THE TRUE FUNCTION OF EDUCATION IN SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT A COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE AND CRITICISM OF THE EDUCATIONAL TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF JOHN DEWEY WITH A VIEW TO EVOLVING A PROJECT FOR A SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION WHICH WILL MEET THE NEEDS OF KOREA By Chungil Yhan Roe, M.A., B.D. Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History and Principles of Education The University of Nebraska LINCOLN, NEBRASKA 1927 DEDICATED TO MY FRIENDS BOTH KNOWN AND UNKNOWN WHO RENDER SACRIFICIAL SERVICES TO KOREA FOR KOREANS PREFACE This dissertation is an attempt at a critical study of the old philosophy of the Far East and the modern philosophy of the West with a view to evolving a system of national education for Korea. The educational theories of Confucius and Dewey are analyzed and criticisms both positive and negative offered from the view point of the laws of survival and perpetuity. The author concludes that neither Confucius nor Dewey has succeeded in finding a basic aim for education which is entirely adequate to meet the needs of Korea. He desires, therefore, to set forth the doctrine of survival-efficiency as more nearly adequate than either of these. This new doctrine facilitates the synthesis of the best elements of both oriental and occidental philosophies of education. According to the writer, if the aim of survival-efficiency is realized there will be developed a strong type of race character. Especially will the traits which promote efficiency, such as cooperation, perseverance, executive forcefulness, and above all, the spirit of creative enterprise and happiness be enhanced. Thus both stability and true progress in national life will be realized. The author wishes to express his gratitude to his advisers, Dean William E. Sealock, Doctor Frank E. Henzlik, and Doctor Harlan C. Koch, of Teachers College, University of Nebraska, whose sympathetic guidance has been not only a great aid in making the study but an inspiration as well. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION.�The Importance, Significance and Timeliness of the Investigation.................................. 5 The Comparative Recency But Wide-Spread Extent of John Dewey's Influence Upon Education...................................................... 6 CHAPTER I.�A Comparative Estimate and Criticism of the Educational Teachings of Confucius and the Philosophy of John Dewey........................................ 8 The Aim of Confucian Education........................................................ 8 The Aim of Education According to Dewey...................................... 9 Comparison and Criticism of the Philosophies of Confucius and Dewey ........................................................................................................ 11 Learning.................................................................................................... 12 Comparison and Criticism of the Conceptions of Learning Held by Confucius and by Dewey.................................................................. 15 Growth ...................................................................................................... 16 Comparison and Criticism of the Two Conceptions of Growth...... 20 Attitude Toward the Child...................................................................... 20 Comparison and Criticism of the Two Points of View.................... 22 Discipline .................................................................................................. 23 Comparison and Criticism of the Two Interpretations of Discipline ........................................................................................................ 27 Culture ..................................................................................................... 28 The Culture of Confucius and That of Dewey Compared.............. 32 Tradition.................................................................................................. 33 A Comparison of the Interpretations of Tradition as Held by Confucius and Dewey.............................................................................. 35 CHAPTER II.�Recapitulation and Synthesis of Guiding Principles................................................................................ 37 The Basic General Aim of Education.................................................. 37 The Training of Character.................................................................... 39 Synthesis of the Old and the New Elements...................................... 39 CHAPTER III.�The Application of Educational Principles to the Practical Needs of Korea................................ 42 An Outline of a System of Education to Meet the Existing Needs of Korea...................................................................................................... 44 Especial Particulars of the System of Education Required by Korea Which Will Make Possible the Effective Adjustment of the Individual to the Controlling Phases of His Environment.... 49 APPENDIX I.�A Program for a Two-Year Course of Higher Education Based Upon the Foregoing Principles .............................................................................. 53 An Outline of Courses for the Two-Year Course of Study............ 54 APPENDIX II.�A Daily Schedule of the Work for the Two-Year Course.................................................................. 56 APPENDIX III.�Curriculum of Chosen Christian College.......... 57 Sources of Data................................................................................................ 58 INTRODUCTION THE IMPORTANCE, SIGNIFICANCE AND TIMELINESS OF THE INVESTIGATION The Influence of Confucian Ideals in the Far East During the Present Transitional Period During the last few decades the old educational doctrines of Confucius have been rejected to a certain extent by many scholars in the Far East. However, his influence has had such an effect upon Oriental modes of thought, that educational progress has been relatively retarded. The education of Confucius has consciously or unconsciously tinctured even the most liberal efforts at reform with the old ideas and conceptions of this philosopher. Japan and Korea have adapted western methods of teaching to the sciences and arts, together with the departmentalization and classification of subject-matter, and certain other more or less external educational devices. But, in spite of these reforms, Japanese and Korean systems of education have not freed themselves from the stilted and inadequate Confucian idea of what constitutes a learned gentleman. From the most elementary to the highest grades the students are absolutely required to carry subjects which constitute fixed and inflexible courses extending throughout the entire school year. In the event of failure in even one of these subjects, a student is required to repeat the grade in its entirety. When this is considered, one can imagine how educational method and practice are still hampered by the old system of education in the Far East. Why is this? I would positively say that the main reason for it is that the people still believe blindly in the old Confucian doctrines without contemplating any reasonable qualification or improvement of them. They still speak with indiscriminating praise of the glories of the Confucian dogmas of the Great Learning. Neither are they inclined to welcome any radical and thorough-going criticism of these doctrines. Their minds have been so thoroughly saturated and colored from an early age by the Confucian philosophy that it has become an ingrained part of their very nature. They cannot get away from it far enough to improve it. They would regard as an outcast, a pariah, anyone who acted or behaved contrary to even the most minute part of the burdensome Confucian code. Thus, in spite of every attempt at re- 5 form, the organized echeol system still retains all the essential elements, both bad and good, of the old Confucian education. Until the whole Confucian philosophy of life itself has been shown to be inadequate, the educators, consciously or unconsciously, will continue to believe in it As long as customs, habits, moral ideals and the social and individual attitude toward life remain narrowly Confucian, it will necessarily follow that oriental education will continue to be, in all its essential basic features, narrowly Confucian, however much superficial modern varnish may be spread over it. The problem is namely this: not merely to put another coat of fresh cultural paint upon the existing educational structure, but rather to rebuild it from the very foundations upward. This may be done by using only the best seasoned and strongest materials, both new and old, and casting away all the inferior elements whether they are ancient or whether they are modern. I would like to assume this undertaking as a life work. THE COMPARATIVE RECENCY BUT WIDE-SPREAD EXTENT OP JOHN DEWEY'S INFLUENCE UPON EDUCATION The educational philosophy of John Dewey is, of course, by no means wholly original. He has incorporated into his conception some of the best views of numerous predecessors. However, he is decidedly a modernist and has radically departed from the static, non-evolutionary views of Aristotle, which were so generally accepted by educators in the Medieval period of European history. Thus, even the earliest of those philosophers to whom Professor Dewey is to any considerable extent indebted are subsequent to the great thinkers of classical European antiquity and subsequent, of course, to Confucius. Ascham and Montaigne seem to be the first writers of prominence who show any considerable affinity or agreement with his views. Like all other modernists he has plainly been influenced by the Baconian induction. Cpmenius^ Milton, Locke, Rousseau, Karit, and Pestalozzi have all con-tnButed something to his outlook upon life and its educational problems. To Herbart he is very definitely obligated. He is also quite decidedly indebted to Froebel and to Spencer and to Huxley. Not only in America, where he is generally accepted as an authority � not to say an idol � but also in the Far East, Dewey has achieved fame, and has had a profound influence upon educational thought. Since he has been closely associated with educational work in China, it is particularly appropriate that his views of education should be compared at some length with those of Confucius, who is more than the Kaiser 6 of the Far East. He is really the god of China and the dictator of its morals. It is interesting to compare the influence of Professor Dewey (and the predecessors whom he represents) upon Asiatic education with the influence of Lycurgus and the Sophists upon the education of Athens during the transitional period in Greek civilization, when, it will be recalled, faith in the old traditions began to disintegrate with the increase and spread of knowledge. Since the people of the Far East have come into contact with modern life and have become acquainted writh various sciences and sophistries, they have grown vaguely and increasingly dissatisfied with their old life. And though they have not always seen clearly how to reconcile the old with the new, they have tried as well as they could to adapt themselves to modern conditions. But no Socrates has arisen to show them how to bridge the gulf between what has been superseded and what should be attained. And, if a saviour did arise, probably they would despise and reject him. Hemlock and crucifixion are out of style today, but the boiling vitriol of slander, jealousy, and venomous injustice is even crueler and more cowardly, because it is a poison that will not even let its victim die in honorable martyrdom. Meanwhile, on the part of demagogues, there has been a considerable amount of high-toned pretense of emancipating the masses from their age-old imprisonment by destructive means, and a harsh and brutalizing materialism has threatened to overwhelm both the young and the old of the ancient races. Therefore, looking at the acute situation of these bewildered millions today, I can sympathize keenly with the somewhat similar educational problems of the people of Athens in the fifth century B. C. We of the new age can hardly ignore this stirring challenge. We must systematize a new philosophy of life or else fail to meet our obvious intellectual responsibilities. 7 CHAPTER I A COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE AND CRITICISM OF THE EDUCATIONAL TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF JOHN DEWEY THE AIM OF CONFUCIAN EDUCATION A very concise statement of the fundamental theoretical foundations of the purpose of the Confucian education is contained in The Great Learning as follows: " The ancients, wishing- to be sincere in their thoughts, first extend to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being completed, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole empire was made' tranquil and happy."1 The traditional knowledge " which the ancients had written down and Confucius had compiled or codified, was supposed to suffice for the all the practical purposes of life."a The natural effect of this upon Confucian education was to make it intensely conservative. " Perfection of knowledge " is the aim of Confucian education. The meaning of the expression, " The perfecting of knowledge depends upon the investigation of thingle" is this: " If we wish to carry our knowledge to the utmost, we must investigate the principles of all things with which we come in contact, for the intelligent mind of man is certainly formed to know, and there is not a simple thing of which its principles are not a part. But so long as all principles are not investigated, man's knowledge is incomplete. On this account, the Learning for Adults, in its opening chapters, instructs the learner in regard to all things in the tradition, to proceed from what knowledge he has of their principles and pursue his investigation of them until he reaches the extreme point. After exerting himself in this way for a long time, he will suddenly find himself possessed of a wide 1 The Great Learning, Text 4. a Ibid., 7. 8 and far-reaching penetration. Then the qualities of all things, whether external or internal, subtle or coarse, will be apprehended and the mind, in its whole substance and its relation to things, will be perfectly intelligent. This is called the investigation of things. It is also called the perfection of knowledge." * THE AIM OP EDUCATION ACCORDING TO DEWEY Professor Dewey considers efficiency and not mere learning or knowledge or preparation for the future to be the chief end of education. He holds, therefore, that fundamentally education is a process of living.4 In this respect he differs from Confucius. In the first place, Dewey believes that the main object of the school should not be so much to teach or instruct as to develop. Therefore, he emphasizes the natural unfolding of innate capacities in socially desirable ways. He holds that this may be done not only through passive learning but also through construction, such as the use of tools, play activities, and contact with nature;"' in other words, through active experiencing rather than mere passive receptiveness or learning alone. His goal is not static but developing, which takes account of the fact that human life is undergoing a process of continuous evolution and growth.0 In the second place, Dewey fully realizes that fundamentally education is a process of living and not merely a preparation for future living. He objects to " putting children on the social waiting list" as he calls it, and thinks that they should be introduced immediately and directly to full and regular standing in the social order. It is only carrying the false misconception of the irresponsibility of children a little further, in Dewey's estimation, to regard the life of the child as having meaning not on its own account but rather as preparatory probation for another life. He points out what he regards as certain specific evils of this false view:7 L It results in waste in the utilization of motive power, due to the fact that the vast majority of the immature live in the present, and the future does not appeal powerfully to them. Because so many are creatures of almost the passing 3 Ibid., 4-5. * Dewey, John, My Pedagogical Creed, p. 8. 5 Dewey, John, The School and Society, p. 8. 6 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, pp. 89-90. 