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ESSAY V -
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Essay on the FORMATION or Rocxs, or an Inquiry
into the probable Origin of their present Form
and Structure.

Our knowledge of the actual and present state
of the substances which constitute our globe, is
unfortunately confined to a small portion of the
surface 3 from which it would appear, that we are
still very deficient even as to those facts which are
within the reach of our observation and ex erience,
and which may perhaps be necessary to t e form»
ing of any rational conjecture concerning the for"
mati'on or former state of those substances which
cover the external surface of the globe.

Concerning the nature and properties of the
great mass which constitutes the interior of the
earth, We are entirely ignorant; few of our mines
penetrate deeper than one fifty thousandth part of
the earth’s diameter under the surface, and none
of them go beyond one twenty-five thousandth
part of that diameter :» it would appear, therefore,

 
   

4 , . {212 the [thrmaiion of Books.

that any mere supposition concerning the actual
and present state, or the nature of those substances
which form the interior of the earth, is unsupporb
ed as yet by any reasonable analog ; and that all
conjectures concerning former changes, partial or
total, in the nature and structure of those sub
stances, are removed still farther from any thing
analogous in our present state of knowledge

The earth being flattened at the poles, does not
necessarily imp] its former fluidity; we may be
permitted to douht the analogy between our eXpe~
rimentsvon bodies moving in our atmosphere, and
the earth’s motion in space: our total ignOrance
of the nature of the fluid which cecupies what is
usually called space, tends to render the analogy
inconclusive. -

May not the mode of casting patent shot be con-

‘ sidered as an experiment on the form which 1i uid

‘ bodies would take by a rotary motion? A .rop
of melted lead let fall from the height of two hum
dred feet is completely globular, and not flattened
at the poles; the lead might be thrown with force
from the top of the tower, which would imitate
the centrifugal force, as gravitation does the cons
:tripetal force,_and make the experiment more anat-
logous. _ ,

The supposition that the earth was in a fluid
state when it took its present form, leads to the
supposition that it was always so; and that fluidity
was the original state of the earth, kept so by all
the general laws and order of nature, all of which
general order and laws of nature must be totally
changed before the earth would take a solid form,

On the supposition that the earth, previous to
its fluid state, had existed always in a solid state, . ~
and that some creation. or accident produced the a
the or water necessary to its liquefaction, we have
in that case first to suppose, that the order and;

 
on the Formation ofRochs ' '4

nature of the general laws’whieh had kept it alm

ways in a‘solid state, ‘We’retOtally changed; to'proa
duce a fluid state; and that another change in the .
general laws which prodIiCed and kept it'in a'fluid
state, monastic-taken place previOus 1;% ' having
become a ain solid. f'

It may e doubted, Whether the uniformity, ors
'der and regularity of the generallaws of nature,
which have at any time comeyflthlnthel‘irfiltsof

   

our observation; caffWarrant’a supposition, ‘foundn

ed on Such complete changes in the mode of ac
tion,

The N eptunists admit the fluidity of the earth,
and endeayor to rove , thatwater must-have been
the sensor a ll] _1 y; t ougfi to dissolve the
greater part of the substances now found on the
surface, or as far under it as we have yet penetratm
ed, would require tvi’o or three thousand times
more water than the solid contents of the whole
globe. HOW nature has disposed of that immense
quantity of water, now become unnecessary by the
consolidation of the globe, is butone of the many
difficulties which arise out of the Neptunian sysa
temi ’

The Volcanists", likewise, consider the fluidity of .
the globe as a necessary foundation for their sys
tem 5 but insist that fire must have been the cause
of it, nor can they, in a satisfactory nianner, dispose
of the immense quantity of caloric or heat, become
unnecessary by the consolidation of the globe : dif-
ficulties that must always attend suppositions of a
total change in the general laws of nature, because
the agents necessary to the retaining of matter in,

   

one state, must be disposed of before that: matter " » ‘

/ can acquire a different form or nature.

' is

It is, perhaps, an historical fact, that all geologists
who have formed their system on the examination
of the northern parts of the continent oi Europe,

 
 

 

 

a 0n the Formation of Rocks.

Where there are no existing volcanoes, are Neptué
nists; and those who have examined Italy, erothur
er volcanic countries, previousto the formation of
their «systems, are more or less Volcanists,~which
tends to prove, that opinions are the result of our
knowledge, and our knowledge-the conse uence of
the different situations. which chance ore oice has
thrown us into: we ought, therefore, not to be as-
tonished, much less irritated, at the difference of
opinions, but consider them as the natural effect
or consequenceof our locality or opportunities.

‘ Suppose the earth was a body of moderate size,
that we could cut up and dissect as we do animals,
vegetables 5 or other objects of natural history, it is
probable that the first part which , would attract
our attention would be the volcanoes, in action,
with the. mountains formed by the ejected matter g
we should probably first exafinine this ejected mat-
ter, to ascertain what'proportion of the surface of
the globe, or ball, was covered with similar matn
ter : we should, of course, find out the extinct vol-a
canoes, and though the fire had ceased to act, the
similarity and relative position of the matter would
induce us to conclude that they were produced in
the same manner, as well as the small detached
remains of similar substances, which we would
find scattered over the whole surface.

After shaving off all that we supposed to be
formed by fire, the next active agent that would
attract our attention would be water. The pro—
ductions and changes wrought by the operation
of this agent, would be examined: the aggregates
of rounded particles, dc ositionlwith organic mat»
ter, &c. would be considered, as belonging to forum
ations by water.

Clearing the surface of the ball with our dissect;
ing chisel of all that we could ascertain by analogy
to belong to the formation by water, or fire, we

 

“ “g? I l
. s" , 4 ,;
 
  
  
  
 
 

Would come 16' a spe
actly reSemble eithe of the ,
Wiiich,j.,0n examining, We we 13

V,»

 

texture; ,5 and comparing it War? the
read;

   

 

fly cliff, dfi'g’fyvewoitldfind'p‘art of , matter

Which had a distinct resemblance tot, formed;

by fire, and part to that formed by water, but so

mixed and confused togetheras to prevent-i ionr
., 4 5 er

      

    

     

’ , atwow 't ,- * Weifld naturally
‘WiSh to knew What constituted the interior or cenm
tra‘i part; for which purpose we *Would' out it in.

. two,rand yexpoSe the interior to our examination

 

    
  

        

a1 s1 «aw ' fare essainedthxte
W is "Ii" '1? ‘a’ the interior was

, , :1 , = ,
fluid, and like a'sot‘t boiled egg, and only the extem
» trier was solid, we might {chew the analogy of the

egg a little farther,iand deduce 'theiprobability,that
at some former period the exterior; [crust had'beiefn
fluid, and had since became solid, by some opera
tion of nature analogous to something Weihad ours
selves observed; ‘ ‘ ' , i '

On the contrary, sho'ld the? . ., fitiotfofthe
interior of the bail, prove, that it consisted of a va»
riety of solid substances, farther and farther re
moved from any resemblance with those We had
observed as formed on the surface hy'fire or water,
we should probably conclude, that] theseeagents
,Were not necessarily instrumental in the formation
of those subStafices-; and that, we were totallyign
norant of the! process Which nature may have
adopted to form these substances; and we should,
doubt Whether these substances had . not always
existed in that state. Thus would the investigaa
tion be left, until farther dissections, and the analr
ysis of similar constituted balls, had‘throvvn more
light on the subject of our inquiries. :

In this manner the examination of the origin at
the rocks that form the external crust of our giohe

4

 

 
 

 

 

‘ and, vproba

*8 _ «092 film Format-ion of Rocks,

ought, «perhaps, toihe conduCted ; beginni—n with
those substances that‘have been formed un er the

immediate, evidence of our senses, and com letely

Within'the limits of our observation, either y wa—
ter or fire, and proceeding to others having a direct:
resemblance, in structure, component parts, or l'E-.
lative situation, or united by the chain of positive

analogy, to the same modeof formation ; evident-

ly deriving their origin from the action of the same

agents of water or fire, until we come to the last

crust, beyond gwhivchwe cannot penetrate; then
we must drop-the thread of positive analogy, and
not being able to make a cut to the centre of the

globe, be content With probable conjecture. (

At this «point, Where positive analogy finishes,

b- e conjecture begins, will be the natu«
,ral line Which Will divide the rock into two class—
es ; the first class Will contain all those Whose ori-
gin, either by fire or water, has taken place under
the evidence of our actual observation, or those
that Can «be. traced by positive analogy to the same
origin. The second class comprising all those
rocks which haveno positive analogy with either,
of; containing some parts which have a distant re~
lathe-etc both themodes of formation.

’As nature does not advance by large leaps, but
by small and regular steps, leaving no marks in the
chain of gradation on which We can place the lim-a
itsof our artificial division, the line of demarcation

‘ ‘fiB‘tWegn the first and second classes Will be doubt-

; ,_{€‘;;fq,1_;~.aiig"jg;the rocks approximating on both sides,

willenot” e Well determined. The line also must
changessvigth the progress of our knowledge and
discoveries, and rocks placed in the second class
now, because we have found analogous rocks in
the first class, may change their place by new dIS-
coveries, and pass from the second to the first.
class, or from What may be called the unknown 1n~~

 

 
 

02; the ’Formafimzicy“ 3093339,: a ,3

to the known,Whenever1£g;ture experienceiand'ohe
servation- have thrown light‘on their origin».

There is no question, here concerning the rela~
tivejperiod in whiCh the different formations by.
water'or'firehave originated. This is riiflicultto

ascertain; and fromthe numberless derangern'énts

in the original order, liable to many/ exceptions,-~

nor is the necessity of it'evident in the inqnirxeon
99mins: thatch/air} 99h :9hserva
tinn‘srovesrhe priority'bf""o e 'mOd'ei'of formation

over the other, nor militates against the prohahilh

ty of one formation often alternating with another,

and it is more than probable that the reason we
have:sgterrainstaneesyei,soghaanalteration:on re- .
erafs'be-‘é'usethenis so smear/a proportion of the.

crust of our globe accurately examined.

in attempting to separate the rocks, whose ori»

gin comes within the sphere “of cur positive know~

ledge, or positive analogy, from " those whose faint

and distant resemblance leaves the nature of their

origin to conjecture, I am convinced, that neither

rnyexPerience, knowled 6, nor industry, are ade~

(plate to the th‘sktofico 'arin'g’w'theirgiyayri lus differ;

ences amt resemblances, so as to'foi‘ina’j{adequate
conclusiongbut the faults and. imperfections in '

the execution will‘not, perhaps, hinge the proprie—

ty of the arrangement or metho gltfor it has ale

ways appeared tome necesSary to fix some, boun~ .
dary between the knowledge of facts .vvhicf .
increase with our experience, and the ‘ ‘
" jecture which may, perhaps, on the c
minish as our positive knowledge an

It is probable that nature has their ; ay,
M pf effecting the changes, in the i’ormht rocks, than
We are acquainted with; and that she employs
many agents, the nature and properties of which
we are as ‘yetitotally ignorant of ; nor is it improh»
able that she: may form the same rock by two er

  

 

 

  

  
 
       

 
 
  
 

 
 

- .;.
5)

 

 
  
 
  

 

10" 0n the Eormazfion 3 f Rocks, _

more difl‘erent_agent§, __ When (we pretend tolimm
it the operations ofjniaiture, to suit our contracted
ideas, we mostprohably do her injustice. TO-pro-
ceed from the known, which We see daily formn'
ingfi towards the unknown, through a chain of
reasoning strictly analogous, is perhaps all that our
present knowledge Will‘ipermit use to do. >

It is not intended to give a description of f all the
particular rocks that may conetitute a formation,
, or be subordinate to it, many ofthem, such as the
topaz;rock,(whichghasonlyi.as yet been. found in a
bed,;5in ““clayryglatc, fortyiorvififty wfee:t?‘:._;broad;‘i'?‘“~andt .
fromtwo hundred to three hundred feet long)
wedld tend to 'leonfuse: a general description of
the: formation, with a few observations, is all that
I shall attempt, ‘ _ : x n

 

SYNOPSIS (BE THE ORIGIN OF RQCKS.

