Paper and Ink

-	BY

I	ROBERT T. SWAN

Commissioner of Public Records of the State of Massa-
chusetts.

K

PUBLISHED FOR THE

! A. L. A. PUBLISHING SECTION

P	BY THE LIBRARY BUREAU

1895.!

PAPER AND INK *	j

An investigation into the subject of paper and
ink used in the records of the Commonwealth,
and a report made in their interest, led the presi-
dent and secretary of the Massachusetts Librar^
Club to ask me to speak to that club upon paper,
and ink. I do not attempt any scientific presen-
tation, but simply give the result of inquiries
and experiments, reinforced by the testimony
of paper and ink manufacturers, and in thje
matter of ink by well-known chemists,

Not until we consider the important placp
paper and ink take in the world, and have taked
since the earliest days, do we fully appreciate
their value. Which is the more valuable, or
was in one or another form first used, it is diffi-
cult to decide, and there seems to be no reaso n
for precedence in considering them. I will.,
therefore, follow the order on the announcement
of the meeting and first take paper.

My investigation in paper was, of course, di-
rected towards writing paper, and for that reasojn
I feel some hesitancy in speaking to those whosje
chief interest is naturally in book paper; but a.s
the two are somewhat related, though less so
than formerly, I will take the general subject,i

* Read at a meeting of the Massachusetts Library-
Club, March i, 1895.and that is too large to more than outline. In
considering the subject of paper it is not neces-
sary to review the history of paper-making,
which, unlike the manufacture of permanent ink,
has been towards improvement.

Paper has been made of substances too numer-
ous to mention, which were susceptible of being
(converted into pulp. Bark, leaves, hay, jute,
moss, nettles, stalks of all kinds, sea-weed, tan,
epanvas-carpets, and leather are among the sub-
stances which have been used. A book printed
Zn Germany as early as 1772 contains 81 kinds of
paper. To-day rags, wood, rope, and paper itself
are the chief substances used in this country.
I n England large quantities of esparto, a Spanish
l^rass, are used, filling the place which wood takes
with us.

The rope paper can be dismissed with a few
words. The genuine manila paper is made of
old manila rope and is the strongest paper, but
the amount of paper masquerading under the
name is vastly greater than the genuine.

Linen has become the name by which the best
paper is known, but it is a misnomer, for there
i s no paper made wholiy of linen except as it is
made for special purposes, such as for bonds,
etc. Paper made of all linen would be stiff, and
as one manufacturer expressed it, “it would
crackle like onion-skin.” In fact, a very thin
paper is made called onion-skin.

3It is rather an amusing fact, and one showing
how laws become obsolete, that for years until
1891, when the law was repealed, the statutes of
this Commonwealth required that all matter of
public record in any office should be entered on
paper made wholly of linen, when no such paper
was made.

The best paper is made of linen and new cot-
ton rags in about equal proportions, sized with
animal sizing or glue, and dried in the air. New
linen rags are not desirable, being too harsh.

The process of manufacture of rag paper,
stated in a general way, consists in sorting the:
rags, cutting, dusting, boiling in lye, washing out:
the lye, reducing to pulp, bleaching, “ beating
the pulp to make the fibres interlock, loading with,
certain substances, sizing, coloring, and rolling
into sheets.

To cleanse the rags and bleach the pulp)
chemicals are used, and it follows as a matter oi:
course that the cleaner the rags the less neces-
sity for chemicals; therefore, with new rags,suetl
as clippings of new cloth from factories of cer-
tain kinds, the quantity of chemicals needed is;
insignificant, and these rags, having neither ab-
sorbed much of them nor suffered from their
action, make, of course, the best paper, for the;
failure to remove or “ kill” the bleach would in-
jure the paper and have a deleterious effect upon 1
ink. The further, then, we get from nevr

4Iclean rags, the further from the best writing
(paper,

j In making book paper the newness of the cot-
jton rags is not so important; in fact, the manipu-
lation which the cloth undergoes in wear, together
with the washing, makes it better in some par-
ticulars for book paper.

| In the attempt to cheapen rag paper foreign
Substances, chiefly clay and gypsum, are added,,
jjind as there is no fibre to these, the sizing must
Ibe depended upon to hold them together. Very
ij'ew papers are not somewhat loaded. Some of
tjhe loading substances help the finish.

| That rag paper, well made, is best for both
writing and printing is not denied; but the im-
rjnense increase in the use of paper within 30
y ears was making such a demand upon the sup-
ply of rags that a substitute had to be looked for
ojr the price of paper would have been greatly
increased even if the supply of rags did not fail*
Rags are brought to-day from all parts of the
world, thousands of tons coming from Japan
lone, and use is found for them all, notwith-
tanding the immense use of their substitute,
rood.

