THE SHEEP:

ITS EXTERNAL STRUCTURE & INTERNAL ORGANS.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.

BY

A. SEYFFERTH,

Municipal Veterinary Surgeon to the District of Fiirth.

REVISED AND EDITED BY

PROFESSOR G. T. BROWN, C.B.

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GEORGE PHILIP & SON, 32 FLEET STRE

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THE SHEEP.

The Sheep (Ovis, L.) belongs to the division Vertebrata, class Mammalia,
(jwder Ruminantia, and family of the Cloven-footed Mammalians.
They are elegant, agile animals, with a covering of wool. They
have slender bodies, head narrowing very much towards the front,
ajnd fairly large eyes and ears. In the horned breeds, the horns are
Angular trilateral, with protuberances running obliquely; have a
slide direction, are spirally shaped and twisted, and rest on a bony
protuberance, which has the same direction as the horn, but is much
shorter than this latter. As a rule horned sheep only possess one pair
cff horns, though there are some with four_jQ2uexen more horns ; these,
llowever, must be considered as accidental formations only.. Hornless
sheep have thus on each side either small osseous bosses, or shallow
hollows on the frontal bones, as indications of the horn-roots (or
Ipmps). Hornless rams occasionally exhibit on the suture of the head
short core of horn, which is provided on the outside with laminse of
lyorn. Sheep possess the so-called lachrymal pits, which lie in front of
tjhe anterior edge of the orbit, towards the inner corner of the'eye.
The outer skin forms a depression (lachrymal furrow) over the lachry-
mal pit; but this, however, has'nothing to do with the lachrymal
secretion. The closely-allied goats, as well as several kinds of wild
sheep, lack the lachrymal pits, and therefore the furrow likewise. The

upper li£ isjfieft and covered with delicate hairs. The nose is rather
long. The ears generally stand apart, but occasionally they hang
down; short ears are also carried directed upwards. The sheep has
24 molars in the upper and lower jaw, and 8 incisors, which latter are
in the lower jaw only. Instead of incisors, the upper jaw has a fibrous
pad. The body of the sheep is covered with hair and wool. The hair
is either a short—generally reddish or greyish brown, partly whitish—■
surface hair, or the body is furnished with bristles, mingled with
downy hair; or it has woolly hair, while the face and legs are covered
with downy and surface hairs. In this last particular the Merino
sheep forms an exception, its face and feet being for the most part
thickly covered . with wool. Bristly hairs, downy hairs, and woolly
hairs are generally of a white colour; but there are also grey, brown,
and black hairs of this kind. The changing of the coat occurs regularly
in wild sheep, and irregularly in the domestic animals.

\ As in the consideration of the various breeds the character of
the hairy coat, and of the wool of the sheep, must often be mentioned,
a short description may be given.

The hair consists of three layers—the cortical substance, medullary
matter, and the cuticle. The first-named forms the chief part of the
hair; it is the middle layer enclosing the medullary matter, while the

579102

THE SHEEP

cuticle forms a covering over the cortical substance of small laminse,
which either lie close together or overlap like roofing-tiles, thus giving
a jagged appearance to the edge of the hair. There may be descried
further, in that portion of the hair sticking into the skin, the capillary
bulb or root, and, lying outside this, the capillary shaft. The following
groupings are here distinguished :—

1.	Antennse-like hairs, which stand singly on the lips and eye-

lids, &c.

2.	Stubby hairs, the short erect hairs lying close together, which

in other animals form the true coat, but which in the sheep

only cover the face, ears, and legs.

3.	Bristly hairs, which form, either alone or in conjunction with

the

4.	Downy (wool) hairs, the entire covering of the sheep.

There are breeds of sheep which possess both kinds of hair (bristly
and woolly hair), some which have only bristly hairs, and there are
others with downy or woolly hair only (Merinos). The three first-
mentioned hairs, no matter whether they occur alone or mixed with
downy hairs, are always found distributed at fairly regular distances
on the skin, while the downy or wool-hair always is seen arranged in
tufts on the skin. The downy or woolly hairs are chiefly distinguished
from the others in that, under the microscope, they are found always,
or almost always, to contain marrow or pith. The bristly hair some-
times contains pith or medulla, sometimes not; in sheep where it
forms exclusively the hair-coat, it is for the most part devoid of
medula. Like nails, cla^s, quills, etc., the hair has no blood-vessels or
nerves, and can therefore be painlessly cut off; while the root, with its
deepest portion the bulb, constitutes the living portion of the hair.
This capillary bulb is inserted in the hair-follicle, which contains the
germ, which the bulb covers over like a hat. From this papilla the
hair receives its nourishment.

According to its age and sex, the sheep has various designations ;
the new-born sheep is called a lamb, and according to sex they are

known as ewe lamb (she lamb or gammer lamb) and buck lamb (ran
lamb or male lamb). After the completion of the first year, untijl
breeding time, they are known as tegs, geldings, or yearlings. At tho
change of teeth, which is noted in the description of the skeleton, the
designations according to the teeth begin. Two-toothed, four-toothec/l,
six-toothed, eight-toothed.

After the first pairing time the male animal is called a ram, buclf,
steer ; the females are known as ewe lambs. Castrated male shee)?
are called wethers. The ram generally pairs at two years old, tho
female earlier. This act is called tupping or coupling. Only the rat|i
is particularly eager at the rutting season, the ewe is less so. One ran,i
suffices for 50 to 60 sheep. Gestation (pregnancy) lasts about fivp
months, the normal time being 154 days—extremes vary from 145 t(>
158 days; the number of young being one or two, seldom mork
Prolific sheep can produce twice a year. The rutting of wild sheop
does not seem to be confined to any particular season. Miscarriages
are frequent with sheep. The tenderness of the mother for her yourjg
is not very pronounced. Shortly after birth the latter are able t'o
follow the mothers.	f

The early history of the sheep is very deficient and full of gapls.
The natural historians are not agreed as to whether the sheep forms! a
species of its own, or must be reckoned in the same category with tljie
goat. Certainly several breeds of wild sheep bear more resemblance to
the goat than to our domestic sheep. Moreover, sheep and goats wl o
pair have young, but their offspring are barren.	I

There are now three great classes of wild sheep, with the following
species belonging to them :—	>

I.	—Wild sheep without external lachrymal pits : the “Machn^n

schaf,” the “Nahur,” and the	“ Taking1	1

II.	—Species of Moufflon wild sheep : Sardinian-Corsican Moufflon,

Persian Moufflon, Cyprus Moufflon, the “ Sha ” or “ Shagu,” and the
“Uriah”	J

III.	—The Arcali breed of sheep : Argali, Karelin sheep, ArchangelTHE SHEEP.

3

/



or steppe sheep, palmyrene or Katchgar, broad-horned sheep, snow
sheep, Hodgson sheep, and Brooko sheep.

As to the ancestors of the domestic sheep distributed throughout
Europe, two kinds come specially under our notice, the Moufflon of the
/ Corsican and Sardinian mountains, and the wild sheep of the Steppes,
I still seen now-a-days in fairly large numbers in Transcaucasia, and as
! far as Persia.

' But the question of the origin of our domestic sheep is as little
\ determined to-day as that of most of the other domestic animals, because
authentic information is wanting as to how the transformation of the
smooth surface-hair of the wild sheep into curly woolly-hair has been
effected.

The divisions of the breeds of our domestic sheep vary much.
While, among the newer authors, Sanson divides them into two principal
Igroups—short-headed and long-headed breeds—each of which embraces
n large number of subdivisions or families, Nathusius, in his treatises
ojn sheep-farming, distinguishes the sheep chiefly by the length or shape

]f their tails, and groups them principally thus : (1) the short-tailed
heep, (2) the long-tailed sheep, the fat-rumped sheep, the fat-tailed
heep, and the long-legged sheep. Kuhn and Stieger classify the
(domestic sheep according to the differences of the fleece : (1) hairy sheep,
with proportionately short hair or wool, occasionally with accompanying
d own; (2) mixed or felt-like woolly sheep, with longer fleece and thick
uinder hair; (3) smooth or sleek-wool sheep, with wool, of greater
similarity; and (4) curly or merino-wool sheep, in which the outer coat
-I >pears closely pressed together, and stubby hair or lamb-points are to
3 seen on the lambs only.

Wilkens’s classification of the domestic sheep leans towards this
rouping, or rather connects them to one another. He distinguishes
3tween (1) sheep with hairy coats (hairy sheep); (2) sheep with mixed
v ool (bristles and downy hair), which again are divided into short and
long-tailed breeds ; (3) sheep with shining wool (bristly hair); (4) sheep
\4ith sleek wool, poor in fat, which subdivide also into short and long-

tailed breeds ; (5) sheep with curly wool, rich in fat (merinos or migra-
tory sheep).

The enumeration of the many separate subdivisions of these groups
of the breeds would lead us too far, and I content myself, having regard
to the limited spaoe in this little work, with enumerating the most
important breeds only; following, while doing this, Bohm’s and
Nathusius’s classification of short and long-tailed breeds. In the first
class are reckoned the sheep with 13 and less tail-vertebrse ; in the
latter group, those whose tails contain more than 13 vertebrae. It
is characteristic of short-tailed sheep that the tail is not covered with
woolly hair, but with short erect hair, while that of long-tailed sheep
(with one single exception, the long-legged sheep) is covered with wool.
As subdivisions of the long-tailed (woolly-tail) sheep, one distinguishes
again between fat-tailed sheep and narrow-tailed sheep. The fat-tails,
by reason of the peculiar and often considerable deposit of fat, some-
times attain a weight of from 3 to 5 kilogrammes.

