The apprehension that Nicholas might seek to
divide Turkey with Mehemet Ali caused the Treaty of London to
be concluded by the Great Powers which founded the kingdom
of Greece (July 6, 1827). England, Russia, and France joined in
executing the treaty. They destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian fleet
at Navarino (Oct. 26). Later, Nicholas waged a separate war
with the Porte, which was terminated by the Peace of Adrianople

(1826),	when the latter recognized the independence of Greece.
The crown of Greece was accepted in 1832 by Otho, son of Louis
of Bavaria.

CHAPTER II.

EUROPE FROM THE REVOLUTION OP 1830 TO THE REVO-
LUTIONARY EPOCH OP 1848.

Charles X. — Louis XV1IL died in 1824. His brother, Charles
X. (1824-30), dealt generously with the collateral branch of the
Bourbons, the house of Orleans. He restored to Louis Philippe,
the son of that Philip Egalite whose base career was ended by the
guillotine (p. 512), the vast estates of the Orleans family, andFRANCE UNDER CHARLES X.

555

gave him the title of " Royal Highness." But he failed to secure
the cordial support of this ambitious relative. The Duke of Or-
leans stood well with the king, but was on good terms with the
liberal leaders. The king sought to reinstate the ideas and ways
of the old regime. He was specially zealous in behalf of ecclesi-
astics, and ceremonies of devotion. But liberal views in politics
gained ground in the second Chamber, as well as in the army and
among the people. A liberal ministry under Martignac was in
power for a while; but in 1829 it was succeeded by a ministry
the head of which was the unpopular Prince Polignac, and the
other principal members of which were hardly less obnoxious.
They represented the extreme reactionary and royalist party.
Their active opponents — Guizot, Thiers, and Benjamin Constant
among them — found that their assaults on the government were
generally applauded. All of these were brilliant political writers.
Constant (from 1825) had been the leader of the opposition.
Thiers was a journalist of wide influence. Guizot had held office
under the liberal ministers, and as lecturer on modern history,
and by his writings, had laid the foundation of the great distinc-
tion which he deservedly gained, as one of the foremost students
and expounders of history in recent times. Thiers and Guizot
were at this time united in the advocacy of a constitutional system,
as opposed to the reactionary policy and the personal government
to which the king and his ministers were committed. Later we
shall see that the paths of these two statesmen diverged. In 1830
Guizot was the opposition leader in the Chamber of Deputies.
In the Chamber of Peers, the ministry was attacked by Chateau-
briand\ who had been a valuable supporter of the Bourbon cause,
and by others. The Chambers were dissolved by the king. The
capture of Algiers, in a war against the piratical power of which
it was the seat, did not avail to lessen the growing hostility to his
government. It found expression through the press and in
speeches at a great banquet.

Ordinances of St. Cloud. —Taking advantage of the provision
in the charter which gave extraordinary powers to the king for
special emergencies (p. 537), the ministry took the fatal step
(July 25, 1830) of issuing the "ordinances of St. Cloud," de-
claring the recent elections for the Chamber illegal, restricting
suffrage, putting fetters on the press, and forbidding several liberal
journals. The Chambers, which had not yet met, were declared
to be dissolved.

The July Revolution. — The ordinances were published on
July 26. That evening Prince Polignac*s windows were broken
by a mob. The whole city of Paris was in a tumult. The liberal
journals protested. There were collisions between the mob and
the gens dyamies. A protest of the liberal deputies, who met at556

MODERN HISTORY.

the house of Casimir Perierf was issued. In the night the people
armed themselves. La Fayette arrived in Paris. On the 28th
students, workmen, and all classes of citizens, armed themselves
with whatever weapons they could lay hold of. The revolu-
tionists took possession of the Hotel de Ville. The cry was
that the charter was violated. All efforts to induce the king to
make concessions failed. The troops of Marmont in Paris fra-
ternized with the people, who on the 29th had control of the
whole city, except the vicinity of the Tuileries, which they gained
possession of that evening. La Fayette, at the call of the deputies,
assumed command of the National Guard. Finally, when it was
too late, the king decided to withdraw the ordinances, and to
change the ministry. Thiers and Mignet caused anonymous pla-
cards to be posted, proposing that the Duke of Orleans should
.take the crown from the people. On the 30th Louis Philippe
entered Paris on foot: he had passed the summer at his country
place at Neuilly. Talleyrand\ — whose influence was great with
foreign courts, — Lafittey and Thiers were active in the effort to
advance him to the throne. The deputies decided that he must
be made lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Charles X.> who still
blindly confided in him, on the 31st appointed him to this office.
What the intentions of Louis Philippe were, is not clear. He
probably meant to be governed by circumstances. On that day
a municipal commission was installed at the Hotel de Ville, con-
sisting of La Fayette and seven other leading men. They selected
several persons as ministers whose authority was generally acknowl-
edged. Louis Philippe, at the head of the deputies, went to the
Hotel de Ville. He was cordially received by La Fayette and his
associates. It was agreed that there should be "a popular throne,
with free institutions." On the balcony, under the tri-color flag,
the Duke of Orleans was introduced as " the man of the people."
La Fayette felt that a republic would be contrary to the national
wish. Thiers was of the same mind. They feared complications
and contests abroad, and what might be the results of general
suffrage, in the existing state of the country, at home.

Plight of Charles X. — The desertion of Charles X by his
troops would have rendered an armed contest on his part imprac-
ticable. The dexterous management of Louis Philippe was made
effectual by the favoring circumstances. On Aug. 2 the king
abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux, and
was compelled to fly from the kingdom. The mob of Paris had
been stirred up to go out to Rambouillet to drive him away. The
angry old king did not wait for their coming.

Louis Philippe made King.—The Chamber of Deputies de-
clared the throne vacant. They altered the charter, — putting all
religious bodies on a level, giving freedom to the press, limitingFRANCE: POLAND: GERMANY.

557

the powers of the king, and giving to the Chambers, as well as to
him, the initiative in framing laws. They chose Louis Philippe
"King of the French." He owed his elevation to the middle
classes, and claimed to be the "citizen king."

Separation of Belgium. — The effect of the new revolution was
to set in motion the elements of discontent in the other European
countries. Belgium was the first to feel the shock. The Belgians
were restless under the rule of William /., whose treatment of
them aggravated the disaffection which their political relation to
Holland constantly occasioned. A revolt broke out at Brussels.
The offer of a legislative and administrative separation of Belgium
from Holland, with one king over both, might have been accepted
if it had been made earlier; but it followed unsuccessful efforts
to quell the insurrection by force. A provisional government was
created at Brussels, which proclaimed the independence of Bel-
gium (Oct. 5), and convoked a national congress. France con-
fined itself to preventing the interference of foreign powers* A
conference of ministers at London (Jan., 1831) recognized the
new state, which adopted a liberal constitution. Leopold /. of
Saxe-Coburg was chosen king. He was aided by the forces of the
French; but the war with Holland lasted until 1833, and it was
not until 1839 that Holland definitely accepted the action of the
London congress.

Poland. — Poland was harshly ruled for the Czar by the Grand
Duke Constantine. The revolution in France was the signal for a
Polish rising, that began in an unsuccessful attempt of students and
others to seize the person of the grand duke. The insurrection
spread : men of talents and distinction, as well as Polish soldiers,
joined the cause of the people. The Czar, Nicholas, would make
no terms with the insurgents, and the Diet (Jan. 25, 1831) de*
clared him to have forfeited the Polish crown. The Poles fought
with desperate valor in a series of bloody battles, only to be over-
whelmed by superiority of numbers. They were defeated at
Ostrolenka by Diebitsch (May 26). After his death, Warsaw
surrendered to Paskievitch (Sept. 8), and another Russian general
entered Cracow. Poland was now reduced, as far as it could be,
to a Russian province. The army was merged in the Russian
forces; the university was suppressed; the Roman Catholic reli-
gion, the prevailing faith, was persecuted; and it was computed
that in one year (1832) eighty thousand Poles were sent to
Siberia.

Germany: Hungary. — In Saxony and in the minor states of
Germany, disturbances were consequent on the tidings of the revo-
lution at Paris. Prussia and Austria were little affected by it; but
the demands of the Diet in Hungary, when Ferdinand, the son of
Francis L was crowned king of that country, were an augury of a558

MODERN HISTORY.

far greater commotion to arise at a later day. In the Diet of 1832
Louis Kossuth first appeared as a member. Between the years
1828 and 1834, the German states (not including Austria), under
the guidance of Prussia and Bavaria, formed a Zollverein, or
customs-union, which was an important step in the direction of
German unity, and one which Austria looked on with disfavor.

Italy. — In 1831, there were signs of revolt in different states
of Italy. At Modena, a provisional government was erected. The
same thing was done at Bologna. Maria Louisa was driven out
of Parma. Among those who joined the insurgents in the Papal
Kingdom were Napoleon and his younger brother Louis Bonaparte,
sons of Louis Bonaparte king of Holland. The elder of the sons
died soon after at Forli. The Italians relied on the help of Louis
Philippe, but the citizen king had no disposition to engage in war
with Austria. The uprisings were put down with the assistance
of Austrian troops. Charles Albert, after April, 1831, king of
Piedmont\ did a good work in the discipline of his army. Without
any esteem for Austria, he refused to further the plans of the revo-
lutionary party, and thus incurred the hostility of Mazzini, who
was organizing the movement of " Young Italy " for independence
and unity. Mazzini, a man of elevated spirit and disinterested
aims, was long to be known as the head of the republican patriots
and plotters.

England. — In England, reform went forward peacefully. The
middle class gradually obtained its demands. The national debt,
at the close of the wars with Napoleon, amounted to nearly eight
hundred millions of pounds. In 1823, with the accession of Mr.
Huskisson to office, began the movement for a more free com-
mercial policy, which led in the end to the repeal of the corn-laws.
The question of " Catholic disabilities " was agitated from time to
time, and something had been done to lighten them. Yet in 1828
Catholics were still shut out by law from almost every office of
trust and distinction. They could not sit in either house of Par-
liament. The endeavors of liberal statesmen for their relief were
defeated by the Tory majorities. The agitation was increased by
the " Catholic Association " formed in Ireland by the Irish leader
and orator, Daniel O'Connell. A Tory ministry was formed by
the Duke of Wellington, with Mr. (afterwards Sir) Robert Peel
for its chief supporter in the House of Commons (1829). Yet, t0
avert the danger of civil war, the ministry introduced, and with aid
of the Whigs carried, the " Catholic Emancipation Bill."

The Reform Bill. — On the death of George IV., William IV.,
his brother (1830-1837), succeeded to the throne. He was favor-
able to parliamentary reform. The ferment on this subject caused
the resignation of the Wellington ministry, which was succeeded
by the ministry of Earl Grey. A bill for reform was presented toENGLAND.

559

Parliament, which deprived fifty-six " rotten or decayed " boroughs,
where there were very few inhabitants, of a hundred and forty-three
members of the House of Commons, who were given to counties
or to large towns, such as Birminghatn and Manchester, which had
no representation. At the same time the franchise was greatly
extended. The bill was strenuously resisted by the Tories, who
now began to be called Conservatives. Its repeated rejection by
the House of Lords caused a violent agitation. Finally, in 1832,
when it was understood that the king would create new peers
enough to pass the measure, it was carried in the upper house, and
became a law.

Slavery Abolished. — In 1833 the system of slavery in the
British colonies was abolished, twenty million pounds being paid
as a compensation to the slave-owners. This measure was the
result of an agitation in which Wilberforce, Clarks on > and Buxton
had been foremost.

In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a strong feeling arose against
the slave-trade. Gratrville Sharp (1734-1813) was one of the earliest pro-
moters of its abolition. By his agency, in the case of a negro, — Somerset,—
claimed as a slave, the decision was obtained from Lord Matisfieldy that a
slave could not be held in England, or carried out of it. The Quakers were
early in the field in opposition to the traffic in slaves. In the House of Com-
mons, Wilherforce% a man of earnest religious convictions and one of the
most eloquent orators of his time, contended against it for years. His friend
Pittj and Fox, joined him in 1790. The measure of abolition was carried in
1807. Then followed the agitation for the abolition of slavery itself. The
slave-trade was made illegal by France in 1819. It had been condemned by
the Congress of Vienna. In the French colonies, slavery continued until
1848.	*

Legal Reforms.— In the same year the monopoly of the East-
India Company was abolished, and trade with the East was made
free to all merchants. .A new Poor Law (1834) checked the
growth of pauperism. In 1835, by the Municipal Corporations
Act\ the ancient rights of self-government by the towns, which had
been lost since the fourteenth century, were restored to them.
Civil marriage was made legal, in compliance with a demand of
the Dissenters, who were likewise relieved of other grounds of com-
plaint (1836). Increased attention began to be paid to popular
education.

Chartism— Notwithstanding the constitutional changes in Eng-
land, the distress and discontent of the poorer classes occasioned
the riotous " Chartist " movement in 1839, when universal suffrage,
annual parliaments, and other radical changes were in vain de-
manded. Mass meetings were held, and outbreakings of violence
were feared; but order was preserved.

China: Afghanistan. — A war with China (1839) had no better
ground than the refusal of the Chinese government to allow the
importation of opium. The occupation of Cabul in 1839 caused560

MODERN HISTORY.

a general revolt of the Afghans. A British army was destroyed in
the Khyber Pass. The British then conquered, but did not care,
to retain, Afghanistan.

Hepeal of the Corn Laws.— Victoria, the only child of the
Duke of Kent, the brother of William IV., succeeded the latter
in 1838. She married her cousin, Albert of Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha (1840). In 1846 the party which had long advocated free
trade gained a triumph in the repeal of the Corn Laws, which had
existed since 1815, imposing duties on imported grain. In the agi-
tation which preceded the repeal, Richard Cobden was the leader:
he was effectively aided by John Bright But the measure was
carried by Sir Robert Peely who on this question abandoned his
former views and those of the Conservatives, by whom he had been
. raised to power. He was bitterly assailed, especially by D'Israeli,
who was rising to the position of a leader among them.

Louis Philippe. — Louis Philippe made up his first ministry
from the party which had raised him to the throne. Among its
members were Broglie, Guizot\ and Casimir Perier. The king
aimed by shrewd management to maintain his popularity at home,
and to keep the peace with foreign powers, by taking care to
encourage liberal movements abroad, yet without taking any step
in that direction which would bring on war. He did nothing for
the Poles in their mortal struggle, and nothing really effectual for the
Italians. Several abortive attempts upon his life were made by
secret societies ; one of a dangerous character, by Fieschi (1835),
who threw " an infernal machine " from his window when the king
was passing. This was followed by the " Laws of September, " to
curb the license of the press. They reminded the public of the
royalist laws of 1820. They were opposed by the constitutionalists :
Royer-Collard and Villemain spoke against them. They went by
the name of the "Fieschi laws." An effort to raise an insurrec-
tion among the French troops in Strasburg was made by Louis
.Napoleon Bonaparte (1836), who, after his flight from Italy, had
resided in Switzerland, where he had busied himself in study, and
had written several books. The enterprise proved a ridiculous
failure : its author was allowed to go to America.

French Policy in the East. — Various causes conspired to
undermine Louis Philippe's government. One of these was its
. connection with the war of Mehemet Ali with the Sultan. In the
former war with his over-lord, the Sultan, the viceroy of Egypt had
been invested with Syria as a fief. He now sent an army into
Syria, under his son Ibrahim, who overran that country, advanced
victoriously into Asia Minor, and threatened Constantinople (1832).
The European powers intervened, and obliged Mehemet Ali to*
content himself with Syria, together with the district of Adana in
Asia Minor, and the island of Candia9 which the Sultan had cededFRANCE UNDER LOUIS PHILIPPE.	*561

to him before. In 1839 the Sultan tried to recover Syria., but
encountered an overwhelming defeat, and lost the entire Turkish
fleet. England now combined with Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
and the Western powers once more saved the Turkish Empire;
although France, under the ministry of Thiers, had strongly favored
the cause of Mehemet Ali (1840). Contrary to the wish of the
French, he had to give up Syria. He secured for himself and his
descendants the pashalic of Egypt (1841). The failure of the
French policy in the East, by this action of the Quadruple Alliance,
caused indignation and chagrin in France. Even Thiers, who was
in sympathy with the cause of Mehemet Ali, was loudly blamed.
There was danger of a rupture with England. Thiers was a prin-
cipal author of the plan for fortifying Paris by encircling the city
with forts. The king judged that they might prove to be of use in
putting down insurrections. Louis Napoleon thought the occasion
favorable for another attempt to seize the crown. He landed from
England at Boulogne with a few followers, and proclaimed himself
emperor. He was captured, tried, and imprisoned in the fortress
of Ham, where he spent six years. His time there was mostly
given to study and writing. A few months before this attempt of
Louis Napoleon, the French government had arranged for the
bringing of the body of the first Napoleon from St. Helena to Paris.
It was one of various impolitic measures, in which Thiers was
actively concerned, for doing honor to the emperor and his mili-
tary achievements. But at that time Louis Napoleon, who was
known to be a man of slow mind, but whose capacity for intrigue
was not understood, was regarded with contempt, and the Bona-
partists excited no alarm. In 1841, in the presence of the royal
family and of a vast concourse, the remains of Napoleon were de-
posited with great pomp in a magnificent tomb under the dome
of the Church of the Invalides. Marshal Soult superseded Thiers
at the head of the ministry (1840) ; but Guizot was the ruling
spirit in the cabinet, and was associated with the king until his
dethronement. The death of the Duke of Orleans, the eldest son
of Louis Philippe, by a fall from his carriage (June 13, 1842),
endangered the new dynasty. The duke's eldest son, the Count
of Paris, was then only four years of~age.

Guizot's Administration. — From 1840 Guizot was the prin-
cipal minister of Louis Philippe, and Thiers was in the opposition.
They differed both as regards foreign and domestic policy. Thiers,
who in his convictions was a decided republican, and in full sym-
pathy with the spirit of the French Revolution, was for the exten-
sion of suffrage, and for making the influence of France felt and
respected in matters of European concern, even at the risk of war.
Guizot, on the contrary, clung to the English alliance, and he
considered that a foreign war — for example, in defense of Mehe-$62 •	MODERN HISTORY.

met AIi9 — would be to France a great and needless calamity.
Claiming to be a fast friend of representative government, Guizot
nevertheless inflexibly resisted movements for the extension of
popular rights, — movements which he believed would lead, if they
were not withstood, to revolution and anarchy. On the one hand
were the legitimists, aiming at the restoration of the elder branch
of the Bourbons; on the other hand there were the republicans,
who wished to be rid of monarchy altogether. The government
of Louis Philippe satisfied neither. It served as a transition, or
temporary halting-place, in the progress of France towards the
goal of rational and stable republicanism, to which the great Revo-
lution tended. It was an " attempt to put new wine in old bot-
tles." This inherent weakness of the Orleans rule, it would
have been difficult by any means to neutralize in such a way
as to avert, sooner or later, a catastrophe. The unbending con-
servatism of Guizot—as seen, for instance, in his refusal to ex-
tend suffrage — hastened this result. A government over which
less than half a million of voters of the middle class alone had an
influence, could not stand against the republican feeling of the
country. The middle class, on which the throne depended, be-
came separated from the advanced party, to which the youth of
France more and more rallied. Guizot was personally upright;
but official corruption was suffered to spread in the last years of
his administration, and bribery was used in the elections. These
circumstances, added to the mortification of national pride from
the little heed paid to France by the other powers, weakened the
throne. The failure of the government to support the cause of
liberty in Poland and Italy was another important source of its
growing unpopularity.

Guizot, in the personal Memoirs written by him after the fall of Louis
Philippe, has defended himself against the charge of a want of loyal support
of Thiers, the head of the ministry, while he (Guizot) was ambassador to
England (1840). There was a private understanding that he should go no
farther than his sympathy with the views of Thiers extended. Guizot has
undertaken, also, to show that a war in behalf of Mehemet Ali would have
been most unwise; and that it was for the interest of France to regain its
weight in European affairs, not by the renewal of the bloody and fruitless
contests of the past, but by methods of peace. He deemed it his duty not'
to give way to the "warlike tastes and inclinations" of the French people.
The effort, however, to tie down so spirited a nation to so tame a policy,
proved to be futile. The recollections of the empire, which the government
itself did so much to arouse, moved the people to compare tne achieve-
ments of the past with the humiliating position of their country under the
Orleans rule.

Guizot Han left this interesting exposition of his principles and policy: " In the diplomatic
complication which agitated Europe, 1 saw a brilliant opportunity of exercising and loudly
proclaiming a foreign policy, extremely new and bold in lact, though moderate in appearance;
the only foreign policy which in 1840 suited the peculiar position of France and her govern-
ment, as also the only course in harmony with the guiding principles and permanent wants of
the scheme of civilization to which the world of to-day aspires and tends.

" ihe spirit of conquest, of propagandising and of system, has hitherto been the movingFRANCE UNDER LOUIS PHILIPPE.	563

cause and master Ot the foreign policy of states. The ambition ot princes or peoples has
sought its gratification in territorial aggrandizement. Religious or political faith nas endeav-
ored to expand by imposing itself. Great heads of government have attempted to regulate the
destinies 01 nations according to profound combinations, the offspring rather of their own
thought than the natural result ol facts. Let us cast a glance over the history of international
European relations. We shall see the spirit of conquest, or of armed propagandism, or of some
systematic design upon the territorial organization of Europe, inspire and determine the foreign
policy of governments. Let one or other of these impulses prevail, and governments have
disposed arbitrarily of the fate of nations. War has ever been their indispensable mode of
action.

" I know that this course of things has been the fatal result of men's passions ; and that, in
spite of those passions and the evils they have inflicted on nations, European civilization has
continued to increase and prosper, and may increase and prosper still more. It is to the honor
of the Christian world, that evil does not stifle good. I Know that the progress of civilization
and public reason will not abolish human passions, and that, under their impulse, the spirit
of conquest, of armed propagandism, and of system, will ever maintain, in the foreign policy of
states, their place and portion. But, at the same time, I hold for certain that these various
incentives are no longer in harmony with the existing state of manners, ideas, interests, and
social instincts; and that it is quite possible to-day to combat and restrain materially their
empire. The extent and activity of industry and commerce; the necessity of consulting the
general good; the habit of frequent, easy, prompt, and regular intercourse between peoples;
the invincible bias for free association, inquiry f discussion, and publicity, — these characteristic
features of great modern society already exercise, and will continue to exercise more and more,
against the warlike or diplomatic fancies of foreign policy, a preponderating influence. People
smile, not without reason, at the language and puerile confidence of the Friends of Peace, and
of the Peace Societies. All the leading tendencies, all the most elevated hopes of humanity,
have their dreams, and their idle, gaping advocates, as they have also their days of decline and
defeat; but they no less pursue their course; and through all the chimeras of some, the doubts
and mockeries of others, society becomes transformed, and policy, foreign and domestic, is
compelled to transform itself with society. We have witnessed the most dazzling exploits of the
spirit of conquest, the most impassioned efforts of the spirit of armed propagandism; we have
seen territories and states molded and re-molded, unmade, re-made, and unmade again, at
the pleasure of combinations more or less specious. What survives of all these violent and
arbitrary works ? They have fallen, like plants without roots, or edifices without foundation.
And now, when analogous enterprises are attempted, scarcely have they made a few steps in
advance when they pause and hesitate, as if embarrassed by, and doubtful of, themselves; so
little are they in accord with the real wants, the profound instincts, of existing society, and with
the persevering, though frequently disputed, tendencies of modern civilization. ... I repeat,
our history since 1789, our endless succession of shocks, revolutions, and wars, have left us in
a state of leverish agitation which renders peace insipid, and teaches us to find a blind gratifi-
cation in the unexpected strokes of a hazardous policy. We are a prey to two opposing cur-
rents,—one deep and regular, which carries towards the definite goal of our social state; the
other superficial and disturbed, which throws us here and there in search of new adventures
and unknown lands. Thus we float and alternate between these two opposing directions.
called towards the one by our sound sense and moral conviction, and enticed towards the other
by our habits of routine and freaks of imagination." {Memoirs 0/a Minister 0/ State, from
the year 1840, pp. 7-9, xo.)

The King's Avarice. — The imputation of avarice to Louis
Philippe.was one source of his increasing unpopularity. On his
accession he had handed over to his children the estates of the
house of Orleans, in order that, as private property, they might
not be forfeited with the loss of the crown. He was not content
with increasing his wealth by adding to it all the possessions ot
Charles X. and of the Duke of Bourbon, but it was discovered that
he was engaged in business ventures. In providing for ample
marriage settlements for his children, he resorted to devices which
gave offense to the Chamber of Deputies and to the public. Yet
writers like Martin, who are strongly averse to his method of rule,
clear him of blame in these particulars, if he is to be judged by
what is usual in a monarchical system.

The Spanish . Marriages. — An event of consequence in relation
to the fall of Louis Philippe from power was the affair of the
Spanish marriages, which took place under the ministry of Guizot.564

MODERN HISTORY.

The Duke de Montpensier, the youngest son of the king, was mar-
ried to the sister of Isabella IL of Spain. The design, it was
believed, was, in the anticipated childlessness of the queen, to
secure for his heirs the Spanish crown.

Ferdinand VII. of Spain was an absolutist; but the extreme monarchi- '
cal party there wished for a king of more energy, and desired to raise to
the throne his brother Don Carlos. In 1830 Ferdinand, being then child-
less, was induced by his wife, the daughter of Ferdinand IV. of Naples, to
abrogate the Salic law excluding females from the succession. Her daughter
Isabella was born a few months later. After the death of the king (1833),
the Carlists resisted the exclusion of their favorite from the throne. Don
Carlos was proclaimed in the Basque provinces, and a civil war arose. The
queen, Maria Christinat as regent, was supported by the moderados (mode-
rates) and the liberals, and was allowed to recruit for her army in England
and France. The leading constitutionalist general, Esparteroy was success-
ful ; and Don Carlos fled into France (1839). The queen regent allied herself
with the conservative wing of the progressive party (the moderados); but in-
surrections at Barcelona and Madrid, in the interest of the radical wing,
obliged her to make Esparteroy the head of the movement, prime minister
(1840). His administration greatly promoted the prosperity of the country.
But the conservatives and absolutists were against him; and, as the result
of a counter-insurrection, Gen. Narvaezy the leader of the conservatives,
became chief of the cabinet (1844); but he was dismissed two years later.-
The constitution was divested of some of its liberal features. The queen,
Isabella //., had been declared of age by the Cortes, and placed on the
throne (Nov. 10, 1843). Christina, her dissolute mother, returned from
France, whither she had fled. In the hope of securing the Spanish throne
to the Orleans family, Louis Philippe arranged with Christina to effect a
marriage between Isabella and a weakling in body and mind, Francis de
Assis ; and, at the same time, a marriage of his son, the Duke de Montpensier,
with her sister Maria Louisa (Oct. 10, 1846). An Orleans prince would not
have acquired the crown, even if Louis Philippe had remained on the French
throne, since a daughter was born to Isabella in 1851.

There was loud complaint in England against the king and
Guizoty for the alleged violation of a promise in this affair. Their
defense was that Lord Palmerston, who succeeded Aberdeen, took
a very different position from that of this minister, which had been
the condition of the engagement. It was from Palmerston*s action
previously in the affair of Egypt, that the French were imbittered,
the English alliance was weakened, and the policy of Guizot, who
was sincerely desirous to maintain this friendly relation, was dis-
credited at home.

Fall of Louis Philippe.—The scarcity of provisions in 1846
and 1847 provoked much discontent in France. "Bread riots"
broke out in various places. The liberal party, composed of diverse
elements, organized committees as one of their instruments of
agitation in behalf of political reform. The democratic and so-
cialistic journals published inflammatory discussions and appeals.
The complaint of corruption among officials grew louder. Com-
munism had numerous votaries; and M. Louis Blanc was an
apostle of socialism,—the theory that the government shouldFRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848.

565

furnish work and maintenance to all of its subjects. Great reform
banquets were held, where the spirit was inimical to Guizot,—
who would yield nothing to the popular clamor, — and hostile to
the reactionary policy of the Orleans monarchy. The spark that
kindled the flames Of revolution was the prohibition by Guizot of
a great reform banquet appointed to be held on the 2 2d of Feb-
ruary, 1848, in the Champs Elysees, in which a hundred thousand
persons were expected to participate. On that day barricades
were thrown up in the streets, and there were some conflicts-with
the municipal guard. These disturbances continued on the next
day. The king, who did not lack physical courage, evinced no
firmness or boldness in this crisis, dismissed Guizot as a peace-
offering, and called upon Count Mole to form a cabinet. Mole
declined; the riotous disturbances increased ; and Thiers, on the
promise of the king to consent to the reforms demanded, under-
took, when it was too late, to take office, and try to pacify the
people. Soldiers began to fraternize with the mob. The king
showed no spirit, but abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count
of Paris. The Duchess of Orleans presented her two sons, the
count and his brother, before the Chamber of Deputies. But the
motion for a provisional government prevailed (Feb. 24). It con-
sisted of Dupont de FEure, Lamartine the poet, Arago, Ledru-
Rollin, and three associates. It established itself in the Hotel de
Ville. This act, and the firmness and eloquence of Lamartine,
prevented the establishment of an ultra-republican, socialistic
Directory. The middle classes, alarmed on account of the dis-
plays of mob violence, rallied to the support of Lamartine and the
party of order. Louis Philippe and his family were allowed to
escape to England. There Guizot temporarily took up his abode.
After a year, this " last of the Huguenots " returned to France,
where he died in 1874.

Contest with Socialists. — A concession was made to the social-
ists in the establishment of government workshops, where eighty
thousand men were employed and maintained. But a mob of the
Red Republicans was put down (April 16) by the National Guards.
The National Assembly voted for a republic. Another mob of
socialists and communists was suppressed (May 15). But the
great contest came (June 23-26) when the government dismissed
a part of the workmen in the ateliers, or public workshops. The
battle was severe ; but the government troops-under the command
of a patriotic general, Cavaignac, who was made dictator during
the struggle, subdued the insurgents. He was now appointed
president of the council, or chief of the executive commission.

The, Hepublio: Louis Napoleon.— Fear of communism and of
mob violence gave a new impetus to the conservative tendency.
A republican constitution, however, with a president holding for566	MODERN HISTORY.

a term of four years, was adopted. Louis Napoleon was elected a
member of the assembly. He was chosen president of the repub-
lic, mainly by the votes of the peasantry and common soldiers, and
with the help of Thiers and others who thought him incapable,
and desired to bring about a restoration of the Orleans rule.

Thiers was a personal enemy of Cavaignac. " Thierssays Martinf " did not feel the
same repulsion for the consulate and the empire as does the present generation: he took Louis
Napoleon for an inexperienced and somewhat narrow-minded man, whom he could easily restrain
and direct, not guessing the determined obstinacy and prejudice hidden beneath his heavy and
commonplace exterior. (Popular History of France [from 1789], iii. 200.)

CHAPTER III.

EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OP 1848 TO THE
AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (I860).

Disturbances in Germany. — The effect of the revolution which
dethroned Louis Philippe was felt like an electric shock through all
Europe. It was experienced immediately in the smaller states of
Germany. New ministries were installed, which were pledged to
a liberal policy. Louis of Bavaria resigned the crown to his son
Maximilian. The Elector of Hesse agreed to the demands of a
popular convention at Mannheim, and he associated his son with
himself in the government. Prussia and Austria were thoroughly
disturbed by the movement for freedom and national unity. A
rising in Vienna (March 13-15), headed by the students, com-
pelled Metternich to depart for safety to England, the asylum of
political exiles of every creed. The emperor summoned a Diet to
be chosen by popular suffrage, and went for safety to Innspruck
among his faithful Tyrolese. In Berlin, at the same time, there
were excited meetings, and conflicts in the streets between the
people and the soldiers. The Prussian king yielded to the demand
of the crowd which gathered before his palace on the 18th of
March, that the troops should be sent out of Berlin; but he did
not send them away until the next day, and after an attack had
been made on them from behind barricades. The ministry was
dismissed, and a call was issued for a National Assembly to be
chosen by ballot.

The Frankfort Convention. — There was a gathering at Frank-
fort, of about five hundred Germans, who organized themselves
as a provisional parliament under the presidency of Mittermaier
(March 31). They resolved to call a National Assembly, to be
elected by the German people. The Confederate Diet recognized
the authority of the provisional parliament.

The Frankfort Parliament. — The National Assembly met on
May 18, and created a new provisional central government, withEUROPE FROM 1848 TO 1866.

567

the Archduke John of Austria as its head. The Confederate Diet
ceased to exist. But the division of parties in the assembly, with
respect to the system of government for united Germany, gave
rise to long and profitless discussions. Differences of opinion as
to the steps to be taken in a war which had sprung up with Den-
mark, respecting the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, made the
strife of factions in the parliament still more bitter.

New Prussian Constitution.—The Prussian National Assembly
met on May 22. A hot contention arose between the moderate
and the radical parties. At length the king adjourned the assem-
bly to meet in Brandenburg; but the party of the "Left" (the
radical party) protested, and kept up its sessions in Berlin. In
Brandenburg a quorum failed to meet. The government framed
a constitution with two chambers, — the second to be chosen by
universal suffrage,—and called a new parliament to consider it.
The new parliament failed to agree with the government, but an-
other parliament met (Aug. 7, 1849). Mutual concessions were
made, and the king swore to maintain the new constitution (Feb.
6, 1850).

Austria: End of the Frankfort Assembly. — The Diet of the
Austrian Empire was a confused assembly representing different
nationalities. Kossuth, an eloquent Hungarian deputy in the
lower house, demanded independence for his country. The Sla-
vonic tribes resisted the supremacy of the Magyars, When the
emperor took active measures against these (Oct. 6), there was
an uprising in Vienna. The city was held by the revolutionists
until the 30th, when it was captured by the emperor after much
bloodshed. Ferdinand /. abdicated in favor of his youthful son,
Francis Joseph. The Frankfort Assembly debated the question,
what relation Austria should have to united Germany. A majority
decided (March 27, 1849) that a president should be appointed,
whose office should descend in his family, and that he should be
styled *' Emperor of the Germans." The station was offered to
Frederick William of Prussia, but he declined it. The new con-
stitution was not accepted by the more important states. The
assembly dwindled away through the withdrawal or resignation of
members, and, having adjourned to Stuttgart\ was finally dispersed
by the Wtirtemberg government (June 18). Its history was a
grievous disappointment of ardent hopes. The Prussians helped
the Saxon, Bavarian, and Baden governments, to put down for-
midable and partially successful popular insurrections in their
states.

The Hungarian Revolt. — Austria reduced her German prov-
inces to subjection, and early in 1849 the Italian provinces also.
But a great contest was to be waged with the Hungarians, who
gathered an army of two hundred thousand men, and gained the568

MODERN HISTORY.

victory over Windis<;hgratz in several battles. They were helped
by many Germans and Poles. The contest was decided by the
intervention of Russia, which sent an army into Hungary. The
Hungarian general, Gorgey, whom Kossuth and the ministers had
made dictator, surrendered at Vilagos (Aug. 13, 1849). Kossuth
and other Hungarian patriots fled into Turkey. Hungary was
dealt with as conquered territory. The Austrian commander,
Haynau, treated the vanquished people with brutal severity. The
Hungarian constitution was abolished. The general constitution
of Austria was abrogated on Dec. 31, 1851.

Condition of Italy. — Charles Albert, the king of Piedmont\ or
Sardinia, disliked the preponderance of the Austrians, and de-
sired to give his people good government, but was disinclined to
enter into the schemes of " Young Italy," composed of the ardent
republicans of whom Mazzini was the chief. On this account they
were exasperated with him. On the contrary, a great part of the
" moderates" placed their hope for Italy in the Sardinian king
and his house. To one of these, D'Azeglio, a nobleman of high
character, who reported to him, in 1845, danger that revolu-
tionary risings against misrule in Italy would occur, and set forth
the necessity for a speedy remedy, the king said, " Make known
to these gentlemen, that they must be quiet and not move, for at
present nothing can be done; but let them be certain, that, if the
occasion presents itself, my life, the life of my sons, my arms, my
treasure, my army, all shall be devoted to the cause of Italy." In
Tuscany, there was much less oppression than elsewhere, but even
there the government was despotic.

Liberal Policy of Pius IX. — On the death of Gregory XVI.
(1846), Cardinal Mastai Feretti was made Pope, and took the
name of Pius IX\ He adopted a new and liberal policy. Prison-
ers for political offenses were set free, an amnesty was proclaimed,
and improvements—including railroads — were promised. The
" Gregoriani," who were devoted to the old administrative system
and to Austrian predominance, were offended. The Roman people
generally were full of joy and hope. The extreme republicans,
were dissatisfied and suspicious. On the occasion of disturbances,
the Pope consented to the formation of a National Guard, as the
liberal party wished. The consequence was, that Austrian troops
were marched into his territory. This movement roused Charles
Albert to espouse more actively the Italian cause. In Tuscany
the Liberals, with Ricasoli for a leader, drove the Grand Duke to
measures of reform. Austrian aggressions were more severely felt
in Parma and Modena. In Palermo, there was a rising (Jan. 12)
against the unbearable tyranny of Ferdinand 1L This was followed
by an insurrection in Naples itself. The king was obliged to grant
to his people a constitution. The same boon was granted byEUROPE FROM 1848 TO 1866.

569

Pius IX, by the king of Sardinia, and by the Tuscan Grand
Duke. Italy, it should be observed, was already on fire with these
revolutionary movements prior to the overthrow of the government
of Louis Philippe. The earliest popular demonstrations at Milan
were on Sept. 5 and 8, 1847.

Events in Italy. — The revolt in Vienna and in Hungary in
1848 furnished the long-coveted occasion for the Italians to attack
the hated Austrian rule. Lombardy flew to arms, and expelled the
Austrian troops. The Venetians set up a provisional government
under Daniele Manin, their leader in the insurrection. The king
of Sardinia declared war against Austria. A multitude of Italian vol-
unteers rushed to his standard. But there was no national league;
his military management lacked skill; and after some successes he
was defeated by Radetzky, the Austrian general, at Custozza (July
25). Garibaldi, who had been a sailor, but was now a gallant and
adventurous champion of the Italian movement, kept up the con-
test in the mountains on the north. The Austrians were once more
in power. The refusal of the Pope to take part in hostilities against
them alienated the liberals. His best minister Rossi, who stood
midway between the extreme parties, was assassinated (Nov. 15).
From the disorder that reigned at Rome, Pius IX. escaped in the
dress of a common priest to Gaeta. The extreme democrats in
Tuscany got the upper hand, and set up a provisional government.
In Piedmont\ Gioberti, the minister, gave way to Ratazzi, who was
of the democratic school. But the dream of an Italian confedera-
tion was dissipated by the great defeat of Charles Albert by Ra-
detzky at Novara (March 23). The broken-hearted king resigned
his crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel In Rome, the government,
after the flight of the Pope, was lodged in an assembly elected by
popular suffrage, with triumvirs, of whom Mazzini was the first.
The French were not disposed to allow the Austrians to dominate
in the peninsula, and sent an army under Oudinot\ who captured
Rome from the republicans, after a stubborn defense by Garibaldi.
A French garrison now occupied the city. The Pope, who had
abandoned the idea of political changes in the direction of Italian
freedom and unity, was brought back to the Vatican (April, 1850).
By the close of the summer of 1849, Austrian authority was
restored, and was exercised with redoubled severity in Venice and
Milan. The rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma had before
returned to their capitals. They were kept in power by means of
Austrian garrisons. The will of Austria was law in the greater part
of Italy. Ferdinand //..(called Bomba) maintained his tyranny
by the help of Swiss mercenaries and loathsome dungeons. Pied-
mont was the only spot where constitutional freedom survived. In
its youthful monarch and in Garibaldi, the hope of Italy rested.
The course of events ultimately proved that both the fire of the57°

MODERN HISTORY.

republicans and the prudence of more moderate statesmen were
requisite for its emancipation.

Coup d'Etat of Louis Napoleon.—The Legislative Assembly
in France, consisting of one chamber, had in it many monarchists.
As the first Napoleon was sustained by the dread of Jacobin rule,
so the third Napoleon profited by the dread of the ultra-republi-
cans. It was felt by the trading-class, that the safety of society
depended on him. When the French troops were sent to Rome
in 1849, opposition of Ledru-Rollin and his radical party be-
came more furious. But Changarnier and his troops dispersed
their procession (June 13), and broke down their barricades. The
Paris insurrection was put down, and Ledru-Rollin fled the
country. Thiers, Broglie, Mole, Montalembert, and other ad-
herents of the Bourbons, either of the old or of the Orleans
branch, now professed to yield to Louis Napoleon their adhesion.
His measures for the restraint of the press, the punishment of
political offenses, etc., were popular, especially in the provinces.
The clergy were favorable to him. The soldiers, in the autumn of
1850, began to shout " Vive rEmpereur! " Changarnier was
removed from the command of the troops (Jan., 1851) when it
was learned that his regiments did not join in the cry. Move-
ments of this kind, together with petitions for a revision of the
constitution, provoked hostility in the Assembly. The struggle
between the president and that body culminated in the " Coup
d'Etat" of Dec. 3 and 4, 1851. St. Arnaud had been appointed
minister of war, the fidelity of the troops in Paris rendered sure,
and all needful preparations made with profound secrecy. The
president gave a great party on the night of the 3d. During the
night, the republican and Orleanist leaders — Cavaignac, Chan-
gamier, Lamoriciere, Thiers, Victor Hugo, and many others —
were surprised in their beds, and imprisoned. They were sent
away in custody to different places. Placards were posted, dis-
solving the Assembly, and declaring Paris in a state of siege ; also,
an address submitting to the people the question whether there
should be a responsible chief of state for ten years. The soldiers
fired on gatherings of the people in the streets, killing many inno-
cent persons, for the purpose of forestalling any attempt at resist-
ance. The deputies, as they persisted in their purpose to meet,
were surrounded, and placed under arrest. Within a few weeks
many thousands of persons suspected of disaffection were exiled
or imprisoned. Nearly seven and a half million votes were cast
for Napoleon, and only 640,737 against him. The political pris-
oners were released. Thiers was allowed to return to Paris.

New French Empire. — A new constitution was promulgated
(Jan. 15, 1851), resembling that which existed under the con-
sulate. The Legislative Assembly was virtually stripped of power.EUROPE FROM 1848 TO 1866.

571

One year later, the restoration of the Empire was decrced, and
sanctioned by popular vote. The change was at first viewed with
alarm by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Francis Joseph made a
visit to Berlin, and was received with great honor. The two
principal German sovereigns reviewed the troops of Berlin, in
front of the bronze statue of Blucher. But Napoleon declared
that the Empire meant peace, and the other great powers followed
the example of England in recognizing his imperial government.

The Crimean War. — The administration of the French emperor
was acceptable to the commercial classes, who prized tranquillity.
He erected new edifices in Paris, and made many other improve-
ments, which, however, had an eye to defense against popular
insurrection, and involved much hardship for the poor. He mar-
ried (Jan. 29, 1853) a young Spanish countess, Eugenie Montijo.
What did most to give stability to his power, and to raise his repute
in Europe, was the union of France with England in the prosecu-
tion of the Crimean war. The Emperor Nicholas thought the
time propitious for the aggressive ambition of Russia with regard
to Turkey. His plan of attack embraced a "provisional" occu-
pation of Constantinople by Russian troops. He had intimated to
England that the situation of " the sick man " — meaning the de-
caying government of Turkey — opened the way for a division of
the Turkish Empire between the two powers. Lord Aberdeen was
then prime minister in England, and Mr. Gladstone was chancelor
of the exchequer. The dispute of Russia with Turkey, which
was the ostensible occasion of the war, related to the holy places
in Jerusalem, the resort of worshipers of different creeds, and to
the privileges accorded by the Sultan to the Greek and Latin Chris-
tians respectively. The claim of Nicholas resolved itself into a
demand to exercise a sole protectorate over the Christians of the
Greek faith in the Turkish Empire. He declared war in 1853,
and his forces crossed the Pruth. Alarm was awakened in Austria,
in consequence of the Russian movements in that region. Nicholas
had only been able to secure neutrality from Prussia and Austria.
Louis Napoleon was anxious for war. Lord Aberdeen was averse
to it; but the pressure of Lord Palmerston and his supporters was
too strong, and war was declared (March 28, 1854) by England
and France in alliance with lurkey. At first the Turks had un-
expectedly gained advantages over the Russians, but the Turkish
fleet was destroyed at Sinope (Nov. 4, 1853). Approaches of
Russia which portend the acquisition of the mouths of the Danube,
or of any of the Slavonic districts of European Turkey, can only
excite jealousy and apprehension on the side of Austria. Nicholas,
on the demand of Francis Joseph, which was seconded by Prussia,
evacuated the Danubian principalities, which were provisionally
held by Austrian forces. The English and French fleets that were572

MODERN HISTORY.

sent into the Baltic did not produce the effect that was anticipated
by the allies. The shores of the Black Sea were the main theater
of the conflict. The troops of the English and French landed at
Eupatoria in the Crimea in September, 1854, and defeated the
Russians in the battle of the Alma. There was a second engage-
ment at Balaklava (Oct. 25) ; and in the battle of Inkermann
(Nov. 5) the attempt of the Russians to surprise the British forces
met with a defeat. The effort of the allies was directed to the
capture of the strong fortress of Sebastopol. St. Arnaud\ the
French general, had died, and been succeeded by Canrobert.
Later, Lord Raglan, the English commander, died. The siege
was prolonged. Once the batteries of Malakoff and Redan were
attacked by the allies unsuccessfully; but, after a month's bom-
bardment, both were taken by storm (Sept. 8, 1855), and Mala-
koff, which the French took, was held. The Russians blew up
their forts at Sebastopol, and withdrew to the northern part of the
fortress. Meantime Nicholas had died (March 2, 1855), and
been succeeded by Alexander II.; and Lord Aberdeen had been
superseded by Palmerston as head of the English ministry.

Peace of Paris (March 30, 1856). — In the Peace of Paris,
Russia was obliged to cede the mouths of the Danube and a small
portion of Bessarabia to Roumania, to limit the number of her
ships in the Black Sea, and to engage to establish no arsenals on
its coast. The Black Sea was to be open to commerce, but inter-
dicted to vessels of war. Russia gave up the claim to an exclu-
sive protectorate over Christians in Turkey. She surrendered also
the fortress of Kars in Turkish Armenia, which she had captured.
Wallachia and Moldavia were confirmed in important privileges
of self-government, under the Porte. Austria, France, and Great
Britain, in a distinct treaty, guaranteed the independence and in-
tegrity of the Ottoman Empire.

Neutrality Declarations.—The patties to the Treaty of Paris (including Austria
and Prussia) united in four declarations on the subject of neutrality, by which privateering was
abolished, the neutral flag was made to protect enemy's goods except contraband of war, these
goods under an enemy's flag were exempted from capture, and it was ordained that blockades in
order to be binding must be effective. The United States declined to concur in this agreement
unless the private property of subjects or citizens of a belligerent power (unless it be contra-
band of war) should be also exempted from seizure by armed vessels of the enemy. This rule,
were it adopted, would put private property on the sea on a level with private property on the
land, in case of war.

War of France and Sardinia with Austria. — After the con-
tests of 1848-49, Victor Emmanuel II. was looked on by all
except"the ardent republicans of the school of Mazzini as the
champion of Italian independence. He made Azeglio his chief
minister, and Cavour his minister of commerce. Various reforms
were adopted, especially for the reduction of the power and wealth '
of ecclesiastics. The rapid progress of administrative changes led
Azeglio to withdraw from office. Cavour, his successor, a states-EUROPE FROM 1848 TO 1866.

573

man of broad views and consummate ability, began to plan not
only for the Sardinian kingdom, but likewise for all Italy. By his
advice, Sardinia joined England and France in the Crimean war.
At the Congress of Paris (1856), he spread before the European
powers the deplorable misgovernment at Naples and in the other
states of Southern Italy. He denounced a plot against the life of
Louis Napoleon, which Orsini, a Roman, and a member of a secret
society, tried to carry out, but failed (Jan. 18, 1858). Communi-
cations and a personal interview between Napoleon and Cavour
followed. An alliance was formed, one of the objects of which
was the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy. Prince Napoleon,
the* son of Louis Napoleon's uncle Jerome, was married to Clo tilde,
the daughter of Victor Emmanuel. Napoleon's ministers were op-
posed to a war with Austria, and he himself affected to have no
intention of that kind. Russia proposed a congress ; but Austria
refused to admit Sardinia, or to join it herself, unless that power
should immediately disarm. Russia was at that moment unfriendly
to Austria, which had refused to help the Czar in the Crimean war.
Prussia, also, showed a disinclination to interfere. France and
Sardinia declared war against Austria, and Napoleon proclaimed
that he would free Italy, from the Alps to the Adriatic (May, 1859).
As the war began, a revolt broke out in Tuscany. The Tuscan Duke,
the Duchess regent of Parma, and the Duke of Modena, had to
fly from their capitals. Cavour accepted help from all Italian
patriots except the adherents of Mazzini, to whom were imputed
schemes of assassination. Garibaldi led the "Riflemen of the
Alps." Louis Napoleon commanded the French army in person.
The French were victorious at Magenta (June 4), where MacMa-
hon was made a marshal. At the battle of Solferino (June 24), all
of the three contending sovereigns were present. The Austrians
were vanquished with very heavy losses. At this time Napoleon,
unexpectedly to his Italian ally, in a personal interview with Francis
Joseph at Villafranca, arranged preliminaries of peace, which pro-
vided, to be sure, for the cession of Lombardy to Sardinia, but
left Venice and the "Quadrilateral,"—as the district, with its forti-
fications, east of the Mincio, was called, — under the Austrian rule.
It was proposed that an Italian confederation should be formed,
with the Pope for its president, — a plan which was not destined
to be realized. The Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of
Modena were to be restored, could it be done without a resort
to arms. Napoleon was afraid of a long war. Russia was not
disposed to suffer him to stir up a revolution in Hungary. Prussia
might soon intervene; and this, Austria, too, did not anticipate
without anxiety, since Prussia would thereby become predominant
in Germany. Cavour, in disgust and indignation at this premature
close of the struggle, laid down his office.574

MODERN HISTORY.