7 Ibid., p. 63, 9 moment, living in the present from day to day and incapable of sustained planning for what is to come in the days ahead, an attempt to prepare them for what is too remote to attract their interest and arouse their effort is throwing away the leverage that exists, and seeking for motive power is a vague chance.8 2. It encourages indifference and procrastination, because the future seems too far off and the temptation is very strong to postpone getting ready for it. The present " offers so many wonderful opportunities and proffers such invitations to adventure " that it naturally attracts attention and energy in spite of the misplaced emphasis on the remote future, but not to such a satisfactory extent as it would if the misguided attempt was not made to appeal to that which lacks any intrinsic interestingness.9 3. It fails to make allowance for individual differences and attempts to lay down a conventional general standard of achievement. " A vague and wavering opinion " concerning what may be expected or demanded in the future is substituted in place of a sound judgment. Education is regarded as a mere " probationary stage " for the " serious business of life." This necessarily deflects attention from " strategic points " of interest to ". comparatively unproductive points resulting in incalculable loss of impetus."10 4. Because the future does not have any stimulating power when disconnected from present activities, therefore, when education is regarded merely as a preparation for the future, it is necessary to resort to promises of reward or threats of pain in order to get the child to work and study. But on the other hand, when work is done for present reasons and as a factor in living it is largely unconscious and is wholesomely beneficial. The stimulus in such cases " resides in the situation with which it is actually confronted." However, when present possibilities are neglected on behalf of preparation for the future, either harsh and impotent punishments have to be resorted to or else sugar-coated promises of reward have to be made. Otherwise the whole system will break down.11 But true education, by progressively realizing immediate possibilities, will make present experiences so rich and significant that they will become the powerful mainspring of effort. And then " as the present merges insensibly into the s Ibid., p. 63. o Ibid., p. 64. io Ibid., p. 64. ii Ibid., p. 65. 10 future, the future is taken care of."12 Thus, in order to be practicable, the aim of education must be adapted to changing conditions as they exist from day to day.13 Dewey states some of the characteristics of good educational aims as follows: 1. An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs of the given individuals to be educated. 2. An educational aim must be capable of translation into a method of cooperating with the activities of those undergoing instruction. It must suggest the kind of environment needed to liberate and to organize their capacities. 3. Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are alleged to be general and ultimate. Every activity, however specific, is, of course, general in its ramified connections, for it leads out indefinitely into other things.14 COMPARISON AND CRITICISM OF THE PHILOSOPHIES OF CONFUCIUS AND DEWEY We have seen the character of the Confucian aim of education laid upon traditional knowledge which is sought in external sources, whereas Dewey finds his educational aim in the growth of mind equipped with capacities of knowing, with competent efficiency as an ultimate goal. Confucius failed to see the educative value of the internal capacities of man, and thought that the truest means of acquiring the highest and most valuable knowledge was by contemplating the deeds and sayings of the ancients. Because he conceives the abode of truth to be in the traditional writings of antiquity, it is only logical and natural that the aim of the Confucian education should be a book education and that its primary purpose should be to maintain stability and uniformity in thought and social structure. It is hardly surprising that, in order to accomplish this purpose, Confucian education places a tremendous emphasis upon the memorization of great masses of traditional classics. Thus it tends to confuse education with mere erudition. By memorizing the classics, this system may develop a certain force of intellectualism, but hardly can it expect to develop intelligence. There is a marked difference between these two. The former is a passive erudition in terms of external information, whereas the latter is the development of the internal capacities, the power of good response, initiative, and the ability to adapt the learner to new situations. 12 Ibid., p. 65. 33 Ibid., p. 125. 14 Ibid., p. 126-27. 11 The intrinsic development of the powers of the mind is of far more importance than the mere acquisition of passive knowledge. Confucius has laid particular emphasis on the mere dependence of education upon the amount of knowledge, information, or learning absorbed. Dewey says that although wisdom, a concomitant of the genuinely educated mind, is certainly not to be opposed to knowledge, nevertheless, it " depends more on one's powers of discrimination, combination and imagination than on the extent of his mental store of facts."15 The mind stored with facts, even if these be well ordered, will not necessarily be much praised of humanity as intelligent. The internal powers may be simply overweighted and the natural channels of spontaneous reason choked. Dewey is right in insisting that education, being essentially a process of living, is something far more than a mere preparation for life. He has performed a service to education �by placing the emphasis where it belongs, namely, on the present rather than the future, because, from a psychological viewpoint, this helps to encourage the utilization of motive power and bring about a better coordination between interest and effort. He has made a distinct contribution to education by emphasizing the natural evolution of innate capacities in socially desirable ways, the progressive unfolding of intelligence, and the development of efficient adjustability through participation in community activities. According to Dewey, then, the aim of education is to continue and to enrich life by better thoughts and acts. Thus education is both in life and for life. Its aim is internal development. After thus considering the educational aims of both Confucius and Dewey, we may at least conclude that it is of fundamental importance to make the aim of education both broad and inclusive yet definite in the effort to avoid the dangers of complexity, vagueness, and uncertainty. Even one aim, although perchance it be too narrow, if it is a clear, single aim, possesses the great virtue of definiteness. And this is a tremendous aid to stimulating coherency of purpose. LEARNING The Confucian ideal of learning. � It is true that the great sage is reputed to have said, " I have been the whole day without eating and the whole night without sleeping, occupied with thinking. It was of no use. The better plan is to learn." 16 15 Dewey, John, Interest and Effort, p. 201. �Lun Yu, XV, 30 12 This attitude is well illustrated by the remark attributed to Confucius that if his life could be prolonged he would devote fifty years to the learning of the Book of Change, so that he might come to be without great faults.17 Again he taught his disciples: " Learn .as if you could not reach your obje'ct and were always fearing that you might lose it! Learn what you know already as if you had never learned it; things are never so well known but we may forget them." 18 According to Li Ki, in The Confucian Book of Rituals, every ruler who desires to transform his people must begin by this process of learning and must persevere therein with patience, for no pursuit can be acquired and no virtues can remain untainted without learning; therefore, it is one of the outstanding characteristics of the Superior Man that he treasures up learning as the highest form of truth.19 It must not be supposed that learning involves merely a parrot-like ability to repeat or quote tradition. It means a great deal more than that. It involves long continued and heartfelt meditation or reflection upon the wisdom of the ancients. Confucius took pains to make it clear that " learning without thought" is labor lost, as well as that " thought without learning is perilous/'20 This " thought" which is to accompany learning is, however, not original speculation. It is merely what might be called " thinking the thoughts of the ancients after them." 21 Confucious says that " to be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge." 22 Knowledge is thus something distinct from learning, and it is more difficult to acquire. Evidently knowledge does not become wisdom until it enables one to distinguish between Truth and Falsehood and to assimilate what is good and to discard what is evil in whatever he learns. And he says, " When you know a thing maintain that you know it; and when you do not know it confess your ignorance." Then traditional learning alone, cannot discriminate between the true and the false or really understand wisdom, because a man will not know how to apply this learning when he is confronted with the problems of choosing between right and wrong. He must possess knowledge and wisdom and understanding in addition to learning. Knowledge, according to Confucius, is " the true way of right conduct." 23 17 Ibid., VII, 16. 18 Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius. i� Li Ki, I, 1, 4. 20 Lun Yu, XV. 21 Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius, p. 55, 86. 22 The Doctrine of the Mean, XX, 10. 23 Shoo. King, Pwan Rang. 13 Learning is an active process according to Dewey.�Learning, according to Dewey, is an active process, a personally conducted affair. " Learning/' he says, " is active." 24 It involves organic assimiliation starting from within. Literally, we must take our stand with the child and our departure from him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both the quality and the quantity of learning.25 Learning proceeds rapidly and securely even before the child goes to school, because such learning is closely related to the motives that are furnished by the child's own powers and the needs which are dictated by his own conditions. " Learning is a matter of necessity; it is a part of the process of self-preservation and of growth." 26 Dewey proves this when he argues, " The act of Learning is made a direct and conscious end in itself. Under normal conditions, learning is a product and reward of occupation with subject matter. Children do' not set out, consciously, to learn walking or talking. One sets out to give his impulses for communication and for fuller intercourse with others a show." 27 He learns in consequence of his direct activities. The better methods of teaching a child, say, to read, follow the same road. They do not fix his attention upon the fact that he has to learn something and so make his attitude self- conscious and constrained. They engage his activities, and in the process of engagement he learns. The same is true, of more successful methods in dealing with numbers or whatever it may be. But when the subject-matter is not used in carrying forward impulses and habits to significant results, it is just something to be learned. Conditions more unfavorable to an alert and concentrated response would be hard to devise. Frontal attacks are even more wasteful in learning than in war. This does not mean, however, that students are to be seduced unaware into preoccupation with lessons. It means that they shall be occupied with them for real reasons or ends, and not just as something to be learned. This is accomplished whenever the pupil perceives the place occupied by the subject-matter in the fulfilling of some experience.28 We have seen the objections to making students emphatically aware of the fact that they are studying or learning. Just in the degree in which they are induced by the conditions to be so aware, they are not learning.29 Teaching 24 Dewey, John, The Child and the Curriculum, p. 13. 25 Ibid., p. 14. 26 Dewey, John, The Schools of Tomorrow, p. 3. 27 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, p. 198. 2� Ibid., p. 199. 29 Ibid., p. 205. 14 becomes an external presentation lacking both meaning and purpose as far as the child is concerned Children learn by doing " Not only the children are learning by doing," says Dewey, " m the sense that nearly all the school work centers around activities which have intrinsic meaning and value to the pupils, but most of the mtiative for the work comes from the children themselves They make their own number problems, suggest the next step m the work on the house, criticize each others compositions, and work out their own dramatizations "30 COMPARISON AND CRITICISM OF THE CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING HELD BY CONFUCIUS AND BY DEWEY On the one hand, we have seen that the Confucian conception of learning is the sum total of what is known, as handed down by books and by learned men It is something external, an accumulation of cognitions, as one might store material commodities m a warehouse It assumes that truth exists ready-made somewhere Learning then is but the effort to draw upon what is already stored On the other hand, learning, according to Dewey, means something which the individual does when he studies It is an active, personally conducted affair The former regards knowledge as something external, or as it is often called, objective, the latter believes knowledge is something purely internal, subjective There is, on one side, a body of truth ready-made, and on the other, a ready-made mmd equipped with a capacity for knowing � if it only wills to exercise it, which it is often strangely loath to do A]s one who has personally experienced the very formal and tedious book-learning and memorization of Confucian classics, it seems tp me that Confucius could hardly have realized clearly that education is primarily a matter of living and not of books, and that mere bookish education formalizes the mmd and reduces conduct to a conventional routine For that is just what, in actual practice, the Confucian school tends to do This is evidence that the Confucian ideal of learning is too narrow, an inadequate and unscientific point' of view I am thoroughly m accord with the modern viewpoint, stressed in these latter days by Dewey, that subject matter alone does not constitute a sufficient foundation for education, and further, before the school can come into its rightful heritage it must be freed from the long-standing confusion between erudition and true education But the old Confucian education is not free from this confusion It fails 30 Dewey, John, The Schools of Tomorrow, p 77 15 to realize that the important thing is not merely to accumulate knowledge but to arrive at whole ideas which grow out of real experiences. " Learning?" asks Dewey, "certainly, but living primarily, and learning through and in relation to this living. When we take the life of the child centered and organized in this way, we do not find that he is first of all a 'listening being'; quite* the contrary."31 GROWTH The Confucian idea of development.� It seems that Confucius had no idea of the growth of the senses. This was quite natural, for he had never thought of the mental powers or internal capacities from the viewpoint of psychological science. Rather, since he was interested in the external attainment of virtue and the conventional character of the Superior Man, he used the term " development " with the assumption of a process of persistent effort for the " highest excellence." For instance, that the attainment of sincerity is an essential prerequisite to self-development, in the Doctrine of the Mean, he strongly asserts, " Sincerity is that whereby self-development is effected and the path by which a man must direct himself." 32 Again he says, " It is only he who is possessed of the completest sincerity that can exist under Heave'n and who can give full development to his nature." 33 This beneficent power a man also does not confine to himself and to his own development; instead, it is broader and even universal in its application. Thus Confucius says, "The possessor of sincerity develops not himself only; with it, he also develops others." 34 It is only he who has attained this complete sincerity that can give full development to his highest nature. Able to give full development to his highest nature, he can do the same to the nature of others.33 In the Analects, Confucius says, " The superior man seeks to develop the admirable qualities of men and do-es not seek to develop their evil qualities. The inferior man does the opposite of this." 36 The Confucian idea of self-development is threefold: virtuous, man is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from per- 31 Dewey, John, The School and Society, p. 37. 32 The Doctrine of the Mean, XXV, V, 1. 33 Ibid., XXII. 34 Ibid., XXV, V, 3. ss Ibid., XXII. 56 Lun Yu, XII, 16. 