To the short-tailed sheep belong—(a) the horned, short-tailed
mountain and heath sheep of Northern Europe, small of body; the
Scandinavian, Icelandic, and Faroe Isles sheep; the sheep of the
Orkneys and Shetlands ; the sheep of the Hebrides ; the Danish heath
sheep; and the heath sheep of the Liineburg heath. Also the fat-
rumped sheep of Central Asia and China, the Kirghise bell-sheep, and
the burate and Calmuck fat-rumped sheep must be here included.
(6) The hornless short-tailed sheep are—on the contrary to the above-
named, which are for the most part described as mountain or heathland
sheep—either sheep of marshy land, or animals who inhabit the great
plains of tropical Northern Africa, and which are distinguished by
Shorter fleeces (without proper wool) and a hairy tail, round which
great masses of fat are deposited (stump-tailed sheep). Among the
marshy-land sheep calling for special notice is the North German
(Friesland, Detmar, etc.) sheep, with mixed wool, which, on account
of its plentiful milk-giving properties, is kept for milk production;
then there is the Dutch marshy-land sheep, the Faggas or Yaggas sheep,4

THE SHEEP.

a descendant of the Dutch sheep, which, in the lowlands of the Vistula
and Hogat, are kept not in herds, but in small groups, and are
celebrated for the flavour of their meat.

(2) The breed of the long-tailed sheep is divided into—(a) Fat-
tailed sheep, and (b) Harrow-tailed sheep ; the first are again subdivided
into fairly long-tailed and very long-tailed.

For European sheep-farming this group has no importance.
Harrow-tailed sheep are also divided into two sub-groups : those sheep
whose bodies are covered with hair, and those whose fleece consists of
wool. The former are only bred in countries outside of Europe; the
latter, according to Bohm, are separated into three classes : (a) Sheep
with mixed wool, composed of bristly hairs and downy (woolly) hairs ;
(b) sheep clothed only with bristly hairs; (c) sheep with only marrow-
less curly wool, or downy hair. In the first class (a) is placed
principally the Cretan or G-reek sheep, scattered over the S.E. of
Europe; the long, drooping-eared Italian sheep, and the mountain and
farm sheep of Europe; as also the Hungarian mountain sheep; the
mountain sheep of Transylvania ; the Sardinian, Swiss, French, and
English mountain sheep J as well as the country sheep of the Bavarian,
Swabian, Bohemian, and Moravian moor districts, which are a cross
between mountain and marshy-ground sheep, and which are at the
same time much cross-bred with Merinos and Southdowns. With
these must also be reckoned, because closely related, the farm sheep of
Pomerania and Poland, as well as the English and French farm sheep.
The second class (6), the long-tailed sheep, with fleece composed entirely
of bristly hair, comes from the Arabian-Bedouin sheep, the Circassian
sheep, and the hornless Leicester sheep, found throughout England.
This last breed is noted for early maturity and quickness in putting
on fat) and flesh. The third class (c) comprises two subdivisions—(A)
Sheep with sleek, gently-waved wool, and (J3) sheep with curly wool.
In the first are comprehended the smooth-fleeced German "'sheep (the
Thuringian and Rhone sheep) ; the Rhenish, Hessian, and Lippe
sheep, also called “ Leineschaf ”; also that most highly esteemed breed

of meat-furnishing sheep, the Southdowns ; the Shropshire-Ryeland or
Herefordshire sheep; also the frugal Scotch Cheviot sheep; the
Hampshire-down sheep (a cross of Southdowns with Berkshires);
the Oxfordshire-downs (a cross of Cotswolds and Hampshires). Inj
the second division (sheep with curly wool), there are only Merinos^
(nomadic sheep). Their origin can be traced back to the eighth andj
seventh century, when they are said to have developed in the basin of I
the Meander, in Asia Minor. Thence the woolly race of sheep'
gradually moved westward, through Greece and Italy to Spain. Thel
Romans transplanted the Taranto sheep first to Cadiz and Cordova, irf
Spain, whence this breed spread itself over the whole Pyrenean
peninsula, and later over the whole of Europe. The chief difference
between these Merinos and the other transplanted breeds lies in the
curliness of the wool. The hair, and the joining of it into strands),
shows delicate regular waves, such as occur in no other race of sheep, !

From the Merino sheep have resulted a large number of crossings
with the sheep of the country. While the original Merinos of Spam,
imported into other European countries, were only of medium sizp,
those merinos bred in Germany, Austria, Russia, etc., show larger
bodily proportions. They were also transplanted into South Africja
and Australia, where they increased very quickly in number, so that
the Australian sheep and wool production gradually influenced in an
unlooked-for manner the European, as well as the American, market,
and still continues to exercise that influence. In England the breed-
ing of Merinos did not reach any considerable importance in any ca?|e,
because the generally damp climate prevailing there exercises in
injurious influence on the development of wool stapling, and tine
breeding of sheep for food seems more profitable. The different kinds
or species of merinos at present bear the names of :—Electora i,
Hegretti sheep, and Combed or Carded-wool Merinos, each kind of
these having again several subdivisions.

After this general glance at the race divisions of sheep, it will b e
well to say a few words here about the recognising of the variou|sI

THE SHEEP.

jbreeds, and their principal uses. With this view they are distinguished
las:—(A.) Wool sheep. (£.) Meat sheep.

iA-) -According to the actual kinds of wool met with they are
jknown as :—

(a.) The finer delicate carding-wool.

(6.) The stronger carding-wool.

(c.) The common carding-wool.

(d.) The finer carding-wool.

(e.) The common carding-wool.

|^nd the names of the following sheep breeds may be said to be the

Iproducers of the above-named kinds of wool, in same order :___

For (a), the Electoral breed.

„	(b), the Negretti breed.

| j> (c), the short-fleeced Country breeds.

I	(d\ the Merino carding-wool breed.

I a (e)> the long-fleeced Country breeds.

j This classification cannot invariably be absolutely adhered to,
because, on account of difference in breeding and crosses, and of the
changes induced, doubts must necessarily arise as to which family the
solitary herds are related. So numerous indeed have the isolated
bjreeds and difference of their appellations become, that it will be
sufficient for the compass of this little work, with regard to the wool
sfaeep, to continue the above classified principal types.

lj (a)- Electoral breed shows delicate length* of body, and is
narrower in breast, neck, and hinder part of build than the Negretti •
thje legs thinner and longer, the body less cask-shaped than In the'
latter. The skin is thin, and stretched rather tightly. The legs, the
face, and the ears are often quite without wool, and the belly only
lightly covered with it. The wool is fine, soft, delicate, thin, covered
wijth clear, easily detachable fatty perspiration, and fairly dry. The
haiir is evenly waved in moderately high curves only. The wool on the
extremities falls down but slightly. The fleece is more or less compact
arid closely knit together, and only has partings in the longer wool and

thinner places. The upper surface of the staple has a finely granulated
appearance.

(b.) The ISTegretti breed shows broader, fuller build of body, the
back seems flatter, the body is more cask-shaped, the legs are shorter
and stronger, the skin is tougher, more capacious, so that sideways on
the neck, head, and breast, a strong, woolly dewlap is visible; and on
the bullocks, the flanks, as well as on the side of posterior portion of
trunk and navel, may be observed very prominent protuberances.
Belly and extremities are often thickly covered with wool. The wool
has higher waves, is not so fine, delicate, or soft in hair; but, on the
other hand, it is stronger and regular, with golden-brown fatty per-
spiration thickly covering it. The wool on the extremities is coarser
and smoother. The staple (or pile) is stumpy, the upper surface of
the fleece therefore smooth. The lambs are born with wrinkled skin,
covered with hair, and are thus inferior to the smooth, finely-grained
Electoral lambs.

(c.) The short-wool Country sheep are characterised by the very flat
waves or smoothness of their wool, in its considerable length. Thus it
is really more carded wool than cloth wool, but is, however, much em-
ployed in the production of ordinary cloths. Its body is of middle size
and width, the skin thin and sitting closely to the body, and without
wool on head and legs. The hair is very much thicker than with the
Merinos, also harder and more brittle, and is only permeated with fatty
perspiration when the sheep are fed for fattening. There is proper
stapling, but the hair is connected in little bunches and locks, so that
the fleece appears open. The different breeds of Country sheep do not
vary much in essentials. The North-German (Pomeranian, Russian),
as well as the middle German (Saxon), also those types bred in the
Rhine and Danube districts, in the Eichtel mountains, in the mountains
of the Rhone and Weser, in French Switzerland, in Franconia and
Hesse, are kept mostly by peasants or in small flocks, and are very well
fitted (especially the South-German breeds, which exhibit a somewhat
stouter build of body) for crossing with the English meat sheep, while6

THE SHEEP.

up to the present time far too little care has been bestowed on the
improvement of the wool.

(d.) The Merino carded-wool sheep resembles the Electoral in
build, but under the same good treatment these animals become
correspondingly l'arger and broader, the skin is less thin and tight, yet
not wrinkled, and fairly well covered. On account of the length of
the wool, a close staple can only be acquired where the wool is not too
long, and combined with care and good feeding, so that a regular
arrangement of locks rather than a real staple is to be seen.

The wool on the fore-part of the body is generally longer, and that
on the back part generally loose in the staple. Sebaceous secretion is
seen but seldom. The wool shows a certain silvery lustre, great soft-
ness and flexibility, the hair itself having but little elasticity. The
principal types of these breeds are the German and French carded-wool
sheep.