Further Extension of the Sardinian Kingdom. — Tuscany, Mo-
dena, and Parma, and Romagna which belonged to the Pope, by
deputies implored Victor Emmanuel to annex them to his king-
dom. Pius IX. made the most strenuous opposition. Napoleon
refused to use coercion, or to suffer it to be used by others, to
carry out the Villafranca arrangements in the duchies. Cavour
was recalled to office in i860; and at his suggestion, made to
Napoleon, the communities just named were allowed to dispose
of themselves by popular vote. The result was their incorpo-
ration in the Sardinian kingdom. By way of compensation to
Napoleon, Savoy and Nice were ceded by the Sardinian govern-
ment to France. The Pope excommunicated all invaders and
usurpers of the Papal States, without the mention of names.

Annexing of Naples and Sicily. — The next great event in
Italy was the expulsion of Francis IIthe tyrant who reigned in
Naples and Sicily after the death of Ferdinand II. (1859). Gari-
baldi, without the consent of the Sardinian government, raised the
standard of revolt in Sicily (i860), and conquered the island.
The king and Cavour feared that his movement would give control
to the republicans, and also bring Sardinia into war with other
powers. But, despite this opposition, Garibaldi entered Naples
as a victor, and was joined by Mazzini. The Sardinian troops
entered the Papal States, which the king had threatened to do
unless the guerilla attacks of pontifical troops in the south were
suppressed. The French general, Lamoriciere, in the service of
the pontiff, was defeated at Castelfidardo. Garibaldi, triumphant
in the Neapolitan kingdom, met Victor Emmanuel in the Abruzzi,
and hailed him as " King of Italy." Naples and Sicily voted to
join the kingdom of Sardinia. With the exception of Venice and
the Roman Campagna, the whole of Italy was now united under the
house of Savoy. On Feb. 18, 1861, the first parliament of united
Italy was opened by Cavour. Shortly after, there was a public
reconciliation between him and Garibaldi, between whom there
had been an estrangement.

In addition to Garibaldi's general and constant dissent from the moderate
policy of Cavour, the former was displeased that his soldiers had not been
rewarded with higher positions in the Sardinian army than it was practicable
or safe to grant to them. Cavour believed that society was on the march
towards democracy, but that no republic, at the present, in Italy could be
stable. Cavour had his heart set on gaining Rome for the capital of the
kingdom, and on establishing "a free church in a free state." He did not
live to see the realization of his hopes. His death occurred (May 30, 1861),
shortly after the amicable interview with the republican patriot, to which
reference has just been made.

"The September Convention." — The hope of the national
party in Italy was now directed towards the gaining of Venice and
Rome. But, as regards Austria, the European powers would notEurope from 1848 to 1866.

S7S

have suffered a breach of the Peace of Villafranca. Louis Napo-
leon had assumed the part of protector of the Holy See, and a
French garrison was stationed at Rome. After Cavour's death,
Ricasoli, the head of the ministry, led the constitutional party;
and Raiazzi, who succeeded him and had been more in sympathy
with the Garibaldians, did not deviate from his predecessor's cau-
tious policy. The relations of the Italian government to France,
even obliged the king to interfere to put down a rising, set on foot
by Garibaldi, for driving the French out of Rome. Garibaldi
was defeated by the Sardinian general, Pallavicini (Sept. 29,
1862), and taken to Spezzia. Thence he went to Caprera. The
liberal party in Europe were incensed with Louis Napoleon. This
was one inducement that moved him to enter into an agreement
with Victor Emmanuel\ by which France engaged to withdraw her
troops gradually from Rome, leaving the Pope to form an army
of his own; while, on the other hand, the king engaged (Sept.
1864) to prevent any attack on the papal territory. The French
minister of foreign affairs said to the Italian minister at Paris,
" Naturally the result of all this will be that you will end by going
to Rome;" but matters were to be so managed that France
should not be held responsible. This was the September Conven-
tion. Florence was made the capital of Italy; but it was acknowl-
edged that this was a temporary arrangement, and that, as soon as
the progress of events should open the way, the seat of government
would be transferred to Rome. After the withdrawal of the French
troops in 1866, Garibaldi, with the connivance of the Italian gov-
ernment,— in which Ratazzi, who had been obliged to leave his
office, was again the ruling spirit, — once more gathered a force
for the capture of Rome (1867); but France interfered, Victor
Emmanuel had to take a stand against Garibaldi's movement,
and Louis Napoleon again placed a French garrison in Rome.
Ratazzi, whose scheme of capturing Rome by non-interference
was balked, had to lay down his office. The next step towards
Italian unity was to be a result of the Austro-Prussian war.

chapter iv.

EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OP THE AUSTRO-PRUS-
SIAN WAR TO THE END OP THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
(1800-1871).

Hivalship of Prussia and Austria. — The brief but mighty strug-
gle which secured for Prussia the preponderance in Germany grew
immediately out of complications respecting Schleswig-Holstein.
It was, however, the fruit of a rivalship which had been gaining57(3

MODERN HISTORY.

in intensity since the times of Frederick the Great. It was the
grand triumph of Prussia, after a long succession of defeats and
humiliations in the field of diplomacy.

Schleswig-Holstein. — The two duchies of Holstein and Schles-
wig had long been annexed to the crown of Denmark, whose king,
as Duke of Holstein, was a member of the German Confederation.
The two duchies, as regards their government, did not stand on
the same footing; but the people of Holstein and the German
portion of the Schleswig people held that by a treaty in 1460 the
two duchies could not be separated. When there was a prospect
that the Danish dynasty would die out, the German party wished
to make the duchies independent, under a German duke of the
Angustenburg line, the next German heirs. The root of the dif-
ficulty was an antipathy of races. In 1848 the Germans of
Schleswig-Holstein revolted against Ferdinand VI7. The troops
of the German confederation assisted them; but the attitude of
England and Russia, which favored the Danes, moved Prussia to
conclude the armistice of Malmo, — an act that excited the anger
of the German National Assembly at Frankfort. After the expi-
ration of the truce, the war, with intermissions, went on, waged by
Schleswig-Holstein, alone or with aid from Germany; until in a
protocol — an agreement signed in London in 1852 by the Great
Powers, in which Austria and Prussia concurred, — the king of
Denmark and his heirs were guaranteed in the possession of the
duchies. This act, however, was not accepted by the duchies
themselves, or by the Diet of the German Confederation; so that
the seeds of strife still remained.

Preponderance of Austria.—After the suppression of the re-
volts of 1848, Austria, whose counsels were guided by the astute
minister Schwarzenberg> labored to dwarf and supplant the influ-
ence of Prussia. Frederick William IV\ of Prussia aimed to bring
about a closer union of German states, and called a national
parliament to meet at Erfurt. Austria withstood these attempts.
The disposition of Prussia to support the resistance in Hesse to the
tyranny of its elector, threatened to bring on an armed contest
with Austria and its German allies; but the attitude of Russia
caused Prussia to desist from its movement. At the conference at
Olmutz (1850), Manteuffel, the Prussian minister, yielded every
thing to Austria; and subsequently, under the influence of Russia,
the German Confederation of 1815 was restored.- Prussia took no
part with the Western»powers in the Crimean war, with which it
had no direct concern, and thus did not, like Austria, make herself
obnoxious to the Czar.

William I.: Bismarck. — On the accession of William I. as
regent (Oct. 1857), the Prussian government initiated a more
spirited and independent policy in its relations to Austria. ItEUROFE FROM 1866 TO 1871.

577

refused to lend active aid to that country in the war with France
and Sardinia (1859). The efficient measures of King William
for the reorganization and increase of the army encountered con-
stant opposition, year after year, in the Prussian Diet, from the
liberal party, which did not divine his motives, and saw in them
nothing but the usurping of an unconstitutional authority. In 1862
the king made Bismarck minister of foreign affairs, and the virtual
head of the administration. This able man had widened his knowl-
edge of European politics by serving as ambassador first at St.
Petersburg and then at Paris. Previously he had been allied with
the absolutist party of Manteuffel: he was always for "strong
government." After 1851, when he was delegate of Prussia at the
Federal Diet at Frankfort, he made up his mind to deliver Prussia
from the domineering influence of Austria. But he was held in
distrust by the Prussian liberals, who saw in him only an energetic
supporter of the king in his reform of the army by acts of arbi-
trary power not warranted by the constitution. In 1863 Francis
Joseph summoned a congress of German princes to Frankfort to
frame a new German constitution; but as Prussia stood aloof,
nothing was accomplished. There was much bitterness between
the two states. For the moment, however, attention was diverted
by the aspect of affairs in Schleswig-Holstein.

Events leading to War. — On March 30, 1863, Ferdinand
VIL of Denmark issued a decree for the separation of Schleswig,
and its incorporation in Denmark. The troops of the German
Confederacy were sent by the Diet into Holsteitu Prussia and
Austria, who had concurred in the London Treaty of 1852 (p. 576),
announced their agreement to prosecute the war with Denmark as
independent powers, apart from the confederation. They persisted
in this purpose, and their victories over the Danes compelled Fer-
dinand to sign a treaty (Oct. 30, 1864) by which he resigned , his
rights in the duchies in favor of the emperor of Austria and the
king of Prussia. How should the duchies be disposed of? It
was Bismarck?s aim to annex them to Prussia, which was sorely in
need of seaports. He professed that the war had abrogated the
London Treaty of'1852. The prime object of Austria was to
prevent Prussia from making this gain. The dispute was hot and
threatening; but in the Gastein Convention (Aug. 14, 1865), Lau-
enburg (which the Danes had also ceded) was given to Prussia,
and the disposition of the duchies was left to l>e determined later.
Meantime the Prussians were to hold Schleswig, and the Austrians
Holstein. The Prussians were, moreover, to hold provisionally the
port of Kiel. The scheme of Austria was to hand over the debated
question to the Diet of the Confederation, where it could com-
mand a majority. To this Prussia would not consent, but de-
manded that the Confederacy should be reconstituted in such a578

MODERN HISTORY.

way that Prussia, as well as Germany, might have strength in the
event of a European war. Bismarck made a secret treaty with Sar-
dinia, which provided that Prussia and Sardinia should act together
in case of war with Austria, and that peace should not be made
until Venetia had been given up to the kingdom of Italy. When
Austria handed over the Schleswig-Holstein question to the Diet,
Prussia sent twenty thousand troops into Holstein. The Austrian
force, which was inferior, retired. When the Confederation (June
14) passed a motion made by Austria to put the confederate
troops, not Austrian or Prussian, on a war footing, the Prussian
plenipotentiary protested, and declared the Diet dissolved. He
also presented a new constitution as the basis of a new league of
states, from which Austria was to be excluded. Prussia issued a
proclamation, to the effect that the purpose of the war that was
now to begin was the union of Germany, and the establishment of
a free parliament of the German nation.

The Austro-Prussian War. — The Prussian military plans were
the work of Von Moltke, chief of the general staff, who was with-
out a superior in military science. They were carried out with
astonishing precision and celerity. On June 15 Prussia required
Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disarm, to remain neutral, and
to send delegates to a German parliament. A few hours were
given them to decide. They refused the demand, and on the
16th the Prussian forces marched into their lands. On that day
they seized the capital of Hesse, and took the elector prisoner.
On the 29th they had surrounded King George of Hanover, and
he was. compelled to surrender with his whole army. The main
Austrian army, under Benedek, made up of contingents from the
various nations subject to the emperor, with the troops of Ba-
varia and his other German allies, were gathered in Bohemia.
Thither three Prussian armies moved, on different lines, as they
were directed by telegraph from Berlin. Several battles occurred.
The armies approached one another, but were purposely kept
apart. On June 30 King William and Von Moltke left Berlin.
On the 2d of July it was determined to attack the Austrians the
next day; and word was sent to the crown prince, whose division
was not so far that he could not bring up his forces to take part in
the combat. In the morning the battle of Sadowa, in which be-
tween two hundred thousand and three hundred thousand men
were in each of the contending hosts, began. . It raged until noon,
with no decisive advantage on either side. At two o'clock the
division of the crown prince, after a hard march, arrived; and
their attack on the flank of the Austrians was the signal for a for-
ward movement along the whole Prussian line. The battle in its
course resembled that of Waterloo. The defeat of the Austrians
virtually decided the whole contest. Francis Joseph asked FranceEUROPE FROM 1866 TO 1871.

579

to mediate, but Prussia and Italy refused to consent to the pro-
posal. The Austrian emperor ceded Venice by telegraph to Louis
Napoleon. The Austrians had defeated the Italians at Cusiozza
(June 24), and in a naval battle at Lissa. But a great part of the
Austrian army it was necessary to transfer to the North.

The Peace of Prague: The Peace of Vienna. — The Peace of
Prague was concluded between Prussia and Austria (Aug. 23,
1866). Austria was excluded from Germany, and gave up her
rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, At the request of Prussia,
Venice was ceded to Italy. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-
Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort were incorporated in Prussia. The
population of Prussia from about nineteen millions was increased
to twenty-three millions five hundred thousand. In the Peace of
Vienna (Oct. 3), Austria recognized the kingdom of Italy, to which
Venice had been ceded.

North German Confederation. — The South German states re-
mained independent; but the North German Confederation was
formed, under the leadership of Prussia, which was to have control
of the military forces of its members. In the council of the Con-
federation, Prussia was to have seventeen votes, and the other
states together twenty-six votes. An imperial Diet was established,
the members of which were to be elected by general suffrage.
Bismarck was made chancelor of the Confederation.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire. — The war with Prussia was
followed by the political reorganization of the Austro-Hungarian
empire on a more liberal basis. Von Beust, who had been a
Saxon minister, became minister of foreign affairs (1866), and
afterwards president of the ministry and chancelor of the empire.
The Hungarian constitution of 1848 was restored, and a separate
ministry was constituted for Hungary ; while, as regards the army
and foreign affairs of both divisions of the empire, an imperial
ministry was established. The Cisleithan division, composed of
the German and Slavonic provinces, was to have its own ministry
and constitution. This conferred on the people and their repre-
sentatives "rights and privileges of the greatest importance,—
equality of all citizens before the law, freedom of the press, right
of association and meeting, complete liberty of faith and con-
science, the unrestricted right to impose taxes and levy recruits,
etc." The reconciliation with Hungary having been effected,
Francis Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary at Pesth. Tran-
sylvania and Croatia were united with Hungary. Great legal im-
provements in Austria ensued. The army was re-constituted after
the example of the Prussian military system. There was an im-
provement in financial administration. Marriage by civil contract
was authorized; and on subjects connected with marriage, the
clergy were deprived of jurisdiction. The control of education,58o

MODERN HISTORY.

except religious education, was assumed by the state. In case of
marriage between Catholics and Protestants, the male children
were to be educated according to the faith of the father; the
female children, according to that of the mother.

Louis Napoleon Baffled. — The Austro-Prussian war hastened
the downfall of Louis Napoleon. The only consolation which the
French had for the loss of freedom at home was power and reputa-
tion abroad. The astonishing rapidity of the Prussians, and the
overwhelming success of their arms, had disconcerted the schemes
of the French emperor. The defeat of Austria was so quick and
so complete that he could not come in as mediator between the
belligerents, and manage to secure the extension of France to its
" natural frontiers " on the Rhine. He was baffled by Bismarck's
diplomacy, as before he had been outwitted by Cavour; for
Napoleon had wished, not a united Italy, but simply a Northern
Kingdom. The French felt humiliated at the sight of military
achievements parallel to those by which in other days they had
disposed of the fate of Prussia herself. The opposing factions
grew bolder in their attitude towards the Napoleonic government.
The emperor made cautious attempts to secure cessions of terri-
tory from Prussia on the Rhine, but was met with a blunt refusal
from Bismarck. He then sought to purchase from the king of
Holland, Luxemburg, which had formerly belonged to the German
Confederation. This attempt was resisted by Prussia, and war
seemed imminent; but it was finally settled at the London Con-
ference , that the duchy should be neutral territory, and that the
fortress, which had been occupied by the Prussians, should be
demolished. Germany was making progress towards a more com-
plete union. A customs parliament, representing all the states,
met at Berlin in May, 1868. Before that time, treaties of offensive
and defensive alliance had been made between the North German
Confederation and Wurte?nbergy Baden, and Bavaria. They were
published on March 17, 1867.

Beginning of the Franco-Prussian War. — As Louis Napoleon,
or those who held sway in his counsels, were bent on war with
Prussia, a pretext was easily found. The bad administration of
Queen Isabella of Spain, and her personal misconduct, caused
insurrections to break out in 1868 ; and she was obliged to fly to
France. A provisional government was established under Gens.
Serrano and Prim, and Senor Olozaga. Later (1869) Serrano
was made regent. The Cortes in 1870 offered the Spanish crown
to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who belonged to
a younger branch of King William's family. The proposal was
regarded in France with indignation, as a new step in the upbuild-
ing of Prussian power. King William was required to forbid his
relative's candidacy, which he declined to do. The prince, how-EUROPE FROM 1866 TO 1871.

ever, of his own accord withdrew. Not satisfied with this issue of
the affair, Napoleon insisted that the Prussian king should engage
never to support the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince for the
Spanish crown. M. Benedetti, the French ambassador, abruptly
accosted the king on a public promenade at Ems, for the purpose
of pressing this demand. William refused to listen to him, but
referred him to the ministry at Berlin. This act was represented
at Paris as an insult to France, and orders were issued to mobilize
the army. The king, on his way to Berlin, was met at the Branden-
burg station by the crown prince, Von Moltke, Von Boon the able
war minister, and Bismarck. The Confederate Diet assembled on
the 19th, and placed its resources at the disposal of the king. The
French declaration of war was received on the same day. Bava-
ria, Wiirtemberg, and the South German States, contrary to the
unreasonable expectation of Napoleon, allied themselves with Prus-
sia. In a moment all Germany was ablaze. The recollection of
the days of the first Napoleon, and of the war of liberation, filled
the whole land with patriotic enthusiasm. More than a million of
men took the field in defense of the fatherland.

Events to Sedan. — The plan of Napoleon was to divide his
grand army into three parts, one of which was to force neutrality
or an alliance on the South German states, and to bring to pass a
French alliance with Austria and Italy. Then he designed to
attack the North German army. Meantime other movements were
to be carried forward for an effect on Denmark and Hanover, to
secure their cooperation. But the French army was not in the
state of full readiness which had been alleged to exist. The mas-
terly dispositions of Von Mollkey and the swift movements of the
Germans, broke up the French programme. The three great divis-
ions of the German army were led by Steinmetz, Prince Frederick
Charles, the king's nephew, and the crown prince, Frederick Wil-
liam. They advanced towards the boundary from Treves to Lan-
dau. Three victories of the Germans — at Weissenburg (Aug. 4),
over Marshal MacMahon at Worth (Aug. 6), and at'Saarbriicken
on the same day—compelled the French army to retreat towards
the Moselle. The Baden division was left to besiege Strasburg.
The next great battles, of which Gravelotte (Aug. 18) was the
most hotly contested, were fought for the purpose of preventing
Marshal Bazaine from joining with the main army the forces^ of
MacMahon. Bazaine was defeated, and confined with his im-
mense body of troops in and about the fortress oi Metz; and his
efforts to break through the German lines were baffled. The Prus-
sian crown prince and the crown prince of Saxony, with their
combined armies, proceeded against MacMahon. The defeats of
the French had occasioned such wrath at Paris, that the ministry
of M. Ollivier was compelled to retire (Aug. 10), and it was not582

MODERN HISTORY.

safe for the emperor, who was with MacMahon, to return to the
capital. The French general concentrated his forces at Sedan.
On Sept. i the decisive battle was fought. The French were
worsted and surrounded. The Emperor Napoleon yielded his
sword to King William. The terms of capitulation were agreed
upon by Von Moltke and Gen. IVimpffen (.MacMahon being
disabled by a wound), while other matters of a civil nature were
arranged between Napoleon and Bismarck. The army that was
surrendered numbered eighty-four thousand men, with fifty gen-
erals and five thousand other officers.

Siege of Paris: Surrender of Metz.—As soon as the news of
Sedan reached Paris, the imperial government fell to pieces. The
Empress Eugenie escaped to England. A republic was proclaimed ;
and a new government was improvised, composed of enemies of
the Empire, who belonged to different parties. Trochu was presi-
dent, and governor of Paris ; Jules Favre, a moderate republican,
was minister of foreign affairs ; and Gambetta, an extreme repub-
lican, was minister of the interior. The wish was for peace ; but
the inexorable demand of the Germans for the cession of Alsace
and Lorraine, once parts of Germany, and now asserted to be
necessary for its defense against future attack from France, called
out a united and indignant spirit of resistance. The defense of
Paris was undertaken with extraordinary energy: a large army
was collected there, and a great supply of provisions was gathered.
The siege of Paris was prosecuted by the Germans with an equally
unflinching determination, from Sept. 19, 1870, to Jan. 28, 1871.
Repeated sallies of the French troops, although made with much
spirit, failed of success. The efforts to break the Prussian lines
of connection with Paris, and to compel them by movements
from without to raise the siege, were likewise baffled. Gambetta
escaped from Paris in a balloon, and at Tours directed in the
formation of two armies, — the army of the Loire, and the northern
army, both of which were defeated. Strasburg capitulated (Sept.
27) ; and a month later (Oct. 27) Bazaine surrendered Metz, with
three marshals, three thousand officers, and one hundred and
seventy-three thousand soldiers. The main army of France was
thus lost.

William made Emperor: Surrender of Paris.—-While the
siege of Paris was in progress, all the princes of Germany, and
the senates of the three free towns, united in the resolution to
offer to the President of the Confederation the title of Emperor.
Accordingly, on Jan. 18, 1871, King William, in the Hall of Mir-
rors at Versailles, was formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany.
On the next day Trochu led the final sortie from Paris, of a
hundred thousand men, which was repulsed after a severe contest.
The provisions in the city were nearly exhausted, and on Jan. 23EUROPE FROM 1866 TO 1871.

583

an armistice for twenty-one days was signed. Paris surrendered on
the 28th; and on the 26th of February a national convention at
Bordeaux accepted the preliminaries of peace, which included the
cession of Alsace and the German part of Lorraine with Metz> -
and the payment of an indemnity of five thousand million francs.
Thiers, who was elected chief of the executive department (Feb.
17), had managed the negotiations with Bismarck at Versailles,
and urged the acceptance of them on the convention.

The German Imperial Constitution. — The first Diet of the
new German Empire was opened at Berlin on March 21. The
constitution of it left to each state the management of its domes-
tic affairs. To the imperial government, with the Federal Coun-
cil, to the Diet, and to the emperor as executive, were relegated
the affairs of common interest. The president of the Council
was the imperial chancelor: Bismarck was appointed to that
office. The Diet, or imperial parliament, was chosen by general
suffrage. The new empire resembles the old German Kingdom :
it is not a revival of the Holy Roman Empire, whose existence
terminated in 1806.

Contest with the Communists: Republican Constitution. — After
the conditions of peace with the Germans were settled, Paris had
to pass through a terrible period of disorder. The communists
were bent on establishing municipal independence, or the self-gov-
ernment of the Commune, and a democratic republic. They de-
manded a federation of the townships, or communes, and distrusted
the republicanism of the officials who were in the exercise of power.
They are not to be confounded with communists in the socialistic
sense: only a small fraction of the communal government, or
central committee, were socialists. The party comprised a multi-
tude of fanatical democrats of the lower classes, who were ready
for the most violent measures. They had risen several times dur-
ing the siege of Paris, and had tried to seize on power, but had
been put down by the troops. After the surrender of Paris, they
gained possession of the northern part of the city, and fortified it.
The attempt to get back the cannon which they had seized caused
a great communist uprising (March 18, 1871). A new reign of
terror began. Darboy, the Archbishop of Paris, and many others,
were murdered. MacMahon, acting for the Assembly, besieged
Paris anew; the Germans being neutral in the forts that were still
left, according to the treaty, in their hands. In the fierce struggle
for the possession of the city, the principal buildings of Paris were
set on fire by the savage communistic mob. The Tuileries, the
H6tel de Ville, and a part of the Palais Royal, with other public
edifices, were destroyed. The insurrection was at length sup-
pressed, and severe punishments were inflicted. A large number
of the ringleaders were either shot or transported.584

MODERN HISTORY.

CHAPTER V.

EUROPE, FROM THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC, AND THE
UNION OF ITALY (1871).

Completed Union of Italy. — When the war between Prussia
and France broke out, the republicans in Italy were disposed to
take possession of Rome at once. Mazzini urged them to this
step. The king, however, was bound by the agreement with
France to prevent this action; which, moreover, might have
divided, instead of uniting, Italy. Mazzini was arrested, and sent
to Gaeta. But with the fall of Napoleon, on the declaration of
Jules Favre that the " September Convention " (p. 574) was at an
end, Victor Emmanuel\ professing that he was bound to maintain
order in the peninsula, sent his troops into Rome. The Pope lost
his temporal dominions, and was limited to the title and preroga-
tives of the spiritual head of the Catholic Church. The seat of
the Italian government was removed to the ancient capital (July
1, 1871).

Pius IX.: the Council of the Vatican.—The long pontificate
of Pius IX. was distinguished by important acts having relation to
the doctrine and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church. In
1854 he promulgated the declaration of the Immaculate Concep-
tion of the Virgin Mary. He thus determined authoritatively a
question which had long been debated in the schools of theology.
Ten years later (1864) he issued an Encyclical, together with a
Syllabus of Errors, in which, besides the condemnation of opinions
in matters of faith which were adjudged heterodox, various alleged
encroachments of the civil authority and heretical views respect-
ing the control of the state in reference to marriage, education,
etc., were denounced. The views thus condemned are such as the
kingdom of Belgium had recognized, and France and some other
Roman Catholic countries have shown themselves willing to accept.
In 1870 the (Ecumenical Council of the Vatican assembled, and
after long debate sanctioned the doctrine of papal infallibility;
that is, they promulgated the dogma that the Pope, when address-
ing the whole Church on a subject of morals or theology, is kept
by the Spirit of God from enunciating error.

"Old Catholics"—Most of those who had strenuously endeavored to
prevent this action, either because they considered it inexpedient, or dis-
believed in the doctrine which it established, acquiesced in the decision of the
council. There were some persevering dissentients, however, in Germany
especially, of whom Dr. Dollinger was the most distinguished They organ-
ized themselves as a distinct body, under the name of "Old Catholics."
They were mostly educated persons the party had no root among the com-
mon people. In France, the most distinguished of them was P&re Hyacinthe,
a preacher of much popularity and eloquence.30 Lons?itude 20 "West 10

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585

Revolutions in Spain.—After the revolution which was attended
by the flight of Queen Isabella from Spain (1868), a majority of
the Cortes decided for a monarchical form of government, although
many desired a republic. In 1870 Amadeus, the Second son of
the king of Italy, accepted the crown. But he found it impossible
to restore order and peace in the country, so- distracted was it by
party divisions. The clergy and the nobles regarded him as an
intruder, and stood aloof; and (on the nth of Feb., 1873)
abdicated the throne. A bloody conflict of factions ensued. Don
Carlos, the new Pretender of that name, raised his standard in the
North. The Cortes were for a federal republic. Castelarf who
as president was at the head of the government, and after him
Marshal Serrano, by whom he was superseded, made no decisive
progress against the Carlists. Alfonso, the youthful son of Isabella,
was proclaimed king by one of the generals, Martinez Campos ;
and the army pronounced in his favor (Dec. 29, 1874). Serrano
laid down his office. The Carlist revolt was crushed, and Don
Carlos driven out of the country.

State of the Ottoman Empire. — In July, 1875, the Turkish
provinces of Herzegovina and Bosnia rebelled against the intolera-
ble oppression of the Sultan's government. The little mountainous
kingdom of Montenegro — which for four centuries had preserved
its independence through numerous struggles with Turkey, and had
a quarrel of its own with that power—lent help to its Slavonian
neighbor. Servia did the same. The Austro-Hungarian Empire,
a composite of distinct provinces and nationalities, was strongly
interested to avert war in that region. The revolt was not put
down by the Turks. The three European emperors moved the
Sultan to pledge himself to an extensive programme of reforms in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, — a pledge which there was no intention
on his part to fulfill. England gave no aid to the revolt, but
strengthened herself in the East by obtaining, through a purchase
of shares from the Khedive of Egypt, the control of the Suez
Canal (Nov. 25, 1875). Russia, as kinsman of all the Slavonic
peoples, and protector of Greek Christians, assumed alone the part
of a champion of the maltreated provinces. But England refused
to join with Russia, Germany, Austria, and France, in threatening
" more effectual" — that is, coercive — measures, in case of the
Porte's refusal to pacify the insurgents by carrying out his promises.
Great Britain was bent on keeping the Sultan's empire, as being a
barrier in the way of Russian ambition and essential to the security
of India, from being dismembered, and professed to be swayed by
respect for the rights of Turkey as an independent power. A
revolt in Bulgaria was crushed by the Turks, who were guilty of
such terrible atrocities that the "Bulgarian massacres" shocked
all Christendom (1876). In the course of the difficulties just586

MODERN HISTORY.

narrated, two revolutions, by which sultans had been dethroned,
had taken place in the palace at Constantinople. The ambassa-
dors of the Great Powers, in a conference at Constantinople,
agreed in demanding of Turkey a constitution and guaranties for
the benefit of the oppressed subjects in the provinces of the Otto-
man Empire. This requirement the Porte refused to acqept. A
subsequent attempt of the same nature met with no better suc-
cess (1877). Russia allowed its subjects to render effective help
to the revolted districts. On the contrary, England was offended
by the alleged ambitious schemes of the Muscovites, and advocated
longer forbearance with the Sultan; but Lord Derby announced
(April 19,1877) that Turkey had been warned to expect no assist-
ance from England. Nevertheless, the mission of Mr. Layard to
Constantinople, and all the other circumstances, emboldened the
Turks to refuse compliance with the Czar's demands.

The Russo-Turkish War. — The Turko-Russian war began in
April, 1877. Russia, according to her previous declaration, took
up arms alone. The Russian troops crossed the Danube and the
Balkan Mountains, and seized on the important Shipka Pass. At
first they seemed destined to a speedy triumph. But the Turks
under Osman Pasha fought with unexpected valor and success.
At length, however, their leader was obliged to surrender his army
of forty-four thousand men at Plevna (Dec. 10). Adrianople was
occupied by the Russians (Jan. 28). They were thus in the neigh-
borhood of Constantinople. Meantime, after reverses in the East,
the Russians had taken Kars, and pushed on to Erzeroum.

Treaty of San Stefano: The Berlin Conference. — Turkey now
appealed to England to mediate; but Russia declined any such
intervention, and insisted on treating separately with Turkey. Eng-
land was now ready to interfere in behalf of the Sultan, and for
the safety of Constantinople. Russia hastened to conclude with
Turkey the Peace of San Stefano (March 3), the stipulations of
which greatly reduced the Turkish power in Europe. Bulgaria was
to be governed by a Christian prince, and fifty thousand Russian
troops were to occupy it for two years. England concluded (June
4) a secret treaty engaging to protect Turkey in Asia : Cyprus was
given up to be occupied by the British. Austria, as well as Great
Britain, was anxious to deprive Russia of the advantages which she
had naturally expected to reap by the war, — a war in which the
other powers had declined to take part. Thus another great war
was threatened, about the provisions of the San Stefano treaty.
The conflict was averted by the Congress at Berlin (June 13-
July 13, 1878), where & Israeli — who was then prime minister,
and a friend of the anti-Russian policy — represented England.
Austria and England were aided by Germany, and the diplomacy
of Gortchakoff was thus overborne. Servia and Rouvianiat as---------p -

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587

well as Montenegro, were declared independent. Bulgaria was
divided into two portions; the southern of which, called East
•Roumelia, was to be governed by the Sultan directly, but with a
separate administration under a Christian governor. To Austria,
the military occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which meant
the possession of these provinces, was yielded. Thessaly had en-
gaged in an insurrection, and Greece had hoped for an extension
of her boundaries; but nothing effectual was done by England to
forward this claim. Here Russia, always opposed to the building-
up of a strong Greek kingdom, was at one with England. Russia
obtained Kars, but her gains were far less than she deemed herself
entitled to receive. The other powers, on the contrary, permitted
Austria to advance far in the direction of Constantinople. Curing
the war, the hostility of the Magyars (or Hungarians proper)
to the Slaves had been ready to break out in the form of direct
armed assistance to Turkey. On the other hand, the Slaves in
Hungary, and in all the Austrian territories, were with difficulty
restrained from enlisting actively in aid of the Russians. The
arbitrary dealing of the Berlin Conference with Bosnia and Her-
zegovina occasioned an armed but ineffectual resistance, in these
provinces, to the extension of the Austrian sway over them.

Situation of Russia. — Russia had felt imbittered towards Aus-
tria, in consequence of the refusal of the latter power to aid her in
the Crimean war; and had remained neutral in the struggle with
Prussia, which ended in the exclusion of Austria from Germany.
Russia was now offended with Germany for repaying her neutrality
in the Franco-Prussian struggle by helping forward, in the Berlin
Conference, the schemes of England and Austria. The attempt
of Russia to form an alliance with France prompted Bismarck
(Sept., 1879) to visit Vienna, and to negotiate a defensive alliance
with Austria. The activity of the Nihilists, and the refusal of
France (March, 1880) to deliver up Hartmann, charged with an
attempt on the life of the Czar, made the French alliance impossi-
ble. The sympathy of the Emperor William, after the endeavor
made to assassinate Alexander (Feb. 17, 1880), tended to restore
cordiality between the two sovereigns and their nations. Russia
was embarrassed by these internal troubles. Finally Alexander was
murdered by Nihilists (March 13, 1881), and was succeeded by
his son, Alexander IIL

Nihilism. — The accession of Alexander Jf., following on the
rigid autocracy of Nicholas, had introduced a more lenient rule.
Alexander decreed (March 3, 1861) the emancipation of the serfs,
who were also endowed with small possessions in land.- The boon
thus conferred, along with its advantages, brought with it hardship ;
for there were ways of oppression still open to the nobles, by which
the emancipated class were made grievously to suffer. The great588	MODERN HISTORY.

measure served to increase the national agitation which was con-
nected with other causes. There had long been an enthusiastic
party of "Slavophils," actuated by a strong race-feeling, and eager,
for " Panslavism," or a union of Slavonic peoples. It was the peo-
ple in Russia which moved the court, against its will, to go to war,
single-handed, with Turkey, in 1877. In the prosecution of the
war, the abuses which were brought to light among officials, civil
and military, heightened the indignation which the corrupt " bu-
reaucracy " — the administration by departments, each under its
chief — provoked. The failure to gather the harvest of the war,
of which Russia was deprived by diplomacy, increased the popular
unrest. A party of socialistic democracy, a revolutionary party,
had developed itself as early as 1874. The way had been pre-
paring for it for a decade of years. Out of this party came later
(1878) the "Terrorists,"— the secret body which sought for a
remedy for social and governmental evils by annihilating all exist-
ing authority in Church and State. They had begun with the
demand of a constitution. The despotic, repressive measures of
the government — in 1879 and 1880, sixty thousand persons were
sent to Siberia without a trial — were followed by more desperate
attempts of Nihilist conspirators upon the lives of the rulers of
the land, and of their agents. These culminated in the murder
of the Czar.

Communism and Socialism. — A brief sketch of the various move-
ments thus designated may he here in place. Communism is the name given
to the theory that it is desirable to have a community of goods, and a total
or partial abolition of private property. Socialism is often used to designate
the same system, but is more commonly applied to the doctrine that gov-
ernment should own the land and all the implements of industry. Not a few
religious sects of communists, like the Shakers (established in 1780, in the
United States), have long existed. The hope of social amelioration by soci-
eties of a communistic character has'led to a variety of movements for the
formation of them on both sides of the Atlantic. Equality, education, deliv-
erance from poverty and from burdensome toil, have been the blessings
sought. Prominent leaders in such movements were Saint-Simon (1760-
1825), whose ideas produced a strong effect in France; Charles Fourier
(1772-1837), by whose influence "phalanxes," as the communities adopting
his views were named, were formed in Europe and America; and Robert
Owen (1771-1858), whose societies were built up 2X New Lanark in Scotland,
New Harmony in Indiana, and in other places. Since the French Revolu-
tion of 1848, these particular attempts of philanthropic socialism have passed
out of notice. Shortly after the Reign of Terror, Babeuf attempted (1797) to
overthrow the authorities in Paris, and to bring to pass an equal division of
property. The course of political struggles in France, in connection with
the revolutions in industry and trade, which have occurred since the fall of
the first Napoleon, have given rise to a disaffected working-class, or proleta-
riat, The complaint has arisen, that the benefits resulting from political
freedom in Europe have come to the middle class, — to tradesmen and man-
ufacturers possessed of capital, — and that the laboring class are deprived of
their due share of the profits of industry. One noted expounder of commu-
nism in France was Proudhon (1809-1865), who sought to give emphasis toEUROPE SINCE 1871.	589

his doctrine by affirming that "property is theft." Louis Blanc, who was* a
member of the provisional government in France in 1848, both before and
after that time was an active promoter of the scheme under which govern-
ment is to furnish labor on a large scale, and to become the grand employer
of the working-class. In Germany, socialism in its later distinctive form, as
defined above, has been advocated by a number of well-known writers. Per-
haps the ablest of these was Ferdinand Lasalle (1825-1864). Like the other
principal socialists, he would clothe the State with a vastly augmented power
and responsibility. In this particular, socialism is directly antagonistic to
the ideas of democracy which had previously prevailed. Lasalle"s doctrine
was that the State should lend capital at interest to associations of laborers.
This, he thought, would be the first step in their emancipation. Karl Marx
would go much farther. He would transfer to the State all capital and all
means of production. He would, as he professes, "overthrow all the ex-
isting arrangements of society." With property, inheritance is to be abol-
ished; labor is to be made compulsory; all means of transport are to be
in the hands of the State, and so forth. The International Working Men's
Association — popularly called "the International" — was organized in Lon-
don in 1864. It has held congresses in Geneva and in other cities. It
entered upon the most destructive schemes of social agitation and revolution.
But the society was divided in 1872, on the expulsion of Bakunin, a Russian
Nihilist. A faction of the most violent class continued its activity for a while,
and stirred up risings in several towns in Spain in 1873, in imitation of the
insurrections in Paris in 1871. Different shades of socialistic theory have
been advocated; from the "Christian Socialism" which aims at such objects
as the creation of cooperative associations in the working-class, to the fanat-
ics who would sweep away existing institutions by violence, and who resort
to the use of dynamite as a means of inspiring terror.

The French Republic since 1871. — Thiers had wonderful suo
cess in providing for the payment of the German indemnity. His
term of office was prolonged (Aug. 31, 1871) for three years, with
the title of President. Thiers had cooperated with MacMahon in
crushing the commune, and in wholesale measures for the preser-
vation of order. An adverse vote in the Assembly (May 24, 1873)
caused his resignation. This was effected by a combination of
the monarchical parties. MacMahon, his successor, took a very
conservative position. He was supported by the various anti-
republican parties. His presidential term was prolonged to seven
years. In February, 1875, a new constitution, of a conservative
republican cast, was established, which provided for a president
and a cabinet, a senate, and a chamber of deputies. The legiti-
mists, Orleanists, and imperialists united with the president in
his reactionary, anti-republican policy. The whole clerical party
were on that side. The republicans, besides Thiers and Gam-
betta, — the heads of the " Opportunists," as they were styled, —
had among their leaders the eminent jurists, Dufaure and* Grevy.
One of the great subjects of controversy related to public educa-
tion, in the management of which the Church and the clergy
desired to retain and extend their influence and control. To secu-
larize education, was a main aim of the body of the republicans.
The success of the republicans, against extraordinary efforts made590	MODERN HISTORY.

to defeat them, in the elections of 1877, at last prevailed on the
marshal-president to accept the verdict of the country; and late
in the year a republican cabinet was formed. The measures of
Jules Ferry and his supporters, for taking the business of instruc-
tion out of the hands of ecclesiastics and of the clerical orders,
although most earnestly resisted by Bishop Dupanloup and the
whole clerical party, and opposed by a section of the republicans
led by Jules Simon, were, after heated contention, adopted, and
were completely carried out (1880). The death of Thiers (Sept.,
1877) did not weaken the party of which he was the most honored
leader. The death of the young Prince Louis Napoleon (1879)
in South Africa, where he was serving, under the British, against
the ZuluSy was an almost fatal blow to the hopes of the Bonapart-
ist faction. The more recent death of Count Chambord (1883)
was followed by the recognition, on the part of the legitimists, of
the Count of Paris, of the Orleans house, as the next heir to the
throne. A manifesto of Prince Jerome Napoleon (1883), after
the death of the young Prince Napoleon, aroused an agitation
against all pretenders to the throne, — in particular, against the
Orleanists; which led, after protracted debates, to the forced
retirement of all the princes of this family from active service in
the French army. In November, 1881, Gambetta, whose influence
had risen until it grew to be predominant, became the head of the
cabinet; but the opposition to his policy within the republican
ranks was stronger than had been anticipated. After a short time
he laid down his office. His death occurred in the last night of
1882.

French Conquests abroad.—The failure of France, in the
Oriental difficulties and disputes, to gain the power and exert the
influence which she desired, impelled the French government to
various undertakings for the purpose of building up colonial in-
terests and settlements. Partly, as was alleged, to punish maraud*
ing tribes, in 1881 an expedition was sent against Tunis; and
the Bey was forced to accept a protectorate of the French over
his dominion. *Thus the French enlarged their power in Africa.
This proceeding gave great offense to England, Italy, and the
Turkish Sultan. On the ground of a treaty of 1841, a French
admiral demanded the submission of the north-west coast of
Madagascar to a French protectorate; and when this demand was
refused, he bombarded and captured the second city in the island,
Tamatave (1883). The efforts of France to gain control over
Tonquin and the adjacent territory in China attracted still more
attention. Tonquin is the most populous province of the king-
dom of A nam, of which it formed a part after 1802. Over this
kingdom, China claimed the rights of a suzerain; which the French
refused to acknowledge. In 1862, after a war lasting for almostDorer^/4

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591

four years, Napoleon III. obtained from Anam, by the treaty of
Saigun, the provinces called Cochin-China. In 1874 the French
Republic extorted from King Tuduc of Anam a treaty by which
his foreign policy was placed under the direction of France.
Against this treaty, China protested. In 1882 the French com-
mander Riviere seized the city of Hanoi. The " Black Flags," a
body of free-lances or pirates, whose leader had been one of the
Chinese rebels, fought against the French; but it soon appeared
that both the king of Anam and the government of China were in
league with this hostile force. Since that time conflicts and nego-
tiations have been continued; the main question being, whether
France shall be allowed to hold the protectorate of Anam.

The Conflict of Prussia and the Vatican. — The Roman Catho-
lic Church in Germany is recognized as a legal institution. Its
revenues are received from the state, which, in turn, exercises a
supervision over the education of its clergy. In Prussia, especially
under Frederick William IV., large privileges were granted by law
to the Catholic body. The proceedings of the Vatican Council
awakened in Germany, as elsewhere in Europe, the apprehension
that the decree of papal infallibility might give rise to conflict be-
tween the authorities of the Church and of the State. Bismarck
considered that the " ultramontane " party in the Church involved
danger to the newly created German Empire. The Prussian gov-
ernment resisted the attempt of the Church, in 1871, to remove
from office Catholic teachers who refused to subscribe to the Vati-
can dogma of papal infallibility. In other words, the government
recognized and undertook to protect the " Old Catholics." The
contest with the clerical or ultramontane party went on ; and before
the end of the year, the Catholic branch of the Prussian Ministry
of Worship and Instruction was abolished. In a debate in 1872,
Bismarck said, " Of this be sure, that neither in Church nor in
State are we on the way to Canossa." His policy met with a
determined resistance from Pius IX. The Jesuits were expelled
from the German Empire. This law was afterwards construed to
include other orders.

The Falk Laws: Continued Conflict. — The laws proposed
by the Prussian minister of worship, Falk, required that candi-
dates for the clerical office in the Catholic Church should have a
training in the gymnasium and university, and that every ecclesi-
astical appointment should be sanctioned by the civil authorities.
They provided for a royal court for the settlement of ecclesiastical
questions. These laws were passed in 1873. In 1875 civil mar-
riage was made obligatory in the empire. These measures were
stoutly resisted by "the Center," or the clerical party, in the
Prussian Parliament, and in the Imperial Diet. They were de-
clared by the Pope to be invalid, and Roman Catholics were for-592

MODERN HISTORY.

bidden to obey them. Other enactments, one of which forbade
all payments to the bishops and clergy unless they should sign a
promise to obey the laws of the state, were adopted by Prussia.
Refractory bishops and priests were punished in various ways.
The result was that the Roman Catholic party, led by Windhorst\
ex-minister of Hanover, in opposition to Bismarck's measures, was
consolidated. The struggle extended beyond the bounds of Prus-
sia : it was Bavaria, a Catholic state, which proposed the law re-
quiring civil marriage. After the accession of Leo XJII., there was
on both sides an increased disposition to find terms of peace by
which the numerous vacancies in Catholic clerical offices could be
filled. The need which Bismarck felt of the support of "the
Center " for his financial measures favored this result. Falk re-
signed (July 13, 1879), he being personally odious to the Roman
party. After long debates, a bill was passed (Jan. 1, 1882) giving
to the king and his ministers discretionary powers, which opened
the way for filling the vacant places. Still, in the great festival at
the completion of the Cologne Cathedral (Oct. 15), the clerical
party stood aloof. But the mutual friendly approaches of the
chancelor and his ultramontane opponents continued. Diplo-
matic correspondence was opened with the Vatican. Some of the
harsher features of the anti-papal legislation were revoked.

Bismarck and Socialism. — One motive in this modification
of the chancelor's policy was the rapid progress of socialism. At
fir&t, while Bismarck was engaged in a struggle with the liberals,
who impeded his plans in the Prussian Parliament, he had willingly
availed himself of the support of Lasalle and his socialistic fol-
lowers. But after the war with France, the party of the " Social
Democrats" became more and more numerous and formidable.
It was not, however, until a second attempt was made on the
emperor's life, that Bismarck was able to carry, against the com-
bination of parties, his measures giving to the government ex-
traordinary powers for the stifling of socialistic agitation (1879).
The law for the suppression of-socialistic meetings, newspapers,
etc., was rigorously enforced.

The w Particularists." — Bismarck was, moreover, obliged to
contend with the " Particularists," who were hostile to the Em-
pire, and with a large number besides them, who were opposed to
a greater degree of imperial centralization at the expense of the
power of the separate states. Unable to obtain for the imperial
government the control over the German railroad system, he de-
vised a plan (1879) by which Prussia would eventually control
three-quarters of the railroads of Germany. An imperial code of
laws was adopted (1877) ; but, from jealousy of Prussia, the seat
of the supreme court was fixed by the Diet at Leipsic. In his eco-
nomical and financial measures, the chancelor was often charged10 Longitude 12 last from 14 Greenwich 1C

. KonigsberQ

SINCE 1871.

BORNHOLM I.

(fu Jjenmarh)

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Longitude »i East from i>3 "Washington t»5EUROPE SINCE 1871.

593

with the exercise of arbitrary power. Free, representative gov-
ernment, according to the English system, did not accord with
his idea of the Prussian monarchy as it is% and ought to be, and
with the character of the new empire, the unity of which he
was naturally anxious to fortify. By his alliance with Austria
in 1879, he placed Germany in a situation to resist Russia and
France, in case Russia, aggrieved by the action of Germany at the
Berlin Conference (1878), should join hands with France in acts
of hostility against the German empire.