It should be distinctly borne in mind that the
rood papers are of two kinds, the ground wood
id the chemically prepared; and of the chemi-
lly prepared there are two classes, those pre-
ared by what is known as the soda process and

5the other by the sulphite. In the nature of
things, the grinding of the wood destroys the
fibre, consequently the strength is gone and the
paper must depend upon the sizing for its chiefj
strength. The soda process is the older, and|
from the time it has been in use it is thought it.
will produce lasting paper, but no strong claim/
Is made for the sulphites, as they are called. I
The ground wood paper is brittle and dis-/
colors quickly, while the chemical wood papeij
has greater strength and holds its color. In thej
chemically prepared wood, the wood is aisinte-j
grated without destroying the fibre. I sa>j'
without destroying the fibre, that is, immedi-j
ately; but whether the chemicals will injure
the fibre so that in time the paper will prove noil
to be as lasting as hoped for, is a question which;
time only can settle.	|‘

Much paper is made of a mixture of the chem-
ical wood and rags, and it is difficult to deter-
mine the presence of the wood. The dailj
papers and cheapest books in the market are}-
made wholly of the ground wood.

Many of these papers are marked linen, or
all linen ; but when every manufacturer and
dealer knows that all linen does not mean all
linen, the marking of paper all linen is mean-
ingless, and a purchaser must make his inquiries
independent of the mark if he desires the bes t
paper.

6The coloring of paper is done in two ways,
either by coloring the pulp — in which case the
color is in the paper — or by coloring the sizing
when it is only on the surface, to be removed by
an erasure. This is an important fact to be
borne in mind.

Papers are being coated for various purposes,
notably for magazines when half-tone prints
are to be used; and it is a matter of specula-
tion how lasting this coating will be. It is
greatly disliked by printers and is easily rubbed
off.

An unprofessional test of paper is difficult, but
a simple test of repeated folding and attempt to
tear in the fold will prove its strength, and by
inference the presence or absence of good fibre.

We make to-day as good, if not better, paper
•than the English, and the hand-made papers,
unlike many hand-made articles, are inferior to
the machine-made.

To sum up, it may be said that there is as good,
if not better, paper made to-day than ever be-
fore, and also as poor, if not poorer. The intro-
duction of wood into the manufacture has revo-
lutionized the business, but as time is needed for
thorough tests, no one can positively assert
whether the chemical wood, or esparto, papers
are safe for records or valuable books, and it is
certainly safer at present to adhere to the use of
the best rag papers. In purchasing such themanufacturer must be relied upon, and a fair
price paid for the best.

Taking the second subject, ink, it is surprising
that we know so little about it, and that more
attention has not been given to it by chemists.
Until about 1765 little had been done towards
scientific study of the question, but at that time
Dr. William Lewis, F.R.S., experimented with <
inks and came to certain conclusions which were
found by later chemists to be erroneous. These
later conclusions were in turn discredited, and
in 1855 Dr. James Stark, who had experimented
for 13 years, making 229 inks and many thou-
sand experiments, concluded that nutgall and
iron inks were the only permanent ones, and to-
day it is conceded that no ink has as yet been
discovered that can compare for permanency
with them. Experimenters are still at work and
are putting the results of their experiments upon
the market for the community to find the worth-
lessness of by sad experience.

Let us first consider the kinds of ink, or ra-
ther the classes, for of the many kinds they all
belong to classes, which are few. First, as being
the oldest, is the India or Chinese ink, which
may be termed a paint, as it was applied with a
brush. Whether the Chinese invented this ink,
as claimed, or whether it was introduced into
China, is a disputed point; but their process is

8a secret, and imitations of the ink do not, as a
rule, have the blackness of theirs, the tendency
being towards brown. The writings of the
ancients were probably made with ink similar
to India ink, lamp black and gum being the in-
gredients; in fact, some ancient writers have
mentioned the proportions of each used in their
manufacture. As India ink is no longer used
for ordinary writing, it need not be further con-
sidered.