(e.) The long-wool Country breeds are divided into two classes, those
of smaller stature and those with larger build of body. To the first
class belong the common German country sheep, in so far as these do
not come under the head of short-fleeces. They have the same build
and covering as the short-wool Country races, and thus come under the
type described in (c). The Hanover sheep form an exception, espe-
cially the heath sheep spread over the Liineburg heath, the smallest of
all sheep (20 to 30 kilog. living weight). Both sexes of these are
horned, and have a very long, coarse, smooth wool, hanging in strands
and tangles, and mixed at the roots with fine down. They form a
perfectly independent breed. The colour of the wool is chiefly white,
grey, light and darker grey.

Among the more important long-haired Country races is reckoned
the Marshland or Lowland sheep, and several English species; also the
long-legged lowland races of Denmark, Friesland, the “ eider town ”
(Eiderstadische), and Dutch sheep, which last is also extensively
scattered in the north-west of Germany, but has only local import-

ance in wool production. Also, the already mentioned Faggas of the |
Vistula district, narrow long-legged animals with savoury flesh, belong |
to this class.	|

(B.) Meat sheep. While in earlier times little importance was|
attached to the production of good mutton in general, and especially j|
in Germany, so that mutton was only eaten by the lower ranks and!
the poorer towns, the importance of mutton-breeding has increased in j
a marked manner with the rise of sheep-rearing in general, and par-|
ticularly with the introduction of Merinos. In Germany, certainly,!
there are but few breeds preferred and demanded as better meat.!
These are the Frankish sheep, the flocks of the Fichtel mountains, tliep
Hesse and Weser sheep ; as well as several Country breeds of largei|
build of body, which yield good results for fattening and killing. The^
extensively scattered Merinos can mostly only be utilised for theiij’
flesh at the sacrifice of wool-producing, and specially of the obtaining
of better and finer kinds of wool. In regard to the breeding o^
mutton, England stands in by far the first rank ; and, in later timesi,
Australia and South Africa also. Of the meat races reared in England,
two among many are particularly noted—the Leicester breed anp
Southdown sheep. The first-named exhibits a long, broadly-built
body, well adapted for fattening, rather small head, straight back,
deep, broad chest, wide pelvis, and cask-shaped body; the latter arje
similarly shaped, but smaller, and therefore rounder. Other well-
known breeds are the Shropshire and Oxfordshire sheep, which hav/e
been much introduced into Germany and other continental countries.
English breeds which are most celebrated are the varieties of shorfc-
wool sheep, which are known as “ downs,” such as South-dowr s,
Shropshire-downs, Hampshire-downs, Oxford-downs; and among the
long-wool—Lincolns, Leicester, Border Leicesters, and Cotswold^.
Horned sheep are not common in England, but the Somerset anjd
Dorset-horns are among the most esteemed breeds.	JTHE

i;	DENTITION OF THE SHEEP.

j The terms which are applied to the teeth of the ox for the
!purpose of description maybe used in regard to the teeth of the sheep.
\Eight incisors, central, middle, lateral, and corner teeth, are found in
| front of the lower jaw, only, the corresponding part of the upper jaw
j being provided with an elastic pad, as in the ox. Molar teeth are
/designated by numbers, to indicate their position, and for the purpose
of judging the age. These teeth in the sheep may be described as
jcorresponding to the teeth of the ox in all general points, except in

regard to their size.

’!

j At birth, the arrangement of the incisor teeth of the lamb is
^‘^peculiar, as shown in Pig. 1.

Fig. 1.—Incisors op Lamb at Birth.

Generally the whole temporary set of teeth may be recognised, but
cply in outline, as they are nearly covered with the gum. The central
incisors are most advanced, and next in order come the laterals, leaving
t|he middle and corner teeth considerably below them. Very often
tj.ie cutting edges of the front and third pairs of teeth are through the
glum. All these peculiarities are seen in the illustration, which may
b(|3 accepted as a representation of the ordinary appearance of the
teleth of the lamb at birth.

J By the end of the fourth week all the temporary teeth, eight
injcisors, and three molars on each side of the upper and lower jaws,
are well up.

I From the time of the perfect eruption of the temporary teeth, at
tljie age of one month, to the cutting of the first pair of broad teeth,

1

7

central permanent incisors, at the age of one year to fifteen months,
the only changes which will guide the expert to a correct opinion of
the age are those which affect the molar teeth.

"T.M

Fig. 2.—Molars op Lamb at Three Months.
P.M.j permanent molar.	T.M., temporary molars.

At three months the first permanent molar, the fourth in situation,
is cut, and is recognised by its recent appearance in comparison with
the tooth immediately in front of it, the third temporary molar, which
shows signs of wear.

In the above illustration (Pig. 2) the appearance of the molars
at the age of three months is shown.

Fig. 3.—Molars op Sheep at Kine Months.-8

THE

During a period of five or six months from the cutting of the
fourth molar, there is nothing to guide the examiner except the growth
of the teeth and of the jaw, which results in leaving a space behind
the fourth molar. At the age of nine months this space is occupied
by the fifth molar, as shown in the drawing, Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.—Incisors (temporary) op Sheep at One Year.

At one year old the teeth will present the following appearances:
Incisors are worn on their upper surfaces, especially the central and
middle, and to some extent the lateral teeth; the corners are not
worn. In sheep which are feeding on turnips, some of the incisors,
and in certain cases all of them, are broken off, and in very forward
animals the central permanent incisors are cut; but they are never
perfectly level and regular at this age.

Fig. 4 shows the average state of the temporary incisors in a
well-preserved mouth at the age of one year. At the back of the
mouth the recently cut fifth permanent molar (Fig. 3) is seen, while
the teeth in front of it are all worn on the surfaces; these appearances,
taken in connection with the state of the incisors, will satisfy the
examiner that the sheep is about the age of one year.

at Fifteen Months.

The first broad teeth, central incisors, are usually cut soon after
one year old, and are well up at fifteen months, as shown in th^
illustration (Fig. 5).	§

At eighteen months the sixth permanent molar is cut, and ttie
recent appearance which this tooth presents is better evidence of th^is

/\

i

THE SHEEP.

9

[ age than, can be obtained by an inspection of the incisors. Occasionally,
j in very forward mouths, the second pair of broad teeth will be cut;
! in other cases, there will be no signs of their appearance until the
j sheep is approaching the age of two years (see Pig. 6, which shows
t the second pair of broad teeth at the age of one year and ten months).

> So far, therefore, as these teeth are concerned, the examiner may be
! letb Jn doubt as to whether the sheep is one year and six months or
. two years old; and it is absolutely necessary that he should inspect
the molars, in which important changes occur between the ages of
fifteen months and two years.

J

\

Fig. 7—molars op Sheep at One Year and Ten Months.

Soon after the sheep reaches one year and a half, the sixth molar
begins to protrude through the gum. Shortly afterwards the two an-
terior temporary molars give place to the permanent teeth, and the
thprd temporary molar is a mere shell covering the top of the per-
manent tooth, which is coming up beneath it, and pushing it out of its
ace, as shown in the last illustration (Fig. 7).

In this drawing the average condition of the molars of the sheep
st under two years is exhibited. The two anterior permanent molars
|e cut, the third permanent molar is coming up under the temporary

pi

arl,

tooth, which in many cases will have fallen out, leaving the permanent
organ to be seen below the level of the other teeth. At the back of
the jaw the sixth molar is seen, but does not show any marks of wear,
and this tooth, it may be observed, affords the most valuable evidence
at a critical period. In the class “not exceeding two years,” many of
the sheep are stated to be twenty months old, and some of the animals
may have the third pair of broad teeth not fully developed, but fairly
advanced. When sheep exhibited as under two years of age are found
to have six broad teeth, the animals are naturally objects of suspicion,
and further evidence is sought for in the molars, which, as the drawing
(Fig. 7) shows, exhibit very characteristic marks at this period.
Generally it may be taken as a fact that if a sheep with six broad
teeth shows the three anterior molars in a state which proves that they
are recently cut, and especially if one or more of the temporary teeth
still remain, the age does not exceed two years.

Six broad teeth well up may generally be taken to indicate that
the sheep is two years and three months (Fig. 8), but in many animals
they are not present until two years and a half. On the other hand,
they are not uncommonly cut at twenty-two months old, a fact which10

THE SHEEP.

1

was recorded by the writer more than thirty years ago, and since then
they have been met with at twenty months.

Fig. 9.—Incisors of Sheep at Three Years Old, showing recently cut
Corner Teeth.

Dentition in sheep is completed by the eruption of the corner
permanent incisors, which are usually cut at the age of three years, as
shown in the above drawing.

In some cases the corner teeth are not well up till the animal
is nearly four years old, so that there is a possibility of a mistake being
made as to the age to the extent of a year, by an examiner who
contents himself with ah inspection of the corner incisors. Ho diffi-
culty, however, would be experienced in deciding whether the corner
incisors represent three years or four years, if the state of the other
incisors is taken into account. At four years of age the six broad
teeth will show marks of wear; the central incisors especially will be
worn hollow on their upper surfaces, the middles and laterals also
showing well-marked tables in the p]ace of sharp-cutting edges; while
the recently cut corner incisors, supposing their eruption to have been
delayed till the sheep was nearly four years old, will present a marked

i

contrast to the rest of the teeth which have suffered from attrition, <
These appearances are shown in the next drawing (Dig. 10) of the j
mouth of a sheep at the age of four years.

L

Fig. 10.—Incisors of Sheep at Four Years.

After the age of four years, and indeed from the time of the com-
pletion of permanent dentition, whether early or late, the changes
which are effected in the form of the incisors by wear vary according
to the nature of the food, and the examiner must be content to limit?
his inquiries to the period within which is comprised the eruptiori
of the permanent teeth.	_ I

CONFORMATION.