The British Sway in India. — It was by a series of conquests
and annexations that the British sway by degrees extended itself
over India. These were rendered possible by the fact that the
fall of the Moghul Empire left the country in a state of anarchy.
Strife arose with one tribe after another, until the authority of Eng-
land came to be acknowledged as far north as the Himalayas.
There was no bond of national unity to be broken. The English
advance was made with the help of native auxiliaries, and could
not have been made without it. It was quite as much an internal
revolution as a foreign conquest. As the British enlarged their
dominion, and came into conflict with the French, the appetite
for supremacy grew. Under the rule of the Marquis of Wellesley
(1798-1805), partly through the victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley
(afterwards the Duke of Wellington), " the policy of intervention
and annexation " was pursued with brilliant success. The Burmese
were conquered, and a part of their territory was annexed, in 1824.
The effort always was to secure a quiet frontier. In 1843 a war
with Scinde resulted in its absorption in British territory. In 1849
the annexation of Punjab followed, a British protectorate having
been found insufficient. The mis-government of the native princes
in Oude led to the assumption of the government of that province
by the English in 1856.

The Indian Mutiny.—There was hostility to British rule among
the Mohammedans in India, and distrust among the Hindoos.
The latter acquired a fanatical belief that the English, who had
abolished the burning of widows, and even legalized their marriage,,
meant to force the people to lose caste by driving them to sacri-
legious practices. The report that cartridges had been served
out which had been lubricated with the fat of the swine, abhorred
by Moslems, and of the cow, venerated by the Hindoos, stirred
up a revolt among the native Sepoy troops (1857). The insur-
rection spread, and was attended with savage cruelties. There
was a frightful massacre of women and children at Cawnpore,
before General Havelock could arrive for its relief. The Eng-
lish who were besieged in Lucknow, after terrible suffering, were
relieved by the opportune coming of this gallant soldier. All the
English residents in Delhi, who could not escape into the jun-594

MODERN HISTORY.

gle, were murdered. The weak old king placed himself at the
head of the rebellion. Delhi was recaptured by the British, and
the conquest completed by Sir Colin Campbell (March 22, 1858)*
Oude was subdued. Gradually the rebellion was crushed, and mer-
ciless severity was exercised by the conquerors upon those most
actively concerned in it. One consequence of the revolt was the
entire transference of the government of India from the East India
Company to the Crown. The measure was introduced into Par-
liament by Lord Palmers ton (1858). Under the ministry of
D'Israeli, and on his motion, the Queen added to her titles that
of "Empress of India" (1877).

British Wars with the Afghans.—In the last century Ahmed
Khan, the ruler of Afghanistan, extended his dominion as far as
Delhi. But he died in 1773, and his son Timour changed the
seat of government from Candahar to CabuL In 1838 the
English declared war against Dost Mohammed\ one of the three
rulers of the country, whose seat of power was in this city. The
British attack was successful; but insurrections broke out (1841),
and they agreed to evacuate the country. The whole British
army, which had to pass through the Kurd- Cabul Pass, was de-
stroyed by cold and hunger, and by the harassing attacks of the
mountaineers (1842). It numbered forty-five hundred fighting
men and twelve thousand five hundred camp-followers. Another
British army, under Gen. Pollock, forced the Khyber Pass, and
took vengeance on CabuL In 1855 Dost Mohammed\ now an
ally of the English, drove the Persians out of Herat\ which, as
" the key of India," the British were anxious to protect against
ambitious schemes of Russia. In 1863 he took Herat from
Ahmed, the sultan there, who was considered a tool of Persia and
of Russia. Dost Mohammed died soon after, and was succeeded
by his son Sher Ali Khan. After the acquisition of Quetta by
the English, he began to side with the Russians. His intrigues
with them, and his refusal to receive a British embassy, brought
on the second Afghan war of the British (1878-81). The ameer
died (Feb. 21,1879); the Afghans were defeated by Gen. Roberts,
who took Cabul\ and installed as ameer Abdurrahman Khan
(1880). The English then decided to evacuate the territory.
On their march they were attacked by Ayub Khan of Herat.
Later he was defeated by Roberts, and driven back to that place.
The Gladstone ministry had succeeded the ministry of U Israeli,
who had been anxious to establish a "scientific frontier " between
Afghanistan and the Czar's territories, — such a frontier as would
secure a " neutral zone " between them and India, to serve as a
barrier against Russian invasion.

Russia and Afghanistan.—The gradual approaches of Russia in
the direction of Herat have been on two lines. The one is the lineEUROPE SINCE 1871.

595

south-easterly from the Caspian. She gained a lodgment in 1869
at Krasnovodsk on the eastern shore of that sea. In 1880 Geop-
teke and Askabat were taken. The other line of aggressive ap-
proach is south-westerly from the neighborhood of the Oxus. On
this line, partly from displeasure at the English occupation of
Egypt, and in pursuance of the policy, adopted especially since the
Berlin Conference (1878), to advance towards Herat\ the Rus-
sians suddenly seized Merv, an oasis extremely important from
a military point of view, over which Persia claimed a certain suze-
rainty. The Russians occupied it in force, under Gen. Komaroff
(March 16, 1884). Subsequently England and Russia agreed to
ascertain and fix the northern boundary of Afghanistan. The
occupation of Penjdeh by the Afghans, followed by the advance
of Komaroff> — of which the British complained as an aggres-
sion,— brought the two countries to the verge of war (1885).

The Western Powers and Egypt. — " The Oriental question "
— the question relating to Turkey and its dependencies — con-
stantly took on new phases, and presented to the powers of Europe
fresh difficulties and dangers of conflict. The Khedive of Egypt,
Ismail Pasha, was a friend and admirer of Napoleon ///. and of
the French. He succeeded in obtaining from the Sultan repeated
concessions, which reduced his dependence on Turkey to little
more than an obligation to pay an annual tribute, together with
certain marks of respect and honor. His conflicts with lands
on the south, Dafour and Abyssinia, his extravagant outlays in
public works of internal improvement, and the enormous interest
paid to foreign capitalists for their loans, involved him in the
utmost financial embarrassment. This furnished the occasion to
the Western powers, in particular to England and France, to inter-
meddle still more in Egyptian affairs. The Khedive sold to the
British Government his shares in the Suez Canal\ and gave into
the hands of the English and French (1878) the control of the
financial administration of the country. This sort of dependence
was repugnant to both the Khedive and the Egyptian people. The
native officers were pushed into the background. The most lucra-
tive stations were filled by foreigners, and the weight of taxation
was almost intolerable. The attempt to throw off this yoke only
resulted'in the deposition of Ismail by the Sultan, on the demand
of the two Western powers. His weak son, Tewfik Pasha, took
his place. The control of the finances remained in foreign hands.
The result of the discontent of the people, and of the disaffection
of the Egyptian officers, was a revolt led by Arabi Pashay a mili-
tary officer (1881). The Khedive complied with the demands of
the insurgents : their chief was made minister of war. The West-
ern powers were bent on suppressing this movement, and, in
addition to threats and diplomatic measures, sent their fleets to596

MODERN HISTORY.

Egypt. A revolt broke out in Alexandria\ in which the English
consul was wounded and many Europeans were slain (June, 1882).
The city was filled with terror, and all trade was suspended. The
English fleet bombarded the city, and set it on fire. Arabi with-
drew his troops to Cairo. He was now deposed by the Khedive,
and declared a rebel. His troops showed little spirit. The for-
tifications of Selelkebir were taken by the English general, Sir
Garnet Wolseley, almost without resistance. Aboukir, JDamietia,
and Cairo surrendered, and the Egyptian leader, Arabi, was cap-
tured and banished. From that time Egypt fell into a condition
of helpless dependence on England. France found herself without
the influence there which she had always coveted since the days
of the first Napoleon. The system of administration in Egypt was
now organized by the English, through Lord Dufferin. Great
complaint was made against them by the other powers, for not
taking sufficient precautions to prevent the introduction of the
cholera from India. The principal troubles of the English grew out
of the invasion of the false prophet called El Mahdi, who gathered
to himself a host of followers in the Soudan, partly instigated by
Moslem fanaticism, but largely impelled by their hatred of the
Egyptian government established over that region. The people
of the Soudan complained bitterly of the oppressive Egyptian offi-
cers. The slave-dealers there were exasperated at the prohibition
of their traffic, on which England had insisted. In the course of
the conflict with El Mahdi, Hicks Pasha, an English officer in
the service of the Khedive, was defeated and slain, and his force
cut to pieces, near El Obeid (Nov. 3, 4, and 5, 1883). There
was great fear now for the province of Sennaar and especially for
the city of Khartoum, where there were many Europeans. Mr.
Gladstone, and the English ministry of which he was the head,
were not disposed to hold the Soudan, but desired to give it up
as soon as the garrisons could be rescued and brought away. To
this policy the Khedive was opposed. The project of a military
interference in the Soudan by the Sultan, the English took care
to prevent by attaching to it impossible conditions. On the Red
Sea, Ostnan Digma, a partisan of the Mahdi, made repeated
attacks upon Suakim, the base of the operations of Baker Pasha,
another former English officer, now become general of the Egyp-
tian army. On account of the cowardice of the Egyptian troops,
Baker was defeated with heavy loss (Feb. 4, 1884). The British
troops from Cairo under Graham had better success ; and Osman
Digma was vanquished, and driven into the mountains. The
English government adopted the extraordinary measure of sending
General Gordon to Khartoum ; his errand being to pacify the tribes
of the Soudan, to provide for the deliverance of the garrisons, and
to arrange terms of accommodation with El Mahdi. This last itIxjnfjitudo East 35 from CJrcenwich

TURKISH EMPIRE

Tftgan

Kishinev

G Ii KECK,
ROUMANIA, BULGARIA, SERVIA

EAST KOUMELIA AND MONTENEGRO.
SINCE 1878.

SCALE OF MILES
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Longitude KustEUROPE SINCE 1871.

597

was found impossible to accomplish. Berber was captured by the
enemy, and the garrison and the whole male; population were
slaughtered. Gordon was shut up in Khartoum. The peculiar
financial situation obliged the English ministry to hold a con-
ference of the great powers (June 28, 1885) at London. Lord
Granville insisted that only financial points, and not the general
Egyptian question, should be considered by it. As this did not
accord with the views of the representatives of the other powers,
the conference adjourned without effecting any thing. The per-
ilous situation of Gordon, and the feeling in England on this
account, obliged the government to send out General Wolseley with
a large force to Egypt; but before any thing effectual could be
done for Gordon, Khartoum was betrayed, and he was slain. The
course of England respecting Egypt had left her isolated as regards
the other European powers, and had awakened much disaffection
in England. It was the policy of the Gladstone ministry in rela-
tion to Egypt, even more than complaints growing out of their
conduct in the troubles with Russia, that obliged them to resign,
and to give place to the Tory cabinet of Lord Salisbury.

Great Britain and Canada. — On the cession of Canada to
Great Britain (1763), the French inhabitants of Lower Canada
were secured in the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and in
the possession of equal rights with English settlers. " The Quebec
Act" of 1774 made Canada one royal government, and brought
in the inhuman criminal code of England. During the American
Revolution, many loyalists emigrated to Upper Canada. A strong
desire arose for a repeal of the "Quebec Act." In 1791, under
Pitt\ the two parts of Canada were made separate provinces. A
constitution was granted, which provided for an elective legislature
for each. The governors, the executive councils, and the legisla-
tive councils were to be appointed by the Crown. The govern-
ments were still subject to the Colonial Office in London. A
spirit of opposition between the two provinces increased. Upper
Canaday under English law, grew in numbers and prosperity; but
the growth of population in Lower Canada was much more rapid.
Here there was an antagonism between the Assembly and the
English governors. There was an open rebellion in 1837, which
spread into Upper Canada. The two Canadas were united in
1841; the executive department became responsible, as in Eng-
land, to the popular branch of the legislature ; and under the liberal
and enlightened administration of Lord Elgin (1847-54), a better
feeling arose. He was obliged, however, to suppress a mob of
the conservatives, or "loyalists" (1849), w^° were hostile to the
extension of a general amnesty to former rebels. In 1856 the
Upper House was made elective. In 1857 Ottawa was made
the seat of government. In 1867 the Dominion of Canada was598

MODERN HISTORY.

constituted. It was at first a federal union of Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, and the Canadas; Upper Canada receiving the name
of Ontario, and Lower Canada being named Quebec. Manitoba,
formed out of a part of Hudson Bay Territory, was admitted to
the Dominion in 1870, and British Columbia in 1871. Prince
Edward Island was admitted in 1873; an(* ^ie same Year the
territories were received by transfer from the Hudson Bay Com-
pany. The Dominion has a Senate and a House of Commons.
The authority of the Crown is represented by the governor-gen-
eral and the council. Legislation is subject to a veto from the
sovereign. Each province has its local government, but whatever
powers are not expressly reserved to the several provinces are
granted to the General Government, — a provision the reverse of
that found in the Constitution of the United States, which the
Canadian system in various features resembles.

In the Peace of Utrecht (1713), France gave up its claim to Nova Scotia:
the Peace of Paris (1763) surrendered to Great Britain Arew Brunswick, and
Cape Breton and Prince Edward islands. These are known at present as
the maritime provinces. When the American War of Revolution began,
thousands of loyalists emigrated to Nova Scotia, as well as to Upper Canada,
from whom many of the present inhabitants are descended. The island of
Vancouver, on the western coast of British Columbia, was surrendered to the
navigator of this name by Quadra, a Spanish commander, in 1792. In 1843
a trading-post was established at Victoria by the Hudson Bay Company.'
The island forms politically a part of British Columbia. The Government
of the Dominion, when British Columbia was received, engaged to construct
a railway to the Pacific across British North America. England acquired a
title to Newfoundland in 1713. It first received a constitution in 1832. The
government was made responsible to the Assembly in 1852.

Great Britain and Australia. —Australia, which covers an area of
three million square miles, when it was first visited by Europeans was found
to be inhabited by native tribes of the Papuan, Melanesian, or Australasian
race, of whom about eighty thousand now remain. In the seventeenth cen-
tury, various points along its coasts were touched by European voyagers,
especially by the Dutch. The discoveries of Captain Cook {1769 to 1777)
had an important influence in leading to settlements on this island-continent.
New South Wales, a name given by Cook, is the oldest of the English prov-
inces in Australia. Not Botanv Bay, which he had selected for a settle-
ment, but Port Jackson, was made a penal station (1788) for convicts from
England. This place, however, continued to be erroneously called Botany
Bay. The principal harbor was named Sydney Cove. In 1803 Van Dieman's
Land\ now called Tasmania, was first occupied. Thus the beginnings of
colonization in Australia were made by the dregs of English society. The
convicts labored for their own support', and, when their terms had expired,
sometimes received as a gift small farms, and implements with which to till
them. The character of the settlement, and the management of it, became
much more humane after 1810, when Macquarie became governor. Free
colonists, English and Scotch, came and joined it. The discovery of the
upland pastures beyond the Blue Mountains, which were remarkably adapted
to sheep, made an epoch in the history of the colony. Spanish merino sheep
were introduced: wool became the chief staple; the production of it, espe-
cially after the invention of the combing-machine, became very profitable,
and free emigrants poured in. The Australian Agricultural Company wasEUROPE SINCE 1871.

599

formed in England. Western Australia began to be settled in 1829, but
did not thrive. New colonies continued to be formed in Eastern Australia.
South Australia was made prosperous by copper-mines. Victoria, which be-
came a distinct province in 1851, owes its growth to gold mines. Melbourne,
its chief town, was planted in 1837. The first British governors at Sydney were
military officers, ruling with despotic authority. Representative institutions
were gradually formed in the different provinces. The constitutions were
framed on the model of the home government; but in Victoria and Tasmania
the Upper House was made elective. After long conflicts with the home
government, the Australian colonies escaped from the misfortune of being
places to which convicts were transported. The discovery of gold in New
South Wales and Victoria was made in 1851, and caused at once an immense
influx of immigrants. Next to gold, the most important article of export has
been wool. Wheat and copper have been exported in large quantities. The
breeding of cattle has been a profitable employment in these communities.

New Zealand. — In 1838 the first regular and permanent settlement
was made in New Zealand. Wellington was founded in the next year. New
Zealand, with South Island and North Island, became a colony independent
of Australia in 1841.

England and Ireland. — The disaffection of the Irish, and their
antipathy to English rule, broke out in different forms, as circum-
stances changed. For a long time the demand was for " Cath-
olic emancipation." This was granted (p. 558) ; but most of the
English concessions were made under such a pressure, and in ap-
pearance so grudgingly, that little was accomplished by them in
placating Irish hostility. The outcry against tithes for the support
of the Protestant Established Church was to a great extent quieted
in 1838, when the odious features of this tax were removed. The
Act disestablishing the Irish Protestant Church, carried by Mr.
Gladstone in 1869, and put in execution in 1871, took away one of
the great grievances of which the Irish nation had to complain.
The repeal of the legislative union of England and Ireland was the
watchword of O' Connell and his followers. In one form or another,
the demand for local self-government or independence, which has
been more lately urged under the name of " home rule," has been
kept up with little intermission. It is about the special question
of land reform that the most bitter conflicts have centered. The
ownership of a great part of the land in Ireland by a few persons:
the fact that great obstacles and great expenses — difficulties of
late somewhat lightened — have existed in the way of the trans-
ference of land if any one had the means to purchase it: the cir-
cumstances that the owners have generally been, not residents, but
absent landlords; that, in cases of dispute with tenants, the laws
were for a long period framed in their interest; that the manage-
ment of estates was left to agents or middle-men; that multitudes of
tenants, whose holdings were small, could glean a bare subsistence
from the soil, were doomed to famine if the potato-crop failed, and,
when unable to pay the rent, were liable to " eviction," that is, to be
turned out of doors, with their families, to perish,—these have been6oo

MODERN HISTORY.

causes sufficient to give rise to endless disputes and conflicts. Add
to these facts the inbred hostility arising from differences of race
and religion; the memory, on the part of the Irish, of centuries
of misgovernment, and the feeling that the lands held by suffer-
ance were wrested from their ancestors by force, — and the ani-
mosity manifested in revolts and outrages is easily explained. The
English government, in a series of measures, — in connection with
which, acts of coercion for preventing and punishing violence have
been passed,—undertook to lessen the evils that exist, and to pro-
duce a better state of feeling. The Encumbered Estates Court
was established to render more easy the transfer of lands. This
Act, and the Land Act passed the same year (i860), although
well meant, failed to improve the situation of the tenants. Mr.
Gladstone*s great measure of disestablishment has been referred
to. His second great reform measure was the Land Law of 1870,
the effect of which was to make the landlord pay damages to the
evicted tenant, to compensate him for improvements which he had
made, etc. One object of this Act was to create a body of peasant
proprietors in Ireland. Additional Acts, in 1880, were designed
to assist tenants to purchase their holdings. The hopes as to the
practical benefit to follow the Act of 1870 were disappointed. In
1877, 1878, and 1879, there was a partial failure of the crops. The
Fenian movement, having for its design to secure Irish independ-
ence by force, was organized in the United States, in 1857. By
uniting with similar Irish brotherhoods, it extended itself in Great
Britain as well as America, collected large funds, and in 1866 made
ineffectual attempts to invade Canada. An armed rising in Ire-
land shortly after, under Fenian leadership, was suppressed. The
national agitation consequent on these proceedings in Ireland
issued in the organization, in 1870, of the Home Rule party, of
which Mr. Isaac Butts was a leading promoter. The object was
to secure an Irish Parliament for the management of Irish affairs,
and for the control of Irish resources; the Imperial Parliament
being left to deal with imperial affairs. It was in this period
(about 1874) that Mr. Parnell grew to be conspicuous in politics.
He became the leader of the Home Rule members of the House
of Commons, who sought, by obstructing the progress of busi-
ness, to compel the English government to withdraw its measures
of coercion, and to legislate in accordance with the views of
himself and his associates. The " obstructionists," by joining the
Tories, effected the retirement of the Gladstone Cabinet (1885).
In Ireland, a system of " boycotting " was adopted for the punish-
ment of landlords guilty of evicting tenants. This led to deeds of
violence and blood. One branch of the Fenians have sought to
compass their ends by exciting terror through dynamite explosions
at railway-stations and in public buildings.	10 "West 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 130 Long. 170 Kast from IVO Greenwich	
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	3y 70 fx>E^itude Wc4 90 from Greenwich 110 130	THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815.

6oi

CHAPTER VI.

THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815: MEXICO: SOUTH
AMERICAN STATES: EASTERN ASIA.

End of the Federal Party. — The end of the war with Great
Britain (1812-15) was marked by the extinction of the Federal
party. But the Republicans, the opposing party, were now equally
zealous for the perpetuity of the Union, and were quite ready to
act on a liberal construction of the Constitution with respect to the
powers conferred on the General Government. This had been
shown in the purchase of Louisiana : it was further exemplified in
1816 in the establishment of a national bank, and in the enactment
of a protective tariff. Then, and until 1832, presidential candi-
dates were nominated by Congressional "caucuses." James Mon-
roe (1817-25) received the votes of all of the States but three.
The absence of party division has caused his time to be desig-
nated as " the era of good feeling."

Purchase of Florida. — Slaves in Georgia and Alabama fre-
quently escaped from their masters, and fled for shelter to the
swamps of Florida. The Creek and the Seminole Indians were
always disposed to aid them. In 1816 General Andrew Jackson
was appointed to conduct an expedition against the Seminoles.
He came into conflict with the Spanish authorities in Florida,
where he seized Spanish forts, and built a fort of his own. Finally,
in 1819, the Floridas were purchased of Spain for five million
dollars, and the United States gave up its claim to the extensive
territory west of the Sabine River, which was known afterwards as
Texas. This became a part of Mexico two years later.

Slavery: The Missouri Compromise. — In 1820 a sectional
struggle arose in Congress, on the question of the admission of
Missouri as a State with a constitution permitting slavery. The
slave-trade had been carried on by the States separately, before
the National Constitution was formed. It was abolished by Con-
gress in 1808, the earliest date allowed by the Constitution for the
power to abolish it to be exercised. The principal founders of
the government, both in the North and South, considered slavery
an evil, and looked forward to its gradual extinction. In the
North, where the slaves were less numerous, laws for gradual
emancipation were early passed. But the rapid increase of slaves
in the South, the growing demand for cotton, and the stimulus
given to the production of it by the cotton-gin, made the prospect
of emancipation by legislative action less probable as time ad-
vanced. The American Colonization Society was formed in 1811 ;
and the fallacious hope was entertained by many, that the negroes
might be carried back to the Liberian settlement on the African602

MODERN HISTORY.

coast. The extension of slavery in the territory north-west of the
Ohio had been prevented by the Congressional ordinance of 1787.
When the question of the admission of Missouri to the Union
came up, the members of Congress from the North and the mem-
bers from the South were in hostile array on the point, and a
dangerous excitement was kindled. By the exertions of Henry
Clay, the "Missouri Compromise" was adopted, by which the
new. State was admitted with slavery in it; but, as a kind of equiva-
lent, slavery was prohibited forever in all the remaining territory
of the United States north of 36° 30' north latitude, the southern
boundary of Missouri.

The "Monroe Doctrine."—When the Holy Alliance was engaged in
its crusade against liberty in Europe, it was thought that they might attempt
to conquer for Spain the revolted South American republics. Canning sug-
gested to the American minister in England, that it would be well for the
United States to take action against such a scheme. President Monroe, in
his annual message in 1823, said that we should consider an attempt of the
allied powers to extend their system in this country, or any interference on
their part for the purpose of controlling the destiny of the American States,
as unfriendly action towards the United States. This is the " Monroe Doc-
trine." An additional statement in disapproval of future colonization on the
American continents by European powers was made in the same message.
This second statement was never sanctioned by the House of Representa-
tives. It is vague, and was probably meant to exclude indirect attempts to
overthrow the liberty of the new American republics. The only thing which
the "Monroe Doctrine" really contains is the intimation on the part of the
United States of a right to resist attempts of European powers to. alter the
constitutions of American communities.

The true origin and intent of the " Monroe Doctrine" are often misunderstood. They are
set forth in Woolsey's International Law, and in his article in Johnson's Encyclopedia,
" Monroe Doctrine; also in Webster's writings, Vol. III. p. 178, and in Calhoun's " Speech
on the Panama Question."

Parties after Monroe.—At the expiration of Monroe's second
term, there being no choice for president by the people, John
Quincy Adams, who had long been in public life in various
important stations, was chosen by the House of Representatives.
His supporters combined with the adherents of Henry Clay, who
became secretary of state. This alliance was loudly denounced
by their opponents as a "bargain." From the close of the last
war with Great Britain, a party called by their adversaries " loose
constructionists " of the Constitution, of which Clay was a leader,
— a party who were in favor of measures like a protective
tariff, a national bank, and internal improvements, — as the
making of canals, — to be undertaken by Congress, — had been
growing up. It now took the name of National Republicans,
which was afterwards exchanged for that of Whigs. On the other
side were the "strict constructionists," who, however, differed
among themselves respecting certain measures, — for example, the
tariff. In their ranks Andrew Jackson belonged. Of this politicalTHE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815.	603

tendency, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina became a leading
promoter. Andrew Jackson was a favorite candidate for the
presidency, and the name of Democrats was applied to his fol-
lowers.

Presidency of Jackson.—Jackson was elevated to the presi-
dency in 1829. He was a fearless man, an ardent patriot, with a
choleric temper and an imperious will. He carried to an un-
exampled extent a custom, which had begun with Jefferson, of
supplanting office-holders of the opposite political party by sup-
porters of the administration. This came to be called the " spoils
system," from the maxim once quoted in defense of it, that " to
the victors belong the spoils."

Nullification.—During Jacksofi's administration, there occurred
the " nullification " crisis. In 1828 a new protective tariff had
been passed, which was regarded in the South, especially in South
Carolina, as extremely unjust and injurious. The New England
States had been averse to protection; and in 1816 Daniel Webster
opposed the tariff measure as specially hurtful to the Eastern
States, whose capital was so largely invested in commerce. After
the protective policy had been adopted, and when, under its shield,
manufacturing had been extensively established in the North, the
former adversaries of protection, with Webster, as well as Clay,
who had been a protectionist before, thought it unfair and destruc-
tive to do away with the tariff. Its adversaries denounced it as
unconstitutional. Calhoun and his followers, moreover, contended
that nullification is legal and admissible; in other words, that a
law of Congress may be set aside by a State within its own limits,
provided it is considered by that State a gross infraction of the
Constitution. There was a memorable debate on this subject in
1830, in the United States Senate, when the State-rights theory
was advocated by Robert V. Hayne of South Carolina, and the
opposite doctrine defended by Webster. In 1832 South Carolina
passed an ordinance declaring that the tariff laws of 1828 and
1832 were null and void, and not binding in that State. President
Jackson issued a spirited proclamation in which the nullification
doctrine was repudiated, and the opposite, or national, theory was
affirmed, and the Presidents resolute intention to execute the
laws of the United States was announced. The difficulty was
ended by the compromise tariff introduced by Henry Clay> pro-
viding for the gradual reduction of duties (1833).

Removal of the Deposits. — The President was hostile to the
National Bank, which he considered dangerous, as liable to be
converted into a tool for partisan ends. Not being able to carry
Congress with him, he assumed the responsibility, after his second
election, of removing the deposits, or public funds, from its cus-
tody, or, rather, of an order for the cessation of these deposits.604

MODERN HISTORY.

For this he was censured by the Senate, a majority of which
regarded his act as arbitrary and unconstitutional.

Anti-Slavery Agitation. — From about this time, the agitation
respecting slavery constantly increased. In the North a party
arose, which, through lectures and in newspapers and pamphlets,
denounced slavery as iniquitous, and called for immediate emanci-
pation. The most prominent leader of this party was William
Lloyd Garrison, and its most captivating orator was Wendell
Phillips. This party advocated disunion, on account of the obli-
gations imposed upon the North in reference to slavery by the
Constitution. They were sometimes assailed by mobs in Northern
cities. The major part of the people in the North desired some
method of extinguishing slavery which should leave the Union
intact. Meantime they were for obeying the Constitution, although
the obligation to restore fugitive , slaves was felt to be obnoxious,
and there grew up a disposition to avoid compliance with it. The
" colonizationists " diminished in number. There were various
types and degrees of anti-slavery sentiment. The resolution to
confine slavery, by political action, within the limits of the States
where it was under the shield of local law, became more and more
prevalent. In the South, on the contrary, the enmity to " aboli-
tionism " was intense, and served to increase the popularity of the
doctrine of State-rights. Slavery came to be defended as neces-
sary under the circumstances, and as capable of justification on
moral and Scriptural grounds. Occasions of reciprocal complaint
between North and South, for illegal doings relating in one way or
another to slavery, tended to multiply.

Annexation of Texas. — In 1835 Texas declared its independ-
ence of Mexico. General Sam Houston, an emigrant from Ten-
nessee, was the leader in the revolt. He defeated the Mexicans
under Santa Ana, at the San Jacinto (1836). In 1845, largely
by the agency of Mr. Calhoun, Texas, by an Act of Congress, was
annexed to the United States. The motive which he avowed was
the fear that it might fall into the hands of England, and become
dangerous to the institution of slavery in the South. The measure
was strenuously opposed in the North as a scheme by which it was
intended to strengthen the influence of the slaveholding States in
Congress. It was favored, for the same reason, by those who were
inimical to abolitionism in whatever form.

War with Mexico. — A consequence of the acquisition of
Texas was a war with Mexico. The successes of Gen. Zachary
Taylor at Palo Alto and Monterey (1846), and at Buena Vista
(1847), and the campaign of Gen. Winfield Scott\ who captured
Vera Cruz, fought his way through the pass of Cerro Gordo, and
at length entered the city of Mexico (Sept. 14, 1847), compelled
the Mexicans to agree to the Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo (1848).THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815.	605

By this treaty all claim on Texas to the Rio Grande was relin-
quished, together with the provinces of Upper California and New
Mexico.

The " Wilmot Proviso." — The Wilmot Proviso was proposed in
Congress, excluding slavery from all territory to be acquired from
Mexico. This demand for the prevention of the further extension
of slavery in the territories subject to national jurisdiction, became
a rallying-cry. On the nomination of General Taylor to the presi-
dency by the Whigs (1848), a "Free-Soil" party was organized
on this basis, — the precursor of the Republican party. The con-
vention which nominated Taylor laid on the table a motion ap-
proving of the Wilmot Proviso. The Whigs succeeded in the
election, but their party lost a portion of its adherents.

Clay's Compromise. — The application of California for ad-
mission to the Union, which, on account of the rapid growth of
that community through the discovery of gold, was soon made,
brought the sectional difficulty to another crisis. President Taylor
died (July 9, 1850), and was succeeded by Millard Fillmore, the
vice-president. The contest in Congress was soon after adjusted
by Clafs compromise, by which California was admitted as a free
State, Utah and New Mexico were organized into Territories with-
out any mention of slavery, the Slave-trade was prohibited in the
District of Columbia, and a new fugitive-slave law was enacted,
that was framed in such a way as to give great offense at the North.
Webster, in a celebrated speech in favor of the compromise (March
7), gave as a reason for not insisting on the Wilmot Proviso, that the
physical character of the new Territories of itself excluded slavery
from them.

The Kansas Troubles. — In 1854, during the administration of
Franklin Pierce, the standing sectional controversy reached a new
phase. Two Territories, Kansas and Nebraska, were knocking at
the doors of Congress for admission as States. Kansas lay west
of Missouri, and, like Nebraska on the north, was protected from
slavery by the Missouri Compromise (p. 601). But the Demo-
crats carried through Congress a bill introduced by Mr. Douglas
of Illinois, practically repealing that compromise, and leaving the
matter of the toleration of slavery to be determined by the actual
settlers as they might see fit. This measure was extensively re-
garded in the North as a breach of faith. Companies of emigrants
were organized in the Northern States, to form permanent settle-
ments in Kansas; and in order to prevent that country from
becoming a free State, marauders from Missouri crossed the line,
to attack them, and to harass the newly planted colonies.

The Dred-Soott Case.—James Buchanan became president in
1857. At this time the Supreme Court decided that neither negro
slaves nor their descendants, slave or free, could become citizens6o6

MODERN HISTORY.

of the United States ; and added incidentally the dictum that the
Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, and that Congress had
no right to prohibit the carrying of slaves into any State or Terri-
ritory. The effect of this opinion, if embodied in a legal decision,
would have been to prevent the exclusion of slavery, even by a
Territorial legislature, prior to the existence of the State govern-
ment. This judicial act, following upon the attitude taken by the
government at Washington with reference to the Kansas troubles,
greatly strengthened the numbers and stimulated the determination
of the Republican party in the Northern States.

The John Brown Raid. — An occurrence not without a con-
siderable effect in exciting the resentment, as well as the appre-
hensions, of the South, was the attempt of John Brown, a brave
old man of the Puritan type, whose enmity to slavery had been
deepened by conflict and suffering in the Kansas troubles, to stir
up an insurrection of slaves in Virginia. With a handful of armed
men, he seized the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry in
Virginia. Half of his followers were killed : he himself was cap-
tured, and, after being tried and convicted by the State authorities,
was hanged (Dec. 2, 1859).

Secession of States. — In the election of i860, Abraham Lin-
coin received the electoral vote of every Northern State except
New Jersey. The conviction of the Southern political leaders that
the anti-slavery feeling of the North, with its great and growing
preponderance in wealth and population, would dictate the policy
of the general government, determined them to attempt to break up
the Union. The result, it was expected, would be the permanent
establishment of a slave-holding confederacy, or the obtaining of
new constitutional guaranties and safeguards of the institution
of slavery; which, it was felt, would be undermined even if noth-
ing more were done than to prevent the spread of it beyond the
States where it existed. South Carolina passed an ordinance of
secession (Dec. 20, i860), and was followed in this act by Mis-
sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The
delegates of the seceding States met at Montgomery, Ala., and
formed a new government under the name of the Confederate
States of America (Feb. 8, 1861). Jefferson Davis was elected
president, and Alexander Ht Stephens vice-president. Except at
Pensacola in Florida, and in Charleston, all the national property
within the borders of the seceding States was seized. Efforts look-
ing to compromise and conciliation were of no effect. After the
accession of Mr. Lincoln, the purpose of the government to send
supplies to the garrison of Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston,
caused the Confederates to attack that fortress, which the com-
mander, Major Anderson, after a gallant defense, was obliged to
surrender. President Lincoln immediately issued a proclamationTHE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815.	607

calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for three
months, and called Congress together (April 15). There was a
great uprising in the Northern States. The President's call for
troops at once met with an enthusiastic response. Virginia,
Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina now joined the Southern
Confederacy, the capital of which was established at Richmond.
Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as having the rights
of belligerents (May 13). France did the same.

Events of the War in 1861-62. — Only a brief account can be
given of the events of the war. General Winfield Scott was at first
in command of the Union forces, and General J. E. Johnston of the
forces of the Confederates. It was imagined at the North, that
there could be an easy and quick advance of the Federal forces to
Richmond; but the troops were not drilled, and the preparations
for a campaign were wholly inadequate. The Union troops were
defeated at Bull Run, or Manassas, and Washington was thrown
into a panic (July 21,1861). Congress at once adopted energeti:
measures for raising a large arnjy and for building a navy. Gen-
eral George B. McClellan was placed in command of the forces.
It was foreseen on both sides, that the result of the conflict might
depend on the course taken by foreign powers, especially by Eng-
land. The South counted upon the demand for cotton as certain
to secure English help, direct or indirect, for the Southern cause.
Mr. Charles Francis Adams was selected by Mr. Seward\ the sec-
retary of state, to represent the Union at the Court of St. James.
The Confederates sent abroad Mr. Mason and Mr. Slidell to pro-
cure the full recognition of the new Confederacy by England and
France. The Trent, on which they sailed, was stopped by Captain
Wilkes of the United States Navy, and the commissioners taken
from it. This breach of international law threatened war, which
was averted by'the surrender of the two captives to England.
England, hower, refused to assent to Louis Napoleon*s proposal to
recognize the independence of the seceding States; but the lax-
ness of the British Government in not preventing the fitting out
of vessels of war in her ports, to prey on American commerce,
excited indignation in the United States. Palmerston was at the
head of the cabinet, and Lord John Russell was secretary for
foreign affairs. For the depredations of the Alabama, the tribunal
chosen to arbitrate at the end of the war, and meeting at Geneva,
condemned England to pay to the United States an indemnity of
fifteen and a half millions of dollars. Early in 1862 Fort Henry
on the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, were
taken by General Ulysses S. Grant, who led the land forces, and
Commodore A. H\ Foote, who commanded the gunboats. At Fort
Donelson nearly fifteen thousand prisoners were captured. Grant
fought the battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, which continued6o8

MODERN HISTORY.

two days (April 6, 7), and ended in the retreat of the Confede-
rates. Their general, A. S. Johnston, was killed, and the com-
mand of his troops devolved on Beauregard. Grant, who had
been reinforced by Bue/l, drove the Confederates back to Corinth,
Miss., nineteen miles distant. The capture of Island Number
Ten, by Pope, followed; and soon Memphis was in the hands of
the Union forces. Farragut ran the gauntlet of the forts at New
Orleans (April 24), and captured that city. In the East the
Union forces had not been so successful. The iron-sheathed
frigate Merrimac destroyed the Union fleet at Hampton Roads
(March 9), but was driven back to Gosport by the timely appear-
ance of the iron-clad Union vessel, the Monitor. McClellan un-
dertook to apprbach Richmond by the peninsula. The campaign
lasted from March to July, and included, besides various other
engagements, the important battles of Fair Oaks, and of Malvern
Hill (July 1). At the end of June the Union army was driven back
to Harrison's Landing on the James River. Meantime the Confed-
erate general, Jackson, in the valley of the Shenandoah, repulsed
" Fremont\ Banks, and McDowell\ and joined General Robert E. Lee,
the commander of the Confederate forces, who now pressed for-
ward towards Washington.	was defeated at Manassas (Aug.
29> 3°)> ancl Lee crossed the Potomac into Maryland. He was
met by McClellan, and defeated at Antietam (Sept. 17), but was
able to withdraw in safety across the river. McClellan was super-
seded by Burnside, who was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg
(Dec. 13).

Emancipation. — On the 1st of January, 1863, President Lin-
coln issued a proclamation declaring all slaves in States or parts of
States in rebellion, to be free. This act was legally possible only
as a belligerent measure, or as an exercise of the right of a com-
mander. The refusal of the Government to carry on the war for
the direct purpose of emancipation, or to adopt measures of this
character before, — measures which the Constitution did not per-
mit,— was not understood in foreign countries, and, in England
especially, had tended to chill sympathy with the Northern cause.
Regiments of negro soldiers were now formed.

The First Six Months of 1863. — Hooker succeeded Burnside
in command of the Potomac Army, and was defeated by Lee at
Chancellorsville (May 3). There "Stonewall" Jackson, one of the
best and bravest of the Confederate generals, lost his life. Lee now
crossed the river, and entered Pennsylvania. This was the critical
moment in the struggle. Great pains were taken, by such people
in the North as were disaffected with the administration at Wash-
ington, to. manifest hostility to the war, or to the method in which
it was prosecuted. A riot broke out in the city of New York
while the drafts for troops were in progress, and it was several daysTHE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815.	609

before it was put down. The defeat of Lee by Meade at Gettys-
bwg (July 1-3) turned the tide against the Confederates; their
army again retired beyond the Potomac. At the same time, in the
West, General Grant captured Vicksburg with upwards of thirty
thousand men (July 4), and Port Hudson was taken. The Mis-
sissippi was thus opened to its mouth. The Union navy acted
effectively on the Atlantic coast, and at the end of the year nearly
all the Southern ports were closed by blockades.

Victories at Chattanooga. — Grant assumed command of the
military division of the Mississippi, including the region between
the Alleghanies and that river. With the Army of the Cumber-
land under Thomas, with reinforcements from Vicksburg under
Sherman and from the Army of the Potomac under Hooker, he
won the victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, at
Chattanooga, Tennessee (Nov. 24 and 25). This success opened
a path for the Union forces into Alabama and the Atlantic States.
Sherman was sent to reinforce Burnside in Tennessee, and defeated
Longstreet

To the Surrender of Lee. — Grant was made lieutenant-general,
or first in command under the President (March 7, 1864). Three
attempts to reach Richmond, made severally by McClellan,
Hooker, and Burnside, had failed, as Lee's two aggressive move*
ments had been defeated at Antietam and Gettysburg. The
"border States" in the West were in the hands of the Union
forces, as well as the lower Mississippi; and the blockade was main-
tained along the Atlantic coast. The plan now was for Sherman
to secure Georgia, and to march eastward and northward into the
heart of the Confederacy, starting at Chattanooga. Military oper-
ations, which had been prosecuted over so vast an extent of terri-
tory, now began to have a unity which they had greatly missed
before. Grant personally took command of the Army of the Poto-
mac. His object was to get between Lee's army and Richmond.
This object was not effected ; but the sanguinary battle of the Wil-
derness (May 5, 6), and other subsequent battles, had the effect, in
the course of six weeks, to push Lee back within the fortifications of
Petersburg and Richmond. During the long siege of these places,
diversions were attempted by Early in Maryland and Pennsylva-
nia ; but he was repelled and defeated by Sheridan. The Con-
federate vessel Alabama was sunk in the English Channel by the
Kearsarge (June, 1864). Farragut captured the forts in Mobile
Bay. Sherman's forces, after a series of engagements, entered At-
lantaf Ga., which the Confederates had been compelled to evacuate
(Sept. 2). A detachment was sent by Sherman, under Thomas,
after Hood\ which defeated him at Nashville (Dec. 15,16). Sher-
man marched through Georgia, and entered Savannah (Dec. 21).
On.Feb. 1,1865, he commenced his movement northward. The6lO	MODERN HISTORY.

attempts of General J\ E. Johnston to check his advance were
ineffectual. Sherman entered Columbia, S. C., and pushed on to
Raleigh; Johnston, whose numbers were inferior, retiring as he
approached. The efforts of Lee to break away from Grant, in
order to effect a junction with Johnston, did not succeed. Sheri-
dan's victory over Lee at Five Forks (April i) compelled him to
evacuate Petersburg. He was pursued and surrounded by Grant\
and surrendered his army at Appomattox Court House (April 9).
The Union forces had entered Richmond (April 2). Johnston
surrendered his forces to Sherman (April 26). Jefferson Davis
was captured by a body of Union cavalry in Georgia (May 10).

Murder of Lincoln. — The joy felt in the North over the com-
plete victory of the Union cause was turned into grief by the
assassination of President Lincoln (April 14), who had begun his
second term on the 4th of March. He was shot in a theater in
Washington, by a fanatic named Booth, who imagined that he was
avenging wrongs of the South. An attempt was made at the same
time to murder Secretary Seward in his bed. The assailant
inflicted on him severe but not fatal wounds.

Mr. Lincoln had taken a strong hold upon the affections of the people.
With a large store of plain common-sense, with an even temper, an abound-
ing good-nature, and a humor that cast wise thoughts into the form of pithy
maxims and similes, he combined an unflinching firmness, and loyalty to his
convictions of duty. He refused to be hurried to the issue of an edict of
emancipation, which, as he judged, if prematurely framed, would lose to the
Union cause the great States of Maryland, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri.
Keeping steadily before him the prime object of the war, he inculcated, as he
felt, malice toward none, and charity for all. What Clarendon says of
Cromwell is true of Lincoln: " As he grew into place and authority, his parts
seemed to be raised, as if he had had concealed faculties, till he had occasion
to use them."

Finances in the War. — The Confederate Government had
carried on the war by the issue of paper money made redeemable
on the condition of success in gaining independence. This cur-
rency, of course, became worthless. The debt of the United States
at the close of the war had risen from about sixty-five millions to
more than twenty-seven hundred millions of dollars, not to speak
of the debts incurred by States and towns.

Amendments to the Constitution. — The Thirteenth Amend-
ment to the Constitution (declared in force Feb. 1, 1865) prohib-
ited slavery in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment
(declared in force July 28, 1868) secured to all the freedmen the
right of citizenship and equality under State law, and ordained
that the basis of representation in each State should be reduced
* in proportion to any abridgment by State law of the right of suf-
frage in its male population. The Fifteenth Amendment (declared
in force. March 30, 1870) forbade the abridgment of the right toTHE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815.	6l I

vote, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
The effect of the amendments was to confer on the blacks the
civil and political rights enjoyed by the whites.

Heoonstruction: Administration of Johnson.—The Southern
States were conquered communities; but the theory was held that
they had not been, and could not be in law, dissevered from the
Union. The difficulty of reconstructing State governments was
aggravated by the fact that the bulk of the intelligent people in
the seceding States were precluded, or excluded themselves, from
taking part in the measures requisite for this end; by the addi-
tional fact of the ignorance of the blacks, and of the selfish greed
of white adventurers who took the place of leaders among them;
and by dissensions in the North, and in the administration at
Washington, as to the right and lawful course to be pursued.
The President, Andrew Johnson, who succeeded Lincoln, became
involved in a contest with the dominant Republican party in
Congress, on questions pertaining to reconstruction. He was
impeached and tried by the Senate (Feb. 24-May 26, 1868), but
the number of votes for his conviction was one less than the num-
ber required. On the expiration of Johnsorts term, General Grant
was raised to the presidential office. It was complained, that the
new governments instituted in the South by the freedmen and
their white coadjutors were grossly corrupt and incapable, and that
their "returning boards " made false results of elections. On the
other hand, it was complained, that the opponents of these govern-
ments resorted to violence and fraud to intimidate their political
adversaries, and to keep them out of office. The troops of the
United States, which had sustained the officers appointed by the
blacks and by their white allies "in several of the States, were at
length withdrawn ; and political power was resumed throughout the
South by the adverse party, or the class which had contended against
what were derisively styled " carpet-bag " governments. A difficulty
arose in 1866, in consequence of a dispute about the result of the
presidential election. It was referred to an " Electoral Commis-
sion" appointed by Congress, and Rutherford B. Hayes was
declared to be chosen (1877-1881). During his administration
(Jan. 1, 1879) the banks and the government resumed specie
payments, which had been suspended since an early date in the
civil war. The rapid diminution of the national debt is one of
the important features of later American history. The Republi-
cans succeeded in the next national election; but General Garfield,
who was chosen President, was mortally wounded by an assassin
(July 2,-1881), a few months after his inauguration. Guiteau,
who committed the causeless and ruthless deed, claimed to be
" inspired by the Deity," but was judged to be morally and legally
responsible, and died on the gallows. Chester A. Arthur, the612

MODERN HISTORY.

Vice-President, filled the highest office for the remainder of the
presidential term. At the election in 1884 Grover Cleveland\
governor of New York, was elected as Chief Magistrate ; and the
Democrats, for the first time since the retirement of Mr. Buchanati
and the inauguration of Mr. Lincoln (in 1861), took the reins
of power into their hands; the Republicans, however, retaining
a majority in the Senate. A political fact of importance was the
growing demand for " civil service reform," or the abolishment of
the "spoils system," under which public officers in subordinate
places are appointed and removed, not for merit, but to promote
the interests of the several parties. ,The revival of industry and
prosperity in the Southern States, and efforts for popular educa-
tion for the blacks as well as whites, are circumstances worthy
of special record.

Grant and Lee. — About two months after his retirement from the
presidency, General Grant began a tour of the world. He landed in San
Francisco from Japan, on his return, in September, 1879, after an absence of
nearly two years and a half. In 1880 an effort was made by his warm
political supporters to bring him forward as a candidate of the Republicans
for a third term in the presidency. This effort failed, as had a similar
endeavor, made with less vigor, four years before. The remainder of his
days were spent in private life. His death occurred on July 23, 1885. He
was buried in New York, on Aug. 8, with distinguished honors. General Lee,
the commander of the Confederate forces in the civil war, from the close of
the struggle to his death (Oct. 12, 1870) was president of Washington and
Lee University, at Lexington, Va.

Utah: the Mormons. — The sect of Mormons was founded in Manchester,
N. Y.f in 1830, by Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, who claimed to have received
heavenly visions from the time when he was fifteen years old. He pretended that he
was guided by an angel to the spot, near Manchester, where was buried a stone box
containing a volume made up of thin gold plates, which were covered with strange char-
acters in the " reformed Egyptian" tongue. This 41 Book of Mormon" was really a
manuscript composed, in 1812, for quite another purpose, by one Solomon Sfaulding,
who had been a preacher A copy of it made by a printer, Sidney Rigdon. fell into the
hands of Joseph Smith. It contains fabulous stories of the settlement of refugees coming
from the Tower of Babel to America, who were followed in 600 B.C. by a colony from
Jerusalem that landed on the coast of Chili. War broke out among their descendants, from
the bad part of whom the North American Indians sprung. One of the survivors of the oetter
class of these Hebrews, named Mormon, collected in a volume the books of records of former
kings and priests, which, with some additions from his son, was buried until the prophet chosen
of God should appear. In style the Book of Mormon endeavors to imitate the English version
of the Scriptures. On the basis of this volume and of its alleged miraculous origin, Smith
founded the sect of " Latter Day Saints," as he styled them. From Kirtland. O., where they
came in 1831, and where the converts were numerous, they removed to a place which they
named New Jerusalem, in Jackson County, Mo. Here they were joined by Brigham
Young, also a native of Vermont, a man of much energy and shrewdness. Smith was charged
by the Missourians, and some of his own followers who deserted him, with outrageous crimes
and frauds.' The conflict between the Mormons and the Missourians resulted in the migration
of the former to Nauvoo in Illinois, where a community was organized in which SmitJt exer-
cised supreme power In 1843 Smith, who was as profligate as he was knavish, professed to
receive a revelation sanctioning polygamy. His bad conduct, and that of his adherents,
brought on a conflict with the civil authorities. Smith, with his brother, was killed in the jail
by a mob. Driven out of Nauvoo, the Mormons (1848) made their way to Utah, and founded
Salt Lake City. Their systematic efforts to obtain converts brought to them a large number
from the ignorant working-class in Great Britain and in Sweden and Norway. The Territory
of Utah was organized by Congress in 1849. The laws and officers of the United States, how-
ever, were treated with defiance and openly resisted by Brigham Young, the Mormon leader;
and he was removed from the office of governor, to which he had been appointed by President
Fillmore. A contest with the United States authorities was succeeded by the submission of
the Mormons in 1858. In 2871 efforts for the suppression of polygamy by law were undertakenMEXICO.