As we do not comprehend either the creational
or annihilation, of matterfihy the origin of rocks9
We mea z, " ~~t c angewhich produced their
\ 6 agent that nature employ--
‘ or_«efiectuate that

   
 

  

insrflnass. Of Neptunian origin.

Formed by nature under our obc
'sihlefi and resting on. the evidence of

Sand beds, Brown Coal,

Gravel beds, Bog Iron orea ,
Sea-Salt, , Calcareous Tuffa,
Sandstone, » ‘Calcareous depositions,

Puddingstone, Silex from Hot-Springs étc;

 
0.11,,th Formatign; gbf flocks; 11

Samuel Order, resembling, in structure, peeitio'n,
or component parts, the first order;‘t’he evidence of ,
their origin resting. on direct andspositive analogy.

   
 

  

 

 

Cealgwij , . ‘ , ' Graywacke 8;,firaywacke
Gypsum, slate, " ' 7
Chalk, ,, Transition Sandstone, )
Compact limestone * T p ' ' _ Limestoneg, :71
Sandstqaea; " 4 nGypsum, ' '
Puddingstone, 7 Trans1t1on Clay Slate,
Rock-Salt, Anthracite,

Girl Red Sandstone, Siliceous Schist.

  

ECQNDCws Volcamcorlgm ' '

 

Farsi Order. Thrown out of active volcanoes,
and resting on the evidence'of our senses:

Compact Lava. I Mud Lava, ~ . ,

Porous Lava, Obsidian or, Volcanic Glass,
Porphyrltm Lava, ' Pumice stone, _
Scoria,’ -' , ' ‘Cindersngcg v, , ,-

Seeoml QTder. Re’sembling the first order in,
structure, position, and component parts, having
the remains of craters, with currents oglava diverg-
ing from them: though the fire,flwhich may have
formed them, is now extinct; the evidence of t, '
erigin resting on direct and positive analogy: ’

   

 

Basalt, , . ‘ ' ‘ - , Pearlstone, - a,
Trap formation, called by Porphyry attending the,’
Werner the newest Floats Trap‘as above,

Trap formation, Clinkstone ditto, 8m,
Pitch‘stone, ‘

_Tkird Order, Where the rocks resemble the
seeend, in texture and component parts," but:

 
 

 

 

v

1.93 ‘ 0n the Formation of Rocks.

where all thecrate‘rs, cinders,sco‘ria’e, and most of

the POI‘OIIS'rocks, have been washed away, leaving
only the solid-parts, such as _ ' _ . _> -

, Basalt, ‘ : Pitchstone‘,

Trap, called by Werner- Porphry,
’ the newest Fleets Trap ‘ _ Clinkstone, 8w.
formation, ' '

These rocks resemble the volcanic in relative
position,-cio= ring cin‘glifi'erently all the other class
es of rocks, __ d in “detached pieces, withOut ' any
extensive centinuity or stratification, but divided
by vertical fissures, the proof of their origin rest—
ing on a more distant analogy than order second»

   

THIRD CLASS. The' origin dOubtful, resem~-
bling a little the second order of the first and sec-
ond classes, but the analogy neither direct nor pos—
itive, amounting only to probable conjectures, "

First Order. Such rocks as probable conjec~
tare would. incline to place in the Neptnnian ori~
gin: - ~_ , ’

' x

Gneiss, , Clay Slate,

Mica Slate, Primitive Limestone

Second Order. LiSHCh reeks as probable conjec~.
ture would incline‘to place in the volcanic origin:

Hornblende, Sienite,
Porphyry, ‘ Granite,
Greenstone,

The origin of rocks may first be divided into

it the known and the unknown. The two first class-

es contain the known, and the third class the an»

 

 

 
 

On the Formation '7-of'Roeka. 113‘"

known. Farther observations may change their
situation, and place a rock, which is now, in the
unknown class, in the‘v-knovvn class, by which
means the unknov'vn class‘will diminish asour'pos-
itive kanbwle’dge inoreases, and in proportion as
the known class augments. . ‘

The first class, or those I'OCkS,.WhOSB origin

 
  

    
 
  

   
 

cemes within the limits of ourposit k, cvvledge, ,
or can. be traced lay-posit 1 ° rigidesi'lit'self
into“ theaiNeptunian an ole me,

water or fire were instrumental in their forma~
tions,

FZTSITOMBT .: Theffieptunianaon “aqueous, fora
mationt.’ " " i

1. Sand beds, consisting of small particles of rocks
rounded by friction“ or attrition.

2. Gravel beds, consisting of ‘~ large particles of
rocks; rounded by friction or attrition.

3. Clay beds, sediments by water, including on arle,

- and all sediments inimpalpable powder. _ ,

4. Sea-Salt, with all its attendantsof afgile, Gyp“~
sum, SEC. '

5. Sandstone, particles of sand rounded by fric»
tion, and cemented by calcareous or. other infile
trati0n into a hard adhesive rock. ,

6. Puddingslone, partiCles of gravel rounded by‘
attrition, and cemented by the infiltrations of Sii
liceous, calcareous, ferruginous, and other aque-
ous depositions, 8m. 1,

7. Braunkohle Tum or other bituminous or 've-
getable substances included in the beds of the

‘ above alluvial rocks. f _

8. Bog iron Ore, Pyrites, &0. included in the
above alluvial. .

9. Calcareous Tufia, a coarseégrained deposition
from a chemical dissolution in warm springs,

 

 
 

 

:14 p :liz'tfiefli‘orn’iation of Boats,

“’6: fire, "8: --from a fisir‘apid ands? suddden precipita
-' ion. - ‘ = : ‘
~10§30alcareoue depoeition, called Travertina, at
Rome, from‘a slower precipitation, by evaporate
ting of water, permitting it to take a compact
_ and solid fOrm. ‘ V -
11.; Sileaeffmm; siliceous precipitation :‘ slowly as
in petrified 'wOod and other organic matter,
which are solid and compact, or suddenly as
from th hot springs of Iceland, where it is celm
Finlanali " "§Bfi£§§¥$9:grained‘l - v »
‘ The abov mentioned reeks are“saga-fiestas”
zontally, following the inequality of the surface
on which they rest; they are found on or near
the surface of the earth, and their origin is within
the limit of our thervatiOn: as ; naturefmay be
said to carry on her manufactory, subject to the
daily inspection of ‘our‘ senses. They have been
called alluvial rocks, by some mineralogists. ,7

   

Second Order of Neptunian Rocks, ‘

1%. Coal formation, including the attendant strata
0f ~«Eliddinrgstoney Sands: ,HSIaty’Clay, Bitu»
‘ (i:imifionseaadiniluminous“ _. ~ «a; 8m; 7 With ‘vegea
tables, and other impresions of organic matter.
33. Gy sum, coarse-grained, composed of shells,
and 0 her organic matter, With all its attendant
strata of indurated marle, sandstone, cellular,
and other depositions of silex, $20. 8w, ’

l4; Limestone, coarse-grained, composed of shells

andother organic matter, With all its attendant
strata of indurated marl, sandstone, cellular and
otherdepgsitions of silex, 8:0. ,

l5. Chalk, including all the attendant substances,
as siliCeons depositions of flints in strata and
nodules, pyrites, 8m. with shells and other org:
ganic matter disseminated Sec,

    

 
On the Fbrmation 0f Rosier. _ l5

l6. Compact Limestone, including every species
of horizontally stratified limestone, with the rem
mains of organic matter, as shells Sic. 8m. disu'
seminated. .

l7. Sandswne, including all horizontally stratified
sandstone, having organic matter, or, alternating
with strata ineluding organic matter. 7

18. Puddingstone, including every speCies of rock
formed of rolled masses horizontally stratified,
having organic ,matter, [or rnating ,yvith

. rocks including organtevnatt’e , . " .

1 9. RDCk-S‘d”, including-”g all-7t i attendants of
Clay-beds, Gypsum, Sandstone Ste. ,

42,0. Gypsum, horizontally stratified, including
Clay, Sulphur, crystals of Quartz or Aragonites,
820. 8rd, in whiehno remainsofi organic mat-é

’ ter may, yet haVe been found. ‘

€21. Sandstone, with an ochry, ferruginons Cement,-
called by Werner, Retire tode Liegend, with all
its accompanying stratifications of limestone,
thin strata of coal, gypsum, &c. 820. having or«
ganic matter disseminated, though rare.

, The above rocks are generally stratified horizonm

tally, or folloWing the dip or inclination of those

on which they rest, but lying deep under the sur-l
face, and their period of formation, prior to the date
of our observations, prevents, their" mode of aggre~_
gation from coming Within the observation Of our

Senses; and Innst depend on rational or positive

analogy.

22. Grdywacke, rolled masses of rocks cemented
by a clay slate, more or less apparent, or by a.
slaty fibrous cement, having some resemblance
to a chlorite slate: the last mentioned, general;
ly found near the primitive. .

5.23. Graywacke slate, small rounded particles of
rocks, enveIOped in a slaty base, accom anied
and alternating with calcareous shist, Sec. 5c.-

   
 
 

 

 
 

 

 

 

   

 

tit; ' 012 3736 Formation ’of Rocks;

£34. Sandstone of transition, 'fine grained, having
generally a siliceous cement: in the fresh frac-
‘rture, resembling quartz, but in a state of decom-
position the granular texture appears.

€25. Limestone of transition, generally a small crys‘
talline grain, With small veins and seams of calc-

‘ spar, having smallplates of clay slate often dis-

seminated, 8:0. 8:0. .

26. Gypsum of transition, having a95maill granu-
lar crystallization, accompanied with small
plates of slate or shist. ”

Q7. Misaceous Slate of transition, alternating Wit

- small _ rai' inrystalline limestone: the strata

*"eonSI.sting‘?e species of talcy or mica slate, and
a variety *of shistone, intermediate rocks, as on
(the Ardenn‘es, and the Appenines, including
roofing Slate, and its attendants.

£8. flnthracite including the attendant strata of
clay slate, allum slate, black chalk, 8w. &c.

~99. Siliceous ski-st, as Kiezel-sheifi'er, Jasper, and

. other siliceOus stratifications.

The above rocks are generally stratified, dip-
ping or=inclining from (the horizon, at an angle of
‘ from 80 to 50 degrees, and in some cases even
more; most of them, except perhaps the last (N 0.
29,) have been found to contairn he remains of or--:
ganic matter, though in small qu ‘ntities; and are
a little further removed from the first order,
though still united by the chain of probable analot
gy to the same formation. N o. 99 approaches
nearer the green stones and Porphyries, where the
analogy is not so eonélusive.