16 plexities; bold, he is free from fear-.37 And the processes of developing the mind are characterized by the rejection of error, the comprehension of truth, quickness of moral perception, insight into providence, and an understanding of the law of nature, the constitution of men and the records of history.38 From the Confucian point of view there are at least six distinct stages in the development of perfection. (Nowadays it is very rare to see or hear of anyone who is really worthy to rank even in the first stage of this development) : " The first stage is that of the good man, who is one that commands our liking even in spite of ourselves. The next stage is that of the real man, whose goodness is a part of himself. The third stage is that of the beautiful man, whose goodness has been richly completed." These three classes include by far the larger bulk of the greatest and best characters in human history. " The fourth stage is that of the great man, whose' complete goodness is brightly displayed. The fifth stage is that of the sage or seer,� a great man who exercises a transforming influence �� and those who have really been worthy of this name in the history of mankind. When a seer appears in a nation, its whole future is changed. Call him man in his ideal, how earnest is he! Call him an abyss, how deep is he! Lastly, there is the spirit man, a sage' or seer who surpasses our understanding." 30 The order of development Confucius sets forth as follows: the investigation of things, learning, sincerity, rectitude of purpose, self-development, family regulation, local self-government, and universal self-government. (See the Analects and Mencius.)40 Dewey's conception of growth.�The constant expansion of horizons and the consequent formation of new purposes and new responses are what is here meant by growth. These are impossible without an active disposition to welcome points of view hitherto alien, an active desire to entertain considerations which modify existing purposes. Dewey sets up the conditions of growth as follows: The primary condition of growth is immaturity. Taken absolutely, instead of comparatively, immaturity indicates a positive force or ability � the power to grow. We do not have to draw out or educe positive activities from a child. Where there is life, these are already eager and impassioned activi- st ibid., XIV, 31. 38 Ta Hsuch 114. 39 The Doctrine of the Mean, XXXI-XXXIII. 40 Dawson, M. M., The Ethics} of Confucius, p. 10. 17 ties. Growth is not something done to children; rather it is something they do.41 The positive and constructive aspect of this possibility gives the key to an understanding of the two chief traits of immaturity, to wit: dependence and plasticity. We shall examine both of these. In regard to dependence: From the physical viewpoint, children can get along with physical incapacity just because of their social capacity. We sometimes talk and think as if they simply happened to be physically in a social environment ; as if social forces exclusively existed in the adults who take care of them, they being passive recipients. But observation shows that children are gifted with an equipment of the first order for social intercourse. The native mechanism of the child and his impulses all tend to facile social responsiveness. From the social viewpoint, dependence denotes a power rather than a weakness: it involves interdependence. There is always a danger that increased personal independence will decrease the social capacity of an individual. In making him more self-reliant, it may make him more self-sufficient. Thus it may lead to aloofness and indifference.42 In regard to plasticity: The specific adaptability of an immature being to growth constitutes plasticity. It is not a capacity to take on change of form in accord with external pressure. It is essentially the ability to learn from experience; the power to retain from one experience something which is of avail in coping with the difficulties of a subsequent situation. This means power to modify actions on the basis of the results of prior experiences; in short, the power to develop dispositions. Without it the acquisition of habits is impossible.43 Dewey clearly shows that plasticity is the capacity to retain and to carry over from prior experience such factors as modify subsequent activities. This signifies the capacity to acquire habits or develop definite dispositions which may be interpreted as expressions of growth. We have now to consider the salient features of habits. In the first place, a habit is a form of executive skill, of efficiency in doing. A habit means an ability to use natural conditions as means to ends. It is an active control of the environment through control of the organs of action.44 Education is not infrequently defined as the acquisition of those habits that effect an adjustment of an individual to his 41 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, p. 51. 42 Ibid., p. 52. 43 Ibid., p. 53. 44 Ibid., p. 54. 18 environment. The definition expresses an essential phase of growth. But it is essential that adjustment be understood in its active sense, which is this: the control of means for achieving ends.45 In regard to adaptation: This term means quite as much the adaptation of the environment to our own activities as the adaptation of our activities to the environment. A savage tribe manages to live on a desert plain. It adapts itself. But its adaptation involves a maximum of accepting, tolerating, putting up with things as they are; in other words, a maximum of passive acquiescence and a minimum of active control, of subjection to use. A civilized people enters upon the scene. It also adapts itself. It introduces irrigation; it searches the world for plants and animals that will flourish under such conditions; it improves, by careful selection, those which are growing there. As a consequence, the wilderness blossoms as a rose. The savage is merely habituated, whereas the civilized man has habits which transform the environment.4(] The habits of mind involved in the habits of eye and hand supply the latter with their significance. Above all, the intellectual element in a habit fixes the relation of the habit to varied and elastic use, and hence to continued growth. In regard to development: It is said that education is a process of development, of growth, of life. Translated into its educational equivalents, this means that the educational process has no end beyond itself; it is its own end; and that the educational process is one of continual reorganization and reconstruction.47 The child has specific powers. To ignore that fact is to stunt or distort the organs upon which his growth depends. The adult uses his powers to transform his environment, thereby occasioning new stimuli which redirect his powers and keep them developing.' To ignore this fact means arrested development, a passive accommodation. The normal child and the normal adult alike, in other words, are engaged in growing.48 Since in reality there is nothing to which growth is relative save more growth, there is nothing to which education is subordinate save more education. It is commonplace to say that education should not cease when one leaves school. The point of this commonplace is that the purpose of school education is to insure the activeness of education by organizing the powers that insure growth.49 45 Ibid., p. 55. 46 Ibid., p. 57. 47 Ibid., p. 59. 48 Ibid., p. 59. 49 Ibid., p. 60. 19 COMPARISON AND CRITICISM OF THE TWO CONCEPTIONS OF GROWTH Confucius has failed altogether to realize that natural development of the internal capacities of the child, which is really of the greatest value, is that which both the educator and the pupil have to deal with, rather than that which results from undue emphasis upon external attainment and routine drill. The ideal of growth is the conception that education is a constant reorganization or reconstruction of experiences. It is not simply the mere accumulation of sanctioned knowledge and the contemplation thereupon, as has been brought down by Confucius in the thought of developing the affairs of the superior man. Dewey's conception of education as growth is a universally accepted doctrine. Thus far we have considered three ideas, namely, the privative nature of immaturity, static adjustment to a fixed environment, and rigidity of habit. These ideas, we have found, are connected with a false idea of growth or development, namely, a movement toward a fixed goal. That is to say, growth is regarded as having an end, instead of being an end in itself. Therefore we believe that the following assumptions have educational validity: power to grow depends upon plasticity; plasticity, or the power to learn from experience, implies the formation of habits. Habits give control over the environment. Habits take the form both of habituation, or a persistent balance of organic activities with the environment, and of active capacities to readjust activity to new conditions. The former furnishes the background of growth, the latter constitutes it. Since growth is the characteristic of life, education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself. ATTITUDE TOWARD THE CHILD Confucius' attitude toward the child.�According to the Li Ching, the education of the child commences with its conception. Accordingly explicit instructions are given to secure proper prenatal influences and to ward off evil influences. Thus rules are set up to govern the physical, mental, and moral conduct of the mother during gestation, with the direct object of producing a strong, intelligent, and moral human being.50 The value and potency of education are set forth in the same book as follows: 5o Dawson, M. M., The Ethics of Confucius, p. 28. 20 " When a child is trained completely, his education is just as strong- as his nature, and when he practices anything constantly, he will do it naturally as a permanent habit." 51 And Confucius declares again: " Let the education of children, and particularly of the youngest ones, be the principal object of your attentions." 52 The young learn more readily than the old. When a man at forty is the object of dislike he will always continue what he is.53 A youth is to be regarded with respect, for how do we know that his future will not be equal to our present? 54 In the same book, Confucius says: " A youth, when at home, should be filial, and abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all. When he has time' and opportunity, after performance of these things, he should employ it in polite studies." 55 The cultivation of these qualities is necessary in order that he may be regarded as filial, for while, as will be seen, much stress is placed upon filial observances, the most important thing is to be a worthy child. Thus in the Li Ki it runs: " He whom the superior man pronounces filial is he whom the people of the state praise, saying with admiration, * Happy are the parents who have such a son as this!' " 56 The opposite picture is unflinchingly presented in these texts of the Analects: "In youth, not humble as befits a junior; in manhood, doing nothing worthy of being handed down; and living on to old age. This is to be a pest." 57 " I observe that the child is fond of occupying the seat of a full grown man. I observe that he walks shoulder to shoulder with his elders. He is not one who is seeking to make progress in learning. He wishes quickly to become a man." 58 He especially enjoins in relation to others that all deal considerately with the young. He says in the Analects that his wishes are: " In regard to the aged, to give them repose'; in regard to friends, to show them sincerity; in regard to the child, to treat him tenderly." 50 si Li Ching, p. 48. 52 Lwn Yu, II, 15. 53 Ibid., XVII, 26. 54 Ibid., IX, X. 55 Ibid., I, 6. 56 Li Ki, XXI, II, 11. ^Lun Yu, XIV, 46. 58 Ibid., XIV, X. 59 Ibid., V, XXV, v. 4. 21 The positive attitude of Dewey toward the child.�Accord7 ing to Dewey, childhood is a positive not a negative state. " We express/' says he, " a force positively present � the ability to develop." And he continues, " Our tendency to take immaturity as mere lack and growth as something which fills up the gap between the immature and the' mature, is due to regarding childhood comparatively instead o*� intrinsically. We treat it simply as a privation because we are measuring it by adulthood as a fixed standard. This fixed attention upon what the child has not, and will not have till he becomes a man, this comparative standpoint is legitimate enough for some purposes, but if we make it final, the question arises whether we are not guilty of an overweening presumption. Children, if they could express themselves articulately and sincerely, would tell a different tale; and there is excellent adult authority for the conviction that for certain moral and intellectual purposes adults must become as little children." m Dewey expresses his attitude toward childhood by quoting Emerson: " The true principle of respect for immaturity cannot be1 better put than in the words of Emerson, who says, * Respect the child. Be not too much his parent. Trespass not on his solitude/ But I hear the outcry which replies to this suggestion .... I answer, Respect the child, respect him to the end, but also respect yourself . . . The two points in a boy's training are: to keep him natural and train off all but that; to keep him natural but stop off his uproar, fooling, and horseplay; keep his nature and arm it with knowledge in the very direction in which it points." C1 He goes on to show this reverence for childhood and youth because " in directing the activities of the child, society determines its own future in determining that of the child."62 Finally, he construes the intimate meaning of childhood as a time of growth and development. COMPARISON AND CRITICISM OF THE TWO POINTS OF VIEW The statement Dewey has frequently made that education means ' drawing out' is excellent. Confucius evidently held the opposite view, namely, the process of pouring in. The child is not, as Confucius evidently believed, a box or pitcher, but a living being. Furthermore, Confucius seems to agree with Dewey's view as to the c plasticity' of childhood; however, there is a fundamental difference between these two philosophers. Thus Confucius had the idea that the child was more like an inorganic being, i.e., a mass of clay in the potter's hands to be fashioned as he wished according 60 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, p. 49. 6i Ibid., p. 61. 62 Ibid., p. 49. 22 to readymade patterns, whereas, as we have seen, Dewey is entirely in disaccord with this conception. The child is a potential, an organic being, marvelously endowed with powers of growth. His life is an integral, a total one. He passes quickly and readily from one stage to another, as from one spot to another, but he is not conscious of the transition. The things that occupy him are held together by the unity of the personal and social interests which his life carries along. Whatever is uppermost in his mind constitutes, at least for the time being, the whole universe, whose contents dissolve and reform with amazing rapidity. The very meaning of childhood is that it is a time of growth, of development. To despise the powers and needs of childhood, in behalf of the attainments of adult life, is therefore suicidal. Hence " Hold childhood in reverence, and do not be in any hurry to judge' it for good or evil. Give Nature time to work before you take upon yourself her business, lest you interfere with her dealings." 63 DISCIPLINE The Confucian ideal of discipline.�Discipline, according to Confucius, is regarded as something negative. Confucius sets before every man his own improvement as what he should strive for � a task without surcease until he shall " abide in the highest excellence.'' This goal, albeit unattainable in the absolute, he must ever have before his mind, determined above all things to aspire toward it, relatively, every moment of his life � that is, to " abide in the highest excellence " of which he is at the moment capable.64 So he says in The Great Learning: # " What one should abide in being known, what should be aimed at is determined; upon this decision, unperturbed resolve is attained; to this succeeds tranquil poise; this affords opportunity for deliberate care; through such deliberation the goal is achieved." 65 This speaks throughout of self-development, of that renunciation of worldly lusts, for again in The Great Learning he says: " From the highest to the lowest, self-development must be deemed the root of all by every man. When the root is neglected, it cannot be that what springs from it will be well ordered." 66 63 Dewey, John, Schools of Tomorrow, p. 6. 64 Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius, p. 22. 65 The Great Learning, XV, p. 2. 66 Ibid., V. 6, 7. 