ILLINOIS

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PM

wmmm

fifPipSp!).THE UNIVERSITY

OF ILLINOIS
LIBRARY

From the library of
Charles Melville Mos
Professor of
Classics
Presented "by Mrs. tto

871WITH COMPLIMENTS OF

THE PUBLISHERS.the

AGRICOLA AND GERMANIA

OF

CORNELIUS TACITUS,

WITH

Explanatory Notes and Maps.

Illustrated with Numerous Engravings.

BY

HENRY CLARK JOHNSON, A.M., LL.B.,

Professor of the Latin Language and Literature in the Lehigh University.

A. S. BARNES & COMPANY.

new york and chicago.copyright by

A. S. Barnes & Company,
1885.THIS EDITION
OP HIS FAVORITE LATIN CLASSIC
IS AFFECTIONATELY
DEDICATED
TO

<D?e Jjort. Robert 2J. £amberton, ££.D.

PRESIDENT OP THE LEHIGH UNIVERSITY,
IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT
OF MUCH ACTIVE AND GENEROUS KINDNESS.LIST OF EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS
WHICH HAVE BEEN CONSULTED.

1.	Aikin. Oxford, 1823.

2.	Anthon. New York, 1853.

3.	Barker. London, 1824.

4.	Becker. Hamburg, 1826.

5.	Bekker. Leipsic, 1831.

6.	Bleterie, Abb6 de la. Paris, 1788.

7.	Brotier. Glasgow, 1796.

8.	Carson. Edinburgh, 1843.

9.	Church andBrodribb.London,1869.

10.	Cluverius. Lugd. Bat., 1816.

11.	Dilthey. Brunswick, 1823.

12.	Doederlein. Halle, 1841-47.

13.	Draeger. Leipsic, 1869.

14.	Dronke. Fuldae, 1834.

15.	Duebner. Paris, 1848.

16.	Ernesti. Oxford, 1813.

17.	Exeter. Bipont., 1792.

18.	Freinshemius. Argent., 1638-64.

19.	Frost. London, 1861.

20.	Gantrelle. Paris, 1875.

21.	Gerlach. Basle, 1835.

22.	Gronovius. Utrecht, 1721.

23.	Haase. Leipsic, 1824.

24.	Halm. Leipsic, 1856.

25.	Haupt. Berlin, 1855.

26.	Henrichsen. Altona, 1855.

27.	Kritz. Berlin, 1859-60.

28.	Latham. London, 1851.

4

29.	Lipsius. Antwerp, 1668.

30.	Low. Mannheim, 1862.

31.	Massmann. Leipsic, 1847.

32.	Mosler. Leipsic, 1862.

33.	Miillenhoff. Berlin, 1873.

34.	Naudet. Paris, 1820.

35.	Nipperdey. Leipsic, 1851.

36.	Oberlein. Leipsic, 1801.

37.	Orelli. Zurich, 1846.

38.	Pabst. Leipsic, 1841.

39.	Passow. Breslau, 1817.

40.	Panckodcke. Paris, 1824.

41.	Bitter. Cambridge, 1848.

42.	Ruperti. Hanover, 1834.

43.	Roth. Nuremburg, 1833.

44.	Ryckius. Leyden, 1687.

45.	Schweizer-Sidler. Halle, 1874.

46.	Stuart. Philadelphia, 1875.

47.	Smith. London, 1850.

48.	Thudicum. Giessen, 1862.

49.	Tucking. Paderborn, 1880.

50.	Tyler. New York, 1878.

51.	Urlichs. Wurzburg, 1868.

52.	Valpy. London, 1821.

53.	Walch. Berlin, 1828.

54.	Walther. Halle, 1831.

55.	Weishaupt. Solod., 1844.

56.	Wex. Brunswick, 1852.PREFACE.

HE present edition of the Agricola and Germania of
Tacitus lays no claim to critical research or indepen-
dent investigation; its purpose being to assist or-
dinary students in the lower classes of our Colleges in the
study of these masterpieces of Latin literature. In pursuance
of this design, I have endeavored to thoroughly elucidate the
text, by explaining the various difficulties (critical, grammati-
cal, historical and geographical), which occur to the student,
and to furnish much information on the character, customs
and institutions of the early inhabitants of Britain and Ger-
many, on the proper understanding of which the value of
these treatises depends.

The text is the result of a careful collation of the editions
most approved by scholars. It is based, however, upon that
of Kritz, with variations therefrom when there seemed to be
good reason, with constant reference to the authority of the
best manuscripts.

