IL L I N 0 IS
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN


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   OF THE
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sjL NOI'S1S




     OFTUE


LOGIC' AND BELLES LETTRES;


        READ IN THE U NIVERSITY GLASGOWV.





 Neque eft omnino ars ulla, in qua onnnia, qut. lia arte ef ici
 poffunt, a dodlore tradantur : fed qul primarum et certa-
 rum. rerum genera ipfa didicerunt, reliqua non incommode
   perfequuntur.               CIC. oc RAY


        G LAS- COWV
     AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,
P~RINTED BY J. AND J. SCIRYMGEOUao

             -1801�









                            Glafgow College, 1 805.
l71IAE Locic, or Firft Philofophy Courfe, in the A.
cademical- Curriculum of the Univerfity of Glafgow,
is placed immediately after the Rudy of the LATIN
and GREEK languages; and the Leotures are general-
ly delivered to Rfudents, from fourteen or fifteen, to
eighteen years of age.

   During the reign of the Scholaffic Philofophy,-the
 preleEtions delivered to ifudents of Logic, were
 chiefly occupied with an explanation of the Analytics
 and Metaphyfics of Ariftotle. But the change of
 public opinion on fubjeas of Literature, and the
 progrefs of liberal fcience in this country, have occa-
 foned a correfponding change in the manner of
 conduding this branch of the Academical Courfe.
 While the ufeful and curious parts, of the ancient
 Logic flull occupy their proper place, the bufinefs of
 the clafs has been extended to the elements of other
 branches of knowledge ; which,. though not imme.
 diately conneded with the former, are thought fu).
 fervicnt to the great ends of general education, in
 this firf department of philofophical Rludy.

    Only the out-lines of the Led ures referred to are
 now publithed ; and, though the whole fubjels. of
 Ithe courfe, comprehending feveral different b ranches







of literature, have certainly not-all the uity of fyfm
tem, they will yet be found clofely related in
ther point of view-namely, in their fitnefs and tend-
ency to unfold progreffively the powers of know-
ledge-to begin and to eftablifh that habitual exer
cife in the minds of young perfons, upon which the
a~qive bufinefs of life, as well as that of fcience, de-
pend. The Letures delivered in this Clafs, which
are accompanied with copious iliufiration, and great
variety of examples, are compofed and adjufed upon
the followRinig principles and views.

   i. That the powers of Knowledge, of Tafe, an
Communication, can only be improved by exercifc.

   2. That the exercife of thefe powers is called
 forth, by propofing or prefenting fuch objeas as are
 heft fuited to promote it----by arranging and dif-
 pofing them in fuch a manner as may beft facilitate
 that exercife----by fuggefting and impreffing the
 Rfudent with fuch motives and inducements as may
 heft fupport and encourage a regular plan of induf-
 try and exertion.

    3 rThat ledures, or preleElions, delivered to young
 perfons in thle--circurnftances above Rated, however
 ingenious t hey may be, cannot reach the great end
 of education, unlefs they fhiall be aided by a RtridL
 and regular examination, followed up with a fyftemn






                         iii

of effays, or fpecimens of compoftiofm, required
from the ftudents, on the moff ufeful and important
parts of the lectures.


   4. That the firft effays or fpecinens fhould be ac-
commodated to the previous attainments and habits
of thofe who enter the clafs ; and the fubj cs of
them be fuch as to accuftom the fludents-to dif-
tinguih -to  divide-  to  define-to analyfe
-to feled and arrange if a clcar and luminous
manner-to exprefs with plainnefs and perfpic ii
.ty.


   That after the methods of Analyfis and Synthefis,
 and the rules of condudting. fimple and comple
 Trheines, fhiall be explained in the courfe of the lec-
 tures-Subjedls of Reafoning, of Tafte, and Com-
 pofition, flhould be prefcribcd;� to which the rules of
 Criticifmn, as they refpc2 dilrrent kinds of co'po
 fitionl, may be applied.


     ~.That the method of condur ting and reviewIN g
 fuch fpecimnens publicly in the clafs, fhould be fitch
 as to give the rTeacher an opportunity of pointing
 out defects or furcccfsful tAfforts, in the ma~tter, me-
 thod, or flyle of fuch compofimos; and, by judi-
 ciouis apl robation or cenfure, to encourage and
 promote higher and more fp irited exertionas. In a






                        iv
word, the Profefibr, in the difcharge of the duties of
his office, muff defcend to the humble occupation of
the mjcr in the common arts; and, in the Work
done, or fpecimens given, point out to the young
artift, wherein the ajay is defeaive, and in -hat re-
fpets it may be improved.

  Einally, The author of thefe out-lines, conceivin
that every part of the Academical Courfe fliould be
adjufed in fuch a manner as to fit men, not only
for the purfuits of Science, but of Bufinefs and of
AdtiveLife, has endeavoured, for many years, to pro-
mote in his particular department, thofe fundamen-
tal habits upon which both Science and Bufinefs de-
pend-habits of Thinking, of Reafoning, and of
Communication by Speech or Writing.

   If there be any thing fuitable or ufeful in the plan
of Rfudy adopted in the Firft Philofophy Clafs here,
the merit of it belongs, in a particular mnarner, to
thofe youth who have Rtudied in this Clafs ; for it has
been fuggefted by the experience of the indultrious
and fpirited efforts of many young adventurers in
Science, wvho have left deep impreffions on the mind
of the teacher, and have enabled him to mark, with
fome accui acy, the natural j7eps and progr rj/  in the
acquifition of Knowledge, in the habits of Commu-.
ncation, and in the cultivation even of the more
delicate powers of Taste.










                  OF THE

             LECTURES



  LOGIC AND BELLES LETTRE S



     BJECT of the courfe, "To explain the
     "14 methods of improving the powers or
"9 faculties of knowledge, of tafte, and of conm
"municafion by fpeaking or writing."

  The courfe confiffs of three parts, each part
admitting of two general divifions.

               PART I.

    The Powers or Faculties of 'Knowledge.

    z. AN analyfis of the powers of knowledge,
illufirated by the principles of general grammar.
                          A





                      4-
   2. The art or method of improving the
powers of knowledge, illuftrated by the hif-
tory of logic, and an explanation of the prin-
cipal rules of that ancient art.

                P -ART IT.

             The Poers of -Thfa

   I. AN analyfis of the powers of tafte, or
reflex fenfes, illuifrated by the principles of the
fine arts.
   2. The method of improving them, illuf-rat-
ed by the principles and rules of criticifm.

                PA R T     III.

         Thc Power-s of Commuinnication.

   i. ANALYSIS of the powers of forming and
 applying figns in communic Lion.
   2. The art of improving them, ill-Afrated by
 the principles of 'Rhetoric and Eloquence.

   The propriety and ufefulnefs of 'comapre-
 hending theye fubjeats in the bufinefs Hof a, flrft







Philofophy clafs.       Their conncEtionwith
farther progrefs in the Rudy of Philofophy
and Belles lettres.

   Every plan of improving thefe powers, a-
dopted in an academical courfe, fuppofes cer�-
tain data on the part of the Teacher, and of
his Students.

   Principles and maxims illufrated, which
u ft be adopted, and prahffed, by thofe who
defire to profecute their fludies with fuccefs.

   Falfe and erroneous notions on this fubjed
frequently difappoint the expecations of teach.
ers and of ftud-ents.

   -T'he Pythagorean f yftern of trial and difci.
pline, undergone 'by_ thofe who entered upoii
the Rludy of their philofophy.

   Q~uin6ailian's marks of improvable difpofiL
tions in the charaecrers. of youth, "1 Pzi ii
  ilkW detur quem3 laus cxcitat, qu mz gloria ;u vat,
  "quz ViRI.Sfjiqe'at-"
                            A 2





6


               PART IL

         On the Powers of Knowledge.

   I. ANALYSIS of the powers of knowledge.

   Every propermethod of improving thepowers
of knowledge fhould be preceded by an Analy-
fis of thefe powers, and of their Modes of o-
peration.

  The nature of philofophical analyfs.-A-
naiyfis is the great inftrument of acquiring and
communicatingknowledge.-     tt fimplifies the
objeds of' knowledge,-adapts them to the
power of attention-and acc       the fludent
to a regular mode of inveftigation.

   Trhe powcrs and faculties of' the mind are
proper fubjedts of philofophical analyfs.---
Pneumnatology is the Centre of the fciences and
arts. --The or ioinal conifitution, the growth,
progrefs, and dccline of the Human faculties,
form an important branch of the phenomena
of nature.- Difin& knowledge of Mind
cannot be obtained in any other manner, than






'by direfting -and fixing the attention of the
mind upon it's own operations

   The analyfis of the facutdesof the mind may
 be fuccefsfulLy condudted according to the prin.
 ciples of the Baconian procefs of inveffigation.
 Experiments may be made upon mind as well
 as upon matter.-The method of condu&-
 ing mental experiments.-The difference, be
 twixt mental and material experiments.-
 The obflacles and advantages which attend
 them.

   Such an analyfis, fubmitted to the fludents of
 a firf philofophy clafs, muff be accommodat-
 ed to the adual fate of the powers of obferva-
 tion and attention in the ftudents.-The
 higher branches of any f cience. cannot be in..
 grafted upon ignorance, -or imperfedt know-.
 ledge of its firft principles. Additional know-
 ledge mutt refit upon fads and knowledge A-
 ready acquired.-The path from the known;
 toy the unknown mutt be regular and progref-
 live,

   The proper conduct of this analyf s will. nem;
                          A3







ceffarily require a previous explanation of cerd
fain Terms, which, though they belong in a par-
ticular manner to Pneumatology, belong alfo in
fome degree to all the fciences.-The lan-
guage ufed in the common intercourfe of fo-
ciety is not fuficiently accurate in philofophy.
-T      he figus or terms made ufe of muff be
a faithful interpretation of thought.-Thc
following   are amnong   the number of thofe
'which require explanation:

  Mind, Matter, Body,       Law of Nature,
  Subf~ance, Qualities,     Caufe and Effe&,
  Powers, Faculties,        Phenomenon,
  Operations, Habits,        Hypothefis,
  Scnfations, Ideas, Notions,  System, Theory.
  Kno-wledge, PhilofophY,

  P 'ernr whi~ch do not admit of precife defini-
  tion mucff, be traced to their, origin, and -the
  circ*umfiances ?ftatcd in which they were. firftL
  iplied.-Tihe attempt to explain and fix; the
  meianing of terms, is itfelf a proper and ufeful
  exercife in a- firfit philofophy clafs.

  GeeraI d iv'ifio of the powers of the   mind





                     9
into thofe of the Underfianding and the Will.
-  The  powers of the underfanding or of
knowledge, may be divided into

   if, The fimple powers or faculties by which
Senfations and Ideas are direayacquired -
The Elements of knowledge are direcly and
immediately acquired by Perception, Attention,
Refleation, Abifra ion.
   2dly, The powers by which fenfations and
ideas, once received, are preferved and recal.
led, viz.. Memory and Imagination.
   3dly, The more complex powers, by whofe
combined operation the Agreements, Difagre&
ments, and. Relations among our ideas are dif.
cerned, viz. Powers of Judging, eafoning,
Invention, Genius.


  Analysis of  the Simpke Powers f Knowledge.

  TUHOUGH' the powers of the mind genepala.
ly acH in a combined flate, their, refpe~tive o-
perations are objedts of Confcioufnefs, and may
be feparately obfe ved. .An analyfis of them
will prefent




                      To
    I. The Qualities of each which are con
 to the general clafs.
   2. Their different Offices or Fundions.
   3. Their refpeEtive modes of Operation.
   4. Their Rank or order in the fyftem, and
 their mutual dependence,

                 Of Perception.

   No logical definition can be given of 1t, or
of any of the fimpl-e faculties of the m
There are ,/rft phenomena, which efcape the
niceft analyfis.----From thefe, the philofopher
fets out, and begins with eftablifhing firft and
immediatefafls; elfe there would be no refting
place in riquiry.-Thefe ferve to explain other
fadts, when they have, been well and carefully
obferved.

   The Condud of this analyfis requires that
the fubjed6 of obfervation be feparated from o-
thers.---Let the faculty 'of perception, for ex-
ample, be direded to a prefent material ob-
jed, a Tree--a Rofe; the following im mediate
fads m-ay be obfervedt

   i. That perception is one of the forms or




II


modifications of the power of knowledge, and
fupplies the firf materials for the operation of
the other powers.
   2. That the faculty of perception is inde-
pendent of the objea perceived; and that
there is an important difference betwixt the
knowledge of an objeQ, and the object of
knowledge.
   3. That fome things may be obferved which
refer to this modification of the knowing power,
and other things which belong to the material
objea known.
  4. That when the power of perception is
direaed to a prefent objet, the firft fep in the
procefs of knowledge is an Impreffion made
upon the external organ by the material ob-
jeet.
   5. That this impreffion from the obje&
confifts of a variety of individual impreffions
from the parts of the objeat; which is the im-
mediate caufe of a certain Effel produced up-
on the mind, viz.-a Senfation.
   6. That the perceiving power conneas and
unites the variety of impreflion into one whole
-or, in other words, conceives the objec, or
forms a.notion or idea of it.




12


  7. That to be confcious of a fenfation, and
to perceive, are two different things, though
they cxit fimultaneoufly.-The mind is paf
five in receiving fenfations, but exerts aaivity
in conceiving them.
   8. That the faculty of perception is exerted
by the medium of external organs on which
the imprefion is made.-The term Inzr/or
here denotes an unknown effe&.
   9. hat the external organs, the medium of
perception,arrejve in number, and five different
claffes of fenfations are received by them.
   io. That, though the intelleanal at be the
fame in all, it is differently modified in each
of them,--Oppofite fenfations are received by
the fame organ.--Examples and illufrations
of the above propofitions-.

   A particular analyfis of the five external
fenfes, or modes of perception, -is neceffary
and ufeful in a firft philofophy clafs.-.I-Tey
are the firft avenues of knowledge  -'The
fenfations and ideas received by theme become
the fubj-ed of the, other operations of the m id.
   -The figns or terms, which form the lanii






guage of the fenfes, are by analogy applied to
Intelleaual and Moral qualities.

       Analysis of the externalfenfso
               Smelling,
               Tafling,
               Hearing,
               %Seeing,
               Touching.

This analyfs comprehends an explanation of

   -. The different qualities of material objefs
 which imprefs the refpedive fenfes.
   2. The Natural hiflory of the Organs or
   aedi' rs 6f fenfation.
   3. The Perceptions and Senfations received
/by the refjea'ive fenfes.
   4. Singular ph enomena of fom'e of the fenfes.
   5. Immediate judgments following aas- of
 perception-called judgments -of the fenfes.

   A comparative view ,of the external fenfes.
   --- The union and correfpondlence which
 takes place "among them,-The manner in
 wh ich they aflft each other.-Tr he known





                      '14
 diffinguiffied from the unknown in the procefs
 of perception.- Remarks on certain theories
 of perception.

             Analysis of Re/feion.

   THE power of knowledge, when direted to
 objets of confcioufnefs, is called Refleion-
 by fome, an internal fenfe.-By it, notions
 of the powers, operations, and flates of mind,
 are acquired.-The power of refletion dif.
 tinguillhed from Confcioufnefs.---Reflec-
 tion is a power fufceptible of habit-Confciouf-
 nefs is not.----Upon the improved habits of
 refletion depend progrefs in fcience and in
 art.

            Aalysis of Attention.

   ATTENTION is a mental act, and belongs
equally to perception and refledion.- It is a
power of fixing upon an obje~t, and is eithe-r
voluntary or involuntary.-It may be di.
re~ted regularly to the feparate parts and quali-
ties of objets, till.-the, whole be conceived.-
It maybe exerted with more or lefs-force ;--and
the notions formed will be more or lefs clear






and diPin.&- The acquired habit of exer-
cifing this power, extends its influence to all
the other powcrs of the mind.--Examples
which illuftrate the operations of this power,
and their efledts.

   Analysis f Ab.fra~ion and Generalization.
   ATTENTION is the foundation of both.
 The mind can attend feparately to the parts or
 qualitihs of objeds, infeparable from  the ob.
 jeCts themfelves--ana render them     feparate
 and difiinat objects of thought.---This is ab-
Jirac2lion.--Senfible figns or terms are necef-
faryto preferve them in their feparate fate.
Hence fuch terms are called abftrat terms.

   The mind can alfo obferve and attend to
 qualities which are common to many objects.
 and to qualities in whie~h they differ.- -lfence
 it proceeds" to' generalize, or formn claffes'-.
 more or lcfs     cormprehenfive.       J-Tnce
 the neceffity of general termns denoting thefe
 laffes.