613

by the Federal Government, and have since been continued with imperfect success. Jlrighant
Young &ied in *877, and was succeeded in the presidency of the Mormons by John Taylor,
an Englishman. A body of anti-polygamist seceders from the Mormon community, including
a son of Brtgham Yontig> has been formed. Another Mormon sect opposed to polygamy,
calling itself the " Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints," originated in 1851. The number
of professed believers in the strange and grotesque tenets of Mormonism, in all the different
places where its disciples are found, probably exceeds two hundred thousand.

The Formation of the States. — The "District of Maine" formed a
part of Massachusetts from 1651 to 1820, when it was admitted to the Union
as a distinct State. Its northern boundary was not clearly defined until the
treaty of 1842 between the United States and England, which was made by
Mr. Webster and Lord Ashburton. The North-West Territory, which was
organized in 1789, comprised the cessions north of the Ohio and as far west
as the Mississippi, which had been made by the " landed States;" that is, the
several States holding portions of this region. A small portion, "the West-
ern Reserve," was retained by Connecticut until 1795, when it was sold to
the National Government. Out of this "North-West Territory," there were
formed five States. Connected with the name of each is the date of its ad-
mission to the Union: Ohio (1802), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan
(1837), Wisconsin (1848). South of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi,
lay the territory belonging to Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. From
this, the cession of Virginia formed the State of Kentucky (1792); that of
the Carolinas formed Tennessee (1796); that of Georgia formed Alabama
(1819) and Mississippi (1817). The extensive territory called Louisiana was
ceded by France to Spain in 1762, was ceded back to France in i8oi,and
purchased by the United States in 1803. From this territory, there have
been formed the States of Louisiana (1812), Missouri (1820), Arkansas (1836),
Iowa (1846), Minnesota (1858), Kansas (1861), Nebraska (1867), Colorado
(1877), an(l a^so Montana, Wyoming, Dakota, and Indian Territories.
From the cession of Florida by Spain (1819), the State of Florida was formed
(1845). Oregon was claimed by the United States by the right ofr prior, dis-
covery : it was organized as a Territory in 1849, when, after a serious dispute,
its northern boundary was settled by treaty with Great Britain. It was admit-
ted as a State in 1858. Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845. From
the cessions of Mexico (1848), there have been formed the States of California
(1850) and Nevada (1864), and the Territories of Arizona, New Mexico, and
Utah. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. West Virginia was
formed into a distinct State in 1863, in consequence of the secession of
Virginia.

MEXICO.

The French Invasion: Maximilian.—After the close of the
war with the United States (1848), there continued to be a war
of factions in Mexico. There was a democratic party, which ob-
tained the upper hand in 1857, but was opposed by the church
party. The clergy and the religious bodies were possessed of
nearly one-half of the landed property in the country. Benito
Juarez, who had been chief justice, became president; but he
was resisted .by the clerical party, with their military supporters,
and there was civil war (1857-58). Juarez was recognized as the
lawful president by the- United States. Spain, France, and Eng-,
land demanded reparation for injuries and losses suffered in Mexico
by their subjects. In December, 1861, and January, 1862, they
landed troops at Vera Cruz> to compel Mexico to satisfy their
claims. The demands of England and Spain were met, and they614

MODERN HISTORY.

withdrew their forces. It became clear, however, that Louis Napo-
leon, who refused to recognize Juarez, had an ulterior design to
overthrow the Mexican government, arid to establish an empire
in its place. It was a part of a visionary scheme to establish
the domination of " the Latin race." He expected to check the
progress of the.United States, and ventured on this aggressive
enterprise on account of the opportunity offered by the civil war
in America. He persuaded the Archduke Maximilian, the brother
of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, to accept the throne, and
agreed to sustain him with men and money. Maximilian arrived
in Mexico in 1864. Large bodies of French troops fought on his
side. The war resolved itself into a guerrilla contest, in which great
cruelties were perpetrated on both sides. The end of the Ameri-
. can civil war put the Government of the United States in a posi-
tion to demand of Louis Napoleon the withdrawal of the French
forces. His own situation in France, and the state of public opinion
there, prevented him from refusing this demand. The folly, as
well as criminality, of the undertaking, had become more and
. more obvious, He therefore decided to violate his promises to
Maximilian. < Deserted thus by his defenders, this prince, who,
although misled by ambition, had noble traits, was captured by the
troops of Juarez, tried by court-martial, and shot (1867). His
wife Carlotta, the (laughter of Leopold /. of Belgium, and the
grand-daughter of Louis Philippe, lost her reason on hearing of
the fate of her husband. Juarez was installed in power at the
capital. In 1868 and 1869, there was a succession of insurrec-
tions and revolutions; but he was again elected in 1871, and died
the next year. After that time, there was more tranquillity in
Mexico, and much was done to develop the mines and other
material resources of the country, and for public education.

Diaz: Internal Improvements. — President Juarez (\ ied in 1872,
and was succeeded by Lerdo de Tejada. Under him the authority
of the State over the Church was maintained. The monastic orders
were abolished. The democratic constitution, which had been
framed in 1857, was amended (1873-4), and was afterwards up-
held against the efforts of the reactionary or ecclesiastical party to
overthrow it. In 1876, there were three claimants of the presi-
dency, — Tejada, Iglesias, the chief justice, who denied the valid-
ity of his election, and Gen. Porfirio Diaz, who was at the head
of a revolt. Diaz established himself in power, and was succeeded
in 1880 by Manuel Gonzalez. On the expiration of his term (1884),
Diaz was once more chosen to the same office. Under the influ-
ence of Diaz and his coadjutors, very much was done for the pub-
lic objects referred to above, — the development of the natural
resources of the country, the fostering of public education, the
construction of railways, and the promotion of commerce with theSOUTII AMERICAN STATES.

615

United States. Mexico in recent years has made an important
advance towards a stable government in the republican form*

SOUTH AMERICA.

Brazil.—After returning to Portugal, King John recognized the in-
dependence of Brazil, and his son Dom Pedro as emperor of the coun-
try (1825), although John kept the title during his lifetime (p. 553).
The two crowns were not to be united. On the death of his father,
(1826) Dom Pedro resigned his claim to the throne of Portugal.
His subsequent career in Brazil was a troublous one, owing to his
contest with a liberal party. He returned to Spain in 1831. After
his departure, there were party contests under a regency. In 1840
Dom Pedro IIwho had been left behind in Brazil by his father,
and was then fourteen years of age, was proclaimed emperor.
Measures were taken against the slave-trade, which finally abolished
it; and an effective plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves was
adopted (1871). Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Ayres, who in-
tended to subvert the republics of Urtiguay and Paraguay, was
defeated and crushed by the Brazilian forces and their allies (1852).
A long war against Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, ended in his
capture and death (1870). This war involved heavy losses to
Brazil in men and money. Under Dom Pedro //., the construc-
tion of railroads, telegraphs, and other public works, went forward
rapidly; and manufactures and commerce have been efficiently
promoted. A long strife of the government with the Catholic
hierarchy began in an attempt, which the law forbade, of bishops
to excommunicate Free-Masons. The bishops were imprisoned.
The conflict with the Vatican ended in an accommodation (1875).

Chili, Peru, Bolivia. — Of the wars that have been waged in
recent years among the South-American states, the contest of
Chili with Peru and Bolivia has attracted special notice. Chili,
after the formation of its constitution in 1833, — which, like that
of the other American republics, resembles the constitution of the
United States, — enjoyed remarkable prosperity. The strife to
which we refer began between Chili and Bolivia. The point in
dispute was the right to the province of Atacama, between Chili
and Peru, the southern part of which was claimed by Chili. Bo-
livia claimed the whole. By a treaty in 1866, the territory in
dispute was to be, under certain conditions, common property.
A rivalry existed between Chili and Peru, and a secret alliance was
formed ^1873 between Peru and Bolivia. Bolivia now asserted
her title to the entire province of Atacama. The Argentine Re-
public was disposed to take sides against Chili, but, in consequence
of the success of the Chilians, remained neutral. The Chilians
captured (Oct. 8, 1879) ^ie Peruvian iron-clad vessel, thelluascar.
They gained other advantages, and took possession of the whole prov-6i6

MODERN HISTORY.

ince, with its valuable deposits of nitrate and guano. Revolutions
ensued in Bolivia and in Peru. The Chilians took Lima, the Peru-
vian capital, and overran the whole country. The government of
the United States undertook, without effect, to move Chili to abate
its demands upon the vanquished belligerents. At length (Oct.
30, 1883) the terms of peace proposed by Chili, involving large
cessions of territory, were accepted by Jglesias, the head of the
dominant faction in Peru. This agreement was ratified by the
Congress at Lima (March 1, 1884). A treaty of peace was also
made between Chili and Bolivia (May 4).

CHINA AND JAPAN.

China and Foreign Nations: The Taiping Rebellion. — In the
recent period, there has been a gradual but grudging and reluctant
opening of China to commercial intercourse with foreign nations,
and to the labors of Christian missionaries. In 1840 there began
the first war with Great Britain, called the " opium war " for the
t reason that it was caused by the Chinese prohibition of the import-
ing of that article. In the treaty at the end of the war, five ports
were made free to British trade; Hong-Kong was ceded to Eng-
land ; and it was provided that the intercourse between the officials
of the two nations should be on the basis of equality (1842).
Two years later an advantageous treaty was concluded by the
United States with China: a treaty was also concluded with France
(1844). Aggressions of the Chinese led to a second war with
Great Britain, in alliance with France (1857-60) ; in which the
Chinese fleet was destroyed, and Canton, a city of a million in-
habitants, was captured. Treaties were made, but the infraction
of them was followed by the capture of Peking (1859). In the
settlement which immediately took place, toleration was granted
to Christianity, and liberty to foreign ambassadors to reside at the
capital. In 1868 Mr. Anson Burlinga?ney who had been United
States minister to China, with two Chinese envoys, visited the
powers which had made treaties with China, and negotiated agree-
ments by which important principles of international law were
mutually adopted. The most important domestic event in China,
in recent times, is the " Taiping" rebellion, which broke out in
1850, in Southern China. Complaints of oppression and conse-
quent disorder were brought to a climax on the accession of the
young emperor, Heen-fung. The revolt spread from province to
province, and found a leader in the person of Hung Lew-tseue?iy
who called himself Teen- Wang (Celestial Virtue). He proclaimed
his purpose to overthrow the Manchu dynasty, and to restore the
throne to the native Chinese. He claimed a divine commission,
had caught up certain Christian ideas, and professed to be an
adherent of Christianity, Multitudes flocked to his standard.JAPAN.

617

City after city fell into their hands. The war with England and
France operated in his favor. After the conclusion of peace, the
government was more energetic and successful in its effort to sup-
press the rebellion, and was helped by foreign officers, in particular
by Major (afterwards General) Gordon. Nanking was recaptured
(1864) ; and the revolt, which had been attended with an enor-
mous destruction of life, came to an end.

Japan and Foreign Nations. — Up to the year 1866, the actual
rulers of Japan were the Shogun, or emperor's lieutenant, who re-
sided at Yedo, and the daitnios, or territorial nobles, whose residence
was also there. The Mikado, or emperor, lived in Kioto, sur-
rounded by his relatives, the imperial nobles. There was a strict
classification of the whole people, and a strict supervision of them,
and the country was shut to foreigners. In 1853 Commodore
Perry, of the United-States Navy, first entered the harbor of Yedo,
and in 1854 returned, and negotiated a treaty with the Shogun,
which opened certain ports to foreign trade, and to the admission
of consuls. Treaties of a like nature between Japan and the other
principal nations were soon made. The Mikado and his court
were deeply incensed at the Shogun*s usurpation of authority,
and were at the same time hostile to the introduction of foreigriers.
Thus a double contest arose. There was an attempt to put down
the Shogun, and to strip him of his authority, and to drive off the
strangers. This last effort led the Mikado's officers to fire on
the ships of the foreign nations. The punishment which these,
inflicted in the harbor of Shimonoseki (1864) so impressed the
emperor, in conjunction with his fear lest the foreigners should
help the Shogun, that he completely reversed his policy, and pro-
ceeded to remove the barriers to intercourse with them. The
daitnios, who had been compelled to live at Yedo, flocked to Kioto.
The Mikado,Countenanced by the foreigners, overcame the resist-
ance of the party of the Shoguns. He removed his residence to
Yedo, now called Tokio (1869). Feudalism was abolished (1871).
The empire was thus united and strengthened. Institutions and
customs of Western civilization were rapidly introduced. Political
and legal reforms kept pace with the introduction of railroads and
other material improvements. Christian missionaries actively en-
gaged in preaching and teaching.6i8

MODERN HISTORY.

CHAPTER VII.

DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: SCIENCE AND LITERA-
TURE : PROGRESS OF HUMANE SENTIMENT: PROGRESS

TOWARDS THE UNITY OP MANKIND.

As an era of invention and discovery, the nineteenth century is
a rival of the fifteenth.

Geographical Discoveries. — Too much was already known of the
globe to leave room for another so stupendous discovery as that of the New
World. Nevertheless, many important geographical discoveries have been
made, especially since about 1825. Geographical societies without number
have been founded, of which the Royal Geographical Society in England
(1830) is one of the best known. Geographical knowledge is increased in
two ways, — first, by the discovery of places not before known; and secondly,
by the scientific examination of countries and districts, with accurate surveys,
and the making of maps. In both these departments, especially in the lat-
ter, the recent period won distinction. The Russians in their advance ren-
dered the regions of Northern and Central Asia accessible to travelers.
Not only India, but also extensive districts in Central Asia, have been ex-
plored by the British. China has been traversed by a succession of trav-
elers, and Japan has unbarred its gates for the admission of foreigners.
Abyssinia has been traversed. The mystery respecting the sources of the
Nile has been dispelled by Speke, Grant, and Baker. In 1823 and 1825
Clapperton, in two journeys, went over the whole route from Tripoli to the
coast of Guinea. In 1830 Richard and John Lander settled the question as
to the outlet of the Niger. Barth> and other later explorers, have carried
forward the study of the course of this great river, in the exploration of which
Mungo Park lost his life (1806). In 1816 the Congo was explored to the
falls of Yellala. The travels of Schweinfurth, Livingstone, Barth, Cameron,
and Stanley have greatly enlarged our acquaintance with the previously
unknown portions of the African continent. In 1879 Stanley, commissioned
by King Leopold of Belgium, opened up communication with the populous
basin 0? the Congo, and prepared the way for the creation of the Congo Free
State in the heart of Africa. With the opening of the "Dark Continent"
to our knowledge, the last great problem of geographical exploration has
been solved. Palestine and the Sinaitic peninsula have been scientifically
studied by Robinson and by other travelers, and under the auspices of Pales-
tine exploration societies, English and American. Unknown regions on the
American continent, in South America, and in Western North America,
have been visited, and accurately described. The same is true of the interior
of Australia. There have been striking achievements in geographical ex-
ploration in the field of Arctic discovery. The eagerness to find a north-
western passage (and, later in scientific exploration) has led to a succession of
hazardous and not wholly unfruitful maritime expeditions, under the conduct
of Ross, Parry y Franklin, Kane, Mark ham y McClitttock, Greely, and other
courageous voyagers. In 1875 Afarkham reached the highest latitude that up
to that time had been attained (83° 21' 26//). A still higher point (83° 24')
was reached by a detachment of Greetys expedition (May 13, 15, 1882). The
journeys and writings of Humboldt have contributed mucn to geographical
knowledge. In the hands of Carl Ritter and his school, geography has be-
come a much more profound and instructive science. The physical character
of the globe, and of the atmosphere that surrounds it, have been studied in
their relation to man and history. Physical geography, a new branch, has
thus arisen. In recent years scientists have gone far in the study of the
physical geography of the sea, in making maps of its bottom, and in the en-DISCOVERY AND INVENTION.	619

deavor to define the system of oceanic winds and currents. In connection
with physical geography, the distribution of animal life on the land and in
the depths of the sea has been studied.

Four Inventions. — Among the useful inventions of the present cen-
tury, there are four which are of preeminent consequence. The honor con-
nected with each of these, as is generally the case with great inventions,
belongs to no individual exclusively. Several, and in some cases many per-
sons, can fairly claim a larger or smaller share in it. (i) The most efficient
agent in bringing the steam-engine to perfection was James JVatt (1736-1819),
a native of Scotland. (2) In connection with the application of steam to navi-
gation, no name stands higher than that of Robert Fulton. (3) Carriages on rail-
roads were at first drawn by horses. In 1814 George Stephenson, in England,
invented the locomotive, and afterwards (1829) an improved construction u£
it. The first great railroad for the transportation of passengers began to run
between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830. Kemirkable achievements in
engineering have been connected with the construction of railways. The
Alps were pierced, and the Mont Cenis tunnel was completed in 1871. The
principal civilized countries have gradually become covered with networks of
railways. The whole method of transportation of the products of indus-
try has been altered by them. Besides their vast influence in facilitating
and stimulating travel and trade, they have modified the method of conducting
warfare, with very important results. (4) In contriving the electric telegraphy
IV/ieatstone, an Englishman, Oersted, a Dane, and Henry, an American, had
each an important part. The most simple and efficient form of the tele-
graphic instrument is admitted to be due to the inventive sagacity of Morse
(1837). His instrument was first put in use in 1844. The first submarine
wires connecting Europe with America transmitted messages in 1858, be-
tween England and the United States. Since that time numerous submarine
cables have been laid in different parts of the globe. Upon the invention of
the telegraph, another invention — that of the telephone—has followed, by
which conversation can be held with the voice between places more or less
remote. The steam-engine and the telegraph have brought distant nations
into constant communication with one another. The Asiatic peoples, by the
transmission of intelligence, and by conquest and commerce, are daily com-
ing into closer relations to the civilized nations of the West.

The Suet Canaly a channel for ships, connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and
the Indian Ocean, and opening thus a shorter highway by water between Europe and the East,
was officially opened on the 17th of November, 1869.

Uses of Steam.-—The practical applications of steam, besides its use
in the propulsion of vessels, and of carriages on railways, are numberless.
It is the great source of power.

It is employed, for example, in steam-rollers for crushing rocks and leveling and hardening
roads, and in fire-engines, Steam forge-hammers were invented by Nastnyih, an engineer of
Manchester, in 1839. In a multitude of industrial occupations, where water-power was once
used, or tools and machines whose use involved muscular exertion, the work is now done by
the energy of steam. Steam is used to heat houses, and even to supply heat to numerous
buildings front a common source, through subterranean pipes running beneath streets.

Tools and Machines. — In modern days no small amount of skill has
been directed to the devising of tools and machines for the more facile and
cxact production of whatever costs labor. Factories have become monu-
ments of ingenuity, and museums in the useful arts. Improved machinery
lightens the toil of the sailor. Machines in a great variety facilitate agri-
cultural labor. They open the furrow, sow the seed, reap and winnow the
harvest. In-doors, the sewing-machine performs a great part of the labor
formerly done by the fingers of the seamstress. The art of printing has
attainea to a marvelous degree of progress. Hoe's printing-press, moved by
steam, seizes on the blank paper, severs it from the roll in sheets of the right
size, prints it on both sides, and folds it in a convenient shape,*—all with620

MODERN HISTORY.

miraculous rapidity. Inventions in rock-boring ancl rock-drilling have made
it possible to tunnel mountains. The use of explosives for mechanical pur-
poses is a highly important fact in connection with the modern labor-saving
inventions.

India Rubber. — Shoes made of caottichouc, ihz thickened milky juice
of the india-rubber plant, were imported from Brazil to Boston as early as
1825. Improvements in the use of this material, in the solid form and in
solution, were made by Mr. Macintosh of Glasgow, and Thomas Hancock of
Newington, England, about 1820. From the dissolved caoutchouc, a coating
„ was obtained making garments water-proof. In 1839 Charles Goodyear% an
American, discovered the process of vulcanizing india-rubber, — that is, pro-
ducing in it a chemical change whereby its valuable qualities are greatly en-
hanced. The material thus procured was applied to a great number of uses.
It enters into a great variety of manufactured articles.

Enginery of War/—A continual advance has been made in the con-
struction of the implements of war. The whole science and art of war have
been fundamentally changed, mainly in consequence of these modern inven-
tions. Reference may be made to the.invention of rijied cannon, heavier
ordnance, breech-loading guns, and shells and explosive bullets. It was the
needle-gun of the Prussians, which gave them a signal advantage in their war
with the French. The invention 01 iron-clad ships was met by the devising
of torpedoes, to he exploded beneath them by means of electric wires that are
connccted with the shore. The powerful artillery, against which even earth-
works were not a sufficient protection, is rendered ineffectual when forts are
" constructed of iron.

The Telescope and Microscope. — Among the instruments which
have promoted the extension of science, the microscope, with its modern im-
provements, is one of the most interesting. It has aided discovery in botany,
in physiology, in mineralogy, and in almost all other branches of science.
It has even assisted in the detection of crime. The large refracting tele-
scopes have been constructed within the last few decades. Among these
some of the most noted now in use were successfully manufactured by Clark,
an American.

Instruments in Medicine and Surgery. —The microscope has
rendered inestimable service to the healing art. Rare ingenuity has been
exerted in contriving surgical instruments by which difficult operations are
performed with comparative safety and without pain. In medicine and sur-
gery, the discovery of anesthetics for the general or partial suspending of
nervous sensibility is one of the triumphs of practical science in later times.
Chloroform was brought into general use in the medical profession in 1847;
although it had been discovered, and had been used by individuals in the
profession, much earlier. Nitrous oxide was first used by Horace Wells% a
dentist of Hartford, in the extraction of a tooth (1844). In 1846 the great
discovery of anaesthetic ether% by Morton of Boston, was first applied in sur-
gery. Jackson and others were claimants, with more or less justice, to a part
in the honors of this discovery. Lately cocaine has been found to benumb
the sensibility of the more delicate membranes, as those of the eye and the
throat. In auscultationy or the ascertaining of the state of the internal organs
by listening to their sound, a very valuable instrument is the stethoscope. The
principle of the ophthalmoscope, that wonderful instrument for inspecting the
interior of the eye, was expounded by Helmholtz in 1851. By its aid, not
only the condition of that organ is explored, but indications of certain diseases
in the brain, and in other parts of the body, are discovered. Helmholtz did
an equal work in acoustics. By his invention of the means of decomposing
sound, he threw much light on the nature of musical harmony.

The Spectroscope: Photography. — In connection with the phe-
nomena of light, the spectroscope, by which the chemical elements entering
into the composition of the sun and of other heavenly bodies are ascertained,PROGRESS OF SCIENCE.

621

is one of the marvels of the age. The way was paved for this discovery by a
succession of chemists and opticians, — Fraunhofer (1814), Brewster {1832),
Sir John Herschel (1822), J. W. Draper, and others; but the instrument was
devised by Kirchhoffand-Burnett* Photography, ox the art of making per-
manent sun-pictures, is the result of the laoors of Niepce (who died in 1833),
Da guerre (1839), Fox Talbot, an Englishman, J. IV. Draper, and other men
of science and practical artisans. Instantaneous photography has been of
much service in the observation of eclipses and other astronomical phe-
nomena.

The Conservation of Energy. — Perhaps the most important con-
clusion of physical science which has been reached in the recent period is
the doctrine of the conservation of energy. Chemists had shown that the
sum of matter always remains the same. In the transformations of chemistry
no matter is destroyed, however it may change its form. Now, it has been
proved that the quantity of power or energy is constant. If lost in one body,
it reappears in another; if it ceases in one form, it is exerted in another, and
this according to definite ratios. One form of energy is convertible into
another: heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical action, are so related
that one can be made to produce either of the others. This fact is termed
the correlation of physical forces. Connected with the discovery of it are
Meyer in Germany, and Grove and Joule in England. It has been expounded
by Sir William Thompson, Ilelmholtz, Taitf Maxwell, etc. The truth was
elucidated by Tyndall in his "Heat considered as a Mode of Motion," and
by Balfour Stewart in his " Conservation of Energy." But Count Rum ford,
an American (1753-1814), the real founder of the Royal Institution, long ago
opened the path tor this discovery by furnishing the data for computing the
mechanical equivalent of heat.

Gteology and Paleontology.— In geology, from the publication of
Lyell's work (1830), the tendency has more and more prevailed to explain
the geological structure of the earth by the slow operation of forces now in
action, rather than by violent convulsions and catastrophes. In 1831 Sedg-
wick and Murchison, likewise English geologists, commenced their labors.
Agassis published his Essay on tne Glaciers in 1837, th® precursor of like
investigations by Tyndall and others. These are only a small fraction of the
numerous body of explorers and writers in geological science. In the United
States, Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864), an eminent scientific teacher, lent a
strong stimulus to the progress of geology, as well as of chemistry. Even in
the branch of paleontology, or the study of the fossil remains of extinct ani-
mals, it would be impracticable to give the names of those who have added so
much to our knowledge of the earth and its inhabitants in the ages that pre-
ceded man. The great antiquity of the globe, whatever may be thought as
to the date of the creation of man, is now universally acknowledged.

Astronomy. — The great French geometers, Lagrange and Laplace, made
an epoch in astronomical science. Since their time, however, there has been
a large increase of knowledge in this branch. The discovery of the planet
Neptune (1846) by Galle, as the result of mathematical calculations of Lever*
rier, which were made independently also by Adams, was hailed as a signal
proof of scientific progress. Besides Neptune, hundreds of thousands of
stars have been discovered and registered. Mathematical astronomy has
advanced, while the study of nebulae and of meteors, and the investigation
of the constitution of celestial bodies by the help of the spectroscope, are
among the more recent achievements of this oldest of the sciences. Among
the names identified with the recent progress of astronomy are Sir John
Herschel and A. Herschel, Maxwell, Struve, Secchi, B esse I, Bond, Feirce,
Netuton, Netvcomb, Young, Lockyer.

Progress in Chemistry.—In chemistry, the major part of the more rare
elements have been discovered since the century began. It was proved in
1819, that the capacities for heat which belong to the atoms of the different622

MODERN HISTORY.

elements are equal. In the same year Mitscherlich's law was propounded,—
the law of isomorphism, according to which atoms of elements of the same
class may replace each other in a compound without altering its crystalline
structure. Chemists have directed their attention to the molecitlar structure
— the ultimate constitution — of various compounds. Faraday (1791-1867)
developed the relations of electricity to chemistry. Liebig (1803-73), a Ger-
man chemist, in connection with numerous laborers in the same field, made
interesting contributions in the different departments of chemical science.
The annual record of the progress of chemical discovery fills several large
volumes.

Biology. — No branch of natural science has been more zealously culti-
vated of late than biology. Among those who have given an impulse to the
study of natural history, one of the most eminent names is that of Charles
Darwin. His work on The Origin of Species (1859) advocated the opin-
ion that the various species of animals, instead of being all separately
created, spring by natural descent and slow variation from a few primitive
forms of animal life. He laid much stress upon " natural selection," or the
survival of the strongest or fittest in the struggle for existence. With the
name of Darwin should be associated, that of Wallace^ who simultaneously
propounded the same doctrine. The general doctrine of ez'olution, or of the
origin of species by natural generation, has been held in other forms and
modifications by Richard Owen, and other distinguished naturalists. One of
the most noted opponents of the evolution doctrine in zoology was Louis
Agassiz (1807-73), a very able and enthusiastic student of nature. One of
its most eminent expounders and defenders is Huxley. Some have sought
to extend the theory of natural development over the field of inorganic as
well as living things, and to trace all existences back to nebulous vapor.

Archeology. — Geology lends its aid to archeologyy or the inquiry into
the primitive condition of man. Not only has much light been thrown on
obscure periods of history, by the uncovering of the remains of Babylon,
Assyria, and other abodes of early civilization, and by the deciphering of
.monumental inscriptions in characters long forgotten; but the discovery
of buried relics of prehistoric men has afforded glimpses of human life as
it was prior to all written memorials. One of the most instructive writers
on this last subject is Tylor in his Primitive Culture, and in other works on
the same general theme.

PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

Philosophy in France. — Victor Cousin (1799-1867),a brilliant thinker and elo-
quent lecturer and writer, founded in France the eclectic school of philosophy. He aimed to
construct a positive view on the basis of previous systems, which he classified under four
heads, — idealism, sensualism, skepticism, and mysticism. In his teaching, he sought a
middle path between the German and the Scottish schools, leaning now more decidedly to the
one, and now to the other. Jouffroy (1796-1843), the most prominent of Cousin's disciples,
but more exact and methodical than his master, wrote instructively, especially on esthetics and
moral philosophy. Philosophy in France look an altogether different direction in the hands of
Auguste Cotnte (1798-1857), the founder of the positivist school. He taught that we know
only phenomena, or things as manifested to our consciousness, and know nothing cither of first
causes, efficient causes, or of final causes (or design). We are limited to the ascertaining of
fact9 by observation and experiment, which we register according to their likeness or unlike-
ness, and their chronological relation, or the order of their occurrence in time.

Scottish Philosophy.— The most distinguished expounder of the Scottish philoso-
phy, and the most learned of that whole school, was Sir William Hamilton (1788-1856).
He maintained the doctrine of natural realism,— that we have a direct, " face-to-face" per-
ception of external things. He held that the range of the mind's power of conceptive thought
lies between two iticonceivables, one of which must be real. Thus we can not conceive of
free-will (which would be a new beginning), nor can we conceive of an endless series of causes.
Free-will — and the same is true of the fundamental truths of religion — is verified to us as real
by our moral nature. A Scottish writer of ability, who, however, opposed the peculiar tenets
of the Scottish school, was Ferrier (1808-1864). Among the other philosophical writers of
Scotland, affiliated, but with different degrees of dissent, with the school of Reid and Hamil-
ton, are Professors Fraser and Calderwood, and President James McCosh.PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.	623

Philosophy in England. —More allied to the philosophy of Hume and of Comte are
the metaphysical theories of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Intuitions were regarded by
Mill as tne impression pioduced by a frequent conjunction of like experiences, and thus to be
the product of sensation. Causation was resolved into the invariable association of phenom-
ena, by which an expectation is created that seems instinctive. Another writer of tne same
general tendency, who seeks for the explanation of knowledge in the materials furnished by the
senses, is Alexander Bairt, a Scottish author, versed in physiology. Herbert Spencer con-
structed a general system of philosophy on the basis of the theory of evolution. He holds that
our knowledge is limited to phenomena, which are the manifestation in our consciousness of
things which in themselves are unknown; and that behind and below all is "the Unknow-
able,"— an inscrutable force, out of which the universe of matter and mind is developed, and
which gives to it unity and coherence.

Philosophy in Germany.—In Germany the decline of the school of Hegel was
succeeded by a sort of anarchy in philosophy. Herbart (1776-1841), a contemporary of
Hegel, framed a system antagonistic to Hegelian idealism. Among numerous metaphysical
authors, each of whom has a " standpoint" of his own, are the justly distinguished names of
Fichte (the younger) , Ulrici, Trendelenburg, and Hermann Lotze. Lotze, in his Micro-
cosm, has unfolded, in a style attractive to the general reader, profound and genial views of
man, nature, and religion. A remarkable phenomenon in German speculation is '* pessim-
ism," — the doctrine gravely propounded in the systems of Schopenhauer and h. Von
Hartmann, that the world is radically and essentially evil, and personal existence a curse
from which the refuge is in the hope of annihilation. In its view of the world as springing
from an unconscious force, and of the extinction of consciousness as the state of bliss, as well
as in its notions of evil as inwrought in the essence of things, this philosophy is a revival of
Indian Oriental speculation. Historical and critical writings in the department of philosophy
abound in Germany. The histories of philosophy by Kilter, Erdmann, Zeller, Kutto
Fischer, and Latige, are works of remarkable merit.

Philosophy in Italy and in the United States.— In Italy, the two writers
who are most noteworthy are Rosmini (1797-1855). who taught idealism; and Gioberti (1801-
1882), whose system is on a different basis, —a gifted writer who was equally conspicuous as
a statesman and a philosopher.

Philosophy in the United States.—Philosophy in America has been zealously
cultivated, both in connection with theology and apart from it, by a considerable number of
teachers and writers. Among them are James Marsh, C. 6". Henry, Francis Way land,
L. Hickok. //. B. Smith, and other eminent authors, mostly of a more recent date.

Political Economy. — Ricardo (1772-1823), who followed Adam Smith (p. 493).
dealt more in abstractions and processes of logic, than his predecessor. The writings of
Ricardo, together with the discussions of Malthus (1766-1834) on population, —in which it
was maintained that the tendency to an increase of population outstrips the increase of the
means of subsistence, — led to numerous other writings.

Political economy was handled in productions by Jantes Mill (1821), J. R. McCulloch,
N. W. Senior (1790-1864), R. Torrens (1780-1864), Harriet Martineau (1802-1876),
Thomas Chalmers, the celebrated Scottish divine, Archbishop Richard Whately, Richard
Jones (1790-1855), a critic of the system of Ricardo, and others. An eminent writer, an
expositor with important modifications of the Ricardian teaching, is John Stuart Mill (1806-
1873). Faivcett and other able authors have followed for the most part in Mill's path. An I£ng-
lisn author of distinction in this field is J. K. Cairnes (1824-1875). The French school of
economists have adhered to the principles of Adam Smith much more than have the Germans.
Among the most noted of the French authors in this field are Say (1767-1832). whose views
are founded on those of Smith ; Sismondi (1773-1842), who, however, departs from the Eng-
lish doctrine, and favors the intervention of government to " regulate the progress of wealth;'
Dunoyer (1786-1862); liastiat (1801-1850), one of the most brilliant advocates of free-trade;
Cournot (1801-1877), who applies, with much acumen, mathematics to economical questions.
In America, since tne days ox Franklin and Hamilton, both of whom wrote instructively on
these topics, a number of writers of ability have appeared. Among them are //. C. Carey,
who opposes the views of Ricardo and Malthus, and defends the theory of protection; Francis
Boiven, also a protectionist; Ft A, Walker, Perry,etc. In Italy, there have not been wanting
productions of marked acuteness in this department. Of the numerous German writers, one
of the most eminent is List (1798-1846), a critic of Ad^m Smith, and not an adherent of the
unqualified doctrine of free-trade. In the list of later English writers, the names of Bagehot,
Leslie, Jevons} and Sidgwick are quite prominent. With regard to free-trade and protection,
the latter doctrine has been maintained in two forms. Some have regarded protection as the
best permanent policy for a nation to adopt. Others have defended it as a provisional policy,
to shield manufactures in their infancy, until they grow strong enough to compete, without
help, with foreign products. After the repeal of the corn-laws in England (1846), the free-
trade doctrine prevailed in England. Since Comte published his exposition of Sociology
(1839), the tendency has arisen to consider political economy as one branch of this broader
theme. With it the controversies pertaining to socialism are intimately connected.

The disciples of Adam Smith have contended for the non-intervention of governments in
the industrial pursuits of the people. They are to be left to the natural desire of wealth, and
the natural exercise of competition in the pursuit of it. The prevalent theories of socialism
are directly hostile to this —called the laissez-faire—' principle Socialists would make gov*
crnment the all-regulative agent, the owner of land and of the implements of labor.624

MODERN HISTORY.

English Essayists. — In literature the later time has seen an extraor-
dinary multiplying of periodicals and newspapers, among whose editors and
contributors have been included numerous writers of much celebrity. In
Great Britain, several famous authors first acquired distinction mainly by
historical and critical articles in reviews. This is true of Thomas Babington
Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle. Each of them became a historian. Macau-
lay, an ardent Whig, with an astonishing familiarity with political and literary
facts, wrote in a spirited and brilliant style a History of England front the
accession of James II. to the death of his hero, William III. Carlyle, with
a unique force of imagination and a rugged intensity of feeling, original in
his thought, yet strongly affected by German literature, especially by Richter
and Goethe, wrote in his earlier days a Life of Schiller, He wrote later a
history of the French Revolution, in which the scenes of that tragic epoch
are depicted with dramatic vividness; and a copious History of Frederick
the Great. Among the most characteristic of his writings are his Heroes
and Hero-Worship ; the "Latter-Day Pamphlets," in which is poured out his
CQjntempt of democracy; and the Life of John Sterlings — the counterpart
of a biography of Sterlings written in a different vein by a learned and
scholarly divine,Julius Hare.

Of essayists in a lighter, discursive vein, one of the most popular, who
has already been referred to (p. 544), was. the Scottish writer, John Wilson
(1785-1854), the author of numerous tales and criticisms, and of diverting
papers written under the name of "Christopher North." Without the fancy
and humor of Wilson, yet master of a style keeping wilhin the limits of prose
while verging on poetry, was Thomas De Quinceyt the author of The Confes-
sions of an Opium Eater, Essays on the Roman Emperors y etc.

Historical Writings in England. — The literature of history has
been enriched by British authors with important works besides those named
above. Grote and Thirhvall have each composed histories of Greece which
are the fruit of thorough and enlightened scholarship. The work of Grote is
a vindication of the Athenian democracy, a view the antipode of that taken
in the work on Grecian history by Mitford. An elaborate work on the His-
tory of the Romans under the Empire is one of several historical productions
of Charles Merrivale. Stanhope (Lord Alahon) has composed a narrative of
the War of the Spanish Succession, and other useful histories. Sir W. K.
P. Napier wrote a History of the War in the Peninsula, in which the cam-
paigns of Wellington in Spain are described by an author who took part in
them. The constitutional history of England has been treated with satisfac-
tory learning and judgment by llallam> May, and Stubbs. To the last writer,
the Bishop of Chester, the public arc indebted for extremely valuable investi-
gations in early English history. In this field, Mr. Edward A. Freeman has
labored with distinguished success; the History of the Norman Conquest
being his principal work in this branch of historical inquiry. J. R. Green is
the author of an attractive history of the English people. J. A. Frottde has
written with engaging literary art a History of England in the Reign of Eliza-
beth, which attempts, in the preliminary part, an apology for the character
and conduct of Henry VIII. Harriet Martineau is the author of a History
of England from 1816 to 1844: she was well known as a writer on political
economy and on other topics, and as a translator of Comte's Philosophy.
John Hill Burton, a Scottish author, educated as a lawyer, composed vigor-
ously written histories of Scotland and of the reign of Queen Anne. Lecky
wrote in a pleasing style a History of England in the Eighteenth Century,
besides a History of Rationalism in Europe, and a History of European Mor-
als from Augustus to Charlemagne. In ecclesiastical history, Milman% whose
leading work is the History of Latin Christianity, and Dean Stanley% have
gained an audience beyond the pale of the ecclesiastical bodies.

English Novelists.— The series of " Waverley novels " by Walter Scott
(1771-1832) had an unbounded popularity. Pervaded by a cheerful, healthyPHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

625

tone, they presented fascinating pictures of life and manners, and kindled a
fresh sympathy with the Middle Ages and with the spirit of chivalry. The
poems of Scott depicted, in a metrical form, like picturesque scenes, and
knightly combats and adventures. The fictions of Scott gave rise to a
school of writers, one of whom was G. P. R. James (1801-1860). A new and
different type of novel appeared, in connection with which the names of
Dickens (1812-1870) and Thackeray (1811-1863) are preeminent. Both are
humorists; in Dickens especially, humor runs into broad caricature. Both
present pictures of society and of common life. They illustrate the tendency
of the novel at present to rely for its attraction upon scenes and incidents of
ordinary life, and the minute portraiture of manners and of character. Dick•
ens owes his popularity largely to the unique sort of drollery and the genuine
pathos that are mingled in his pages. Thackeray is a satirist, with a keen eye
to detect the weaknesses of humanity, but with a deep well of sympathy,
veiled, however, and sedulously guarded from sentimentalism, by a tone of
banter and a semblance of cynicism. Measured by their popularity with the
cultivated class, the novels of Mrs. Lewes (George Eliot) stand next in rank
to the productions just referred to. In some of her tales, the artistic motive
and spirit are qualified by the didactic aim, or the underlying "tendency," —
the purpose to teach, or to promote a favorite cause, — which has become a
frequent characteristic in modern fiction. Among the other English novel-
ists, Btilwer (1805-1873), whose later stories are free from the immorality
that stains the earlier, is one of the most widely read. The novels of Charles
Kingsley (1819-1875) are among the justly popular productions in this de-
partment. The Cloister and the Hearth by Charles Reade, Lorna Doone by
Blackmore, and Noblesse Oblige by Miss Roberts^ rank high among works of
historical fiction.

English Poets. — Alfred Tennyson, the author of The Princess, In Me-
moriat/iy and the Idyls of the Kingy holds the first place among the poets of
his day. An adept in the metrical art, which even his earliest poems exhibit,
he combines in these mature productions, with terseness of diction and fresh,
striking imagery, deep reflection, and sympathy with the intellectual ques-
tionings and yearnings of the time. In his lyrical poems, the fullness 01 his
power is seen. He is, without question, a consummate literary artist. Brown-
ing, careless of rhythmical art, with a defiance of form, but with dramatic
power, in his descent to "the under-currents" of the soul lays himself open
to the reproach of obscurity. Among English poets of high merit in the re-
cent period, stand the names of the delightiul humorist, Thomas Hood (1798-
1845), Arthur Clough (1819-1861), and, more recently, Matthew Arnold.

With this reference to the poets may be coupled the name of the most
eloquent and suggestive of the English writers on art, John Raskin.

Theology in England. — Theological scholarship in Great Britain,
after a long season of partial eclipse, again shone forth in the present
period. Critical works relating to the Scriptures have been produced, which
are on a level with the best Continental learning. About 1833, there began
at Oxford what has been called the "Tractarian movement," from a series of
Tracts for the Times," relating to theology and the Church, which were
issued by its promoters. The party thus originating were called " Puseyites,"
as Dr. Edward Pusey (1800-1882), the author of learned commentaries, and
of works in other departments of divinity, was their acknowledged leader.
They formed one branch of the class called "High Churchmen." They laid
great emphasis on the doctrine of the "apostolic succession" of the ministry,
the necessity and efficacy of the sacraments administered by them, and the
importance of visible ecclesiastical unity. They claimed to stand in the
"middle path" between the Church of England and the Church of Rome.1
One of the leading associates of Pusey was John Keble (1792-1866), the
poet, author of The Christian Year. The most eminent writer in this group
of theologians was John Henry Newman (born in 1801), who has won626

MODERN HISTORY.

general admiration by the subtiltv of his genius and his rare felicity of ex-
pression. He entered the Church of Rome, and was advanced to the rank
of a cardinal. One of the principal literary undertakings of the recent period
is the Revision of the Authorized Version of the Bible, by associated com-
panies of English and American scholars. In the long catalogue of influ-
ential writers in theology, it is practicable to refer here to a few suggestive
names. Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847) was equally noted as a glowing
preacher, an eloquent defender of the Christian faith, and a lucid expounder
of the Calvinistic system. Edivard Irving (1792-1834) was a pulpit orator
of unsurpassed eloquence in his day, whose peculiar view as to the restora-
tion of the miraculous gifts of the Spirit, that were granted in the apostolic
age, gave rise to a religious body calling itself the "Catholic Apostolic
Church." Frederick Detiison Maurice (1805-1872) was one of the leaders of
the "liberal," or "Broad Church," portion of the English Episcopal Church.
His writings have exerted a strong influence. In the same general direction,
but of a more critical and argumentative tone, were Richard Whately (1787-
1863), Archbishop of Dublin; and Thomas Arnold, who, in addition to his
influence as a teacher, classical scholar, and historian, engaged actively in
discussions on the questions relating to Church and State.

Literature in America: Poems and Tales.—The period which
we are now considering witnessed a gratifying development of belles-let-
tres and historical literature in the United States. At the outset, two
writers appeared who acquired a transatlantic fame. Washington Irving
(1783-1859) in 1818 published The Sketch Book,, in a series of pamphlets.
It had been preceded by Knickerbocker's History of New York and other
humorous publications. Among his later writings were included the Life of
Columbus) the Life'of Mohammed, and the Life of Washington. The refine-
ment and charm of his style, which brought back the simplicity of Gold-
smith, satisfied the foreign critics who had ridiculed the florid rhetoric of
previous American authors. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) published
The Spy, the first of his novels, which attracted much attention, in 1821.
This was followed, two years later, by 7he Pioneers, the first of the famous
" Leatherstocking " series of novels, in which Indian life and manners were
portrayed. Cooper was also the founder of the "sea-novel," a line of fiction
m which he was followed by an English writer, Marryat (1792-1848).
Richard H. Dana and Fitz-Greeve Halleck were poets who had a much
higher than the merely negative merit of freedom from tumidity, the bane of
the earlier American bards. Not only in verse, but also in his prose tales,
Dana manifested genius. Several later poets have been acknowledged, at
home and abroad, well to deserve the name. Such are Bryant, whose poems,
pensive and elevated in their tone, lack neither vigor nor finish; Longfellonu,
a poet of exquisite culture, whose purity of sentiment, as well as polish and
melody of diction, have made him a favorite in European as well as Ameri-
can households; Whittier, whose spirited productions are pervaded with a
glowing love of liberty and humanity. Ltnvell has justly earned fame as
a poet and a critic; and, as a poet, in both serious and humorous composi-
tions. The " Biglow Papers " are without a rival in the species of humor
that characterizes them. A double distinction as a poet and a prose writer
belongs likewise to Oliver Wendell Holmes, who is not excelled by any con-
temporary as an author of what are styled " poems of society." Edgar Allan
Poe (1800-1849), faulty in his moral spirit as he was wayward in his conduct,
exhibited, both in his poems and tales, which are unique in their character,
the traits of a wild and somber genius. Ralph Waldo Emersott (1803-1882),
admired as a poet, but more generally as an essayist, valuing insight above
logic, has commented on nature, man, and literature with so rare a pene-
tration and felicity of expression that Mattheiv Arnold has placed his produc-
tions on a level with the Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelitis. In
the list of American novelists, the foremost name is that of Nathaniel IIaw>PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

627

thorne. In his romances, the subtle analysis of the workings of conscience
ancl sensibility, in particular the obscure — including the morbid — action of
these powers, is combined with perfection of style and of literary art. The
novels of Harriet Beecher Stowe, especially those which relate to slavery and
depict negro character, have had a world-wide currency. James K\ Pauld-
ing, a contemporary of Irving, wrote vigorous sketches of colonial days;
and Catharine M. Sedgwick, graphic pictures of New-England life.

Good work has been done by Americans in literary history and criticism.
The History of Spanish Literature, by George Ticknor, is the fruit of many
years of labor by a competent scholar.

Historical Writings in America. —• Creditable works have been pro-
duced in America in the department of historical literature. The Lives of
Washington and Franklin, and other biographical and historical writings
of much value, have been composed or edited by Jared Sparks. George
Bancroft has published, in successive editions, the results of his extensive
researches in the history of the United States. Works on the same subject
have been published by Richard Hildreth and many others. John G. Palfrey
is the author of an excellent history of New England. William /I. Prescott,
by his History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, his histories of Spanish
conquest in America, and his fragment on the reign of Philip II. of Spain,
has deservedly attained to a high distinction on both sides of the Atlantic.
The same may be said of John Lothrop Motley, in reference to his works on
the Rise and Progress of the Dutch Republic. The history of French colo-
nization and of the contests of France in America has been detailed with
thoroughness and skill, in a series of histories founded on original researches,
by Francis Parkman.

Amerioan Writers on Law and Politics.—American writers on law
embrace names of world-wide celebrity. Among them are Henry Wheaton,
in international law, a science to which Woolsey and Lawrence have made
valuable contributions; James Kent, whose Commentaries on American Law
is a work held in high honor by the legal profession; and Joseph Story, a
jurist and legal writer of distinguished merit. The speeches and other pro-
ductions of Webster, Calhoun, Clay, John Quincy Adams, Edward Everett,
Seward, Sumner, form a valuable body of political writings. The works of
Francis Lieber, a German by birth, and the treatise on Political Science by
Theodore D. Woolsey, are important contributions to the branch of knowledge
to which they relate.