It was stated in the companion work on the Ox that the fonk*
of the animals intended for food had undergone considerable modifica-
tions under the influence of artificial selection. The sheep is nA>t
an exception to the rule. By careful selection the breeder has suc-
ceeded in producing sheep which, however they may vary in size, tl
perfection of form is deemed to be that which will admit of the depos
of fat and flesh of the best quality, to the exclusion of offal and the le^s
favourite parts.

i

iTHE SHEEP.

11

Certain divisions of the carcase," by means of imaginary lines, are
•ecognised in the sheep as in the ox; but in the sheep the divisions are
fewer, as would be expected from the smaller size of the animal.

The chief parts are the head, neck (including scrag and best end),
■he breast, shoulder, loin, and leg. The leg and loin together form the
aaunch ; and two loins remaining attached, i.e.} without being divided
:hrough the centre of the backbone, are known as the saddle. In the
ox the same part is distinguished as the baron, and is only cooked to be
served at large banquets.

THE SKIN, ITS APPENDAGES AND FUNCTIONS.

! The skin of the sheep, like that of other animals, consists of two
layers—the external (cuticle or epidermis), and the inner or true-skin.
This latter is furnished with blood-vessels and nerves. From the
vjessels of the true-skin, the outer skin, or cuticle, is secreted. This is
divided again into two layers, the inner one, or “ Malpighian mucous
layer/5 and the outer dense membrane, consisting of flattened cells.
The formation and growth of the hair takes place in the hair-follicles,
ip a similar way to that of the cuticle, from the cells of the vascular
membrane of the true-skin. Distributed through the true-skin are the
Sv3baceous glands, which secrete the fluid known as wool-fat, which
varies in consistency. With this wool-fat is also mixed the gaseous or
flttid perspiration, coming from the deeper-seated and funnel-shaped
perspiration glands discharging into the outer skin. In the so-called
yolk, or sebaceous fluid, the two secretions are present in conjunction.
Tike skin of the sheep is thin, and in some breeds—Merinos, for
example—is wrinkled. The cutaneous and sebaceous glands are the ^
more numerous in proportion to the thickness of the. fleece. (The
thicker the fleece, the more numerous the glands), A particular kind
of j sebaceous gland, peculiar to the sheep, is the indentation of the
outer skin between the claws, known as the interdigital canal.

-The function of the skin is not only to transmit feeling and secrete
fluids, but also to protect the organs of the body against outside influ-
ences, and to assist in binding the structures beneath it.

MUSCLES.

On removing the skin, the cutaneous muscles and layers of fat
are visible. Almost all the best breeds of sheep fatten very easily, and
thus the padding of fat beneath the skin and cutaneous muscles often
attains an unusual thickness. Under this bed of fat lies the various
muscles of the body, and by their contraction the different movements
of the limbs and other parts are effected. In the voluntary muscles, the
fibres are marked by transverse lines (striae); these muscles are com-
monly called flesh. In the involuntary muscles of the intestines j
(gastric intestinal canal, organs of sense, blood and lymphatic channels) %
this oblique marking of the muscular fibres is lacking, but they exist in )
the muscle fibres of the heart. The muscles are either attached directly (
to the bones of the skeleton, or are continued by fibrous cords or tendons, )
by which they are connected with the bones. Under the influence of j
the will, which is controlled by nerves attached to the separate muscular f
filaments, muscles are made to contract, and thus accomplish all the |
acts of locomotion. The naming of the separate muscles is arranged \
partly according to their functions, and partly according to their
attachment to the bones which they connect.

.	. Between the skin and muscular system, and also between the

) separate muscles, there is in fat animals a large amount of fat deposited.
This fatty tissue is composed of sharply defined cells of a circular or oval
form, united in masses or clusters. The quantity of fat is regulated
3y the nature of the body, and aids, on the one hand, in filling up
lollows, and on the other hand, it represents a substantial reserve of
/food, so that fat animals are able, by reason of their wealth of fat, to
offer a longer resistance to starvation than thin animals. Besides this,12

THE SHEEP.

the layer of fat surrounding the body being a bad conductor, checks
the too great radiation of the body’s heat.

Table IY. shows some of the muscles which become visible when the
cutaneous muscular system and layers of fat are removed. The deeper
seated muscles cannot of course be seen.

THE BONES OF THE SKELETON.

The skeleton forms the framework of the body, and is composed of
its collective bones. Partly they enclose and protect the vital internal
organs, such as the brain, the spinal marrow, the organs of the chest,
abdominal and pelvic cavities; and, in part, they assume the form of
supporting columns united by joints, which are moved by the muscles.
In almost all bones may be distinguished a hard compact bony material,
surrounding the spongy or cancellated structure. This last forms
numerous mesh-like compartments or cells (medullary cells), which
contain the marrow of the bones.

Cylindrical bones have in the centre a particularly strong,
compact, bony substance, and, instead of the cancellated structure,
there is a complete marrow cavity. Bones are classified according
to their shape, their position in regard to the body, and their physio-
logical importance. With regard to shape, they are distinguished as
long or cylindrical bones, broad or flat bones, and short bones. In
respect to position, they are divided into bones of the head, trunk,
and extremities. The natural colour of the bones is a yellowish
pink, caused by the mixture of fat, blood, and juices; when bleached
or calcined they are almost snow-white. Their component parts are
basal phosphoric acid, calcareous earth, carbonic acid lime, a little
fluoride of calcium and phosphoric acid magnesia (mineral constituents),
and gelatine (organic constituent). The bones collectively are covered
with a periosteum, a dense fibrous membrane through which the vessels .
and nerves enter the bony structure and supply the necessary nutriment.
Bones are united to each other in various ways, forming joints which

are either movable or immovable. The formation of the joints ii
arranged in such a manner that the rounded ends of bones are firmly
fixed into the sockets of the neighbouring bone by the aid of capsular
and other ligaments. According to their power of movement, joints are
classified as fixed joints, rotary joints, gliding joints, and hinge joints*
The immovable joints are formed by sutures (true suture, squamous
suture), or by so-called false sutures, and by wedging, as in teeth. The
ends of the bones forming true joints a,re covered with a bluish-white,
elastic, pliable, exceedingly smooth cartilage, the use of which is to
prevent friction between the bones, and to lessen the concussion ia
walking, running, leaping, &c.

As mentioned above, the bony structure is divided, according to
position, into bones of the head, trunk, and limbs. The head-bonds
are again subdivided into skull and facial bones. While the first-
named surround the cavity of the skull or brain cavity, the latter la^v
the foundation for the cavities of the nose, mouth, and throat. In tljie
skull-bones are included the frontal bones, the parietal bones, tljie
occipital bones, the temporal bones—the fibrous portions of whiph
contain the organs of hearing—and lastly, the ethmoid or cribriform
bone, which forms the division between the cavity of the skull and the
other cavities below it. The bones of the skull collectively, as well a,s
the face bones, with the exception of the lower-jaw and hyoid bone,
as well as the vomer, are fastened together by sutures. The bones of
the face are divided into Upper-jaw bones (containing the upp^r
grinders), the anterior Maxillary bones, the Uasal bones, the -Zygo-
matic bones, Lachrymal bones., Palatal bones, the Pterygoid bones, aJid
the Yomer. In the bones of the head are reckoned also the lower j^w
bone, a bone formed of two halves (branches), united in the middle py
cartilage, and having on its broad lower edge eight grooves for the
reception of the 8 incisors. The two branches have each an anterior
edge of dental cavities, in which are found six sockets, in which
are fixed the 12 back molar teeth or grinders. Between the branchjes
of the lower jaw lies the bone of the tongue, the hyoid bone, serving ^asTHE

a support to the larynx and pharynx, and which is fastened to the
skull by means of a so-called seam or suture, and is the point of attach-
ment for many of the muscles. As already mentioned, the sheep has
in the lower jaw 8 incisors (these are wanting in the upper jaw, and
are replaced, as in the ox, by a cartilaginous protuberance), and 24
grinders or molars, half in the upper jaw and half in the lower.

THE BONES OF THE TRUNK

are divided into bones of the vertebral column, bones of the chest, and
_ bojnjes of the pelvis. The bones of the first-named are again divided
into) cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae. Each
true) vertebra consists of the body, the arch, and the processes; the
bodjy is the under and thicker part of the vertebra; the arch bending
ovejr it forms, with the body, the spinal marrow and hollow, and these
con biguous cavities collectively represent, in the closely connected
verpebrae, the spinal-marrow canal. In this latter lies the spinal
marjrow with its membranes. The intervertebrate openings lying side-
ways, and in pairs, permit the entrance and exit through them of the
vessels and nerves. On the upper side, the “ spinal processes ” spring
froDoji the arch ; on the front and back of the arch are found the oblique
processes ; and lastly, at the sides of the arch, the transverse processes
appejar, which show on the dorsal vertebrae the articular facets for the
ribs,1 forming the walls of the chest.

(The sheep has 7 cervical vertebrae, 13 dorsal vertebrae, 6 to 7
lumbar vertebrae, 4 to 5 sacral vertebrae, and 3 to 24 coccygeal
vertebrae; the tailless sheep have only 3 coccygeal vertebrae, the short-
tailed' 12 to 16, the long-tailed 22 to 24. The two first cervical
vertebrae are known as Atlas and Axis. The shape of the cervical
vertebrae, as well as the dorsal, are exactly similar to those of the ox,
thougn, of course, proportionately smaller. The spinal processes are
most strongly developed in the dorsal vertebrae, the third having the
longest, and the fifth and sixth the broadest spinal process. As a rule,

13

/ there are 6 lumbar vertebrae, but often 7, counting a normal number
\for dorsal vertebrae.

I The sacrum consists originally of 4 or 5 vertebrae, which in an adult
/sheep are united to form one bone; it is situated between the bones
| of the pelvis, and forms the end of the spinal canal. There is not
"the slightest trace in the coccygeal vertebrae of any continuation of
the spinal canal.