   Children and favages are taught by nature
 to abftraa and generalize. -Improved minds
                              B






exert thefe_ powers to a greater extent, and in
more difficult circumnftances.-There is lit-
tie or no appearance of abftraaion and gene-
ralization in the inferior animals.-Ads of
abflradion and generalization  are difficult,
when the qualities of things are blended to-
gether, and cannot be eafily feparated-when
the claffes or families are very comprehenfive.

   Advantages derived from the power of form-
ing abftraQt and general ideas.--Upon this
power depend Clafification, Science, Theory.
-Iflu fition of abftra~t and general ideas.
[See Lat. Compend, part I.]

   Opinions of phiiofophers concerning univer-
fal ideas.- -The controverfy on this fubje~l
betwixt the Nomninaliffs and Realiffs.-Singup
lar cir cumliances attending this controverfy.

   Such are the powrers of the mind by which
 fcnfations and ideas are firfi received, and the
 pr oceffes by which abftrad and general ideas
 are generated.-Differences may 12e obferv-
 ed in the notions or fenfations acquired, arifing
 either from differences in, their obje~ts, or





                     17
from the different form or modes of exerting
the power of knowledge in acquiring them.
.-Examples and illuftration of the principal
diiintions among ideas.-Clear, obfcure,
diflin~t, confufed-fi-mple, complex, abfra&,
general. [See Lat. Compend, part I.]


The. Powers of Know/edge by which Senfations
           and Ideas are preferved.

             .Analysis of Memory.

  TiN office of Memory is different from that
of Percption.---That of the Iac~er is to ac-
quire-of the    former to   preferve kno-
ledge.----Their modes of operation are alfo
dift'erent.- The one aas by the medium. of
-external organs-the other does not require
them.

   Objedts which have once been, prefent, may
in their abfence affedt the mind in a niew and
different manner.      The m-ind has a pow~er
of retaining and recognifing its former fenfa-
tions and ideas.- This power, of knowledge
is called Memory or Reminifcence.
                          B 2





i8


  The analyfis of memory prefents the follow-
ing immediate fads.

   I. That ads of m-emory fuppofe certain de-
grees of attention given to the objeL  vhen
prefent-the immediate caufe of memory.  -
   2. Tha the acd-s of emiry are neceffarily
accompanied witll the confcioufnefs of its ob-
jeds having been formerly prefent,
   3. That memory not only preferves the no-
tions of obj"ds, but the order and conneion
Which fublfis among them when pbrceived.
   4. That the memory is fometimes adive,
and at other times paffive in its operations.---
When it is ative, and takes the affiffance of
other operations, it is called reeolleion.-Il-
luff ration.-,Sin gular, phenomena of memory.
   5. That the notions of fenfible objeas are
more eafily retained than intelledfual or moral
notions-and the objects of fomce of the exter-
nal fenfes more eafily retained than thofe of
other fenfes.
   6. That the power of recalling and recog-
fifing is gradually dimniniflied, and is often al-
together loft.
   7. That the memory is diffinguifhed by dif-





                      19
ferent degrees of readinefs, difinctnefs, and te-
nacity, in the minds of different individuals.
   8. That the memory is fufceptible of great
improvement. [see part II.]
   9. Theories of memory which explain its
operations by traces and vibrations, are altoge-
ther unfatisfaaory.


            kalysis of bIagination.
   The faculties of memory and Ja inatioi
are intimately conneded.-Their r fpeciivc o-
perations may be diftinguifhed .--Eamples of
feparate acts of memory and imagination.

   The oflice of memory is to preferve the fen-
fations and notions received.-- hat of ima-
gination to reproduce, or prefent them again.
to the mind fromi the field of memory..

   The reproduetions of the imagination re-
 femble the original--but differ from it in pre-
 f~ice, in reality, and in force.-.-The idea
 received from the reproduced obje~a is coin-
 monly called the image of it.-ilence the
 name of imagination is given to this faculty.





                     20
  The office of this faculty is to reproduce
fenfations and notions of every kind received
by the mind-intelleCtual and moral, as well
as thofe that ire fenfible. Some philofophers
have -onfined its office to the reprodution of
fenfible images, and call it Phantafy or Fancy.

   The fmple exercifes of this faculty muff be
diftinguihed from   thofe that are complex,
which include the operations of other powers.
-nattention to this has perplexed the ana-
lyfis of imagination.

   The direQt and fimple exercife of this faculty
require only previous ats of perception and
memory.         Its more complex atinclude
operations. of. attention, abfration, judging,
combination.

   The procefs of the imagination, in making,
up i~moff extenfivc groups or combinations,
explained and illuftrated.

   This faculty is diftinguifhed by different de-
grees of flrength or weaknefs.---ACtivity or in-
a~ivty. -Regularity or .irregularity in, the
minds of different individuals.






  Though the immediate caufe which deter-
mines the reproduaion of objets, when no
longer prefent, cannot be explained, the laws
of reproduaion may be obferved.

   x. That the imagination can neither repro-
duce nor combine fenfations or ideas, but fuch
as have been formerly received by the mind.
No at of the will can call up a fenfation al-
together new.
   2. That the imagination is not confined to
the reproduaion of objeds as they were ac-
tually perceived--but can reproduce them in
wholes or in parts, or in combinations which
never adually exifted. The procefs of the
imagination in forming extenfive combinations.
   3. That the imagination is the inftrument
 of reproducing ideas in thefe fucceffions, re-
 gular or irregular--voluntary or involuntary,
 which form the conftant employment of the
 mind.
   4. That it does not reproduce at random,
 but is fubjeaed to certain laws of affociation,
 viz. of contiguity, refemblance, contraft, caufe
 and effea, and other relations. -     Thefe
 laws explained and illuftrated by exampLs.






   g. The laws of affociation are affeaed by
cuflomz and habit.-Remarks on the pheno-
mena of dreaming, and on fome theories of it.

   Upon the varieties of the faculty of imagi-
nation- and the laws of affociation-the intel-
ledual charaters of mnen greatly depend, and
diverfity of genius in the different depart-
ments of fcience or of art.

   The imagination is fufceptille of improve--
 inuent. [See part II.]




23


On the powers of knowledge, by which the agree-
   nzents, df agreements, and other relations a-
   mnong objes, are d f cerned and determined.

       Analysis of thll'e Faculty o j/uding.

   B the faculty of knowledge in its mdde of
 perception, notions of obj'ecs, as individuals
 and wvithout, relation to each other, are ac-
 quired.----By another of is naodes, they are
 viewed in conneOdion and Lheir agreements or
 difagreements, their. differences or their like
 nefs, and other relations, are difcerned.

   This mode of the faculty of knowledge is
called judgn.-The origin of the term,
and the analogy upon which it has been applied
to an as of the mind.

  - A.Es of judging may be faid to be coeval
with perception.-Immediate judgments fol-
low fenfations.      -A fenfation is produced
---its, Connection with- the fentient being is
determined .-An objeat is- perceived-its




                     2 4
external exiflence is determned.-Thefe are
judgments of the mind.

   Other judgments are paffei after a conipari fn
of the objects; that is, after an alternate-view
of them. Judgments fo pafed are called in-
tuitive.

   A judgment of the mind is the knowledge
of a fa&, viz, of an exifting relation betwixt
two objeds.

   The judgments of the mind are as numerd
ous and various as the comparifons which may
be made among objeas,and the relations which
fubfift among them.----Philofophers have in
vain attempted to bring them under certain
claffes or categories.

   When the mind difcerns -and determines
juncion or agreement betwixt the objeds
compared--the judgment is affirmative. When
it difcovers and determines feparation or difa-
greement-the judgmnent is negative.

   When it affirms or denies any thing con-
 cerning claffes, or particulars, or individuals--




                     25
the judgments are univerfal, particular, or
fingular.

   When the mind difcerns and determines re-
lations among objects which really exiff-
the judgment is true. When it difcerns and
determines relations among objeas which do
not exift--the judgment is falfe.

   Vhen it affirms abfolutely, or without con-
dition or limitation---it is categorical.---'Ex-
amples and illufration of thefe clafes ofjudg-
ments.    Vhen it-affirms and determines with
limitation or condition-the judgment is hypo-
thetical or conditional.

   The grounds on which the mind determines
 agreement or difagreemrent among its ideas,
 are called evidence.---The nature of evi-.
 dence, and kinds of it. [See part III.]

   A judgment of the mind may be a fecret
 operation, and paffed without the afliftance of
 language.--A judgment expreffedin words,
 is called a propofition.--A. propofition is a
 fentence expreffinig a judgment. .The claf-




                     26
fes of propofitions are the fame as of jud-
ments.        The-parts of a propofition muff
correfpond to the operation of judging. The
fubje6c, predicate, and copula, reprefent the
particulars that may be obferved in ,as of
judgment. An analyfis of propofitons is an
analyfis of judgment.

   As all judgments imply the exiflence of their
objects---the verb denoting exiftence, is necef-
fary in the exprion of judgments. Without
it, we fhould only have Panies -with it, we
form propofitions. [See Latin Compend, part
IJ.]

      Analysis f he ftcully ef Rafoning.

   T IE oflice of the power of knowledgVe in its
modificationj, called Reafoning, is the dif-
covery of thefe relations among tIngs which
cannot be difcovered. intuitively, or b y immre-
diate co rifn-hnthey are  difcovered
by intermnediate ideas, they are acquired by
reafoniw.

  Tthe faculty of reafon fuppofes the previous






exercifes of Perception, Judging, and Memory.
---There muff be granted the notions of the
two things to be compared-.--together with
that of a third-the medium with which they are
compared--before the relation can be difcovered.

   The new knowledge, or knowledge of the
 relation, is faid to be inferred-drawn--or to
follow, from the former knowledge.----,-The
meaning of thefe terms illuifrated.

   If the relations of things could be known
 by immediate comparifon, there would be no
 need of reafoning.-.Beings of a higher or-
 ler may difcover the relations of things with-
 out intermediate fteps.

   The faculty of reafon in man, is a mark of
 fuperiority -over the inferior, animals, but. a
 mark of inferiority with refpeEt to fuperior
 orders of Beings. --W-ee fpeak of the reafon-
 ings of men--but of the judgments of God.
     .---The refult of the molt complex aa of
 veafoning is a judgment.

   Nature prompts and infruais men to rea-
                            C






fon, as it does to perceive and remember.
       They reafon before they can analyfe the
procefs of reafoning.

   When, from the memory of a former fenfa-
tion, and the immediate prefence of the ob-
jea which prodtfces it, the child withholds
his hand from. the candle -it reafons-
It fuppofes the knowledge of a fimilar event.
       'There are appearances of fuch a&Is of
reafoning in the inferior animals.--Examples

   Men firft reafon about individual objeds
 ----It is not till they have acquired lan-
 guage, and the ufe of abftrad and general
 terms, that they fan reafon generally.

   When the relation among things cannot
 be difcovered by immediate comparifon, the
 mind falls upon an expedient to obtain that
 knowledge.-.--.-That expedient isr--The dif-
 covery -and intervention of clearer and more
 familiar ideas.

   When the carpenter applies a common mea-
 fure to two logs of timber--when' the gold..






fhilith tries two pieces of yellow metal by a,
qua fortis -they exert acts of reafoning.

   When- the relations of things cannot be dif.
covered by the comparifon of two things
with one ncd'iun--the fame fagacity of mind
leads to the, difcovery of a fecond, third,
fourth, or an indefinite number of media.-
In proportion as mens knowledge increafes in
clearnefs and extent---they become more ready
and dextrous in the ufe of fuch expedients.
This is called a complex a6 of reafoning--.
a chain of reafoning.---Illuftration of this -pro
cefs of the mind.

   The nature of fome fubjeas admits of a
 longer, others of a liorter chain of :reafoning.
        The fciences. of Geometry and Arith-
 metic may admit of twenty or more Rleps.-
 Moral and political reafonings, feldoi of more
 than three. or four.- Examples.

   A fentence 'which -expreffes a fimrple a& of
 reafoning-that is, when the relation is dif.
 covered by one 'nwdiuin, has been called a
                            C2




                     30
Syllogifm----a complex ac of reafonig is
called a Sorites.-.--Origin of thefe terms,

   Explanation of the parts and firudure of
Syllogifms--and of "the technical terms of
Syllogifmn. [See Latin Compend, part 111.

   The faculty of Reafon is fufceptible of great
improvement. [See 2d Divifion.]


              Analysis of Genius.

   GENIUS is not a new or different faculty of
the Underfianding from thofe which have been
analyfed-but certain fuperior degrees of fa-
"culties common to all...7--Remarks on vari-
ous definitions of _it.

   Genius .may be heft explained by its effcd1s.
VM- Invention and Difrovery are the criteria of
genius.--The difcovery of caufes, pr~inciples,
laws of nature-----the ,forming new  coi-
binations--or a newr and happier application.
thereof in Science and Art-are the certain
marks of genius.





                      31
   Genius has accordingly been uniformly a"
 fEribed to thofe perfons who are the authors
 of difcoveries, inventions, or great improve-
 ments.-Confirmation--from the hiflory of in-
 ventors and difcoverers in the fcicnces and in
 the arts.

   In th progrefs of the arts, thofe who have
invented in difficult circumfiances, are entit-
led to greater merit than thofc who may af-
terwards have brought them to greater per-
feaion. --Military and political genius chief-
ly depend upon circumfiances and fituation.

   Genius has an :immediate relation to the
fac~ulties of reafon and iragination.-The
exercife of thefe faculties illuftrated---which
lead to 'difcovery and invention:.

   Th~e immediate caufes. of diverfity -of genius
explained -and illuffrated. -. Advantages aft
rifing from the diverfity of genius.

   Cir cumftances favourable to the produdion
and encouragement of genius.-Genius to
a certain degree' may be acquired.- Early
indications of genius.
                           03





                    32
   Conclufion.-Review of the powers of
knowledge.

The Powers of Knowledge illrated by the prin
          ciples of General Grammar.

  THE Analyfis of Thought may be traced in
that of language.---The powers of the Mind
may be known, by ftudying the fenfible figns
which reprefent them--The caufe may be
amined in the effe.

  The Power of communication is a branch of
Reafon.---Societatis e vinculum ratio et ora
io.-..Thefe faculties have a reciprocal de.
pendence on each other. -- Reafon direds in
forming and applying, figns.----- DiftinaInefs
and perfeaion in the figns extend the powers
of reafon.

   The inferior animals are not altogether dem
prived of powers of- communication, but they
are incapable of forming. a language.-
This does not arife fo much from the want of
oral organization, as from defedsi in the powers
which employ it,. --Without powers of form-,





                     33
ing a language, man would not be much N'
perior to the brutes.

   Nature prompts men to make ufe of fenfi.
ble figns, and teaches them to underftand one
another.-------The caufes which produce this
mutual intercourfe..

   Language, in the moft general fenfe of that
 term, comprehends 61 all the means of ex.
 "4 preffing thought." ---The  thoughts   and
 feelings of the mind have their correfponding
 fenfible figns.

   The fenfibleigns, by which men hold inter-
 courfe, are either natural or articial.

    Natural figns are rnodi-fcations of the fea-.
 tures----variations of gefture-.-----modula-
 tions of the- voice.---Thefe confitute the
 original or primitive language of every fociety,
 and are formed gradually as they are -found
 neceffary.-d

    The firft figns are fuch as ferve to reprefent
 prefent obj e~s, together with the attention di-
 reed to them.





                      34
   Abfnt fenfible objeas are firfi denoted by
 imitative figns. -= Mental feelings and opera-
 tions by figns that are analogical or figurative.

   The colletion of flgns, made ufe of in ori-
 ginal or primitive languages, is called Natural
 Langug-e.

   Natural language is fuffcient for the ordi-
 nary purpofes of communication in early and
 rude focieties, as appears-from the language
 of favages-of children--of dumb perfons.

   The figns of Natural language would be
 multiplied and improved when men had no o-
ether mode of intercourfe.-  Some of the
claffes -of natural fignns are more fufceptible of
improvement than others.-T-1he qualities of
the different claffes of natural, figns.

   The Pantomimic art, ancient and modern,
 lhews what maybe effeaedby natural language.
 ---Anecdote of Cicero and, Rofcius on this
 fubjeat.

   The progrefs 'of :fociety 'and civilization
 would graduially difcover the bounds and de4.





                      35
 feas of-natural language.-- circunftances
 and occafions of intercourfe which would lad
 to the invention of a more perfe mode of in-
 tercourfe.    Caufes which would gradually
 lead to the multiplication and application of
 vocal utterance, and to the arrangement of vo-
 cal founds.

   The Mind would readily difcover many
 anlogies -betwixt the qualities of founds and of
 fenfbok objefs-and the imagination  would
 multiply and apply them.

   There are no records of Nations which
 mark the firfi  .eps of departure from natural
 language, and the firt application of arucial
 figns. -The difference betwixt natural and
 artificial f g ns.