Philology in America. — On the catalogue of students of language, the
name of Noah Webster (1758-1843) is prominent, through his English Dic-
tionary, the fruit of many years of arduous labor; a work that since his death
has appeared in successive and improved editions. Another successful
laborer in the same field was Joseph E. Worcester (1784-1865), likewise the
author of a copious and valuable lexicon of the English language. George
P. Marsh, an erudite Scandinavian scholar, wrote also on the Origin and
History of the English Language. In the departments of classical learning, of
Oriental study, and of general philology, there have appeared other American
authors of acknowledged merit.

Theology in America.—Theology has been cultivated with much
fruit by a large number of preachers and authors, of different religious bodies.
Moses Stuart, by his commentaries on Biblical books, and Edward Robinson,
especially through his published Travels in the Holy Land, were widely
known. Charles Hodge, long a professor at Princeton; Nathaniel W. Taylor,
. who broached modifications of the Calvinistic system; Henry B, Smith, an
acute and learned theologian; and Horace Bushttell, — are among the influen-
tial authors on the Protestant side. To these should be added the name of
William Ellery Charming, the most prominent leader of the Unitarians,
equally distinguished as a preacher and as a philanthropist.628

MODERN HISTORY.

The Unitarian movement in New England, which began in the early pari of the present
century, included other theological writers, one of the most learned and scholarly of whom was
Andrews Norton (1786-1853). Theodore Parker (1810-60) subsequently went so far in his
divergence from received views as to reject miracle and supernatural revelation altogether.
He was one of the most vigorous combatants in the warfare carried on through the press and
in the pulpit against slavery. Out of the Unitarian school, there came a class of cultured
writers in literature and criticism, of whom George Ripley (1802-1880) was a representative.
The 41 transcendentalists," as they were popularly styled, with whom these were often at the
outset affiliated, were much influenced by contemporary French and German authors and specu-
lations. Emerson was the most prominent writer in this vaguely defined class. A periodical
called " The Dial" was issued by them.

One of the most ingenious and active-minded thinkers in the Roman-
Catholic Church was Orestes A. Brozvnson, a prolific author on topics of
religion and philosophy.

Literature in Germany. — The German mind has been so productive
in almost all branches of literary effort, that the annual issues of the German
press have numbered many thousands. The political condition of Germany
until a recent date was such as to attract large numbers to the pursuits of liter-
ature and science. It is possible to allude to but few of the principal authors.
In imaginative literature, Heinrich Heine (1799-1856), of Jewish extraction,
was a most witty yet irreverent satirist,1 and one of the principal song-writers
of. modern times. Gustav Freytag\&s> written some of the-best of the later
German novels Auerbach and Spielhagen stand very high on the roll of
novelists. Of numerous recent poets, Lenatt and Freiligratk are among the
few best esteemed. In the long catalogue of German historical writers, to
whom the world owes a debt, are found the names of Schlosser (1776-1861),
Heeren (1760-1842), Raumer (1781-1873); Ratike, whose numerous works are
based on original researches, and are written with masterly skill; Gervinusy
a critic as well as historian; Von Sybel, Droysen, Duncker, Weber, Giesebrecht,
Mommsefty Curtius, and Haiisser. A powerful impulse was given to the study
of history by Niebuhr (1776-1831). German researches have been carried
into every region of the past. In Egyptology, Lipsius, Bun sen, Brttgseh,
and Ebers are leading authorities. Neander, Gieseler, Baur, Dollinger, //<?-
fele, and Alzog are prominent in the list of writers on ecclesiastical history.
German travelers have explored many of the countries of the globe. Schhe-
mann has uncovered the ruins of Troy. In mathematics and the natural
sciences, in philology and criticism, in philosophy, in law and the political
sciences, and in the different branches of theology, the world acknowledges
its debt to the patient, methodical investigations and the exhaustive discus-
sions of German students during the present century.

Theology in Germany. —The history of religious thought in Germany includes the
successive phases of rationalism, or that general theory which makes the human understand-
ing, apart from supernatural revelation, the chief or the exclusive source of religious knowl-
edge, and the umpire in controversies. In the age of Frederick //., the AnsloFrench deism
was widely diffused (p. 493). Lessittg, the genial poet and critic (1729-1781), allied himself
to no party. In his work on The Education 0/ the Human Race, he set forth the view that
the Scriptures have a high providential purpose as an instrument for the religious training of
mankind, but that their essential contents are ultimately verified by reason on grounds o? its
own; so that the prop of authority eventually becomes needless, and falls away. Not radically
different was the position of Kani (p. 545), who gave rise to a school of theologians that for a
time flourished. This school made the essential thing in Christianity to be its morality. With
Semler (1721-1791), the rationalistic Biblical criticism took its rise. From that day, a
host of scholars have engaged in the investigation of the origin and interpretation of the Uible,
and of the early history ol Christianity. A middle position between the established orthodoxy
and the Kantian rationalism was taken by Frederick Schleiermacher (1768-1834), a man of

fjenius, alike eminent as a critic, philosopher, and theologian, lie placed the foundation of re-
igion in the feeling of absolute dependence. In laying stress on feeling as at the root of piety,
he had been preceded by the philosopher Jacobi. Jh rom the impulse given by Schleiermacher,
there sprung up an intermediate scnool of theologians, many of whom departed less than he
from the traditional Protestant creed. This they professed to undertake to revise in accordance
with the results of the scientific study of the Hible and of history. In their number belong
Neander, Nitzsch^ Tivesten, T/toluck, J. M tiller, Dor tier, Rot he, Bleek, Ullman, and
many other influential authors and teachers. In the department of Biblical criticism, Envald,
'Jischendorf, Meyer, Weiss, are among the names of German theological scholars which arePHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.	629

familiar to Biblical students in all countries. The critical works of De Wette (1780-1849) were
extensively studied. The philosophy of Hegel connected itself with a new form of rationalism,
which found expression in the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, published in 1835, in which the
Gospel miracles were treated as myths; and in the writings of Ferdinand Christian Battr,
in connection with his followers of the " Tubingen School,' who attempted to resolve primitive
Christianity into a natural growth out of pre-existing conditions, and held that the historical
books of the New Testament were the product of different theological " tendencies" and parties
in the apostolic and the subsequent age. The Roman Catholic system has not lacked in Ger-
many able defenders, one of the most noted of whom was Mohler, the author of Symbolism
(Symbolik), an ingenious polemical work in opposition to Protestantism.

Philology and Law in Germany. — Classical philology was founded as a science
by Heyne (1729-1812) and Wolf (1759-1824). Their work was carried forward by G. Her-
matin (1772-1848), Buttmann (1764-1829), Jacobs (1764-1847), K. O. Muller (1797-1840),
and by numerous contemporaries and successors of these. By this succession of scnolars, not
only have the tongues of Greece and Rome been accurately learned and taught, but classical
antiquity has been thoroughly explored. Comparative philology, under the hands of Bopp
(1791-1867), of Lassen (1800-1876), a Norwegian by birtn. of H . von Humboldt (1767-1835)
of Pott (born in 1802), of Schleicher (1821-1868), and their coadjutors, has grown to be a
fruitful science. In the study of the German language and early literature, J. Grimm (1785-
1863), tV. Grimm (1786-1859), Lachmann (1793-1851), Simrock (1802-1878), have been
among the pioneers. The study of law, especially of Roman law, was placed on a new foun-
dation by the labors of Savigfty (1779-1861), while a like thoroughness was brought to the
exposition of German law by Mittermaier and others. In political science, Mohl (1779—
1875), Bluntschli (1808-1881), Stahl (1802-1861), and Gneist (born in 1816) gained a world-
wide celebrity.

Literature in France. —A class of vigorous young writers in France
broke loose from the restraints of the "classical" school and its patterns, and
composed dramas in the more free method of the " romantic " school. They
drew their ideas of the drama from Shakspeare, rather than from Corneille.
Among these writers were Alexandre Dumas, a most prolific novelist as well
as writer of plays; and the celebrated poet and dramatist, Victor Hugo.
The romances of Dumas comprise more than a hundred volumes. In his
historical novels, incidents and characters without number crowd upon the
scene, but without confusion, while the narrative maintains an unfailing
vivacity. Of the authors of light and witty comedies, Scribe is one of the
most fertile. George Sand (Mme. Dudevant) is one of the principal novel-
writers of the age. Eugene Sue and Balzac are both popular authors in this
department. The leading poets are the song-writer Biranger, Lamartine,
Victor I/ugOy and Alfred de Mussel. The last-named author is successful
as a novelist, in addition to his extraordinary distinction as a poet. Victor
Hugo's eminence is confined to no one province of literature. Thiophile
Gautier, prominent as a critic and novelist, also stands high as a poet. It is
in the department of history that P'rench authorship in the late period has
shone the brightest. Some writers, as Villemaint are remarkable for their
power of descriptive narrative; others, like Guizot, for their breadth of philo-
sophical reflection, superadded to deep researches. Some, like Augustin
Thierry, in his works on the Middle Ages, combine both elements. His
brother, Amidie Thierry, depicted the state of society in Gaul and other
countries in the period of the fall of the Roman Empire. Barante com-
posed an interesting history of the Dukes of Burgundy. Among those,
besides Guizot, who treated of the history of France, Sismondi, the spirited
Michelet, and the thorough and dispassionate Henii Martin, are specially
eminent. Thiers, Migttet, Louis Blanc, and Taine composed works on the
era of the great Revolution. The lively and sentimental Lamartine is
the author of a History of the Girondists. Lanfrey has written a severely
critical biography of the first Napoleon. In political economy and the
science of politics, Chevalier, De Toe nu eville (the author of Democracy
in America), and Bastiat are among the writers widely read beyond the
limits of France. Sainte-Beuve is only one of the foremost in the class of
literary critics, in which are included Kenan, De Sacy, and others who are
also well-known authors of more elaborate writings. The clearness of expo-
sition which goes far to justify the claim of the French to be the interpreters
of European science to the world, appears in numerous treatises in mathe*630

MODERN HISTORY.

'matics and physics. The qualities of lucid arrangement, transparency of
style, and terseness of language, have extended, however, to other branches
01 authorship; so that the French have presented a fair claim to precedence
in the literary art.

Sweden and Russia./— There are Swedish authors who are well known in other
countries. Such are the historian Geijer (1783-1847); and the novelist Fredrika Bremer•,
who wrote " The Neighbors," and other tales. The most famous of the Russian novelists is
Ivan Turgenejf, some of whose stories contain admirable pictures of Russian life.

Architecture. — The nineteenth century has witnessed in Germany,
France, and England, a revival of the ancient or classic styles of architecture.
This appears, for example, in edifices at Munich, and in such buildings as St.
George's Hatl at Liverpool. But a reaction arose against this tendency, and
in behalf of the Gothic style, which is exemplified in the new Houses of
Parliament in London. Many Gothic churches have been erected in Great
Britain.

Sculpture and Painting. — One of the most original of modern sculp-
tors was Schwanthaler (1802-1848), who carved the pediments of the Walhalla
at Munich, and the bronze statue of Bavaria. French sculptors at the present
day are fully on a level with the recent sculptors of Italy, Chantrey (1788-
1841), and John Gibson (1791-1866), a pupil of Canova and himself an origi-
nal mind, are high on the roll of English sculptors. A genius for sculpture
appeared among Americans, and to the names of Potuers and Crawford\
of Story 1 Drown, and Wardt the names of other meritorious artists in this
province might justly be added. The German national school of painting
had Overbeck for its most eminent founder. Cornelius {1783-1867) revived
the art of fresco-painting, and established the Munich school. Van Kaul-
bach% who painted the "Battle of the Huns " in the Berlin Museum, was one
of his pupils. William Schadozo is the founder of the Dusseldorf school.
An eminent pupil of Schadcnv, a painter of greater depth and force, was Karl
Friedrich Lessing, grand-nephew of the poet In Great Britain, Constable
(1796-1837) painted English landscapes full of thought and feeling, and gave
afresh impulse to this branch of art. Stanfield (1788-1864) was a master of
the realistic school, which aims at a simple and faithful representation of the
landscape to be depicted. Wilhie, a Scotchman (1785-1841), was chief among
the genre painters, of whom Leslie (1794-1859), by birth an American, was one
of tne most forcible and refined. Eastlake (1793-1865) was a writer on art,
as well as a painter. Landseer (1802-1873) was unrivaled as an animal painter.
William Hunt (1790-1864) had decided skill as a painter in water-colors.
The pre-Raphaelite school, professing to go back of Raphael to nature, and to
copy nature literally,. had among its worthy exemplars Holman Hunt and
Millais, and an enthusiastic advocate in Raskin. In France, Paul Delaroche
(1797-1856) followed in the path of Horace Vemet (1789-1863), as a painter
of battle-pieces and other modern historical scenes. Ary Scheffer (1795-
1858), a Dutchman by birth, painted in a graceful and pathetic tone "Christ
the Consoler," and other sacred subjects. The living French school, com-
prising Delacroix, Meissonier, G$romey Cabanely Millet, Rosa Bonheury — an
artist of masculine vigor, the famous painter of animal pictures, — is distin-
guished for technical skill and finish, but also for a bold and peculiar method
of treatment. Among the leading landscape-painters of this school, Corot,
Daubigny, Rousseau, Diazy are conspicuous. In the present century, as regards
painting, Italy is behind the other European countries.

About the year 1825 an American school of landscape painters was
founded by Thomas Cole> many of whose pictures were allegorical. Durand
is one of those who excelled in landscape painting. In other provinces of
the art, Peale, Weir, Huntington, Page, Morset and Ingham are of acknowl-
edged merit. In landscape art, the works of Gifford> Kensett> Churchy Bier-
stadty McEntee, may be referred to as representing what i3 best and most
characteristic in the later productions of, American painters.PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.	631

Musio. — In Music, Germany in the present century holds the palm.
Schubert^ Spohry Weber, Meyerbeer, and Wagner are names of world-wide
celebrity, while in the works of Mendelssohn (1809-1849) and Schumann
(1810-1856) the art of music reached its climax. Chopin (1810-1849), the
founder of a new style of piano-forte music, was born in Poland: his father,
however, was French.

* PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.

In a survey of the course of recent history, notice should be taken of the
increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations.

1.	Social Science. — The investigation of social evils and of their
proper remedies, and of the laws which govern man in his social relations,
has received of late the name of social science. In 1857 a meeting in London,
over which Lord Brougham presided, resulted in the organization of a so-
ciety of persons interested in different forms of social improvement, bearing
the name of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science. Its
work embraced the consideration of these five subjects: law-amendment,—
to promote which a society had existed, of which Lord Brougham was the
head; education; prevention and repression of crime; public health; and
social economy. Branches were established in various towns in England.
A similar society was formed in the United States (1865). An international
society of the same character held its first meeting in Brussels in 1862. The
wide range of special topics which these societies consider may give an
appearance of indefiniteness to their aims. The movement at least indicates
that social advancement has assumed the form of a distinct and comprehen-
sive problem, and is drawing to itself the deliberate attention of thoughtful
persons of diverse nations and creeds.

2.	Mitigation of the Sufferings of War: Hospitals.— If wars are
still frequent and destructive, much more has been done of late to mitigate
the sufferings consequent upon armed conflicts. The right of an invading
force to ravage the territory of an enemy has seldom been practically asserted
in this century. Non-combatants, according to the modern rules 01 war, are
not to be molested. Their property, if it is taken, is to be paid for at its fair
value. The doctrine that requisitions may be made by a commander is not
yet abandoned. It was acted on by Napoleon on a large scale. It was not
approved by Wellington. There is a growing opinion against it. It is not now
held to be a crime for an officer to hold a fortress as long as he can. In
the care of the sick and the wounded, there has been a great change for the
better. The ambulance system, or the system of movable hospitals accom-
panying armies on the field, was established by the French, with the approval
of Napoleon, in 1795. name amlmlance is also frequently given to the
vehicles for transporting the wounded and sick. The whole ambulance
system was completely organized in the American civil war, and defined by
an Act of Congress in 1864. To a French surgeon is due, also, the estab-
lishment of a corps of stretcher-bearers. By the European Convention adopted
at Geneva (1864), the wounded, and the whole official staff connected with
ambulances, are exempted from capture as prisoners of war. For the more
efficient organization of hospitals, a great service was rendered by the exam-
ple of Florence Nightingale, an English lady, who, at the head of a company
of volunteer nurses, during the Crimean war, created a great establishment
of this sort at Scutari (1854). The increased pains-taking in the method of
building, in the ventilation and general management of hospitals, during the
last half-century, has gone far towards freeing them from the dangers and
evils to which they were formerly subject.

Sanitary Science. — Sanitary science, and the engineering connected with it, belong
to the oresent century, and mainly to the second half of it. Systems of drainage have been
devisea which involve much mechanical skill, not to dwell on their usefulness in promoting
health. Prior to 1815, in England, the law forbade the discharge of sewage in water-drains.632

MODERN HISTORY.

The law of 1847 required that which up to 1815 was prohibited. The great change on this
whole subiect dates from ihe cholera of 1832, which awoke public attention to the sources of
disease, l'he condition of the poor, and the discussions relating to it, lent a new stimulus to
the inquiry. A series of English reports, from 1842 to 1848, had a great influence in producing
a sanitary reform, in the particulars referred, in England and in other countries.

3.	Public Education. — During the present century, systems of general
education have been established in different countries.. In a part of the
United States, an effective common-school system has always existed. In
Germany also, especially in Prussia, there have long been thorough provis-
ions for the instruction of all the young in elementary branches, in France,
in consequence of the laws requiring primary schools in all the communes of

. any considerable size, the average of illiteracy has of late steadily diminished.
In 1881, in France, instruction in the public primary schools was made abso-
lutely free. England has witnessed a very great change in the legal estab-
lishment of means of instruction in the rudiments of knowledge for the
whole people. The Education Act of 1876 required that every child between
the ages of five and fourteen should receive such teaching. In England, and
in some other countries, the employment of children who have not had a
certain amount of school instruction was prohibited by law. In the new king-
dom of Italy, every commune having four thousand inhabitants was required
by law (1859) to maintain a primary school. By subsequent legislation, the
compulsory principle was adopted as far as the circumstances of the coun-
try would allow* The result has been a most remarkable diminution in the
numbers of the wholly illiterate class. Other European states have made
primary education compulsory. For instance, in Hungary, attendance at
school was made obligatory for children from the beginning of the eighth to
the end of the twelfth year. Such measures in behalf of general education as
governments have adopted in recent times are founded, to be sure, partly on
the conscious need of self-protection against ignorance and its baleful con-
sequences to the state. A more directly humane impulse, however, mingles
with this motive. The operation of benevolent feeling is seen in the multi-
plying of special schools for the benefit of the blind, of the deaf and dumb,
and even of imbeciles.

4.	Reform of Criminal Law. — The advance of humane sentiment
has produced a reform of criminal law. In England, in the closing part of
the last century, there were two hundred and twenty-three offenses that were
punished with death. To injure Westminster-Kridge, to cut down young
trees, to shoot at rabbits, to steal property of the value of five shillings, were
capital offenses. Vigorous and persevering opposition was made to the
mitigation of this bloody code. Sir Samuel Romilly (1757-1818) began his
effort at reform by endeavoring to secure the repeal of these cruel laws, one
by one. His bills, when carried with difficulty through the Commons, were
repeatedly thrown out by the House of Lords. One of the most strenuous
opponents of the change was the. Lord Chancellor, Eldott. Lord Ellen-
boroughy the chief justice, stigmatized the proposed alteration of the statutes
as the fruit of "speculation and modern philosophy." It was predicted, that,
if it were made, there would be a terrible increase of crime. Sir James
Mackintosh continued with success the effort of Romilly. In 1837 the list of
capital offenses had been reduced to seven. One consequence was the
striking diminution of crime. Another reform in England was that of the
police-system (1816). The officers of the police had encouraged crime in
order to secure the reward of forty pounds offered by the government on

* conviction, in the case of crimes of a certain grade.

5.	Prison-Discipline Reform. — One of the distinctions of modern
philanthropy is the prison-discipline reform. When Howard began his
labors (1773), the prisons in England were generally dirty, pestiferous dens,
crowded with inmates of both sexes, — nurseries of loathsome disease, and
of still more loathsome vice. Soon after this time, a serious effort began toUNITY OF MANKIND.

633

make prisons a means of reform, instead of schools of debauchery and
crime. There was a movement for the erection of penitentiaries of improved
construction. This was aided by the exertions of Jeremy Bentham. The
most successful efforts in behalf of a better system of management in prisons
were made by members of the Society of Friends. Of these, the most useful
person in this cause was Mrs. Elizabeth Gurney Fry (1780-1845), a woman of
rare powers of mind and of the noblest Christian character, liy her personal
influence, she wrought such a transformation of character and behavior
among the female convicts in Newgate Prison as it had been deemed im-
possible to effect. The reforms which Mrs. Fry effected spread to other
places. Her labors were not confined to Great iiritain. She visited France
(1838), Belgium, Holland, and other countries. Her correspondence in the
interest of the cause which she served extended to Russia and Italy. Her
recommendations bore fruit for good in almost all parts of Europe. Signal
improvements in plans of construction, and in the interior life of prisons,
have been effected under the auspices of the Prison Discipline Society in
England. In these changes, the example of changes and reforms in this
matter in the United States has had a marked influence. The two ^reat
ends kept in view at present in the arrangements and occupations of prisons
are the reform of the criminal, and the deterring of others from the commis-
sion of crime. Distinct establishments for the detention, reform, and training
of juvenile offenders, who were formerly corrupted by association with crim-
inals mature in vice, are peculiar to recent times. The transportation of
English convicts to Australia began in 1787. ^ As these multiplied, there
sprang up cruelty on. the part of supervisors in the colonies; and in the
penal settlements where the worst offenders were guarded, there were found
the most corrupt and degraded herds of criminals. The opposition in the
colonial communities to transportation found support in England. In 1840
deportation to New South Wales ceased. At length Van Dieman's Land
also refused to receive this forced emigration even of released convicts.
The British Government was obliged to rely on other methods of punish-
ment, especially on the graduation of the term of confinement according to
the conduct of the criminal.

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

Unity amid Diversity. — The path of human progress has led
in the direction of unity as the ultimate goal. It is, however, a
unity in variety toward which the course of history has moved.
The development and growth of distinct nations, each after its
own type, and, not less, the freedom of the individual to realize
the destiny intended for him by nature, are necessary to the full
development of mankind, — necessary to the perfection of the
race. The final unity that is sought is to be reached, not by stifling
the capacities of human nature, but by the complete unfolding of
them in all their diversity. The modern era has made an ap-
proach towards this higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and
manifold development. An enlightened man, Prince Albert of
England, remarked in a public address (1850) : "Nobody who
has paid any attention to the peculiar features of our present era
will doubt for a moment that we are living at a period of most
wonderful transition, which tends rapidly to accomplish that great
end to which, indeed, all history points, the realization of the unity
of mankind/ Not a unity which breaks down the limits and levels634

MODERN HISTORY.

the peculiar characteristics of the different nations of the earth,
but rather a unity the result and product of those very national
varieties and antagonistic qualities."

In concluding this volume, it is proper to advert to some of the
signs and means of this unification of mankind, which belong to
the recent era.

1.	Industrial Exhibitions. — The words quoted above from Prince
Albert were spoken in anticipation of the Great International Exhibition in
London* in 1854. The industrial exhibitions, in which the products of many
nations are collected, and to which visitors are drawn from different parts
of the earth, are one indication of the effect of manufactures and commerce
in drawing mankind together. The first displays of this kind were for French
manufactures alone, and were held in Paris in 1798, and, under the consulate
of Napoleon, in 1801 and 1802. The first international exposition was in
Paris in 1844; and it was followed by the " World's Fair " in London (1850),
for which the vast edifice called " the Crystal Palace," made of iron and of
glass, was constructed. Similar exhibitions were held in New York (1853),
in Paris in 1855 and again in 1867, in Constantinople, Amsterdam, Vienna,
(1873), in Philadelphia on the hundredth anniversary of American independ-
ence (1876), and in other places not set down in this enumeration. In these
fairs, the products of the industry of the far East were shown by the side of
the products of European and American manufacture.

2.	Economical Enlightenment. — In connection with the wide exten-
sion of commerce, the better methods and ideas which have come into
vogue in respect to commercial relations deserve notice. The system of
credit, facilitating trade and forming a bond of confidence and of union be-
tween different nations, although it began in the Middle Ages, was not fairly
established until the organization of the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609. This
system, if it is "one of the most powerful engines of warfare," is likewise
'♦one of the great pledges of peace." The stimulus given to manufactures
by mechanical inventions has been an effective promoter of commercial
intercourse. The teaching of Adam Smithy and of the political economists
since his time, by which it is seen that the gain of one nation is not the loss
of another, and that nations are mutually benefited by the interchange of
the products of their labor, which is the true source of wealth, has operated
as an antidote to discord. The ruin of a neighbor, or non-intercourse with
him, has been discovered to be as contrary to the demands of a prudent
self-interest as of a disinterested benevolence.

3.	Community in Science and Letters. —The community of litera-
ture and science has been growing more cosmopolitan. The barriers created
by differences of language are overcome. The custom of learning foreign
languages has become more diffused. The most important writings, in what-
ever country they appear, circulate through translations in all other civilized
lands. All well-stored libraries are polyglot,

4.	Widened Political System.-«»In the political relations of coun-
tries, it is found necessary to comprehend all parts of the globe in the politi-
cal system, in the right adjustment of which each country has a stake, and
over which stretches an acknowledged code of international law. The more
civilized countries of Asia, China and Japan, more and more hold them-
selves amenable to the rules comprised in the law of nations.

5.	International Philanthropy. — The growth of humane feeling, of
the interest felt in man as man, engendered a spirit of universal philan-
thropy. For example, the hostility to the slave-trade led to th« treatment
of it as' piracy by the municipal laws and by the treaties of several na-
tions, while it is prohibited and punished by nearly all of the countries of
Europe. This is tne direct result of a heightened respect for man and for theCHRISTIAN MISSIONS.	635

rights of human nature, however poor or degraded man may be. Instances
have occurred in which help has been generously given to sufferers bv fire
or famine, by strangers in remote lands. A famine in Persia called out lib-
eral contributions from America. Examples of the exercise of justice and
kindness towards distant nations may remind the reader of opposite examples
of wrong and cruelty. We are pointing out, however, only the drift of sen-
timent ; and it must be remembered that the facts which nave been referred
to as illustrative of the growth of philanthropy, are such as never occurred
in former ages.

6. Christian Missions. The spread of the Christian religion by mis-
sionary efforts is one of the means of unifying mankind. In ancient times
and in the Middle Ages, the two great achievements of the Church were the
conversion of the Roman Empire, and then of the barbarian nations by whom
it was subverted. But, in the Middle Ages, there was also missionary labor,
here and there among the Saracens and in the lands of the East. Since the
thirteenth century, missions in the Roman Catholic Church have been chiefly
prosecuted by the monastic orders. In this work, the Jesuits, from the first
establishment of their order, were conspicuously active in all quarters of the
globe. Of their missionaries, none have been more eminent and zealous
than Francis Xavicr (1506-1552), who died just as he was about to undertake
the conversion of China. Protestants, in the period after the Reformation,
were too busy in the struggles going forward in their own lands, to under-,
take foreign missions on an extended scale. Yet they were not indifferent
to the importance of the work. Under the protectorate of Cromwelly an
ordinance established a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New
England (1649). ^ !701 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts was established in England. Later, tne Moravians from the
beginning evinced great interest in foreign missions, and planted missionary
stations in several countries. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Congre-
gation of the Propaganda was founded in 1622, for the general superintend-
ence of missionary operations. Colleges for their training were established,
the chief of which was the "Urban College" at Rome, where students from
all nations have been educated for missionary service.

The nineteenth century has been marked by an extraordinary outburst
of missionary activity. In this sort of exertion the Roman Catholic body
has kept up an unflagging zeal. Within the various Protestant denomina*
tions, a remarkable increase of fervor and of success in this department
of Christian labor has been witnessed. In the room of seven societies for
this purpose at the end of the last century, there were in 1880, in Europe
and America, seventy organizations. At this last date, there were not les&
than twenty-four hundred ordained Europeans and Americans employed in
this service, besides a great number of assistants, both foreign and native.
The native converts numbered not less than 1,650,000. The yearly contribu-
tions for the support of the missions increased proportionately. In 1882
British contributions alone amounted to .£1,090,coo. It is not an exaggera-
tion to say that the globe is now u covered with a net-work of Christian
outposts."

The following passage, slightly abbreviated, from a German writer, presents a glowing sketch
of the wide extension of recent missionary labors:—

" At the beginning of this century, the island world of the Pacific was shut against the
gospel: but England and America have attacked those lands so vigorously in all directions,
especially through native workers, that whole groups of islands, even the whole Malayan
Polynesia, is to-day almost entirely Christianized, and in Melanesia and Micronesia the misston-
fiela is extended every yenr. The gates of British East India have been thrown open wider
and wider during this century; at first for English, then for all missionaries. This great king-
dom, from Cape Comorin to the Punjaub and up to the Himalayas, where the gospel is knocking
on the door of Thibet, has been covered, with hundreds of mission-stations, closer than the
mission-net which at the close of the first century surrounded the Roman empire; the largest
and some of the smaller islands of the Indian Archipelago, Sumatra, Java. Borneo, Celebes, and
now New Guinea also, are occupied, partly on the coast and partly in tne interior. Burmah,636	MODERN HISTORY.

and in part Siam, is open to the gospel; and China, the most powerful and most populous
of heathen lands, forced continually to open her doors wider, has been traversed by individual
pioneers of the gospel, to Thibet and Burmah, and half of her provinces occupied from Hong-
Kong and Canton, to Peking; and in Manchuria, if by only a thin chain, yet at many of the
principal points, stations have been founded, while the population overflowing into Australia
and America is being labored with by Protestant missionaries. Japan ajso, hungry for reform,
by granting entrance to the gospel has been quickly occupied by American and English mis-
sionary societies, and already, after so little labor, has scores of evangelical congregations.
Indeed, the aboriginal Australians have, in some places, been reached, in the lands of Islam,
from the Balkans to Bagdad, from Egypt to Persia, there have been common central evangeli-
zation stations established in the chief places, for Christians and Mohammedans, by means of
theological and Christian medical missions, conducted especially by Americans. Also in the
primitive seat of Christianity, Palestine, from Bethlehem to Tripoli, and to the northern bound-
aries of Lebanon, the land is covered by a network of Protestant schools, with here and there
an evangelical church. Africa, west, south, and east, has been^vigorously attacked; in the
west, from Senegal to Gaboon, yes, lately even to the Congo, by Great Britain, Basel, Bremen,
and America, which have stations all along the coast. South Africa at the extremity was
evangelized by German, Dutch, English, Scotch, French, and Scandinavian societies. Upon
both sides, as in the centre, Protestant missions, although at times checked by war, are con-
tinually pressing to the north; to the left, beyond the Walfisch Bay; to the right, into Zululandy
up to Delagoa Bay; in the centre, to the Bechuana and Basuto lands. In the east, the sun
of the Gospel, after a long storm, has burst forth over Madagascar in such brightness that it
can never again disappear. Along the coasts from Zanzibar and the Nile, even to Abyssinia,
' out-stations have been established, and powerful assaults made by the Scotch, English, and
recently also by the American mission and civilization, into the very heart of the I)ark Conti-
nent, even to the great central and east African lakes. In America, the immense plains of the
Hudson's Bay Territory, from Canada over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, have
not only been visited by missionaries, but have been opened far and wide to the gospel through
rapidly growing Indian missions. In the United States, hundreds of thousands of freednien
have been gathered into evangelical congregations; and, of the remnants of the numerous
Indian tribes, some at least have been converted through the work of evangelization by various
churches, and have awakened new hope for the future. In Central America and the West
Indies, as far as the country is under Protestant home nations, the net of evangelical missions
has been thrown from island to island, even to the mainland in Honduras, upon the Mosquito
Coast; and in British and Dutch Guiana it has taken even firmer hold. Finally, the lands on
and before the southern extremity of the continent, the Falkland Islands, Terra del Fuego,
and Patagonia, received the first light through the South American Missionary Society (in
London); and recently its messengers have pushed into the heart of the land, and are rapidly
pressing on to the banks of the great Amazon, to the Indians of Brazil."

Results of Missions. —In carrying forward missionary work
during the nineteenth century, the Bible has been translated into
numerous languages. Missionaries, as in the early days of the
Church, have reduced the languages of uncultivated peoples to
writing, and made the beginning of native literatures. Schools, col-
leges, and printing-presses follow in the path of the preachers. The
contributions made to philology and to other branches of science
by missionary preachers and explorers are of high value. As far
as the number of converts is concerned, progress has been more
rapid, as was the case in the first Christian centuries, among un-
civilized tribes. The reception of Christianity is more slow in a
country like China, and among the Aryan inhabitants of India.
But the influence exerted by missions in such communities is not
to be measured by the number of converts. Moreover, history
has often shown, that, in the spread of the Christian religion, the
first steps are the most slow and difficult: they are like the early
operations in a siege. Sir Bartle Frere writes thus: " Statistical
facts can in no way convey any adequate idea of the work done
in any part of India. The effect is enormous where there has not
beert a single avowed conversion. The teaching of Christianity
amongst a hundred and sixty millions of civilized, industriousRESULTS OF MISSIONS.

637

Hindoos and Mohammedans in India, is effecting changes, moral,
social, and political, which for extent and rapidity in effect are far
more extraordinary than any that have been witnessed in modern
Europe." Of the same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong
terms by Sir Henry Lawrence, governor-general of India during
the mutiny of 1857, and a most competent judge.

It is worthy of remark, as one characteristic of the Christian
missions of the recent period, that the religions of the non-Chris-
tian nations have been studied more thoroughly, and the true and
praiseworthy elements in them have been better appreciated.

The progress made in the past encourages the hope that the
unity of mankind, a unity which shall be the crown of individual
and national development, will one day be reached. That unity
of mankind, in loyal fellowship with Him in whose image man
was made, is the community of which the ancient Stoic vaguely
dreamed, and which the apostles of Christ proclaimed and pre-
dicted, — the perfected kingdom of God.

Literature. Sec lists on pp. i6, 359, 395, 496. Alison, Hist, of Europe Atom 1815 to
185a (8 vols.); Bulle, Gesch, d. neuesten Zeit> 1815-1871 (2 vols.);,Wernicke, Die Gesch. d.
neuesten Zeit (1789-1873), 2 vols.; Beaumont-Vassy, Hist, des Etats Europeans depuisle
Congris de Vienne (6 vols.); Mackenzie, The Nineteenth Century; Cantu, Les Trente
Derniires Annies (1848-1878); The Annual Register (London: a volume published for
each year); Miiller, Political History of Recent Times (Peters's translation, 1882); Muller,
Polttische Gesch. d. Gegenwart (an annual, since 1867); Honegger, Grundsteine einer
allgem. Culturgeschichte d neuesten Zeit (5 vols.)

Works on the History of Italy. Wrightson, History of Modern Italy (1789-1850); Arri-
vabene, Italy under Victor Emmanuel (2 vols.); frrobyn, Italy > from 1815-1878; Lives
of Cavour, by I)e la Rivfc (English translation), by E. Dicey, by Mazade (French); Life and
Writings of Mazzini (6 vols.).

Works on the History of Germany. Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte; De Worms,
Austro-Hungarian Empire; Busch, Bismarck in the Franco-Prussian War (3 vols.).

Works on the History of France. H. Martin, Popular History of France, from ij8q
(3 vols.); Hillebrand, Gesch. Fratikreichs (1830-1870); Louis Blanc, The History of Ten
Years (1830-1840); Lamartine, Hist. de la Rivolution de 1848 (2 vols.); Guizot, Memoirs
of His Own Time (1807-1848), (4 vols.); Delord, Hist, dn Second Empire (6 vols.); Victor
Ifu^o, The Historv of a Crime [the usurpation of Louis Napoleon]; Le Gofi", Life of
Thiers; Simon, The Government of MThiers (from 1871-1873), (3 vols.).

Works on the History of England. Harriet Martineau, The History of England (1800-
*854); Walpole, A History of England, from 1815 (3 vols., 1878-1880); Molesworth, The
History of England (1830-1874); Justin McCarthy, A History of Our Own Times (1878-
1880); Kmglake, The invasion of the Crimea (6 vols.); Seeley. The Expansion of Eng-
land ; Rutherford, The Fenian Conspiracy ; Richey, The Irish Land Laws ; King, The
Irish Question.

Works on History of the United States, Benton, Thirty Years' View [1820-1850]; Johns-
ton, History of American Politics ; De Tocquevii.lr, Democracy in America (2 vols.);
Porter, Outline of United States Constitutional History ; Bancroft. History of the Forma-
I'fn{he Constitution of the United States (2 vols.); Roosevelt, The Naval War of 1812 i
H. H. Bancroft, History of California, a part of an extended series of works by the same
author, in relation to the progress and destiny of the Pacific States; it includes 7he Native
Races of the Pacific (5 vols.); Histories 01 the Mexican War, by S. S. Ripley, by A. A.
Livermore; Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power; Blaine, Twenty
Ytars tn Congress ; Histories of the Civil War, by the Count of Paris (2 vols.), by A. Mahan,
by J. W Draper, by H. Greeley, by A. H. Stephens, by E. A. Pollard (The Lost Cause);
Swinton s Twelve Decisive liattles of the [Civil] War; Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sher-
man, by himself; Badeau, Military History of Ulysses S. Grant; Frank Moore, The Re-
bellion Record (1861-1871); Biography of Gallatin, by H. Adams; of yacksont by Parton, ,
by W. G. Sumner; of Madison, by Rives; of J. Q. Adams, by Morse; of Josiah Quincv, by
Edmund Quincy; of Webster, by G. T. Curtis, by Ixxlge; of Clay, by Colton; 01 Calhoun.
by CralhS; of Sumner, by E. L. Pierce; of Lincoln, by Stoddard; of Greeley, by Parton; ol
Seward, by I1. W. Seward; of W. L% Garrison, by O. Johnson, by W, P. Garrison; The638	MODERN HISTORY.

American Commonwealths, a series of histories of the separate States (edited by H. E.
Scudder); writings of J. Q. Adams, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, E. Everett, C. Sumner, W. H.
Seward; John Fiske, American Political Ideas,

Literary Biographies. Life of Walter Scott, by Lockhart; of Jeffrey, by Cockbum ; of
Macaulay, by 'irevelyan; of Arnold, by Stanley; of Dickens, by Forster; of Carlyle, by
Froude ; of George Eliot [Mrs. Lewes], by Cross. Life 0/Irving, by P. M. Irving; ol
Bryant, by Parke Godwin ; Life and Letters of George Ticknor; Life of Ripley, by Froth-
ingham ; Series of " American Men of Letters," including Washington Irving, by Warner;
x Cooper, by J. R. Lounsbury ; Emerson, by O. W. Holmes, etc.

Argyll, fhe Eastern Question, 185b to 1858, and the Second Afghan War; Taylor,
Russia before and after the War [of 1877] (1880); Daily News Correspondence of the War
between Russia and Turkey [1877-78] (2 vols.); Baker Pasha, tVartn Bulgaria (a vols.);
Wallace, Egypt and the Egyptian Question; Malleson, History of Afghanistan; Labil-
liere, Early History of the Colony of Victoria (a vols.): Grant and Knollys, The China
War of i8bo; Scott, France and 'lotigking [in 1884]; VamWry, Central Asia; Stanley,
Congo and the Founding of its Free State (a vols.).

Rae, Contemporary Socialism; Woolsey, Communism and Socialism; Kaufman,
Socialism.INDEX.

Abbreviations. —k. <= king; q.« queei
archbishop j H. R. E. =

Aachen, see Aix-la-Chapelle.

Aahmcs, k. of Egypt, I., 40; II., 42.
Aaron, 56.

Abassicles, 229.

Abderrahman, I., 229, 231, 235 j III., 282.

Abdurrahman Khan, 594.

Abelard, 306.

Abercrombie, Gen., 482.

Abraham, s5.

Absalom, 60.

Absyrtus, 82.	-

Abubekr. 227.

Abul Abbas, 229.

Abu Talib, 224.

Acadians, expelled from their homes, 482.
Achaia, a Roman province, 151.

Achaian League, 119.

Achaians, 149.

Acre, battle at, 284; siege of, 518.
Acropolis of Athens, 98.

Act of Uniformity, 458.

Adalbert, abp. of Bremen, 264.

Adams, Charles Francis, 607.

Adams, John, 488, 490, 536, 538, 544.
Adams, John Quincy, 602, 627. '

Adams, Samuel, 486.

Addington, 521,

Addison. 492.

Adelheid, wife of Otto I., 262. 263.
Adolphus of Nassau, elected k. of Ger-
many, 312; 332.

Adrian VI., Pope, 400.

Adrianople. battle of, 204.

./Kgatian Islands, battle at, 144,

yKgean League, 112.

/Klia Capitolina, 182.

./Kneas, 126.

./Kolians, 78.

./Kquian war, 134.

yiCschines, 112.

/Kschylus, 98,100.

./Ethelred IL (the Unready), k. of Eng-
land, 248.

Aetius, general under Placidia, 208-210.
,/Etolian League, 119.

./Etolians, 149.

; emp. «= emperor J bp. ass bishop; abp. =
s Holy Roman Empire.

Afghanistan, <559; and Russia, 594; war

with the British, 59^.

Africa, a Roman province, 151; conquest
of by the Vandals, 208; governed by
the Arian Vandals, 213; its conquest
by Justinian, 219; conquered by the
Moslems, 231.

Agassiz, Louis, 621, 622.

Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, 55.
Agesilaus, k. of Sparta, 109.

Agincourt. battle of, 326.

Agis, k. of Sparta, III., 118; IV., 119.
Aglaites, 231.

Agnes, mother of Henry IV., 264.

Agrarian laws, 153.

Agricola, governor of Britain, 180.

Agrigentum, capture of, 143.

Agrippina (wife of Claudius), 177.

Ahab, k. of Israel, 61.

Ahaz, k. of Judah, 46.62.

Ahmed Khan, ruler ot the Afghans, 594,

Ahriman, Persian god, 64.

Aistulf, 221, 235.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's capital,

238; treaty of, 433; peace of, 476.
Akbar, 450.

Alaric, k. of West Goths, in Italy, 205;

again in Italy, 206; his death, 207.
Alans, 204, 206, 207.

Alberoni, 467.

Albert I.,of Austria, emp. H.R.E.,332,335.

Albert the Bear, 205.

Albert of Saxe-CoGurg, 560.

Albert, k. of Sweden, 346.

Albigensian war, 297.

Alboin, 221.

Albornoz, Cardinal, 339.	*

Alca;us, 90.

Alcibiades, his influence, 104-106.
Alcmaeonidae, 89.

Alcuin, 238, 239.

Alemanni, one of the Germanic confed-
eracies, 201, 212.

Alessandria built, 277.

Alexander, czar, of Russia, 1., 524, 526,
549; n., 587.

639640

INDEX.

Alexander of Parma, 417.

Alexander, Pope, JI., 250; JII., 277, 294;
VI., 318, 379, 383.

Alexander the Great, k. of Macedonia,
31, 54, 101, 113; in Greece, 113; his
army, 113; campaigns, to the battle of
Issus, 114; to the battle of Arbela, 114;
to the invasion of Jndia, 115; his death,
115,116; his influence, 116; his success-
ors, 116.

Alexander the Younger, 116; put to death,
117.

Alexandria, founded, 115; captured by
Persians, 222; captured by Arabians,
227, 228; bombarded by the English,
596.

Alexis, czar of Russia, 470.

Alexius I., Commenus, Greek emp., 270,
273-

Alfieri, 543.

Alfonso v., k. of Ara^on, 338, 374.

Alfonso VI., of Castile and Leon, 282,
343; X., the Wise, of Castile, 331, 342;
XL, 342.

Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, 585.

Alfonso, k. of Portugal, 1., 343; IV.,

Alfred (the Great), k. of England, 247.

Algiers, at war with the U.S., 540 j cap-
tured by the French, 555.

Alhambra, castle of,. 370.	'

Ali, 227, 228.

Allah-ud-din, 358.

Allen, Ethan, 487.

Allia, battle of, 136.

Allston, W., 546.

Almagro, 390.

Al Mamun, 230.

Almansor, 229.

Almanzor, 282.

Almohades invade Spain, 341.

Almoravides invade Spain, 341.

Alp Arslan, sultan, 270.

Altranstadt, peace of, 472.

Alva, duke of, 416.

Alvaro de Luna, 342.

Alvinzi, 577. ,

Alzog, 628.

Amadeus I., k. of Spain, 585.

Amadeus II., k. of Sardinia, 467.

A malaric, Arian k., 214.

Amasis, see Aahmes II.

Amazon, the, 391.

Amboise, conspiracy of, 419.

Ambrose, abp. of Milan, 194.

Amenemhat I., 111., ks. of Egypt, 39.

Amenophis II., k. of Egypt, 40.

America, discovery of, ^88; colonization
in, 441-445; the Indians in, 445; the
white and red men, 446; contest of
England and France in, 479 sea.; colo-
nies in, 479 seq. (See United States,
South America, etc.)

Amerigo Vespucci, 389.

Ames, Fisher, 537.

Amherst, Lord, 482,

Amiens, peace of, 521.

Amos, 62.

Amphictyonic Council, 112.

Amrov, 227.

Anacreon, 90.

Anastasius, Greek emp., 213, 218, 219.
Anaxagoras, 91.

Anaximander, 91.

Anaximenes, 91.

Anchorites, 192.

Ancyra, battle of, 352.

Andalusia, 207.

Anderson, Major, 606.

Andr6, Major, 489.

Andrew II., k. of Hungary, 350.

Andros, Sir Edmund, 483.

Angles, settle in Britain, 215; see Anglo-
Saxons.

Anglo-Saxons; see Angles, Saxons.

Anne, q. of England, 464, 465.

Anne of Austria, 452.

Anne of Beaujeu, 368.

Anne Boleyn, 406, 407.

Anne of Brittany, 368, 384.

Anselm, 290, 306.

Ansgar, 239.

Antalcidas, peace of, 109.

Anthony of Thebes, 192.

Antietam, battle of, 608.

Antigone, 81.

Antigonus, 117.

Antigonid®, 117.

Antioch, 120; capture of, 219; falls into

the hands of the Saracens, 227.
Antiochus, ks. of Syria, 1., 120; II., 120;
HI., the Great, 118, 120,148,149; IV.,
120, 149.

Antipater, 116-118, 121.

Antisthenes, 107.

Antoninus Pius, Roman emp., 182.
Antonius, Marcus, 166; defeated by D.
Brutus, 167; second triumvirate, 167;
defeats J. Brutus and Cassius, 167;
governor of the East, 167, follows Cle-
opatra, 167; his death, 167.

Apelles, 102.

Aphrodite, 80, 133.

Apollo, 81; worship of, 83, 132.
Apollodorus, 102.

Apostles, the, 171.

Appius Claudius, decemvir, 135; consul,

141, 144.

Apries II., k. of Egypt, 42, 49.

Aquze Sextise, battle of, 155.

Aquinas, Thomas, 306.

Aquitam, one of the three nations of
Gaul, 163; Aquitaine, received by the
Suevi, 207; 292; 322.

Arabia, condition of in the sixth century,
223, 224; Arabic conquests, Syria, Per-INDEX.

641

sia, Egypt, 227; the Ommiads, conquest
of Africa and Spain, 228; Abassides,
229; Mohammedan states, 227-231;
the Arabian mind, 232.

Arabi Pasha, 595, 596.

Aragon, 341; constitution of, 342; the

Aragonese, 343. (See Spain.)

Arago, 565.

Aratus, 119.

Arbela, battle of, 114.

Arcadius, Greek emp., 205.

Archelaus, 157.

Archias, 118.

Archilochus, 90.

Archimedes, 148.

Archytas, 108.

Areopagus, 88, 97.

Argentine Republic, 551.

Argonauts, 81.

Ar^os, allied with Athens, 109.

Arians, persecution of, 212.

Ariosto, 393.

Ariovistus, 163.

Aristagoras, 93.

Aristides, 94, 96.

Aristippus, 107.

AristoDulus, k. of the Jews, 160.
Aristodemus, Messenian hero, 87.
Aristogiton, 80.

Aristomenes, 87.

Aristophanes, 98, 101.

Aristotle, 107, 113.

Arius, 192.

Arkwright, Richard, 493.

Armagnacs, 325.

Armenia, Romap province, 182.

Arminius, 172.

Arnauld, 455.

Arndt, 545.

Arnold, Benedict, 487.

Arnold, Matthew, 62c, 626.

Arnold, Dr. T., on the value of physical

geography, 8; 626.

Arnold of Winkelried, 335..

Arnulf, k« of Germany, 242, 245.
Artaphernes, 93, 04.

Artaxerxes, k. of Persia, I., 95; II., 109;
III., 106.

Arthur, Chester A., pres. of the U.S., 611.
Arthur, Celtic k. of Britain, 307.

Arthur, duke of Brittany, 295.

Articles of Confederation, 487.

Arpads, in Hungary, 350.

Arras, peace of, 367.

Arrhidaeus, 116.

Aryans, see India, xo; on the Ganges, 27.
Ascalon, battle ot, 274.