23 Confucius taught that to pursue the highest excellence was possible for every man, all being of like passions and in more things like than different. He says: " By nature men are alike; by earnest practice they get to be wide apart."67 Therefore, not to one who must as a matter of mere consequence comply, but to one who may exercise a choice whether to obey or not, learned though, he may be, he directs this injunction: "Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles and be moving continually toward what is right."68 Mancius puts it thus: " There is no greater delight than to be conscious of sincerity upon self-examination."69 In The Great Learning these wakening words are found: " The superior man is watchful over himself when alone."70 Stern self-examination is inculcated in the Li Ki as the first duty of him who aspires to be of service, or who assumes responsibilities: " For one who wishes to serve his ruler, the rule was first to measure his abilities and duties and then enter upon the responsibilities; he did not first enter and then measure." 71 Thoroughness, continuity of purpose, and persistence are strongly urged; but, above all things, that rigorous judgment of a man's self which alone can keep his effort directed toward the goal. On this point, Confucius sadly and repeatedly warns his disciples against overconfidence that these things will come of themselves, saying: " I have not seen one wha loves virtue as he loves beauty." 72 Again, " I have not yet seen one who could perceive his faults and inwardly accuse himself."73 Nevertheless, the necessity for constant Self-examination was held before his disciples. " If you can purify yourself a single day, do so every day. Let no day pass without purification!" Again he said more vigorously still: " To assail one's own wickedness and not assail that of others, is this not the way to correct cherished evil?" The glorious picture of achievement Confucius puts before those of his disciples who will preserve in thought and action, unswerving integrity of purpose and of aim: " Contemplating good and pursuing it as if they could not attain to it, contemplating evil and shrinking from it as they would from thrusting the hand into boiling water � I have seen such men as I have heard such words." 74 67 Lun Yu, XVII, 2. �8 Ibid., XII, 10. 69 Mancius, VII, 1, 4. 70 The Great Learning, VI, 5: 1, 2. 71 Li Ki, XV, v. 19. 72 Lun Yu, IX, 17, XV, 12. 73 Ibid., V, 26. 74 Ibid., XVI, XI, V, 1. There may, then, be such men; no impossible standard is here set up. Confucius had long held his conduct up to it and says of himself: " With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink and my bended arm for a pillow, I still have joy in the midst of these things. Riches and honors acquired by unrighteousness are to me as a floating cloud." 75 Again he says, " What I do not wish men to do to me, I also wish not to do to men."76 This text from the Analects of Confucius is more widely known among us than is any other, and is generally understood to be merely a colorless, negative phase of the Golden Rule. But even in the days of Confucius it had developed into a standard of human conduct, broad, and general in its application. Thus when Tszeking asked, " Is there any one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life?" The Master replied: " Is not ' Reciprocity ' such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others!" 77 The Confucian education lays emphasis upon the essentials of filial piety. According to Hsiao King, " Our bodies, every hair and shred of skin, are received from our parents. We must not presume to injure or wound them ... so as to make our name famous in future ages and thereby glorify our parents." 78 The following more detailed statement is taken from the Li Ki: " The body is that which has been transmitted to us by our parents; dare anyone allow himself to be irreverent in the employment of their legacy? If a man in his own house and privacy be1 not grave, he is not filial; if in serving his ruler he be not loyal, he is not filial; if in discharging the duties of office he be not reverent, he is not filial; if with friends he be not sincere, he is not filial; if on the field of battle he be not brave, he is not filial. If he fail in these five things, the evil will reach his parents; dare he then do otherwise' than reverently attend to them?" � Confucius deemed reverence, love, and obedience equally necessary in order that there might truly be a sentiment of pious regard and not a mere counterfeit of it. When Tsze-Yew asked what filial piety is, the Master said, " The filial piety of nowadays means the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something 75 Ibid., VII, 15. � Ibid., V, 10. 77 Ibid., XV, 23. 78 Hsiao King, I. � Li K% XXI, II, 11. 25 in the way of support; without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support from the other?"80 And to the query of another disciple, he responded " It is not being disobedient."81 In the Li Ki the same idea is put thus, involving both instant obedience and sincere respect: " When his father or his teacher calls, he should not merely say ' yes ' but also rise." 82 Yet mere obedience is not enough, and there are unfailing instances when neither obedience nor respect should restrain from remonstrating. As it is said in the Hsiao King: " When unrighteous conduct is concerned, a son must by no means refrain from remonstrating with his father nor a minister from remonstrating with his ruler. Since, then, remonstrating is required in the case of unrighteous conduct, how can mere obedience to a father be counted filial piety?" 83 The positive discipline of Dewey.�According to Dewey, discipline is positive and constructive. " A person," says he, " who is trained to consider his actions, to undertake them deliberately, is in so far disciplined. Add to this ability a power to endure in an intelligently chosen course in face of distraction, confusion, and difficulty, and you have the essence of discipline. Discipline means power at command; mastery of the resources available for carrying through the undertaken action. To know what one is to do and to move to do it promptly and by use of the requisite means is to be' disciplined, whether we are thinking of an army or a mind." 84 But discipline is genuinely educative, Dewey points out, " only as it represents a reaction of information into the individual's own powers so that he brings them under control for social ends." 85 Discipline cannot be acquired by the mere passive absorption of learning. It can be attained only by a process of constructive creating or giving out.86 Discipline of mind is in truth a result rather than a cause: " Any mind is disciplined in a subject in which independent intellectual initiative and control have been achieved. Discipline represents original native endowment turned through gradual exercise into effective power. Discipline is positive and constructive." 87 Without mental discipline, i.e., the power of the mind and for the mind, the individual remains at the mercy of custom so Lun Yu, II, 7. 81 Ibid., II, 5. 82 Li Ki, I, III, V, 14. 83 Hsiao King, V. 84 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, p. 151. 85 Dewey, John, Moral Principles in Education, p. 31. 86 Ibid., p. 21. 87 Dewey, John, How We Think, p. 63. 26 and external suggestion. In order to acquire such mental discipline it is necessary to develop the power of reflective attention, namely, the ability to hold problems steadily before the mind.88 COMPARISON AND CRITICISM OF THE TWO INTERPRETATIONS OF DISCIPLINE We have endeavored to trace the Confucian ideal of discipline, and found it reasonable to say that Confucius conceived discipline as something negative � as a painfully disagreeable forcing of the mind away from channels congenial to it into channels of constraint, a process grievous at the time but necessarily preparative for a more or less remote future. Discipline is then not generally identified with habits of thinking, but with uniform external habits of action. He believed that self-development to the highest excellence could be attained through rules and self-denying effort. However, this in fact restricts and deadens intellectual activity, and tends to create mechanical routine or mental passivity and servility. According to Confucius, "The man is his will; back of his will is his purpose; and back of his purpose, his de'sire. If his knowledge enable him to make a right choice, he should be sincere, his desires should be disciplined, his purpose lofty, and, resting thereupon as on a rock, his will fixed and immovable1. This is character." 89 This emphasis of Confucius upon patience and perseverance in self-development has certainly helped to develop these characteristics. To endure the exceedingly tedious instructions of the Confucian school makes an imperative demand upon long-suffering patience from an early age. But, according to Dewey, discipline is positive and constructive. Interest and discipline are closely related, not opposed. He conceives the problem of correct discipline to be essentially one of rightly directing or ordering human power, i.e., directing it only into social channels and attaching it to valuable ends.90 He does not at all agree with those who believe with Confucius that discipline should be stern and severe. He thinks it should be firm but mild, and declares, " It is absurd to suppose that an individual gets more intellectual or mental discipline when he goes at a matter unwillingly than when he goes at it out of the fullness of his heart." 91 88 Dewey, John, School and Society, p. 91. 89 The Great Learning, V. 5. 90 Dewey, John, Moral Principles in Education, p. 51. 91 Dewey, John, Interest and Effort in Education, p. 1-2. 27 Good discipline is quite compatible with following out impulses and interests. Dewey states the desirable two-fold result of such a process in education as follows: " Since to satisfy an interest or impulse means to work it out, and working it out involves the encountering of obstacles, becoming acquainted with materials and exercising ingenu-uity, patience, persistence, and alertness, it of necessity involves discipline, i.e., the ordering of power." 92 Efficiency cannot be brought about unless the individual is properly trained in disciplinary "habits of serviceable-ness," and this cannot be done unless the discipline of the school proceeds from the life of the school as a whole rather than directly from the teacher. CULTURE The Confucian ideal of culture.�Confucius recognized the following cultural principles: First, personal cultivation as dependent on the rectification of the mind. What is meant by the " cultivation of the person depends on rectification of the mind " may be illustrated in this fashion: If a man be under the influence of passion, he will be incorrect in his conduct. He will be the same if he is under the influence of terror, or under the influence of fond regard, or under that of sorrow and distress. When the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat. This is what is meant by saying that the cultivation of the person depends on the rectification of the mind.93 Second, the necessity of cultivating the person, in order to regulate the family. What is meant by the expression, " the regulation of one's family depends on the cultivation of his person/' is this: Men are partial where they feel affection and love; partial where they despise or dislike; partial where they stand in awe and reverence; partial where they feel sorrow and compassion; partial where they are arrogant and rude. Thus it is that there are few men in the world who love, and at the same time know the bad qualities of the object of their love; or who hate and yet know the excellencies of the object of their hatred. Hence it is said, in the common adage, " A man does not know the wickedness of his son; he does not know the richness of his growing corn."- In like fashion, this is what is meant by saying that if the person be not cultivated, a man cannot regulate his family.94 92 Dewey, John, School and Society, p. 54-5. 93 The Great Learning, VII, 1-3. 94 Ibid., VIII, 1-3. 28 Third; the social nature of culture. When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principles of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like, when done to yourself, do not do to others.95 Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly harmony without being weak. He stands erect, without inclining to either side. How firm is he in his f orcef ulhess !96 He who cultivates to the utmost the shoots of goodness in him, from those he can attain to the possession of sincerity. This sincerity becomes apparent. From being apparent, it becomes manifest. From being manifest, it becomes brilliant. Brilliant, it affects others.97 Hence the sovereign may not neglect the cultivation of his own character. Wishing to cultivate his character, he may not neglect to serve his parents. In order to serve his parents, he may not neglect to acquire a knowledge of men. In order to know men, he may not dispense with a knowledge of Heaven.98 By the ruler's cultivation of his own character, the duties of universal obligation are set up. By honoring men of virtue and talents, he is preserved from errors of judgment.99 Virtue is the real valency of all arts, Confucius says, in the Analects. "If a man be without the virtue proper to humanity, what has he to do with the rites of propriety? If a man be without the virtue proper to humanity, what has he to do with music?"100 The Confucian ideal of the cultured man in terms of Virtue may be expressed in this fashion: " The practice of right living is deemed the highest function of man, the practice of any art, lower. Complete virtue takes first place; the doing of anything else whatsoever is subordinate. "101 These words are the keynote of the sage's teachings.102 Perhaps one of the most outstanding characteristics of the Superior Man is his firm conviction that virtue is essential in every undertaking.103 He does not act contrary to virtue even for the space of a single meal. He cleaves to it even in moments of haste and in seasons of danger.104 His pri- 95 The Doctrine of the Mean, XIII, 3. 96 Ibid., X, 5. 97 Ibid., XXIII. 98 Ibid., XX, 7. 9� Ibid., XX, 13. ioo Lun Yu, III, 3. ioi Li Ki, XVII, III, 5. i�2 Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius, pp. 34, 39, 40. 103 Lun Yu, XV, 17. 104 Ibid., V, 3. 29 mary solicitude is always for virtue, for he realizes that virtue leads to strong character; and that strong character is capable of creating wealth from resources; and that with wealth will come power. Thus virtue is the root of it all and wealth with its power is only a result.105 However, though the Superior Man knows that virtue is the ultimate source of all enduring power, he practices virtue easily and naturally and not for any ulterior reward, since the practice of virtue is in itself the sole recompense that he expects.106 Being the lover of virtue, he abhors enervating sensuality. In his food he does not seek to gratify his appetite, nor in his dwelling place does he seek the appliances of ease.107 Being sustained by virtue, he is calm and feels^ no discomposure because of obscurity or lack of fame.108 He holds virtue higher than valor. In this way he avoids the guilt of insubordination when in a position of authority, and the guilt of crime when in an inferior position.109 In this uncompromising devotion to virtue, the Superior Man is in striking contrast to the mean man. For, whereas, the mind of the Superior Man is conversant with righteousness, the mind of the mean man is conversant only with gain.110 And whereas the Superior Man thinks only of virtue, the small man thinks only of comfort.111 The superior man makes right-doing his first consideration always, but the mean man employs himself only with his riches.112 He cultivates reverential carefulness in himself so as to give rest to all people.113 His mind is satisfied and composed, whereas the mean man is always full of distress.114 He possesses a dignified ease without pride, whereas the mean man possesses pride without a dignified ease.115 The way which he pursues reaches far and wide and yet it is secret. That wherein he cannot be excelled is in these secret good works which others cannot see.116 He is master over hardship and poverty. Although he may indeed have to endure want, he is far superior to the mean man who, when he is in want, gives way to unbridled 105 ibid., V, 2. 106 u Kiy XXIX. 107 Lun Yu, I, 4. 108 Ibid., I, 1, 3. loo Ibid., XVII, 11, 28. no Ibid., IV, 16. in Ibid., IV, 11. 112 Ibid., IV, 16. us Ibid., XIV, 29. H4 Ibid., VII, 37. us Ibid., XIII, 26. 116 The Doctrine of the Mean, XII, 1. 30 license.117 His self-sufficiency is threefold: virtuous, he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold, he is free from fear. These are the outcome of the arts of right-living.118 Dewey's educative ideal of culture.