   The invention of artificial figns would be
flow and gradual.No---Nonation could form a.
fyftem of artificial figns all at once.

   The firft artficial figns were not altogether
 arbitrary, but muff have had fomce connection,
 with the things fignitied by them, or with the.





                     36
natural ig ns.--   Na  ral language is the
Interpreter of the frft artfcia! figusd The
affo'ciation once formed, nenzoy and habit would
conirn it.-The     ar/rial fgn would be
fubftituted in the place of the natural one.
Convidions of utility would affift and pron
mote this natural progrefs.

  In procefs of time, the artificial figns would
predominate, the natural would be ufed only
on particular occafions.----They are infepara-
ble in every perf&t mode of communication.
----Even when artificial language has arriv-
ed at its moft perfeQl fiate, frequent recourfe
muf be had to natural language.-The per
fea orator mull be fiilled in both languages.
   -Thne qualities of natural and of artificial
Ji3 ns.

   The difficulties and embarraffments which
would neceffarily occur to the inventors and
improvers of artificial language, have appeared
to fome philofophers fo infuoperable, as to lad
to afcribe it to a miracle.-There is no ne-
ceffity, however, to have recourfe to -fuch in-
k erpofition.--h 1e invention is withini the





                     37
reach of the fagacity and ingenuity of man.
-The Author of Nature has not only con.
ferred the neceffary power, but the difpofition
to apply and exercife it.

   An artificial language is the joint refult of
 Inftin&, Neceflity, Defire, Sagacity, Labour,
 Experience, Reafon.-    The fuperior genius
 of fome individuals would overcome obftacles,
 fuggeft new analogies and modes of applica-
 tion. -  The names of the inventors and im-
 provers of language buried in oblivion.
 The progrefs of language keeps pace with the
,progrefs of civilization and refinement.

   In fobme nations, and in fome advanced pe.
 riod of their progrefs to civilization, a writ-
 ten language would come to be invented.
 It muft always be poflerior in its origin to a
 fpoken  language.-  A     written  language
 forms a communication between the fenfes of
 feeing and hearing.

   Caufes and fituations which would render
 neceffary figns of thought more permanent
 than audible figns.       The natural pfeps




                     38
 which mark the progrefs of written language,
 from its rude to its more perfe& ftate.-
 Illufiration of this progrefs from the hiffory of
 rude nations.      An account of the Egyp-
 tian and Chinefe mode of writing, probably
 founded upon the firft rude attempts.

   The defec's and imperfe&ions of Hiero-
 glyphical charaters would, in fome nations,
 lead to one of the nobleft and moff difficult in-
 ventions, viz. that of an ALPHABET.
 There are no records of this invention.-----The
 traditions concerning it.----Rude nations
 have been difcovered who have no Alphabet.

   The fieps which would probably precede
and accompany this invention.--An Alpha-
bet once invented, was adopted by different na-
tions.----An account of the origin of Cypher-
ing, and of the invention of Printing, and of
the eminent advantages derived from them.
The original method of placing lines-and the
ancient inplements of writing.

  The Science which explains the Rules and
Principles which have direted all nations in





                     39
forming and accommodating Pgns for the pur.
pofes of communication, is called UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR.

  Caufes which render the bafis or fubflance
of- all languages the fame.

   Caufes which give occaifion to particular
Grammar.

   The whole artificial figns which are necef-
fary to exprefs or paint thought, may be ar-
ranged into certain claffes.--Univerfal Gram-
mar explains,

   Ift. The different claffes of fgns, and the
changes or alterations which they muf- necef-
farily undergo.
   zd. The principles which lead to fuch pofi-
tions and combinations of them with refpeSI
to one another, as the complete exp-reffionl of
thought requires.

      ft. The d firent claj es of Signs, &c.
   The claffes of Signs, or Parts of Speech, are not
numerous ; but various divifions, more or lef's
comprehenfive of them, have been adopted -by
                            D





                     40
Grammarians.----The firi rammarians re.
arked only the important diftinlions of
Nouns and Verbs.-- -Attributives and Con
neaives were in procefs of time added.-----
The differences-in the claffes of figns muff be
taken from differences in the things reprefent-
ed by them.         Every dfi rent fign muff
be abfolutely neceffary, and muff perform an
office or fundion which no other fign can do
for it.

   The moft common divifion is into Noun,
 Pronoun, Article, Verb, Participle, Adverb,
 pofition, Conjunction, Interjecion.

                    Noun.

    Signs of that clafs which reprefents ful.
 Jiances are called Subfiantivc Nouns.-- T hefe
 fubflances may be material oi' mental-=}-finguM
 lar or general--abftraEt- or abfolute -real or
 imaginary.--Hence the different kinds of
 nouns.-Examples..

    The names of Q~alities, Relations, Time,
  Place, Number, &c. are included under the






ciafs of fubfiantives.--Whatever fgns re.
prefent notions 'which are the bafis of other
mental operations are called Nouns.
In Univerfal Grammar, a fubifantive noun i
whatever may be the fubje   o a logical pro"
pof tion.Lxamples and illuirations.

   Nouns Adjehlve are defcriptive of fubfIan-
tives.- -They unite with the, and the two
form one conception.-They are called Ad-
jeaives, becaufe they add to the notion of noun
Oba-ta of quality.

   Some adjealives denote limitations, modi'
cations, accidents.-ouns denoting- quali
ties and relations may be limited-but not
thofe which reprefent individuals.- Com-
mnon nouns, or nouns denoting claffes, may be
both limited and extended.-The difference
betwixt the noun abftra& and the noun ad..a
jeaiveL, illufrated. -The clafs of adjectives
in- every language muff be very comprehen-
five, but they do not admit of a perfedt ciaffi-
fication.

   The qualities common to fubftances adm-it
                          D2





                      Aid

of more or /efS."-.-Thiis difcovered by corn-
parifon..-Hence nouns adjedive admit of
DEGREES OF COMP ARISON, commonly called
Comparative and Superlative. The fuperla-
live is itfelf foundedon comparifon.-Excefs,
and the greateRft excefs, are marked by com-
parative and fuperlative--Definite degrees
are marked by particular terms.     Some
adjedives do not admit of comparifon.-.-Ex-
amples.

   The degrees of Comparifon are marked by
changes on the termination, or by additional
words.        Some adjeives are regular, o-
thers are irregular, in. their modes of compari-
fon.---Adjedives of the fame clafs, in many
different languages, are irregularly compared.




   Pro-nouns are fo called, becaufe they fuipply
the place of nouns-but that is only a part-of
their office.'-They denote the prefence of
the obje&, which the noun does not.--.They
diftinguifh the perfons who take part in dif-
courfe, and fuperfede the frequent repeti-





                     43
tion of the noun.-Examples of perfonal pro-
nouns.

   The ufe of pronouns is poferior to that of
nouns. ----Children do not at frft make ufe of
pronouns. ------The utility of pronouns illuftrat-
ed by examples of fentences, in which the
noun is ufed inflead of the pronoun.- The
pronouns are more numerous in fome lan-
guages than in others.

   There are different claffes of pronouns which
are marked by terms denoting their particular
office; E. G.-- -relative----demonftrative--per-
fonal, &c

                   Article.
   ARTICLEs have a reltion to common or ge-
neral nouns.--Their office is to mark when the
general word reprefents the whole clafs, a few
of the clafs, or individuals.----They are ne-
ceffary to render the noun definite in its figni-
fication.---Proper name.s do not require ar-
ticles.---Exceptions.

   Articles are common to all .languages.--
 Their number is different in different, lama
                          D3





                     44
guages.--""Articles in all languages are ge-
nerally monofyllables---or fiort words.

  The artifice of language, in limiting or ex-
tending general nouns, is curious.------Exam-
ples and illufiration of this part of fpeech.

              Gender of Nouns.

   THE noUnS, or names reprefenting animals,
admit of the diftindion of Gender.-Tis
diftinion is founded in Nature.-It is not
neceffary that the diftmndion of gender be ex-
tended to the names of all animals, but chiefly
to domeftic animals.----Utility and conve-
ence muff regulate the extenfion of them.--
The names of many infeds do not. mark gen-
der, nor is, it neceffary.

   The languages of different nations are. not
uniform with refpedr to the extenfion of gen-
der to nouns.---It is reflrided to the natural
difindtion of fex in fome languages, in others
it is extended to all nouns..  The caufes
'which t~he Grammarians have affigned for the
ctenfion of gender to all nouns, and the ad-




                    45
vantages which are faid to be derived from it.
       The analogies pointed out, on which
this extenfion is founded.

  The'advantages of confining the diftinaion
of gender to thofe nouns which denote dif-
ference of fex.      The gender of nouns is
marked by changes in their terination.

   The diftinction of gender, by a grammatical
artifice, is extended to, the names of qualities,
or adjeives, in fome languages.

             Numzber of Nouns.

   COMMON or general nouns admit the dif-
tin~tion. of number.�-The general name
calls up the idea of the whole clafs, but not of
an individual--or feveral of the clafs..
'Hence the difiin~tion of fingular and plural
--more definite numbers are expreffed by
terms called Numeras.----T-ihe diftin 61ion
of fingular and plural in nouns is to be found
in all languages, but different languages vary
in their mode of marking it0.   Some lan-
guages have. a dual nu mber-By a fimilar




                     46
 analogy they might have a ternaI.- Inon�
 veniencies arifing from the extenfion of a dual
 nunb.er to all nouns and verbs.

                saes of Nouns.

   In all languages, the ative or paffive flates
 of the noun, and the circumifances which at-
 tend the noun, are marked.         In fome
 languages, by variations of the termination
 called Cafes; in others, by prefixing words
 called PrepoJitions. -   -=The number of cafes
 is not the fame in, differentianguagc..-
 The more common and familiar relations are
 marked by cafes in the ancient languages.
 .-Modern languages havefew cafes, and
 make ufe of prepof tions.-Th-   e refpe tive
 advantages of thefe methods.      The com-
 mon names- of the cafes, viz. Nominative,
 Genitive, &c. mark thefe relations in a vague..
 a~nd imperfeaL manner.

                  The Verb.

   THE verb is an important part of, fpeech.
'4-.nouns reprefent objeats a'nd qualities as




                      47
 exitling feparately.-.'The ejelnnts of df-
 "ourfe muff bo .- united, w -xe>nder' ngu age
 proper Treprefentative of.-Thou gh#

    No reciie -,definition caV- , given., which
 will apply to all thole words called Verbs.
        When genzeral terms cannot be defined
 by any thing common in the nature of the par
 ticulars included under them, they may be de-
 defined by fomething common in their ufe or
 end.

   The office of- the verb is to exprefs JQDG-
 MENTs--of exj/lencc, aflion, fufering, and re-
 lations belonging to objes.--The fimpleft
 and clea-reft notion of the verb may be acquir-
 e, by attending. toy the operation of judging.
    '--.-That faculty determines the exilfing
relations of jundion, feparation, agreement or
d-ifagreement, difeerned among _objeats.

   The firif judgments which the Mind paffes,
are. judgments of exiftence of the objeats of
its fenfations. -----ence the fubftantive 'verb
'is the original, radical verb.    The other
wrords called Verbs, imply in theme the Verb of,





                     48
 Exifence.-With terms denoting attributes
 or qualities in union with the fubantive verb,
 judgments may be expreffed.  _.xamples of
fentences which have in them no other than
.fbatanive verbs.

   Judgments are formned alfo concerning .Ener-
 gies exifiting in objeats, or aaions exerted or
 received. - -Hene verbs denote exf/ence and
 energy, and, according as the energy is com-
 municated or received, affume an afive, or a
 pafive form or. voice, as it is called.


   Ations or energies imparted or received,
 fuppofe an agent-=and a patient, or obje& of the
 energy..--Thefe are in nature conneaed,
 and ought to be conneated in the expreffion of
 ,the.-They may, however, be feparated.
     -When, in a, verb, energy is flated as
 an attribute of the fubjdl, the verb is an ac~ive
 verb. When the eff'e6 of energy is flated as
 an attribute of the fubjed (the former obje~t
 having become the fubjeE), the "verb .is a paf-
 five verb.  When fimple fate or condition is
 the attribute, -the verb is a neuter verb-Ex-





                     49
amples-vc'rbero,  vapulo, liveo.-PDerence
of form not abfolutely neceffary.

   The words called Verbs, are often rendered
Rill farther complex..       The fubjeis of
energies are moff frequently perfons; but ac-
tion and paffion are, by gure, attributed at
times to. inanimate objecis, and perfonality is
afcribed to them.-Examples.-Hence the
verb becomes ifform more complex, denoting
exifience, energy, perfonality, and even numo
ber, united; for the fubjef of energy may be
one or many.       The precifion of fome lay.
,guages in marking numbers.

   judgments, of contingent exiftence and e-
 :nergy have a neceffary relation to Time.-..
 Notions of time are generated by a variety in
 fucco'/ion. -Time is property divided into
 paft and future.-- --The common notion of a
 prefent time examined.----Paft- and future
 time admit of fubdivifions ; and in different
 languages, they are fubdiVided with more. or.
 lefs_ accuracy.-------On account of the clofe con-
 neion of energies with the time of their exift-




                      5o
 ence, they are conneced alfo in the form of
 the verb.

    There is no definite number of imes or Ten-
 fes.----The ancient languages are more per-
 fed in their tenfes than the nodern.--The
 perfeecon of the Greek language in this re-
 fpe.--A few tenfes only can be marked in
 %the form of the verb.- -When more accu-
 racy is required in marking the times of ener-
 gy, other words muff be employed.

   Afions and energies have a clofe connec-
 tion with the mode or mianner of their exiffence,
 and with other important circumftances.--E-
 nergies may be fimply firmed or indicated.
 ----They may be modified by inclination, de-
fire, Power, authority, contingence, &c.-Hence
the moods of verbs ; indicative, optative, fub-
jedive, infinitive, imperative.--There might
be other, moods .than thofe commonly enume-
rated.-There might be an interrogative--
a prom ifing mood.  ,

   The fimple ideas which make up the comr-
plex notion of a verb, are marked in the tera
mination of the verb.






  The idea of Energy reprefented by the verb
may be ftated, fiript of Affirmation, Perfon-
ality, Time, &c.---Hence the nature of the
Infinitive-which becomes equivalent to the
noun fubftantive-and fometimes to the noun
adjeaive.


   Participles are adjefives denotingTime.---
They exprefs the properties or qualities of
fubftances, and admit of comparifon.-
'Grammarians have fuggefted many queftions
concerning Participles and Infinitives.-Are
participles neceffarily derived from verbs ?-or
verbs from participles ? When participles or
infinitives are ufed as fubftantives, are they
really fubfantive nouns?  What is the dif
ference betwixt ACTION, ACTING, to ACT?
Is the' participle ever ufed as a fubftantive in,
the Greek and Latin languages ?


   General obf ervations on the complex form
of the Verb in different lPA fguages. --.The
difference in this refpe& betwixt the ancient
and modern languages.           Modern lan.
guages fupply the defet of form by auxiliaries..
                            E

                            )INOIS LIBRARt,7





                     s2
 --.The nature, ufe, and,, funaons, of auxili-
ary verbs.


   Some languages have a variety of conjuga-
tions, or ways of arranging verbs according to
termination.-In forne languages, there are
forms by which the fignification of the verb is
varied., Such are Frequentatives, Defidera-
tives, Inceptives, &c.----Verbs called 1mper-
fonal, are fo only in forn.- Enumeration of
diferent claffes of verbs.


                   Adverbo

   AaVER s are attributives, and are properly
 called             or natural appendages of
 verbs, and cannot be underftood without thema.
 --Some adjed'ives or verbs, denoting quan-
 tity or quality, have .adverbs joined to them,
 denoting intenfion or remiffon.-There are
 adverbs of relation, quality, time,, place,. &c.
 -The cl affes of a~dverbs varioufly refrid1, ,mo-
 dify, and abbreviate, expreffion.---The place
 of the adverb is. near the verb, and, after neu-
 ter verbs.





53


                  Prepojition.

   T HE diflinaion ftated betwixt Adverbs and
Prepofitions.--- The office of prepofitions is
to exprefs the union of fubftantives, or the
manner in which. they coalefe with adjetUves,
verbs, participles.

   The firft prepofitions denoted fenfible and
local relations. Examples.----Were afterwards
extended to incorporeal fubjeSs.-Soe
prepofitions are infeparable from verbs, and
change their fignification.-Prepofitions, in all
languages, fupply the def&l of cafes.
Claffes of prepofitions.--llufration..

                  Conjunfion.

   THE difference betwixt Prepofitions and
 C onjunc ions.'-Their office is to connect
 parts of fentences. Examples.-=Though con-
 junaions conne&E the parts of fentence�s, they
 frequently disjoin2 the vwauning-.  Examptles.