Ascanius, 126,

Ascelin, 289.

Aschera, Phoenician deity, 53, 62.

Asia, physical geography of, 18; character
of its people, 19; religion in, 10; priest-
hoods in, 19; literature and art in, 19.

Askabat, 595.

Asoka, k. of Behar, 30.

Aspasia, 98.	♦

Aspern, battle of, 528.

Asshur-bani-pal V., 47.

Asshur-nasir-bal, 46.

Assyria, 42, 47; empire of, 45 5 growth of
its power, 45 ; religion and art, 47; fall
of, 47; a Roman province, 182. (See
Babylon, Nineveh.)

Astarte, Phoenician goddess, 53.

Astyages, k. of Media, 66.

Atahualpa, 390.

Athanagild, 220.

Athanasius, 192, 194.

Athaulf, 207.

Athelstan, k. of England, 247.

Athens, government in, 87; parties, 89;
democracy, 89; effect of democracy, 90;
ascendency of, 96; in the age of Peri-
cles, 97, 98; religion, 99; tragic drama,
100; comedy, 101; its fall, 105; Athe-
nian life, xo8; captured by Sulla, 157.
(See Greece.)

Atossa, wife of Darius, 67.

Attalus, k. of Pergamon, I., 149; III., 152.

Attalus, appointed emp. of Rome by Ala-
ric, 207.

AtticuSj 169.

Attila, in Gaul and Italy, 209, 210.

Auerbach, 628.

Auerstadt, battle of, 526.

Augsburg, interim of, 409; peace of, 410;
league of, 463.

Augustine, labors in Britain, 215.

Augustine, bp. of Hippo, 192, 208.

Augustus, Caesar Octavianus, emp. of
Rome, 168; the empire under, 168; lit-
erature under, 169; his death, 172.

Aulic council, 372. ■

Aurelian, Roman emp'., 187, 201.

Aurelius, Marcus, Roman emp., 182; war
with Parthia, 183; his death, 183.

Aurungzeb, 450.

Austen, Jane, 544.

Austerlitz, battle of, 525.

Austria, a Mark, 237; made a duchy,
275 ; house of Hapsburg, 331; acquires
the Hungarian crown, 372; counter-
reformation, 422; in the thirty years'
war, 422 seq»; result of the war, 429;
war of the Spanish succession, 423;
receives the Netherlands, etc., 466; war
of the Austrian succession, 475 : in the
seven years'war, 477; reforms ot Joseph
II., 495; alliance with Prussia against
France, 506; the first coalition, 508;
peace of Campo Formio, 517; victories
in Italy, 519; peace of Lun6ville, 520;
third coalition, 524; peace of Pressburg,
525; Francis 1. becomes emp. of Aus-
tria, 525; renewed war with France,
528 j peace of Vienna, 528 j war of lib-642

INDEX.

eration, 531; congress of Vienna, 532 J
in the Holy Alliance, 549 J influence in
Germany, 549; influence in Italy, 533;
revolts in Italy suppressed, 558 ^ revo-
lutionary movements in (1848),. 566;
conflict with Hungary, 567; war with
Sardinia, 569; war with France and
Sardinia, 572; loss of Lombardy, 573;
Austro-Prussian war, 575 seqAustro-
Hungarian empire, 579; occupies Bos-
nia and Herzegovina, 587 j alliance with
Prussia, 587.

Australia, 598, 599.

Austrasia, 214.

Avars, 221, 223.

Averrhoes, 232.

Avicenna, 232.

Avitus, Roman emp., 211.

Ayub Khan, 594.

Azeglio, 572.

Baal, Phoenician deity, 53.

Babar, 450.

Babeuf, 588.

Babylon, its relation to Assyria, 43; ge*
ography of, 43; early inhabitants, 43 j.

" ■ sources of knowledge of their history,.
43; old kingdom of Babylon, 44; early
annals of, 44; religion and science, 44 j
as one of the three principal powers, 40 j
city of, 49; Hebrew prophets on, 66
annexed to Persia, 66. .

Babylonian Captivity, 314, 354*

Bach, 39?.

Bacon, Francis, 435, 447,

Bacon, Roger, 306.

Bactria, 120.

Bagdad, seat of the caliphate; 229.

Bagehot, 621.

Bahram, 358.

Bailiy, 500, 503.

Baiazet, 351, 352; II., 379.

Baker (Pasha), 618.

Balaklava, battle at, 572.

Balboa, 389.

Ball, John, 324.

Baldwin, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon,
272, 273 ; k. of Jerusalem, 274,

Baldwin of Flanders, 270.

Balearic Isles, capture of, 219,

Baltimore, Lord, 445.

Balue, Cardinal, 366.

Balzac, 629.

Bain, Alexander, 623, *

Baur, Ferdinand Christian, 628, 629.

Bancroft, George, 627.

Banks, Gen. N. P., 608.

Bannockburn, battle of, 316.

Barante, 629.

Barbarians, three races of, 200; three
kingdoms of, 207.

Barclay, Robert, 494.

Barclay (Russian general), 530.

BarcochebaS, 182.

Barlow, Joel, 544.

Barmecides, 230.

Barth, 618.

Basel, council of, 334, 35$; Reformation

in, 403.

Basentius, river of, 207.

Basil II., Greek emp., 270.

Basil the Great (St. Basil), 223.

Basil V., czar of Russia, 382#

Basiliscus, 211.

Basques, 145, 236.

Bastiat, 623, 629.

Bastile, destruction of, 501#

Batavian Republic, 516.

Batis, 113,

Bautzen, battle of, 531.

Bavaria, 239; Henry III., d. of, 264; taken
from Henry the Proud, 275; struggle
of Welf in, 275; taken from Henry the
Lion, 278; Maximilian, duke of, in the
thirty years' war, 423; war of the Span-
ish succession, 464; in the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine, 525; supports Austria
in the Austro-Prussian war, 578; an
ally of Prussia in the Franco-Prussian
war, 581.

Bayard, Chevalier, 384,386.

Bellona, 132.

Beauhamais, Josephine, 517, 522.

Beaumont, 448.

Beauregard, 608.

Becket, Thomas &, 293, 294.

Bede, 251.

Bedr, battle of, 225.

Beethoven, 546.

Belg®, one of the three nations of Gaul, 163.

Belgium, 557.

Belisarius, 219, 220.

Belshazzar, k. of Babylon, 49.

Benedict XL, Pope, 314; XII., 333.

Benedict, St., 240.

Benedictines, 240.

Benningsen, 526.

Bennington, battle at, 488*

Bentham, Jeremy, 544.

B6ranger, 629.

Berbers, 228.

Berengar I., 245 ; II. (of Ivrea), 245, 262.
Berkeley, 402.

Berlin Conference (1878), 5861.

Berlin decree, 527.

Bernadotte, $30.

Bernard, St., 241.

Bernard of Weimar, 428.

Berne, Reformation in, 403.

Bertha, wife of Henry IV., 265.

Berzelius, 546.

Bessarabia, 553.

Bessus, lie.

Bible, Luther's translation of, 400; Eng-
lish version of, 435.

• Bienneviile, battle of, 290.INDEX.

643

Bierstadt, 630.

Bill of Rights, 462.

Birger Jarl, 346.

Bismarck, 577 sea., 583, <587, 592.

Black Death, in England, 319; in France,

319; in Germany, 333.

Blackmore, 625.

Blanc, Louis, 564, 629.

fBlanche of Castile, 298.

Blake, Admiral, 440.

Bleek, 628.

Blois, treaties of, 384.

Blucher, <531 seq.

Bluntschli, 629.

Boabdil, Moorish k., 370.

Boadicea, revolt of, 179.

Boccaccio, 339.

Bodin, 446.

Boeotia, defeats the Athenians, 104.
Bohemia, war of Ottocar II. with Rudolph,
332; John, king of, 248 ; Bohemian line
01 emperors, 333; Hussite struggle in,
334; union with Hungary, 372; revolt
against Ferdinand II., 423; devastation
01,423.

Bohemond of Tarentum, 273.

Boileau, 490.

Boleslav, k. of Bolemia, I., 261; II., 261.
Boleslav, k. of the Poles, I., 347; III., 348.
Bolivar, Simon, 551.

Bolivia, 551, 615.

Bonaparte, Louis, k. of Holland, 526.
Bonaparte, Lucien, 526.

Bonaparte, Jerome, 526.

Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon I,
Bond (astronomer), 621.

Bonheur, Rosa, 630.

Boniface, b. of Mentz, 234, 2^9.

Boniface, general under rlacidia, 208.
Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 279.
Boniface VIII., Pope, 312 seq., 335, 350,
354-

Booth, Wilkes, 610.

Bopp, 629.

Borgia Cresar, 378, 384.

Boris Godouno'f, czar of Russia, 382.

Borodino, battle of, 530.

Bossuet, 490.

Boston Port Bill, 486.

Botta, 543.

Bourclaloue, 490,

Bowen, Francis, 623,

Boyle, Robert, 493.

Boyne, battle of, 46a.

Braddock, Gen,, 481.

Bradshaw, 458.

Brahmans, their religion, 28 ; their philos-
ophy, 29; Brahmanical reaction, 31.
Bramante, 393.

Brandenburg, margrave of, an elector,
333; in the thirty years' war, 425; the
great elector. 454; the elector recog-
nized as k. ot Prussia, 466.

Brandywine, battle of, 488.

Brasidas, 103, 104.

Brazil, 552.

Bremer, Fredrika, 630.

Brennus, 136.

Breslau, peace of, 476.

BrStigny, treaty of, 321.

Brewster, Sir David, 621.

Britain, Caesar in, 163; Saxon conquest

(see England).

Britannicus (son of Claudius), 177.

British Indian empire, 478. {See India.)
Britons, revolt of, under Boaaicea, 179.
Brittany, independent, 213.

Brock, Gen., 541.

Broglie, 570.

Brook, Lord, 444.

Brougham, Lord, 631.

Brown (sculptor), 630.

Brown, Gen., 542.

Brown, John, 606.-
Brown, Thomas, 448, 544.

Browning, 625.

Brownson, Orestes A«, 628.

Bruce, David, 317j 319.

Bruce, Robert, claimant for the crown, 315.
Bruce, Robert, his coronation, 316; battle

of Bannockburn, 316.

Brugsch, 628.

Brundisium, 160.

Brunelleschi, 340, 393.

Brunhilde, 214.

Bruno, Giordano, 447.

Brutus, Decimus, 166.

Brutus, M. Junius, 166; his death, 167#
Bryant, VV. C , 626.

Buchanan, James, president of the United

States, 605.

Bucharest, peace of, 557.

Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of Eng-
land, 436.

Buddha, life of, 29; his doctrine, 29, 30 j

deification of, 30.

Buddhism, in China, 23 ; spread of, 30.
Buffon, 493. v
Bulgaria, 586.

Bulgarians cross the Danube, 220, 223 j

attack the Greek empire, 270.

Bull, the Golden, 333.

Bull Run, battle of, 608.

Bulwer, 625.

Bunker Hill, battle of, 486.

Bunsen, 621, 628.

Bunyan, John, 458.

Burgoyne, Gen., 488.

Burgundians, move towards the Rhine,
201; join with the Svievi, 206; con-
quered by the Franks, 214.

Burgundy, duchy of, separate from the
kingdom of B., 264; seized by John II.
of France, and given to Philip the Bold,
322; under Charles the Bold, 365;
united with France, 367; claimed, by644

INDEX.

Charles V. (whose claim was renounced
in 1544), 400.

Burgundy, kingdom of, its rise, 208; en-
larged, called Ariesy united to the em-
pire, 261.

Burke, Edmund, 478, 508.

Burkersdorf, battle of, 477.

Burlingame, Anson, 616.

Burns, Robert, 544.

Burnside, Gen. A. E., 608, 609.

Burr, Aaron, 539, 540.

Burrus, 177.

Burton, John Hill, 624.

Burton, Robert, 448.

Bushnell, Horace, 627.

Butler, b. Joseph, 492.

Butler, marquis of Ormondr439.

Buttmann, 629.

Butts, Isaac, 600.

Byron, Lord, 5 54«

Cabanel, 630.

Cabot, John, 389.

Cabot, Sebastian. 389.

Cabul, occupied by the English, 559.

Cade, Jack, rebellion of, 328.

Cadesia, battle of, 227.

Cadmus, 79.

Caesar, C. Julius, 162; consul, 162; tri-
umvir, 162; governs cisalpine and trans-
alpine Gaul, 162; campaigns in Gaul,
163; conquest of Gaul, 163 ; in Britain,
163; crosses the Rubicon, 164; defeats
Pompeius in Gaul and Spain, 165; in
Egypt? 165; victories in Pontus, 165;
in Africa and Spain, 165; character as
a civilian, 165; his government, 165 ;
rebuilds Carthage and Corinth, 166 j his
motives, 166; murder of, 166.

Cairnes, J. E., 623.

Calais, the siege of, 319.

Calderon, 447.

Calderwood, Professor, 622.

Calendar, the Julian, 9; the Gregorian, 9.

Calhoun, John C., <541, 603, 627.

California, admitted as a State, 605.

Caligula, Caius, 177, 218.

Caliphate, the Eastern, 229, 230} the Fa-
timite, 231.

Caliphs, their functions, 227.

Calixtus 111., Pope, 374.

Callinus, 90.

Calmar, union of, 346; Scandinavia after
the union of, 347.

Calonne, 500.

Calvin, John, 411; influence of Calvinism,
412.

Calverts, the, 445.

Cambray, league of, 384.

Cambyses, k. of Persia, 42, 67.

Cameron, 618.

Camillus, Marcus Furius, 136.

Camoens, 448.

Campbell, 544.

Campbell, Sir Colin, <94.

Campos, Martinez, <85.

Canada, the French in, 442; in Queen
Anne's, King George's, and King Wil-
liam's wars, 481; in the "old French
war," 482; ceded to Great Britain, 483,
597; in the American war of independ-
ence, 487; in the war of 1812-15, 541;
upper and lower Canada, 597 j Domin-
ion of, 597.

Cannae, battle of, 147.

Canning, 552.

Canova, 545.

Canrobert, Gen., 572.

Cantabrians, 145.

Canuleius, 135.

Canute, k. of England and Denmark, 248,
263; VI., of Denmark, 345.

Cappel, battle of, 403; peace of, 403.

Capreae, 176.

Capua, capture of, 147; surrender of, 148.

Caracalla, Roman emp., 186, 218.

Caraffa, Cardinal (Paul IV.), 413.

Carey, H. C., 623.

Carinthia, 223.

Carlists, the, 585.

Carlos, Don, pretender of Spain, 585.

Carlos, Don, prince of Vienne, 342.

Carlowitz, peace of, 458, 471.

Carlsbad resolutions, 550.

Carlyle, Thomas, 624.

Carneades, 151.

Carolinas, the, 480; Locke's constitution,
480; in the Revolution, 488; secession
of S. Carolina, 606; of N. Carolina, 607.

Carthage, settlement of, 52; history of,
54; ascendency of, 54; contest with
Pyrrhus in Sicily, 141; the Punic wars,
and conquest of, 143—148; Carthagini-
ans in Spain, 145 ; rebuilt, 166; reduced
by the Vandals, 208.

Cartier, Jacques, 441.

Cams, Roman emp., 187.

Casimir III., the Great, 348, 350; IV.,
372.

Cassander, son of Antipater, 117.

Cassiodorus, 212.

Cassius, 166.

Cassius, Spurius, law of, 134.

Castile? 342; constitution of, 342; the
Castilians, 343. [See Spain.)

Castlereagh, 532, 552.

Cateau-Cambresis, peace of, 418.

Catherine of Aragon, wife of Henry VIII.,
406.

Catherine de Medici, 418 seg,

Catherine II., q. of Russia, 477, 478.

Catholic League (in Germany), 423.

Catholic Reaction, 412.

Catiline, his conspiracy, 161; his death,
161.

Catinat, 465.INDEX.

645

Cato, M. Porcius,///* Elder, 150, 151; the
Younger, 161; takes possession of Cy-
prus, 162; supports Pompeius, 164.

Catulus, C. Lutatius, 144; treaty of, 146.

Cavaignac, 565, 570.

Cavour, 572, 574.

Cawnpore, massacre at, 593.

Caxton, William, 369.

Cecrops, 79.

Cellini, 393.

Celsus, 191,

Celtiberians, 145.

Celts, of Gaul, 163 ; of Britain, 163.

Cerealis, 180.

Ceres, see Demeter.

Cervantes, 447.

Chteronea, battles at, 113, 157.

Chaldaeans, 43, 44.

Chalmers. Thomas, 623, 626.

Chalons, battle of, 209, 210.

Champlain, 442.

Chancellorsville, battle of, 608.

Changarnier, ^70.

Channing, William Ellery, 627.

Chantrey, 630.

Charlemagne, 234; relation to the Saxons
and Saracens, 235; in Italy, 236; mean-
ing of his coronation, 237; his system
of government, 237; learning and cul-
ture under, 238; his personal traits, 238;
extent of his empire, 238; condition of
the people, 239; divisions in the em-
pire, 240, 245.

Charles Albert, k.of Sardinia, 553,558,568.

Charles of Anjou, 282, 298, 335.

Charles 11., the Bad, k. of Navarre, 320,321.

Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 365,
366.

Charles of Bourbon, 400.

Charles I., emp.	Charlemagne;

II., the Bald, 241, 242; III., the Fat,
342,243, 244; IV., 333; V. (I. of Spain),
399; rivalry with Francis I., 400, 401,
406, 408; Smalcaldic war, 408; breach
with Rome, 409; abdication, 414.

Charles I., k.of England, 436; in the civil
war, 437; his trial and execution, 438;
II.. 439, 454, 458, 459.

Charles l<ehx, 553.

Charles 111. the Simple, k. of France, 243,
247; V. the Wise, 3JJ, 322,123, 125;
V325» 327 > VII., 327 j and his nobles,
363; his death, 364; VIII., 368, 374,
3«3) 384 5 IX., 419, 554; flight of, 556.

Charles the Good, count of Flanders, 290.

Charles, duke of Lorraine, 243.

Charles Robert of Anjou, 350.

Charles I., k. of Spain, 399 (V. emp.
H.R. E.); II., 463; III., 465; IV., 528.

Charles Edward Stuart, yoang pretender,
469.

Charles VIII., Canutson, k. of Sweden,
347; XII., 470.

Charles of Valois, 335.

Charter of the Forest, 300.

Charter of Liberties, 290.

Chartist movement, 559.

Chattanooga, battles of, 609.

Chateaubriand, 543, 555.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 325.

Che-Hwang-te, emp. of China, built Great
Wall, destroyed books, 22.

Chevalier, 629.

Childeric III., 234.

Chili, 615.

China, geography of, 20; legendary era of,
20; origin of Chinese, 20; union of three
kingdoms in, 23; religion (Buddhism,
Confucianism, Taou-ism), 23; literature,
government, and civilization of, 24; in-
ventions, 24, 25; from the year 618 to
1650, 355; the Jesuit missions. 449;
Manchu conquest, 449,559; and foreign
nations, 616.

Ching-tung, 356.

Chippewa, battle of, 542.

Chioggia, war of, 338.

Chopin, 631.

Chosroes J., k. of Persia, 219; II., 222.

Chow dynasty in China, 21.

Christ, his birth, 171; his apostles, 1715
his death, 171.

Christian I., k. of Norway, Denmark, and
Sweden, 347, 404; II., 404; III., 404;
IV., 423.

Christianity, introduction of, 170; prepa-
ration for, among the heathen, 170;
Christians persecuted under Nero, 178;
under Domitian, 181; under Diocletian,
188; progress of, 189; persecutions, 190;
ancient sects and theology, 191; Chris-
tian life, 192; last days of heathenism,
193; causes of the triumph of, in the 1
Roman empire, 193; Christianity and
liberty, 194; under the successors of
Constantine, 195; in the middle ages.
198; conversion of the Goths, 204; of
the Franks, 213; of the Saxons, 215;
of the Irish, 216; effect of the Germanic
conquests on, 216; conversion of the
Germans, 239; monasticism, 304; the
mendicant orders, 305; at the epoch of
the Reformation, 396; missions^ 635.

Chronology, science of, 8; divisions of,
8, 9.

Chrysostom, John, 223.

Church, R. C., 630.

Church, the, under Constantine, 190; or-
ganization of, 191; sects and theology,
191; changes in worship, 193; in the
middle ages, 216.

Cicero, his life, 159, 160; speeches against
Catiline, 161 ,• exiled, 161; recalled, 162;
decides to support Pompeius, 164; his
eulogy of Caesar, 166 j his Philippics,
167; his death, 167 \ his writings, 169,646

INDEX.

Cid, the, 282.

Cilicia? a Roman province, 160.

Cimbn, 155.

Cimon, 94, 96, 97.

Cincinnatus, 134.

Cineas, 141.

Cinna, 157.

Cirta, talcing of, 154.

Cisalpine Gaul, conquest of, 144; a Roman
province, 151; governed by J. C«esar,
162.

Civilis, 180.

Clapperton, 618.

Clarendon, earl of, see Hyde.

Clark, 620.

Clark, Dr. Samuel, 492.

Claude, d. of Louis XII., 384.

Claudius, Roman emp., 177 ; II., 187.
Clay, Henry, 541; secretary of state, 602;

his " compromise," 605; 627.

Clearchus, 109.

Clement II., Pope, 264; III., 267,268; V.,
3'4i 332! VI., 333; VII., 326, 354, 401,
402, 4O6.

Cleopatra, captivates J. Csesar, 16?; fol-
lowed by Antonius, 167; her death, 167.
Cleombrotus, k. of Sparta, no.
Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, 87, 89; III., 119.
Cleon, 103, 105.

Clermont, council of, 272.

Cleveland, Grover, pres. of the U. S., 612.
Clinton, 489.

Clisson, battle of, 471.

Clisthenes, 89.

Clitus, 115.	*

Clive, 478.

Clodiits, 162, 164,

Clotilde, wife of Clovis, 213.

Clou^h, Arthur, 625.

Clovis, k. of the Franks, 213, 214.
Coalition1 against France, first, second,
third, fourth, <35; sixth, seventh, 536.
Cobden, Richard, 560.

Cockburn,- 5-12.

Codrus, k. of Athens, 87.

Ccelestin II., Pope, 279.

Coenobites, 192.

Colbert, 453, 454.

Cole, Thomas, 630.

Coleridge, <44.

Coligni, Admiral, 418 seq., 441.

Coliseum, erected, 180.

Colonies in America, see America.
Colonne, 500.

Columban, 239.

Columbus, Bartholomew, 388.

Columbus, Christopher, discovers Amer-
ica, 388; later voyages, 389.

Comitia Curiata, 131; Centuriata, 132; co-

mitia of tribes, 134.

Commodus, Roman emp., 185.
Communism, 588.

Compass, came into general use, 387.

Comte, Auguste, 622,623.

Comyn, John, 316.

Concord, battle of, 486.

Concordat, 521.

Concordat of Worms, 268.

Condillac, 491.

Confucius, 21..

Confucianism, 23.

Congress, first Continental, in America,

486; second, 487.

Connecticut, settlement of, 444.

Conon, 105, 109.

Conrad 1., emp. of H. R. E., 244; II.,
263, 275, 276; III., 291; IV., 281, 282.
Conradin, 282, 335.

Conservatives, 559.

Constable, 630.

Constance, council of, 334,355; treaty of,

2 77-	.

Constance, daughter of Roger II., 278.
Constans, Roman emp., 194.

Constant, Benjamin, 543, 555.
Constantinople, built up, 189; general
council of, 20<; fall of, 353; palace rev-
olutions in, 586.

Constantine I. (the Great), Roman emp.,
188; the Church under, 190; his suc-
cessor 194; II., 194; XII., 353.
Constantius II., Roman emp., 194.
Constantius Chlorus, 188.

Constitutions of Clarendon, 293.
Constitution of the United States, 489.
Conti, Cardinal de Retz, 452.

Cook, Capt., 598.

Cooper, James Fenimore, 626.
Copenhagen, Diet of, 404.

Copernicus, 446.

Corday, Charlotte, 512.

Cordeliers, 503, 504.

Cordova, the caliphs of, 231.

Corinth, the Corinthian war, 100; allied
with Athens, 109; delivered from the
Macedonians, 119; destruction of, 150;
rebuilt, 166.

Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, 134.

Corneille, 490, 629.

Cornelius, P. von, 6to.

Corn laws, repeal of, 560.

Cornwallis, Lord, 488, 489.

Corot, 6^o.

Correggio, 394.

Corsica, Roman province, 151.
Cortenuova, battle at, 281.

Cortes, Hernando, 390.

Cosmo I., 339.

Cossacks, 382.

Couchon, 507.

Council of Blood, in the Netherlands, 416.

Council of Five Hundred, 519.

Council of Ten, 338.

Cournot, 623.

Cousin, Victor, 622.

Cowley, 448.INDEX.

647

Cowper, 544.

Cranmer, Thomas, 406, 407,429.

Crassus, 159, 162; his death, 164.

Craterus, 116, 117.

Crawford, T., 630.

CrScy, battle of, 319.

Crespy, peace of, 408.

Creon, 82.

Cromwell, Oliver, his character, 438 \ vic-
tory at Naseby, 438; lord protector,
440; his administration, 440.

Cromwell, Richard, 458.

Cromwell. Thomas, 406, 407*

Critias, 106.

Critolaus, 151.

Crimea ceded to Russia, 479.

Crimean War, 571,

Croatia, 223.

Crcesus, k. of Lydia, 66.

Crusades, 269 seq.; the call of the Greeks,
271; motives to the, 271; first crusade,
272; second crusade, 276; third cru-
sade, 278; fourth crusade, 279; chil-
dren's crusade, 279; fifth crusade, 280;
sixth crusade, 284; seventh crusade,
284; effects of the, 284; why they ter-
minated, 284} luxuries introduced by,
285.

Ctesiphon, city of, 120.

Cuba, 389.

Culloden, battle of, 469.

Cunimund, 221.

Cures, 127.

Curtius, 628.

Cuvier, 546.

Cyaxares, k. of Media, 47^48, 66.

Cynoscephalae, battle of, 149.

Cylon, 88.

Cyprian, 100.

Cyprus, Phoenician colonies in, 51; con-
quered by the Venetians, 37?; given up
to England by the Turks, 586.

Cyril, 223.

Cyrus, k. of Persia, 42, 49, 62, 66 y the
Younger, 105, 106.

Dacia, war with Trajan, 182; a Roman
province, 182.

Dacians, 181, 223.

Dagobert, 214,

Daguerre, 621.

Dalmatia, 223.

Dal ton, 546.

Damascus, falls into the hands of the
Saracens, 227; seat of the caliphate,
228; siege of, 276. .

Damietta, taking of, 284.

Dana, Richard 11., 626.

Danaus, 79.

Danby's ministry, 46or

Danes, 201; see Denmark.

Dannoura, battle of, 357.

Dante, 307,336, 339.

Danton, 503 seq.; his death, 512.

Darboy, abp., 583.

Darius, k. of Persia, 67, 93,'95; II., 109 \
III., 114 seq.

Darnley, 432.

Darwin, Charles, 622.

Datis, 93, 94.

Daubigny, 630.

David, k. of the Jewsr 59, 6o<

David, k. of the Scots, 291.

Davila, 446.

Davis, Jefferson, president of the Con- .
federate States, 606 y his capture, 610.

Davis, John, 441.

D'Azeglio, 568.

Deborah, 58.

Decatur, 540, 541.

Decazes, ministry of, 550,

Decius, Roman emp., 187.

Declaration of indulgence, the American,<

459-

Deloe, 492.

De Gourgues, Dominique, 441.

Delacroix, 630.

Delaroche, Paul, C45, 630.

Delaware, its settlement, 480.

Delos, confederacy of, 96.

Delphi, oracle of, 82.

Demaratus, 95.

Demeter, 80, 132.

Demetrius I., of Russia, 349; the pre-
tenders, 382.

Demetrius, brother of Perseus, 149.

Demetrius Poliorcetes, 117.

Democrats, the Jeffersonian, 536^

Democritus, 91.

Demosthenes, Athenian general,; 103;
death, 104.

Demosthenes, the orator, 112,113, x 18.

Denmark, wars of the Danes with Charle-
magne, 235; Christianity planted in,
240; invasions of England, 247; under
Canute, 248; war with Otto I., 261; un-
der Waldemar II. (the Victorious), 345 ;
union of Calmar, 346; the Reformation
in, 404 ; in the thirty years'war, 423; in
conflict with Gustavus Adolphus, 425 :
the northern war with Charles XII. of
Sweden, 470; its fleet seized by the
English, 528; acquires Lauenburg, 535 $
the Schleswig-Holstein question, 576;
war with Austria and Prussia, 577.

De Quincy, Thomas, 624.

Dermot of Leinster, Irish k., 294.

De Ruyter, 440.

De Sacy, 629,

Desaix, 520.

Desmoulins, Camille, 503 seq*

Despencers, the, 317.

De Thou, 446.

De Tocqueville, 620.

Dettingen, battle of, 476.

De Wette, 629.648

INDEX,

De Wittj 440, 454.

Diadochi (successors of Alexander), 116.
Diana, 132.

Diaz (the painter), 630.

Diaz, Bartholomew, 388.

Diaz, Porfirio, 614.

Dickens, Charles, 625.

Diebitsch, 557.

Diocletian. Roman emp., 188.

Diodore of Sicily, 169.

Diogenes, 107, 151.

Dionysius III., k. of Portugal, 344.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 169,
Dionysius, myth of, 80.

Directory, French, 516 seq,

Disraeli, 560, 586, 594.

Djem, 379.

Doctrinaires, in France, 550.

Dollinger, Dr., 584, 628.

Dominic, St., and the Dominicans, 205.

Domitian, Roman emp., 181.

Dorians, 78.

Dorner, Dr. I., 628.

Dost Mohammed, 594.

Dover, treaty of, 459.

Draco, 87,88.

Drake, Sir Francis, 433, 442.

Draper, J. W., 621.

Dred-Scott case, 605.

Drepanum, battle ot, 144.

Dresden, captured by Frederick II., 477.

Droysen, 628.

Drusus, Claudius Nero (step-son of Au-
gustus), his campaigns in Germany,
172; his death, 172.

Drusus, M. Livius, 154, 156.

Dryden, 492, 543.

Dudley, Robert, 433.

Dufferin, Lord, 596.

Duilius, C., 144.

Dumas, Alexandre, 629.

Dumouriez, 507, 509.

Dunbar, battle at, 315.

Duncker, 628.

Dunkirk, siege of, 510.

Dunoyer, 623.

Dupont de l'Eure, 565.

Durand, 630.

Durazzo, Charles, 338.

Diirer, Albert, 394.

Dutch, settlements in America, 442.
Dwight, T., 544.

Early, Gen., 609.

East Goths, 201; invaded by the Huns,
204; under Theodoric, 211, 212 \ fall of
their kingdom in Italy, 220.

East India Company, formation of, 478;

ceases to govern India, 504.

Eastern Empire, separated! from the West-
ern, 196', conquers the kingdom of the
Vandals, 211; religious disputes In, 217;
hippodrome, 218; war with Persia, 219;

conquest of Africa, 219; conciuest of
Italy, 219; civil law, 220; Lombards in
Italy, 220; controversy on image wor-
ship, 222; literature and culture, 223:
the Slavonic tribes, 223; in the era ot
the Crusades, 269, 270; Latin empire
in the East, 279; fall of Constantino-

pie, 153-

Eastlake, 630.

Eberhard, brother of Conrad I., 244.

Ebers, 628.

Ecclesiastical Reservation, 424.

Ecuador, 551.

Edeem, 209.

Edgar, k. of England, 248.

Edgehill, battle of, 438.

Edict of Nantes, promulgated, 422; abro-
gated, 456.

Edict of Restitution, 424.

Edrissites, 231.

Edward I, k. of England, war with Philip
IV., 312; his conquest of Wales, 315;
his death, 316; II., 316; his deposition,
316; his murder, 317; III., 317; war
with France, 317 seq.; IV., 366; V.,
366; VI., 429.

Edward, the Black Prince, 319, 322; his
death, 323.

Edward the Confessor, k. of England,
248, 250.

Edwards, Jonathan, 493.

Egbert, k. of Wessex, 215, 247.

Eginhard, on Charlemagne, 238.

Egmont, Count, 415, 416.

Egypt, as a part of Asia, 18; land and
people, 33; divisions of the country, 33;
early culture in, 34; hieroglyphics, 34;
sources of knowledge of its history,
3;; three sections in its history, 36;
chronology, 36; political system, 36;
religion, 37, 38; embalming, 38; reli-
gion and morality, 38; priests, 38; lit-
erature and science, 38; old empire, 38;
middle empire, 39; new empire, 40;
conquered by Persia, 67; under the
Ptolemies, 117; conquered by Csesar,
165; conquered by the Arabs, 228; in
the sixth crusade, 284; under Mehemet
Ali, 554; his revolt, 560; expedition of
Bonaparte to, 518; Egypt and the West-
ern powers, 595 ; revolt of Arabi Pasha,
595; relation to the Soudan, 596.

Elba, given to Napoleon, 532; his return
from, 533.

Eldon, Lord, 632.

Eleatic school, 91. ,

Eleanor, wife of Louis VII., of France,
291, 292.

Eliot, Sir John, 436, 446.

Elijah, the prophet, 61.

Elisha, the prophet, 6i.

Elizabeth, q. of England, 420; character,
431; religious position, 431,433.INDEX.

649

Ellenborough, Lord, 632.

El Mahdi, 596.

El Obeid, 596.

Emanuel the Great, k. of Portugal,

-388.

Embargo, 540.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 626, 628.

Emir al Omra, 231.

Empedocles, 91.

Endicott, John, 443.

Enghien, duke of, <>23.

England (see Britain), Saxon conquest of,
215; conversion of the Saxons, 215;
the Danes in, 247 seq.; Norman con-
quest of, 250 seq., 258; the Norman
kings, 289 seq.; Charter of Liberties
(Henry I.), 290; first period of rival-
ship with France, 289 seq.; the Plan-
tagenets, 291 seq.; wide dominions of
Henry II., 292; Constitutions of Clar-
endon, 293; conquest of Ireland, 294;
Magna Charta, 296; trade in the era of
the Crusades, 301; founding of Oxford,
305; writers in the era of the Crusades,
307; second period of rivalship with
France, 309 seq.; character of English
armies (in the hundred years' war), 320;
treaty of Brdtigny, 321; Wickliffe and
the Lollards, 323; language and litera-
ture (14th century), 324; conquest of
the Welsh, 325; loss of French pos-
sessions, 327; wars of the Hoses, 368;
Henry VIII. and Luther, 405; separa-
tion from Home, 406; conflict of reli-
gious parties under Henry VIII., 407:
organization of Anglican Episcopal
Church, 429; Catholicism of Mary, 430;
defeat of the Spanish Armada, 433; con-
quest of Ireland (under Elizabeth), 434;
Puritanism in, 4^4; " Gunpowder Plot,"
435; Long Parliament and civil war,
437 i the Commonwealth, 439 seq.;
English voyages and settlements, 441
seq.; philosophy and literature in (1517-
1648), 447, 448; Restoration, 458;
" Year of Wonders," 459; Monmouth's
rebellion. 460; revolution of 1688, 461;
peace of Ryswick, 463; war of the
Spanish succession, 463 seq.; peace of
Utrecht, 466; house of Hanover, 468;
war of Austrian succession, 469; rise
of its Indian Empire, 478; contests
with France in America, 479^.; war
of American Independence, 485 seq.;
literature and philosophy in (1648-1780),
492 j deism in, 493; Methodism in,
494 ; first coalition against France, 508;
peace of Amiens, <521; "Orders in
(Council," 527; Wellington in Spain,
529; Waterloo, 5331 war with the U.S.,
542 seq.; literature in (1789-1815), 54^
policy of Canning, 552; "Catholic
Emancipation," 558; the Reform Bill,

558; abolition of slavery, 559; repeal
of the corn laws, 560; the Crimean
war, 571; relations to Russia, the Ber-
lin conference, 585 sea.; the Indian
mutiny, 593; wars witn the Afghans,
594; "the Oriental Question," E$ypt,
595 seq.; Canada, "the Dominion."
598 seq.; relations to Australia, 598;
relations to Ireland, 599 seq.; geograph-
ical exploration (since 1811$), 618; phi-
losophy in, 623; literature in, 624; the-
ology in, 625; reform of criminal law
in, 632. (See the different sovereigns.)

Ennius, 151.

Epaminondas, 110, 111.

Ephraim, 58.

Epigoni, 82.

Erasmus, Desiderius, 392.

Erastosthenes, 121.

Erdmann, 623.

Erechtheum, 98.

Eric II., k. of Norway, ^46.

Eric XIII., of Pomerania, 347.

Eric XIV., k. of Sweden, 424.

Erigena, John Scotus, 2^5.	V

Esarhaddon, k. of Assyria, 42, 47.

Esau, 56.

Espartero, 564.

Ethelbert, k. of Kent, 215.

Ethnology, function of, 9; relation to his-
tory, 10, 11.

Etienne Marcel, 321.

Etruscans, 124; war with Rome, 136} in
the Samnite wars, 139;'Gauls in Etru-
ria, 145.

Euclid, 121.

Euclides (archon), 106.

Eudoxia, 211.

Eugene, Prince, 458, 464.

Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III., 571,

Euhemerus, 121.

Eumenes, 117.

Eumolpidae, 85.

Eupatrids, 88.

Euripides, 98, 100.

Eurybiades, 9^.

Europe, physical geography of, 73; early
inhabitants of, 73; political changes in
the recent period, 547; military system
in, 548; science and invention, peace
and philanthropy, socialism, 548. (See
the different countries.)

Eurymedon, battle of, 96.

Eusebius, 223.

Eustace, count of Boulogne, 272.

Eutropius, 205.

Evelyn, diary of, 459.

Everett, Edward, 627.

Evesham, battle of, 300.

Ewald, 628.	„ '

Eylau, battle of, 526.

Ezekiel, 50, 52, 62.

Ezra, 62.650

INDEX.

Fabius MaxImus, Q., consul, 139; dicta-
tor, 147.

Fair Oaks, battle of, 608.

Falk laws in Prussia, 591*

Faraday, 622;

Farragut, admiral, 608.

Fatima, 227.

Fatimite caliphs, 231.

Favre, Jules, 582, 584.

Fawcett, 623.

Federalists, 536; ruptur6 of, 538; end of

the party of, 601.

Federative commemoration in France, 503.
Fehrbellin, battle of, 454.

Felton, John, 436.

F6nelon, 490.

Feodor, Czar of Russia, 382.

Ferdinand I., emp. H. i<< E., 282, 423j

11., 423; III., 428.

Ferdinand of Brunswick, 506.	^

Ferdinand, the Catholic, k. of Aragon,

741, 342, 370, 371, 383, 389.

Ferdinand ill., St. Ferdinand of Castile,
342-

Ferdinand VII., k. of Spain, 550, 564.
Ferdinand, k. of Naples, 384 j II., 568,
S69.

Feretti, Mastai (Pope Pius IX.), 568.
Ferrier, 622.

Feudal system, 255; origin of* 255 ; sub*
stance of, 256; entanglements of, 257;
ecclesiastical, 257; spirit of, 258.
Feuillants, 504.

Fichte, 545, 623.

Fidenae, 176.

Fielding, 492.

Fieschi, 560.

> Fillmore, Millard, president of the U.S.,
605.

Finland, 345;

Firdousi, 69, 232.

Fischer (German philosopher), 643.

Fitch, J[ohn, 538.

Flaminius, T. Quintius, 146, 149.
Flanders, its cities in the Middle Ages,
3°3*

Flavia Domdtilla, 181.

Flavio Gioja, first use of compass, 387.
Flaxman, John, 545.

Fletcher, 448.

Fleurus, battle of, 513;

Flodden Field, battle of, 386.

Florida, contest of French and Spanish
settlers in, 441 ; purchase of, 601; ad-
mission to the Union, 613.

Florence, 338,375 ; in the age of Lorenzo,
376.

Fontenaille, battle of, 241.

Fornuova, battle of, 383.

Fort Henry taken, 607.

Fort Sluys, battle near, 318.

Fort Sumter, surrender of, 606.

Foscari, Francesco, 338.

Foscolo, Ugo, 543.

Fouch6, so7.

Fourier, Charles, 588.

Fox, Charles James, 508.

Fox, George, 493.

Fra Angelico, 394.

France (see Franks), rise of the kingdom
of, 242 ; Hugh Capet, king of, 243; its
close connection with England, 289
seq.; extension of English power in
(under Henry II. of England), 292;
weakening of great vassals in, 294; vic-
tory of, at Bouvines, 297; the Albigen-
sian war, 297; first period of rivalship
with England, 289; Parliaments in, 299;
its cities in the era of the Crusades, 303;
the University of Paris, 305 ; literature
in (in the era of the crusades), 306;
cathedrals in, 308; second period of
rivalship with England, 309; progress of
royalty in (1270-1327), 309; conflict
with Boniface VIII., 312; suppression
of the Knights Templars, 314; the Salic
Law, 315: the hundred years* war, 317;
Cr6cy, 319; "the Black Death," 319;
battle of Poitiers, 320; revolt of the
lacauerie, 321; treaty of Br&igny, 321;
battle of Agincourt, 326; Joan ot Arc,
327; the English driven out? 327; in
the " Babylonian Exile," ^54; m the era
of the Reforming Councils, 354; litera-
ture in (in the Middle Ages), 359; strife
of king with nobles (under Louis XI.),
365 *, acquires the duchy of Burgundy,
367; invasions of Italy by, 381 sea.;
rivalry of Francis I. and Charles v.,
400; the civil wars in, 417 seq.; mas-
sacre of St, Bartholomew, 420; Edict
of Nantes, 4^2; in the thirty years* war,
427; Richelieu's policy, 427; gains, at
the peace of Westphalia, 429; explorers
of, in America, 441; the French in Can-
ada, 442; literature in (145^—1517), 448;
at the accession of I,ouis XIV., 452; his
court, 454; the Gallican church, 455;
Jansenism, 455 ; persecution of the Hu-
guenots, 456; his war with the Grand
Alliance, 462; war of the Spanish suc-
cession, 463; at the death of Louis XIV.,
466; l^w's Bank, 469; war of the Aus-
trian Succession, 475; in the seven
years* war, 477; war with England in
America,479 seq,; colonies in America,
481; " Old French War," 481; litera-
ture in (1648-1789), 490; the eighteenth
century, 491; era of the French Revo-
lution% 497 seq.; character of, 497;
causes of, 497 seq.; from the assembling
of the states-general to the execution of
Louis XVI., 499 seq.; to the fall of
Robespierre, 508 seq.; to the empire of
Napoleon, 515 seq.; military successes
of France (1793), 5lo> rci8n of terror,INDEX.

51 t ; from the beginning of the Empire
to the Russian campaign, 523; from the
Russian campaign to the Congress of
Vienna, 530; literature (1789-1815) 543;
under Louis XVII1., 550; French policy
in the East, 560; the second republic,
565; French empire, 570; the republic
(third) since 1871, 589; conquests
abroad, 590; philosophy in, 622; litera-
ture in, 629.

Francia, Dr., 551.

Francis of AngoulSme, 384.

Francis I., emp. of Austria, 549.

Francis 1., k. of France, 399; war with
Charles V.. emp., ILR. E., 400; second
war, 401; fourth war, 408, 417 ; II., 418.

Francis Joseph,emp. of Austria, 567, 571,
573-

Francis, St., and'the Franciscans, 305.

Francis Stephen (Francis I.), 474, 476;

II.,	505 (see Francis I., emp. of Austria).

Francisco Pizarro, 390.

Franco-Prussian war, 580.

Frankfort, convention at, 566; parliament,
566 ; end of the parliament, 567; incor-
porated in Prussia, 579.

Franklin, Benjamin, 485, 493, 623.

Franklin, Sir John, 618.

Franks, chief of one of the German con-
federacies, 201; war on the Alemanni,
213; their possessions, 213; under the
Merovingians, 214; expeditions against
llurgundians, 214; second division of
the kingdom, 214; under the Carlovin-
gians, 234-246; Pipin the Short. 234;
Charlemagne, 23,-238; treaty ot Ver-
dun, 241; Eastern Carlovingians, 242$
invasions of the Northmen, 246.

Fraser, Professor A<, 622*

Fraunhofer, 621.

Frauwa, 202.

Fredegunde, 214.

Frederic V., Elector Palatine, 423, 435.

Frederic I., k. of Denmark, 40.1.

Frederic William, the Great Elector. 454.

Frederick Augustus 11., k. of Poland, 471*

Frederick I., liarbarossa, emp. of H.R.E.,
276; struggle with Lombard cities, 276;
and Pope Alexander 111., 277; in Ger-
many, 278; 11., made king, 280; his
character, 280; contest with the popes,

tr28,'' W "/Austria, 3J«» 35«. 37*.

Frederick, duke of Swabia, 278.

Frederick of Hohenstaufen, 275.

Frederick IV., k. of Denmark, 470.

Frederick II. (the Great), of Prussia, 474;
alliance against, 476; seven years' war,
477, $05-

Frederick William, k. of Prussia, I., 474;

III.,^24,	531, 549; IV., <76, 591*

[Fredericksburg, battle at, 608.

Freeman. Edward A., vi 5 on the Normtns,

2J4; on the history of Sweden, 344; 624.

Freiligrath, 628.

Fremont, 608.

Frere, Sir Bartle* 636.

Fresnel, 546.

Freya, see Frauwa,

Freyr, see Fro.

Freytag, Gustav, 628.

Friedrichshall, battle of, 4724
Frisians, 201.

Fro, 202.

Frobisher, Martin, 441.

Froude. 452, 624.

Fry, Elizabeth Gurney, 633*	k

Fulton, Robert, 538, 619.

Fiissen, peace of, 476.

Gage, Gen., 486.

Gainas, 205.

Gainsborough, 545.

Galatia, 120.

Galba, Roman emp., 179, 180.

Galeazzo, Giovanni, 374.

Galeazzo, Maria* 374.

Galileo, 446.

Galle, 621.

Galli, one of the three divisions of Gaul,
163.

Gallican Church, 455,

Gallienus, Roman emp., 187*

Gallus, cousin of Constantius II., 194.
Gambetta, 582, 590.

Garfield, James A , pres. of the U.S.* 611.
Garibaldi, 569.

Garrison, William Lloyd, 604*

Gaston de Foix, 386.

Gates, Gen., 488.

Gaul, conquest of Cisalpine* by the Ro-
mans, 144; Cisalpine, a Roman province,
151; three divisions of, 163; severed
from the Empire, 2o6<

Gauls, the, inhabitants of ancient Italy,

124; invasion of Rome by, 136.

Gautier, Th^ophile, 629.

Gaveston, Peter, 316.

Gay-Lussac, 546.

Geijer, 630

Gelimer, k. of the Vandals, 219^

Gen, clan of, 357.

Genealogies: Macedonia, 123; Julian im-
perial house, 175; Clauclian imperial
house, 175; imperial house of Constan*
tine, 195; Theodosian imperial house,
20y, Carlovingian house, 233} Norman
princes in Italy, 253; Saxon, Franco-
nian,and Hohenstaufen imperial houses,
259; the Welt's, 273; descendants of
Hugh Capet, 287; England from the
conquest to Edward I., 288; the house
of Valois, 309, 318} descendants of Ed-
ward I. of England, 310; Milan, the
Visconti, and Sforza, 329; the three
northern kingdoms before the union of
Calmar, 330 j the Medici, 373; the Otto*652 •	INI

man Sultans, 377; Russia, 380; the
Tudors and Stuarts, 385; France, the
Bourbons, 426; claimants of the pala-
tinate, 462; claimants of the Spanish
succession, 464; house of Hanover, 468;
the Bonapartes, 514.

Genet, 537.

Geneva, government of, in the period of
the Reformation, 411; Calvin's influ-
encej 412.

Genghis Khan, 283, 351, 356.

Genseric, 208, 209, 210, 2ii.

Geoffrey of Monmouth, 307.

Geography, its relation to history, 7, 8.

George, k. of England, I., 469; II., 469,
III., 490; IV., 549, 552.

Geopteke, 595.

Georgia, settlement of, 480; secession of,
606.

Gepidse, 220.

Gerbert, 263.

Gerry, Elbndge, 538.

Germanicus (son of Drusus), his expedi-
tions, 172, 176.

Germany, its victory over Rome, 172;
habits of the ancient Germans, 202;
their religion. 202; conversion of, 239;
rise of the Kingdom of, 240 seq.; H.
R. £., 262 seq.; German cities (in the
era of the Crusades), 302; German
writers (in the era of the Crusades),
307; the great interregnum, 331; rise
of the house of Hapsburg, 371; end of
German power in Italy, 332; the Golden
I3ully 333; Black Death in, 333; Huss-
ite war, 334; relations to Switzerland,
334; German cities (from the middle
of the thirteenth century), 372; Refor-
mation in, 397 seq.; condition of (in
1517), 398; the parties in (1532-42),
408; thirty years' war, 422 seq.; peace
of Westphalia, 428; literature in (1517-
1648), 448; 491, 496; its condition at
the beginning of the French Revolu-
tion, 505; Confederation of the Rhine,
525; war of liberation, <31; authors
(i 789-1815), 545; philosophy, 545; Holy
Alliance, 549,557; disturbances in, 566;
new imperial constitution, 583; philos-
ophy, 633; literature, 628; philosophy
and law, 629. (See the separate states,
and personal names.)