�Culture, according to Dewey's definition of the term, is the capacity for constantly expanding the range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings.119 Efficiency as an educational purpose should mean the cultivation of the power to join freely and fully in shared or common activities. This is impossible without culture. It brings culture as a reward, because one cannot share intercourse with others without learning, without getting a broader point of view and perceiving things of which one would otherwise be ignorant.120 Therefore, Dewey defines culture as the capacity for constantly expanding the range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings. If culture is to be genuinely educative, according to Dewey, it must represent the vital union of information and discipline so as to bring about the true socialization of the individual.121 The specific function of the school is to maintain the life and advance the welfare of society. But this cannot be done unless its objects are genuinely cultural.122 And education is not entitled to be called " genuinely cultural " unless it brings about an increase in tolerance and breadth of social judgment; ability to control prejudices instead of being controlled by them; a larger acquaintance with human nature; a sharpened alertness in reading signs of character and interpreting social situations; and greater accuracy of adaptation to differing personalities and circumstances.123 Again, true culture may be described as a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness.124 It is concerned with learning only through, and in relation to, living.125 Since the only true education is cultural and proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race, it follows that the well educated individual is one who has been richly endowed with the capital of civilization.126 True cultural education is the vital union and interrelation of informational and disciplinary education. And it is only through this higher education that the greatest n? Lun Yu, I, 3. us Ibid., XIV, XXX, 1 no Dewey, John, De?nocracy and Education, p. 145. 120 Ibid., p. 144. 121 Dewey, John, Moral Principles in Education, p. 31. 122 Ibid., II, p. 2. 123 Dewey, John, School and Society, p. 25. 124 Dewey, John, My Pedagogical Creed, p. 16. i25 Dewey, John, School and Society, p. 53. 126 Dewey, John, My Pedadogical Creed, Article 1. 31 possible number of ideas are acquired in such a vital way that they become moving ideas, motive forces in the guidance of conduct. THE CULTURE OF CONFUCIUS AND THAT OF DEWEY COMPARED Culture means, ordinarily at least, something cultivated, something refined; it is opposed to the low and the crude. When culture is identified with a complete development of personality, the outcome is identical with the true meaning of the views of Confucius and Dewey. Culture is also something personal; it is cultivation with respect to appreciation of ideas and broad human interests. At these points both Confucius and Dewey agree. For Dewey conceives, on the one hand, that culture is the vital union of informational and disciplinary factors in life through social interactions and deflections, which he calls " efficiency." On the other hand, Confucius lays strong emphasis on the necessity of cultivation for social superiority. Cultivation is the true means for perfection, and the true valency of perfect cultivation is, as he says, " virtue." However, wre found that the idea, " formation " in the traditional sense, underlies the Confucian ideal of culture, while Dewey conceives the idea as the out-reaching forces of the human capacities. The former tends to set up an external aim and thereby strengthens literary culture and formalism linked to the notions of leisure with its harsh divisions of the inferior and the superior. Thus, according to the Confucian ideal, culture naturally became a monopoly of the privileged class and produced an intellectual aristocracy. Culture, as conceived by Dewey, is supposed to have as its aim the complete harmony of all human instincts and capacities, and to afford both time and opportunity to develop them all. However, we are conscious of dangers in both schools. The Confucian conception of cultivation may result in the overemphasis of "virtue" and passiveness, i.e., a lack of executive validity which fails to develop a sufficiently broad utility in practical life, thus leading to weakness and inefficiecy. Mere wisdom or virtue is not sufficient for us to struggle for in life. The ability to get things done in a practical way must be developed. What a world of difference there is between the passiveness of the Confucian apostle Mencius, who declared, " Those who are skilled in fighting should have the highest punishment!" and the spiritual declaration of Jesus, "I am come not to send peace but a sword!" There is a possible danger that Dewey's idea of "efficiency " and the aim of expert competency may be carried so far in 32 the direction of a harsh utilitarianism that it will become an instrument to impair and perhaps to destroy the grace of life. An education which minimizes culture can certainly never satisfy the deepest needs of the human heart, for culture is indeed the cream of life, the fruit of the tree, the supreme end and test of civilization. TRADITION Confucian authority based on ancient tradition.�We have in this study much information concerning Confucius, in character both personal and derived. The one is from his own lips and the other from the descriptions of his disciples. The preceding topics treat of various subjects of educational importance, and here, in concluding with them, we have the sage himself exhibited. Confucius disclaims being an originator or maker of his celebrated teachings. He speaks thus: " I am a transmitter and not a maker. Believing in and loving the ancients, I venture to compare myself with our old Pang [who Pang was can hardly be ascertained]. The silent treasuring up of knowledge, learning without satiety; and instructing others without being wearied � what one of these belongs to me? The leaving virtue without proper cultivation; the not thoroughly discussing what is' learned; not being able to move toward righteousness of which a knowledge is gained; and not being able to change what is not good � there are the things which occasion me solicitude."12? Here again Confucius frankly states that his knowledge is not connate but the result of his study of antiquity: " I am not one who was born in the possession of knowledge; I am one who is fond of antiquity and earnest in seeking it there."i28 The comment of Yun Ho-tsing, subjoined to Choo He's own, is to the effect that knowledge born within a man is only " righteousness " and " reason " while ceremonies, music, names of things, history, etc., must be learned. This would make the moral sense and those innate capacities of reason, on and by which all knowledge is built up, what we may call a connate or innate quality. But Confucius could not mean to deny his being possessed of these. Confucius' sources of knowledge were the recollections and the traditions of the principles of Wan and Woo. Kung-sun Chaou of Wei asked Tsze-Kung (Disciple of Confucius), saying, WLun Yu, VII, 1-111. 128 Ibid., VII, 19. 33 "From whom did Chung-ne (Confucius) get his learning?" Tsze-Kung replied, " The doctrines of Wan and Woo have not yet fallen to the earth. They are to be found among men. Men of talents and virtue remember the great principles of them, and others, not possessing such talents and virtue, remember the smaller principles. Thus, all possess the* doctrines of Wan and Woo. From whom did our Master not learn them? And yet what necessity was there for his having a regular master?"iiii� Now we shall trace what the followers of Confucius thought of his doctrine. Yeu Yuen, in admiration of the Master's doctrines, sighed and said, " I looked up to them, and they seemed to become more high; I tried to penetrate them, and they seemed to become more firm; I looked at them before me, and suddenly they seemed to be behind. The Master, by orderly method, skillfully leads men on. He enlarged my mind with learning, and taught me the restraints of propriety. When I wished to give over the study of his doctrines, 1 could not do so, and having exerted all my ability, there seemed something to stand right up before me; but though I wish to follow and lay hold of it, 1 really find no way to do so."130 Lastly we may note how Confucius himself occupied a low station: " I have learned the ceremonies of Chow, which are now used, and I follow Chow."-�1 Deivey's view of individualism versus traditional authority.�Dewey emphasizes the rights and responsibilities of the individual in gaining knowledge and in personally testing beliefs. As a matter of fact, every individual has grown up, and always must grow up, in a social medium. His responses grow intelligent or gain meaning simply because he lives and acts in a medium of accepted meanings and values. " Since custom and traditional beliefs held individuals in bondage, activities of mind set out from custom and tradition and strive to effect transformations of them."132 There is a legitimate individualism, the attitude of critical revision of traditional beliefs which is indispensable to progress. *' True individualism," says Dewey, " is a product of the relaxation of the grip of the authority of custom and tradition as standards of beliefs. Aside from sporadic instances, like the height of Greek thought, it is a comparatively modern manifestation. Not but that there have always been individual diversities, but that a society dominated by conservative cus- **> Ibid., XIX, XXII, 1-2. wo Ibid., IX, 10. �i The Doctrine of the Mean, XXVIII, 5. 132 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, p. 34. 34 toms represses them or at least does not utilize them and promote them. For various reasons, however, the' new individualism was interpreted philosophically not as meaning development of agencies for revising and transforming previously accepted beliefs, but as an assertion that each individual's mind was complete in isolation from everything else. A society based on custom and tradition will utilize individual variations only up to a limit of conformity with usage; uniformity is the chief ideal within each class. A progressive society counts individual variations as precious, since it finds in them the means of its own growth. Hence a democratic society must, in consistency with its ideal, allow for intellectual freedom and the play of diverse gifts and interests in its educational measures."133 A COMPARISON OF THE INTERPRETATIONS OF TRADITION AS HELD BY CONFUCIUS AND DEWEY The tradition that knowledge is derived from an external source rather than that it is an internal capacity, and possesses a higher and more spiritual worth, has a long history. As tradition is usually identified with knowing the past and thinking of the past, for practical purposes it establishes collective habits in ways of living and doing, namely, customs. Customs in any case constitute moral standards, for they are active demands for certain ways of acting under the support of traditions. Confucius frankly disclaims being an original thinker but a faithful transmitter, believing in and loving the ancients,134 fond of antiquity and earnest in searching there for knowledge. He submits himself to the traditional authority,135 has learned the ceremonies and institutions of Chow, which were then used. He followed Chow. Hence we can admit how natural it is that the Confucian school should deliberately attempt to bring about uniformity and conventionalism of conduct and social structure. Dewey, on the other hand, practically discards tradition altogether. He believes in the individual as the means of the individual's own growth. This leads to the view that knowledge is won wholly through personal and private experience. As a consequence, mind becomes the source and possessor of knowledge. Thus Dewey is interested in the innate capacities of man instead of the traditional authority, an external source, and declares that we learn what things are by finding out through active experimentation. The scientific experimentation which tests the ever-growing and ever-changing state of human experiences is the position of Dewey. On the one hand, it has been pointed out that the Confucian school is too exclusively traditional. On the other i33Ibid., p. 356. 134 Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius, p. 84. 136 Martin, W. A. P., The Lore of Cathay, p. 169. 35 hand, Dewey seems to tend to go to the other extreme by ignoring the importance and legitimate function of tradition. Tradition, in the sense of indoctrination or authoritarianism, of course we cannot appreciate as having any value for our interest. It is true that tradition, unfortunately, has been identified with authoritarianism; but it should not be necessarily so. Tradition does not mean necessarily the rooted system or an organized authoritarianism which is always detrimental to progress; but in a very proper sense it means the unbroken identity of a race-experience which flows through the views of that race, the tested spirit of an integrating force and dynamic unity. It always maintains stability and opens wide the ways of progress and expansion and constant achievement. Custom may change or cease entirely but tradition ever continues. A race may progress in prosperity when custom changes or ceases, but a race will perish when its tradition breaks up altogether. The right kind of " tradition is in the development of society what heredity is in the physical growth of the stock. It is the link between the past and the future."136 It embraces the effects of the past and forms the basis upon which subsequent modifications are built. Thus the whole fabric of human civilization would be impossible without the development of tradition. It is absolutely necessary to accumulate recorded experiences from generation to generation before the complex habits of the higher stages of civilization can be established and maintained in social groups. As Ellwood has pointed out in his introduction to social psychology, it is not possible to understand education or its problems without first understanding the collective human life which has been developed by tradition on the basis of man's higher mental evolution.187 136 Hobhouse, L. T., Social Evolution and Political Theory, p. 34. 137 Ellwood, C. A., An Introduction to Social Psychology, p. 130. 36 CHAPTER II RECAPITULATION AND SYNTHESIS OP GUIDING PRINCIPLES A generalization of the controlling principles arrived at from a comparison and criticism of the educational ideals of Confucius and John Dewey. THE BASIC GENERAL AIM OF EDUCATION If we are to bring educational principles into harmony with the whole body of evolutionary science, we must take survival-efficiency as the basic general aim of education. Education is futile unless it enables a civilization to progress and to preserve its unbroken identity.�Hitherto, educational thought has neglected the fundamental importance of the laws of survival or perpetuity. The educational philosophers who have made culture and pleasure the chief ends of life have been radically wrong and blind from the viewpoint of survival or perpetuity. They have failed to see that education is futile unless it enables a civilization to progress and to preserve its unbroken identity. Thus, for instance, Plato conceived the educated person to be one who, as the spectator of all time and existence, loves and seeks Truth, and whose well balanced mind is free from all bias or partisanship. This is all very good as far as it goes, but Plato hopelessly failed to provide for the development of sufficiently stable and disciplined character capable of withstanding the vicissitudes of time.1 The mercurial Greek temperament, brilliant and inspired though it was, resembled too much an unstable, fully-rounded drop of quick-silver or a freely-rolling sphere, able to move readily in all directions but never arriving anywhere at a patiently purposeful destination. Sir Francis Galton has estimated that the native intellectual capacity of the ancient Greeks exceeds that of the Nordic people even more than that of the Nordic people exceeds that of the African negro in a primitive condition. Yet the highly gifted Athenian race died. It would have been much better for the organic perpetuity of the "men of Athens" if they had been less shallow and tolerant and more conservative and morally stubborn. They might have gained much by an infusion of oriental tenacity and patience, for then their character would have been more comparable to that of the pyramid, stable at the base and not easily subverted. 1 Hart, Joseph, Discover^ of Intelligence, p. 91-101. 