The notes grew up in the class-room and consist of such
explanations as I have deemed necessary to give to individual
students in the course of several years' experience, so that,
while they are, perhaps, rather diffuse, they contain nothing
that I have not found to be needed by some one. Their basis
is the commentary of the Eev. Percival Frost, M.A., of St.
John's College, Cambridge, which was not selected because itvi

PREFACE.

was regarded as of special merit, but because it was the one in
use in the class when the notes were begun. To these notes
there has been added from time to time matter from fifty-five
other editions (a list of which is given herewith), until the
commentary assumed the present form, in which it is hoped
it will be serviceable to the learner.

The outline of the Life of Tacitus and the introductions are
compiled from various treatises on Roman literature, and, it
is believed, will furnish much interesting and valuable infor-
mation.

The maps are taken from the School Edition of Church and
Brodribb (London, 1869), and will prove valuable for the
proper understanding of the geography of our author.

The grammatical references are, as in the other editions of
this series, to the three grammars most largely used in Ameri-
can schools, Allen, and Greenough, Gildersleeve and Harkness.

In conclusion, I avail myself of this opportunity to return
my grateful thanks to Classical Professors and Teachers for
the very favorable reception which they have given to my
previous works; and to express the hope that this volume may
also meet their approval and fulfill the only object for which
it was prepared, that of furnishing a useful school-book and
thus helping on the cause of sound and accurate scholarship.

HENRY C. JOHNSON.

The Lehigh University, May, 1885.THE LIFE AND WHITINGS OF TACITUS.

ORNELIUS TACITUS was probably born at Rome in the

year 51, during the reign of Claudius, but neither thq place
of his birth, nor the date, is certainly known, nor is anything
positively ascertained of his parentage. In fact, we have little or
no information concerning his life except what he tells us himself,
or what we may gather from the Epistles of his friend, the
younger Pliny.

His praenomen isx also a matter of doubt. It is commonly
written Gains, on the authority of Sidonius Apollinaris, but it is
given as Publius in the best manuscript of the Annals, and it is a
fact worthy of note than none of the ancient writers who mention
Tacitus ever mention it.

The town of Interamna (now Terni) in Umbria has been named
as his birthplace, but there is no evidence to prove this assertion,
which is probably based upon the known fact that this town was
in the third century the seat of the Emperor Tacitus, who occupied
the throne for a few months after the death of Aurelian A. D.
275, and who claimed descent from the historian, and honored
his memory by directing that ten copies of his works should be
annually transcribed and placed in the public libraries. But
even though the Emperor and our author were actually related,
this would not establish the identity of their birthplace ; nay the
designation of Sejanus as municipalis adulter, in An. IV., 3, ren-
ders it improbable that the historian was born in a municipium.
We should then assume that he was born at Rome.

The date of his birth is approximately fixed by several expres-
sions used by the younger Pliny. That writer says (Epist., VII.,
20) that Tacitus and himself were nearly equal in age and rankviii

THE LIFE AND

(" aetate et dignitate propemodum a equates "). The question is
how far aequales must be considered to be modified by propemodum.
It would seem that it should be taken to imply considerable dif-
ference, as Pliny himself says, " When I was a very young man
(adolescentulus) and you were at the height of your fame and
reputation, I earnestly desired to imitate you." Adolescentulus
is a very vague term, but Pliny may be taken to define this ap-
plication of it to himself, when he tells us (Epist. V., 8) that he
was in his nineteenth year when he began to speak in the Forum.
He was, as he tells us himself (Epist. VI., 20), in his eighteenth
year when the famous eruption of Vesuvius took place (A. D. 79),
and he must therefore have been born A. D. 61 or 62. The date
of the birth of Tacitus is commonly put at least ten years earlier,
or A. D. 51 or 52. This conclusion is supported by a passage in
the third chapter of the Life of Agricola, where he speaks of those
who had survived the evil days of Domitian as coming under two
classes, the young men who had become old, and the old ' who
had advanced to the very verge and end of existence.' He must
have included himself in the former class. The Agricola was
published in the latter part of the year 97. As the term senior
was technically applied at Rome (Aul. Gellius, X., 28, quoting
Tubero) to those who had passed their forty-fifth year, it would
follow that if Tacitus were only forty-six in A. D. 97, he must
have been born A. D. 51.