:Greenstone, including greenstone por hyries, and

‘ the hard, compact rocks on the bor ers of the 2d
class.
Porphyries, crystals of quartz, feldspar, 8:0. in coma

.. pact, [and often small crystalline bases; found

near to the limits of the first and second class, a

.nd partaking of the properties of both. '

   
 

 
'8}; fits Formation of Recife. E2.

. As the above arocks approach those of the second-1}
class, they gradually remove from any positive
analogy to the Neptunian of the first class. They
contain no remains of organic matter, nor any par»
ticles-of‘ rocks‘round'éd by attrition; nor do they:
resemble any of the precipitations or depositions
contained in the first" order ofthe Neptunian rocks.

’ They are allied to the Neptunian division, by
their stratificationand relative Bosnian ,;>.tauehing
and perhaps alternating;§yVith‘f" , moment the
secondaorder of the Neptunian division; in struc-
ture and external appearance, they resemblema-
ny of the members of the volcanic family, and ap‘
preach in many of their pro erties to that species
or formation ofaroeks,r_,called y~ Werner, the trap
or basalt formation, (newest fleets trap formation.)
The few remarks we have to make on .this order, ,,
may therefore come mostzproperly after :we have ,
examined all the rocks united either to the Neptue
nian or volcanic origin; by lositive or rational anal.-
ogy, This will clear the 1d; andbring those of
deubztful and, conjectural origin, into. a smaller
compass, where their, resemblance-cog difference
can be better examined;- and thefii‘esult of the
comparison may throw light on the third class of
rocks, where positive cit-rational analogy ,is deft,
cient. ‘ ’

Nature composes, forms, or. aggregates :those ‘
rocks either‘by mechanical deposition, as insand, ,
gravel,,or clay, Nos. 1, £2, and 3; by a precipitation
from a chemical solution, as in Nos. 9, 10,, and 11;»;
or by a mixture of both modes of aggregation, as
in Nos. 4, 5, G, 7, and 8'. These aggregations of
sandstone, uddingstone, 820., are more or less ,
hard and a hesive, according to the nature of the
precipitate which unites them ; and nearly resemw

‘le the aggregates in the second order but»:

, depositions of 'impralpable powder, snob as e;

 
 

 
 

 

'18 (1% file Formation of Rocks,

Sic, generally remain in a soft state, having less

resemblance to the slaty and argi‘llaceous rocks of

the other orders of N eptunian‘origin. The calcare»,

Gus precipitations are not generally so hard and

adhesive as those of the second order, though they

have much the same tethre and external appear?

ance; but the siliceous ,precipitations in petrified

Wood, and other forms, are equally hard and com-a

pact, having a direct analogy with the siliceous
rocks of the second order; they are likewise the

only species ,0 ks, {positively known to be of
Neptui‘fjrr » ieh'ffrge‘s‘emble :a- little-in astezxs ;
ture,‘ hardnes. ,_ fexternal appearance, many of
those of Volca-hi ' ‘

    
  
 

”origin.
Rocks of the following deScription, may be con»

sidered of N eptunian origin by positive and ratiom

a1 analogy, viz. >‘ ._ ‘ _ _ ,

Those containing shells and other animals,
known, only to exist in water, orthe remains of oth-
er organic matter, destructible by fire. T

Aggregates of sand orgravel, rounded by attrie
tion, resembling those formed every day by the
action of the sea,‘ rivers and lakes.

Substances, whose structure and component
parts are similar to those formedngy the depositions
of lakes, springs, 1&0.) which are evident to our
senses and daily observations.

Substances, alternating and intimately mixed
"with all, or any, of the abOve description, provided,
nothing similar has yet been found in those, which
are of ,nndoubted volcanic origin, ‘

 

 
On, the! Ibrmafion of Rocks: In
'FIRST CLASS,
.. Omaha. I
, 1' Gfflw Neptuman origin, ‘

192. Coalformaiion.‘ The, seriesof aggregates '
Which constitute; this formation, ‘ " nttgaof i, =
aqueous origirfefithepusddinsto ' ‘ stone,»
are ‘icomposeduof particlesliroufided by attrition;
and as well as the slaty clay, bituminous slate, Sec.
contain the impressions of vegetablei’and other 01"".
vanic matter, which are, as well as the coal itself,
destructible by fire, rendering :theanalngygconcina ,

  

 

SIVG.‘~ ‘ ,
They are generally found in hollows or low
situations, when compared with the surroundin
strata, which may be called basins or depots, and
may be divided into three different basins or de-
pots, according to the different nature of the rocks,
which form [the basins or foundation on which the
formation lies. 7 , v ., ' ,:=
The first is the r'deposit in'caleareotJS Basinsaor
reposing on the foot of the compact calcareous
mountains; such as the coals at N ew-Castle and
Whitehaven, in the counties of Yorkshire, Lan-
cashire, Cheshire, and in fact, the greatest part of
the coals wrought in England, with the exception
of some fields in Wales, which are in primitive ha;
sins; the coals in Poland, on the foot of the com.-
pact limestone of the Carpathian mountains,
through Silesia, and following the calcareous chain
through Germany to the Hartz; the coals at Aix
la Chapelle and Liege; and perhaps all the coals
in Flanders, smay be found to repose in calcare
ous basins, or to crop out at the foot of calcareou
hills. The immense beds of coal lying upOn sea
condary limestone west of the Allegheny moun-

 

   

 
’ f

.5,
K.

 

“W‘ ' ,

 

spuddingstone, and sandstone,’

 

 

9.0 p , 07:. fire. Formation of Realist

tains in North America, are. likewise of this do».
soription. This is, perhaps, the most extensive
and re ular of” the coal formations; the beds are--
genera 1y of a moderate thickness, or from one to
six feet; of‘great extent';-~ a great number lyin

one under the other, even to 90 or 30 beds 3 an

alternating principally. with jslaty clay and sand-
stone, With: ittle or no puddingstone. The-argil‘a
laceous ironstone so. frequently wrought: as an
' ' 1 nd, is; feund in beds ofelay in

  
 
    
   

 

 

 

_ ‘ epOsitory' or deposit, is: found in ‘
the‘holloWs » inalieys in the primitiveformation,
such asthe coals near Nantz, on theAllier, St. Eti—

’ {Y}? du Guir, in France; Richmond, in
asses of America, 820. &c. \These de-

posits are ' generally less extensive than the first;

. they are-in clusters orwheaps of forty 0r fifty feet-

thick, Without any regularity in the stratification;
often after working-a forty or fifty feet bed; it runs
out to a thread in fifty or one hundred yards, and
recommences in another place. They alternate
With, and are covered Witha great proportion of

p p , _ d-a much less prov.
portion of ‘slaty clay, andrargfl’, hanrthe first kind,

 

. of deposits.

The third kind of repositories or deposits, are
not so regular as the other two, and more difficult
to define. They are generally found at the foot
ofithose ranges of mountains, Where the old red
saridStéOne takes the place of the compact limestone,

~- on'the flank of the primitive; such as the coals on

thesouth side of the mountains in Bohemia—along

the chain of the Vosges—parts of those found in

the south Of France—and in Scotland.

‘ The stratification of this deposit of coal, is nei-
ther extensive nor regular. It is often interrupted
and broken, having frequently basalt in its neigh»

 
(3n the Formation Qf Roche. Qt

borhood, or the trap formation, Which in some plae
ces covers it. It isalso covered by, and alternates
with, a greater proportion of sandstone ; and there
are comparatively, perhaps, fewer vegetable im;
pressions, or the remains of organic matter, in the
’accompanying.stratification. . ' ‘

1 From allthis it may reasonably be concluded,
that at the time these coal formations took place, .
the surface of the earth was partly coveredflpy; ..
. primitive, partly ; by transitienfign ’ ' 5’

 
 
 
 

   

condary rocks, is we'findz if at 1131" ésen 5 '

13. Gypsum. This formationseeins to partake
of N eptunian origin, by its ineluding the remains ,
of organic matter; alternating with, aggregates at? .’

rocks rounded by attrition, containingshells; and; 5 '

 

being fotmd generally in a more crystalline form ‘
than the other rocks of this class,.owing perhaps,
to its great solubility in water; it o-cCupies theg,
lower situations, and is not found in mountainous
countries. Such is the gypsum round Paris, at
Luneburgh, and in Holsteim Perhaps some of
the extensive formations of gypsum in Spain, and ,-
that in the vicinity: Qfa'Jena, in Saxony, may be? ,
long to this formation. '

The remains of animals have, I believe, only
been found, as yet, in the extensive gypsum quar-
ries in the vicinity of Paris ; in almost any other
situation, except the vicinity of a large town, it is-
probable that the few specimens containing such
organic matter might have remained unnoticed for
ages; which shows how deficient We are in'the
_ necessary knowledge of the actual state of the subs ,
stances within the reach of our observation; and}; A
how few are the positive facts on Which the nar~
row foundation of our general and sweeping sys-s
tems of the earth’s formation must rest. .- '

 
 

 

925 (In the Formation of Rocks.

14. Coarse-grained Shell. Limestone, consisting
of the remains of organic matter, which are now
only found to exist :in water, sufiiciently'p‘roves
its Nethn-ian origin, as Well as that of all its ac-
companying strata; the sileX foimd alternating’yor
touching this formation, has often the impressions
of organic matter, and has" ‘lways the structure of
”the siliceous precipitates found in the“ first order
of the Neptunian rocks. ’ ‘ \ -
This formation generally occupies the lower
levels: it is seldom found in mountainous coun~
'trit'f; _ ‘L ” " " ‘mcfdiately both primitive and
other t‘form‘ations ‘; it is found bothhiii
extensive and partial beds; and varies‘ only in the
nature of the shells it contains; the rock itself be
fling, much the same, either a coarse aggregate of
sand and calcareous matter, resembling the calca~
reous tuffa of the first order of Neptunian rocks, or
a kind of indurated m'arle, not much different in

some places from chalk-e.

 
 

15. Chalk farmatim is analogous in structure
and component parts to the disposition and preci~
. pitations of Nos. 3 and 9, of the first order of N eps

tunian rocks; it, Contains calcareous and siliceous
- "etrifactions of organic matterg‘with pyrites, as" in

OS. ‘8 and 11, so that it unites most of the differ-
ent modes of precipitation, and deposition, we have
observed to be followed by nature in the formation
of rocks of the first order; except the aggregates
of ’ articles rounded by attrition.

,_ ‘ ts situation is generally in flat or level countries,
Seldom or never found in mountainous, occupies
in general extensitre fields, as from the east art
of Champaigne in France, to near Bath in n-
gland; and from Flanders to‘the vicinity of Ora
leans; with some interruptions common to most
formations. It is seldom or never found alternate

 
.6.

0n the FUTUIatz’on' of ma . Q3“ ,

ing with ohmpact limefstone, or with coal, or, sea
salts. Iron seems asyetsthe only metal it contains,
and it is seldom orjnever found alternating with
any kind of s fst,or»=having any distinct'or‘unil

form stratification;

, 16. Compact Limestone resembles ”in, structure
and component parts No. 10,70f‘t first or it
contains Vishells; emerges: ,W a. ,. ‘él’s
found at present to exist water, and pf
"course it is by direct analogy of N eptunian origin.