I The cavity of the chest is formed by the dorsal vertebrae already
• described, the ribs and the sternum. There are 13 pairs of ribs, 8
so-called true ribs and 5 false ribs on each side; the front portion of
the ribs has, in the lower middle line of the body, a central bone—the
/ sternum—between them, which unites the corresponding ribs on either
side into complete arches (visceral arches). Those ribs joined by the
sternum are known as the true, while those which do not reach it
directly are called false ribs. The junction of the ribs with the sternum
is effected by means of the costal cartilages lying between them. The
visceral arches serve to protect the vital organs lying partly in the
pectoral cavity and partly in the abdominal cavity, and form a bony
support for them. The sternum is composed of seven parts, and has
on its sides eight grooves for the reception of the cartilages of the true
ribs. The pelvis is formed of two divisions, each of which is composed
of three separate bones, united together firmly in early youth. These
^are the ilium ischium, or hip-bone, and os pubis. These three bones
unite for the* formation of the hollowed cavity—acetabulum—to receive
the heads of the thigh-bone.

BONES OF THE LIMBS.

The limbs are divided into two front and two hinder limbs. The
front limbs are composed of the shoulder-blade, the fore-arm bone with
the elbow bone, and of the bones of the carpus and foot. The shoulder-
blade is a long triangular bone, which has on its upper side a supple-
mentary cartilage. The junction of the shoulder-blade to the trunk is
- effected by a muscular structure. The outer surface is divided into14

THE SHEEP.

two halves by a ridge. The shoulder-blade narrows towards its lowest
part and exhibits a distinct neck, which again broadens out and grows
thicker, and bears the joint-cavity for the head of the second bone—the
shoulder-bone (humerus). In conjunction with this bone it forms the
shoulder-joint. Then come the radius and ulna. The carpus bones
form the so-called knee. They lie in two rows, the upper of which
consists of four bones—the unciform bone, the polygonal bone, the
cuneiform bone, and the cuboid bone; the latter of which is formed
of two bones—the semi-lunar and the conical bones. The carpus is
connected by joints on its lower side with the shank-bone, ‘which is not
connected with joints with the rudimentary collar-bones. The two
toes consist of three parts—the pastern, coronet, and foot-bones, which
latter are enclosed in a horny covering, the frog being absent. The
flat of the sole of the claws is triangular and pointed in front. The
bones of the hind limbs consist of the thigh-bone connected to the
pelvis, the tibia with the patella, the tarsus (hock), the metatarsus
(shank-bone), and then the foot bones. The thigh-bone is the support
of the thigh, and forms below, with the patella and tibia, the stifle
joint. The tibia is connected at its lower point with the tarsus or
hock. This latter is composed of five bones lying above one another;
towards the outside in two rows, and at the inner side in three rows.
They are known as the hock or heel bones (calcis), the astralagus, the
scapho-cuboid bone, the first cuneiform bone, and the (intergrown)
second and third cuneiform bones. From the shank-bone, to which the
collar-bone is only fastened as a small round little bone, the arrange-
ment of the foot is the same as on the fore limbs. Besides these
there are, on fore and hind limbs alike, on the pastern and claw-bones
of each toe, three small bones, attached by ligaments, the so-called
sesamoid bones, which provide the slippery surface for the sinews.

INTERNAL ORGANS.

Circulatory System..—The blood flows through the whole body
in the channels marked out for it by the blood-vessels. The system

consists of a central organ—the heart, and of an arrangement of tubes,
closed on all sides—the blood-vessels. The centre organ works like
a force and suction pump, and its function is to drive the blood
over the whole body. The tubular system of the blood-vessels,
which begins at the heart, and eventually ends there, may be classed in
three great divisions : (a) Blood-vessels in which the blood flows from
the ventricle of the heart into the different parts of the body = arteries;
(b) vessels in which the blood moves back towards the auricles of the
heart from the various parts of the body = veins; (c) vessels of the
smallest diameter, which cause the blood to pass from the most
delicate arteries to the beginnings of the veins = capillaries.	j

THE HEART

Is a large hollow muscle, situated in the pectoral cavity, and composed
of involuntary muscles, which represent the driving apparatus of the
entire circulation. It lies between the two lungs, and is entirely
covered by them. Between the lungs and the heart there is the mem-
branous sac (pericardium) surrounding the heart; it is held in positjion
by the large blood-vessels which go to the spinal column and into,- the
lung. The heart lies obliquely from front to back, and slightly inclined
to the left. The heart reaches altogether from the third to the sixth
rib, and the side-surface is nearer the left pectoral wall than the right.
The pericardium enclosing the heart is a cone-shaped bag, which, /con-
sidered apart from the mediastine covering it, consists of two layers—
a fibrous and a serous coat. The inner surface of the pericardium
exudes a slight moisture, which serves to keep the outer walls oft the
heart, as well as the pericardium itself, moist and slippery, j The
heart itself is shaped like a cone, the broader part (basis) upwards,
and the point lying downwards and slightly towards the left.On
the first-named are all the large blood-vessels, the point lying, free
in the -pericardium, The right and left side-surfaces are distinct, and
on each is found a vascular furrow—the right and left longitudinalTHE

\

furrow—defining the limits of the ventricles. Besides these there is,
on the basis, an oblique furrow, dividing the auricles from the ventricles.
Tjhe heart contains four cavities, two lying at the basis and known as
aiuricles, while the two others are situated in the body of the heart and
ai|e known as ventricles. The auricles are two muscular bags, and are
divided into right and left auricle, completely separated by a partition.
Th)e two ventricles lie below the auricles, and have much thicker mus-
cular tissue, and are also completely separated by a muscular partition.
Th/e left half of the heart contains arterial blood, and the right half
veiVous blood. The ventricles are directly connected with the auricle
on Ithe same side by an opening, which is closed by the neutral valves.
Befeides this, each ventricle has on its upper side yet another small
arAerial opening, capable of being closed by the semi-lunar valves,
thrlough which the blood in the large vessels—on the left the aorta, on
thf right the pulmonary artery—makes its exit. The two valvular
arrangements between auricles and ventricles—in the left half, of the
he^rt the bicuspid, in the right side the tricuspidal valve—prevents the
blcjod, which, at the expansion of the heart (Diastole), streams from the
auricles into the ventricles, from returning to the auricle at the con-
traction of its ventricle (Systole), The same function is performed by
the above-named arrangement of semi-lunar valves (three in number) at
the jpoint of exit of the two great blood-vessels (the aorta and pulmonary
artejry), which prevent the reflux of the blood from these vessels
retujrning to the ventricles. The valves are retained in place by a
number of tendinous filaments which come from the inner wall of the
hearib, and are attached to the edges of the valves.

The blood is composed of a transparent, colourless, or light yellow
fluid, \ the blood plasma, and the particles held in suspension in it, the
bloodj corpuscles. It is the true fluid nutriment of the animal body, and
flows incessantly during the life of the animal through the body,
carrying the material necessary for formation and growth, and for the
vq,rio(us secretions. The blood corpuscles, or cells, are divided into the
red corpuscles and the proportionately few white corpuscles. Under

15

the microscope the former appears as small round discs with dark
centres. Their colouring depends on the colouring matter in the blood,
the so-called haemoglobin. The colourless or white particles are the
same as the lymph corpuscles, are nucleated, and are found in varying
numbers in the blood.

There is a difference between arterial and venous blood. Arterial
blood is bright red, richer in oxygen, and coagulates more quickly than
venous blood. The brighter colour is due to the greater amount of
oxygen, and its influence on the colouring matter on the blood : the
quantity of carbonic acid is less. On the other hand, venous blood is
dark red in colour, owing to the larger quantity of carbonic acid.

As already stated, the circulation is accomplished after the manner
of a suction and force-pump. The forcing out, which sets the blood in
motion, proceeds from the heart. By the contraction of the muscles of
the heart, in the first instance, the blood for feeding the body is driven
but from the left ventricle in rhythmical jerks into the great aorta.
This is called throbbing. This wave of blood thus called into action
continues through the whole arterial system, and can be felt in the
most remote blood-vessels as a regularly recurring beat—the pulse.
Shortly after leaving the heart, the great aorta divides in two greater
branches—the anterior and posterior aortas, which again branch off in
front and back parts of the body in ever smaller and more delicate
branches and passages, until eventually they terminate in the capillary
network. The blood collected in the small veins issuing from the
capillary network, which gradually become larger vessels and conduct
the fluid back to the right auricle through two large important veins—
the anterior and posterior vena cava. From the right auricle the
.blood passes into the right ventricle, and is here, by its muscular con-
traction, driven through the pulmonary artery into the lungs. In the
lung, the artery divides into branches large and small; these lead to
the respiratory network of capillary vessels, which pass it on into the
pulmonary veins. In this capillary system the exchange of gases in
the blood takes place, it giving off carbonic acid into the air, and16

THE SHEEP.

taking up in its stead the quantity of oxygen necessary to life. The
veins of the lungs, which, in spite of their name, convey arterial blood,
unite in several branches, and discharge into the left auricle. From
here the blood flows into the left ventricle, from whence it is expelled
into the aorta.