The name Cornelius suggests a possible connection with the
great patrician gens which was thus designated. But there was
also a plebeian house of the same name, and it must be remem-
bered that in the time of the Empire the nomina gentilia had
become widely diffused. A passage of the elder Pliny (if. N.,
VII., 16) speaks of a son of Cornelius Tacitus, the procurator of
the Emperor in Gallia Belgica. A Procurator was generally ^ a
person of the Equestrian rank. As Pliny died in A. D. 79, it
seems hardly probable that this passage can refer to our author;
hence, it has been conjectured that the procurator was the father
of the historian. The similarity of name, the coincidence of
dates, and the probability that at some time of his life our author
was familiar with the neighborhood of North-Eastern Gaul,»
incline one to accept the conjecture, which is further supportedWRITINGS OF TACITUS.

ix

by the fact that the circumstances of his career seem to imply
an origin which was respectable rather than dignified, and his
habits of thought, prejudices and tastes all reflect those of high
and refined -society.

He received a portion of his oratorical training at Massilia, a
Grecian colony, and the home of culture and refinement, and
probably completed it at Rome under the instruction of Quin-
tilian, who, for more than twenty years there taught that manly
eloquence of which his Institutes furnish us a fine example.
Some critics have applied to Tacitus the passage in which Quin-
tilian (X. i. 104), after enumerating the writers who flourished
in that period, says, " There is another person who gives addi-
tional lustre to the age; a man who will deserve the admiration
of posterity. I do not mention him at present: his name will be
known hereafter." If this passage does refer to Tacitus, the pre-
diction has been fully verified.

It has been suggested that Tacitus made the acquaintance of
Agricola at some time in the three years (A. D. 74-77) during
which that officer held the government of Aquitania. There is,
it has been thought, a particularity about his description of Agri-
cola's administration which indicates the intimate acquaintance
of one who either held some official position, or was otherwise
closely connected with it. This position may possibly have in-
cluded something of the intimate relation in which Agricola him-
self at the opening of his career had stood to Suetonius Paulinus.
However this may be, it is certain that at or before this time an
intimate acquaintance had been formed between the two men.
In A. D. 77 Agricola returned to Eome to fulfil the duties of the
consulship. During his year of office he betrothed to his young
friend his daughter (born A. D. 65), and the marriage took place
in the following year, the same in which Agricola assumed his
command in Britain.

The illustrious alliance thus formed was probably the means
of introducing Tacitus to a career of public distinction. He says
(Hist.y I., 1) that he owed his first promotion to Vespasian, and
that he was indebted for other favors to his successors, Titus and
Domitian. What offices he held under Vespasian and Titus it is
impossible to determine, but they were probably that of QuaestorX

THE LIFE AND

and Tribune of the People. He informs us XI., 11) that
he was Praetor A. D. 88, in which year Domitian celebrated the
Ludi Saeculares. In 89 or 90 he left Rome with his wife, and
did not return until after the death of Agricola, which took place
August 23, A. D. 93. Some have affirmed that he was in exile
during this period, but there is no proof for the statement. It is
pretty certain that he was in Rome during the last period of
Domitian's reign. The language in which at the close of the
Agricola he describes the horrors of that time is full of the bitter-
ness, and even the self-reproach of one who had been compelled
to witness and to sanction by his presence the cruelties of the
tyrant. In A. D. 97 he was elevated to the Consulship. To
this magistracy he was elected in order to supply the place of
Yirginius Rufus, who had died during his term of office, and over
him Tacitus delivered the funeral oration. Pliny says of Rufus
(JEpist, II., 1), " Hie supremus felicitati eius cumulus accessit,
laudator eloquentissimus."

Tacitus is recorded by his friend Pliny as one of the most
eloquent orators of the day. In the reign of Nerva (A. D. 100)
he was appointed by the Senate together with Pliny, who was the
Consul-elect, to conduct the prosecution of Marius Priscus, late
pro-Consul of Africa, and who was charged with various flagrant
crimes. His speech says Pliny (JEpist., II., 11), was most
eloquent and marked by that dignity which characterized his
style of speaking. Here the public life of Tacitus ends, as he
then retired to private life, and dedicated the rest of his days to
literature, having sketched out a vast plan of Roman history, the
greater part of which he lived to fulfil.

The date of his death is not known, but that he at least lived
down to the end of the reign of Trajan may be inferred from
An., II., 61, where he says that the Roman Empire " nunc ad
rubrum mare patescit," an expression which must refer to the
successes obtained by Trajan in his Eastern expedition (A. D.
114-117).