, This is one of the most powerful andgexten‘siiIe
formationswe know. The history of it alone
wouldfrequire a volume. _ It is,found' either inzdé;
tached secondary hills or ranges, (as the ridges that
cross England through Derbyshire) or lying oh
the flank of primitive or transition mountains as
the immense curtain which skirts the north'and
west side of the Carpathian, Bohemian, Tyrolean,
and Alpine mountains, from the BlackSea to the
borders of the,Mediterranean; and the powerful
and. extensive beds which line the basin of the
Mississippi on the west side ofthe Allegheny
mountains in North America. , V,

Where the stratum is Very thick, the rock is“
solid and compact, containing little or no shells of
other organic matter; but when the shells abound,
the stratum is thinner, and the beds of shells, with
some mixture of argillaceous'r deposits, aretrfoun ‘
in greatesthuantities between the strata; These-
are often broken and irregular, from the great
number of excavations and caverns they contain,
through which run subterraneous rivers, washing
away the limestone, and deranging the originally
horizontal strata. . i

There are great varieties in the color; the frace
ture is sometimes earthy, but more frequently? ‘
smooth, and conchoidal,‘ It appears to be mixed

6

   
    

  

 
 

 

 

€34 , ' On the Formation of” Roe/{’31.
witlfija "greater quantityof depositions of impalpag
‘ “argiiso silex, than the limestone with small
_‘ 'iifns ofth itansition' fermation, Which appears
"to bee purer ‘erystalline precipitate, and not So
generally mixed with other earths, not chemically ,
c{fil‘iSSOlVtad» . _ _ R
Th Silex centained in “this formation, is found
igeiiei‘allyjne’ai' the tops ‘of the mountainsin the
guppreli‘ strata, either in detached rounded masses, of

  

 

 
  
 
        

  

n dfollows the color of the lime»
3ft ‘ lilifixis alsoj'ed‘, as onMngte

iiiea y,» where hé ‘ limestone is hlue,~"the Sileii is
Fgeiieially of a dark blackish color, it is mixed and

Tether of In lighter @0103“ when the limestone 3P“
hlieeCh-es }to White;

1 3. Sandstone in beds, independent of other fer:
mations, contains often the impressions of'shellso—
The calcareons matter of the shell is generally
‘ washed away, ‘ and perhaps helps to form the ce-
merit; Being an aggsegate of particles of rocks
rounded by attrition, it must be considered as of
:’ Neptunian origin, thongh in some instances-the

d ,‘iay be heapedtogether bysthe Wind-eassve‘li
s by thej‘W'at‘erg » -- ‘ ' ‘
""‘This formation is not very estensive, eoVering;
the foot of the compact calcareous hills, or partially
accompanying Vales or loWer situations; it often
hardens by exposure to theaii‘, and remains divide
.édijknto high and-massive pillars, as on“ the south
side“ of the mountains in Bohemia near Abernach;
or in long dikes, as“ What is called the Devil’s dike,
at the foot of the Hafiz; it constitutes considerate
Ble'ridg’es in thefbasin of the Mississippi; and in
lower situations, Where it covers the limestone, 1t
‘ isiinpf‘egnated with from ten to twenty per cent.
of native nitre, and large masses of pure nitre have
been found included in the sandstone in the State
of Kentucky

  

  
   
 

 
01% its Eirmaiwn 01f Rocks 2a

rs. Puddiao'stone,
by attrition,an, incl
the remains of organ,
of Néepfiunian origin. . { ,
theiflet Qfiméuhtainsgand ocean 11g,
inthe mountains and level ,countrijer, {
Wise constitutes rangesiofv mountain of; consider-ac
able height andzex ‘ {1:991 15% *
tasters; , , . ,. .,
eludes; (Rigbérg, a untaiii f “nearl . ,,
thousand feet above th» level of the sea. out»
serrat, in Spain, ispart of a, broken mOHHiflinouS:
formation of puddingstone, nearly thi

iii-extent. , ,r

    

farmed Otirebbles norm-defies

  
  
 
  
  

   

    
 

    
  

       
 

  

:uddingstones have been found round»
ed masses of puddingstone of a, prior formatiOngrh
and in those rounded masses, pebbles ,ofydiuddingg,
stone of a still more ancientsdate. '

19. Rock-salt resembling thatwefind tori-lacrd"aE
by evaporation on the surface ofthe earth,.,,and. fat:
the bottom of, lakes and ponds, aleernates with lr v
sandsteae-and gypsuw :‘Thisace p 11:8 2
elude it inithe rocks of Neptimi‘, origi135ntihoughu
the nature of the substance itself does not-'exclue. .
sively prove such an origin, . j,

It is found in, irregular masses, and disseminategfi- 4
inargilwand sandstone, on theedgesofflhe secongr
darfi-‘rricksat Cracow, and along the. footofgthe
Carpathian, mountains in Poland; likewiseaat Hal;
and Saltzbuligliaat the foot-of the Tyrolianmoum
tains: At Cordona, in Spain, and many other-x
places, it is included inthe‘ red sandstoneformation, ,

' The principal depotsefsalt in England, are on“,
a line, running nearly~ south from Norwich» to!
Droitwichgparallel to, and not-far distant from,
thetransitionrocks in Wales. , a

20. Gypsum resembling in structure and,com¢.
figment yarts the gypsum. of the alluvial, alternate

In these: 15

     

  

 
 

 

$26 On the Formation of Rocks.

ing with'cfiay, and Other rocks of the Neptunian

fbi'mation,"ifi Which the remains'o-f organic matter
have been'founsd, must be considered as proof ‘of‘
its Neptunian origin; _ ‘I

. ThisgypSum is generally found in the vicinity
of mountains, jas “round the foot of the Hartz, and
contains sulphur, It is also found near to Cracow
in Poland, in Murcia, Granada, and at Conila, in
Spain. It has quartz and arragonite crystals iine ’
bedded in itvin- he provinces of Arragon and Va~
it ~- til- - ‘. _,_rwh‘iieh€kingd0m- thisformation
is extensive, but muchbrokenand Confused, hav-
ing its stratifiCation irregular and deranged, so as _
to be difficult to ascertain the relative situation, ‘
It is probable that the gypsum near Cognac in
France, and that near Chalons on the saone, are
likewiseof the same formation, ‘

 
 

    

 

, 21. Sandstone with an iron ochrey cement,
This resembles the other sandstone formation, be-
ing composed of particles of rocks rounded by at-
trition; in some places forming puddingstone, the
sandstone serving'as the cement.‘ It includes and
ait‘efmateswith clay: ina soft state, and with gyp-
Sum. The remains of organic matter, though
rare, haVe been found in it, which renders the
analogy conclusive, of its being of Neptunian
origin; ' '

"I‘his, like all the other sandstone formation, is
liable to be washed away when'exposed to the
Weather, and is then found in broken and detach-
ed pieces, when not protected by some more solid
Covering. These detached fragments require some
observation, to unite and reduce to one general for:
mation; with this necessary attention, it will be
found to be rather an extensive formation, as, it is
in North America, covering indiScriminately dif-
ferent kinds of the primitive, from Connecticut

 
0n the Formation qf Rocks. 27

river to the Rap ahanoek, nearly one hundred and
fifty leagues. n bothfisides of the Vosges'to he-' -
yond Treves, it generally re oses on the porphyry,
covering the ,orphyry 0f t e, ehain ofmoyntains
in :the’blackif ‘orest opposite the chain of the V05-
ges, and equally covering the porphyry on the
south side of Tyrol, fromthe valley of Falsa, to
near Bergamo, and perhaps _,fa1§ ,as the; me
.edrphyrr lieaetgn a, I ' a ._
thenglri‘thereflie sands wanting, per
from being washed away. .

As this formation has been taken for the gray-
wacke, and graywacke shist, by some mineralo-
gists, it maynot be useless to: give. herea descrip-
tion of the'points in which'they resemble, and the
properties wherein they differ, according as I have
observed them. ' ‘

These two formations resemble each other, in
being united by a cement consisting mostly of
argil, and taking the appearance of clay slate, when
the cement abounds either in the sand stone or
puddings. This sandstone likewise, as in the
graywaCke shist, takes a shistOz‘e appearance, with
particles of clay slate, 'when the cement predomi-
mates; and in situation, it is immediately follow!
ing the primitive, like the graywacke shistvand
other transitionrocks. ? ‘ '- »

The two formations differ in color; the red
sandstone cement containing a considerable quanti-
ty of the red'oxide of iron; in hardness, the red
sandstone being much softer and less adhesive.
The red standstone has no veins of calcspar cross-
ing the stratification, whereas the raywackeshist
is generally full of little veins or t reads of calc-
spar, crossing the strata in all directions, and alter-
nates with beds 0f compact, small grained lime-
stone, full of the same veins of calcspar; the red
sandstone has no Such limestone 5 but a thin stra~

   

  
 

 
 

 

 

98 On tite Formation Qf Berks;

tumxofvaekindpf angillaceouslimestoneor Insist:
ted; 3.1‘ ‘ :,_'diVi~deS e: strata offs EQ-
stone *th, g waekemshist runs into,_,and alt? .

         

13: __ lth Q shite nd‘ roofing slate,“ and goes
byagradual tranSi‘tion intofithe primitive slate and
h blends. rock , but thee-redo; sweeten? has no

    

clay .ofing stifle inor‘nearinaudigenerallylies
upon 1e primitivegwithout any gradationpf trans-
ition ;‘ it is seldom or never found near the gray-
wacke nor often en the same side of the range of

__ " ‘ slime sesaywackesne
ot .62, _ En _ a, i . _ cupiesgtheiréplace, and;
_ coversgi‘mm’ediatd y the primitive. -

_The gypsum found in the red sandstone is in.
thin strata, alternating with much clay in a soft:
state; the stratum of gypsum inthetransitionsis
powerful and eXtensive’, with the. little. argil it;
contains generally in the form of ashist or slate.

_ The abave remarks may perhaps be applicable to.
whatis called in France the Greg, de Houillier, a;
sandstone of the coal formation, which in Flanders?”
and othelt coal countries, has some appearance of
graywaeke shist, and has been takenfor such by
many .minemlogists __ ’llhis. Greg. diet. flouillien: is
generally 3011113083811 of sand,“with small plates of
mica, of a shiStoze structure, but is much soften
and in general the cement not so shistoze, nor does
it alternate with any of the rocks generally found
accompanying the graywaeke shist ;. and though it;
‘ is like the red sandstone," and has some resemblance.
to the formation of graywacke shist, yet the (litter-s,
ence both in structure and position must perhaps;
exclude ‘itjfrom those formations, “ ”

  
        

Transition Neptunian Rocks. '

The character which distinguishes this from the.
secondary, may perhaps be the nature and arranges

 
3\

0n the Formation" of flocks. gig

, thent of the“ cements-gin the fa eregates'rof the
Secondary'this cement'isi’produce' by infiitration 3
the rounded particles, generally 'tOuchgeaCh other;
but in the transition,‘theiparticfltés .whenemangfiaepg
pear-.- to ages? been ' swimming‘or , floati‘n " in; the
cement, which seems to have pretente them
from touchin ,and usually forms a more home es
neous mass; hen; the particles ageing; 7 gt?
tafienmargfi .. , _, f Tie
eemeetfeneth y ouc , e en hen the cement
occupies more of the space, than in the puddings of
the secondary. 4 , . ,

The stratification of the transition rocks, seems
to: conStitute another dividing charaCteris‘tic, being
generally 'at'a' dip from the horizon, and seldom or
ever found horizontal; but the limitsnear the din:
siding line will, perhaps, for a long time remain?
doubtful, ‘ ' _ ' w

The clay found in the sandstone of 'thesecOm
dary is generally in a soft state, earthy in its free;
ture, and has little or no» resemblance to the slate,
and other argillac’eous rocks, mixed and alternating;
With the transition aggregates” ' ' ” '

The word transition may not be so appropriate
as intermediate; though in many situations the pas;
sage from these rocks to what are Calledprimitive,
is so gradual, as to render it diificult to draw the’
lineof" separation. ' . ' ,

, The application of the term transition Was made

by those who first introduced the division, and
described the rocks included in it; whereas “ins
termediate” has been adopted without'any regular
classification of the rocks meant to be included
under the denomination; from which it is proba—
ble, that in the present state of our knowledge,
transition being better defined, will be better un~=
derstood, which constitutes the principal utility of
all names, whether of rocks or other substances,

 

 

  
  

      

    
 

 
 

 

30 (In the Formation of Rocks.