. Lymph Vessels.—The lymph vessels represent a capillary system
which originates in the tissues of the body, and finally discharge their
contents into the blood-vessels. The lymphatic vessels unite to form
two principal branches—the lacteal duct and the thoracic duct, which
discharges the lymph into the right and left axillary veins. All
the lymphatic vessels, before they reach one of these chief branches,
pass through one or more lymphatic glands, which are attached in large
numbers mostly to fixed parts of the body. The fluid in the lymph
vessels is not uniform in character; that in the lymph vessels of the
digestive canal is called Chyle (milky fluid or juice), that in all other
vessels is known as lymph. Both fluids mix in the lacteal duct.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The nervous system governs and guides all sensation and motion,
both that accomplished by the voluntary as well as the involuntary
muscles. The central organ of the nervous system is the brain, which
lies in the cavity of the skull. It is divided into the cerebrum and
cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata.* The cerebrum is divided into
two halves (hemispheres), which display on their outer side a large
number of so-called convolutions. The cerebellum lies behind the
cerebrum. In section it displays a delicate tree-like drawing, called
the arbor vitce (tree of life). The medulla oblongata is continued in
the spinal cord. Like the brain, this lies well protected in the spinal
canal, already mentioned in describing the bones. Brain and spinal
marrow are covered with two membranes. The brain is. the seat of
the mental functions, the automatic and reflective.

ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE.

In connection with the nervous system, there are special organs olf
the senses—smell, sight, hearing, taste, and feeling. The sense
smell is located in the nose; of sight, in the eyes; of hearing, in thU
ears. With regard to the details of structure of the organs of special
sense, they are almost identical with those of the ox, as described
in the treatise on that animal.	t

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

in the pectoial
series of tubes aind

The organs of respiration are chiefly situated
cavity. The respiratory apparatus embraces a
cavities, including the lungs with their accompanying ducts, situated
in the pectoral cavity, and with the windpipe and nasal cavities. In
closest connection with the breathing apparatus are the organs of
voice, the larynx, as well as those organs for the sense of smell found
in the nose. The interchange of gases during respiration does n.ot
take place in the lungs only, but all over the body. The nasal oavitfies
are two spacious cavities, separated by a middle division. They /are
covered with a very vascular mucous membrane, which is covered with
mucous secretion, which prevents the entrance of solid dust particles
into the air passages. The larynx, as well as the trachea and [ its
branches, are also lined by mucous membrane. The trachea is a mem-
branous cartilaginous canal, commencing at the larynx, and leading to
the lung. It consists of from 48 to 55 loosely-connected rings! of
cartilage, and divides, after entering the pectoral cavity between (the
two first ribs, into three branches, which subdivide inside the lu|ngs,
like branches of a tree, into increasingly slender minor bran/ches
(bronchi), and finally end in the grape-like arrangement of air-cells.
All our domestic animals possess two lungs, a right and a left, covered
with thin, smooth membrane, the pleura. They completely fill the
space in the cavity of the chest, except that allotted to the heart jand
other organs of the pectoral cavity. In ruminants the right |ungis; divided in bo four to five lobes, and the left lung into two to three.
The lung, empty of blood, is of a pale yellowish-red colour; that filled
\?ith blood is dark red. Healthy lungs, when taken out of the pectoral
cavity, collapse, but float in water if the animal has once breathed.

The number of respirations of the sheep, as of all smaller domestic
animals, varies very much, and, according to movement or excitement,
the climatic temperature is between 30 and 120, or more, respirations
in the minute.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM,

The organs of Digestion form a continuous tube of varying size,
lined with mucous membrane, from which numerous glands discharge
their secretion. It commences in the cavity of the mouth, and ends at
thie further extremity of the intestinal canal. The separate organs lie
in the cavities of the mouth, chest, abdomen, and pelvis. They are
divided into the organs of reception, digestion, swallowing,—the true
digestive organs and the secretory organs ; with these must also be
reckoned the salivary glands, the hepatic and pancreatic gland, which
must be regarded as complements, as they are directly connected with
digestion. The conducting tube, as far as the insertion of the oesophagus
into the stomach, is provided with voluntary muscles, and from there
to tihe end of the rectum with involuntary ones. In the abdominal
cavity the whole of the organs are covered with a serous .membrane—
the peritoneum.

i After the food has been seized by the incisors^ or lips, it is pushed
by t.Jie tongue between the molars, whose function is to grind it small.
Here the salivary glands step in, and, in ruminants, the fermentation
contained in the saliva, promoting digestion, is mixed with the food.
After a corresponding grinding smaller, this last-named is sent on to
the prst stomach through the pharynx and a tube, consisting of two
memibranes—a mucous membrane and a (in ruminants) very firmly fixed
muscular membrane—the oesophagus, which leads into the first stomach

SHEEP.

17

—rumen. The stomachs, consisting of four divisions, form a bag,
composed, like the whole of the true digestive canal, of three struc-
tures—the mucous membrane, the muscular coat, and serous covering
of the peritoneum. This bag fills the anterior and left posterior divi-
sions of the abdominal cavity almost entirely. The function of the first
three stomachs is really to store up and macerate the food, and may
thus be regarded more as a larger bulging of the oesophagus. They are
called the paunch, the reticulum, and the omasum; The fourth stomach,
the maw or abomasum, is the real digesting stomach. In sucking rumi-
nants this is the only one fully developed: the paunch enlarges when the
lamb eats solid food, and the second and third stomachs proportionately
later. The paunch, when fully grown, is the largest division of the
stomach, divided by a furrow into a large bag on right side and a
smaller one on the left. The opening of the oesophagus lies on the
border between the front end of the left bag and the reticulum ; the
opening to the latter being below the opening of the oesophagus. The
mucous membrane of the paunch has, like that of the second and third
stomachs, no glandular organs, but, on the other hand, a number of
small secretory tufts, varying in size. The inner surface of the second
stomach is divided up by a number of ledges, crossing each other at
obtuse angles, forming more or less regularly six-sides cells. On account
of these meshes, this stomach is also called the honey-combed stomach,
and meshed stomach; it is furnished with strong layers of muscles,
which may assist the muscles of the paunch to push the oesophagus for
second mastication—rumination. After the second chewing the food
passes again into the rumen, and on to the second, third, and fourth.
The fourth stomach is provided with numerous glandular organs, and
in it real digestion begins.

The intestinal canal is formed by a continuous tube, varying in
width, and which is nominally divided into two portions—the large and
small intestines. The small intestine reaches from the stomach to the
caecum, and is again divided into the duodenum, the jejunum, and the
ilium. The large intestine is divided into the caecum, colon, and rectum.
The whole length of the intestinal tube reaches in sheep about 2818

THE SHEEP.

metres, of which 21 belong to the small intestine and 7 to the large.
The. intestinal canal lies obliquely on the right side of the paunch, and
is here covered by the doubled fold of the great tissue (peritoneum h).
On the lower and convex side lie the small intestines, which form a
number of intestinal loops hanging on a short mesentery. At a short
distance (36 centimetres) behind the exit of the fourth stomach
(pylorus), the small intestine is pierced by the common gall-duct, and,
somewhat further towards the back, by the outlet of the pancreatic
gland, which carry off the secretions of the liver and pancreas.

Two large glands, the liver and the pancreas, stand in direct
connection. The first lies in the anterior region of the abdomen,
immediately behind the diaphragm, to which it is attached by ligaments,
and is the largest gland in the animal body. When normally full of
blood it appears to be of a very dark reddish-brown colour, very much
lobed, and, in the living animal, of a somewhat pulpy consistency. The
secretion of the liver is the gall, given off by the hepatic cells, first in
tiny vessels, gradually in larger ones, and is brought to the biliary ducts
through the gall-bladder duct to a collecting reservoir, the gall-bladder.
Through the common biliary duct, the gall, as already stated, is passed
into the duodenum. It possesses essentially the property of acting as a
disinfectant on the contents of the bowel, preventing sluggish deposits.
The pancreatic gland, also called sweetbread, lies in the region of the
stomach, at the posterior end of the dorsal vertebrae, under the pillars
of the diaphragm, and encloses with its two branches the anterior
mesentery root; its structure is the same as the salivary glands of the
head, and yields the pancreatic juice which is brought through the pan-
creatic duct to the duodenum. The function of the pancreatic juice is
to solve albuminous bodies and render them capable of absorption;
besides this, it is capable of splitting up fat, and also possesses in a high
degree the property of changing starch into glucose.

A third large gland in the hind part of the body-—which is not,
however, connected with digestion—is the spleen. It is a so-called blood
gland, its structure resembling the lymphatic glands. It lies against

the anterior end of the left bag of the paunch, is almost triangular,
squeezed flat, and possesses, besides its detachable serous covering, a
true skin, known as thqpropria ; it is bluish-grey in colour. It probabl^
assists in the formation of blood, but of its particular use very little is
known.	,

URINARY SYSTEM.	!

The urinary organs are divided into the secretory organs (the
kidneys) and into those bringing and conveying away the urine (Uterfus,
Bladder, and Urethra) ; with these is also reckoned a gland which has
really nothing to do with the preparation of the urine—the suprareffal
gland. The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs, which lie uhder
the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae; the right kidney lies more
forward than the left. They are of a brownish or bluish-red colour, of
rather firm consistency, and are enclosed in a mass of fibrous tiss-ue,
containing much fat and the renal capsules ; and besides this, ehch
kidney has an easily-detached fibrous capsule of its own. In section,
two quite distinct layers may be seen—the medullary and the cortical
substances. In the cortex lie the Malpighian bodies, visible to the naked
eye, which form the urine-secreting portion^of the kidney, while the
urine is brought to the so-called kidney pelvis or basin, whence ,it is
conducted through the uterus to the bladder. From here the uri|ie is
forced forward to the outlet of the urethra, which is connected witfy the

i

sexual organs. It is the office of the kidneys themselves (in which the
secretion of the constituents of the urine is continually being carried
on uninterruptedly, while the discharge of it only takes place at certain
intervals) to regulate the watery contents of the blood, to secret^ and
carry off the used-up constituents of the body, and to expel foreign
matter which has found its way into the body and blood from) the
former. They are therefore those organs on the functions of \jhich
the normal condition and composition of the blood is primarily
| dependent.	-	|THE SHEEP.