The contemporaries of Tacitus were Quintilian, the two Plinys,
Julius Florus, Maternus, M. Aper, and Yipsanius Messala. He
was on terms of the greatest intimacy with the younger Pliny, in
whose extant collection of letters there are eleven epistles fromWRITINGS OF TACITUS.

xi

Pliny to Tacitus, and two or three are written expressly for the
purpose of furnishing materials for his history.

The first remark one naturally makes on reading the life of
Tacitus, is that he was admirably fitted by his distinguished
military and political career for the duties of an historian.
Gibbon says that his year in the yeomanry had been of more
service to him in describing battles than any closet study could
have been; and Tacitus had this advantage over Livy that he
had helped to make history as well as to relate it. His elevation
to the rank of senator enabled him to understand the iniquity of
Domitian's government in a way that would otherwise have been
impossible. His character seems to have been naturally proud
and independent, but unequal to heroism in action.

The extant works of Tacitus are the ' Dialogue on Orators,'
6 The Life of Agricola,' ' The Treatise on Germany,' the ' His-
tories,' and the 'Annals.' None of his orations are preserved.

The Dialogus de Oratorihus, composed under Titus or in the
beginning of the reign of Domitian, an attempt to prove and ex-
plain the decay of eloquence in the imperial period, is in the form
of a dialogue between literary celebrities of the time of Vespasian.
This ingenious treatise shows the same moral and political views,
the same fineness of psychological observation and the same char-
acteristics as the other works of Tacitus, but his bitterness is still
wanting and even artistic serenity may be observed. In point
of style this treatise is an interesting proof of Tacitus' endeavor
to imitate the rotundity of Cicero's style in his rhetorical works,
though numerous phrases and constructions involuntarily betray
an author of the first century of the Christian era, and in many
details the diction approaches the subsequent writings of Tacitus.

De Vita et Morihus lulii Agricolae liber, a biography of Tacitus'
father-in-law, was composed in the latter part of the year 97.
The very rhetorical disposition as well as execution of the work
remind the reader of the laudationes funebres and of the manner
of Sallust, with which it shares the character of monograph, its
indifference to general historical events and numerous other turns
of phrases. But besides this the work contains much to remind
us of Cicero. In general, the historical style of Tacitus does notxii

THE LIFE AND

appear to be much developed in this work, but a kindly warmth
of humor and sympathy pervades the whole. As a specimen of
biography, it is much and justly admired, and unlike the other
works of Tacitus it is unencumbered with minute irrelevant
matter.

The Germania, written A. D. 98, is an ethnographic mono-
graph, occasioned by the great interest which that land and
nation then caused, perhaps also by the author's own knowledge
which he had acquired in the course of his official duties. The
work is penetrated by the genial warmth of sympathy and highly
colored by rhetorical means, though it frequently approaches
sentimentality. The author is fond of contrasting the sim-
plicity of the Germans with the intricate and corrupt life of his
countrymen.

The Historiae is the narrative of the events of the reigns of
Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian (A. D.
69-96), i. e., chiefly the Flavian dynasty. It was written under
Trajan and founded on excellent sources, probably on the his-
torical work of the elder Pliny. The whole work originally con-
sisted of fourteen books, of which however only the first four and
the first half of the fifth have come down to us. They contain
the history of the years 69 and 70, though not quite complete.

The Annates or rather Ab excessu divi Augusti, in sixteen
books, contained the history of the Julian dynasty after Augustus'
death (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, or the years 14-68).
They were written under Trajan and published between 115 and
117. A part of the fifth book is lost; the seventh, eighth, ninth,
tenth, the beginning of the eleventh, and the end of the sixteenth
and last book, are also lost. These last portions comprehended
the whole reign of Caligula, the beginning of the reign of
Claudius and the last two years (66-68) of the reign of Nero.

The best years of Tacitus belonged to the reign of Domitian,
when fear and indignation, repressed without any possibility of
discharge, embittered all thought and feeling. His sympathies
belonged to the aristocratic republic, but his intellect convinced
him of the necessity of monarchial institutions. He also
possessed the aversion to boisterous conduct and precipitate
action peculiar to aristocrats and doctrinaires, and shared theWRITINGS OF TACITUS.