22. )Graytqacke, {an aggregate of Smallf‘sfra 1-
ments‘or' particles of rocks, mostiifrequently rem; -
ed. by frictininr attrition; and thOugh not gene-
rally‘eontaini‘n- . theremains of organic matter;it—_
self, yet, as it a *ternates With other rocks in which
Qgganiematter‘has {been found; it must be ranked
by analogy as of Neptunian origin. '

, There are, perhaps, three species of rocks inclu—
ded 1n;the above; which though united in the
"on, by Containing particles of
c y _ £13013, fret differ in the na-
ture and relative Quantity "0 the cement which
unites them, as well as in their relative situation.“
‘ The first, and perhaps the most common, is an
aggregate of different species of rounded rocks,
where‘the cement bears a small;firoportion to the
quantity of particles aggregatedg-of this kind is
the graywacke of the Hartz in Saxony, and gene-
rall that species of graywacke which alternates
Wit, graywacke shist. V , * , .

The second is an aggregate with a small grained,
rather crystalline, cement of a greenish color, re-
sembling a little some kinds of chlorite, which ce;
ment‘ forms a great proportion of the rock, as in
the, range north of Vigo, and Bleyburg in Tryol.

The other is an aggregate of rounded quartz,
seldom eXceeding the size of a walnut, in a shistoze
cement, inclining to be fibrous, the cement form:-
ing the princi a1 mass of the rock; as the rock
generally foun on the borders of the prir‘nitiVe, the

rst ag regate in the transition formation on the
west s1 e of the pri‘mitiVe ridge in North America,
in which the quartz is generally of a light blue coil-
or. I found in the valley of Durasa, south of
' Mount Rose, a rock of the same nature.

  

    

98. Graywacke shist, an aggregate of small par-
ticles of rocks rounded by attrition, united by a ce-

 
012 £15- rlibrmatian (2f \ floats «$1

 
  

     

went more or less shistoze, having-remains of or»
ganic matter, (though, rarely) found in ,it,;'and,,be~
ing consequently of N éptunian origin. ‘

This formatirm, theugh otten . Vacccmp, n “ing
the grawaelsemetlsmuch mere Aeneas}. ‘an, ,.eX~
tensive-yitcovers the north side 0 the Carpathian
and Bohemian chain of mountains,aswell as the
Tyrolean and SwitzAl 3;, increasing, inforce as
it proceedssoutha 04,1}; " " ileum,
it,gpeehably,,enmrs:--the'-Whel at after-Ryan pass
Mount Cen'is, and constitutes the greatest pro or- v
tion of the Appenines from Genoa to beyond a-

les.

In North America it forms the passage between
theprimitive and'seeondary, along-the whole chain,
of mountains from north-east to south-west, on the
west side of the Alleghany; and as it were, lines

° or sheaths the primitive along the edges of the
great basin of the Mississippi, and sup orts the
great secondary calcareous formation, w ich fills
or occupies that basin. .

It constitutes part of the mountains of the Cri-
mea’;~surrounds- the rimitivge mnuntains of the
Hartz; is found in ' ales, and Cumberland, in
England; and it is probable there are few primii
tive mountains in Europe, between the latitudes
of fifty and sixty de rees, which are not covered
on one side or the ot er, by this formation. v .

The above general observations on the locality,
includes the rocks which accompany and alternate
with the graywacke shist, such as the clay slate of
transition, the various stratification of limestone,
sometimes intimately mixed in thin strata, from
half an inch to two inches in thickness, and at oth-

. er places alternating in powerful beds, forming al»
most entire mountains. Considering the gray-3
wacke shist as the most general, and best charac~

7

 
 

 

 

132 On "the Formation of Rocks. '

“-terized, of all the-mam bers of the transition family,

tea-Void repetition, it'Were perhaps'as well toplace
the-(general observations uznder’that head. . T

The Chain-iofithe Ardennes is almostsentirely
composed o’fit‘his formation, ‘Which, on the Rhine,
and _other-places,;furnis11es considerable quarries of
:roofing‘slate. ’ ~¥ . . -

24. Sandstone “of transition, can aggro ate of
small particles rounded "by attrition, unlte gene»
rally by a siliceous cement, alternating with Clay—
\ sia! " eshlst This rock has been .
teen > to con em = e remains-”of organier‘matter,
and must therefore be considered of Nep-tunian

  
  
 

 

 

or] in ,
éhisis rather a partial formation, found ene-
rally in thin -Strata, alternating with the transition
shist, though it forms in some places west of the
Alleghany mountains, in North America, consid-
erable ranges of small hills, and constitutes a great
proportion of ' the rolled pebbles found in river
Which run over the transition formation. ‘

95. Limestone of‘t'ransi‘tion, resembling alittie
the, limestone by precipitation of the firstorder,
though not so similar 5 as ‘tlia‘t‘of the secondary;
and containing, though in small quantities, shells
and the remains of other organic matter, which
shew it'to be of N eptunian origin.

This limestone is mixed with the graywacke,
and clay slates, in almost every proportion, from
the thinnest 'shistoze stratification, to the most
powerful and solid beds ; forming immense blocks
free fromcracks or fissures; and It is probable, that
the small grained statuary marble both of Italy and
Greece, belongs to this formation.’ When this
formation touches the compact secondary lime—
stone, Without any intervention of graywacke shist
or slaty rocks, the passage is gradual and almost

 
‘ on the Formation qf Rocks 3s:

imperceptible, leaving much doubt and diflicul‘ty
about the place where the line ofse aration ought?
to be draWn. It is ofiallthe mem @3an transi-
tion formatiom the one which mess. resembles rim

structure theseof the secondary.

26. Gypsum of, transition, resemblingsincomg;
ponent parts, thoughdifi'erln littl " tr
from, thegy sealers; V, 7 y. asitiv:
alternates as“ ‘ is mixed with: clay slate, in which;
the remains of organic matter'has beenfound, this:
connects it with the rocks of N eptunian; origin.

This is a considerable formation, generally
found in. mountainous 'conntri es 5' and from the fa--
cility with which it isrdissolved bywater, is in as
broken and confused state,..often out of its original?
place, which is perhaps the reason it has been s0-~-
often supposed tebe inclosed in primitive rocksw
Which the result of all my observations incline
me to doubt.»

It is probable that all the gypsum in Tuscany
belongs to this formation; the owefi'ul bed "on
the top of mount Cenis, I Shoul' think also of the ..
same species. This gypsum having on each side
a blue limestone, with dark colored shist alter»
nating with calcspar, it seems to be connected With-e
the transition rocksr‘as well as the man powerful?
beds Which are found in the valley of anz, from...
Lanz le Bourg to fliguebelle. '

The gypsum found in the valley betWeen St.“
Martins and Sion, in the Switz Alps, isesurroundedi‘
by What I consider transition rocks; and that per~~
haps in the valley of Chamouny, and in the pass .
betWeen Airolo and Desentis, from the nature of ‘
surrounding rocks must be classed in gypsum of ’
transition. As these three last mentioned locali—
ties are in a line, running nearly With the stratificar-r
tion of the chain of mountains, it is probable that:;,

    
  

 
 

‘34 Unlike Formation of Rock"

e

 
  
 

, the 1- remains‘ of an gimmense‘bed of
gypsum. -

511 might at one time have oCcufiig‘ed

 

some'.’?‘part *of‘fithe Spacewhere those passes and val-1
leys are fOrmed. ' ‘ 3 4 ' ; ‘
This gypsum hasoai'SmaiL-‘Icrystalline grain, with
littleor none {of-the fibrous oril‘amellar crystallized
ypsumi so common‘in the formations of the secon-
ary class. ' ‘ ' «

  

use at? transition. ,flThe shistoze
fer-matron, can 31an and‘altewat‘ing 'with strata
Which contain impressions of vegetables, and, in
some places, of animals, must be considered as of
Neptunian origin. ,

, - A great Variety of“ rocks, principally of a shistoze
structure, are included in thisfoi‘mation’. ~They-
alternate with shistoze limestone of transition,
having small veins of calcspar crossing the strata,
the shist often composed of small detached plates
of mica, or what has lately been called talc, and
in some places small veins’of quartz intersecting,
the strata. It has the exterior form of gneiss, when
the thin strata of , blue, calcareous shist, and plates
of ‘calcspar, rin’se‘g‘ments of unequal thickness, alter-
nate with each other in the direction of the stratifia
cation. ,

Roofing slate generally alternates with this form
mation; and from its being best known, has con.-
tributed, in a great measure, to include the others
in the transition class. Being a necessary article
for theycovering of houses, it. has occasioned con-
siderable quarries and excavations to be made in
almost every country. In the course of working
and splitting the slate, impressions of vegetables,
fish, 8m. 8m. were found, which probably would
not have been discovered. had the roofing slate,
like the other shist, been unfit for the covering of
houses; as the mode of decomposition on the sun»

 

 
0n the Formation of Rocks". 35

face wouldhave destroyed those impressions, they
might have‘remained for centuriesbefore .we codld
have observed them,,jand all this/shist, formation
would have been therrs'eensidered as belonging, to
the , primitivej’and as originating" ,before’the'ieXist-
encebf any organic matter. ‘ ‘1 :

, May not our wants, compelling us, to quarry
other rocks, joinedto a much more accurate mode
of rexaminatron,d1seo ‘ 3 mains‘iofi—iorg- gic‘
matte‘l‘g'ffiffitféfiéglmtid‘ 02W €65,113 , , I, a
which might entirely change all'the present theo-
ries of the formation of the earth, and prove how
dependent those conjectural theories are on the
smallest discovery that might be made by the at—
tention and obServation of a stoneimason. ' '

I found the roofing slate near St. Maria, not far
from the gypsum, between Airolo and Disentis, to
be a black carbonated transition slate ; on the pas-
_ sage of the Fourche; roofing slate containing pyri-
tous impressions of fish, at Blattenburg, half a
league from Matt, in the Canton of Glaris; roof-
ing slate, containing shells, near Me rengen in the -
Canton of Berne; roofing slateon Angers; the
Ardennes; in Wales, in England; in/ various parts
of the transition in the United States of America, '
8m. and most probably to be found in some part
of every considerable formation of transition;
though the knowledge and industry of the inhabi-
tants may not have yet applied the slate to any use-

ful pur ose, and of course it lies concealed 1n the

mass 0 other rocks, till now considered of no use,
nnwrought and unknown, ‘

       
 