G6rome, 630.

Gervinus, 628.

Gettysburg, battle of. 609.

Ghent, pacification of, 417; treaty of, 542.

Ghibellines, 335.

Ghiberti, 393.

Gibbon, 492.

Gibbs, a British general, 542.

Gibeon, 58.

Gibraltar captured, 465.

Gibson, John, 630.

Giesebrecht, 628.

Gieseler, 628.

Gifford, S., 630.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 442.

Gioberti, 509, 623.*

Giotto, 394.

Girondists, 504; fall of, 509.

Gladiatorial war, 159.

Glaucia, 155.

Gladstone, 571; his ministry, 594; resigns,
597, 600.

Glencoe, massacre of, 462.

Glendower, Owen, 325.

Gneist, 620.

Godfrey of Bouillon, 272, 274.

Godwin, earl of West Saxons, 250.

Goethe, 545, 624.

Golden Bull, 333; in Hungary, 350.

Golden Horde, 283, 352, 381.

Goldoni, 491.

Goldsmith, 492.

Gonderic, k. of the Vandals in Spain, 208.

Gonsalvo de Cordova, 384.

Gonzalez, Manuel, 614.

Goodyear, Charles, 620.

Gordian, Roman emp., 187.

Gordon, Confederate general, 597.

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 444.

Gortchakoff, $86.

Gortz, Baron von, 472.

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 442.

Goths, invade the Roman empire, 187;
defeat Valens, 196; one of the German
confederacies, 201; West Goths (Visi-
goths), 201; East Goths (Ostrogoths),
201. (See East Goths, West Goths.)

Gower, 325.

Gracchus, Caius, 154.

Gracchus, Tiberius, 153.

Graham, 596.

Granada, conquest of, 370, 371.

Grant (African traveller), 618.

Grant, Ulyssej S., pres. of the U.S., 607
seq., 612.

Granvelle, 415, 416.

Gratian, Roman emp., 196, 204.

Gravelotte, battle of, 581.

Gray, 492.

Great Britain, see England.

Greece, the land, 75; the Grecian states
and islands, 76; the bond of race, 77;
pre-historic age, 78; origin of the Greeks,
78; foreign influences, 79; Dorian emi-
gration, 79; migration to Asia Minor,
79; character and religion of the Greeks,
80; union of tribes, 82; the Delphic
Amphictyony, 82; Homeric poems, 83;
social life and religion in the Homeric
age, 83, 84; literature, 84; aristocratic
government, 85 ; constitution of Lycur-
gus, 86; democracy, 89; lyrical poetry,
90; historical writing, 90: philosophy,
91; colonies, 91; wars with Persia, 93*96;INDEX.

653

art and architecture, 101; sculpture, 101;
painting, 102; Peloponnesian war, 102-
106; peace of Nicias, 102; pestilence,
103; Sicilian expedition, naval con-
tests, 104; philosophers, historical writ-
ings, 107; Greek life, 107,108; relations
with Persia, 109; retreat of the Ten
Thousand, 109; Macedonian Era, 111-
116; sacred war, in; Alexander in,
113; successors of Alexander in, 116;
evil of faction in, 119; Stoics and Epi-
cureans, 121; culture, 121; became a
Roman province, 151; the Greeks, 352.

Greek insurrection, 553; independence,

Greet: Empire, 269, seq. (See Eastern
Empire.)

Greely, Arctic explorer, 618.

Green, J. R., 624.

Greene, Nathaniel, 489.

Gregoire, bp. of Blois, 500.

Gregory I. (the Great), 215, 221; IV.,
241; VII., see Hildebrand; IX., 281;
XL, 354; XIII., 9.

Gregory of Nyssa, 223.

Gregory, the inventor of the telescope,

493* , „

Gregory of Tours, 217.

Gr6vy, 580.

Grey, Earl, 558.

Grey, Lady Jane, 430.

Grimm, J., 629; W., 629,

.Grodno, battle of, 472.

Grote, George, 624.

Grotius, Hugo, 446.

Grouchy, 533.

Grove, 621.

Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of, 604.

Guatimozin, 390.

Guelfs, see Welfs.

Guesclin, Bertrand du, 722, 342.

Guibert, see Clement 111.

Guido Reni, 394.

Guise, family ot, 418 seq,; 420; 421.

Guizot, 555, 560; his administration, 561,
629.

Gundobald, k. of Burgundy, 213.

Gunpowder, 387.

Gunpowder plot, 435,

Gustavus Adolphus, 382, 424.

Gutenberg, John, 387.

Guy Fawkes, 435.

Habeas Corpus Act, 460.

Hadrian, Pope, I., 236; IV., 295, 354.

Hadrian, Roman emp., 182.

Hakem, 231, 271, 282.

Hakon VL, k, of Norway, 345, 346.

Hall, bp., 448.

Hallam, Henry, 624.

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, 626.

Halley, 493.

Hamilcar Barcas, 144,145.

Hamilton, Alexander, 489, 536 seq., 623.
Hamilton, Sir William, 622.

Hampden, John, 437. ,

Hampton Roads, battle of, 608.
Han Rulers in China, 22.

Hancock, John, 487.

Hancock, Thomas, 620.

Handel, 395.

Hannibal, 146; in Italy, 146-148; his

death, 149.

Hanno, the Carthaginian, 144.

Hanno, abp. of Cologne, 264.

Hanover, seized by Napoleon, 522.
Hanseatic League, 303, 345.

Hapsburg, house of, foundation of its

power, 311,

Hardrada, k. of the Norwegians, 250.
Hare, Julius, 624.

Harley, earl of Oxford, 466.

Harmodius, 89.

Harold, k. of the Danes, 261.

Harold Fairhair, 346.

Harold, son of Godwin, 250.
Haroun-al-Raschid, 230, 238. '
Harrison, William H., 541,

Hartford convention, 542.

Hartmann, E» von. 623.

Harvard College, founded, 444, 484.
Harvey, 447.

Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar, 144,

145; son of Hamilcar, 146-148.
Hashimites, 224.

Hastings, leader of the Northmen, 246.

Hastings, battle of, 250.

Hastings, Warren, 478.

Hatto L, II., abps. of Mentz, 242.

Haiisser, 628.

Havelock, Gen., 593.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 626.

Hayden, 546.

Hayes, Rutherford B., pres. of the U. S.,
61 f.

Hayne, Robert Y., 601.

Hayti, discovery of, 389.

Hebrews, peculiarity of the, 55; patri-
archal age, 55; exodus, $6; laws, 57:
religion, 57; prophets, 57; conquest ot
Canaan, 57; the monarchy, 58; chro-
nology, 59 > heathen rites, 61; struggle
with idolatry, 61; Assyrian Captivity,
61; Babylonian Captivity, 6r; revolt
under the Maccabees, 63; literature,
63; art, 63. (See Jews.)

Heen-fung, emp. of China, 616.

Heeren, 628.

Hefele, 628.

Hegel, 545, 623, 629.

Hegira, 225.

Hei, clan of, 357.

Heidelberg founded, 276.

Heine, Heinrich, 628.

Helen of Troy, 82
Helena, empress, 271.654

Heliogabalus, Roman emp., 186,

Hellas, see Greece.

Helmholtz, 620, 621.

Helvetian Republic, 518.

Helvetii, 163.

Hengist, 215,

Henry, C. S., 623.

Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal,
343.

Henry, k. of Castile, III., 342; IV., 342.

Henry, k. of France, II., 417; III., 420,
421; IV., 422.

Henry of Guise, 420, 421.

Henry the Lion, 275, 277, 278. •

Henry of Navarre, 420, 421. (See Henry
IV. of France.)

Henry the Navigator, son of John I. of
Portugal, 344.

Henry, Patrick, 485.

Henry the Pious, cfuke of Liegnitz, 283.

Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony, 269,
275.

Henry Raspe. 281.

Henry, son ot Frederick II., elected k, of
Rome, 280; 281.

Henry, duke of the Saxons, 244.

Henry of Transtamare, 322, 342.

Henry, cardinal York, 470.

Henry I., the Fowler, k. of Germany, 260;
II., emp.of H.K.E., 263; III.,264} IV.,
264 seq,; V., 268, 275, 290; VI , 278;

Henry,' i"? opEngland, I., 290, 291; II.,
278, 291; his dominions, 292; his re-
forms, 293; his death, 294; III., 298,
299, 300; IV. (Bolingbroke), 324, 325
sea.; V., 326; VI, 327, 328, 368, 369j
VII., 369, 383; VIII., 383, 40a; and
Luther, 405; divorce question, 406; ex-
communicated, 406, 429.

Heraclea, battle at, 140,

Heracles, 81.

Heraclitus, 91.

Heraclius, Greek emp., 222, 226.

Herat, capture of, 594.

Hubert, 512.

Herbart, 623.

Herbert, George, 448,

Herbert, Lord, 493.

Herculaneum destroyed, 181.

Hercules, 133.

Hercules II., duke of Ferrara, 386.

Herder, 545.

Hermann, CM 629.

Hermanfrid, k. of the Thuringians, 214.

Hermanric, 201.

Herod (the Great), k. of Judaea, 121, 171.

Herodotus, on Persian religion, 65.

Herrera, 447.

Herschel, Sir William, 493.

HerscheL Sir John, 621.

Hesiod, 81, 85, 91.

Heyne, 629.

Hezekiah, k. of Judah, 46,62.

Hickok, L. P., 623.

Hicks Pasha, 596.

Hiero II., k. of Syracuse, 143; alliance
with Hannibal, 147.

Hieroglyphics in Egypt, 34.

Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII.), arch-
deacon, 250, 265; contest with Henry
IV., 266, 271,354.

Hildimer, 219.

Hildreth, Richard, 627.

Hincmar, abp. of Rheims, 245,

Hindustan, conquest of, 352.

Hipparchus, 89.

Hippias, 89, 93.

Hippocrates, 447.

Hippodrome, the, at Constantinople, 218.

Hiram, k. of Tyre, 52, 60.

Historical criticism, 7.

Historical writing, 5.

History, definition of, 1; scope of, 2;
Hermann Lotze on, 2; Goldwin Smith
on, 2; philosophy, of, 2; freedom of, 2;
personal influence on the course of,
meaning of, 4; classification in, 5; old
and new type of, 6; sources of, 6; credi-
bility of, 7; its relation to geography, 7;
its relation to ethnology, 10, 11.

History, ancient, 15, 16; division of, 17;
ethnographically considered, 17; geo-
graphically, 17,

History, modern. 15, 16, 361.

History, oriental, as division of ancicnt
history, 17; sections of, 17; retrospect,
69-72.

Hittites, 41.

Hobbes, 447.

Hoche, 516, 518.

Hodge, Charles, 627.

Hoe, 619.

Hofer, 528.

Hohenlinden, victory of, 520*

Hogarth, 394.

Holbein, Hans, 394.

Holland, 303; war with England, 439;
attack of Louis XIV., 453; conquest of,
by France, 516; Belgium separated from,
5^7. (See Netherlands.)

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 626.

Holstein, 347 (see Schleswig-Holstein).

Holy Alliance, 549.

Holy Hermanadad, 370.

Holy League, 386.

Holy Roman Empire, 262. (&* Germany.)

Homer r 81, 85, 91, 113.

Homeric age, see Greece.

Honorius III., Pope, 280.

Honorius, Roman emp., 305, 206; his
death, 208.

Hood, Thomas, 625.

Hooker, Gen., 608, 6091.

Hooker, Richard, 448.

Hophra, see Apriea II.Horace, 169.

Horatius, Roman consul, 135,

Horn, Count, 415,

Horsa, 215.

Hortense, 517,

Hosea, 62.

Hoshea, k. of Israel, 46,

Hospitallers, St. John, 274,

House of Burgesses in Virginia, 443,
House of Commons, rise of, 300. (See

Parliament,)

Houston, Gen. Sam, 604,

Howard, John, 632.

Howe, Admiral, 488,

Howe, General, 488.

Hubert de Burgh, 295,

Ilubertsburg, peace of, 478.

Hudson, Henry, 442.

Hugh, Count of Provence, 245; k. of

Italy, 262,

Hugh, Count of Vermandois, 272.

Hugh the Great, duke of the French, 243.
Hugh Capet, k. of France, 243, 247.
Hugo, Victor, 370, 629,

Huguenots, 418 seq.% 456.

Hull, Capt, Isaac, 541,

Hull, Gen. William, 591,

Humbert 11., 320.

Humboldt, Alexander von, 545, 618,
Humboldt, William von, 545, 029.

Hume, David, 492, 623.

Hundred Years' War, period I., 317-322;
origin of the war, 317; early events,
318; period II., 322 327; period HI.,
327,328.

Hungarians, incursions of, 249.

Hungary, kingdom founded, 223; war
against Otto the Great, 261; 350; 457;
557.5 revolt of, 567. (See Austro-Hun-
garian I£mpire,)

Hung Lew-tseuen, 616, -
Hung-wu, 356.

Huns, irruption of the, 196, 204; geo-
graphical position of, 202; characteris-
tics of, 204,209; defeat at Chalons, 209;
in Italy, 210.

Hunt, Holman, 630.

Huntj William, 630.

Huntington fthe painter), 630.
Hunyady,>John, 350,

Huskisson, 558.

Hussj John, 334,

Hussite war, 334.

Hutten, Ulrich von, 39*, 398,

Huxley, 622.

llyacinthe, P&re, 584.

Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, 459.

Hyrcanus, 160.

Iaroslaf I., of Russia, 349.

Ibrahim (son of Mehemet AH), 554, 560.
Iglesias, 616.

Ignatius, bp. of Antioch, 190.

655

Illyrian pirates, war against, 145.
Illyricum, a Roman province, 151.
Imperial Chamber, German, 372.

India, geography of, 25, 26; Aryan inva-
sion of, 26; earlier tribes. 26; Vedic
religion in, 26; invasion ot Alexander,
i!5> 302> 357» n^w route to, 388; the
Mughal Empire, 450 j British sway in,
593; mutiny in, 593.

Indians, Algonquin, 442; Huron, 442;
Iroquois, 442,445; treatment of, in New
England, 446.

Inez de Castro, 344,

Ingham (the painter), 630,

lnkermann, battle ot, 572.

Innocent II., Pope, 291; III., 278, 279,
*9^-297> 312 J IV., 281J VI., 339 > VIII.,

Inquisition, its origin, 297; in Italy, 414.
Institutions, as a source of historical evi-
dence, 6.	v
Insubrians, 145.

Interim of Augsburg, 409.

Inventions in the 14th and i*th centuries,

387; in the 19th century, 019 seq,
Ionians, 78.

Ionian cities, conquest by Persia, 66 jj

revolt from Persia, 03.

Ireland, conversion of, 216; conquest of,
294,434,435; relations to England, 599.
Iren«eus, 192.

Irene, empr. of Greek empire, 222,

Ireton, 458,

Irmak, 381.

Irving, Edward, 626.

Irving, Washington, 626,

Isaac, 55.

Isaac I., Eastern emp., 270,

Isaac II., Angelus, Eastern emp., 279.
Isabel, wife of Edward II., 317.

Isabella of Castile, 341, 370, 388.

Isabella II. of Spain, 564.

Ishbosheth, son of Saul, 59,

Ishmael, 56.

Isaiah, 62, 63.

Ismail Pacha, 593.

Israelites, bondage of in Egypt, 41. (See

Hebrews.)

Issus, battle of, 114.

Istria, became Slavonic, 223.

Italy, geography and ethnology, 123;
compared with Greece. 125; for ancient
history, see Rome; Alaric in, 203, 206}
Rada^aisus in, 206; Attila in, 210; Van-
dais in, 211; Odoacer ruler of, 211;
Ostrogothic kingdom in, Theodoric,
211; conquest by Justinian, 219; Lom-
bard kingdom in, 220; Pipin's conquest
in, 235; Charlemagne's conquest of, 237;
a separate kingdom, Berengar II., 245;
Otto \. in Italy, the H.R.E., 262; Henry
III. in, 264; contest of Frederic Barba-
rossa with the Lombard cities, 276;656

INDEX.

Guelphs and Ghibellines, 27^, 335; the
Sicilian kingdom after Frederick II., 282;
freedom in the cities, party contests, 335;
the tyrants, 336; condottieri, 337; live
states in (1450), 337; literature and art
in, 339; trade and commerce in, 340;
invasion of Charles VIII., 383; invasions
of Louis XII., 384; Renaissance in,
393; Reformation and counter-Refor-

1 mation in, 412; essays at political re-
form in Tuscany, 49^; Napoleon's vic-
tories in, the Cisalpine Republic, 517;
the Ligurian Republic, 518; conse-
quences of the battle of Marengo in,
520; Napoleon k. of Italy, 524; Genoa
annexed to France, 524; how disposed
of at the congress of Vienna, 535; liter-
ature in (1789-1810, 543; absolutism
in* 553; revolts in (i8ti), 558; Austro-
Sarainian war (1848), 569; war of
France and Sardinia against Austria
0859)> 572; annexation of Naples and
Sicily, Garibaldi, 574; annexation of
Venice, 579; Rome made the capital,
584. (See Venice, Florence, Piedmont,
etc.)

Iturbide, 551.

Ivan, czar of Russia, I., 349; III. (the
Great), 349, 381; IV. (the Terrible),
181, 382; V., 470.

Iyemitsu, 449.

Iy£yasu, 449.

Jackson, Gen. A., 541, 542, 601 seq.;
presidency of, 603.

Jackson, " Stonewall," 608.

ackson, Dr. Charles, 620.

Jack Straw," 324.

Jacob, 56.

Jacobi, 628.

Jacobins, 503; the Jacobin revolution, 509;
Jacobin chiefs, 512.

Jacobs, 629.

Jacquerie, revolt of the, 120,

James 1., the conqueror, k. of Aragon, 320,
341*

James, disciple of Christ, 171.

James, k. of England, I., 432; his foreign
policy, 435; II., 439, 459, 460; his arbi-
trary government, 461; his expulsion
from the throne, 461.

James, k. of Scotland, IV., 386; V., 431;
VI. (I. of England), 432.

James, G. P. R., 625.

Jane of Montfort, 319.

Jane of Penthievre, 319.

Jansenism, 455.

Janus, 133.

Japan, 25; religion of, 25; Japanese race,
25; changes in government, 357; civil
war, feudalism, 357, 449; Christianity
jn,<449; Mikado regains power, 617;
relation to foreign nations, 617.

Jason, 82.

Jassy, treaty of, 479.

'ay, John, <37; his treaty, 537.
, Thomas, pres. of t

pres. of the U. S.,

V -

efferson,

536> 538 $e(l*

Jehoshaphat, k. of fudah, 61.

Jehu, k. of Israel, 61.

Jemmappes, battle of, 507.

Jena, battle of, 526.

Jenner, 546.

Jephtha, 58.

Jeroboam, k. of Israel, I., 60, 61; II., 6i»
Jeremiah, 50, 62.

Jerome, St., 192.

J erome of Prague, 334.

Jerusalem, captured by Pompeius, 160;
siege of, by Titus, 180; destruction of,
182; falls into the hands of the Saracens,
227; pilgrims in, 271; taken by storm,

273-

Jesuits, order founded, 41 j; their influ-
ence, 414; missions in China, 449, 494;
abolished, 495; restored, 495.

Jevons, 623.

Jews, their dispersion, 170; Jewish war,
180; revolt of Barcochebas, 182; breach
with Mohammed, 225; under Edward
I., 316; prejudice against, in the middle
ages, 316.

Jezebel, 61.

Jimmu Tenno, Japanese hero, 25.
Jingu-Koga, Japanese princess, 25.

Joan I., II., 338.

Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon,

37'- „

ocaste, 81.

ohn II., k. of Aragon, 312.

ohn of Austria, Don, 417.

ohn of Austria, 567.

ohn Baliol, 315.

ohn, k. of Bohemia, 332, 333, 336.
ohn II., k. of Castile, 342.

ohn of Damascus, 222, 223.

ohn, the apostle, 171.

ohn the Fearless, duke of Burgundy,
326.

John Frederic, elector of Saxony, 409.
John II. (le Bon), k. of France, 320, 321.
John of Gaunt, 323, 324.

John (Zimisces), Greek emp., I.,270; VII.
152.

John (Visconti), abp. of Milan, 338.

John, k. of Portugal, 1., 344; II., 388; VI.,

Joiin XII., pope, 262; XXII., 332.

John, k. of England, 294, 295; his tyr-
anny, 296; quarrel with the Pope, 296;
Magna Charta, 296; deposition, 297.

Johnson, Andrew, pres. 01 the U. S., 611.
ohnson, Samuel, 492.

ohnston, Gen. A. S., 608.

Johnston, Gen. T. E., 601.

Johnston, Sir William, 48a.INDEX.

657

Jonathan, <9.

Jones, Paul, 488.

Jones, Richard, 623.

Jonson, Ben, 448.

Joram, k. of Israel, 61.

Joseph, 56.

Joseph, emp. H. R. E., I., 466; II., 478,495.
Joseph Emanuel, k. of Portugal, 495.
Joshua, 58.

Josiah, k. of Judah, 62.

Josephus, Jewish historian, 180.

Jotham, k. of Judah, 62.

Jouffroy, 622.

Joule, 621.

iourdan, 510, 531.

ovian, Roman emp., 196.

uarez, 614.

udaea, entered by Pompeius, 160.

udas Iscariot, 171
udges, era of the, 57, 58.

Jugurtha, 154, 155.

Jugurthine war, 134.

Julia (daughter of Augustus), 176.

Julian, Roman emp., 194.

Julius II., Pope, 372, 384.

Juno, 132.

Jupiter, 126, 132.

Justin, Greek emp., I., persecution of the

Arians, 212; II., 221.

Justinian, Grecian emp., I., 193, 218; war
with Persia under, 219; his conquests
in Africa, 219; his death, 220; 11., 222.
Jutes, 215.

Kalb, Baron de, 488.

Kameel, 281.

Kane, 618.

Kansas, troubles in, 605.

Kant, 545.

Karl the Great, see Charlemagne.

Kaulbach,. Von, 630.

Keats, 544.

Keble, John, 625.

Kensett, 630.

Kent, James, 627,

Kentucky, 538.

Kepler, 446.

Khadija, 224.

Khartoum, 596, 597.

Khyber Pass, battle of, 560. .

King George's war, 481.

King William's war, 480.

Kingsley, Charles, 625.

Kirchhoff, 621.

Kleber, 518.

Klopstock, 491.

Knights Templar, 274; their suppression,

3*4,317.	.

Knox, John, 431,

Knut, see Canute.

Komaroff, 595.

Koran, the, 226.

Koreishites, 324, 225.

Korner, 545.

Kosova, first battle of, 351; second, 353.

Kossuth, Louis, 558, 567.

Kraft, Adam, 333.

Krasnovodsk, 595.

Kublai Khan, 356,

Kunersdorf, battle of, 477.

Kutal>ud-din, 358,

Kutusoff, 530.

Labienus, T., 164,

La Bruy&re, 490.

Lachmann, 629.

La Chine, massacre of, 481.

Ladislaus I., k. of Hungary, 350.
Ladislaus Posthumus, 351.

La Fayette, in America, 487; commander
of the National Guard, 501; protects
Louis XVI. at Versailles, 502; at the
Flte of the Federation, 503, 506; a
prisoner of the Austrians. 507; requires
the abdication of Napoleon, 534; his
part in the revolution of 1830, 556.
La Fontaine, 49a
Lagrange, 621.

La Haye Sainte, 533.

La Hogue, battle ot, 463.

Laius, 81.

Lamarck, 546.

Lamartine, 565, 629.

Lamb, Charles, *544.

Lambert Simnel, 370,

Lamorici&re, 570.

Lancaster, the House of, in the wars of

the Roses, 368.

Lander, John, 618; Richard, 618.

Landor, W. S., 544.

Landseer, 6^0.

Lan franc, 269.

Lanfrey, 629.

Langland, William, 325.

I^ange, 623.

Langton, Stephen, 296.

Language, evidence from, 10; divisions

of, 10.

Laou-tsze, 22.

Laplace, 621.

Lardner, 493.

La R^naudie, 419.

La Salle, 480.

Lasalle, Ferdinand, 589.

Lassen, 629.

Latimer, 407.

Latin Empire in the East, 279.

Latins, 125; conquest of the, 138; Latin

franchise, 142, 352.

La TrSmoille, ^84.

Laud, abp. William, 436.

La Vendue, war of, 509.

Lavoisier, 493, 546.

Law's bank, 467.

Lawrence, Sir Henry, 637.

Lawrence, Sir T., 545.INDEX.

Lawrence, W. B., 627.

Layard, 5 86.

League of the Public Weal, 365, 366.

Lecky, 624.

Ledru-Rollin, 570.

Lee, Gen. Robert E., 608 seq., 612.

Leibnitz, 491.

Leicester, earl of, see Dudley, Robert.
Leipsic, battle of; 531.

Leipsic, disputation at, 398.

Legnano, battle of, 277.	>

Leo I. (the Great), bp. of Rome, 210, 211,
216; VIII., 262; X., Pope, 386, 398
seq,; XIII.. 592.

Leo III., the Isaurian, 222, 237.

Leonarclo da Vinci, 394.

Lenau, 628.

Leonidas, k. of Sparta, 95.

- Leopold, margrave of Austria, 275,
Leopold I., k. of the Belgians, 557, 614.
Leopold, emp. H. R. E., 457 j IL, 495,505.
Lepanto, battle of. 420.

Lepidus, M. /Emilius (triumvir), governor
of Transalpine Gaul, 167; ruler of
Africa, 167.

Leslie, 623, 630.

Lessing, 491, 628, 630.

Leucopetra, battle of, 151.

Leuthen, battle of, 477.

Leverrier, 621.

Lewes, battle of, 300.

Lewes, Mrs. (George Eliot), 62$.
Lexington, battle of, 486.

Licinian laws, 137.

Lieber, Francis, 627.

Liebig, 622.

Liegnitz, battle of, 477. ,

Ligny, battle of, 533.

Ligurian republic, 518.

Ligurians, 124.

Limoges, sack of, 323.

Lincoln, Abraham, pres. of the U.S., 606

seq,; murder of, 610.

Linnaeus, 493.

Lipsius, 628.

List, 623.

Lithuanians, 347.

Liutprand, 221.

Livingstone, 618.

Livy, 169.

Llywelyn, pr. of Wales, 315.

Lobkowitz, 457.

Lockyer, 621.

Lollards, 324, 325.

Lombard League, 277.

Lombards, 201, 202, 213; in Italy, 220
seq,; their kingdom subverted by Char-
lemagne, 236. .

London Company, 442.

London, great plague in, 459; great fire

in, 459.

Longfellow, 626.

Longjumeau, peace of, 420.

Lope de Vega, 447.

Lovat, Lord, 469.

Lorraine, Claude, 394.

Lothar, emp., 241, 242.

Lothar, emp. H. R. E., 268.

Lothar, son of Hugh of Provence, k. of
Italy, 262.

Lotze, Hermann, 623.

Louis IV. (d'Outre Mer), k. of France,
243, 261; V., 243; VI. (the Fat), 290,
294; VII., 276, 291, 294; VIII., 297,
700; IX., 284, 297, 298: X., 315; XI.,
his character, 364; strife with the no-
bles, 365; contests with Charles the
Bold, 76$, 366; last days, 367; XII.,
^68, 384; first, second, and third Ital-
ian war of, 384; XIII., 427; XIV., 452;
wars, 453 seq,; aggressions of, 457, 463,
465; last days, 466; XV., 467; XVI.,
499 seq.; his flight, 503^ the Assembly.
504, 506; his imprisonment, 506; trial
and execution, 507; XVIII., 532, 533,
550. .

Louis, Duke of Orleans, assassination of,
326.

Louis, the German, k. of the East Franks,
241.

Louis the Child, 242, 244.

Louis, k. of Hungary, 348, 350.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 560, 561;
coup d'etat of, 570; as emp., see Napo-
leon III.

Louis Napoleon (son of Napoleon III.),
death, 590.

Louis Philippe, 554; made king, 556; his
policy in the East, 560; causes of his
unpopularity, 563; his fall, 564.

Louis I., the Pious, emp., 241.

Louis 01 Bavaria, 332, 333,

Louis I., k. of Bavaria, 550.

Louis, prince of Condi, 419 seq,

Louisburg, capture of, 481.

Louisiana, 480; purchase of, 539; ad-
mitted as a State, 613.

Louvois, 453.	„

Lowell, I. R., 626.

Loyola, Ignatius, 413.

Lucanians, 156.

Luceres, 127.

Luckner, 506.

Lucretius, 169.

Lucullus, L., 160.

Ludovico il Moro, 174, 383.

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 542.

Lun^ville, peace of, 520.

Lusitania, conquerea by Suevi, 207.

Lusitanians, 145,152.

Luther, Martin, 397; relations with Leo
X., 308 j Diet of Worms, 399; at the
WartDurg, 400; conference of Marburg,
402; Henry VIII* and, 405; his death,
408.

Liitzen, battle of, 531*Luxemburg, 453.

Lycurgus, 86, £9.

Lydia, as one of three principal powers,

48; annexed to Persia, 60.

Lyell, Sir Charles, 621.

Lyons, capture of, 510.

Lysander, 105; his death, 109.

Macaulay, T. B., 624.

Maccabees. 120; Judas Maccabaeus, 121.

Macdonalcl, 519.

Macdonald, Flora, 470.

Macdonough, Commodore, 542.

Macedonia, successors of Alexander in,

116; Roman province, 151.
Macedonians, m.

Macedonian era, 111-116.

Macedonian Empire divided, 116,117.
Machiavelli, 446.

Macintosh, 620.

Mackintosh, Sir James, 632.

MacMahon, Marshal, 581, 589.

Macquarie, 598.

Macrinus, Roman emp., 186.

Madison, James, pres. of the U.S., 538,
541'

Madrid, peace of, 400.

Maecenas, 169.

Magenta, battle of, 573.

Magi, 65.

Magna Charta, 296; altered under Henry

111., 300.

Magnentius, 194.

Magnesia, battle at, 149.

Magnus I., k. of Sweden, 346; II. (Smek),
346.

Magnus III., k. of Norway, 346; VI.,

M346-

Magyars, 223.

Mahmoud 1L, 554.

Mahmud of Gnazim, 358.

Maine settled, 444; admitted as a State,
613.

Maine de Biran, 543.

Maintenon, Madame de, 456.

Majorian, Roman emp., 211.

Malakoff, 572.

Malek Shan, 231, 270.

Malesherbes, executed, <11,

Malplaquet, battle of, 466.

Malta, island of, given to the Hospitallers,
274: its capture by Napoleon, 518;
held by the English, 521, 522.

Maltluis, 623.

Malvern Hill, battle of, 608.	'

Mamertines, 143.

Man, his origin, see Monogenismj races
of, 9; Huxley on. 9} A. von Hum-
boldt on, 9; antiquity of, 14,

Manchu con <j u est, 440,

Manasseh, tribe of, so.

Manasseh, k. of Juaah, 41, 6a,
Mandeville, Sir John, 302,

659

Manetho, 118.

Manfred, 282, 335.

Manin, Daniele, 569#

Manitoba, <98.

Manlius, Marcus, 136.

Manlius, Titus, 138.

Mantes, burning of, 289.

Marat, 507, 509 seq.

Marathon, battle of, 93.

Marburg, conference at, 402.

Marcellus, M. Claudius, 148.

Marchfield, battle of, 332.

Marcomanni, 181, 183.

Mardonius, 93.

Marengo, battle of, 520.

Margaret of Parma, regent in the Nether-
lands, 415.

Maria Louisa of Parma, 558.

Maria Theresa, empress, 475, 476.

Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV., 452.
Mariana, 447.

Marie Antoinette, 499 seq,; execution,
511.

Marignano, battle of, 400.

Marius, C., 155, 157; defeat of the Marl

ans. 158.

Marknam, 618.

Marlborough, duke of, 464; his character
his military career, 46$ seq,; deprived
of his offices, 466.

Marmont, 556.

Marryat, 620.

Mars, 132.

Marsh, George P., 627.

Marsh, James, 623.

Marshall, John, 538.

Marston Moor, iSattle of, 438.

Martel, Charles, 215, 229, 234.

Martignac, *55.

Martin V., rope, 355.

Martin, Henri, 629.

Martineau, Harriet, 623, 624.

Martyr, Justin, 191,

Marx, Karl, 589.

Mary of Burgundy, 372.

Mary ("Bloody Mary"), q. of England,
43°»

Mary (wife of William III.), q. of Eng-
land, 461.

Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 367.
Mary of Medici, 427.

Mary, q. of Scots, 420,432; her execution,
432.

Maryland founded, 445.

Marsilius Ficinus, 391.

Masinissa, k« of Numidia, 148, 150.

Mason, 607.

Mason, Capt. John, 444.

Massachusetts, settlement of, 443.
Massena, victory of, at Zurich, 519; con-
flict with Wellington, 529.

Massillon, 490.

Matilda, countess of Tuscany, 267..66o

INDEX.

Matilda, wife of Henry I. of England,
290.

Matilda, wife of Henry V. of Germany,
290.

Matthias Corvinus, k. of Hungary, 371,
379.

Maurice, duke of Saxony, 409, 410.
Maurice, Frederick Denison, 626.
Maximilian I., of Austria, 367; emp.

H.R.E., 372, 383, 384, 398; II, 423.
Maximilian of Bavaria (in the thirty

years' war), 566.

Maximilian, k. of Mexico, 614.

Maximin, Roman emp., 187.

Maximus, Roman emp., 205.

Maxwell, J, Clerk, 621.

May, 624.

Mayenne, duke of, 422.

Mazarin, 452, 4?6.

'Mazzini, 558, 584.

McCosh, James, 622.

McClellan, Gen. G# B., 607, 608. .
McClintock, 618.

McCulloch, J. R.,623.

McDowell, Gen. I., 6o8»

McEntee, 630.

Meade, Gen. G. G., 609.

Mecca, 224, 225.

Medea, 82.

Media, revolt under Phraortes, 47, 66; as
one of three principal powers, 48. (See
Persia.)

Medici, family of, 338 ; John de, 339;
Cosmo I., 339; Peter I., 375; Julian de,
375 ; Lorenzo de, 375, 376.

Megacles, 89.

Mehemet Ali, 553, 554, 560, 561.
Meissonier, 630.

Melanchthon, Philip, 398, 402.

Melas, Austrian general, 520.

Melicertes, 80.

Memmius, C., 155.

Menahem, k. of Israel, 62.

Mencius, 22.

Mendelssohn, 631.

Menelaus, 82.

Mercury, U3.

Merivale, Charles, 624.

Merovingians. 214.

Merv, seized oy tne Russians, 595.
Mesopotamia, Roman province, 182.
Messalina (wife of Claudius), 177.
Messenia, conquered by Sparta, 87 J re-
vival of its power, 110,

Metastasio, 491.

Metellus, L. Caecilius, 144.

Metellus (Numanticus), Q- Caecilius, 154,
155.

Methodius, 223.

Metoeci, 86.

MetterniCh, 549, 554, 566.

Metz, 429; surrender of (by Bazaine),
582. ^

Meyer. 621, 628.

Meyeroeer, 631.

Mexico, conquest of, by Cortes, 390; in-
dependence of, 551; war with the U.S.,
604; French invasion of, 613; internal
improvements, 614.

Michael Angelo, 303, 394.

Michael Romanoff, czar of Russia, 382,
470.

Michelet, 629.

Middle Ages, character of, 198; distribu-
tion of tribes at the close of 5th century,
213; the Church in the, 216; state of
learning (375-751 A.D.), 217; state of
learning in the 10th century, 245; the
papacy in the 9th and 10th centuries,
245; culture in the nth century, 269;
lite in the castle, 285; poverty and dis-
ease, 286; rise of the cities, 301; origin
of municipal freedom, 301; cities and
suzerains, ^oi > municipal government,
302; travellers and trade, 302; new in-
dustries, 303; guilds, 304; monasticism,
304; the mendicant orders, 305 ; rise of
the universities, 305; scholastic theol-
ogy, 306; the leading schoolmen, 306;
the vernacular literatures, 306; the
troubadours, 306; the Norman, German,
English, and Spanish writers, 307;
painting, 307 \ sculpture, 308; architec-
ture, 308; changes in, 353: clergy and
laity, 353. (See names 01 places and
persons, and particular events.)

Miecislas I., leader of the Poles, 347.

Miesko, 264.

Miguel, Don, 552.

Mignet, 555.

Mikado, 25 ; 357; triumph of the, 617.

Milan, 374; cfestroyed by Frederic Barba-
rossa, 278; under the Visconti and
Sforza, 338; under Francesco Sforza,
contest of Charles V. and Francis
respecting, 400; ceded to Sardinia,
573-

Mill, James, 623.

Mill, John Stuart, 623.

Millais, 630.

Millet, 630.

Milman, Dean, 624.

Milo; T. Annius, 164.

Miltiades, 94.

Milton, Jonn, 438, 448.

Mimnermus, 90.

Minerva, 132.

Ming dynasty in China, 356,449.

Minos, 81.

Mirabeau, <;oo, 503.

Mississippi, the River, 440, 480.

Missouri compromise, 601.

Mithra, Persian sun-god, 64.

Mithridates IV., k. ot Pontus, 152.

Mithridates VI., k. of Pontus, 120, 156,
*57> 160.INDEX.

661

Mithridatic wars, I., 156 j II., 160; III.,
160.

Mitscherlich, 622.

Mittermaier, 629.

Moesia, 181, 187, 204.

Moez, 231.

Mohacs, battle of, 458.

Mohammed, 224; his career, 224; the
flight of (Hegira), 225 ; his death, 226;
character of, 226; the Koran, 226 j Mo-
hammedan conquests, 227 seq.

Mohammed II. (Sultan), 353, 379.

Mohammed Ghori, 358.

Mohammed Togluk, 358.

Mohammedan states and conquests, 227-
231 j in India, 357.

Monl, 629.

Mohler, 629.

Mote, Count, 565.

Molifcre, 490.

Molo, 159.

Moloch, Phoenician god, 53,62.

Mommsen, 628.

Moncontour, battle of, 420.

Mongolian invasions, 283, 351 j the Mon-

, K°'s. 349-

Monk, 458.

Monmouth, battle of, 488.

Monmouth's rebellion, 460.

Monogenism, 9, 11; since Darwin, 9, 11;
Tylor on, 10; Max MUller on, 11; W.
D. Whitney on, 11.

Monroe, James, pres. of the U.S., 601;
Monroe Doctrine, 602} parties after,
602.

Montaigne, 447.

Montassem, 230.

Montcalm, 482.

Montecucuh, 457.

Montesquieu, 491.

Montezuma, 390.

Montfort, Simon de, the elder, 297; Earl
of Leicester, 300.

Montgomery, 4^7.

Monti, 543.

Montijo, Eugenie, 571.

Moore, 544.

Moors, origin of their race, 228; origin
of their name, 231; conquer Spain, 231:
great defeat of, 282, 341; conquest ot
Grenada, 370, 371.

More, Thomas, 392, 407.

Moreau, 519, 520, 523.

Morgarten, battle of, 335,

Mormons, 612.

Morse, S. F. B., 619, 630.

Mortimer, Roger, 317, 325: John, 328.

Morton, W. T. G., 620. ,

Mose9, 56, 57.

Moslems, conquer Africa and Spain, 231;
their government, 231; theology, law,
literature, 232; commerce and the arts,
232. (See Mohammed.)

Motley, John Lothrop, 627.

Mountain, party of the, 504.

Mowbray, Thomas, 324.

Mozart, 546.

Muawwiyah, 228.

Mughal Empire, 450; effect of its fall, 593.

Miihlberg, battle of, 409.

MUhldorf, battle of, 332.

Muller, K. O., 629.

MUller, J., 628.

Mummius, L., 151.

Munda, battle of, 165.

Miinzer, Thomas, 401.

Murad I., sultan of the Turks, 351; II.,
252.

Murat, k. of Naples, 528.

Murchison? Sir R., 621.

Murray, Lindley, 544.

Murray, Earl of, regent, 432.

Mus, P. Decius, 138, 139.

Musa, Arab governor, 228.

Musset, Alfred de, 629.

Mycale, battle of, 96.

Mylze, battle at, 144.

Myron? 101.

Myronides, 97.

Mythology, 12.

Nabonetus, k. of Babylon, 49.

Nabopolassar, k. of Babylon, 48, 60.

Najara, battle of. 342.

Nantes, Edict of, 422; its revocation, 456.

Napoleon I., 510; in Italy, 516; Egyp-
tian expedition, 518; reverses in Italy,
518} consulate, 519; reforms of, 521;
the empire, 523; power of, 527; ele-
ments of weakness in his empire, 527 j
his divorce and second marriage, 529;
reaction against, 529; fall of, 511; re-
turn from Elba, 533; battle of Water-
loo, 533; abdication of, 534; character,
534, 550; entombment of, in Paris, 561.

Napoleon III., emp. of the French, 570;
the Crimean war, 571; war with Aus-
tria, 572; baffled by Prussia, 580; Fran-
co-Prussian war, 580 seq.y 591. (See
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.)

Napoleon, Jerome, 590.

Napier, 403.

Napier, Sir W. F. P., 624.

Naples {see Sicily), the dominion of
Charles of Aniou, 282, 335 ; conquered
by Charles VIII., 383; conquered by
Ferdinand II.: in tne hands of Spain,
384; acquired by Austria, 466; ceded
to Spain, 467 j the Parthenoprean repub-
lie, 519; Joseph Bonaparte, king of,
<25; the Bourbons restored, 515 ; rebel-
lion of soldiers, Ferdinand IV., 553:
insurrection in, 568; under Ferdinand
II. (Bomba), 569; conquered by Gari-
baldi, and annexed to Italy, 574.

Narses, 220, 221.662

INDEX.

Naseby. battle of, 438.

Nashville, battle or, 609.

Nasmyth, 619.

Nations, constitution of, 2; earliest group

of, *7, 33 5 growing unity of, 633.
Narvaez, P. de, 441.

Narvaez, Gen., Duke of Valencia, 564.
Navarino, battle of, 554.

Navarre, under Sancho the Great, 282;

320; united with Aragon and Castile,
. 341.

Navigation Act, 440,

Neander, 628.

Nearchus, 115.

Nebraska, a territory, 605 ; a state, 613.
Nebuchadnezzar, k. of Babylon, 42, 48,
49, 62.

Necho, k. of Egypt, 48, 62.

Necker, 500, 501.

Nehemiah, 62.

Neku II., see Necho.

Nelson, 524, 525.

Nepos, Cornelius, 169.

Neptune, see Poseidon.

Nero, L. Domitius, emp. of Rome, 177;
persecutes the Christians, 178; his
death, 179.

Nerva, Roman emp., 181.

Nestorius, 217.

Netherlands, under Burgundian rule. 364*,
under Charles V., 399; revolt of the,
. 415; Alva's rule. 416; the Utrecht
. Union, 416; attack of Louis XIV., 453.

(See Holland, Belgium.)

"Neustria, 214.

New England, settlement of, 443; during
, the civil war in England, 445; in the

war of 1812-15, 542.

, Newfoundland, 441; 598.

New Hampshire settled, 444.

New Jersey, settlement ot, 480.

Newman, John Henry, 625.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 446, 492, 621.
New York, contest ot English and Dutch

in, 445.

New Zealand, 599.

Ney, 533, 534.

Nicaca, council of, 192.

Nicaea, Greek empire of, 279.

Nicephorus I., Greek emp., 230.
Nicephorus, Phocas, Greek emp., 270.
Nicholas I., pope, 246.

Nicholas I., czar of Russia, $54.

Nicholas V., pope, 337, 339.

Nicias, 102-104.

Nicole, 455.

Nicopolis, battle of, 351.

Niebuhr, 628.

Niepce, 621.

Nightingale, Florence, 631.

Nile, battle of the, 518.

Nimrod, 44.

Nimwegen, treaty of, 453.

Nineveh, capital of Assyria, 45.

Nineteenth century, geographical discov-
eries in, 618; four inventions, 619; other
inventions, 619 seq.; biology, 622; arch-
eology, 622; political economy, 623;
architecture, 630; sculpture and paint-
ing, 630; music, 631; social science,
631; mitigation of the sufferings of
war, hospitals, 631; public education,
632; microscope, 620; instruments in

. medicine and surgery, 620; spectro-
scope, photography, 620; conservation
of energy, 621; geology and paleontol-
ogy, 621; astronomy, 621; progress in
chemistry, 621; sanitary science, 631;
public education, 632; reform ot crim-
inal law; 632; prison-discipline reform,
632; unity amid diversity, 633 seq.; in-
dustrial exhibitions, 634; economical
enlightenment, 634; community in sci-

M ence and letters, 634 ; widened political
system, 634 j international philanthropy,
634; Christian missions, 635; result of
missions, 636.

Ninus, 45.

Nitzsch, 628.

Noailles, Vicomte de, 501.

Nola, battle of, 148.

Nordlingen, battle of, 428.

Noricum, 212.

Noureddin, 276.

Normans, conquest of England, 250;
effect of the conquest, 251; their spirit
and influence, 251; government, 252;
mingling' of blood and language, 252;
their buildings, 253; in Italy and Sicily,
253; their traits, 254, 255 seq,; Nor-
man writers, 307.

North German confederation, 579.

North, Lord, 489.

Northern war, 470 seq.

Northmen, invasions of, 246 seq,; in Eng-
land ana Italy, 249, 349.

Norton, Andrews, 628.

Norway, conversion of, 345; early history,
345, 346} after the union of Calmar,
147; war with Sweden, 518; union with
Sweden, 515.

Novara, battles of, 384, 569.

Nova Scotia. 441.

Novi, French defeated at, 519.

Numantian war, 152.

Numerianus, Roman emp., 187.

Nuremberg, peace of, 402, 408.

Nystadt, peace of, 472.

Oates, Titus, 460.

Ocho, k. of Persia, 54.

O'Connell, 558, 599.

Octavia (wife of Nero), 177.

Octavianus, C. Julius Caesar, defeats J.
Brutus and Cassius, 167; receives the
West, 167 j war with M. Antonius,INDEX.

663

167; receives the name of Augustus,
167. (See Augustus.)

Odense, diet of, 404.

Odin, see Woden.

Odoacer, ruler of Italy, 196; overthrown

by Theodoric, 211, 212.

Odysseus, 82.

CEdipus, 81.

Oersted, 619.

Oglethorpe, James, 480,

Ohud, battle of, 225.

Oiin, Japanese warrior, 25.

Olaf the Thick, k. of Norway, 240.

Olaf, k. of Norway and Denmark, 345.
Olaf Schooskonig, k. of Sweden, 240.
Oldcastle, Sir John, 325.

Olivier le Daim, 365.

Olympic deities, 81.

Olympus, 90.

Omar, 227, 228.

Ommiads, 224, 228, 229, 231.

Orleans, besieged by Attila, 209; Maid of,

see Joan of Arc.

Orleans, House of, struggle with Bur-
gundy, 326; on the throne of France,
5 56; its princes retire from the army, 590.
Orsmi, 573.

Origen, 191.	•

Ormuzd, Persian god, 64, 65.

Oscans, 125.

Ostrolenka, battle of, 557.

Ostrogoths, see East Goths.

Osman, 351.

Osman Digna, 596.

Othman, 228.

Otho, Koman emp., 179, 180.

Otis, James, 485.

Otranto, battle of, 374, 378.

Otto I. (the Great), emp. of the II. R. E.,
245, 261; and the palsgraves, 261; his
wars, 261; in Italy, 26.1: II., 263 ; 111.,
263; IV., 280, 297.

Ottocar II., k. of Bohemia, 332, 350.
Ottoman Empire, state of (in 1875), 585.

{See Turks and Turkey.)

Oudenarde, battle of, 465.

Oudinot, 569.

Ourique, battle of, 343.

Overbeck, 630.

Owen, Richard, 622.

Owen, Robert, 588.

Pacific Ocean discovered, 389.

Page, 630.

Pakenham, Gen., 542.

Palaeojogus, Michael, 279.

Palestine, 120; the Maccabees, 120; the
Idumaean princes, 120; wrested by the
Arabs from Greek empire, 227. {See He-
brews.)

Paley, William, 497,

Palfrey, John G., 627.

Pallavicini, 447, 575.

Palmerston, Lord, 564, 594.

Palmyra. 187.

Pansetius, 151.

Pandulph, 296.

Paniput, battle of, 450.

Pannonia, 212, 220, 223..

Panormus, battle of, 144.

Paoli, 511.