Next in order to the India ink probably came
the iron and tannin inks, commonly called nut-
gall and iron, as the tannin is usually procured
from nutgalls. These inks may be said in gen-
eral terms to be made of sulphate of iron and
galls, and the oxidization of the iron in the paper
is what gives the black color and permanency.
These, as before stated, are permanent, if prop-
erly made, and for years they were so made;
but the extended use of ink, its varied uses con-
sequent upon the changed conditions of society,
the hurry of these latter years, the preferences
of writers, and competition, have all tended to-
wards degeneracy in the manufacture of perma-
nent ink.

The early inks were pale in color, and heavy,
and attempts to make them of a more decided
color and thinner led to experimenting. For
coloring, indigo was first used, and later, other
substances, but since the introduction of aniline

9dyes they are the most popular, as being thinner
and cheaper. If the ink contains the proper
proportion of nutgali and iron, the added color
is not injurious, as, if that fades, the iron has
taken its hold, and will grow black with age.
The danger, as will be shown later, is in the in-
troduction of color to the exclusion of the other
ingredients.

To overcome the heaviness of the permanent
inks, and meet the demand for free-flowing ink
for commercial purposes, the manufacture of
fluids was commenced, which, although nutgali
and iron, might have their permanency injured
by the addition of an excess of iron. The excess
of iron causes the oxidization to take place too
quickly, and the ink turns black before it per-
meates the paper. The recording officer who,
by simple tests, would find many inks fugitive,
is likely to be deceived in these fluids because
they show the presence of the iron, but the fact
of the excess of the iron is not known.

A great advantage in the use of nutgali and
iron inks is that, if faded, they can be restored
by the application of chemicals, which upon
contact with the iron will bring out the original
color to a certain extent.

The next class is logwood. The use of log-
wood was probably commenced because it has
a color of its own which has a tendency to dark-
en the ink, and as it contains tannin and can beused as a poor substitute for nutgalls, it cheap-
ens the ink. It is sometimes added to a poor
nutgall ink to help the color. Logwood inks
are never permanent.

Next comes the aniline class, dangerous in
the extreme, and unfortunately becoming alarge
one. In speaking of aniline inks I cannot do
better than to quote from the report of Prof.
t Markoe upon this subject: “ Since the introduc-
tion of aniline dyes they have been largely em-
ployed for the manufacture of ink, either wholly
to replace the galls and iron, or as addition to
them, to allow the use of only a little galls and
iron. They are also mixed with other colors.
Under the name of nigrosine (an aniline black)
there are found a variety of very strong dyes,,
which are perfectly soluble in water, and which
in the proportion of from i to 3 per cent., per-
haps without further addition, represent fairly
closely the commercial inks of this variety. Such:
inks are cheap, give an immediate black, have
very little body, and are popular for use as sty-
lographic inks.

“ Although some of the nigrosines are very
resistent to chemical reagents, yet many of them
are not, and do fade under the influence of light,,
while none of them have been tried sufficiently
to prove their permanence. Another objection
is their free solubility in water, which makes it.
comparatively easy to wash such inks from thepaper, and allows them to run if accidentally wet.
Furthermore, they do not enter the paper as gall
and iron inks do.”

The carbon class is the last, and, strangely,
it was the first, although in another form. As
stated, the very earliest writings were made with
carbon, and the later India ink was carbon, and
liquid carbon inks are now being made. These
have nigrosine for a base and carbon in suspen- \
sion, but not in solution, for carbon has not yet
been rendered soluble. The fact that it has not
prevents the carbon from permeating the paper,
and it is deposited on the surface from which it
can be washed off with water. This prevents
the use of the carbon inks where permanency is
required.

Of all the classes mentioned there are several
variations. Substances are necessarily added to
prevent mould, and combinations are made to
produce effects which shall make an ink popular
for general use. Persons having no knowledge
of chemistry put ingredients together, and put
them upon the market under names which mean
nothing. They can be sold at a low price and
have a short run, having more than likely been
put upon pages which in a comparatively short
time will show no trace of them.