 

   

28. flnthracite being a combustible, and found a1-
ternating with shist, having vegetable impressions,
though rare, must be considered of Neptunian ori-
gin. Two kinds of anthracite have been found
within the United States of America gone rather

 
 

 

 

3‘6. 01%; the Formation of Rockers

granulasoli a grayish Ecol/or, and: slight meta-Bigger)»

. ‘r iainiligasmall Wines-fit quartz-gaggle
ndmfiis shining,~1§esembling more
the’com‘m, italin-agpearances -' " ,

The formation in, thegllnited States of America,
has been generally attendance With a satiny trans-
itionllslate, a bearing _ impressionserr-vegetables, a
rather hardspecies of allum'slate,,and strata of
black chalk, as in Spain, which is included like-
wise in transition slate formation: it has been said
toeX' ' " , ' ' ' in some - rtsoof Europe -
bu r . A T‘ilraeiha occasion to ex-
arfiifie'thesituation or the anthracite have I found
primitive rocks covering 0r overlaying this forma-
tion; though in some laces they might serve as
the foundation to it. have likewise near Edin-
burgh, in Hungary, and in France near Tulle, eX»‘
amined the common bituminous coal formation,
which was said to alternate, and to be covered,
with primitive rocks 5 but found it only in appear-
ance, from the derangement of the original situa-
tion of the strata in both places: agreeably to my
observation they were the remains of a coal forma-
tion in a primitive valle ,which hadundergone-
considerable revolutions, so astoileave Only a few
dislocated fragments of the former stratification.

29. Siliceous skint, (Keiselshieffer) and Jasper,
are placed here, from their resemblance to the si—
liceous precipitations of the secondary class of
N eptunian rocks, and alternating with some of the
rocks of the transition class...

The leading features of the fore oing formations
are, a very great extension bot in length and
breadth, in proportion to their depth and thickness,
dividing into horizontal strata, or at a small incli-
nation, seldom divided by vertical fissures, and con-
tinuing through the whole strata without any
great change in the structure or external appear-

 
 

 
 

  
   

 

 
0n: the Formation of Rocks, 37

ence of the substances. ~This formation maybe

found tendon/13y generally"between'the, 20th and

,5 5th degrees of latitude, Whilst the primitiVej‘may

be foun’ [to predominate-toWards“the pol " 9* " '
May th '-

 

, segerpr ‘r’pi‘tion ofshéyatfirid’fli’disfilre,
necessaryoto the "'roductiOu of organic- matter, in
the middle and southern'latitudes, be one reason
Why we find there the formations which conta'n
and are partli * an, e-
abnndajnce, fl , _. , a.» .
poles, be one of the causes why those formations
are not found there in the same proportion, but
consist principally of the primitive?

While little or none of Asia, Africa, and, perhaps
notone-third of EurOpe, and still less of America,
have been examined by mineralogists having a
knowledge of rocks, one runs the risk of general-
izing too much in the present state of our know:
ledge, and of finding the greater part of future dis-
coveries, contradicting our principles of generali«
zation.

The metallic repositories contained in the rocks
of N eptunian origin, have a great, resemblance,
both in substance and situation, to those found in
the primitive class; it is perhaps, one of the strong-
est features of connection which approximates
those two classes, and will be considered along
with the rocks of the primitive class. ‘

The volcanic rocks are rather embarrassing, not
from the nature of the rocks themselves, which in
situation are consistent and uniform, and in tex-
ture, and external characters, better marked, uni-

    
 

 

  
   
  

      
  

    
  

     

* Should future experience and observation demonstrate that Naa
ture has accumulated the greatest proportion of the secondary for-
mation in the middle and tropical latitudes, and for the same reason
continues to heap upon the surface in these latitudes, the matter con-
solidated by the action of animal and vegetable life ; would this not
tend to augment the diameter of the globe at those places, and of
course give the appearance of flatness to the poles ’5

 
 

' ‘38 On the Formation of Rocks.

ted Ry stronger features of family Connecting, than
git-he -' e tunian rock's—«but from the complieated
‘-:state so; "the, nomenzciature, arising out of theiilis-
puteabout their Origin. The generic name lava,
simplifies theisncmenclatm‘e adopted by the Vol-
-canists, while-the Neptunians admitting of few la-
-'-aras,j-exeept those ejected fromi'vOICanoes~ at present
inaction, have been forcedtogive‘other names to
the great variety of rocks produced by volcanoes
now extinct, or united by strong analogy to the
sa sigma- * i. ' _

 

   
    

‘_ , . Onnnn I.
Rocks of Volcanic origin;

Thrown out of active volcanoes, the origin of
Whose formation rests on the evidenceiof our sen-
ses.

There’aretwo modes of examining rocks ; one,
the investigation of their external appearance, and

internal: structure, _ which can be accom lished
Withifha’lid" specimens in a ’ cabinet, and ‘elongs
preperly‘to mineralogy; the other is the tracing,
upon an extensive scale, the relative osition of
their, beds, Whether stratified or divide by verti-e
cal fissures 3 if stratified, Whether horizontal or at
a dip from the horizon, Whether the stratification
is regular, occupying large fields of extensive
countries, or consmting of detached insulated mass“
es, with vertical fissures, partially scattered on the
surface of all the other formations, 3w. : this per-
haps, belongs to geology, and cannot be studied in
the cabinet, but requires much practice in the
mountain‘s, hammer in hand.

Laws thrown out from recent volcanoes are

various in their fractures; they contain a number

 
tin the Formation of ' Rocks 3%

 

tit“ insulated crystals}; andf’arercomzjaosed of avarice _
t of dvifi'erent substances;fbut;‘h‘a‘tre’onesgeneral
istinguishing mask, weigh runs thraujgh the
Whole-find separatestfiem from? rocks of N eptunié
an‘origiriggsthls mark, is [a roughness and asperi‘ty
in the” structure, ov‘ving to their half vitrification;
and numberlessl Small oreswhich they contain;
\ ' , down {by a e: Did tastes
yinfiltratio w " ’" ' ' ' '

differentsu .ances ”that accompany it, put on a
milder and more uri'ctilous structure, and approach
nearer the striIcture‘ of N eptunian rocks; *'
Currents of lava flOWing frdm tlie cifiergasé
centre, towards the eircnmt‘erenecgiiaré irregular
and ah‘rdpt in their relative position With surroundu
ing formations; they have no marks of stratificao
thing when divided it is always by Vertical fis-
sures; they are found in detached maSSes or long
ridges, of [a considerable thickness in proportion to
their width; occupying the inequalities 0f the sure
face of all formations whereon they lie, and with
which they Seem to have nothing inzcommon‘ , '
Mineralogists have divided" the lavas into differ»
ent species, according; to the different substances
Which compose the mass ofthe rock; others have
classed them according to the different crystals
they contain; but these distinctions in no 'Wise at»?
feet their origin, and [are foreign to the present
Subject. ' t '
_ The total absence of metallic veins in laVas;
forms a mark of distinction between the two ori«
gins. Some iron has been found disseminated in,
the cavities, in the form of speCular iron ore, which
is evidently formed: by evaporation, but in Small
quantities scattered through the porciis lavas. ‘
. Submarine eru tions are common, as is proved
by the number 0 islands thrown up under the evm'
idence of our senses; and the still greater number}
8

this asperity is softene

  
  
 

     

 

 

,V,,,_ , V - ,- .7 .‘,.___,;;._.a..4x..t_«._. ”W. .7 Any , . ,

 
 

at) (in the Formation of Rocks.

of islands that. apparently,~«and by direct analogy,
have Sheen-fiproduc‘ed by submarine emptiens,
thoughri‘th‘e‘i‘periodsoftheir formation; were lea
before the date of our records.‘ 'It is under such
circumfiancesthat the alternation of the Neptuni=
an? and "Volcanicf‘iformations most frequently takes
plaCe, as in the islands of Domini ua, St; Christo-
fiber, and St. Eustatia, in 'the ‘ est Indiesg the
'sh and‘ishellsefound in the lava in the Vincentin,

   
   

8: fa bed of shell «limestone
3) lamwouldbe agreeable
to the laws" of natureyand nodeviat‘ion from the

common Order of things,

'Scor'ia is a kind of vitreous scum that floats on
the surface‘ofell lavas,aa1d is often ejected, before
an eruption, by the elastic ’fluids,and falls and
mixes with the cinders. Thea-resence of scoria
in extinct volcanoes is admitted Edy most Neptuni-
ans as a proof of the action of fire, but its presence
is, from the nature of the substance, not of long
duration-; the rain-water carries it off, and seat—
, ters it over the lower places and vallies, Where the

.eperation of time reduces it to an excellent rich

“dikavlien iticjf course loses all marks of volcanic
tori ‘in. ‘ ” * ‘ _

int-re, with the assistance of heat and ”moisture,
de‘cemposes and changes all the distinguishing
marks of rocks of Volcanic origin, and recomposes

them into the form and structure of rocks of Nep- /

tuni-an origin ;‘ but the more frequently rocks of
Neptunian origin are decomposed and recomposed,
the stronger are the characters of their origin, so
~ that we cannot be deceived by the present appear-
ance of Neptunian rocks, when tracing them up
to their Original form; but We are liable to nus,
take rocks that were originally of Volcanic orlgln
before their decomposition, for rocks of the N eptu=
nian, after the change which time and the ele»

 

 
0n the} Formation , (2f Road‘s. a1

ments have made in theme ‘ It is easy to conceive
a large field 0f Volcauievmekstotally reducedste '
‘Neptunian by the dailygoperatien of the, elements ;
but a field’.of.Neptm-1ian:recks cannot beachangedzr
into, Volcanicazbut; agavfirea The productionshy

fire are! artial, violent, and atafirst strongly, mark-=-
ed, but liable, to lose their characters by the daily;
and hourly operations of the elements. v , ;, ,
MudrIaca may“ perhaps be; considered;_ a he --
last efforts 0; - '

  
  
 
  

blistihle: 18% ndithe immense
caverns, whence were ejected the great currents
of lava, cometo be filled with water, Which-grad»
ually; decerngaosingr the bottoms and sides,1.turnsa
them intezclay, all Eli-ML a v 5" If

The application of' a sufficient quantity of heat :3
to the ‘water in those caverns, so as; torturn it into -
steam orelastic vapour, may perhaps,-.,be-thetm 0st!
reasonable manner ,of accounting [for these refu -
tiOns which have from time» to time overrun who e
countries; but the evidence of their origin must
restleithervon,tradition, or; the evidence of our '
senses: sfenwhen; once the circumstance of“ their '
being ejected fremathe-‘bowels of the mountain is »
forgotten, there isrznc‘wmark on the mud itself to .-
distinguishait fromamud deposited by .a river, the -
sea, or any other aqueous agent.

Cinders are a volcanicApreductiontthat are eject~ ,
edrinuall stages «of the eruptions like showers, , and
tall? on the earth in; strata of different colours, imi=
tating thestratification of N eptunian rocks, as at
Orlot, in Spain; but when thrown out in mass, and
like a current, they generally indicate that the
volcano is about to finish and that the combustible
matter is nearly exhausted: as at St. Vincent, and -
the other small volcanic islands of the West In? .
dies. These cinder eruptions throw out large
quantities of rocks half roasted, that have all the-1

 
 

“ w -‘ "z .