37 If the Greeks had resolutely taken survival-efficiency as the aim of their education they might have retained their skeptical, inquisitive, rationalistic view of life without impairing their moral fibre. Their enterprising individualism would have been balanced by a deep and abiding reverence for moral tradition. Since the aim of survival-efficiency emphasizes both the progressive spirit and the traditional element, it is especially well adapted to facilitate the synthesis of the best elements of the oriental and the western educations, thus curing the unprogressiveness of the former and the latter's lack of deep-rootedness. The aim of " survival-efficiency" meets the tests of adequacy, because it affords a sound scientific conception of normal individual and social life and contemplates adequate training in the practical ability of attaining such life. The Confucian educational ideal, founded on the speculations of ancient philosophers is inadequate, because they were merely philosophers rather than scientists. And philosophy alone is not enough to meet the needs of modern education, for philosophy cannot become perfect truth until it becomes science. Therefore, the education which we need must be capable of training the mind to make effective use of the highly specialized human forces discovered by modern science. Only then will it possess actual value for guidance and provide for the origination of knowledge and true progress. The aim of " survival-efficiency " is based on the scientific attitude toward life. If this aim is faithfully followed, it is reasonable to expect that it will lead naturally to a true understanding of life through an intimate acquaintance with the social and the physical environment. It will achieve power of control over vital forces through the ability to influence conditions so as to produce desired results. There is no real danger that such an aim would lead to harsh utilitarianism, because it does not ignore the fact that culture implies not only the ability to do right things but also the power to enjoy right things, because the latter power is one of the factors in survival-efficiency and this is fully provided for: Such an aim adequately recognizes the fact that the work of education is formative and should provide opportunities for the best growth and development with the end in view of a happy and productive life. It seeks to establish the proper coordination between all the psychic factors of human nature and to safeguard both social welfare and self-realization. The aim of survival-efficiency, so far from being one-sided, makes possible a well rounded development. This is true because it takes for its ideal both moral and physical sound- 38 ness and perfect fitness of both body and mind. It seeks the natural development of innate capacities in ways that are of eternal worth and significance. By the efficient direction of self-activity growing out of natural interests, it hopes for the harmonious training of the whole personality in the interests of the soundest morality. THE TRAINING OF CHARACTER Tradition and science.�For at least two reasons, both tradition and science should be utilized in the training of moral character in order to secure an adequate development of survival-efficiency. The reasons are as follows: First, the judicious use of moral tradition may help to develop efficiency in survival. We have seen how the Confucian education, through its emphasis upon moral tradition, has succeeded remarkably in the development of patience, stability and endurance as basic elements in character. It follows, therefore, that the traditional Confucian emphasis upon the filial virtues and the integrity of family life 2 have added greatly to the survival-efficiency of Chinese education. Thus, the judicious use of moral tradition may help to develop efficiency in survival.3 Second, science has much to contribute in the development of survival-efficiency, since its utilization makes possible the growth of various character traits possessing survival value, such as social adaptiveness, executive forcefulness, persistence of purpose, fixed habits of order and industry, initiative and enterprise, courage and hardihood, moderation and temperance, and self-respecting, generous willingness to recognize true merit in another. SYNTHESIS OF THE OLD AND' THE NEW ELEMENTS The methodical development of survival-efficiency.�If we are to do away with the present excessive reliance upon pedagogical mechanism, which is a hindrance to the development of survival-efficiency, we must avoid formalism such as that which encumbers Confucian education, and take the individual rather than the course as the unit in instruction. For if learning is to be vitalized, adequate provision must be made for individual criticism and contemplative reflection, i.e., the individual must have plenty of time to digest and analyze what he has studied and to develop his own personality. We must show the individual not only how everything he studies fits into daily life and work but also its relation to the ultimate goal of life, namely, survival. By applying 2 Martin, W. A. P., The Lore of Cathay, p. 174-196. 3 Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius, p. 29, 30. 39 and extending the project method into the fields of adult and industrial education, we should realize to the full the principle that human powers can be adequately developed only by properly coordinating activities with natural and intelligent self-initiated impulses. If this is done, it is reasonable to expect that it will secure the release of new energies in civilization by opening up a whole new vista of achievement. If we are to make adequate provision for the systematic selection of the fittest and the elimination of the unfit, we must not allow incompetency to be promoted. If one is found to be mentally or pathologically unable to master difficult subjects he should be given a training more suited to his limited powers. But at present human capacities are greatly wasted * because of ignorance and inefficiency. We should utilize to the utmost the primitive human feelings, impulses, emotions and sympathies and facilitate the development of desired capacities and habits by the effective correlation of emotional experiences and activities. The harmonization of tradition and science.�In order that our education may be culturally deep-rooted, the choicest parts of all the literatures and philosophies of the world should be gathered together in a tentative canonical form, subject to constant revision and improvement. This should take the place of the old Confucian canonical literature in which vast masses of trivial chaff are mingled with that which is of worth. The Confucian emphasis upon personal moral integrity should be retained and strengthened, but " morality " should be redefined in terms of fitness to survive. The good old Confucian virtues, such as courtesy, filial loyalty, and reliability should not be sacrificed, but rather they should be placed upon a broader and more scientific basis of genuine credibility, capable of evoking and sustaining a whole-hearted and loyal- devotion. Of course, on the other hand, democratic and scientific conceptions are also indispensable to the education which we need. Only in case we adopt such conceptions can we hope to teach youth to adjust itself effectively to the rapidly changing social environment. For, as Dewey says, " The only possible adjustment which we can give to the student under existing conditions is that which arises through putting him in complete possession of his powers. To prepare him for the future means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities; that his eye and ear and hand may be tools ready to command; that his judgment may be capable of grasping the conditions under which he' has to work, and the executive forces to be trained to act economically and 40 efficiently. It is impossible to reach this sort of adjustment, save as constant regard is had to the individual's own powers, tastes, and interests." 4 If rapid adjustability with reference to specific situations is to be developed, it is necessary that accurate and reliable knowledge should be organized in such a form as to be instantaneously usable. Furthermore, the senses, judgment, tastes and executive forces must be developed into a condition of poise, steadiness and power, and to this end the proper inciting forces should be utilized to attract attention and enlist activity. And if in addition to information, character, and culture, we are to give youth a sustaining and usable faith, we should first go back and sit humbly at the feet of the masters, the great fore-runners of Dewey, until we understand more thoroughly all that it means to guide and inspire youth in creative ways. Then we should work out our findings systematically with the aid of all the facilities afforded by modern science, especially psychology and sociology.. The next step is then to work out the fundamental laws of survival. and of personal and social welfare by careful and painstaking researches. Finally, if possible, we should embody the results in a great literature possessing adequate poetical power and spiritual force to inspire the emotions of the reader. Meanwhile we should do all that can be done to remedy the present alienation of school and industrial life, especially through the development of a high type of vocational education. And above all things else, we must cease to make the school an instrument of propaganda and must seek to make it a community capable of transforming the world into a common brotherhood. 4 Dewey, John, My Pedagogical Creed, p. 7. 41 CHAPTER III THE APPLICATION OF EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES TO THE PRACTICAL NEED'S OF KOREA Some general observations.�An American advocate of vocational training has criticized existing education on the ground that it prepares youth for everything in general and nothing in particular.1 I think this criticism applies in a very emphatic way to existing education in Korea. The " Land of the Morning Calm " has gone through such a tremendous transition within such a relatively short period of time that the educational system has lagged behind the radical social changes. And thus it is perhaps only natural that in Korea we should find an impractical and academic type of education which fails to fit students for life. The school system is hybrid in its nature, containing a somewhat haphazard jumble of the most superficial elements of both the older and newer forms of education. To be more explicit, the present educational system in Korea may be criticized for being'impractical and insufficient in its aims, methods, and practices. From the old Confucian education it inherits the bad element of an undue emphasis upon mere erudition and a failure to develop original con-structiveness, as well as excessive formality, conventionalism and impotency to develop tru^ fitness for efficient social living. Also from certain phases of western education it inherits some bad features, susk a:T cynical and destructive views of life which only highly trained philosophical minds are strong enough to endure. As a whole, the present Korean education does not even aim to develop survival-efficiency; in fact, such a thought is alien to its impractical, academic temper. And, being too narrow in its outlook upon life and too inflexible in its methods, it is naturally incapable of bringing about an effective adjustment of the masses to a rapidly changing environment in this transitional period. Furthermore, it fails to enable the masses to be self-supporting, and is thus powerless to avert the growing period of economic unrest. Its actual administration: alien control.�Of course there are some Korean private schools, but at present these are practically negligible in their significance and influence in the i Weeks, R. M., The People's School, p. 37. 42 life of the nation. Virtually the whole educational system is under alien control, and for the most part dominated by alien propaganda. This leaves the Koreans in what might well be called the position of step-children. The Japanese governmental schools and the schools established by Christian missions are directed, however benevolently it may be, by strangers, and the Koreans themselves do not have a determining voice in their administration. Doubtless Korea need not anticipate an early release from this condition. It will be recalled that the struggle for a general free school system was not an easy one even in a comparatively wealthy and progressive country like the United States of America.2 Therefore, probably it will require quite a long time to establish such a system throughout the whole of Korea. At the present time the vast majority of Korean people, even the poorest ones, either have to pay for their schooling or else go without it. Of course there are many free public schools for the children of Japanese immigrants, but for native children, free education absolutely does not exist in Korea today. This difference, tolerated by the government, is merely one aspect of a policy of race discrimination. When one contemplates the cost of an educational plant, it hardly seems wise to hope that free public education can ever be adequately supplied in Korea until the administration of self-government is rightly restored to the hands of its citizens. It must be undertaken by the government and supported by general taxation. Therefore, unless the government establishes a general free school system by force of law, it seems difficult to provide for adequate popular education in Korea on account of the comparative poverty of the great masses of the people. Since a practicable free school system must be supported at least in part by local taxation, it is necessary to work out a relatively inexpensive and more efficient type of school which will economize as much as possible both the public funds and the time of the students. In its relation to organized religion, the present education in Korea is subject to criticism, because it fails to bring about a thorough-going reconciliation of traditional beliefs with modern science. Thus it is handicapped in any effort it may make to remedy the existing degeneracy, perplexity and confusion of the masses. During this troubled and unsettled period of rapid transition in Korea, the new tendencies and currents of the modern world have swept over the country to an unprecedented 2 Cubberley, E. P., Public Education in the United States. 43 extent. The result is that matters relating to religion and morality are in a state of disquietude. A recent American writer in the field of the history of education, speaking of the disastrous period of transition in ancient Greece, says, " When faith in the ancient traditions has been destroyed, the individual is unrestrained, undisciplined, ignorant of life, contemptuous of all controls." 3 This comment may be justly applied to Korea today. On the one hand, some of the old leaders, being bound in the old ways, are largely oblivious of the present needs and still continue their inadequate attitudes. There is too much controversy among them about non-essential details, while they ignore the great fundamental problems of life. On the other hand, some of the more impulsive leaders are too destructive and too determined to throw off all restraints. Thus dissensions and anarchy arise, and this leads to a loss of all genuine association with the Truth. Incredible verbalisms are allowed to overshadow matters of practical utility. The remedial function of the education which Korea needs now becomes apparent. It must redirect the scattered and wasted religious forces into constructive channels and must re-interpret religious tradition according to the needs of the age. It must emphasize and uphold in that tradition everything that is actually serviceable for our everyday life. If this is done, then all phases of our activity may evolve in an orderly way under the control of the conscience through intelligent faith. AN OUTLINE OF A SYSTEM OF EDUCATION TO MEET THE EXISTING NEEDS OF KOREA A Fundamental General Principle of Approach Suited to the Development of Adequate Popular Education in Korea General evolutionary vieivpoint.�Education in Korea must accept and welcome the modern evolutionary viewpoint, for not only is this viewpoint in harmony with the best educational thought now existing, but it is also most intimately related to the problem of survival-efficiency. The old education has been misguided, since it is encumbered by its static ideals of perfection and has thus ignored too largely the evolutionary point of view. If we are to pass wholly from medievalism to modernism in education, we must cast off once and for all the false, stagnating chimera of absolute ideas and realize that the real world in which we 3 Hart, Joseph, Discovery of Intelligence, p. 64. 