xiii

prevalent sentiment of resignation, which he also endeavored to
justify theoretically. As an historian he labored to ascertain
the facts and followed the best sources, though frequently with-
out naming them, and sifted them with strict criticism. He
candidly states the results of his conscientious investigations,
while his own views are generally merely implied in the careful
wording of his sentences. He treats his subject in a pragmatical
manner, zealously inquiring into the causes of actions, which he
traces partly in the circumstances, partly in the characters.
The first he sometimes declares to be necessary and decreed by
Fate, sometimes accidental. He is fond of tracing the psycho-
logical connection of facts, and in the delineation of characters
and psychological analysis he displays unequaled mastery.
The key-note of his work is, like his subject matter, serious,
melancholy and even bitter. He avoids all that might impair
his dignified bearing, rhetorical display as well as passionate
outpourings; but he knows how to increase his dignity by
artistic accuracy and calculation and by a very peculiar diction.
Full of sagacious observation and descriptive power, he engages
the most serious attention of his reader by the gravity of his
condensed and comprehensive style as he does by the wisdom
and dignity of his reflections. The purity and gravity of his
sentiments remind one even of Christian authors. The general
tone which characterizes his writings had its foundation in his
own moral dignity. Living amidst the influences of a corrupt
age he was uncontaminated ; and by his virtue and integrity, his
chastened political liberality, he commands our admiration as a
man, and his love of truth is reflected in his character as an
historian. He had lived through a time when the value of the
lessons of philosophy had to be tested by their practical applica-
tion, and his historical studies carried him through a period in
which the mass were sunk in sensuality, and the really good and
great had no consolation but in the consciousness of their own
thoughts. Though he appears to belong to no sect of philoso-
phers, his practical morality was of the Stoic school, the only
school which, in those degenerate times, could sustain the sink-
ing spirits of the Romans, and which, even under favorable
circumstances, guided the conduct of the wise Aurelius, thexiv

THE LIFE AND

noblest man that ever possessed sovereign power. The religious
opinions of Tacitus partook of the character of his age: he had
no strong convictions, no settled belief of a moral government of
the world: his love of virtue and his abhorrence of vice were
purely moral; they had no reference to a future existence.
(.An., iii., 18; vi., 22.) In one of his earliest productions he
hopes, rather than expects, that the souls of the departed may
still live, and be conscious of what is passing on earth. (Agric.,
46.) But in his latest writings there are no traces that his
hopes or his wishes had ever ripened into a belief.

The style of the Ciceronian age aimed at richness of expres-
sion, and smoothly flowing and gracefully finished periods. It
had been brought by Cicero to perhaps as high a degree of per-
fection as the Latin language permitted. The succeeding age
proposed to itself a somewhat different aim. It wanted some-
thing piquant and stimulating.

Hence quite a different set of literary characteristics. A style
sententious and concise, sometimes unpleasantly abrupt, with
far-fetched, poetical and even archaic terms and expressions be-
came fashionable. Scope was thus given to some of the worst
extravagances of bad taste, and we find nearly all the writers of
what is called the silver age indulging in pedantries and affecta-
tions which frequently render them harsh and obscure. A
reaction followed in favor of the earlier or Ciceronian style. Of
this we have evident traces in Tacitus. He seems to have aimed
at combining some Cicero's most conspicuous graces with the
pointed and sententious character of the new style. Though he
occasionally wants clearness and perhaps strains too much after
effect, he is on the whole a far more natural and straightforward
writer than most of his contemporaries.

In the style of Tacitus the form is always subordinate to the
matter; the ideas maintain their due supremacy over the
language in which they are conveyed. There is none of that
striving after epigrammatic terseness which savors of affectation.
His brevity, like that which characterizes the style of Thu-
cydides, is the necessary condensation of a writer whose thoughtsWRITINGS OF TACITUS.

XV

flow more quickly than his pen can express them. Hence his
sentences are suggestive of far more than they express; they are
enigmatical hints of deep and hidden meaning, which keep the
mind active and the attention alive, and delight the reader with
the pleasures of discovery and the consciousness of difficulties
overcome. Nor is this natural and unintentional brevity un-
suitable to the cautious reserve with which all were tutored to
speak and think of political subjects in perilous times. It is ex-
traordinary how often a similarity between his mind and that of
Thucydides inadvertently discovers itself—not only in his mode
of thinking, but also in his language, even in his grammatical
constructions, especially in his frequent substitutions of attrac-
tion for government, in instances of condensed construction, and
in the connection of clauses grammatically different, although
they are metaphysically the same.