19

GENERATIVE SYSTEM.

The organs of generation are concerned in the development of the
foetus. They are divided into male and female. In the male organs
are reckoned the testicles—the most essential organs of generation—a
pair of almost oval glands, embedded in the scrotum, and which, in the
sheep, are considerably developed in proportion to the size of the body.
In them the spermatic fluid is formed, which is brought through the
seminal canal and spermatic cord into the male organ, and thence,
at the act of copulation, into the female sexual organs. There is also
a row of glandular organs belonging to the male sexual organs —
the accessory testicles, the spermatic vesicles, the Cowper glands, and
the prostrate glands.

The female sexual organs consist of organs for the development of
the ovum, the embryo, the ovaries, Fallopian tubes (the oviparous
ducts), and the womb or uterus.

The udder is a large compound, grape-shaped gland, divided into
two symmetrical halves, situated externally between the thighs in the
regio pubis. It consists of two lacteal glands, with two outlets each,
the teats, which in the sheep have a divergent direction, shaped like a
sharply-pointed cone, and have but one opening. On the side surface
of the udder there is, on each side, in the sheep, a pocket-shaped
thickening of the usual covering, in which are highly-developed seba-
ceous and perspiration glands. The teats are very hairy, and the
hfnd-teats are generally wanting. The glandular substance is greyish-
red in colour, and is composed of numberless tiny gland-cells, uniting
to form gland-vesicles and lobes, giving off milk as a secretion, which is
brought by collecting-ducts to the milk cistern, situated at the base of
the teat, whence the young suck it out. Milk is the indispensable
food for the young new-born animal. Hot only does it contain all the
ingredients needed by the young ones for food and further development
of the body (protein, carbonic-hydrates, fat, phosphites for bone-forma-
tion), but these components are easily dissolved, and remain in suspen-
sion in the milk, in a manner capable of their being absorbed in the
most fitting way. Milk is a white opaque liquid, representing an

emulsion of the tiniest fatty particles. Under the microscope it is
clear as water, and innumerable minute globules of fat may be
discerned, which, by refracting light, lend to it its white colour. These
fatty globules, on account of their lighter specific gravity, rise to
the surface of the milk, if it is left long standing, and form the cream
or scum. In the course of a few days the milk settles into a rather
firm mass, through the action of the developing lacteal acid, by secre-
tion of a serous fluid, the whey. The secretory activity of the gland
first begins in the last part of pregnancy, that is, immediately before
birth, is materially assisted by the sucking of the young at the teats of
the udder, and gradually ceases when the young one ceases to suck.
The formation of milk only takes place during pregnancy, therefore it
is necessary, in order to produce continued secretion, to exercise, by
milking, an artificial irritation on the lacteal glands.

The milk-yield of the female animal depends on different factors.
An increased activity is certainly peculiar to certain races and breeds,
just as in the ox ; but with these, also, it is principally caused by
milking, i.e., the continuous artificial friction of the gland, and slackens
as soon as milking ceases. When not milked, the lacteal glands cease
to give off more milk than is necessary for the nourishment of the
young ones. Merinos, like all sheep which are kept more for their
wool, have only a limited secretion of milk, sometimes hardly sufficient
for the lamb ; while the ewes of those races which are regularly milked
—e.g.) the Friesland sheep—secrete a much greater quantity. Besides
the above-named constituents, milk contains several extractive prin-
ciples, which impart to the different kinds of milk their distinctive
taste, which is a quite characteristic one in sheep-milk. Sheep milk
has, as opposed to milk of the goat and cow, a larger proportion
’ of solids, and in these again the greatest amount of albuminoids. It
is also richer in fat and caseine than cow’s milk. In cheese-making,
sheep’s milk is much employed, as in Roquefort and Aveyron, in
France; in Italy, the Netherlands, East' Friesland, Moravia (Brinsa
cheese), Galicia, Transylvania, &c. In England sheep are not used for
any purposes connected with the dairy.(20)

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.—DIVISIONS OE THE BODY OE THE SHEEP.
HEAD.

PLATE II.—THE SKELETON.

61.	Os pubis.

62.	Hip-joint.

1.	Back of head.

2.	Horny protuberance.

3.	Horns.

4.	Ears.

5.	Forehead.

6.	Bridge of nose.

7.	Nostrils.

8.	Mouth, with cleft upper lip and lower

lip.

9.	Chin.

10.	Throat.

11.	Cheeks.

12.	Eyes and eyelids.

13.	Lachrymal pit.

NECK.

14.	Nape of neck.

15.	Crest.

16.	Throat.

17.	Dewlap.

TRUNK.

18.	Withers.

19.	Back.

20.	Loin or kidney region.

21.	Walls of chest.

22.	Fore part of breast.

23.	Lower breast.

24.	Abdomen.

25.	Flank.

26.	Hungergrube.

27.	Haunches.

28.	Bump.

29.	Croup.

30.	Tail.

31.	Scrotum.

32.	Point of discharge from sheath or

prepuce.

EORE LIMBS.

33.	Shoulder.

34.	Point of shoulder.

35.	Fore-arm.

36.	Elbow.

37.	Front-knee.

38.	Shin-bone.

39.	Fetlock, or fetlock-joint.

40.	Pastern.

41.	Coronet with the balls.

42.	Hoofs.

HIND LIMBS.

43.	Upper thigh.

44.	Hip-joint.

45.	Back knee-joint.

46 Lower thigh.

47.	Hock.

48.	Heel.

From the hock downwards, the de-
scriptions are the same as in the
fore-limbs.

HEAD.

1.	Upper jaw.

2.	Lower jaw.

3.	Occipital bone.

4.	Frontal protuberance.

5.	Horn cores.

6.	Frontal bone.

7.	Lachrymal bone.

8.	Zygomatic bone.

9.	Temporal bone.

10.	Nasal bone.

11.	Superior maxillary bone.

12.	Upper molars and incisors.

13.	Anterior maxillary bone.

14.	Edge of frontal bone.

15.	Orbital cavity.

16.	The lower molars.

17.	The eight lower incisors.

NECK AND TRUNK.

18-24. 7 cervical vertebrae

18.	The atlas, being the first.

19.	The axis or rotator.

25-37. 13 dorsal vertebrae, with

1-13'. The ribs, being
l'8'. True ribs ;

9 -13False ribs.

38. Sternum or breast-bone.

39-45. 7 lumbar vertebrae (often only 6).

46.	The sacrum.

47-58. 12 coccygeal vertebrae (The sheep
has 3-24 coccygeal vertebrae).
59-61. Bones of the pelvis.

59.	Ilium.

60.	Ischium.

LIMBS.

63.	Shoulder bone {Scapula).

64.	Point of shoulder.

65.	Upper arm bone {Humerus).

66.	Elbow bone (Ulna).

67.	Fore-arm bone {Radius),

68.	Elbow-joint.

69.	Fore knee-joint {Carpus), consisting

of—

70.	Unciform bone.

71.	Polygonal bone.

72.	Cuneiform bone.

73.	Cuboidal bone.

74.	Semi-lunar bone.

75.	Scaphoid bone.

76.	Metacarpal bones.

77.	Sesamoid bones.

78.	Pastern bones.

79.	Coronet bones.

80.	Hoof bones.

81.	Navicular bones.

82.	Upper thigh bones [Fewur).

83.	Patella.

84.	Gt. lower thigh bone {tibia).

85.	Knee-joint {stifle).

86.	Hock, consisting of—

87.	Calcis or heel-bone.

88.	Astralagus.

89.	Scapho-cuboid.

90.	The 1st cuneiform bone

91.	The 2nd and 3rd cuneiform bones.
From the hock downwards the bones.

are the same as on the fore-limbs.EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

21

PLATE

Abbrev.: H. Heart; L. Windpipes ; S.
Arteries are traced in red, tlie veins in blue.

A. ARTERIES.

1.	Aorta or principal artery.

2.	Left coronary artery of the heart.

3.	Anterior aorta.

4.	Posterior aorta.

5.	Left inominate artery (section), sub-
clavian artery.

6.	Principal brachial aitery (giving off
right inominate artery).

7.	The left carotid artery,

8.	The right carotid artery, and

9.	The right inominate (sub-clavian).

10.	Branches for the windpipe, oesopha-
gus, and neighbouring muscles ; also

11.	The parotid gland artery.

12.	The superior thyroid artery, from
which springs

13.	The pharyngeal artery, which gives
off branches to the thyroid gland,
pharynx, oesophagus, and the larynx.

14.	Origin of occipital artery.

15.	External maxillary artery.

16.	Internal maxillary artery.

17.	Lingual artery.

From the external maxillary artery
come and are visible

18.	The facial artery, with

19.	Coronary artery of the upper lip, and

20.	Coronary artery of the lower lip.

21.	Temporal artery with its branches.

22.	Lower dental artery.

23.	Side artery of the nose.

24.	Lower eyelid artery, and artery on

bridge of nose.

From the right inominate (9) artery
come

25.	Anterior intercostal artery (section).

26.	Oblique cervical artery.

27.	Deep cervical artery.

28.	Neck-vertebral artery.

29.	Inner pectoral artery.

30.	Oblique shoulder artery (not visible).

31.	Outer pectoral arteries, and

32.	Axillary artery (not visible).

This last forms the continuation of
the inominate artery, and gives off
(not visible in Plate) the anterior
scapular (shoulder) artery, the pos-
terior shoulder artery, the lower

III.

Plate III.—continued.