Persons are often deceived in the color of an
ink. In ancient records inks that to the naked
eye appeared brownish will, under the micro-scope, show a jet black, and any heavy line with
a light ink will impress one as blacker than a
light line with a black ink, until the microscope
is used.

Surprise is expressed that ancient records
written before much attention had been given
to the chemistry of ink should have been writ-
ten with such permanent ink. It is fair to as-
sume that if written to-day with the same inks
they would not preserve their color as well.
The paper was less highly finished and absorbed
the ink better ; quills were used, which made a
coarser line than the fine pen used by copyists
to-day ; blotting paper was unknown, and all
the ink remained on the paper ; and lastly,
there was not the haste everywhere that per-
vades the community to-day. One of the old-
est English manufacturers says: “Much fading
is due to the death of Old Leisure. Ink rapidly
put on is as rapidly removed by blotting paper,
and all the essential qualities are taken away,”

It was formerly said that a good ink should
show a lustre, and the statement did not need
qualifying until aniline colors came into use,
but now it becomes necessary to discriminate in
the |ustre. Most of the red inks on the market
are aniline, and you are probably familiar with
the lustre, changeable in different lights, which
appears when those inks dry. That same ap-
pearance always follows the aniline colors.

*3The simple experiment of dropping the small-
est quantity of red ink into a glass of water will
determine the presence of aniline. If it is pres-
ent a beautiful florescence will appear, changing
in different lights, whereas other dyes will dye
the water the color of the ink added.

There are inks and inks, and it is as useless .
to ask the general question, which has been
asked of me time and again since my first re- ^
port upon the subject, “ What is the best ink ?’*
as to ask an apothecary what is the best medi-
cine. More useless perhaps, for many medi-
cines, while doing no good, may do no harm.
The other question, “ Is A’s ink or B’s ink a
good one?” is fully as meaningless, for A or B
may make 20 kinds, or 10 kinds under 20
names.

In procuring an ink you should consider to
what use it is to be put. If it is wanted for per-
manency in records, one class of inks is needed ;
if for power to resist chemical removal, as upon
checks, another class ; if it is to be exposed to
the weather, another ; and if especially for copy-
ing, another, etc.

Having satisfied yourself to what class the
inks belong to suit your purpose (and as my re-
search in the matter has been upon the line of
permanency, I will assume that permanency is
the requisite you desire), you can procure it of
any of the older leading manufacturers if you

14will inquire of the manufacturer; not always, I
am sorry to say, by depending upon the label,
or the person who has it for sale. But you say,
I do not like the ink recommended. Why? Be-
cause it is not black at first ? 'You cannot have
a permanent ink that will be black at first
writing, because the substances so far discovered
which would make an ink black at first cannot
be engrafted into the fibres of the paper. It is
the oxidization of the iron in the nutgall and
iron inks which turns the paler inks black after
they are in the paper. Perhaps you do not
like an ink that turns jet black, for, as a copyist
recently told me, “ it makes the page too starey.”*
Then you must overcome your dislike, unless
you desire a blue that will remain blue, for every
other permanent ink must turn black. Great
care should be observed in purchasing a blue
ink, as only Prussian blue is permanent, and
Prussian blue inks will decompose and deposit a
sediment.

Or, perhaps your objection is that the ink
does not blot readily. An argument for the ink.
It ought not to be blotted, but should be allowed
to stay in the fibres of the paper, and none of
the body of it, which is naturally the last toper-

*This was changed by the Boston Herald to “stary.”
There is, probably, no such word as starey, meaning to
stare, but I do not mean anything else, and starey seems
to spell it.

15meate the paper, should be taken off with the
blotter. But it corrodes the pen, you say. Per-
haps, though not necessarily, this is a good
quality, for the pen may be giving up just
enough iron to help the oxidization in the paper.
But it is none of these objections. It thickens
in the inkstand. Good again for the ink ; the
water is evaporating in the inkstand and the*
solid matter is being oxidized, and you may be
sure the same process is taking place in the ink
already put upon the paper.

Perhaps you find none of the above objec-
tions, but fancy another ink which has a shade
of blue or green when it is first used. The
fancy can be gratified without danger to your
records, for the manufacturer has found many
another such fancy, and has found that he can
add a little color that will not injure the ink.
This must be a little, however.