   ConjunaUons are either mere copuaives or
continuati'vs.-The names of the different claf-
fes of prepofitions -eiain their particular of-
                            FJ 2





                     54
flces.--Copulatives, disjunaives, adverfatives,

                 Interjeeion.
   INTERJECTIONS are different from all the
 other parts of fpeech.--Their office is not
 to exprefs ideas..-but lates or modes of feel-
 ing, or fentiment.      Every different flate,
 or mode of feeling, has its own interjedion, viz.
 of Admiration, Fear, Indignation, Contempt,
 &c.
   The founds made ufe of are much the
 fame in all languages.-Jnterjeions are the
 remnants of natural language-probably the
\roots of many other words in every language
--There are fewer interjeftions in the, mio-
4ern than in the ancient languages.


                SECOND PART
          OF UNIVERSAL. GRAMMAR.
 Adnalysis of the principles by which the di rent
   c/afecs f Signs are combined, -in order to ren-
   der them a complete reprefintation f T hought.

   LANGUAGE expreffes thought by confecutive
figns.--The connections and relations which,




                      5
 fubfift in the elements of thought, muff be ex-
 preffed by correfponding conneaions and re-
 lations of the figns.

   The immediate obje{ of grammar is the
 compofition of afentence.--A SENTENCE iS
 the complete expr//on of a complete thought.
 Remarks on the, definitions of a fentence by
 Ariftotle, Quinailian, and modern granimaI
 ruans,

   A PERIOD is a fentence of a particular kind.
 -----The definitions of a period by Cicero and
 Quinilian, vague. Examples of fentences
 and of periods.----Some fentences are propo-
Jitions, others not.

   In rude languages, one fign would probably
 exprefs a. whole fentence.      As Human
 thought unfolded, itfelf,, complex figns would
 be broken down.-The parts of fentences, re
 prefenting the parts or fraedions of thought,
 are called Claufes or Members.

   Remarks- on the length and. fhortnefs of
fentences- the number- of claufes, &c.-






Illuftration of L'Abb6 GERARD'S fubdiviflon
of fentences. --The rules of puneluation ap.
plied to fentences.

   The rules of fyntax and confirulion regulate
the order,conne&ion, and dependence, of words
in fentences.-The principles which regulate
the pofition and arrangement of words in fen
fences, are derived from

   ijf, The Natural arrangement, in which the
figns are placed according to the order fug-
gefled by the natural inftinl of communication.
--This principle prevails in rude languages.
   2d, The Philofophical arrangement, in which
the words follow the connedions of the natter,
under the influence of reafon.
   3dly?, The &centimental arrangement, in which
the order of figns is regulated by the defgn of
the fpeaker, and the efedl intended to be pro-
duced, under the influence of imagination and
pafions,.-.Examples of thefe arrangements.

   Thef'e arrangements are to be found in e.
 very, language, according as natural inftind,




                     57
realfon, or imagination, has been predominant
in the formation of it.
  Languages have been called Analogical,
Transpoj7tive, or Mixed, according to the pre.
valence in them of thefe refpeaive qualities.
---In early periods of fociety, the order of
the figns or words, is moft inverted or tranf.
pofed, becaufe the imagination chiefly direts in
the forming of language.       Circumftances
may promote or prevent this effea. -Poetry,
the firft mode of compofition in every lan-
guage, promotes inverfion.
   The ancient languages, on account of their
variety of flexion, are more tranfpofitive than
the modern.          The Latin language is
more tranfpofed than the Greek.-  The pro.
bable caufe of this.

   The matter or fubjefl of difcourfe affeas the
 arrangement.- Some kinds of compofition
 admit of greater latitude in this refped than
 others.      The general order and arrange-
 ment of the different claffes of figns in lan.
 guage.----The preference of particular founds
 muff affea arrangement.






   The ct~fonzary arrangement of every Ian-
~giage appears natural to thofe who ufe it, and
unnatural to others.-Many different kinds
of arrangement are natural.-UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR is the flandBard by which different
arrangements are to be tried.--xamples
of cufloinary arrangement which are not na-
tural.

   Conclufion of Univerfal Grarmar.-Ad-
vantages of the ifudy of Univerfal Grammar.
-It illujirates the operations of the Human
Mind, and tends to ftrengthen its powers.-
It explains the jlructure of Language, and the
,principles of Criticfnz. It ferves as a hiftory
of the mofit ancient and ufful art.-.-The
knowledge of it is neceffary, in order to write
or fpeak with propriety, and elegance.
It furniffies principles, examples, methods of
analysis; and fuggeffs means of farther-progrefs.-,





59


                PART IT,

       OF FIRSt GENERAL DIVISION.

The' Art of iniproing tale Powers of Know/edge;
  ill ut rated by the Hi!/lory f Logic, and an exl
  planation of the principal Rules of that Art.

  THE meaning of the terms culture, iniprove.
ment, explained and illuftrated.-The law of
culture is general, and extends to the powers
of inanimated as well as to thofe of animat
ed and rational natures.

   Man is diftinguiffed from the inferior ani-
 mals, not only by fuperior original_ powers..
 but chiefly by a more extenfive range of im1-
 Provernent.--The human infant, though in~.
 ferior in many refpedts to the young of other
 animals, contains the feeds of higher and no-
 biler facu lties.-Man can acquire, by culture,
 what- the higheft of the inferior animals cannot.

   The principles .in the human mind, which
 prepare and qualify man for high degrees of





6o


improvement; viz. Curiofity, Aaivity, and
Habit.

   The means of bringing the powers of know.
ledge from   their original to their cultivated
flate are either fuch as are natural or artyfcial.


               Natural Culture.

   THE natural means are fuch as nature fur-
nifies and applies without inftrudion, or the
affihfance of art.-- The effeas of natural
culture may be traced to the earlieft Hate of
man.- -In infancy habits are acquired;
which, are effential to_ the future unfolding of
the human powers--    t is difficult to draw
anl exadl line betwixt what is natural and what
is acquired.

   The. powers both, of body and mind are
 improved by every thing which gives occafion'(
 to their exe cife.- The objcS s and circum-m
 flances which produce pleafan t and painful
 fenfations in man, are the immediate caufes
 of the firft exertions of the powers of know-.
 ledge and, of adion.






  The chief improvements of men depend upu
on fociety-upon the intercourfe and colli'
fion of minds--upon the powers of forming
and ufrng an-artificial language-the powers
of recording fads, and profiting by experience
and example----the powers of forming and
maintaining a political union.


  The effedt~s of natural culture upon the
powers of knowle-dge, may be illuirated by a
view of the.progrcfs of thefe powers, from a
rudv and favage ifate to a ftate of civilization.
- ----Of the objea s, circumfiances and fitu-
ations, which tend gradually to unfold them.
.-Of the kinds and degrees of knowledge
wich the progreflive conditions of men
tend to promote.--Of th-e gradual progrefs
of invention and difcovbery, without any bene-
fit from artificial culture.


   Some of the powers of knowledge, in every
 condition of mnan, receive their chief improve-
 mnehts from ttoe na nral tnea as of culture.--
 The external fey.-Pt-s, Memeory arid 'Imagination,
 :are unfolded at an early period.-wthe na-




                     62
ture and means of that improvement which
they may receive.

   The powers of Judging and Reafoning are of
lower growth. --Their improvement deu
pends upon the progrefs of other powers, viz.
of AbfradEion, Generalization, and Language.
."---They may arrive at great degrees of per-
fedion by the experience and effeds of the inf
dividual, with the affiflance of general rules.

   The means of improving the powers of
judging and reafoning, without the affiftance of
general rules, is called Natural Logic. -- Cer-
tain favourable difpofitions of objeds and
circumflances--th e intereffs, occupations,.
and paffions of men, furnifh motives which
excite and dire& the rational powers.- In
-this refped-the original -powers of fome inif
dividuals, and the circumiflances in which they
are placed, may be more favourable than o-
thers.---The natural Logician may be fu-
perior to the artificial one.-------The defedts
of natural logic.




6)3


   THOUGH the powers of knowledge deriv     a
their firfi improvement from natural cul-
ture, all of them are greatly afifted and pro-
moted by artificial culture.-  By art!Acial
vulture is underitood the art of training the fa-
culties of man by the difcipline of rules and
:precepts, inftruaion and example.

   That fyftem of rules and precepts, which ex"
perience and fagacity have fuggefted and ap-
plied for the improvement of the powers of
judging and reafoning, has been, in later times,
called LoGic.   The povers of external fenfe,
memory, and imagination, are lefs under the
.direa ion of rules and art.

   The general end or objed of this art is to
 fubjecq the powers of knowledge to voluntary,
 dire ion and methodical procedure, to render
 =them more aaIive, acute, and comprehenfive,
 ,in the difcovery of the laws. of nature, and in
 -the regulation of human condu&t.




                     64
  Remarks on different definitions which have
been given of the art of Logic.- The fepa-
rate boundaries of Grammar, Logic, and
Rhetoric.

   The affiflance, which the powers of know-
ledge may receive from the culture of art, will
bet appear from a ihort account of the origin,
progrefs, and explanation, of the principal rules
--of the ancient art of logic.-  This me-
thod is better adapted to the purpofes of a firft
philofophy clafs, than an abftra6 or metaphy-
fical explanation of the principles of this art.

   The hiftory of logic may be conveniently
 divided into three periods

   1. The hiftory of logic, previous to the pe-
 riod of Ariftotle.
    2.        -     from the time of Ariftotle
 till the revival of literature in Europe.
    3.        --- from    the revival of litera-
 ture till the prefeht time.








Firf Period.:


   T-HE powers of knowledge are exercifed
long before men attend to the mode. or man-
ner of -their exertion.      Principles in hu-
man nature, which firft induce men to exer-
cife their powers of knowledge.

   Men muff have frequently applied their
powers of knowledge to fubjeas of natural and
moral philofophy, before the exillence of an
art of improving them.

   The firfi rules, of this- art, like thofe of e.
very other art, muff have arifen from the ob-
fervation and experience of individuals-
-Rules are not effablilhed till they are found
neceffary and ufeful.-Difficulties and obifa-
Iles, which occurred in the application of the
powers of- knowledge, would fuggeff, the ne.-
ceff'ity of rules.      Succefs or difappoint-
menit,. in the application of thefe powers, would
lead the firft phil ofophers to attend. to the,
means wvhich facilitated, and to the obfiacles
wkrhich- retarded them.
                            F,




66


   The rules of individual experience would
foon  be multiplied.---They would be
improved by the number of fhofe who follow-
ed them, and by the frequency of application.
        In procefs of time, they would be car.
 ried, from individual or particular fubjeas, to
 fuch as are general.

   The firif ftep towards an art of reafoning,
like that of every other art, is a number of
rules, formed, as occafions and circumifances
fuggefied, without any bond of connedion a-
mong them. T------ he charaaer and genius
of thofe, who efitablifhed or recommended
them, would give effecE to the application of
them.

  The colleTion, of unconne&ed rules would,
in due time, become thenfelves an objea of at-
tention to philofophers.       Their fubfer-
viency to a common end, and their mutual
conneiions and relations, would lead to claffifi-
cation and arrangement.        They would
affume the appearance of a regular art.

  The origin of the art of reafoning muff be





                      67
fought for in the progrefs of philofophy in
Greece.-No peculiar modes of inveftiga
tion or analyfis have come down from any of
the more ancient nations celebrated for their
knowledge.----T he earliet period of Greek
philofophy furnifhes us with no fyftem of
rules of reafoning.

   The rules of reafoning were, for a long
 time, not feparated by the Greek philofophers
'from  the other branches of philofophy..
No regular fyftem,. or feparate art, is to be
found in- the writings of Plato; but many
ufeful rules are interfperfed fur the purzfcation
and regulationI of the powers of knowledge.
.   -he fame degree of progrefs may be ob-
ferved in the writings of the ffoical philofophers..

   From. the time.-of the feven Wife-men in
 Greece, a growing attention to the e1Iablifh=
 menit of an art of reafoning, may -be obferved,
     ..--Caufes which gave occafion to it.

     i -The 'attempts then: made .to explain the
 phenomena of nature,. by eftablifhing hypo9
 thefes-t





                      68
   2. The eflablilhment of the Greek fchools
of philofophy.
   3. The diverfity of opinions among the phi.
lofophers of that period.
   4. The natural adherence of the fcholars to
the opinions of their maffers.
   5. The reciprocal attack and defence of
their refpe~tive opinions, in their private and
public conferences.

   Their nodes of reafoning, generally in the
form of dialogue, would foon difcover the
neceflity and utility of general rules in con-
duing them.        Hence arofe the dialedic
art, which, under the dire ion of vain, often-
tatious men, foon degenerated into an art of
wrangling or of -fophiftry.

   This falfe and captious art., 'generally prac-
 tifed by the floical philofophers., and others of
 that time, was more calculated to conceal
 than to difcover truth.---Vain -and oftenta-
 tious difplays of it called forth the indignation
 and talents of Socrates, who moft fuccefsfully
 opp1ofed it.      He endeavoured to eftablifh,
 in its place, a familiar, praatical, mode of rea-s





                     69
foning, founded upon juft views of the paf
Bons, prejudices, and underfiandings of ,men
        -  This new and dextrous mode of rea-
foning, pradifed by Socrates, has, ever f nce his
time, been called The Socratic Dialogue.-
Remarks on the principles, condu&, and ten-
dency of it, in examples of it recorded by
Xenophon and Plato.

   Upon a review of the fate and progrefs of
the art of reafoning, during the firft periodof
its/hiftory, it will be found, that the rules, e-
ftablifhed and pradifed by philofophers, chief-
ly refpe~ted the power of forming notions, and
the means of rendering them clear and diftin
in the expreffion.----it does not appear, dur-
ing this period, that the philofophers taught
or pra~tifed any artificial modes of comparifon
and inference.

   Though the notions formed from the im-.
 preffions which objeds make on the fenfes are
 neceffary, and cannot be altered, the mind ,is
 capable- of various acts of attention directed to
 them, by which they, may be rendered more
 exact and definite.





                      70'
   Clearnefs and diflinlnefs Qf ideas, the firf
flep in reafoning, are promoted by analysis, d /
poftion, and   arrangement.-The inifruments
wvhich this art makes ufe of for thefe pur
pofes, are rules of Dfnition, Div!/ion, and
Clq//j/cation.

   Explanation of thefe rules, and of the man.
ner in which they affift and improve the power
of forming notions.,

      Second' Period of the Ilftory of Logic.

   WHILE,- the rules of reafoning chiefly re=
 fpeded the firft operation of the mind in rea-
 foning, much was wanting to give them the
 form of an-art..

   The, clearnefs and certainty of inference de.
 pends, not only upon diftin&, notions, but
 upon the previous judgments formed by, the
 mind, and the modes of comparifon adopted;
 to difcover the inference.

   .Arift'otle not onLy pradifed and improved
 the rules of definition, &c. but firft endea-






voured to circumfcribe the more complex op
perations of Judging and Reafoning, by e
f7ablifhing rules of comparifon and inference,
and by inventing a general method of arrange-
vient.

   The invention of the Syllogifm is a proof
 of the great genius and comprehenfion of A-
 riftotle.     The firfi idea of the fyllogifin
 has, without jubeen afcribed to a
 more ancient philofopher than Ariftote

   The objet of Ariftotle, in the invention of
the fyllogifin, was to introduce the fame clear
nefs. and certainty into other branches of Phi-
lofophy, which had taken place in Geometry
from which fcience he probably tooks the idea.
of the fyllogifmn

   The fyllogiftn is a complete analyfis of the
 operations of reafoning-of the terms ex-
 preffing the ideas or notins--of the va.
 rious j udgments of the mind expreffed in pro.
 pofitions-.-of the claffes and affinities of
propofitions which enter into the fyllogifm.----.
See Logic Compend, part H1.






  Explanation of the parts and flru&ure of the
fyllogifm-of the fyllogific axiom Dc oni
et de-nu/k-of the general rules which re-
gulate fyllogifrns-.--   of the fpecial rules
of mood and figure----of the redu-tion of
fyllogifms.-'-.-.Examples of fyllogif.--See.
Lat. Compend, part III. chapters i. ii. &c.

   In the fyllogifr, it is effential,

   Ift, That a comparifon be a ually made bT
the mind, of each of the extremes, with the
middle term.
   2d, That, in the difpofition of the extremes
and middle term., they -hall be arranged ac-
.cording to the- order of their conneajion and-
dependence--that the connedlion of the con-
clufion with the premiff'es -may be clearly and,
certainly difeovered.

   When. the relations among _the terms are
thofe of equaity,, it. is- of little moment how
the terms are arranged in the propofitions ;
but, if the relations which are the obje& of the
reafoning, be thofeaof fimilitude or diffimili-




                     73
tude, &c. it is then no longer indifferent in
what manner the terms are arranged in the
propofitions.---Examples and illuftration.