44 live can be understood only through reasoned conclusions from carefully observed phenomena. Further, we must recognize the fact that no educational system is entitled to be called modern unless it provides for continuous change and growth. As Herbert Spencer has so truly insisted, " To the slowly growing acquaintance with the uniform coexistences and sequences of phenomena, to the establishment of invariable laws, we owe' our emancipation from the grossest superstitions. But for science, we would still be worshiping fetishes, or, with catacombs of victims, propitiating diabolical deities." 4 Thus the education which we need must show us how to use science as a means of living and should reveal nature as a great storehouse of inspiration. By presenting the evolutionary viewpoint to the mind of his students, the teacher may be able to build up the conception of a great destiny for the human race, and may thus do much to cure prejudices, bigotries and youthful pessimisms. What story is more inspiring than the evolutionary account of the progress of mankind, perpetually hampered by the savagery inherited from the brutes but gradually leading on toward the mastery of environment through knowledge? If this is done we may be able eventually to develop a form of social organization based solidly upon Reason and Justice as the natural outgrowth of the scientific attitude. New knowledge is a primary cause of progress. Thus, if our education is really scientific, it will deliberately develop trained discoverers of new knowledge. If we bring ourselves wholly into sympathy with the evolutionary viewpoint, we may come to realise that self-realization is not found in culture alone or pleasure or even discipline (except as a means to an end) or in any of the other things which the Greeks mistakenly strove for. Rather is it found in survival, both of the individual and of the group. We need only to observe the evils resulting from unintelligent prejudice and superstition to realize that the theological student in Korea especially needs much better acquaintance with science and with the whole evolutionary viewpoint than he obtains under the present system of education in that country. Under existing conditions theological students are accustomed to spend considerable time in the study of oratory, to the neglect of the study of science. But eloquence is too much suited to the misleading purpose of propaganda to be truly educational. It will be a great day for education in Korea when eloquent lectures are superseded by the laboratory method in all courses. 4 Spencer, Herbert, Education, p. 93. 45 Unless the evolutionary viewpoint is accepted in a thoroughgoing way there can be little hope of training youth from its earliest years in obedience to the will of natural and moral law, as this law is revealed in the world of science. But only when this is done can the mind of youth be given a satisfactory foundation for successful achievement in the world's work. Old superstitions are losing their hold on the masses of people in Korea. If we want to appeal strongly to them today we must use the scientific approach to their belief and conscience, for the very atmosphere of modern life is surcharged with the consciousness of physical, social, mental, and spiritual evolution. Therefore, if faith is put upon an evolutionary basis it may be possible to cure social disorders and inculcate respect for law and truth. For, as a modern American educator has so well expressed it, " The first rule of science, the absolute" foundation of all evolutionary doctrine, is obedience to law." 5 General and specific ends.�National prosperity and individual fulfillment must both be kept in view as harmonious specific ends subordinate to the basic educational aim of survival-efficiency. In other words, the education which we need must promote both individuality and sociality. On the one hand, the individual must not be neglected, for, as Kant has so wisely observed, all culture begins with the individual and radiates from him as a center.6 Education, regarded as the whole .effect of environment and as a primary factor in evolution (like natural selection and instinctive adaptation), is a very important means of carrying on the development of the individual. On the other hand, education is also an important means of carrying on the evolution of the nation or the race to a higher level. In the case of a nation like Korea, struggling on the threshold of the modern world, education comes as a liberator from social misery. As Dewey has suggested, we need to seek what is good for the nation and society in general, and at the same time we should not sacrifice the individual. Constructive cooperation and wholesome competition or rivalry may both be desirable within proper limits. The problem is to strike a wise balance between them. Ethical attitude as related to character development.�-The education which we need must emphasize sound ethical principles as a basis for the development of strong individual and national character. 5 Munroe, J. P., New Demands in Education, p. 49. 6 Kant. Immanuel, Pedagogy, p. 7. The Educational Theory of Immanuel Kant, Trans. E. F. Buchner. 46 In every deep purpose in life we act, consciously or unconsciously, upon certain principles which have become habits. These habits of action, which are the result of our education in the broadest sense, constitute our real philosophy.. Therefore, it is very important that education should develop the right kind of principles to serve as the foundation for thinking and acting. The ethical principles which we need must inspire youthful minds with right attitudes toward life and should be so acceptable to common sense and the feeling of justice that they will be effective in spreading right views of education among the masses of people. Furthermore, these principles must be suited to the needs of the workaday world and must be in harmony with the instincts and feelings and realities of life. They must definitely help to develop strong character traits which promote survival-efficiency, such as loyalty, cooperation, perseverance, patience, executive forcefulness, and, aboye all, the spirit of creative enterprise and happiness therein. They should be broad enougtyf to make room for ideals and imagination as well as facts.�' And, if they are to meet our needs, they must inspire a sincere faith in the worth whileness of effort and develop a brave and resolute character which can look cheerfully toward a future better than the present. The practical attitude as related to the proposed system.� The education which we need must place emphasis upon the progressive unfolding of intelligence and an efficient adaptability, rather than on the acquisition of mere erudition. The old Confucian education is not adequate to meet the needs of Korea., because it fails at this point, i.e., it does not realize that education really includes all conscious evolution and that, considered practically, it is nothing less than the control of environment in the interest of normal development. Education surely means a good deal more than mere schooling. It includes the whole process of adaptation to environment. If one who is educated is not more capable of effective adjustment to a changing environment than one who is " uneducated," then his " education " is nominal only. Among the lower animals education is practically nothing more than adaptation alone. If one animal cannot learn how to adapt itself it perishes, whereas a shrewder animal survives. Among these lower forms of life, where adaptation is all there is to education, nature provides for it through instincts, i.e., an inborn tendency to do something under apparently similar circumstances. Generally this makes survival possible. But, as we come up the scale of animal life, 47 ability to readjust modes of life quickly to new conditions becomes more and more important to survival: Mere adaptation to immediate circumstances or to a static environment is not enough. Instinct alone cannot protect an animal against some sudden change, such as an unprecedented failure of the food supply. Relentless destruction is the natural penalty for the failure to outwit an unexpected catastrophe until, by a slow process of bodily reorganization, new organisms are produced which are suited to the new conditions which destroyed their predecessors. Of course, this is a very costly and wasteful process.7 One of the aims of true education, as distinguished from the teachings of animals and unintelligent human beings through experience, should be to eliminate this great waste by developing intelligent minds which are capable not only of interpreting situations and of rapid" readjustment but also of looking into the future. Foreseeing the future necessarily involves the construction of an imaginary situation out of materials of experience with a different arrangement and with omissions and new additions. This power to imagine new situations and to analyze causes is an important point of education which is at present sadly neglected. But naturally if we take survival-efficiency as our basic aim of education, we will be led to regard the process of education as a search for higher adaptations or adjustments to the social environment. When we come to see that knowledge is useful mainly for purposes of adjustment, we may be able to evaluate facts and experiences according to their actual service in promoting right human relationships.8 For instance, the human race as a producer, distributor, and consumer of wealth undergoes experiences in these relationships which result in a great deal of neglected information vital to human welfare, as well as a great many separate observations not found in detail in any books. Why should education neglect these vital experiences which arise out of the main arteries of activity along which human life advances ? Certainly we would not be in such danger of making mistakes in evaluating different forms of knowledge if we would take a practical attitude and judge the worth of experiences by the extent to which they enter into the relations of life and operate to promote well being " and correspondence with the various elements of the environment." Utilitarian attitude as related to the basic aims of the proposed system.�Since there is no room for social parasites 7 Swift, E. J., Learning and Doing, p. 198. 8 Weeks, A. D., The Education of Tomorrow, p. 217. 48 in the struggle for survival and economic freedom in a country so comparatively impoverished as Korea, the educational aim of the proposed system must be adapted to the establishing of a caste of social usefulness. This is justifiable, because what is socially useful is bound to survive. It will survive because all the forces of evolution are constantly working in its favor. To this end, a program of vocational education and its related activities is seriously considered. ESPECIAL PARTICULARS OF THE SYSTEM OP EDUCATION REQUIRED BY KOREA WHICH WILL MAKE POSSIBLE THE EFFECTIVE ADJUSTMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO THE CONTROLLING PHASES OF HIS ENVIRONMENT Modern educational psychology teaches us that the human mind is not a mere receptacle to be filled with facts. Neither is it a set of wits to be sharpened for useless intellectual conflicts. The old aim was the converse of this, but the modern attitude is much more practical and looks upon the mind rather as an instrument of control, developed in the midst of conditions of experience. Therefore, according to this wiser viewpoint, true education cannot be brought about through some abstract process of learning, as Confucius mistakenly supposed. Rather, it can result only from the active process of living, as Dewey has clearly shown. Thus it follows that the school, like any other human institution, is subject to reconstruction. Accordingly when we find unstable characters in a country like Korea, confused by the disrupting conflicts between what is old and what is new, it naturally follows that if the school is to meet the practical needs of social readjustment in Korea, it must develop in the individual a sound character which is capable of functioning independently of conventions, either old or new. Especially must it stimulate and develop the traits of self-reliance, independence, initiative, adaptability, and loyal cooperation for the common welfare. Moreover, it must bring about a satisfactory reconcilation of traditional beliefs with modern science, for among a people to whom religious sanctions are a vital and necessary element in moral conduct, perplexity and confusion can hardly be done away with until these sanctions are re-established upon a sound and credible basis. While I believe in the need of extending vocational education, I also believe that the education which we need must not neglect to give adequate emphasis to all the best elements of a richly cultural development. This emphasis must be safeguarded in order to avoid the danger of producing a starkly utilitarian civilization which is spiritually barren and unsatis- 49 fying and unfit to compete with other civilizations in such vital matters as art and literature. Yet, at the same time, it cannot be ignored that if any educational system is to. solve the vital problems that confront the Korean people today, it is of primary importance that it should supply enough technological and vocational training to enable the masses to be self-supporting. Since the Koreans have absolutely no voice in the administration of their government, such evils as the present profiteering system of land tenure can be reformed with the least disorder or subversiveness through peaceful, educational methods. At present about eighty percent of the population is employed in agriculture. Thus it is especially disastrous that there should be such serious mal-distribution in the agricultural industry in Korea. Unless a system of education is able to do something to remedy the situation, there seems to be little hope for us as a people. The system of land tenure in Korea is similar to that which existed in medieval Europe. The farmers live in villages and go out daily to till their strips of land, which are widely scattered. According to the official census of 1925, there were 17,267,333 people living in villages of less than 5,000 population. The overwhelming majority of these were farmers. Over three-fourths of the population are farm tenants. Very few Koreans are engaged wholly upon their own lands, though some possess a small amount of farm land and are at the same time tenants elsewhere. Most of them do not own any land of their own at all. In general, more than fifty percent of the crop is absorbed as rent. In some localities the proportion rises as high as seventy percent. In spite of this outrageous rent, there is such a relative scarcity of farm lands in proportion to the number of farmers that the landlord, with little or no effort, can easily satisfy all that the tenant dares to demand. In the spring season the farmers lack food supplies. Therefore they have to borrow money or supplies from the landlord, pledging the new crop as security for the loan. This they continue through life. The landlord usually charges thirty percent on the transaction. Of course he gets both principal and interest at the time of harvest. Therefore the farmers are always debtors. They cannot get out of this situation, and it continues year after year. They are very parsimonious and careful, yet they cannot shake off their economic servitude. Until this deplorable situation is remedied the masses of the Koreans must necessarily remain in poverty, for all other productive enterprise, as compared with agriculture, is very 50 insignificant in that country. Of course, there are mineral resources which are developed to some extent, but they are practically all monopolized by strangers. If the people are educated to avoid the dangers of single-crop production, the agricultural wealth can be increased. But this education should not stop there, because the existing mal-distribution would render the increased production of little avail. Therefore, if education is to meet this need it must instill in the minds of the people the great importance of an equitable system of land tenure. We are told that there is a time when patience ceases to be a virtue, and patience or contentment with poverty is certainly not a virtue so long as privations are due to social maladjustments instead of to the limitations of nature. It is the proper function of education to seek to remedy such maladjustments. I propose to alleviate the situation by teaching the people how to do the following things: 1. TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY. a. By increasing the area of farming land. b. By making use of the most modern improved farm machinery. c. By introducing side-lines, such as stock raising. d. By bringing about efficiency in individual manual labor through scientific management. e'. By stimulating the spirit of effective cooperation among the farmers. 