You have seen specimens of writing made
with the ink recommended as permanent which
are fading. Some one was at fault, then, in that
particular quantity,, more likely the writer, who
had watered the ink, or mixed it with another,
or allowed it to freeze, or used too much sand ;
but it was an iron ink, and application of chemi-
cals would restore it, because the iron does not
decay or evaporate.

Having found the ink you are satisfied is
safe, you ask the price, and object to that

16There lies a great trouble that accounts for the
multitude of poor inks upon the market. A
large importer gave up the importation of an
ink which had stood no years because the
American public demanded cheaper fluid, and
the American manufacturers of reliable inks
have had to put upon the market fugitive inks
to compete with cheap mixtures called ink.

Now let us consider the ink you had been using
with satisfaction. It flowed freely, blotted easily,
if it thickened with standingcould be thinned with
water, did not corrode the pen, and was a good
color which did not change. All excellent quali*
ties for a commercial ink if you are an entry clerk
writing at your greatest speed, or writing papers
which will be valueless in a few years, but you can
find the market full of inks which will suit you
just as well. It flows with the greatest freedom
because it is made with an excess of iron to de-
velop all the color possible in its fluidity, and its
permanency is injured thereby. Its blotting
quality has already been condemned. If it
thickened water would thin it. If water was its
base, and only enough was added to supply
what had evaporated, it would not be injured,
but if too much water was added it would be
ruined, and if water were not its base the addi-
tion of any would ruin it, because the addition
of water hastens oxidization in the inkstand
and impoverishes the ink. If the water was

17largely charged with iron or lime it would add
injurious elements to the ink. It did not cor-
rodq the pen. This may or may not be indica-
tive of permanency in an ink. If it corrodes it
may be well, for, as stated before, the pen may be
giving up just the requisite quantity of iron; or,
on the other hand, if the ink is as fully charged
with iron as it should be, the additional quan-
tity given up by the pen will make the ink flow
too freely and be less permanent. It was of a
bright color and did not change after a time.
The idea of any color for ink except as nearly
black as possible is modern. The paleness at
first writing of the old English inks, which would
turn black in time, led to the introduction of
coloring matter, and probably without much
injury to the ink until the coal tar colors came
into use; but now the bright colors are looked
upon with suspicion.

Perhaps in an attempt to satisfy yourself you
have experimented, and discovered that by mix-
ing two inks you have found satisfaction. The
chances are that the two inks will destroy each
other by precipitation; but some one not realiz-
ing the truth of the adage, that “ a little knowl-
edge is a dangerous thing,” might tell you that
if the inks are ail of the same class — that is, of
the gall and iron class, the logwood and chro-
mium class, or the nigrosine class — they can be
mixed with safety. Two logwood and chromium

18inks, the chromium existing as an acid in one
and as a base in the other, may be so mixed as
to precipitate all the coloring matter and leave
only a colorless liquid above the sediment
formed: or the mixing of gall and iron inks may
give such another excess of either iron or tan-
nin as to make the mixture worthless.

You say then, “ Where can we find a free
flowing ink, jet black, non-thickening and per-
manent?” It is disappointing to have to say
that no such ink has been discovered though the
best chemists havelong labored with the problem.

Great progress has been made with aniline
dyes, some having been discovered which are
more lasting upon fabrics than the vegetable
dyes, which heretofore could not be equalled,
and it is not impossible that an aniline ink may
yet be made which shall be jet black and perma-
nent. The troublesome question which has puz-
zled the chemists for years would then be settled.

I trust the tone of this paper will not be
thought pessimistic. Improvement is in the
spirit of the age, and in paper and ink making
as in everything else. But the improvements
are to meet requirements, and the requirements
to-day in business are to meet the demand for
speed. Electricity is “ setting our pace,” and
appliances by which speed can be attained with
the pen or the press, or by substitutes for them,
are being crowded into the market with its

19sharp competition. Stamping, duplicating, pho-
tographing, rapid writing, all at the least possi-
ble cost, are conducing to put into the market
materials suitable for their legitimate use, but
wholly unfit for others, and the careful, con-
scientious worker should value his work, and
then have a care that he employs the proper tools
with which to accomplish it. My hope is to im-
press upon such workers the need of such care.