   Every kind of reafoning may be formed in
to a fyllogifm. .----A complex fyllogifm com-
prehends finple ones.----The rules effablilh-
ed for the latter are applied to the former.


   After Ariftotle had invented the fyllogifm
 us a model of reafoning, his next attempt
 was to- render it more perfe&, by contriving
 remedies againft its natural imperfedions and
 defets.---Hence the forms of irregular Syllo.
 gifms, Enthymeme, Dilemma, &e.--See-Latin
 Compend, part HI. chap. vi.


   As th-e truth of the conclufion in the fyllo-
 gifm depends upon the truth of the premiffes,;
 hence the attempts of Ariftotle to eflablifh the
 truth of the premniffes by an analyfis of the
 nature of evidence, as certain or probable.
 -Of the principles and rules of demon-
 flration-direa or indire&ft--a priori or a p/e
 yriori.-.See .Lat. Compend, part _III. chap. vii,






   As, notwithflanding the perfeion of this
 logical inflrum-ent, Ariflotle found that it could
 not altogether exclude error, his next attempt
 was to expofe the fources of error-to circ
 cumfcribe all the poffible modes of reafoning
 falfely and deceitfully, in the external forms of
 Paralogifms or Sophifms-.and to eflablifh
 rules for the detea ion and folution of them.
 --See Latin Compend., chapteY ix.

 rfhe books -of Ariftotle, in which he has ex,
 plained the dorine of fyllogifm, are called
 Analytics. --The name Logic was io: given
 to this art by Ariftotle.----It does not a
 pear that Ari -flotle made ufe of the fyllogifm in
 his other writings.------ Rules of difputation
 feem to have been early founded upon it.
    -The application of the rules of fyllo-
gifm, and of method, to the management of
fimxple ;or complex themes.-c.-.See Lat. Com"
Pend, part III. ,chap. ix.

   The hiftory -of logic continued--Though
Greece was celebrate, for its ph-ilofophy -and
arts, yet-, long after, the time of.Ariflotle, the
art of -logic perfeated by Ariflotle dloes not





Teem to have produced the fruits he expeted
from it.-   It was not adopted by his imme.
diate fucceffors.-Probable caufes of this.
--During the reign of philofophy in Greece,
the art of Reafoning was not feparated from
the other branches of Philofophy.

   The great admiration of Greek fcience, and
the reputation of the celebrated philofophers
who taught it, induced the Roman youth to
fludy at Athens. ------In procefs of time,
the writings of Ariftotle became known at
Rome.-        Anecdotes concerning the fate
of Ariftotle's writings, and the tranfmiflion of
them from Greece to Rome.

   After the writings of Ariftotle became known
at Rome, a growing attention may be obferved
to the dodrines of the Peripatetic fchool.
On account of the various fubjeds of them,
and the fuperior acutenefs and ingenuity of
their author, they were preferred to the o-
ther Greek writings, thofe of Plato except-
ed.-    In particular, his Analytics and his
Rhetoric attra ed much attention.     At
Rome, Rhetoric was cultivated along with Lo-
                            G




                     76
gic, as they confidered a knowledge In both
requifite in the art of Perfuajion.

   From the decline of literature at Rome, till
the i2th or 13th century, the analytics of
Arifitotle fhared the fame fate with the other
Greek and Roman authors.        During the
dark  ages, fo called from   the general igno-
rance and fuperiition of the times, they were
negledled, corrupted, and the languages in
which they were written   were imperfe6Uy
known, only to a few perfons in cathedrals
and monafferies.*- - Hence fprung the Schoi
laftic  Philofophy-a -corruption of Greek
and Roman learning, mixed with the fuperftia
tion and theology of thefe times,

    The objeEls of the Scholaftic philofophy
 were ufelefs and frivolous..--The infhitutions
 and ;plans of fludy, then eftabliflhed, were fuited
 to the fpirit and ambition- of thefe times.-
 The writings of- the Scholaftic Philofophers
 were, in their flyle, barbarous, and altogether
 devoid of tafte.

    The Greek philofophy, and particularly the




                     77
analytics of Ariflotle, wee early cultivated. a
mong the Arabians; and Commentaries of fore
of the Arabic philofophers have come dow1
to us.- ---By the conquefs of the Arabians
in Europe, the progrefs they had made in
the Rudy of the Greek philofohy, was united
with that which it had previoufly made in Eun
roped

   During -the Scholaflic ages, the art- of logi
became feparated from the other branches of
phiLofophy.    -Caufes of the increafing at-
tention to the analytics of Ariflotle, and the
fubfequent- high admiration of it.   The
progrefs of philofophical and-theological con-
troverfy promoted the Rudy of them.
The fyllogifm was found an ufeful inftrument;
for attack and defence,. in, carrying on thefe.
controverfies._

   'The analytics of Ariffotle foon became the-
foundation of an obfcure and fubtile mode of
difputation,. fuited to the fpiirit of thefe tiMes.
     -The talents of managing, and of excel-
 ling in 'debate and controverfy, became the
 chief obj ec~s of learned, ambitio - .-
                           G 2





                     78
The whole fyftem of academical inifitutions and
difcipline, were fo eftablifhed, as to give full ef-
fea to the progrefs of the art of Controverfy.
---- A fyfterem- of rules founded upon the
analytics, for managing difputes, became the
chief object of ftudy.

   During the reign of the Scholaflic phofa.
phy, the art' of ancient logic ingrof ed the,
whole attention of the learned.   -All 0-
ther fciences and arts were negleded as un-
wQrthy of notice.-   The whole plan of pub
lic education- as fo conduaed, as to prepare
and qualify for difplays of logical ikill and ad"
drefs.-Regular modes of difputation were
eft~ablifhed in the fchools, according to the
rules of fyllogifM.      The authority of A.-
riftotle on every fubje~t, previous to the revival
of literature, was univerfal and defpotic --
The encomniums beftoxvcd upon his logic are-
extravagant and ridiculous.

      Third Period f the Hi//tory, of Logic.

   A vIEW of .the caufes which led to the rew
floration of true, learning, and to the over





                      79
throw of the Scholaftic philofopy-The
effe~ts thereof tended to dirninifh the authori-
ty of Ariflotle, and particulary to withdraw
the general attention from his logic.-Radi-
cal defeas of that mode of reafoning and in-
veftigation .

   Philofophers foon arofe in different parts of
Europe, who difputed the authority of Arifto-
tie on every fubjea, An account of the
attacks made upon it in France by Ramus,
Defcartes.---The difficulties they had to en-
counter, and the attempts made by them to re
form the ancient- method of reafoning.

   The art of reafoning received its greateft re-
 form from the comprehenfive mind of Lord
 Bacon in England.          The -principles on
 which  his reform was -eflablifhied.----The pro-
 grefs' of his labours, and the refult of them.
        -H-is obj ed was not to reform the an-.
 cient fyflem-but to overthrow-it, and to eftw.
 blifli a better mode of .reafoning in its place.
         His mode -of inveftigation is -dd ine~ated
 in his works, "De A-ug~nntis Scienticirumt," and
 his 4" .Novur Oirgdlnwam-"
                           G,3




8o


  Lord Bacon was not the inventor of the in
duive mode of reafoning,buthfifwo
applied it to the interpretation of Nature.
It was at all times, and every where, pradifed
in the common affairs- of life. He firf taught
the regular application of it to fcience and art.

   The principles and procefs of induive rea-
foning explained.--.-The common defeCts of
the Induflive Procefs, viz.

   ift, The drawing a general conclufion from
too few inftances.
   2d, The overlooking differences in cafes ap-
parently fimilar.

   From, thefe defeds have fprung falfe hypota
thefis in philofophy, errors in conduct, vulgar
notions of omens, unlucky days, &c.-- Lord
Bacon's. rules of eftabliffling- a .legal indudion.
    -The great d /?deratum is to diftinguifh
 betwixt. an imperfedt and perfedt indudion.

   Benefits derived from; Lord Bacon's works,,
 and particularly from his new Mode of invef.
 tigation.      The few' difcoveries made be.






fore his time, and the numerous difcoveries
made fince, are the beft proofs of the advanf
tages derived from. his writings and example.


   Sir Ifaac Newton followed the plan Lord
Bacon had delineated, and improved
His rules of philofophifing are founded on the
Novurnz Organm.- ---Succeeding philofophers,
in every department, have applied Lord Ba.
con's rules, and profited by them, often with-
out due acknowledgment.-      Imitation of
Lord Bacon's genealogical tree of knowledge
by foreign philofophers.


   The experience of near two centuries has
 convinced the learned, that in Natural Philo-
 fophy, experiment and jft induetion alone area
 to be trufted.      The induo-ive procefs may
 be fuccefsfully applied. to the- difcovery of the.
 laws of alind, as well as of matter.--lluftration.


    Though, by the efforts of Lord Bacon and,
 his fucceffors, the logic of Arittotle was laid a-
 fide as an inftruinent of invefhgation, it fiill
 kept its ground -in fchools and univerlitie6, as






a principal branch of educaton    ITc
caufes of this explained and illufirated.


  Various attempts have been made, in later
times, to accommodate the logic of Ariflotle
to the general improvements in philofophy, by
commentaries, abridgments, &c. rThe
beft of thefe attempts have not eftablifhed any
new principle, but have removed fome defects,
and feparated the ufeful from the uclef.-
The. principle of the ancient mode of reafoning
is radically defecive.

  A comparative view of-the fyllogiffic and in-
dulive modes of reafoning, and their refpec-
tive merits and demrnerits fairly fRated.
Since the period of Lord Bacon, his method of
inveftigation has received. great -impr-ovements_
fromn,.

   ifi, The more clear and diflind notions of
the powers of k-noxledge-their. operations- and
ofhices--their extent -and limits, by Locke
Hurme, Reid, Condillac, &c.
   .2dly,. From the. many beautiful and corred




                     83
fpecmens of Synthefis and Anafyfis to be
found in their works, and in thofe of other
philofophers.


   The end and objes of the art of realoning,
have of late been greatly promoted, by an al-
teration in the manner of teaching it, adopted
in the univerfities of this country.  The
bufinefs of a firft philofophy clafs is not now,
as formerly, confined to an explanation of the
logic and metaphyfics of Arifiotle.   --This
was an improper introduaion to the Rudy of
philofophy, and calculated to excite prejudices
againlt logic..

   An art of reafoning cannot be acquired by
-the mnol perfeai comlprehenfion. of its rules..
.The fure foundation of progrefs in that
art, mnuft be laid in training, -the attention of'
the Mind,

   1. To a careful -obfervation of' immediate,
faEns, the firfl principles of knowledge.
   2. To the kinds and degrees of evidence by
 which truths are fupported..




                    84
  3. T 'o difin and accurate methods of corn-
parifon and inference.
   4. To a fimple and regular procefs of analy"
fis in the fi dy of every fubjea.

   Defeds of the rational powers which muff
be guarded againft in a courfe of ftudy.--4
Caufes which retard and prevent the improve-
ment of the powers of knowledge,     Obfla-
dies which may be removed, and means which.
may be emjployed, to promote their, improve-
ment,.- Conjeaures on the high degrees of
improvement to which the powers of know.
ledge may arrive, under the direajion of natu.
ral and regular, modes of, inveftigation


ND OF THE SECOND GENE RA L DIVISION








SECOND GENERAL DIVISION.


          On the Powers of Tafe.

  I. ANAL YSIS of the Powers of Tate.
  1I. Ti-in Art or Methods of improving them.

               PART I.

       Aalysis of the Powers f Tafte.

  THE powers of take are original.-The
are a compound. of certain powers of know"
ledge, and certain capacities of fenfibility.

  The powers b'f knobwledge exrcifed about
objects of tafte, are the fame powers of per~
cepton, judginig, and reafo  in g, which ae m
ploye4 about obje~ts of Icience, .-There
are, howtever, certain modifications of thee
powers, whichi may be refpedively adapted
to each of thefe obje~cs. ~-That modifica-




                     86
tion of the powers of knowledge adapted to
objeas of taite, the French writers call Beli
efprit.-  The difference betwixt Genius and
Tafte illuitrated.

   The capacities of Senfibility which are called
Powers of Tafte, are in various refpe&s dif-
tinguifhed from the other capacities of fenfa-
tion, viz.

   I. By the peculiar qualities in the obje&s
which excite them.
   2. By the external fenfe through which the
 impreffion is made.
   3. By the emotions being direly and im-
 mediately agreeable, without reference to any
 other end.
   4. By their being unaccompanied with de-
 fires or paflions, or the ftronger fenfibilities of
 our nature.
    5. By the peculiar effeas produced by them,
 orthe faculty of imagination.

    Illuftration of thefe Particulars.
    Many definitions have been given by dif&
 ferent authors 'of the powers of tafte  -a




                     87''
proof that there is no good definition, and that
that there are difficulties in the attempt.
Definitions of the powers of taffe, and remarks
upon them.         Every good definition of
them muff comprehend both ingredients of the
compound, viz, original powers of knowledge,
and capacities of Lcnfibilitv.

   No regular analyfis of the powers of tafe is
to be found in any of -the Greek or Roman
writers, though there are references to them
in Ariftotle, Cicero, and %inffilian..-
The abtra terms Tafte, has no equivalent in
the Greek or Latin languages.            The
ancients have left finilhed models of tafte, but
"few fpeculations on the powers of tate.

   Thefe powers were not thought worthy ,of
 fpeculation during the fcholaftic ages.

   Since the revival of literature, many effays
 on the powers ogf tafte have been publifh-ed by
 Englifh and French writers.--Mr. Addi-
 fon's'papers, in the 6th vol. of the Spectator,
 contain the firifl regular analyfis of the powers
 or tafte in the En~glifh- language.- HJe has
                              H 2




                     8
been followed by Hutchifon, lume, Burke,
Gerard, W~air, Allifon, &c.


   The powers of tafte have bcen called by
'Dr Hutchifon, internal, reflex, or fubfequent
.fenfes.- -Foundation of the analogies by
which they have been fo called, and particular
y of the analogy betwixt them and the exter
nalfne   of 2J/6 ~er mm  hichthyavboow
cd W-h, niame.

   That branch of the confitution of mind,
 called Internal Senfes, comprehend not only
 powers of tafle, ' but alfo thofe of virtue.-
 The former 'are the reflex fenfes of Novelty,
 Grandeur, .Beauty, Ridicule, Imitation.
 The- latter are the moral fenfe, and the fen fe
 of fympathy, which are intimately connealed
 with the, former.

   In condu~ting this analyfis in a Firft Philo-
fophy CLafs, fom.L affiftance' may be received
from confidering the powers of taffe under the
fam iliar notion of fenfese




                      89
   An analyfis of the reflex fenfes will com-
prehend an explanation of

   r. The original power or capacity of re
ceiving agreeable emotions.
   2. The qualities in objeas of nature or art,
which call it forth.
   3. The peculiar emotions which are received
by the reflex fenfe.
   4. The final caufe or purpofe ferved by
each of the reflex fenfes.

   In the explanation of thefe fubjeds, care
nuff be taken to avoid the ambiguity of cer-
tain terms which are fometires applied to the
reflex fenfe, and at other times to its objeas.

     A naly sis o the eflex Senfe ofNovvelty..

   I.. THEi reflex _fenfe of novelty may. be _dif.
tinguifhed from the emotions of novelty. -
The mind at all times poff'eff'es this power;;
the emotions are occafional, as ,thcir objects
are prefented.- The term Curiof zy, one
of the, firft principles -of motion in the mind,
is fometimes applied to this reflex fenfe-
                             H 3




                     go
but it embraces, other objeds than thofe which
belong to this reflcx fenfe as one of the-powers
of tafte.

  11. Novelty is not an inhcrent or poftive
quality in objeds like extenfion and folidity.
It is relative to the prcvious knowledge and
experience of the obferver, and the claffes of
objecrts he has been accuftomed to obferve.

  The objeCts of novelty muf be objets fitted
to produce emnotions.  -Many new objeCts
-that is, obje~cs feen for the frf time, do not
produce the emotions of this fenfe,--The
proper obje~ts of novelty as a reflex fenfe, are
not merely the new, but the uncommon-rare.
- -firngular-or unexpedc'ed.-.--Examples and
ill uffration.-Obje(_s not new inl certain cir-.
cumft~ances, produce the emotion of novelty.

   Novelty, in works of art, is the refult of
gienius~-and compr ehends new inventions in
art-niew diicoveries in fejence-or new views,
of obj ets formerly known..-lu ftration.

   111. The emotions arif~ng from all the refiex




                     9'
fenfes, have in them, as a principal ingredient,
the pleafure of active exertions of underfland.
ing, and imnagination. -As new objeas may
often poffefs other interefling qualities, it be.
comes more difficult to analyfe the emotion of
novelty.-    The peculiar and appropriate ef
motions of novelty, are wonder and furprife.
-Thefe emtotions are temporary-not per.
manent- -and difcover themfelves by certain
external marks.