2. TO BRING ABOUT MORE EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION. a. By breaking up the- -extortionate concentration af available farming lands under the control of a few rich landlords. b. By abolishing the evil practices of rent profiteering. c. By organizing rural cooperative credit associations, or else a national private loan company which will lend capital to needy farmers at very much lower rates of interest. Unless education in Korea definitely undertakes to remedy in some such fashion the acute social maladjustments which now exist, there seems to be little hope that it can succeed in counteracting the toxins of prevailing social and economic sophistries. For of what use are mere theories, however sound they may be, unless something is actually done to cure the causes of social misery? It is of little use to reason with those who are made almost insanely desperate by grinding poverty and hardship. They are the easy victims of bloodthirsty fanaticism. If the communists in Korea were really laboring in behalf of the tenants and workers, I would not oppose them. But instead, they merely stir the people to a destructive frenzy and use their ignorance to undo them. If it is to prevent social disorder and maladjustments, the education which Korea needs must disseminate a clear understanding of sound economic principles, emphasizing mean- 51 while the need of self-government. With this object in view it should seek to develop individual ambition and enterprise, as well as a cooperative spirit in community life, never losing sight of the fact that, even more than opportunities for self-support, the masses need the self-supporting spirit. In this connection education should be able to perform an important social function in Korea by helping to break down unjust caste systems and to establish the justifiable caste of social usefulness. Nothing could be more just than that those who are genuinely superior should exercise social control. No right-thinking person would wish to see the vicious, incompetent, and socially useless exalted to power. The idea is revolting to every human instinct. Thus, if justice is to exist, those who are most socially useful must be allowed to exercise social control. And, this being so, those who are engaged in useful activities should be suitably rewarded and honored, The people need to be taught not casually, but in a thorough-going, systematic, persistent way that the parasites and the wasters are the real sinners. Whatever their pedigree may be, we need to develop self-reliant, industrious men of strong character who have the sense of being their brothers' keepers. 52 APPENDIX I A PROGRAM FOR A TWO-YEAR COURSE OF HIGHER EDUCATION BASED UPON THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES The economizing purpose of this program: 1. To afford, within two years, education of as good or better quality and with more training in the fundamental essentials than is now afforded in Korea by existing institutions with four-year curricula. 2. To reduce to a safe minimum the amount to be spent for an educational plant and its equipment. 3. To save two years of time for each student through the application of superior methods of instruction. 4. To graduate annually a much greater number than the existing educational institutions of Korea are capable of doing. 5. To produce better educated, more practical and more enterprising leaders with deeper insight into the current problems of life. 6. To develop more efficient, better disciplined and more satisfying personal character. 7. To bring about eventually the establishment of a whole network or system of much less expensive higher educational institutions at suitable points throughout Korea. The curriculum. 1. General purpose. a. To keep the mere imparting of knowledge strictly subordinate to the general ends of sound character, culture, and vital faith. b. To educate the students with economy of time in the essentials of a clear understanding of individual and social efficiency, avoiding the all-too-prevalent mistake of seeking to crowd their minds full of non-essential details. 53 AN OUTLINE OF COURSES FOR THE TWO-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY First Year I. Required Courses Hours First Semester (1) Philosophy I�" The Way of Survival "..............................;... 3 (The theoretical bases of individual efficiency.) (2) History I�" The Great Minds of History "............................ 2 (3) Literature I�Korean literature.............................................. 2 (4) Psychology I�Physio-psychology............................................ 2 (5) Language I�English language and literature...................... 3 (6) Mathematics I�General mathematics.................................... 3 (7) Vocation I�General orientation course in vocational training .................................................................,...................... 2-4 or more Second Semester (1) Philosophy II�"The Way of Survival"................................ 3 (The theoretical bases of group efficiency.) (2) History II�" The Great Minds of History " (Cont'd)........ 2 (3) Literature II�Chinese literature............................................ 2 (4) Language II�English language and literature.................... 3 (5) Mathematics II�General mathematics.................................. 3 (6) Vocation II�General orientation in vocational training ........................................................................................ 2-4 or more (7) General Science I�" Correlation of the principles of the natural sciences " ........................................................................ 2 II. Semi-military open-air assemblies (attendance required throughout the year.) (1) Morning assembly ............................................................7-7:30 a. m. (2) Final assembly ................................................................ 5:00 p. m. 54 SECOND YEAR I. Required Courses Hours First Semester (1) Philosophy III�"The Science of Living".............................. 3 (Applied principles of individual efficiency.) (2) General Science II...................................................................... 4 (Correlation of the principles of the physical sciences.) (3) Literature III�Japanese literature........................................ 2 (4) Language III�Advanced English language and litera- ture................................................................................................ 3 (5) Mathematics III�Advanced mathematics.............................. 3 (6) Vocation III�Over-view courses in vocational training...... 2-4 Second Semester (1) Philosophy IV�" The Science of Living".............................. 3 (Applied principles of group efficiency.) (2) Psychology II�Social psychology............................................ 3 (3) Literature IV�General survey of world literature.............. 2 (4) Language IV�Advanced English conversation and composition .......................................................*.......................... 4 (5) Mathematics IV�Advanced mathematics (Cont'd).............. 3 (6) Vocation IV�Over-view course in vocational training.......... 2-4 Specialized Elective Courses in the Vocations Extending Throughout T;he First and Second Years (Adapted to local conditions.) Group I Agriculture 1. Agricultural Economics. 2. Some fields of applied agriculture, etc. II Commerce 1. Commercial Economics. 2. Business cycles and statistics. 3. Statistical laboratory, etc. III Industry 1. Industrial Economics. 2. Carpentry or iron-work. 3. Shop practices, etc. 55 A DAILY SCHEDULE OF Monday Phil. 1-2 Psych. 1 Science 1 Periods 7:00- 7:30 7:30- 8:30 8:30- 9:30 9:30-10:30 10:30-11:30 11:30- 1:30 1:30- 2:30 2:30- 4:30 4:30- 5:30 7:00- 7:30 7:30- 8:30 8:30- 9:30 9:30-10:30 10:30-11:30 11:30-12:30 12:30- 1:30 1:30- 2:30 2:30- 4:30 4:30- 5:30 Math. 1-2 Ec. 1-2 Trade Lab. Sci. 2 Psych. 2 Voc. 3-4 Ec. 3-4 Trade Lab. Tuesday Hist. 1-2 Lit. 1-2 Voc. 1-2 Trade 1-2 Trade Lab. Lit. 3-4 Lang. 3-4 Math. 3-4 Ec. 3-4 Trade Lab. Phil. 3-4 APPENDIX II THE WORK FOR THE TWO-YEAR COURSE First Year Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Assembly Phil. 1-2 Hist. 1-2 Phil. 1-2 Lit. 1-2 Psych. 1 Lang. 1-2 Lang. 1-2 Lang. 1-2 Science 1 Supervised Study Math. 1-2 Voc. 1-2 Math. 1-2 Voc. 1-2 Recess Ec. 1-2 Trade 1-2 Ec. 1-2 Trade 1-2 Trade Lab. Trade Lab. Trade Lab. Trade Lab. Assembly Second Year Assembly Phil. 3-4 Lit. 3-4 "Phil. 3-4 Sci. 2 Psych. 2 Psych. 2 Lang. 3-4 Lang. 3-4 Sci. 2 Sci. 2 . Lang. 4 Supervised Study Voc. 3^t Math. 3-4 Voc. 3-4 Math. 3-4 Recess Consultation Ec. 3-4 Ec. 3-4 Ec. 3-4 Ec. 3-4 Trade Lab. Trade Lab. Trade Lab. Trade Lab. Assembly APPENDIX III CURRICULUM OF CHOSEN CHRISTIAN COLLEGE Literary Department First Year Morals............................................ 1 Bible ................................................ 2 Japanese ........................................ 2 Chinese ........................................... 3 Introduction to Literature............ 2 English ............................................ 5 English Literature........................ 5 Oriental History............................ 2 Civil Government............................ 2 Natural Science.............................. 1 Music .............................................. 1 Exercise.......................................... 1 Second Year Morals ............................................ 1 Bible................................................ 2 Japanese Literature...................... 2 Chinese............................................ 2 English Reading............................ 5 English Grammar.......................... 3 English Composition.................... 2 Oriental History............................ 2 Occidental History........................ 3 Economics...................................... 3 Psychology ...................................... 3 Natural Science.............................. 2 Music .............................................. 1 Exercise .......................................... 1 32 Third Year Morals............................................ 1 Bible ................................................ 2 Japanese Literature...................... 2 Chinese .......................................... 2 English Reading............................ 2 English Literature........................ 3 Occidental History........................ 4 Philosophy ...................................... 3 Logic ................................................ 2 History of Education.................... 3 Method of Education.................... 3 Music .............................................. 1 Exercise.......................................... 1 32 Fourth Year Morals ............................................ 1 Bible................................................ 2 Japanese Literature...................... 2 English Reading............................ 2 English Literature........................ 3 Occidental History........................ 5 Sociology ........................................ 3 History of Philosophy.......*.......... 3 Ethics .............................................. 3 Pedagogy ........................................ 3 Music ............,................................. 2 Exercise .......................................... 1 29 29 57 SOURCES OF DATA The Confucian Classics, especially the following: a. The Lun Yu or Analects. b. The Ta Heo or The Great Learning. c. The Chung Yung or the Doctrine of the Mean. d. The Mang-Tsze, containing the work of Mancius. e. Li Ki, or the Book of Rituals. f. Hsiao King. The major works of John Dewey, especially the following: Moral Principles in Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1909. My Pedagogical Creed, A. Flanegan Company, Chicago, 1910. Democracy and Education, Macmillan Company, New York City, 1916. The Child and the Curriculum, University of Chicago Press, 1902. The School and Society, University of Chicago Press, 1915. Experience and Nature, Open Court Publishing Company, London, 1925. Human Nature and Conduct, Henry Holt and Company, New York City, 1922. Interest and Effort in Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1913. How We Think, D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, 1910. The Educational Situation, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. The Schools of Tomorrow, E. P/Dutton and Company, New York City, 1915. The major philosophies of the predecessors of Dewey in the field of education, especially the following: Plutarch, Morals, trans. W. W. Goodwin, Boston, 1870. Ascham, R., The Schoolmaster, edited by Arber, Bringham, 1870. Montaigne, Of the Education of Children, New York, 1891. Bacon, F., Essay on the Advancement of Learning, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1891. Comenius, J., The Great Didactic, trans. M. W. Keatings, London, 1896. Milton, Tractate on Education, edited by Oscar Browning, Cambridge, 1890. Locke, Thoughts on Education, edited by R. H. Quick, Cambridge, 1889. Rousseau, Emile, trans. E. Worthington, Boston, 1889. Kant, Pedagogy, trans. E. F. Buchner, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1904. Pestalozzi, How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, trans. Holland and Turner, London, 1894. Herbart, The Science of Education, trans. E. Felkin, London, 1892. Froebel, The Education of Man, trans. W. N. Hailmaun, D. Apple-ton and Company, New York City, 1892. 58 Spencer, H., Education, Boston, 1896. ------------. What Knowledge is of the Most Worth? D. Appleton and Company, New York City, 1896. James, W., Psychology, Henry Holt and Company, New York City, 1890. ------------. Talks to Teachers, Henry Holt and Company, New York City, 1899. A few selections from the works of Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics. Classical works on modern evolutionary science and philosophy. Darwin, Erasmus, The Laws of Organic Life, Boston, 1803. Darwin, Charles, The Preservation of the Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, New York, 1875. The Descent of Man, New York, 1872. Malthus, T. R., Essay on the Principles of Population, London, 1806. Literature on modern economic philosophy, especially the following: Smith, Adam, The Wealth of Nations, Macmillan Company, New York City, 1894. Mill, J. G., Principles of Political Economy, D. Appleton and Company, New York City, 1909. Marx, Karl, Capital, London, 1887. Clark, J. B., The Poverty of Philosophy, C* H. Kerr and Company, 1902. The Philosophy of Wealth, Boston, 1886. The Holy Bible. Minor secondary sources and texts on education: Ellwood, C. A., An Introduction to Social Psychology, D. Appleton and Company, New York City, 1917. Hobhouse, L. T., Social Evolution and Political Theory, Columbia University Press, New York City, 1911. McDougall, William, An Introduction to Social Psychology, J. W. Luce and Company, Boston, 1921. Cubberley, E. P., The Public Education in the United States, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1919. ---------�. Changing Conceptions of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1920. Monroe, Paul, History of Education, Macmillan Company, New York City, 1910. Douglas, R. K., Confucianism and Taowism, Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge, London, 1879. Burbank, Luther, The Training of the Human Plant, The Century Company, New York City, 1907. Gulick, Luther H., Mind and Work, Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, New York, 1908. Moore, E. C, What is Education, Ginn and Company, Boston, 1915. Munroe, J. F., New Demands in Education, Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, New York, 1912. Snedden, David, Problems of Educational Adjustment, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1913. Weeks, R. M., The Peoples1 School, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1901. 59 ------------. The Education of Tomorrow, Macmillan Company, New York City, 1913. Thwing, C. F., What Education Has the Most Worth, Macmillan Company, New York City, 1924. � Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, Columbia University Press, New York City. ------------. Education, Macmillan Company, New York, 1912. New York City, 19266. 6 Russell, B. A. W., Education and the Good Life, Boni and Liveright, New York City, 1926. Kilpatrick, W. H., Foundations of Method, Macmillan Company, New York City, 1925. Swift, E. J., Learning and Doing, Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, 1914. Hart, J., The Discovery of Intelligence, The Century Company, New York City, 1926. Martin, W. A. P., The Lorei of Cathay, Fleming H. Revell Company, New York City, 1912. Dawson, M. M., The Ethics of Confucius, G. P. Putnam's Sons., New York City, 1915. Giles, L., The Sayings of Confucius, J. Murray, London, 1920. 60