Papacy, the Roman See in early ages,
191; Leo the Great, 216; under the
Eastern Empire, 217; controversy on
image-worship, 223; relation to Charle-
magne; 236 seq.; in the ninth and tenth
centuries, 245; relation to the Holy
Roman Empire, 262; Hildebrand, 265
seq.; Concordat of Worms, 268; rela-
tion to the Crusades, 272, 309; relation
to the Guelfs, 276; Alexander III.,
277; Innocent III., 278; Gregory IX.,
Frederick II., 281; Boniface VIII.,
Philip IV., 312; in the thirteenth cen-
tury, 354; i% the Babylonian captivity,"
3f4, 354; period of the Great Schism,
339> 354? the reforming councils, 354;
in the fifteenth century, 377; the League
of Cambray, Julius II., 384; Leo X.
and the Reformation, 398; Adrian VI.,
Clement VII., 401; breach with Henry
VIII., 406; breach with Charles V.,
Council of Trent, 409; the Catholic
reaction, Paul IV., 413; Joseph II. and
the, 496; cessions of territory to France,
<17; Roman republic proclaimed by the
French, 519; Pius VII., a prisoner of
the French, 529; his controversies with
Napoleon, 533; restoration of the Papal
States, 536; Pius IX., republic in Rome,
569; French occupation of Rome, 569;
annexing of Rome to Italy, 584; Coun-
cil of the Vatican, 584; conflict with
Prussia, ^91; Leo XIII., 592. (See
Papal Principality.)

Papal Principality, founded. 235; Inno-
cent III., its second founder, 279; ces-
sions to France (1797), 517; turned into
the Roman republic (1798), 518} an-
nexed to France (1809), <28; restored
to the popes, 535; republic in Rome,
569; Romagna annexed to Sardinia,
574; Rome incorporated in the Italian
kingdom, 584.

Paracelsus, 447.

Paris, Matthew, 307.

Paris, seat of authority under Clovis, 213 j
capital of the dukes of France, 243;
siege of the Northmen, 243; insurrec-
tion in, 320, 321; siege of, in 1870, 582;
surrender of, 582; communists, 583.
(See France.)

Paris, treaties of, 478, 483, 532, 572.

Paris, son of Priam, 82.

Park, Mungo, 618.

Parker, Theodore, 628.664

INDEX.

Parkman, Francis, 627.

Parliaments in England, rise of, 215, 252;
under Simon de Montfort. 300; under
Edward I., 316; long parliament, 437 j
the Reform Bill, 559.

Parliaments in France, 299.

Parmenides, 91.

Parmenio, 115.

Parnell, 600.

Parrhasius, 102.

Parry, 618.

Parthenon, 98,101.

Parthenopsean republic, 519.

Parthia. 120; war with Trajan, 183.

Particularists, in Germany, 592^

Pascal, Blaise, 455, 490.

Paschal, Pope, II., 268; III., 277.

Paskievitch, 557.

Patkul, 470.

Patrick, his labors in Ireland, 216.

Paul the apostle, 172.

Paul I., emp. of Russia, 519, 524.

Paul II., Pope, 378; III., 413; IV., 413,
414, 430.

Paulding, J. K., 627.

Paulinus, Suetonius, 179.

Paulus, L. /Emilius, 147; the Younger,
149.

Pausanius, k. of Sparta, 96, 106.

Peale, 630.

Peasant insurrection in England, 324; in
Germany, 401,

Pedro de la Gasca, 391.

Pedro, Don, emp. of Brazil, 553, 615; II.,
615.

Peel, Sir Robert, 558, 560*

Peirce, Professor 13., 621.

Pelagius, 192.

Pelopidas, 110.

Peloponnesian war, 102-106.

Pennsylvania, settlement of, 480W

Pepys, diary of, 459.

Pequot war. 446.

Percy, family of, 325.

Percy, Harry (Hotspur), 325.

Perdiccas, 116.

Pergamon, founding of, 120; 149; 152.

Periander, tyrant of Corinth, 89.

Pericles, peace of, 97; age of, 97; speech
of, 98; his death, 103.

PSrier, Casimir, 556, 560.

Perkin Warbeck, 370.

Perry, Commodore O. IT., 541.

Perry, Commodore M. C., 617.

Perseus, k. of Macedonia, 149.

Persia, religion of, 64; geography, 64;
religious customs, 65 ; early history of,
66 j conquests of Cambyses and Darius,
67,68; government, 68; army and navy,
69; literature and art, 69; wars with
Greece, 93, 96; relations with Greece,
109; wars with Rome, 219; with Ara-
bia, 227.

Pertinax, Roman emp., 186.

Peru, conquest of, 390; war with Chili,
615.

Petition of Right, 436.

Peter III., k. of Aragon, and I. of Sicily,
282,141; IV, M3-

Peter the Cruel, k. of Castile, 322,342.

Peter, apostle of Christ, 171.

Peter Damiani, b. of Ostia, 265.

Peter the Great, czar of Russia, 470; III.,
477.

Peter the Hermit, 272.

Peter I., k. of Portugal, 344.

P6tion, 504.

Petrarch, 339.

Petronius Maximus, Roman emp., 210.

Phaedrus, 169.

Pharisees, 120,171.

Pharnaces, 165.

Pharsalus, battle of, 165.

Phidias, 98, 101.

Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 322 j
the Good, 364, 365.

Philip of Navarre, 32a

Philip II. (Augustus), k. of France, 278,
294, 297; III., 309; IV., 312j his war
with Boniface VIII., 312 J*?., 332j his
sons, 315; V., 315 ; VI., 317.

Philip, k. of Macedonia, 111, 112; III.,
alliance with Hannibal, 147; 148; 149.

Philip, Roman emp., 187.

Philip de Commines, 366.

Philip, duke of Orleans, 467.

Philip, emp. H. R. E., 280.

Philip II., k. of Spain, his character, 414;
tyranny, 415; Alva's rule, 416; Utrecht
union, 416; 420; the Spanish Armada,

4.33 > v-» 464*

Philip, landgTave of Hesse, 408,409.

Philippides, 93.

Phillips, Wendell, 604.

Philology, comparative, as a source of
history, 6.

Philotas, 115.

Phocas, Greek emp., 222.

Phocion, 119.

Phcebidas, no.

Phoenicians, 51; commerce and prosperity
of, 51; colonies, 51; opulence, 51; re-
ligion and letters, 53.

Phoenicia, physical geography, 51; histori-
cal events, 53; early tribes, 54.

Phraortes, k. ol Media, 66.

Phry^ia, 152.

Physical geography, 7, 8.

Pichegru, 518.

Pico de Mirandola, 392.

Picts, invasions into Britain, 215.

Piedmont {see Italy, Rome), conquered by
Rome, 145; under the Ostrogoths, 212;
under the Lombards, 220; under Char-
lemagne, 236; anarchy in,-244, 261;
Berengar (II.) of Ivrea, conquered byindex;

665

Otto 1, 262; Lombard League, 276;
distinct states in, 335 seq., 374; under
the dukes of Savoy who became kings
of Sardinia, 466; Cisalpine republic,
07; annexed to France, 522; under
Napoleon, king of Italy, 52^; House
of Savoy restored in Sardinia (and
Genoa), Lombardo-Venetian kingdom
ceded to Austria (1815), 535; revolts,
abdication of Victor Emmanuel I., 553;
under Charles Albert, 558; Austro-Sar-
dinian war (1848J, 569; war of France
and Sardinia against Austria, annexing
of Lombardy, 572, 573; annexing of
Tuscany, etc., cession of Savoy and
Nice to France, 574; annexing of Na-
ples and Sicily, 574; of Venice, 579;
Rome, the capital, 584.

Pierce, Franklin, pres. of the U. S., 605.

Pilgrims in Jerusalem, 271.

Pilgrims, their settlements, 443.

Pilnitz, declaration of, 505.

Pilate, Pontius, 171,

Pinckney, 538.

Pindar, 90, i 13.

Pindemonte, 543.

Pinkie, battle of, 430.

Pipin, family of, 214.

Pipin of Heristal, 214.

Pipin, son of Louis the Pious, 241.

Pipin the Short, k. of the Franks, 215,
234; in Italy, 234; his death, 235.

Pirates, war of the Romans against, 159.

Pisa, council of, 354.

Pisistratids, 89.

Pisistratus, 89.

Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 482, 485.

Pitt, William (the Younger), 508, 521,
592*

Pittacus, tyrant of Lesbos, 89.

Pius II., pope, 364, 374, 376; V., 43a;
VII., 523, 528; IX., 568, 584.

Placidia, 208.

Plague in London, Great, 459.

Plataea, battle of, 96.

Plato, 107.

Plautus, 15T.

Pliny (the Elder), 184.

Pliny (the Younger), friend of Trajan,
182,184.

Plutarch, 185.

Plymouth, Pilgrim settlement at, 443.

Plymouth Company, 442.

Pocahontas, 443.

Podiebrad, k. of Bohemia, 370.

Poe, Edgar A Han, 626.

Poitiers, battles of (Charles Martel), 227;
32°.

Poland, 347; the Poles, 347: constitution
347, 349, condition 01 (1700), 471;
partition of, 479, 557.

Polignac, Prince, 555.

.Politian, 39a.

Politiques, 421.

Pollock, Gen., 594.

Polo, Marco, 302, 356.

Polybius, 121, 149, 151.

Polycarp, 190.

Polycletus, 101.

Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, 89.
Polygnotus, 102.

Polynices, 82.	» . ■ •

Pombal, 495.

Pompeii destroyed, 181.

Pompeius, Cneius (Magnus), 121; joins
Sulla, 157; war with Sertorius, 158;
gladiatorial war, 159; war with the
' pirates, 159; in the East, 160; first
triumvirate, 162; Pompeius and Csesar,
164; second triumvirate, 164; retires
to the East, 164; defeat and death of,
165.

Poniatowski, 479.

Pontiac, conspiracy of, 483.

Pontius, Samnite general, 139.

Pontus, a Roman province, 160.

Poor-law in England, 559.

Pope, A., 543.

Pope, Gen., 608.

Popes in the 13th century, 354; in the
15th century, 376-378. (See the names
severally, and Papacy.)

Popham Colony, 443.

Popilius Lsenas, C., 149.

Popish Plot, 460.

Poppaea Sabina, 177.

Port Hudson, capture of, 609.

Porto Dello, taking of, 469.

Port Royal captured, 481.

Portugal, historical geography of, 340;
a kingdom, 341; voyages and discov-
eries, 388; essays at reform in, 495;
invasion by Napoleon, 528; Wellington
in, 528; after 1815, 552.

Porus, Indian prince, 115.

Poseidon, 80.

Postumius, 139.

Pott, 629.

Powers, 630.

Powhatan, 443.

Pragmatic sanction, 355; 474.

Prague, peace of, 579.

Praxiteles, 102.

Pre-historic relics, 13.	\

Pre-historic times, 13; division of, 13.
Prescott, William H., 627.

Presburg, diet of (1687), 458; diet of, 476}

peace of (1805), 525.

Preston Pans, battle of, 439.

Pride, Col., 439.

Printing, 387.

Prior, 631.

Probusj Roman emperor, 187.

Procopius, 223.

Propertius, 169.

Propytaa, 98.666

INDEX.

Proudhon, 588.

Provence, 212; united to France, 367.
Prusias, k. of Bithynia, 149.

Prussia, 347; Western part annexed to
Poland, 372; beginning of the kingdom
of, 474; growth of its power, 474 seq.;
joins Austria in war against France,
506; conquered by Napoleon, 525 ; war
of liberation, 531; Austro-Prussian war,
575 seq.; the Franco-Prussian war, 580
seq.; war with Austria, 575, ^78; con-
flict of Prussia and the Vatican, 591.
(See Brandenburg.)

Psammeticus I., k. of Assyria, II., 42,
48,69.

Ptolemies, ks. of Egypt, I. (Lagi), 117;
IL (Philadelphia), 118; III. (Euer-
getes), 118; IV. (Philopator), 118; VI.
(Philometor), 118.

Ptolemy Ceraunus, k. of Macedonia, 119.
Public Safety, committee of, in Paris, 509,

512-
Pufendorf, 446.

Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius II., 217.

Pultowa, battle of, 472.

Punic wars, 143-150.

Puritans, 434; in New England, 443.

Pusey, Dr/E., 62s.

Putnam, Israel, 487.

Pydna, battle of, 149.

Pym, John, 437.

Pyrrhus, war with, 139; events of the

war, 140, 141.

Pyrrhus, k. of Epirus, 55.

Pythagoras, 91.

Quadi, 183.

Quadra, 598.

Quadruple Alliance, 561.

Quakers, 494.

Quatre Bras, battle of, 533.

Quebec, capture of by Wolfe, 482,

Queen, Anne's war, 481.

Quintus Fabius, 145.

Rabelais, 448.

Rachis, 22t.	,

Racine, 490.

Radagaisus, 206.

Radetzky, 569.

Raglan, 572.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 7, 435, 442.
Rambouillet, Madame de, 448.

Ramnes, 127.

Ramses II. (the Great), k. of Egypt, 40,
41.

Ranke, 628.

Raphael, 394.

Ratisbon, alliance made at, 401} diet of,

408.

Rauch, 545.

Raumer, 628.

Ravaillac, 422.

Ravenna, 206; 212; 219, 220, 235.

Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 273; VI.,
297; VII., 298.

Reade, Charles, 625.

Reformation, era of the, 396; beginning of
the, 397; Luther, 398; diet of Worms,
3991 progress and reaction, 401; peace
of Nuremburg, 402; Swiss, 403; in
Denmark, 404; in Sweden, 404; Eng-
land, 405 ; the parties in Germany, 408;
peace of Augsburg, 410; Catholic coun-
ter-reformation, 411; second stage of,
in England, 42^.

Regulus, M. Atilius, 144.

Rehoboam, k. of J udah, 60.

Reid, 492, 622.

Religious peace (in Germany, 1555), 410.

Rembrandt, 394.

Rubens, 394.

Remigius, abp, of Rheims, 213.

Renan, 629.

Renaissance, 387 seq.; revival of learn-
ing, 391; contest of the new and old
culture, 392; art, 393; architecture and
sculpture, ^93; painting in Italy, 394;
in the Netherlands, 394; in Germany
and France, 394; music, 395.

Republican party, (the earlier), 536; (the
later), 695.

Requesens, 416.

Reuchlin, John, 392.

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 54J.

Rhine, confederation of tne, 525.

Rhine, league of the, 331.

Rhodes, war with Antiochus III., 149.

Rhode Island, settled, 444.

Rhoetia, 212.

Ricardo, 623.

Ricci, Matteo, 449.

Richard I. (Cceur-de-Lion), k. of Eng-
land, 278, 294, 295; II., his reign, 324;
III., 368. 369.

Richard of Clare. Earl of Pembroke, 294.

Richard, Duke of York, 768.

Richard, Earl of Cornwall, 331.

Richard the Good, Duke of Normandy,
248.

Richardson, 492.

Richelieu, 427; his intervention in the
Thirty Years' war, 428; death, 452.

Richter, Jean Paul, 545, 624.

Riego, 551, 552.

Rienzi, 339.

Riga, siege of, 471.

Ripley, George, 628.

Hitter, Carl, 619, 623.

Rivifcre, 591*

Rizzio, 432.

Robert, count of Artois, 312; II., 317.

Robert le Coq, 321.

Robert, count of Flanders, 273.

Robert Guiscard, 253, 267,

Robert, k. of Naples, 337.INDEX.

667

Robert, d. of Normandy, 272, 290.

Robert of Sorbon, 298.

Robert the Strong, 242, 247.

Robert the Wise (of Anjou), 337.

Roberts, Miss, 625.

Roberts, Gen., 594.

Robespierre, 504 seq.; fall of, 515.

Robertson, W., 492.	. m .

Robinson, Edward, 627.

Robinson, John, 443.

Rochambeau, count, 489, 506.

Rochefoucauld. 490.

Roger II., k. of the two Sicilies, 253.

Rogers, 544.

Roland (the Frank hero), 236.

Rolf, see Rollo.

Rolfe, 443.

Rollo, 2Af.

Roman law in the provinces, 168; among
the West Goths and Franks, 217; codi-
fication of, 220.

Romanus IV., Greek emp., 270.

Rome (the city), 178, 179; sacked by
Alaric, 205; pillaged by Vandals and
Moors, 211. (See Rome (below), Italy,
Papacy, Piedmont.)

Rome, place of, in history, 124; Greeks
and Romans, 125; Roman religion, 126;
origin of the Romans, 126; under the
kings, 128; character of the legends,
128 ; legendary tales, 128; truth in the
legends, 130; patricians and plebeians,
131; early constitution, 131; magis-
trates, 131; religion, 132; under the
patricians, 133; rivalry of classes, 113;
the plebeian assembly, 134; law of Cas-
sius, 134 j war with ^Kquians and Vol-
scians, 134; decemvirs, 135; political
equality, 135; war with the Etruscans,
136; invasion of the Gauls, 136; Licin-
ian laws, 137; influence of party con-
flicts, 137; conquest of the Latins and
Italians, 138,139; wars with the Gauls,
138; first Samnite war, 138; second
Samnite war, 119; third Samnite war,
139; war with Pyrrhus, and union of
Italy, 139; events of the war, 140; citi-
zenship, 141; conquered towns, 1;
Latin franchise, 142; Roman colonies.
142; the Punic wars, to the conquest of
Carthage and of the Greek states, 143-
148; conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, 144;
Carthaginians in Spain, 145; Hannibal
in Italy. 146-148; conquest of Mace-
doniart third Punic war, the destruction
of Corinth, 148-152; the provinces,
151; literature and philosophy, 151;
state of morals, 151; Numantian war,
152; era of revolution and of the civil
wars, 153-167; the Gracchi, 153, 1^;
condition of Rome, 153; Jugurthme
war, 154; Italian war, 156; war with
Mithridates, 156; Marius and Sulla,

157,158; war with Sertorius, 158; Pom-
peius and the East, 158-160; gladiato-
rial war, 159; war with the pirates, 159;
Catiline, 161; Julius Caesar. 162; first
triumvirate, 162; conquest ot Gaul, 163;
civil war (of Pompeius and Caesar), 164;
second triumvirate, 166; the imperial
monarchy, 168-197; reign of Augustus,
168} state of the empire, 168; literature,
169; poets, 169; historians, 169; law
writers, 169; other authors, 169; intro-
duction of Christianity, 170-172; Roman
life, 172; dress, 173; order of occupa-
tions, 173; marriage and the household,
174; slaves, 174; magistrates, 174;
emperors of the Augustan house, 176-
180; reign of terror, 177; the Flavians
and Antonines, 180-181; the Jewish
war, 180; state of morals, 183; litera-
ture, 184; skepticism, 185; superstition,
185; the emperors made by the soldiers,
185-187; power of the provinces, 186:
absolute monarchy, 188; downfall 01
heathenism, 189, 193; division of the
empire, 196; fall of the Western Em-
pire, 199.

Romilly, Samuel, 632.

Romulus Augustulus, Roman emp., 211,

Romulus and Remus, 128.

Ronsard, 448.

Roses, wars of the, 328, 368-370.

Ross, Sir John, 618.

Kosmini, 623.

Rossbach, battle of, 477.

Rossi, 569.

Rothe, 628. "

Roumania, 586.

Rousseau, J. J.. 491, 630.

Roxana, wife ot Alexander the Great, 115.

Royer-Collard, 543.

Rubens, 394.

Rudolph of Burgundy, 245.

Rudolph 111., k. of Burgundy, 263.

Rudolph, count of Hapsburg, emp. H.R.E.,
3V-

Rudolph, duke of Swabia, 267.

Rufinus, 205.

Rumford, Count, 621.

Rupert, Count Palatine, 334.

Rurik, 349.

Ruskin, John, 625, 630.

Russell, Lord William, 460.

Russia, attack on the Greek empire, 270}
345 : 347; natural features of, 348; Rus-
sian and Polish Slaves, 349; "history-of
Russia in the middle ages, 349; in the
15th and 16th centuries, 381 seq,; the
Cossacks, 382; Russian serfdom, 382;
society in, 382; growth of its power, 470
seq.; changes under Peter the Great,
473; Russian campaign of Napoleon,
530; Crimean war, 571; the Russo-
Turkish war, 586; subsequent situation668

INDEX.

of, 587; nihilism, 587; and Afghanis-
tan, 594.

Ruthven, 432.

Rye-House plot, 460.

Ryswick, peace of, 463. •

Saadi, 232.

Saarbriicken, battle of, 581.

Saguntum, alliance with, 145.

St. Arnaud, 572.

St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 416, 420.

St. Bernard, 276, 291.

St. Bonaventura, 306.

St. Cloud, ordinances of, 555.

St. Cyran, 455.

St. Dominic, the order of, 303.

St. Francis, the order of, 305.

St. Germain, edict of, 419.

St. John, viscount Bolingbroke, 466.
St. Simon, 588.

Sainte-Beuve, 629.

Saisset, Bernard, 313.

Saladin, 231, 274, 276, 278.

Salic Law, 315.

Salisbury, Lord, prime minister of Eng-
land, 597.

Sallust, 169.

Salvator Rosa, 394.

Samnite wars, first, 138; second, 139;

third, 139.

Samnites, 156 ; join the Marians, 158.
Samson, 58.

Samuel, k. of Bulgaria, 270.

Samuel the prophet, 58, 59.

Sancho III., the Great, k. of Navarre, 282,
34°.

Sancho I., k. of Portugal, 344.

Sand, George, 550, 629..

Sandracottus, 120.

San Salvador, 389.

San Stefano, treaty of, 586.

Sappho, 90.

Saracens, incursions of, 249. (See Arabs,

Mohammedans.)

Sardanapalus I., see Asshur-nasir-bal.
Sardinia, ceded to the Romans by Car-
thage, 145; Roman province, 151; con-
quest of, by Belisarius, 219; ceded to
Savoy, 466; dukes of Savoy, kings of
Sardinia, 466; Sardinian kingdom un-
der Victor Emmanuel I. and Charles
Albert, 553; war with Austria, 572; ex-
tension of the kingdom, 574. (See
Piedmont, Italy.)

Sargon, k. of Assyria, 41, 44, 46, 62.

Sarpi, Father Paul, 446.

S as bach, battle of, 454.

Saturninus, 155.

Saul, k. of the Jews, 58, 59.

Savenay, battle of, 510.

Savigny, 629.

Savoy, obtains Sicily, exchanges it for Sar-
. dinia, 466 j ceded to Franco (1796), 517;

regained by Sardinia (1815), 535; ceded
to France, 574. (See Piedmont.)

Savonarola, Jerome, 375; his death. 383.

Saxons, 201, 202; their conquest of Eng-
land, 215; their conversion, 215; be-
come one people with the Angles {see
Angles).

Saxony, the ancient duchy (after Louis
the Child), 244; the Saxon kings and
emperors, 260 seq.; revolt against Henry
IV., 265; under Henry the Proud and
Henry the Lion, 275; divided, 278;
Frederick the Wise, 397; Smalcaldic
war, division of, 409; Augustus 11. be-
comes k. of Poland, 471; deposed, 472;
joins the Confederacy of the Rhine,
526; its troops abandon the French at
LeipsiCj 531; loses to Prussia a great
part of its territory, $75; an ally of Aus-
tria (1866), 578.

Say, 623.

Scanderbeg, prince of Albania, 379.

Scandinavians, conversion of, 239, 345;
character of the countries of the, 344.
(See Denmark, Norway, Sweden.)

Schadow, William, 630.

Scheffer, Ary, 630.

Schelling, 545.

Schiites, 227.

Schleicher, 629.

Schleiermacher, Frederick, 628.

Schleswig, 347.

Schleswig-Holstein, 576 seq.

Schliemann, 628.

Schlosser, 628.

Schopenhauer, 623.

Schubert, 546, 631.

Schumann, 631.

Schwanthaler, 630.

Schwartz, 387.

Schwartzenberg, 531.

Schweinfurth, 618.

Sciarra Colonna, 313.

Scipio, Cornelius, 146.

Scipio, Cnaeus, 148.

Scipio, L. Cornelius, 149.

Scipio, Publius, 148.

Scipio, P. Cornelius (Africanus), 148, 149.

Scipio, P. Nasica, 154.

Scipio, P. Cornelius (/Emilianus), 150,152.

Scopas, 102.

Scotland, incursions of Scots into Britain,
215; war with Edward I., 312, 315;
contest of Bruce and Baliol, 315; crown-
ing of Robert Bruce, 316; defeat of the
English at Bannockburn,ii6; the Scots
vanquished by Edward 111., 319; death
of James IV. at Flodden Field, 386; in-
vasion of, by Somerset, 429; Protestant-
ism and Knox in, 431; reign of Mary,
432; execution of Mary, 431; union of
crowns under James VI. (James I. of
England), 435; solemn league and cove-INDEX.

669

nant, 4^7; unites with Parliament
against Charles I., 438; Scots deliver up
Charles, 439; victory of Cromwell in,
439 > crown given to William and Mary,
461; its union with England, 461; Jacob-
ite rebellions in, 469; philosophy and,
literature in, 492, 544, 622, 624.

Scott, Gen. W., 542, 604, 607.

Scott, Sir Walter, 544, 624.

Scribe, 629.

Scythians, irruption of, 47, 48, 201.

Secchi,62i.

Sedgwick, A., 621.

Sedgwick, C. M., 627.

Seckendorf, 446.

Seianus, 176.

Seleucia founded, 120.

Seleucidae, ks. of Syria, 117; conquered
by Pompeius, 160.

Seleucus I. {Nicator), k. of Syria, 31, 119.

Selim I., Sultan of Turkey, 379.

Scmiramis, 45.

Sender, 628.

Sempach, battle of, 335.

Sempronius, 146.

Sena Gallica, battle of, 148.

Seneca, 177, 184.

Senior, N. W., 62^.

Senlac, battle at, 250.

Sennacherib, k. of Assyria, 41, 46, 62.

Septimania, held by Visigoths, 213; occu-
pied by the Saracens, 228.

Serrano, 580, 585.

Sertorius, Q., 158, 159.

Servetus, Michael, 412.

Seven years' war, 477.

Severus, Alexander, 187.

Severus, Septimius, 186.

Servia, 223, 586.

Seward, W, II., 610, 627.

Sforza, Francesco, 338, 374, 400. (See
Milan.)

Shabak, k. of Egypt, 42, 47.

Shakers, 588.

Shakespeare, 448, 620.

Shalmaneser II., k. ot Assyria, 66; IV., 46.

Sharp, Granville, 559.

Shelley. 544.

Sher Ali Khan, 594.

Sheridan, Gen. P.. 609.

Sheridan, Richard B., 478.

Sherman, Gen. W. T., O09. »

Shishak, k. of Egypt, 41, 61.

Shrewsbury, battle of, 325.

Sicilian Vespers. 282.

Sicily, contest ot Phoenicians and Greeks
in, 45; Carthaginians conquered in, 148;
Roman province, 1:1; conquered by
Helisariusj 210; the Normans in, 253.

Sicily, the kingdom of, 253 ; ruled by the
Honenstaufens, 280; separated from
Naples, under Peter of Aragon, 282;
ceded to Savoy and exchanged for Sar-

dinia, 466; under the Spanish Bour-
bons, 467; annexed to Sardinian king-
dom, 574.

Sickingen, Franz von, 401.

Sidgwick, 623.

Sidney, Algernon, 460.	^

Sidney, Sir Philip, 448.

Siegfried, abp. of Mentz, 271.

Siey&s, 500.

Sigismund, emp. H. R. E., 334, 350.
Sigismund III., k. of Poland, 302*..

Sigurd, 346.	..... —

Silesia, claimed by Frederick II., 475; ces-
sion of, to Prussia, 476.

Silliman, Benjamin, 621.

Simonides, 90.

Simon, brother of Judas Maccabaeus, 121.
Simroch, 629.

Sinope, battle of,' 571.

Sismondi, 629.

Six Articles, 407, 429.

Sixtus IV., pope, 375, 378.

Slavery in Greece, 108; in Rome, 174;
under the Carlovingians, 239; abolished
by England, 559; in the United States,
601; anti-slavery agitation, 602; abol-
ished in the United States, 608, 610.
Slavonians, 200, 223, 347.

Sleidan, 446.

Slidell, 607.

Smalcald, league of, 402,408 j Smalcaldic

war, 408.

Smerdis, k. of Persia, 67.

Smith, Adam, 492, 623.

Smith, Capt. John, 443.

Smith, Ilenry B., 623, 627.

Smith, Joseph, 612.

Smith, Sydney, 544.

Smolensk, battle of, 472.

Smolensko, 530.

Smorgoni, 530.

Sobieski, John, 458.

Socialism, 588, <;<)2.

Socrates, 106; his philosophy, 106.
Soissons, seat of government under Clo-
vis, 213.

Solemn League and Covenant, 437.
Soliman, caliph, 228.

Soliman I. (the Magnificent), sultan of

Turkey, 379, 402.

Solomon, k. of the Tews, 60: character
of his reign; 60; division ot kingdoms
under. 60.

Solon ot Athens, 88; his legislation, 88,90.
Somerset, 429, 430, 559.

Soto, Ferdinand de, 441.

Songs, as a source of nistory, 6.

Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, 470.
Sophocles, 98-100.

Soudan, the, 596.

Soult, 531.

South America, independence of, 551 \
since 1815,615. {See the several states.).670

INDEX.

Sou they, 544.

South, Sea Company, 469.

Spain, Phoenician settlements in, 51; Car-
thaginians in, 145 ; Saguntum in alliance
with Rome, 145 ; Romans expel the Car-
^ thaginians from, 148; victory of Caesar
" at Muncla, 165; invaded by Suevi,
"Alans, and Vandals, 206; Visigothic
^kingdom established in, 207; conquered
~-by the Arabs, 228; the caliphate and
...Moslem kingdoms in, 231; rise of Chris-
tian-kingdoms in, 341; invasion of
Moors,.. 341; constitutions of Aragon
and Castile, 342; union of Aragon and
Castile, 370; conquest of Grenada, 370;
Ferdinand of Aragon acquires Naples,
384; Ferdinand joins the league of Cam-
bray, 384; Spanish voyages of discov-
ery, 388 seq.; conquest of Mexico and
Peru by, 790; power of, under Philip
•II., 420; the Spanish Armada, 433; ex-
ploration of Florida and the Mississippi,
441; literature in (1517-1648), 447; war
of the Spanish succession, 463 seq.;
cessions at the peace of Utrecht, 466;
Spanish power in Italy (in the 18th
century), 467; under the control of Na-
poleon. 522; Joseph Bonaparte made
king of, 528 ; expulsion of French from,
531; revolts in (1820), and their sup-
pression, 550 seq. :*loss of its American
colonies, 551; revolt, and flight of Queen
Isabella, 580; sells Florida to the
United States, 601 j revolutions in
(1868-1874), 585.

Sparks, Tared, 027.

Sparta, 86, 87; constitution of Lycurgus,
86; laws and customs, 86; first hege-
mony, 87; Peloponnesian war, 102-106;
peace of Nicias, 104; naval contests,
104; Spartan life, 108; second hege-
mony, 108; hegemony yielded to Thebes,
110.

Spaulding, Solomon, 612.

Speke, 618.

Spencer, Herbert, 623.

Spener, 494.

Spenser, 448.

Spielhagen, 628.

Spinoza, 447.

Spires, diet of, 402.

Spohr, 631.

Stael, Madame de, 543.

Stahl. 629.

Standard, battle of the, 291.

Standish, Capt. Miles, 443.

Stan field, 630.

Stanhope (Lord Mahon), 624.

Stanislas Lesczinski, palatine of Posen,

„ 474.

Stanley, 618.

Stanley, A. P., 624.

Star Chamber, 369.

Stark, Gen., 487, 488.

States General, 313; under Louis XVI.,

499 seq.

Steele, 492.

Stein, 529.

Stephen, the first martyr, 171.

Stephen of Blois, k. of England, 291.

Stephen (St.), k. of Hungary, 350.

Stephen III., pope, 234; IV., pope, 241.

Stephenson, George, 619.

Steuben, 487, 488.

Stewart, Balfour, 621.

Stewart, Dugald, 544.

Stilicho, 205, 206.

Stockholm, massacre of, 404*

Story, Joseph, 627.

Story, W. W., 630.

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 627.

Strauss, 629.

Struve, 621.

Stuart, Moses, 627.

Stubbs, 624.

Sturm, 239.

Sue, Eugene, 629.

Suevi, 163, 201, 206; kingdom of, estab-
lished in Spain, 207; kingdom vanished,
208.

Suez Canal controlled by England, 585.

Suger, 291.

Suidger, see Clement II.

Suiin, Japanese reformer, 25.

Sulla, L. Cornelius, takes Jugurtha, 155;
chosen consul, 157; goes to Africa, 157;
his return, 157; his cruelty, 158; laws
of, 158.

Sulpicius Rufus, P., 157.

Sung dynasty in China, 356.

Sunnites, 227.

Sutri, synod of, 264.

Suwarrow, 519.

Sweden, introduction of Christianity into,
239; relation of its history to the Baltic,
344; war with the Goths, 346; to the
union of Calmar, 346; Charle* VIII.
made king of, 347; the Reformation in,
405; in the thirty years' war, Gustavus
Adolphus, 424; career of Charles XII..
the Northern war, 470 seq.: decline of ,
its power, 472; in the northern alliance,
521, 524; under Bernadotte, joins the
continental system, 529; joins Russia
against France, 530; in the congress of
Vienna, retains Norway, 535.

Swedenborg, 494.

Swift, 492.

Swiss league, 372.

Switzerland, a part of Aries, ceded to the
empire, 334; story of Tell, 33s; rise of
the Swiss confederacy, 335; Charles the
Bold and the Swiss, 366, 767; the
Swiss Reformation, 403; the Helvetian
Republic, 518.

Syagrius, 213.INDEX.

671

Sylvester II., pope, 271, 350.

Syphax, 148.

Syracuse, Sicilian expedition, 104; capture
of, 148.

Syria, kingdom of, founded. 1195a Roman
province, 160; conquered by the Arabs,
227.

Tait, 621.

Taine, 629.

Taiping Rebellion, 616.

Talbot, Fox, 621.

Talbot, English commander, 328.

Talleyrand, 500, 503, 556.

Tamerlane, 283, 351,352, 358.

Tancred of Hauteville, 253, 273.

T'ang dynasty in China, 355; events in

this period, 356.

Taouism, 23.

Tarentum, 139.

Tarik, 228.

Tartars, 283.

Tasso, 447.

Taylor, Jeremy, 448.

Taylor, Nathaniel W,, 627.

Taylor, Zachary, Gen, 604.

Texas, 480; annexation of, 604.
Tecumseh, 541.

Teen-Wang, 616.

Telamon, battle at, 145.

Tell, William, 335.

Tennyson, Alfred, 625,

Terence, 151.

Terpander, 90.

Test Act, 459.

Testry, battle of,"214.

Tetzel, 397.

Tennessee, 538.

Teutoburg forest, Roman legions annihi-
lated in. 172.

Teutonic knights, 274.

Teutons, 155, 200; Teutonic confedera-
cies, 201; Teutonic migrations and
kingdoms, 204; character of the Teu-
tonic kingdoms, 216.

Tewfik Pasha, 595.

Thackeray, 625.

Thales of Miletus, 91.

Thai etas, 90,

Thapsus, battle of, 165.

Thebes, contest with Sparta, 109; hege*

mony, no; burning of, 113.
Themistocles, 94-96.

Theobald of Champagne, 298.

Theocritus, 121.

Theodora, 222.

Theodoric, k. of the Eastern Franks, 214.
Theodoric, k. of the East Goths, 211, 212.
Theodosius I,, Roman emp., 193, 194; his
death, 196; regent of the East, 204; has
supreme power in the West, 205; II.,
208, 209, 217,

Theognis, 90.

Theophania, wife of Otto II., 263. ^

Thermopylae, battle of, 95.	-

Theseus, 8i.

Thespis, 100.

Thierry, Am£d£e, 629.

Thierry, Augustin, 629. - 7;

Thiers, 455, 556, 589. ,..... J

Thirlwall, 624.

Thirty years' war, 422 seq.; origin, 422;
first stage in, 423; second stage in, 424;
third stage in, 427; effects of, 428;
peace of Westphalia, 428; consequences
of the treaty, 429.

Thistlewood, 552.	-

Thiu, 202.

Tholuck, 628.

Thomas, Gen. G. H., 609.

Thompson, Sir William, 621.

Thor, Teutonic god, 202.

Thorn, peace of. 372.

Thorn, treaty of, 348.

Thorwaldsen, 545.

Thothmes I., k. of Egypt, 40.

Thrace, 204, 205.

Thrasybulus, 104, 105, 106.

Thucydides, 98. 103.

Tiberius Claudius Nero, emp. of Rome,

172, 176; his death, 173,

Tibullus, 169.

Ticinus, battle of, 146.

Ticknor, George, 627.

Ticonderoga captured, 487,

Tigellinus, 179.

Tiglath-Adar, k. of Assyria, 45.
Tiglath-Pileser I., II., ks. of Assyria, 45,
46, 62.

Tigranes, k. of Armenia, 160.

Tilsit, peace of, 526.

Tilly, 424.

Timour, ruler of Afghanistan, 594.

Timur, see Tamerlane.

Tinchebrai, battle of, 290.

Tippecanoe, battle of, 541.

Tiresias, 81.

Tirhakah, k. of Egypt, 42, 46. ;
Tischendorf, 628.	. .

Tissaphernes, 109.

Titus, Roman emp., siege of Jerusalem,

180; his reign, 181.

Togrul Bey, 230.

Tokoly, 457.

Tolosa, battle of. 283.

Torgau, battle of, 477.

Torres Vedras, Wellington's defence of,
529-

Torrens, R., 623.

Torus, battle oft 227.

Totila, 219, 220.	"

Towton, battle of, 369.

Trafalgar, battle of, 525.

Trajan, Roman emp., 181; Parthian expe-
dition, 182.

Trasumenus, battle of lake, 146.INDEX.

672

Trebia,- battle of, 146.

Trent, council of, 409, 413.

Trendelenburg, 623.

Tribonian, 220.

Triple Alliance^ 453, 459.

Tristan PHermite, 365.

Trochu, 582.

Trojan war, 82. .

Troppaitf congress of, 553.

Trcxyes, treaty of, 326.

Truce of God, 264.

Trumbull, J., £44.

Tsin dynasty in China, 22.

Tudor, first of the house, 369.

Tuduc, k. of Anam, 591.

Tunis, battle at, 144.

Turenne, 453, 454.

Turgeneff, Ivan, 630.

Turkish emirs, 230.

Turks, Turkey, empire of the Seliukian,
270; checked by the Crusades, 254; the
Ottoman Turks, Murad I., Bajazet,35i;
Mongolian victories over, 352; conquest
of Constantinople (1453), government
and literature, 353; wars with the Vene-
tians, 775; conquests of Mohammed
II. and Selim I., 379; at war with
Charles V.. 402; allies of Francis I.,
408; Azoff ceded to Peter the Great,
471; loss of the Crimea, 470; Treaty
of Jassy, 479; a party in the second
coalition against Napoleon, 535; # the
Greek insurrection, 553; Greek inde-
pendence, 554; war of Mehemet Ali
with the Sultan, 460; the Crimean war,
530; integrity of Turkish empire guar-
anteed, 572; revolts in European Tur-
key? 585 ; the Russo-Turkish war (1877).
586} delivers to Austria, Bosnia ancl
Herzegovina, 587 ; relations to the Khe-
dive of Egypt and the Western Powers,
595**7.

Turner, 545.

Tuscany, 495.

Tycho Brahe, 446.

Tyler, Wat, 324.

Ty lor, 622.

Tyndall, 621.

Tyr, see Thiu.

Tyrants (in Greece), 89.

Tyrtjeus, 90.

Uhland, 545.

Ullman, 628.

Ulm, battle of, 525.

Ulphilas, 204.

Ulrici, 623.

Ulysses, see Odysseus,

Umbrians, 125.

Uniformity, .Act of, 458.

United States of America, Declaration of
Independence, 487; Articles of Confed-
eration, 487) recognition of their inde-

pendence, 489; Constitution formed,
489; the first Congress, 490; Federal-
ists and Republicans, 536; the " Whis-
key Rebellion," ^36; Jay's treaty, 537;
new inventions in, 537; rupture of the
Federal party, 538; the "Resolutions
of '98," 539; purchase of Louisiana,
539; war with the Algerines, 540; war
of 1812-1815, 540; the Hartford Con-
vention, 542; Treaty of Ghent, 542;
writers in (1789-1815), 544; end of the
Federal party, 601; purchase of Florida,
601; slavery, the Missouri Compromise,
601; the Monroe Doctrine, 602; parties
after Monroe, the Whigs, 602; presi-
dency of Jackson, 60^; nullification,
603; anti-slavery agitation, 604; annex-
ation of Texas, 604; war with Mexico,
California and New Mexico acquired,
< 604; the Wilmot Proviso, 605; Clay's
Compromise (1850), 605; the Kansas
troubles, 605 ; secession of States, 606;
events of the civil war, 607 seq.; eman-
cipation, 608; murder of Lincoln, 610;
the thirteenth and fourteenth Amend-
ments, 610; reconstruction, 611; im-
peachment of Johnson, 611; death of
Garfield, 611; civil service reform,
612; death of Lee and of Grant, 612;
the formation of the several States, 613.

Union of Calmar, 346.

Urban II., pope, 272; V., 323; VI., 326,

TT354*

Uruguay, 50.

Usurtasen III., k. of Egypt, 39.

Utah, territory of, 605; the Mormons in,
612.

Utrecht union, 416, 417; peace of, 466.

Uzziah, k. of Israel, 61.

V a lens, Roman emp., 196, 204.

Valentinian, Roman emp., 1., 196; 1IL,
208, 210.

Valerian, Roman emp., 187.

Valerius, 135.

Valley Forge, Washington's army in,
488.

Van Eyck, John, 394.

Van Arteveld, James, 317; Philip, 325.

Vandals, 202, 206; conquest ot Africa,
208.

Van Dieman's Land, 598.

Van Tromp, 440.

Varro, C. Terentius, 147.

Varro, Roman antiquary, 169.

Varus, Quintilius, 172.

Vasa, Gustavus, 404, 424.

Vasco da Gama, 188.

Vassali Ivanovitch. czar of Russia, 381.

Vassy, massacre of, 419.

Vatican, council of the, 584; conflict with
Prussia, 591.

Vauban, 453.INDEX.

673

Vedas, sacred books of India, 26; Rig-
Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, Atharva-
Veda, 27.

Vedic religion, 26 j rites of, 27.

Venetians, 123.

Velasquez, 394.

Venezuela, 5*1.

Venice founded, 210; its connection with
the fourth crusade, 279; the rival of
Genoa, 335; its constitution. 338; at-
tacked by the League of Camoray, 384;
joins the "Holy League," 386; decline
of its power, 374; acquires Cyprus,
37c; given up to Austria by Napoleon,
518; given (with Milan) to Austria, at
the Congress of Vienna, 536; revolt of,
in 1848, 569; ceded to Italy (1866), 579.
Venus, see Aphrodite.

Vercell®, battle of, 155.

Vercingetorix, 163.

Verdun, treaty of, 241.

Vernet, Horace, 545, 630.

Vernon, Admiral, 469.

Verona, Odoacer defeated at, 212; con-
gress of, 551.

Verrazano, 441.

Verres, 159.

Versailles, 455; mob at, 502.

Verus, Lucius, 183.

Vervins, peace of, 422.

Vesalius, 447.

Vespasian, Flavius, Roman emp., 180.
Vesta, 132.

Vesuvius, eruption of, 181.

Veturinus, 139.

Vicksburg, tiattle of, 609.

Vico, 491.

Victor Emmanuel I , 553, 569; II., 572,
584.

Victoria, q. of England, 56a

Vienna, peace of, 579.

Vienna, congress of, 532 j dissolution of,

Vilfreiiardouin, 307.

Villemain, 560, 629.

Villeneuve, failure of, 524.

Villeroi, 46$.

Vindex, C. Julius, 179.

Virgil, 169.

Virginia, settlement of, 442; growth of

colony, 445.

Vidimus, 135.

Vinathus, 152.

Vischer, Peter, 393.

Visigoths, see West Goths.

Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, 338.

Vitellius, Roman emp., 179,18a
Vittoria, battle of, 531,

Vladimir, 270.

Vladimir I. of Russia, 349.

Vladislav II., k. of Poland, 348, 353.
Volscian war, 134.

Volta, 491.

Voltaire, 491.	-

Von Beust, 579.	-

Von Moltke, 578 seq.

VonRoon, 581.

Von Sybel, 628.

Vortigern, 215.

Wagner, 631.

Wahlstatt, battle of, 283.	"

Waiblings, 275.	~

Wakefield, battle of. 368.

Waldemar II., k. 01 Denmark, 345 J III.,

Wal<5emar, k. of Sweden, 346.

Wales, conquest of, 315.

Wales, migration of Celts to, 215.

Walker, F. A., 623.

Wallace, 622.

Wallace, William, 312, 315.

Wallenstein, Gen., 424; death, 428.
Wallia, 207.

Walpole, Robert, 469.

Walter the Penniless, 272.

Ward (sculptor), 6?o.

Warren, Dr. Joseph, 487.

Wartburg, Luther at the, 400.
Washington, George, 481,487 seq.; chosen
President, 490; cabinet of, 536; his re-
tirement and death, 538.

Waterloo, battle of, 533.

Watt, James, 493, 619.

Wavre, battle of, 534.

Wayland, Francis, 623.

Wayne, 488.

Weber, 546,628. 631.

Webster, Daniel, 603, 627.

Webster, Noah, 627.

Weir, 6m
Weiss, 628.

Weissenburg, battle of, 581.

Wellesley, Marquis of, 593.

Wellington, 528 seq.; at Waterloo, 533,

552,624.

Welf I., 275.

Welfs, 275,335.

Wells, Horace, 620.

Wenceslaus, emp. II. R. E., 333, 334, 338.
Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, 436.
Wenzel, see Wenceslaus.

Werner, 546.

Wesley, John, 480.

West, Benjamin, 545.

Westeras, diet of, 405.

Western Empire, separated from the East-
ern, 196; gradual overthrow of, 199;
causes of the fall, 199; its fall, 2x1;
revived by Charlemagne, 237.

West Indies, 389.

West Goths, 201; found a kingdom in
Spain, 208 j under Theodoric, 209; mas-
ters in Spain, 213.

Westphalia, peace of, 428 j consequences
of treaty, 429.674

INDEX.

Whately, Richard, 623, 626.

Wheaton, Henry, 627.

VVheatstone, 619.

Whitefield, George, 494.

Whitney, Eli, 538.

Whittier, 626.

Wickliffe, John, 323.

Wilderness, battle of the, 609.

Wilkie, 630.

Wilmot Proviso, 605.

Wilson, John, 544, 024.

William the Bad, k. of Sicily, 254 j the

Good, 254.

William I. (the Conqueror), 250 sea.; his
death, 280; II. (Rufus), 289; III., 461;
in Irelana, 462: liberty in reign of, 462;
IV., 558.

William of Clito, 290.

William I., emp. of Germany, 582, 587.
William ot Holland. 331.

William of Malmesoury, 307.	»«

William I., k. of the Netherlands, 535.
William ot Nogaret, 313.

William, prince of Orange, 415; Utrecht

Union, 416; death, 417; III., 454.
William I., k. of Prussia, 576 \ see Wil-
liam I., emp. of Germany.

William, Earl of Pembroke, 299.
Williams, Roger, 444, 446.

Wimpffen, Gen., 582.

Windhorst, 592.

Windischgratz, 568.

Winfrid, see Boniface.

Winthrop, John, 444.

Witikind, 236.

Woden, or Odin, 202,

Wolf, 491, 629.

Wolfe, Gen., 482. *

Wolseley, Sir Garnet, 596.

Wolsey, Cardinal, 406.

Woolsey, Theodore D., 627.

Worcester, Joseph E., 627.

Worcester, battle of, 439.

Wordsworth, 544.

Worms, diet of, 372, 399.

Worth, battle of, 581.

Wren, Sir Christopher, 459,

Wurmser, Gen., 517.

Wyoming, massacre at, 488.

Xanthippus, 144.

Xavier, Francis, 449, 635.

Xenophon, 107, 109.

Xeres de la Frontera, battle of, 228.

Xerxes, k. of Persia, 95.

Yale College, founded, 484.

Yezdegerd III., 227. .

Yoritomo, 357.

York, house of, in the wars of the Roses,
368.

Yorktown, surrender of, 489.

Young, Thomas (astronomer), 546,
Ypsilanti, Alexander, $54.

Yung-lo, 356.

Zacharias, pope. 234.

Zara, capture of, 279.

Zama, battle of, 148.

Zedekiah, k. of J udah, 49,62,

Zeller, E., 623.

Zeno, 91, I2i.

Zeno, Greek emp., 211, 212.

Zenobia, 187.

ZeuxLs, 102.

Zerubbabel, gov. of Persia, 62.
Zinzendorf, 494.

Ziska, 334.

Zoroaster, 64.

Zorndorf, battle of, 477.

Zosimus, 223.

Zwingli, Ulrich, 403; his death, 403.This book is a preservation facsimile produced for
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