   IV. This reflex fenfe is in a great meafure
peculiar to man.-It makes its appearance
in early years, and continues through life.
The period o(-f youth affords the moft complete
gratification of it.. - - -The operations of this
reflex feni>, are moff beautifully defcribed by
Milton,, inl the 8~th. Book of Paradife Loft.

   The agree  hle emotions of novelty, are the
 caufes 'of thofe exe.rtionas of mind and body on
 whic 1 future i-,npr ovcments depend. -- They
 are wifely inten ded, to excite to action, indulf-
 try, and difcove-Ty.




92


   AXnalysis of the Reflex Senfe of Grandeur.
   I. The reflex fenfe of grandeur may be difin
guiffied from the emotions of grandeur.-
The original capacity of difcerning grandeur,
and of receiving agreeable emotions from it,
exiffs in the mind at all times, though it is only
exercifed when great objecs are prefented.
-To the former, we afcribe notions of ac-
tive power-to the latter, paffive effeds.

   I1I Greatnefs and littlenefs-are relative terms,
and derive their meaning from comparifon.
-   Greatnefsm-the objed of this fenfe mu t
be relative to the different claffes of objeds,
and to the degrees of greatnefs that are familiar
to the obf erver..-A fmaller objq& of one
clafis may produce the em otions of this fenfe,
when much gr eater obj eds of canlother_ clafis do
not produtce. them..

   rrhe qualities.. in fenfible objects which af-
fed this fenfe, are,
   I. V.-Utnef s of Climenfion in extent, breadth,
or thickinefs   ' p.er in fingle objcds, or in
group of objcds having a variety of parts




                     93
 clofely united or related.-Exampes.
   2. Loudnefs or f rength of found, proceed.
ing from natural or artificial bodies.-Exam,
ples.

   T    .      -a   f1fthe e ets of thefe are fentions.
They become emotions of tafte, in fo far as
by affociation they afe& the imagiation, and
lead to the notyLus of that power and inte11i
gence which produces them.

   3. From fome analogy or refemblance to
the great, in inanimate objets, great charac-
ters, great virtues, great genius, are contemhplat
.ed with fimilar emotions.

  I1. The peculiar and appropriate emotions
of this fenfe, are admiration-kv ain--- ex-
a/tcztion of mind. -Though the new and the
great mnay be both united in the fame objeEa,
and the, emotions may be blended, they are.
fpeciflcally different.- -~The agreeablc emo-
tions of novelty foon ft blide, and the object is
defected.- The- emotions of grandeur are in-6
creafed and enhanced by frequent furveys of
this obje&, and new impulfes given, to the
imagination.*




94


                 On Sublimity.

   THE great and the Jublime are nearly allied,
.-any writers on tafte do not attempt to
feparate them.------  Some   ades of differ
ence may be obferve1 in the qualities and in
the enwtions. ---   Sblimity may belong to
different claffes of great ob       cannot
be meafured by the'- fenfes.-It is greatnefs
,abjolute, v hich does not admit of conzpari/on.
Examples of fublimity.


   Sublimity is afcribed metaphorically to cha-
 raders and virtues, and to a certain kind of
 ftyle.----Illuf tration.


   The emotions produced by f'ublime objeds
 may be diftinguiffied from thofe of grandeur.
 ---Sublime objeas mingle with, admiration
 and elevation of mind, emotions of awe, ap-
 prehenfion approaching to terror.- ---The
fublime and the terrible difigihd---e
marks on fome theories of the fub lime and




                      9S
   IV. The final caufe of grandeur, or the pure
pofe. ferved by this reflex fenfe, is, to train
the mind by the contemplation of fenfible and
intelledual grandeur, to greatnefs that is fpi-
ritual and divine.       The early direaion of
this fenfe is of great importance to youth.

            R eylex Senfe of Beauty.

   THE analyfis of this reflex fenfe is more dif.
ficult than that of the other refx fenfes.-
The caufes thereof explained.

   I. This reflex fenfe, or power of 4ife
ing and relifhing beauty, may be diftinguifh-
ed from   the emotions of beauty.         This
pow'er, though original in the human conftitu-
tion, does not appear fo early, as fomie of the
other reflex fenfes.  - Young children feemn
to have little perception of beauty.

   II.- Beauty is an inherent quality in 'fome
 objeds.        Trhe emotions produced by it,
 are always accompanied with a judgment of
 fomething excellent in the object..-No com-k
 mon feature can be afeertained in all the dif~
 fereat objedls called BeautifuLo  -.Exam~q




                      96
 pees of a variety of different objects, called
 Beautiful.

   The term was probably fift applied to ceno
 tain qualities of vifible objects, and afterwards
 extended to other objes. -Analyfis of vifim
 ble beauty in colour, figure, variety, r egulari
 ty, proportion

   Analyfis of audible beauty, melody, harmoa
fly, expreflion.

   Analyfis of metaphorical beauty-of virtue
 charater, adion.

   Analyis of intelledural beauty in fcience
 works of genius.

   Analyfis of the effreds of cuflom, fafhion'
utility, affociation, on the judgments of this
fenfe.

   1II. The a greeable cmotions of this fenfe are
different from thofe -which are produced by-
the new, or great, or fuLblitnle.-  The ap-
propriate emotions of this fenfe, are certain




                      97
modifications of love, and maintain one uni-
form tenor of fweetnefs and gaiety.---The
moft powerfuil emotions of this fenfe are pro-
duced by beauty in the human countenance.
   4. The final caufe of beauty.-Remarks
upon fome theories of the beautiful.


            Reflex Senfe qf Ridicule.

   1. The reflex fenfe of ridicule is the power
by which we difcern, and ate affeaed by the
ridiculous, in actions and opinions.-.- It is pe-
culiar to man. -.---" Smiles from recfyn flow."

   This reflex fenfe is different from the power
 or talent of ridicule.--AII perfons in fome
 degree poffef's the former ; the latter is a rare
 talent. --Their refpectve boundaries fet-
 tled.

   II. Analyfis of the qualities in objects
which affed this reflex fenfe.

   JAL iaiculous aaions are adions of intelli-
gent beings,




                     93
  No qualities of inanimate objets affea this
fenfe;

  None of the ations of inferior animals

  Nor of infants, idiots, or madmen.

  All ridiculous actions are palpable deviat
tions from the Jiandards of Reafon and Common
Senfe.       Not criminal deviations which
excite horror; but flighter, though not lefs ob-
vious deviations, from the above tandard.

   Ridiculous actions arc inconfent with the
 exercife of reafQn, and cannot-be fupported by
 argument.

   Specimens or examples of the kinds and de�
 grees, of faulty exceffes, or defects in action,
 which fall-within the range of this fenfe.--
 Various reifrictions and qualifications of themr.

    The ridiculous in opinion, are f milar pal-
 pable deviations from the common fiandards
 of belief and evidcnce.-Specimens and ex~
 amp                  _les of the- ridiculous in opinion.




                      99
  I1 The nature and qualities of the emo.
tions which arife from this reflex fenfe, di&
tinguifhed from the emotions of the other fen-
fes.s  Tlhefe emotions have a peculiar ex-
preflion in the human     countenance, from
which this fellle takes its name.

   The general expreffion of emotion in the
human face, to which the term Laughter is
given, admits of- great variety and diftinaion,
according to the qualities in obj eas from which
it proceeds.

   The rifible is altogether different from the
ridiculous, and may be diftinguifhed from it,

   x. By the qualities in obj ecs which produce
 laughter.
   2. By the very different emotions produced
 in the mind.
   3. By Inicer differences in the general ex-
 preffion of laughter.

    Wit and humour are allied to ridicule.-
 The analyfis of them is difficult.     Wit is
 foinetimxes applied to the effe~ts,, but oftener




                     10-0
to the caufe or powers which produce them.
-----Philofophers have endeavoured to cir"
cumfcribe the talent of wit within two or three
modes of exertion, and have condefcended on
the various fpecies and claffes of wit.-Ma.
fy difplays of wit are not reducible to thee
claffes.--------They chiefly confift in prefent-
ing contrafts----in  difcovering fimilarity in
objets that are different, and differences in fim
milar objets----in bringing together things
unconneaed.      , Caufes and effeas difpropor.
tioned to each other.

   The talent of wit confiffs in readinefs, quick-
 nefs, and vivacity of imagination, and in cor-
 refponding powers of expreffion.--Shake-
 fpear's defcription of the Witty Mtan.

   The emotions- excited by wit, are various
   ---are fifrongeft in perfons of quick appre-
henfion and lively imagination. -Surprife
fuddenly excited or checked.-Gaiety-.
brilk aaivity of mind-quick fucceffion -of
thought, -&c.

   Humnou~r may .be diffinguiffied from ridi .




                     I0
 cule, though the fubjeas of them are nearly
 allied.'-----Inconfifencies, incongruities, od-
 dities, difproportions in charaaers and condu&,
 not inconfiftent with good and amiable difpo.
 fitions, and even good abilities, are the fubjens
 of humour.--Specimens of fuch caprices,
 weak anxieties, chldifhnefs, vanities, &C.


   The talent of Humour, confifts in aptnefs or
quicknefs in difcovering fuch peculiarities,.to-
gether with fuch exercifes of imagination, and
powers of imitation and defcription, as may
give them proper colouring.


   References to authors diftinguifhed by their
talents of Ridicule, Wit, or Humour, as- the
befl method of. afcertaining their, boundaries..
--Remarks on Cicero's diftinajons of Wit-
and Humour..


   The final' caufe- of ridicule--The pur-
pofes ferved by it.-In what fenfe ridicule mray
be confidered as a teft of Truth.--Defeats and:'
imperfeaions- of this flandard.,
                           1'3




102.


                  Initation.

  IMIATION has been confidered as one of
the reflex fenfes.-= 'Man is endowed with a
pronenefs and a power to imitate, and receives
much: pleafure from it.------- He imitates be
fore he can difcover any end or utility in imi-
tation.

   Imitation is not a dire6t, but 'a feondary
fource of the pleafures of tafle..--.-The plea-
fure is not received immediately from the obw
jeEt-but from   a reprefentation of it.

   Thefine arts, or the arts of tafle, viz. Poe.
try, Painting, Mufic, Sculpture, Eloquence,
&ic. are all fo many different ways of imitating
Nature.

   rfhe obje~ts imitated. - The       mode of
their imitation.--Thie 'inf-r-uments by which
it, is Oeelted, are different, in--the different arts..
Some of the fine arts are diretly and immedi.
ately imitative ; others of them are fo, mndi-.
redly.--- Exam ples--lluflration.




                    103
  Though Nature be the fole flandard of imi.
tation in the fine arts, principles are admitted
in them, by which the lines and features of
Beauty, taken from a variety of objeas, are
formed into one whole, and produce a great-
er effea.-. Imitation not confined to beau-
tiful objets.-   Mean, difagreeable, offenfive
objeas, may be imitated, and give pleafure.

   Perfeaion of imitation is not the ftandard,
but approximation to it. The objea muff be
perceived as an imitation, not as a prefent real
objet.

   The emotion of pleafurereceived from imi
 tation in the arts, may be diftinguifhed from
 the emotions arifing from the real objeas.---
 Were they the fame, the pleafure from the ori-
 ginal would never fall fhort of the copy.-
 This is not the cafe.     There may be per.
 fea imitation without pleafure. Examples.

    The emotions of pleafure received from imi-
 tation, are chiefly intelleaual, and arife,

    x. From the aaivity of the imagination in




                     104
'comparing the imiation with the original.
   2. From the perception and admiration of
ikill, and defign in the imitation.
   3. This is enhanced ,by the difficulty of the
imitation-from      the difparity between the
imitating and. imitated objed.--from every
circumfnface which increafes the difficulty.
  '4. The final caufe of imitation. -----The im,
portant purpofes ferved by it as the inftrument
of utility, or of pleafure and improvement

   Remarks. on the moral' fenfe, andfenfe of'
fympathy.----Their connedion and affinity
with-the dire& fenfes of tafte.- Their influ-
ence, and.- authority over them.



                PA RT      ILe.

 The Arts or Methods of Improving thej Powers~
                   of Tafte.

  THE powers of tafte are- capable of culture..
  -The progrefs of, taffk in individuals
and in nationls, affords fuffici ent proof of




                    1 05
their improvable nature.        The nature
of that improvement of which they are fuf
ceptible.

  Though the original powers of tafte be pofw
feffed by all, yet all do not poffefs them in the
fame degree-nor does any one indivi-
dual poffefs all of them in their highet degree
of perfe&ion.

  The powers of tafte are a compound of cer-
tain modes and varieties of the powers of
knowledge, and of capacities of fenfibility.
     ..Each of thefe claffes of powers are im-
provable--though not in the fame degree,
nor by the fame means.          The nature
of that improvement- which belongs to each.
----That happy union, or combination of
thofe flimple 'powers, which c onftitute a good
tafte.

   The improvement of the -powers of .know,.
ledge, direted to the objedts of tafte,. con.
ft itute 'a corref tafte-r---of the, powers of
fenfibility, conftitute, a delicate tafte.--The:
union of thefe in the fame individual, and ia;




                     io6
their higheff degrees, conflitutes the moft per-
k-t tafte.

   Though the fine arts be the chief province
of the powers of tafte, they extend their influ-
ence to every branch of fcience or of art   --
t~o condut and manners-to anufements as-
-vrvll as to ferious purfuits.

   The original powers of tafte are the fame in
all.-- Diverfity of tafte arifes from-different
modifications and proportions of them in dif-
ferent individuals---from   the predominance
of fome of them over others, and from the un-
equal improvement of them.

   T'hough there be great dixrerflity of tafte,
 there 'are general principles about -which- men
 are as much agreed as in morals.       There-
 is, therefore, a fl andard of tafte, though it be
 not a perfet one.-It is ereated on original
 fimilarity in the powers of tafe---on fimi-
 lar laws to which the imagination is fubjeatedl
   --confirmed by the general confent and ap-
 probation of all thofe who are qualified to
 judge in matters of tafte.






  The fiandard of tafle is a fandard of apa
proximation-.---The things to which this
fandard is applied, do not admit of an exaL
or accurate meafure.-----t determines, ex
cellence, but cannot. fettle competition.
Difference of taffe is not a proof of a wrong
taffe. --  R-emarks on the common maxim
"D eguftibus non difputandun."

   The original powers of tafle are indireily
 improved by every thing in the fituation of
 man, which has a tendency to produce clear
 and difindt apprehenfion-to refine and re6
 gulate fenfibility----by fituations and circum-
 flances favourable to correanefs and delicacy
 of moral feeling.

    They aire direfi ly improved-by furnifh~
 ing proper objeds, and. occafioiis for their ex"~
 ercife---by prefenting the beft models, and
 promoting a familiar acquaintance with them
 -by rules and infirudions, founded upon
 experience, applied, to them

    The rimprovement of the" powers of tafle oc-
  cupy too f'mall a proportion, of the Academical




                     08
 Courfe.---They are not only fufceptlble of
 early culture, but of early corruption and
 wrong direion.-They are not only
 fources -of elegant pleafure, but they promote
 and -encourage thofe habits of inveftigation
 and analyfis, upon which progrefs in fcience
 depends.

   The fine arts, or the arts of tafle, Were con
fidered by the ancients as an important branch
of education.       They were found to prow
duce powerful effeds upon the minds of men,
   -..The ancient views of the dignity of
thefe arts hinted by Plato, Strabo, and Plu-
tarch, were entirely overlooked in the fucceed-
ing periods-rand were loft in the Gothic and
Scholaftic ages..- _-Some -of the fine arts then
fell into the hands o�f ignorant artifts, and have
not yet altogether efcaped from fuch degrada-*
tion.

   An Academical Courfe of Education cannot
embraee the whole of the- fine -arts.-----
The models. of Painting, Sculpture, Mufic,
arnd Architedture, cannot, be prefented or a-
nalyfed in a Courfe of Academical Lealuress




                     109
----In proportion as any of the fine arts
depart from" their cdmmoi origin] and depend
upon mechanical habits, they become the lefs
proper fubjecs of general (peculation,

   The departments of tafte bet accommodated
to the ends of Academical Education, are Hif
tory, Poetry, and Eloquence.     The mo.
dels thereof can be prefented and analyfed.
----The claims of Hiftory to be ranked a,
nong the fine arts.


    w   ,

An Academical Courfe of Lecures on the meas
     oinProving the Powers f Tafie -Jhould com-.
  prehend,

  L. AN explanation of the Principles and
Rules of the Art of Criticifml.

   II. AN application of them in an Analyfis
of the principal models of Compofition in U1if-
tory, Poetry, and Eloquence.




X 1


            I. TVie Art of Criticl/n.

   TIHE object of this art is to furnifh rules for
judging in the fine arts.-     There mufl be
compofitions and models before critics.--Men
of genius form rules to themfelves, which o�
thers follow.