(Esophagus ; L. Liver ; M. Stomachs.

shoulder artery, with the posterior
arm-bone artery and deep brachial
artery, as well as the shoulder
(scapular) artery. In its further
course the axillary artery is known
as the brachial artery.

33.	Posterior artery and fore-arm.

34.	Branches to knee.

35-36. Metacarpal arteries, and

37.	Pastern bone arteries.

38.	Arteries of the foot.

(4) The posterior aorta is divided into
thoracic aorta and abdominal aorta.
The first-named gives off

39.	(Esophagian artery.

40.	Bronchial artery.

41.	Ten pairs of intercostal arteries.
From the abdominal aorta come

42.	The lower diaphragm arteries.

43.	Iliac artery, giving off the upper,
middle, and lower gastric arteries
and hepatic artery ; also

44.	Anterior mesenteric artery, which
divides into two branches—the upper
or ilioccecal artery, and the lower
branch, the small intestine.

45.	Arteries of the kidneys.

46.	Internal spermatic arteries.

47.	Posterior mesenteric artery.

48.	The 6 (7) pairs of lumbar arteries.

49.	Arteries of the thigh.

50.	The two pelvic arteries.

51.	The middle sacrum arteries.

The arteries of the thigh (49) give off

52.	The abdominal arteries.

53.	The external spermatic artery.

54.	Epigastric artery.

55.	Deep artery of the upper thigh.

56.	External artery of upper thigh.

57.	Anterior femoral artery.

58.	The inner skin artery, with the ex-

ternal and internal hock arteries.

59.	Posterior tibial artery.

60.	Anterior tibial artery.

61.	The fibula artery.

62.	The lower part of femoral artery.

63.	The metatarsal artery.

The two pelvic arteries (54) give off

64.	The umbilical artery, and thus the

uteris artery.

65.	The coccygeal arteries.

66.	Gluteal arteries.

67.	Obturator arteries.

68.	Internal pudic artery.

69.	Ischiatic arteries.

70.	The pulmonary artery carrying venous

blood to the lungs.

B.—THE VEINS.

71.	The anterior Vena cava brings the

blood returning from the front part
of the body back into the right
auricle. Its two principal com-
ponents are:—

72.	Jugular vein. It receives, besides, a

set of smaller veins, flowing in same
direction as arteries, and having
similar names. It also receives
from the region of the posterior
aorta

73.	The Great Azygos, formed by the in-

tercostal veins and veins of the
oesophagus and air passages.

74.	The posterior Vena cava brings back

the blood from the posteiior parts
of the body, and forms again, to-
gether with those veins coming from
the arteries and named after them,
the veins of the sacrum, ilium,
pelvis, loins, spermatic, kidneys,
&c., and the

75.	Veins of the liver, which convey the

blood back from the capillary net-
work system.

76.	Portal system, formed in the liver by

the portal vein in three or four prin-
cipal branches, and several smaller
ones.

77.	The portal vein is composed of the

posterior and anterior mesenteric
and gastric veins, together with
their branches.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

7.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
21.
22.
23.

PLATE IV.

THE MUSCLES.

Muscle of the upper lip.

Zygomatic muscle.

Elevator of the upper lip.

Pyramidal muscle of the nose.
External cheek muscle.

Depressor muscle of lower lip.
External maxillary muscle (Masseter).
Sterno maxillaris.

Its sinew, touching on the lower jaw.
Orbital cavity portion of the circular
muscle of the eye-lids.

Its eye-lid part.

Upper 1

Middle v Abductor of ear.

Lower j

Muscle of parotid gland.

Neck part 1 0f muscles common to
Smewy part head neok and arm.
Arm part )	’	’

Subclavian ligament.

Part of the sterno maxillary muscle.
Superficial or broad pectoral muscle.
Posterior and \of the elevator mus-
Anterior parts J cle of the shoulder.

24.	Lower elevator of the shoulder-bone.

25.	Trapezius.

26.	Its sinew.

27.	Posterior part) of long brachial ex-

28.	Anterior part j tensor.

29.	External!

30.	Thick	j-Extensors of fore-arm.

31.	Long J *

32.	Broad dorsal muscle.

33.	External oblique abdominal muscle.

34.	Broad-toothed muscle (serratus mag-

nus).

35.	Deep or large pectoral muscle.

36.	Extensor of shin-bone.

37.	Extensor of inner claw (digit ?).

38.	Common extensor of digits.

39.	Extensor of external digit.

40.	External (flexor ?) of (tarsus ?) of

fore-foot.

41.	Oblique extensor of ditto.

42.	Superficial flexor of foot.

43.	Its sinew.

44.	Deep flexor of foot.

45.	Its smew.

46.	Sinews connecting the above-men-

tioned portions.22

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate IY.—continued.

Plate Y.—Yertical Section of the Body—continued.

47.	Sinew of extensor of middle of fore-

foot.

48.	Oblique extensor of tarsus of fore-foot.

49.	Pastern bone flexor.

50.	Sinew of extensor of inner digit.

51.	Oblique ligaments,

52.	Gluteus.	,

58.	Tensor muscle.

54.	Rectus femoris.

55.	Anterior (large) head of abductor of

hind-leg.

56.	Posterior (small) head of ditto.

57.	Long abductor of hind-leg.

58.	Thick

59.	Muscle drawing the tail to one side.

60.	Plexor of metacarpus bone.

61.	Long extensor of loot.

62.	Peroneus.

63.

64.	Long flexor of foot.

65.	External fibula muscle.

66.	Internal ,,	,,

67.	Extensor muscle.

68.	Tendon Achilles.

PLATE Y.—YEETICAL SECTION OF THE BODY.

1.	Cerebrum.

2.	Cerebellum.

3.	Pons varolii.

4.	Medulla oblongata.

5.	Spinal marrow.

6.	Oblique section of cervical, dorsal,

lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal ver-
tebrae.	# **

7.	Ligament nuchae.

8.	Turbinated bones.

9.	Pharynx.

10.	Entrance of the larynx.

11.	Trachea.

12.	Thyroid gland.

13.	Bronchi and their branches.

14.	Left lung.

15.	Right lung.

16.	Wall of pectoral cavity from inside.

17.	Diaphragm (tendinous or sinewy por-

tion).

18 Diaphragm (muscular part).

19.	Left (arterial) ventricle from outside,
and left auricle above it.

20.	Right (venous) ventricle from with-

out, and right auricle above it.

21.	Pulmonary artery, coming from the

right ventricle.

22.	Aorta, coming from the left ventricle.

23.	Interior of right auricle.

24.	Interior of right ventricle.

25.	Interior of left auricle.

26.	Interior of left ventricle.

27.	Chordae, tendinse of the mitral valves

in left and right ventricles.

28.	Cavity of the mouth, with molars.

29.	Tongue.

30.	Palate and palatal ridges.

31.	Pharynx.

32.	Cervical and pectoral portion of

oesophagus. After piercing the
diaphragm, it enters

33.	The first stomach (paunch).

34.	Its left or upper bag.

35.	Its right or lower bag.

36.	Baucis of the paunch.

37.	Paunch.

38.	Opening of oesophagus and its inser-

tion (Cardia).

39.	Front

40.	Middle >divisions of the paunch.

41.	Back J

42.	Spleen.

43.	Opening into the second stomach.

44.	Second stomach (Reticulum).

45.	Its meshes or cells.

46.	Third stomach (Omasum, leaved

tripe).

47.	Its leaves.

48.	Fourth stomach {Abomasum).

49.	Its folds of mucous membrane.

50.	Pylorus or portal (passage into in-

testinal canal).

51.	Duodenum.

52.	Mesentery.

53.	Jejunum.

54.	Ilium.

55.	Its discharging into caecum.

56.	Caecum.

57.	Colon.

58.	Rectum.

59.	Anus.

60.	Liver (drawn at the back of the dia-

phragm).

61.	Its right 1

62.	x Its left	Hobes.

63.	Its 4-sided^

64.	Gall-bladder.

65.	Biliary ducts of liver.

66.	Biliary duct of bladder.

67.	Common biliary duct, going to duo-

denum.

68.	Right and left broad ligaments of

liver.

69.	Left kidney.

70.	Section of this with kidney pelvis.

71.	Right kidney.

72.	Ureter, coming out of the kidney pel

vis, and leading to the

73.	Bladder.

74.	Neck of bladder.

75.	Vent-opening of bladder in the

76.	Urethra in the penis.

77.	Scrotum.

78.	Spermatic duct.

79.	Abdominal cavity.

80.	Pelvic cavity.

In studying Plate V., push 14 upwards, 19 to the right, 20 to the left; then lay them
together again and bend heart and right lung upwards to show the pectoral cavity. Laying
the lung flat again, bend the left half of diaphragm (17,18) to the left, to expose the first
stomach (33) with the spleen (42). The first-named opens upward, and alter examination
of its inner walls, it may be folded to the right, so as to show the second, third, and fourth
stomachs with their inner linings (44, 46, 48). Then lay these, together with the first por-
tion of the duodenum, to the left. Bend downwards the then visible mesentery (52), with
the jejunum (53), the ilium (54), the colon (57), and rectum (58), thus laying bare the
caecum (56) and discharging end of ilium (55). The left kidney is shown in section (69),
and pushed up while bending the caecum round to the right to show the ureter (72). The
other organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavities, such as the liver (60), bladder (73), right
kidney (71), scrotum (77) and its excretory passages, are drawn on the flat in the plates.
Then, in reversed order, the different parts are replaced in position, Plate IV. on Plate V.,
and Plate II. 011 Plate III., so that Plate I. again resumes its position on the top.

GEORGE PHILIP AND SON, PRINTERS, LONDON AND LIVERPOOLA

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