42 On the Formation of Rocks.

« appearanceot‘firimitive racks; some like granites,

neiss,'ani‘di some hornblend and feldspar:
y FcrystaiiiZed and hrilii‘ant, having tall

roses-,aneat

others like lg
the, fadSpar half vitseous, There’is a, great simi-

 

. lamtygboth in structure and appearance, in the

toasted rocks, thtown‘oet with the cinders in the

emitting» of Renee, and those throW’n by; different
eruptions in the West Indies: ‘ When" such beds
of cinders have lain long exposed to the Weather,
the reatest part wash away, and the remainder?

* th ~ 1 ‘t of the characters of

  
  

 

Pumzoestone is of volcanle origin, produced by.
the interfetence of a medium that is a good con-,1
ductor of heat, such as water ; it is generally found ’
on islands; and attends most submarine eruptions,
Most of the pumice of commerce comes froth the
islands of Lipari; it is likewise abundant in the
West India islands; and generally near. the sea,
The rapid cooling of the melted glass, before the
elastic fluids are disengaged, seems to be necessa:
try to the formation of pumicestone. In an extent
sive field of volcanic productions at the Cape du
Gat, in Spain, the pumieev joins to, the pearlstone

andetisidian, and appears teibe the outside,- while

the pearlstoiie and obsidian occupy the interior,
and have been subject to a more gradual coolin ,
At the Cape du Gat, vast excavations were ma (2
by the Romahs, in search of gold according to the
opinions of the inhabitants, but really for the alum
reek, similar to the alum rock of Tolfa, at Sulfa:
terra,near N aples,_and in all the volcanic islands of
the Westlndies, formed by the lava, bleached by

* the sulphuric acid,

The seat of Volcanic fire is not known; how

' dee it may'originate below the primitive, is ex-

Cee ingly uncertain; or whether its beginning,
and progress, is limited to the primitive rocks, and

 
0n the Formation of Racks. , 43

those above them, ‘Experienee: teaches us, that
volcanoes:are often in, theaprimitrveaor at no meat
distance from it; and that:the:g;1€atest»§artgo , the

substances ejected, inga restated State, and without

marksof fuslenaaregsimilar to paianitiveseeksi; I;
is noteprebable, that any! new substances have
been ejieCted by volcanoes, which were not pre—
viously found in same of the other classes of rocks,

particulary in the primitive; lphur is the [93.9 '-

 
  

   
 
  

 

ustible, substaaeeggg , matte,
witnesses; {sisters a ,, rither snip
any other combustible substance, has een yet

found in the lowest granite; from which itwould
appear, that the fire of Volcanoes commencesrggi,
ther aboveor below the m,_:;_',~0fgfafllte g 1,. , "7:
It is probable that two thirds of th volcanoes
that we know of, are upon islands 5 many of which
have been thrown up from the bottom of the
. ocean, and consist entirely of volcanic rocks : from
which it is probable, that the vicinity of the sea is
favourable to the commencement of volcanic com-,2
bustion.

     

   

canes“ in

Where the fire has not existed within the reach
of history, but where the nature and component
parts, the relative situation, &c, is little different
from the active volcanoes, having the remains of
eraters, cements, scoria, 8m. 8m. plaeed in the same
relative situation; the currents of, lava radiating
from the crater, and covering; all the classes of
rocks, and filling up all the inequalities the cur-
rents, meet with. Between this arrangement, and
that of an active volcano, there is a direct and per- '
feet analogy.

In comparing old lavas with those that have re-
eently been thrown out; of a crater, considerable

 
 

are" On the Formation of Rocks».

' allowance ought to be made for the great change
"that has taken placeinathe former, by the action of
air and Water, and the substances that accompany
them ig’I‘he constant filtering of the water,
through all the pereSéot the lava, takes all” its aspar-
ity and roughness, .wthilesthepores themselves are
fi- led ‘hy de os'itions‘cf the various substances held
iii-solution. y‘the water :. at. the same “time the
water oxides the irbn . in the lava, and changes it
into a dull earthy fracture; all which changes. dis-
guise and maskrthc true charactersof the rock, and
are ,afeituispartial and
p _ _ . (I’GOuntry. ‘ "‘

, It is the nature cf volcanic rocks to be in detach:
ed pieces, and particularly after time and decom- ‘
position have worn- away all the scoria, cinders, .
’ porcusolavas, &e.~ when the most solid part of a
current of lava becomes insulated at a consideraf
ble distance from the other detached masses of
rocks of‘a similar origin. Great oare oughtzto be
takento. fill up the chasm that time has made in
the continuity of the rocks, before we can decide
with propriety.

. The fields of extinct volcanoes, that I have had.
anop ,ortunity of examining, were as similar as,
possii‘b e’ in their component parts, and relative o-
sition: an extensive field round Orlot—anear 111-
mila, and at the Cape du (Eat in Spain-”round
Romee—between Rome and Florence, and in the
Vincintin, in Italywin Auvergne, in France...”
round Andernac on the Rhine—at Cassel, in Ger:
man 7-311 of which leave no doubt in my, mind
of t :‘eir volcanic origin. In all of them I found
abundance of basalt; in some of them the great
pest part of the solid lavas were in form of basalt.
The Austrian police prevented me twice from ex:
amining Hungary, but I have seen repeated collec-
tionsgot the rocks of that country, and could scarcely

   

 
0n the Formatidn of Rocks; .' ’45

distinguish them from thosecollected from around, _
Naples. How the: origin" of. basalteeuldbe doubt,- ,
ful with, the Werneriansggcan 3&1in be? accounted ’
for, by. Wernerahavin at firstgput, the detached
masSes of ; ,, ;,; ,3 't,~fotm m Sag/tony, into, theiNeptng—r
nian,'6rigin,"and that his disciples have since pep
severed in the arrangement.

In geolo ical descriptions, it is probable that
much con usion has (arisen; from mistaking. veins

‘ ’ ‘ " ‘ _, , estrahfieflrwk;

tied cannot be ' said to
contain beds: they may have some of their verti—
cal fissures filled with different substancesgg'Ora
crack or split in the rock filled up byginfiltratign,
but that “ , should :zsnppose» would‘ibe,1""properly
speaking, a vein. Basalt is not stratified, nor IS
the greatest part of what the Wernerians call the
newest floetz trap stratified; therefore these rocks
cannot be said to contain beds, but only fissures, or
splits and cracks, filled up with different substan-
ces, which can have no relation with the origin of
the rock itself. s p

The volcanic islands of the West Indies, such/as
Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Martiniquag‘Do-
miniqua, Guadeloupe, Monsterrat,Nevis, St. Chris-
topher, St. Eustacia, and Saba, have but little ba-
sa t exposed to view: and in that resemble active
volcanoes, where the cinders, scoria, and other pee-
rous rocks, have not had time to, wear away,,or the
rivers to cult canals through their currents‘tof lava,
so as to expose the solid interior lava to Our exama
ination. v

In ancient, as in the recent lava, there is no ap-
pearance of metallic veins, or other metalliferous
substances; and it indiscriminately covers every
class of rocks, not unfrequently even vegetable
mould, filling up all the inequalities of the surface
over which it runs. This is a strong mark of dif.»

 

 
 

'46 0h The Formation qf' Habits.

ferencehetWeen the Volcanic and N eptunian ori;
gin ; Tor the41Neptunian being a. ' deposition fiioni
Water,‘ lay-the force or gravitation, 'woi’ild form it
had of the same .thickness u ”on the Whole Surface;
and leave the- ineliualities o the surfatie the same
as before the defidsitiOn; J - . 7

61113131: iii;

”Where the Wrecks resemble much, 'volca'ni‘e

  
 

Mk , ssrrelafltesituatiensa
hav W‘fiagiiei’atersf'binders, Ste.

&Cbut are in scattefed and detached masses,
Here the analogy is not so direct as in the second ‘
order, though nearei‘git than any of the Neptunia‘n
Origin.» ,The greatest part of this order is basalt, in
' detached masses, or longxridges; oe’énpying in gen-é -
eral the tops of small hills; having no I'eseinhlanCe'
or relation to the surrounding strata; and'covei‘fi
ing indiscriminately all the classes of rocks as Well
as every species of alluvial; in some places it has
eVen overlaid vegetable n’iould : in all which
eharacters it agrees With the rocks of recent vol:-
VQQQQQSE, In its cornkonent ‘ artswand imbedded
iffystals; it‘is“ eqxiany'resemb ‘ihg, ‘V‘havin crystals
of pe‘i‘idot‘, and pyroz‘iine, disseminated in it, like
the-recent lavas of Mount Vesuvius. As in the
lavas ofr recent Volcanoes, so in this order, there
are no metallic veins or. deposits found; which
Seems to be a characteristic difference dravvn he-
tWeen the two origins, that cannot be mistaken9
and perhaps WoUld form a line of separation suffi—
ciently strong of itself Without the aid of any otha
Er difference. . V
Pitc’hstone, greenstone, pearlstone, porphyry9
clinkstone, 8w, &c., are names given to the d1fl"er~
ent kinds of rocks found in what Werner calls his
nevvest floetz trap class : they indifferently cover all

 
     

      
     
   
 
 

   
   

 

    
 

   
   

 
  
 

    

enerallfi I,

e confide do

oréphyry'h

'el sfpargi-ne u, 7. ,V aeulta ,
crystals of quartz and. feldspar, 'Whlchglenera 1y
covers: the primitive, ..though 1t ,jseldom a tern-ate

with it. In this wayi'confusx ,of new ,
place. A N eptunianigenlogist .: ,
try, Where the rooks‘ef‘th . . . y, c,“
cur; he finds trap, greenstone, and greenstone .
traps, porphyries, clinkstone, basalt, gm, 8w. ._A
Volcanist travels over the same“ ground, 51114.21]?
describes it as consisting of,.differentiSpeczes"4’of
lava”. 7 » ' .» ,
Werner being the first that made any classifica»:
tion of rocks, his disciples of course were the first
whomade any eological observation; andasthey
seemed all muc ' interested in putting this class of
rocks into the Neptunian origin,they passed slight-
ly over them, and described them by. Neptunian
names. , This may perha _s be one reason Why;
they are not so, generall .linovvn as other rocks,
and why they are to be ound in greater abund—
ance on the surface of the earth than was generally
supposed. When positive and liberal examination
takes the place of that party and systematic spirit;
Which seems to have no other object in View than
the support of a theor purely conjectural‘; de
pending on the fancy o t e author, and changed
and overturned by every new inventor of systems,
it is thenthat the science of geology will make:
rapid progress, and be ranked according to its real _
Uti it . 3:." I
This class of rocks is scattered over the surface
of the globe, I found them in the Crimea; along
the south side of the Bohemian mountains; out
both sides of the Saxon mountains, but more 0011}

  
  
 

,fli .g._nu..‘__....\...-__.,‘ ,,

 

 

 

 

 
 