   The rules of this art, like thofe of every o4
ther, are founded upon obfervation and expec
rience.       Men of judgment and fagacity
obferve what gives, and has always given pleam
fure, in all ages, in the produdion of the fine
arts.-F--Trom obfervation of the effels, they
proceeded to inquire into the caufes ofthem.
     -From this they -concluded what' ought to
pleafe, and ellablifhed rules of pleafing,

   The rules of the ancient critics were follow-
 ed implicitly till the reftoration. of literature.
    -After this period, critics arofe, who
lhooked beyond the ancient rules--------to the na-.
ture of man--his capacities of receiving -plea.
fure--- to the general. principles of the arts
Ito the end -which the artills have in view






L-to the means by which that end may be
belt effeated.

   The office of the critic is not to praife or to
cenfure-but to difcover what deferves praife
or cenfure.     1k- W who judges of the produc.
tions of others, ihould know not only what
they are, but what they ought to be.
There are fpecial rules of criticifmn which be-
long to the refpehve departments of the fine
arts..

   The rules of eriticifin are ufeful. -They
dirst and improve thefaculty of judging.-
They "lead to the caufes or fources of plea
fure. --Thy       determine the kinds and de-
grees "of pleafuire which the objels of tafte are
qualified to give*.-.--hey furnifhi reafons for-
approbation or difapprobation.--They pro-
mnote the improve ment of the _intelleanual
powers.

   Objeaions againf[ -the rules of criticifin,- an-
fwered.-Rules do not cramp, or reftraia
genius.-They can take nothing from, ge.
nius, but may prevent errors and miftakes.
                             K 2       T





-Men of the greateft genius-have often er-
red by transgreling rules.-Defeds in ge,.
nius are improperly afcribed to the ftrkt ob.
fervation of rules.

  Illiberal, capricious crkicifn1, may be occaf
fionally hurtful,


II. Analysis fhe Principal Models o f Coznprtiono

  INTRoDucTIoN.-PreviouS to an analyfis in
the Englifh language of compofitions in Hif-
tory, Poetry, and Eloquence, it will be ufeful
to explain,

   1. The origin, progrefs, and peculiar -Qua-
lities, of the Engliffi Language..

   2. The' Elements -of Englifh Compofition-
.-V.ords--S entences-Idiom-Style.

1. Origin and Progrefs of the Eng4Jh Language..

  rThe principles of Univerfal Grammar form
the bafis of all: particular languages...-




                    II3
Caufes which give occafion to particular lan
guages, and   their different modifications,
though from a common fource.-   The pro-
grefs of language in every nation muff keep
pace with the progrefs of civilization, of fcience
and art, and of intercourfe with other nations.
--The language of no one nation has arriv-
ed at its moft perfet fiate, without receiving
affiftance from other languages...

   The modern lknguages of Europe feem to
have been 'derived from three or four more
ancient languages, which have been called
Mother Languages.--    They are o called,
becaufe there is no record of more ancient lan-
guages from which they are derived.

   Origin of the Englifh language.---The
 primitive language of Britain, previous to the
 Roman invafion, was probably a dialet of the
 ancient Celtic.-Changes upon the original
 language would be produced at different pe-
 riods by the the conquefts of the Romans,
 Saxons, Danes, Normans.

   The Bafis of the prefent language of Bri-
                           K 3




                    " 4
tamn, is Saxon, Greek, Latin, and French.
It has undergone many alterations and fn-
provements, from the introduaion and iudy of
Greek and Roman literature-from the
progrefs of philofophy and the arts -of ci-
vilization and intercourfe 'with other nations
-and particularly from the extraordinary ex-
tent of its commerc, and the adoption of new
terms- from cvery quarter of the world.

   The progreflive alterations and improve-
ments in the Englifh language, will be beft ob-
ferved in the progrefs of Englifh compofitions,
and particularly from the progrefs of poetical
compoition).s.-Illluftraion.

   Every ,language mnuff have its own grain-
mnar. -The rules of gramm ar are- der ived
from the principles and cuftom of the lan-
wuage, and do not produce the.-In the
Ir{[ flages of a language, there are no gram-
rnars. -Grammar is a colledion of rules
founded' upon an analyfis ,of a formned lan-
guage.        Remrarks upon the grammar of
the Engiifh hii<;uaage, and _on thofe parts which
demand particular attention from the fludcnt of





Engliflh compofition, viz, the Auxiliary Verbs,
Prepofiions-M. Horne Tooke's theoy of
Propofitions and Conjunions.

  A comparifon of the Englifh language with
the ancient languages, and- with tme of the
modern   languages        with the itandard
properties of a perfect langiage, viz. Clear
nefs, Diftinftnefs, Energy, and revity.


    2. On the Elements of E'   Go?? ztion.

    On words-their fignification, literal or fi-
gurative.-G-----On fynonimes-thcir ori in and
ufe.       Idrsioms or forms of expreflion pe-
culiar to the Englifh language. ..'he power
of ufe and. cuftom in language.

   Sentences are fimple or complex  -T'he
members or claufes of fentences.-The
length or fhortnefs of 'fentences.-.-The ge-
neral ftruwaure of Englilh: fentences, and ar-
rangement of the parts or members of feinm
tences.--.-The relative pofition of the differ-
ent parts of fpeech in Englifh fentences..-
The reqjuifites of u~nity, firength, and har -




                     ii6
vzony in fenteces.-Examples of fentences,
which have and have not thefe requifites.

                  On Style,

   Style is that peculiar choice of words, and
of their arrangement, by which compofitions
on the fame fubjea are diflinguifhed from each
other. _     The term Style,-from the ancient
Stylus, was tirif applied to the comparative
clearnefs, brightnefs, or elegance, of engraved
letters.-.The caufes of fuch differences were
afcribed to the ftylus, or infrument.   It
was afterwards transferred to the modes of
ufing language, which produced analogous ef-
fees.

   Suech different effedts may be obferved in e4.
very mode of comnmunication.- Dumb men
may -be faid to differ! in their ftyle. --In rude
and favage nations, their chiefs, or leaders,
addrefs their followers with fimilar diftinc-
tions, as the poliffied orators of Greece or
Rome.

   Every perf'on who fpeaks or w"rites, may be






'flid to hav e a (lyle of his own; but, like differ.
ences of characer, thofe only of prominent feam
tures can be particularly marked.       A riters
of great genius are as eafily diftinguilhed by
their pecliar ityle, as perfons of great beauty
by the features of the face.


   Inquiry into the caufes of the great dverfity
 in ftyle.-   On account of the intimate con-
 nexion betwixt thought and language, differ-
 ences of (Lyle muff be afcribed to original dif-
 ferences of intelligence and fenfibility in the
 charalers of men---to certain predominant
 varieties- of the powers of imagination, difcern-
 ment, and of the paffions.-Style depends
 nore upon differences of fenfibility than of
 intelligence.-JllIuftration of the. caufes of
 diverfity of (Lyle, by their effease

   The ancient critics made little p rogrefs ini
 the analyfis of (yle.--Accordinig to their o0
 pinions, differences of flyle chiefly depended
 upon the diff'erent qualities of lang uage, as
 plain or flgurative--and of the fubjeaa.OMNMO
 The Greek and Roman di(LinaSions of (Lyle.






  The qualities of ftyle- may be diftinguifhed
into thofe that are ential, and fuch as are
chiefly ornanzental.- The effential qualities,
Perfpicuity, Propriety,   Purity,  Simplicity,
Energy.--The ornamental qualities are
Inverfion, Figure, and Harmony.

  # The requifites. of Perf'picuity, Propriety, Pum
rity, and Energy of Style.-Examples from
writers difiinguiihed by thefe qualities of tyles.
-.--The want of thefe requifites will render
flyle obfcure, affefled, and feeble.-Example
of thefe defec's and imperfeaions in Ilyle.

   Analyfs of the ornamnental qualities of ffyle
 [See the Synopsis of Rhetoric.]

   Rules for- acquiring a good ftyle.-Immr
provemnent in flyle fuppofes a critical know..
     ledg  of anguge--The ifyle muff be fuit..
 ed to the charader and to the fubje--
 The effential qualities of fty-le fhould be the
 firft objed of the fludent.a---The peculiar ex-.
 cellencies of the flyle of diflinguifhed writer
 miuff be fludied and imitated.m-The nature
 of that imitation of ft'yle, which is ufeful and




                    " 9
laudable... --Frequent el'ays in compofition
M.O- MRepeated corre~fions.

        Analysis of Eng/h Compotion.

   THE term Compofition, may be applied ei
ther to the external form, or to the matter or
fubfiance of compofition.    As the words
are bound together by certain laws, fo is the
matter by certain conneIting principles.

   Compofitions have been divided by Lord
 Bacon, according to the faculties of the mind
 chiefly employed in them, viz. Memory, Ima=
 :gination, and Reafon.       A view of the
 different departments of human knowledge
 according to the above principle of divifion.

   Compofitions may alfo be divided according
 to the ends which -the comPofer has in view;
   ...-Thefe ends are,

   I. To prove fome propofition , _or to cone
 vince the judgment.
   2. To narrate faaCs.-.for information, or
 inflruaion.




                      I26
   T To excite emotions and paffons-t
 perfuade.

   'According to this principle of divifion, com.
 pofitions are either Philofophical, Hiftorical,
 or Rhetorical.-.Under this lafi head, are in-
 tlu;dd all poetical compofition .

     Philofophical or Didaflic C'ornptioC.

   Thefe. affume different forms-Effays, Dia
 logues, Syflems of Science-which have each
 their refpedive rules and form.       Thy
 rules of conduLting philofophical difcourfes be-
 long to Logic. -{See Latin Compend, De hea
 viatibus.]

   In the following analyfis of Hift orical and
Poetical Compofitions, the attention- of -the
Etudlent will be particularly direaed,

   i. To, the particular end which the corn-
pofer -has in view xin the different kinds of coin-
pofition.
   2. To the nature and qualiies of thefe na~
terials.




I  Y


  3. To the means or methods by which the
compofer effets the end, viz. by Seleajon,
Arrangement, and Style.

            Hiforical Coipofitions.

   The origin of hifforical compofitions.--- -
There is a natural propenfity in man to tranf
mit to pofterity the memory of great events.
Rude nations, prior to the invention of letters,
have their hifforical memorials, viz. Mounds of
Earth, Pillars, Traditions, Pefiivals, &c.

   The poets are the firft hiftorians in the cha-
rader of Bards, Scalds, Minfrels.-.The re-
mains of this form of hiftory-have come down
in this country, almoft to the( prefent times.

   iliftory is a narrative of fads and events,
and is either,

   i%. Civil, relative to the conduct of men in
fociety.
   2. Natural, relative to the, produEdions of
niature in the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdomse




                     122
   3. Sacred, relative to religion and the goA
vernment of the Church.

   ihis analyfis is confined to civil hifforyA

   i. The end which the hifiorian has in view,
is information and inflru&ion,
   2. The nZaterials upon which he works, are,

   Fit fi, The counfels, enterprizes, sand anions
of men, relative to the great interefls of Socie-
ty, Peace, War, Government, Laws, Religion,
Manners, Arts.
   Secondly, The immediate caufes of events,
 and motives of the a~tors.
   Thirdly, The charaters of the principal ag
 gents.
   .Fourth/y, Important and pertinent refleaions
 eccafi onally fuggefled in the narrative, and
 concif ely .expreffed.

   3. The hifizorian attains his end by his
 powvers and fkill in the arts of Sele~tion, Nara.
 ration, Defcription, Arrangement, and Style.

    Firfi, His powers. of feleEtion are employed




                     123

in the choice of fuch naterials as are adapted
to the end he has in view, and in applying the
rules of evidence to them.
   Secondly, 'The proper qualities of hiflorical
narrative, viz. Simplicity, Intereft, Brevity.
----Examples of Iiifturicai narrative pofin
-thefe qualities.
   Thirdly, Defcription may be diftinuifhed
from Narration, and from Defnition. e-I
luftration,

   The obojeas which the hiforian has to de-
 fcribe, are fenfibl. objes.-4 nternalobjcase
 ----Seitimenlets.--Emotions.-Objeds, fenfi
 ble and internal.-Extraordinary events.
 C har ateIrs.

   The manner of condu &ing defcriptions is
 two-fold, dircl and indire.--A direct de-
 fcription delineates the object, by an enunmera-.
 tion and felea'ion of the parts or qualities of
 the objeac defcribed.- -An' indireet defcrip-
 tion delineates the fe:eling s and cmnotions pro-,
    dcdby the object& on the min-d of the fpec-.
 tator.----Exam!ples of direst and indire t de-M
 feription.




                     1 24
   A comparifon of the dire   and ndirefld.-
frription.----Some objeds are beff defcribed
directly-others, with more fuccefs, _ndi-
recly.       The defcription of great and in-
terefting events partake of both--The hif.
torian is moft fuccefsful by indireli defcription
of mournful or calamitous events.

   Characters may be defcribed direfly or
 indirely.-Examples from celebrated au-
 thors, who defcribe the fame charaters di-
 retly and indirely.----Rules of defcription
 applied to the defcription of charaaers.

   Difference betwixt ancient and modern hif.
 torians in their mode of condufting hifforical
 compofitions, particularly relative to the
 Speeches of the Adors.--Ancient hillorians
 difcover but little political knowledge.
 Modern hiftorians have availed -themfelves of
 the great progrefs which has been, made in the
 fcience of Politics.

   4. Analyfis of the principles of Hiflorical
Arrangement. ---The order of nature-.or
the order of tinme and la-ce--is the moft gene"




                     125
ral principle of arrangement.-But that
principle muft fornetimes give way to the or-
der of cazife and effef.   Tranfitions and
digreffions in hiflorical compofition, require
found judgment and good tafte.

   The rules of hifforical compofition are ap-
plicable, with confiderable modification, to
Annals, Memoirs, Biography, &c.-Each
of thefe have their fpecial rules.

   g: The qualities of ifyle adapted to hiflori-
cal compofition,. area Perfpicuity, Simplicity,
Dignity, and Elegance.-Some kinds of
iyle, and fome kinds of figures, are altogether
infuitable. in hiftorical compofition.--..-The
ifyle of hiftory muff rife or fall with the fub-
jed~-Remarks upon the excellencies or-
faults of the principal ancient and modern hif-
torians. _     The proper talents of the hifto-
nian.

   The utility of the f udy of .Civil Hiffory..-
The advantages which it dcrivcs from the flu-.
dry of geography and c'hronology.-.---The efA
fe s of hiftorical knowledge on other branches
                           L 3




                     126;
of Pcience.---w-.A juft talk for real hiftory,
early acquired, is the bell prefervative againft
the enticements of fi~titious hiftory.

             Poetical Conpo ftion

   Poetry is the art of painting objeas in mea-
fured language or rhyme.--The meaning of
the term Poem in the Englifh language.
Poetry is diflinguifhed from Proe, both by the
matter and the forma--- by the operations of
thofe powers of mind which are employed in
thefe different kinds of compofition.


   The general end of poetry is to pleafe--that
 is, to excite agreeable fentimnents and, paffions,
 or ative and awakened ftates of mind.

   The means -by which this end is effeCted,
 are Fi~tion,' Imnitation---arbitrary Arrangement,
 -meafured Language or Rhyme-a  Style
 inverted-Energetic-Figurative.

   The origin of Poetical compofitions. ---
 Poetry is the firft mnod of compofition, and is




                     127
-prior to the invention of letters. Caufes
which promote or retard the progrefs of Poet-
ical compofitions.       Early and urcultivat.
ed periods of fociety, are favourable to orig.
nal genius in poetry.        Poetical coipofi.
tions are affeCted by the prevailing lpirit and
paflions of the times.

   The connection betwixt Poetry and Mufic
 in the fl-t ftages of their progrefs.-Advan-
 tages of their union..-Effeas of their fepa.
 ration.----The love of fong is natural to man.
 - - -Illufration. from the hiftonies of rude na-
 tions.

   Though the general end of poetry be to
 pleafe, that end may be affected by great di-
 verfity in poetical. compofitions. -All. poet..
 ical compofi-tions may be included in thefe
 three claffes, viz. Defcriptive, Narrative, and
 Re prefentative.

           x . Def criptive Poems.

    Defcriptive poems are thofe in which the
 poet affeals his end, chiefly by raifing piatures




                     12
or images of pleafing obje s. --'The chief
claffes of Defcriptive Poems, are Odes, Paf-
torals, Elegies, Satirics, &c.Of each of
thefe, there are varieties.

   The Ode is probably the firf form of cor-
pofition in every country. The Lyric Poets,
Alcaus, Tyrtmus, and Pindar, appearedfirfi in.
Greece.-The name LTric, given to this
fpecies of Poetry, is a proof of the early con-
nelion between Poetry and Mufic.

   No exact definition can be given of the
Ode, which w~ill apply to-every poem that
goes by that name.----  t is a poetical ex-
preffionn of high and animated emotions of fen-
fibility ; and is lefs fubjedced than any: other
fpecies of poetry, to the r ules of method, or,
of language     Odes have been brought un-
der thefe three claffes, according to the emo-
tions which are expreffed.- The Sublimre j
the Tender, and the Gay or- Sprightly~-
According to the fubjeasin, they have been di-
vided into the Sacred-Heroic--Moral.---
B3old beginnings, unexpe6ted excurfions, and
poetic ardour and enthufiafrn, are the charac-




                     129
teriflics of this rpecies of compof ton.-The
form of odes is different.-Exaples of the
different kinds of odes.-Charmer of the
principal lyric poets.----Remarks on the
form and obje~ls of thefe poetic compofitions,
called Madrigals, Sonnets, Epigrams, &c.-all
of which belong to the defcriptive clafs.

           Patoral or Rural Poetry.

   The end which the paftoral poet has in view,
is, to excite emotions of the gentler paffions
--,-Sentiments of Love, Innocence, and
Tranquillity.

  This end the poet effes by an imitation of
rural life--. --by a defcription of the moft
pleafing objeats to be found in it,, viz, the
beauties of External Nature-.-.the fimplicity
and ingenuity -of Rural -Charaaers, and Man.-
ners, and Arts.

   The paftoral _or rural poet, like other poets,
does not confine himfelf to an exa(t imitation,
but feledts and embellilhes fuch objeas as. are
fuited to his end.      Not only the external




                     130
objeis but the characters and paflions which
are deferibed, muff be fuch as tray be found
in rural life -icious and violent charac-
ters and- pafions, are altogether unfuitablee
--Coar fe and grofs manners cannot leafe
in the defcription.


   Pafloral poetry admits of a conflderable
 range with regard to its fubjeis.-Some
 paftorals are confidered of a higher, others of
 an inferior order.-Critics are not agreed
 about the extent or limits of pafforals. MM
 The conditions of fhepherds in-countries and
_ages truly paftoral, admit of confiderable dif-
tinaions in their character, with refpea to
knowledge ahd improvement in fome of the
arts.---Some have been clifpofcd to bring
within the range of pafloral poetry, all poems-
written i a- f mple and artlefs manner.


   The form of- paflora] compofitions may be
d ffrlptive, narrative, reprefntative-in the
form of dia/ogue---Examp'le  of thefe dif..
ferent forms.-..-The ftyle---natural, f mple,
elegant....--A particular fpecies of verfifica-




                    1t
tion, in diff erent languages, is accommodate
to it.

   Remarks on the origin ofpfoa    oty
-t                       nrModern paftorals are formed after the
model of the ancient paforals.-The fcenes
of the ancient paftorals were not laid in the
age or countries in which the poets wrote.-
The charaaters are taken from the Shepherds
of the Golden Age.----Notions of a golden age
ftripped of the embellifhments of the poet.
.- -=There is a- middle period in the progrefs
of civilization, equally removed from the ex-
tremes of rudenefs and refinement, to which
the ideas of a golden age have referenc. -
The tafle for rural objeacs and pleafures is na-
tural and general.

   The narmes of Eclogue and Idyllium have
been given to the ancient paftorals.------The
names of the ancient fhepherds are (ftill affo-
ciated with the paftoral chara~ters---3ur
notions of the ancient- fhepherds are takren
from their condition in Arcadia and Sicily.-
The condition of Ihepherds in northern climes
is unfavourable to paftoral defcription.





r An account of the principal ancient and
modern paflorals, and the application of the
rules of criticifm to them.


              FkPgiac Compotions.

 f eLegy is nearly allied to paftoral poetry,
 both in the matter and in the form.

   The end which the elegiac poet has in view
 is to excite thofe melancholy pleafing Rates of
 mind, with which there is a general difpofi&
 lion to fympathifeb

   This end- the poet "effeds by defeription of
the death of friends, and other occafions of
:grief, and- melancholy.--He hais extended
the bounds of this fpecies of compofition, to
defcriptions -of tender fenfations of any kind-
to the. comptlnts and 'lainentation s of Love'i
and even to the emotions of Joy arid Cheer"
fulnefs..--His defcriptions of Grief muft be
manly, dignified- without the appearance
of ,art or refinement-.




                     133
   The poems which have got the name of
Elegy, may be brought under three claffes:

   i. Defcriptions of events and occafions, in
which the poet is highly interefted.-This
neceffarily gives unity to the poem.
   2. Defcriptions of refleaions arifing from
fome one objed or occaiion, in which the poet
is not particularly concerned.
   3. Defcriptions of a melancholy train of re-
fle&ions, of one uniform tenor or tendency,
without much of chara&er or manners.-
Examples and illuftration of thefe differences
in the elegy.

   The form of elegiac poems is defcriptive
and narrative, or in the form of dialogue.
     .---A    particular kind of verfe,  in
moff languages, is affociated with the elegy.
S-In Greek and Latin, an alternative of
hexameter and pentameter.       The Englifh
poets have imitated this, by employing the
heroic verfe with alternate lines.  This fpe-
cies of verfe is fo clofely affociated with the
elegy, that it is cuftomary to call poems Ele.




                     -1 3 4
giac, if conpofed in that kind of flanza.-
Examples--Ovidls Fafti, Dr Louth's Poems.

   Remarks on the ancient and modern elegiac
poems.---rTThe application of the rules of cri*
ticifm to them.

                 .Didalic Poetry.

   Dida&ic poetry is allied to the Defcriptivei
---This fpecies of poetry made its appearp
ance early.-The firf precepts of morality
wivere delivered in verfe, if not in poetry,

   The obje&   of didaaic, is inffruction and
conviction relative to pradical operations.,----.
Some critics do not admit didadtic poems in.
to the clafs of poetical compofitions, becaufe
the materials are not fupplied by fidi1on, but
by truth and reafon.-But though      not
ftrialy poetical in the matter--it is fo with re.
fpedt to the form. --It admits *of verfificab
tion and number--the flyle, and many of the
ornaments of poetical comnpofition.

   The matter of didaetic poetry may be Lifto-





rical and philofophical, each of which kid
are fubjeaed to particular. rules.�-llufration
of this fpecies of poetry, by referenes to the
works of the priincipal didatic poets, Virgil,
Hlorace, Lucan, Pope, Boileau, Young, &c.

   The objet of didadlic poetry, may not only
be  general infrulion.-   It may inftrut
alfo, by inveighing againt certain vices.-
Hence, that form   of it called Satire.-The
name given to this fpecies of compofition,
gives little aflifance in determining its nature
or boundaries.--  l1ihe general objed of it, is
an invedive again ft vices and follies, obliquely
conveyed in a poetic form  and with certain
poetical embellifhents.-The fpirit of this
fpecies of compofition muft be fludied in the
principal writers of fatire.-.here are great
differences to be obferved in the fpirit and (tyle
of the different fatyrifs.-The form' of Sa-
tire may be Epic, or Dramnatic.---Remarks
on. the works of the principal fatirical poets.

              2. arrati ve Poetry.

   The E lpic is the principal fpecies of narra-.
                             M 2




                     136
tive poetry.-.The epic poet is, in his own
charader, chiefly employed in narrations, but
interfperfed with defcription and imitation.
--The name Epic is derived from the Greek
verb, which fignifies to tell, or narrate.

   As the general end of poetry is to pleafe, or
excite agreeable emotions-the end of epic
poetry is to excite the pleafing emotions offur-
prife, ,wonder, admiration, and elevation of mind.

   The means by which it effeds that end, is
by narration and defcription of fublime objeds
in the external world-of every thing grand
and dignified in the chara1ters and ations of
men.         But thefe in real life being mixed
with many imperfeions-it employs fi6tion in
creating or forming higher or more perfe&
chara~lers. ---Fi~ion pervades every part of
epic compofitions.--T'he nature and bounds
of poetic fiiion, and the principles by which
it ought to be regulated.

   Remarks on different definitions that have
 been given of epic poetry.   No definition
 can properly include all the poems that have
 been called by that name.        Every epic




                    137
poem is, in its nature, arbitrary; and its-confti-
tution depends upon the genius, imagination,
and tafle of the author.-The grand model
of epic compofitions depended upon the ima-
gination and tafte of Homer.   The com-
mon definition is as good as any of them-" A
" narrative in verfe, of ations and events,
" Probable, Heroic, Marvellous."-Illuftra,
tion of this definition..,

   In the propofed analyfis of-epic compofition,
the important obje&s of it will be brought in-
to view, in the order in which they arife in
the poet's, mind, in the formation and compc-
fition of the poem.

   The mind of the poet muff be firff occupied
with the fbjed of the poem.- To it, his
imagination and tafte muffhave made frequent
excurfions.- A fubjea proper for an epic
poem, muff be in itfelf interefing.-A
fufficient ground-work for important events,
muff admit of the embellifhments of poetry.
-    It will affift the introduation of. the mar-
vellous, if it be taken from remote or fabu-
lous periods.
                          M3




                     138
   Upon the nature and qualities of the fubje&,
.depend the defign or fcheme of the poet.---
The deign muff fuppofe a remote or difiant
end to be accomplifhed.    It muff compre-
hend fuch difficulties and obftacles, as give
room for great adivity, refolution, ad addrefi
in the removal of them..- ----A mean, or nar-
row defign, vili cramp and contraa the ta-
lents of the poet.

   The defign of the poet muff be accomplil--
ed by a courfe or tenor of alion fuited to it.
---The nature and qualities of an epic ac-
tion.-It muff be one-that is, in its tenor
and tendency, and relation to a general end.
I--Jt may confiff of many feparate aaions,
'and thefe performed by muany different pe-r-
fons-The epic a6LUon muff alfo be great,
and poffefs in itfeif various fources of intereft,
private and public.- -The duration or time
which the action requires, muff be as long as
the natural. courfe of fuchzs anai~ion requires.

   The unity of epic a~tion is not inconfuflent
xvith certain digreffions, or inferifor as-ions,
called Epifodes.-Epifodes muff be fubfer@.




                    '39
vient to the principal a~ion, and illftratei
---Occafions of introducing them, and rules
for the condua of them.

   Great and heroic adlons muff be performed
by charaters fuited to- the.-The confti-
tution and predominate qualities of epic charac-
ters.------Each of the principal charaaers
muff be marked by prominent features, and be
diflinguifhed by words and ations which na-
turally proceed from them.-Virtues and
vices, talents and defe~ts, muff be blended
and varied.    There muff be a preponderance
on the fide of virtue.- -The epic aaion
muff be diffributed with judgment and tafe a-
mong the charaaers.--Trhe charaElers iuf
ben inroduced on fuch occafions, and in fuch
circumftances, as tend to fupport each other.

  Epic Poets have generally made =choice of
one principal Aator or Hero, to whom they
give the charge of the enterprize---There
are forme advantages in doing it-but no good
reafon for a very ftri~t adherence to this rule.

   According~ to the ancient moldls, there






muff be parts of the antion which require the
interpofition of divine perfonages.-Though
fichon muff pervade every part of epic poetry,
there are fome parts of it in which it is predo
minant. S--Such parts are called the Machi-
nrly of the poem.  R Mules which the critics
have effablilhed for the introduaion and con-
duQt of divine interpofition in the epic poem..

   Some critics have confidered fuch parts of
the epic poem as blemifhes.---.They are con-
fiflent with ancient mythology, and furnifh
occafions of grand and fublime defcriptions,
...-It may be doubted whether they are ef-
fential to epic poetry.----The bef refutation
would be, an epic poem perfeet without them.
  -Modern epic poets cannot have the fame
advantages from the introduction' of machi-,
nery.

   Epic Charaaters, muff be diftinguifhed by
their manners and fcntiients.-The Manners
are the -modifications of the original di fpofi-
tions, by various caufes, -in the-various in-ter-
cour fes of fociety, and in the cuffomary forms
of- behaviour.       The Sentiments are the.




                    14 1
judgments expreff'ed in language.   The
.proper qualities of epic manners.-Brutal
and profligate manners could not pleafe by any
def'cription.-.There muff be a natural and
ftri& correfpondence betwixt the charaaers
and manners.

   Epic Compofitions differ from others. alo in
 their form.--- They are not conduaed in the
 regular method of hiflory.-To excite inte-
 reft-the poet, having invoked his divinity,
 may begin in the middle of the acion, and
 take a proper opportunity of explaining what
 is neceffary to be underflood.  --He may de-
 part from narrative, and introduce the charac-
 ters as delivering their own fentiments.

   In epic compofitions, much depends upon
 the ftyle.-The epic poet has the command
 of language, proper and figurative ; and muff
 be qualified to vary his ityle, according to the
 variety, of matter.---His flyle, as occafions
 may require, muff be, fimple,, energetic, fub-
 lime, elegant, harmonious--and muft be al-
 ways accommodated to the fubje.--The
 verfification of epic compofitions is hexameter,
 or blank verfe.




                     14 2
   Origin of Epic Poetry--    Circumances
favourable to poetic genius, in early and un-
cultivated periods of fociety   Analyfis of
the principal epic poets, ancient and modern.
--.Comparifon of them, in thofe points in
which they can be direly or indiredly com
pared.-T--The rules of criticifin applied in
fettling their refpec'live inerits.-A particuo
lar analyfis of The Paradi Left.

           3. Repreetative Poetry.

   The different manner of acquiring know-
ledge by the fenfes of fight and hearing, lays
a foundation for one of the chief diffindions
in poetry.-The one Epic, where we nei-
thler fee the obj eds, nor hear any thing di-
rely of ourfelves.---The other Dramnatic,
where we fee the actions performed, and hear
the converfations of the adtors.

   The Drama, in fome fhiape or other, feems
to have taken place in every period of _fociety.
.*.~=---Jn every condition, imitation is natural to
mans--human paflions and adions are al-
ways the mroft interefting objedts of imitation.




                     X43
  Origin of' Dramatic Poetry in Greece.
Succeffive improvements of the drama.------
Dramatic poetry was cultivated with more fuc=
cefs than the epic.-----It was early feparated
into two kinds, Tragedy and Comedy.


                  Trgedy.

   Tragedy has many things in common with
epic poetry. The end which the poet has in
view in Tragedy, is to fubdue or moderate the
exceffes of irregular and impetuous paflions,
by exciting -Pity and Compafion.

   This end is effeaed, by the proper choice of
 a fubje& which will afford a fucceffion of firik.
 ing circumifances, and interefting events.-
 By the imitation of an action that is in itfelf
 ,complete, and capable of a perfe& reprefenta-
 tion, and which terminates in danger or death.
 -T his  adion  is  fubje~ted to the unities  m an -p ce lh  a io *m ff b fof

 condudted as to form a plot, and the unfolding
 of it.-The diftribution of the aaion into
 Acts, Scenes, &C.




                     144
   The ation' muff be carried on by charaders
taken generally from   the higher ranks.-
'Their manners and fentiments muft he fuited to
the charaters; and, they muffpeak the Ian
guage of paflion, and not defcribe it.--Dif-
ference betwixt the ancient and modern tra-
gedies.-   Inquiry into the caufes of the plea.
fure received from tragical reprefentation.

                   Comedy.

   The difference betwixt tragedy and comedy.
---The fame rules apply to both.-The
end of comedy is to correl vices and foibles)
by the dread of ridicule or laughter.

   This end is effeded, by imitation of -characp
ters and adions taken. from common 'life
and of manners and ~fentinients fuited to them.
   -The plot of comedy turns chiefly on mar&
riage., though this is not effential.

   Comedy is divided according to. the fubjed,
and is high or dignified, or lowr and familiar.
    VYerfif ication is not effential to comnedy.
  -The pr oper ftyle of, comedy--=-Rez-




                    145
marks on the ancient and modern comedies,
and inferiority of the former, illuftrated by exa
-amples.

   Inquiry into the effe~ts of Dramatic repre-
.fentation on charader "and manners, aid the
.purpofes ferved by it.

   Conclufion.-On the advantages to be de.
 rived from the fludy of the Belles Lettresb



                P A R T   11

       On #hc Poers of Comncain
     I   N i o P  w   -f. A NALYSIS  of  the  Pow ers  of  C omm uni- y

 cation by -Speech or Writing.

   II. TH  Art of improving them-or the Art
 of Rhetoric.

   T'hefe heads form the fubjedsi of the LC_
 tures of a Separate Courfe.-.--[Ssc Sy nopsis
 of Rhetoric.]j.


F I N I se
















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