:58 ‘ 022 the formation of Rocks

e" e; fleet-the Rhine at Heller}:
k,sc t ~d'eyer-‘the ti‘of'u'na

“ HessecaSfle-gft-ocieupying' the
gh'the greater art of the
e 7 f 1 hanchgde in rance; at
3 she i‘lriiSpaI- A_ n fidtehjesfialong‘thefmit of

_. Vth‘sidje of the A1133, from the valley of False,
"to Lago MajOregx'Sth‘Stfe.‘ ‘On the continent of
‘America: north of the Gulf of 'Menico, and east of

 
 
  
  

 

 

 
 

  

 

t ' ‘ fo" tion has yet been,
71-fou‘ mi, Wthh covers

the eldest red - sandstone; but it“ as ne"baSaltie
columns; nordoes it contain any peridot or pyroxé
nine; and in other respects“ does not much resemé'
jble: this-(class ofirocks: though this trap approach:
fies nearer to it, then any Other yet found. Neither
:have any ”active or extinct VOICanoes been found
in that oeuntry, which is a species of proof in favor
‘fo Common-origin; for if ~ the first and second or;
T‘de'r’s'of “this class had beeni‘found in the United
‘Statesiéin‘d none of the third order, it might have
given reason to doubt- of their origin; or if the
Jhird order had“ been found, and the first and
seednd orders of this class were iwanting', it Would
have f'been‘f‘equally the cause of doubts; but aha
"sence‘ of all the three orders, implies the absence
of fire, the origin of the three orders;

CLASS in}:

“Containing i'o'cks that have Some distant resei'nm”
L‘blzince both to the rocks originating in water, and
. _1in‘fire,i but no distinct analogy to either: whose

; ’ origin must remain in doubt, depending on simple
henjecture;

 
{322 the, fibrinatrion offleeiss 43$";

      
         

9 , , , ésimtgenef;
rocks; but? it. differs

   

5 widely in. the "arrang ,
and nature 0f its component. parts from any rocks,“
known by actual observationsto be oi»,-Nejptunian 3
origin: it equallydi- ' ' ' ' ' "aged v
by direetxanaie‘gy? , , «I '-'thoiigh :
it agrees with the N eptunian inhaying many and .g
rich metallic Xeifls interseeting it». This perhaps
is one of the most prominentmarksof: distinction
between the. two originsoffire, ,amtxzvateravr "

Mica Slate being aspecies of gnéis’s,'where the t
iayers of feldspar tor. quartz. are so small as not to;
be distinguished by the eye, must of course follow ‘
the origin of the gneiss, as it frequently runs by
imperceptible gradations into gneiss, and gneiss
into micaislate, making it- «diflicultto decide where
the one begins, or: the other ends.

Primitive Limestone frequentlyalternates with,
gneiss, and resembles the Neptunian.origin'in'its ,_
regular and extensive stratificatioxn it does not:
differ much in its structure from other limestone
formed by water; such as the stalaotites in caves, _
It therefore is nearer the rocks of undisputed Nope» ,g
tunian origin than the gneiss; and perhaps only
differs inthe‘totaiaabsence of the remains of'organie ,
matter, withwhichthe limestones of Neptuniand
Origin are filled, ' i ,,

Clay State is‘a rock which”: corresponds with.)
the rocks of Neptunian origin, in its mode and .re-,
gularity' of stratification: it; does not differ very,’
much in its structure and external appearance.
firem the Clay Slate of transitiOn. It [having no,
remains of organic matterqin it Whilethe slates 0

   

m—w Axum”, .__l- 71,3», m; ' ....,_

 

 

 
 

g4

  
 
 
 
  
  

5G ‘ 0n. the Formation of Rocha;

undisputedfieptuntan origin contain both-.yegex
t b ‘ imal remains," prevents the analogy
1'1" t1leavesitinzdouhts.j ,
ruler, and rather extensive
= I the'incksof gNeptunian
e’orgfezgternal appearance,
3 Witliany. It is JilikeWise without

 

‘ Ear

 

' __ g asset any organic matter, which prevents
1th neg? classed by direct analogy with the N eps

  
 

tunian9 and leaves it in doubt.

It W 'ie is more liable

  
  

 
     

the“? gm iferm-Jandaexteri-
nal Character, by the'agency of the common ele-

merits of rain, Ellie. &c,"‘and in many instances the _
changes'ar’e visible, ‘Where it appears to be sheltera
(ad from the weather, as its mutation intoevery spe-
Cies 0f ashestus, am‘in‘thus,‘ and all the variety of

, fibrous rocks of the magnesian class; At a place

called'Bauldissero, at the foot of the Alps, about
twelve or fifteen leagues from TUrin, a dark color-
ed‘Serpentin‘e is gradually‘changing into a carbon-
ate ‘0f“‘magnes‘ia 5 “which may by traced through v
its progress at every step, from the beginning to
th end of the'pro'cess; and there is no visible agent,
‘ """":t}pa1gtkofi therockjjs evidentgrbelowgthe in-

 

{unease 10f the Weather; Perhaps'some new light

might be; thrownrupon some of nature’s agents’by
a’closeexam'ination of such changes; ' ‘ ” ' ‘ ’ .

"' When ‘geOIOgical researches are partial, and con-
fined to a Small portion of the surfaCe,‘it is proba-
ble that hufficient‘allowance is not always made

‘1 f‘foifi that slow and imperceptible change, which

takes place ,7 in the structure and external appear-
ance Of the rocks, without the aid of any of the

jknownagents, but by a process as yet unknown;

not haVing come within the sphere of our obser—
vatibn we are Ignorant of the mode wh1ch nature:
takes to produce such changes. ' ‘ "

 
on the Formation ofRoeka ‘ i251

   
     

r'.'QRDfi-R I}.

Containing thoSe ro’ ks Which analog]
dis ose'd to place""int LVolCaniie'or-igin.» '
* [gamblemféroreksgboth' greenstonesand‘ Slenfiies,
as wellas‘the unmixed Hornhlends, resemble some
Species of lava, nearer than they resemble and rock
of undisputed‘Nep‘tu‘nian origin; but in their rela-
tive positions, and regularity efextensive, stratifica-
’tion, they are Slmflal‘to951:7“,Neptunian
Origin, ’as well as in having pyrites,and other me«
tallic'substances, disseminated ;‘ for this reason the
analogy is not direct, and the origin‘mu‘st remain
doubtful; ' ' ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ A,
»‘ Porpfiyry, in its structure and external appear-
ance, resembles much some lavas, more particu-
larly those of the oldest kind, where the asperity
has been worn ofi‘, and softened by time: but in
its mode of stratification and relative situation, it
is» similar to the Neptunian origin, therefore‘ the
analogy is not direct, and the origin must remain

Granite. There are two speciesof ranite; the
one in large grains, which occasional y'alternates
ivvith gneiss, ' and contains many valuable speci-
mens of ' minerals, such as the' emerald, c'ymo-
phane, tourmaline, Ste. 810;; and the other, amid-
dling grained granite, ‘often with much’ quartz
in it, occurring under all Othér" rocks, in large
fields, without any well definedstratification, but
divided often by vertical fissures. ‘ This last is the
granite of‘ which we are speaking; it has more re-
semblance to some of the feldspatic lavas, than it
has to any rock known to be of N eptunian origin.
It likewiseapproaches the volcanic, in relative sit-
uation, without any regular stratification. Yet
the resemblance does not appear sufficiently strong
to amount to direct analogy, and we must there»-

      

”marmalawlzni,‘ ,,_; a 2» . u.” ‘ -

 

 
 

1552.; T Baffie-Fnrmafianof fioeisia .

in; doubtias ire-the nature of its - Origin,
*tthldWest‘roek ingthe arrange!
g . 'e‘ ;. gtthgnoughwhi‘chfwe, neverh‘ave
'tlfatedgj V dbeyfind Which we know nothing;
the*nncleus.oftheaaarth, from which, and on

Which ajcha 1:.es,,_’andff0r "‘atlons. emanate and

res reternasfonndatio _ foris it only a link
of those, changes he cirCle" and recurrence or
yvhose action, is lost in the immensity of time 3
.We know. nothing; We may form theories and

    
    

     

   

 

   

System and elf-helps one system is ,
asgoaa bataaaiwemuarecurm the

_ . _ 3 ,

humiliating truth, we know nothing. - ,
' Between the rocks of the third 'class, called .
yrimitive, and the rocks of the first. class'of posié~
tive Neptunian Origin, the great line of distinction.
is theabundance of remains: of animals and ,vege;
tables in the first, class,and the'total absence of,
them in the third class; this third class" is similari‘
to. the second class,” on Volcanid origin, in being]
Without any remains of organic matter. " ‘ '
The first and third classes differ from the se=_
eond class or volcanic, by being intersected by
-;:i{netallic, veins, andrepositories of metallicsubstan—
:f éfés,fawhére‘is “the secondseifiassgsas ” no metallic
veins, or any metallic deposites in it, The low“
est granite approaches to the volcanic, in being
withOut metallic veins, or metallic deposites. ‘
The result of this investigation would appear to,

_ he, that all the rocks called alluvial, secondary, and,
_ transition, are of N’eptunian origin; either by the}
evidence. of our senses, Or. by a strict and direct
analogy With those formed daily under..our eym ;
that another, species of rocks Which coverand ovt:r—,
lay the’former Whose origin is either strikingly V
”evident ,to‘iour senses by the eruptions, of active.
Volcanoes, or by a strict and direct. analog , are,
evidently of the saint: origin, though the fires

 

 
an the, Famaizmqf "Rocks, 53 '
thich Wéfiéthe agent of these changes may'have ,
been nag" extinct. Having thus narll'OWede
‘ ground, we come to the ' 'rd {,c’lassor' prr iftrvfei'j
rocks, concerningwhose ergm neither th
dence of monasteries," 1th direct, analogy, wrll‘aid
'our researches; and wears: left top-the wide field
of imagination, Whereany individual has a right
to exercise his talents -*"i31:;=5f0-1=‘-mingtheories, or in”
other words, inflmaking suppositions; \The field
of fancyjs undoubtedly very‘exten‘siVe, Where it is

    

 

not limited by some reference tofacts on which ‘
theories Y may be founded; we 'acCOrdingly find
great variety in the methods different authors have
taken to form the earth. , p _. _, j V _ ,
1 At present, the'dispute seems‘to rest between:
two antagonists, the disciples of water, and those
of fire 5 called N eptunians, and Plutonists orVVol-
danists. They both found their theoriesuponwtha’e‘
same general supposition; that is,tha’t the, earth
‘ at the time they began their formation Was in a
fluid state: but they differ in the agent that nature
may have employed to produce that state of fluidiJ
ty. The Neptunians assert that the whole earth
was dissolved in water, and the Volcanists that it
Was melted into the fluid state by fire. These tWo
theories, as objects of discussion to exercise the tan;
lents and imaginations of the literary world, would
he innocent and harmless, But when we consid-i’
er that nineytenths of geological ohserVatiifins have:
been collected With a View to support one or the"

her of the theories, and of course more or less
f m the true state in which nature placed the sub-a,
stances exainined,—and this for the purpose of
proving the truth of one nature employs, with the
qualities of which We, are still unacquainted; and
. so go to work to examine acclirately natUre’s
Works; as the only certain mode of becomin ac:
guainted with her, laws : this method swoul , at
31%? save much precious time, both to writers and
tea era,

76, I» ,,

 

 
 

 
_.
w
v
w,

 

542.; “-1