Nor is his brevity dry or harsh—it is enlivened by copious-
ness, variety, and poetry. He scarcely ever repeats the same
idea in the same form. No author is richer in synonymous
words, or arranges with more varied skill the position of words
in a sentence. As for poetic genius, his language is highly
figurative; no prose writer deals more largely in prosopopoeia:
his descriptions of scenery and incidents are eminently pictur-
esque ; his characters dramatic; the expression of his own senti-
ments and feelings as subjective as lyric poetry. This constant
union between the dramatic and the pathetic elements, together
with the directness, energy and reality of the language, must act
with irresistable force upon every reader. Was he as fully ap-
preciated in his own day as he is in ours? We doubt it. The
horrors, the degeneracy of his time, awake in his brooding soul
the altogether modern idea of national expiation and national
chastisement. The historian rises to the sublimity of the judge.
He summons the guilty to his tribunal, and it is in the name of
the Future and of Posterity that he pronounces the implacable
and irreversible verdict.

It has been usual to regard Cicero as the representative of the
most perfect Latinity, and Tacitus as a man of genius belonging
to a declining age and infected by many of its chief literaryXvi	THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS.

vices. This view ignores several important considerations and
requires some correction. It is true that the style of Cicero,
from its general conformity to certain precise and definite rules,
is fitted to be a model of Latinity in a sense in which that of
Tacitus cannot be. A modern scholar feels instinctively that the
first is much more suitable for imitation, but it is, we think, a
great mistake to claim on this ground for Cicero a distinct supe-
riority over Tacitus. Cicero indeed was enabled by his great
abilities and wide culture to give a richness and flexibility to the
Latin language which it had not known before his time, and we
may venture to affirm that without him there could not have
been a Tacitus. If, however, we are to measure excellence of
style by its capacity of adequately representing the profound and
subtle ideas of a really great thinker, we shall see good reason
for placing Tacitus in at least as high a rank as Cicero. In
vividness of imagination, in insight into the intricacies of human
character, in the breadth and comprehensiveness of his historical
faculty, he stands first among Roman writers. These qualities
are continually reflected in his style. In the language of the
time, permeated as it was with Greek ideas and phrases, he
found an instrument ready to his hand; he used it with a con-
summate mastery of its various resources, and succeeded in
giving to great thoughts a singularly characteristic expression.CORNELII TACITI

DE VITA ET MORIBUS

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5°E.Gr.INTRODUCTION TO THE LIFE OF AGRICOLA.

'TrVEE Life of Agricola is the most perfect specimen of ancient biography
that we possess. It was written, we are told, as a tribute of love to a
revered father and friend, in a spirit of filial affection to commemorate the
virtues of a good man and the successes of a great general. All that was
most characteristic of a Roman of the highest type found a place in
Agricola. An able officer, a just and at the same time a popular governor,
a vigorous reformer of abuses, a conqueror of hitherto unknown regions,
he was also a man of mental culture, and of singular gentleness and
amiability. He had every quality which could attract the sympathy and
admiration of his son-in-law.

The present work was no doubt intended to be something more than the
customary laudatio which was pronounced in memory of an eminent man,
though its style, resembling that of the orator rather than the historian,
shows it to have been of a kindred character. We find in it the flower of
all the beauties which Tacitus has scattered through his other works. It is a
chef-d'oeuvre, which satisfies at once the judgment and the fancy, the
imagination and the heart. Everything in it produces attachment for its
hero; everything conveys instruction and the interest goes on growing to
the last.

After an introduction particularly beautiful and wonderfully appropriate,
he gives a brief sketch of the parentage, education, and early life of
Agricola, but draws at more length the history of his consulship and
command in Britain. As the history of Agricola at this time is also the
history of Britain, he prefaces it with an outline of the general character
of its inhabitants, the geographical features, situation, soil, climate, pro-
ductions, and, so far as known to the Romans, the past history of the island.

The chief interest of this biography is evidently intended to center in the
grand event of the seventh year of Agricola's campaigns, the defeat of the
confederate Caledonian tribes by which the subjugation of Britain to its
farthest limits was finally achieved. The critical struggle, as it seemed to
Tacitus, was fought out on the last confines of the world, and it added to4

INTRODUCTION.

the glory of Rome, the renown of a triumph which completed the conquest
of her most inaccessible and tractable province. The speeches of the rival
generals which introduce it are elaborate specimens of Tacitean eloquence.
That of the Caledonian chief is conceived in the true spirit of the bar-
barian and is marked by a fierce impetuosity; that of Agricola is calm and
dignified, and implies the consciousness of superior strength, which is the
fruit of discipline and civilization.

Soon after his decisive success, which excited the jealousy and ill-will of
Domitian, Agricola returned to Rome. Of the last eight years of his life,
which were passed in retirement, Tacitus tells us but little. In a few burn-
ing words he dwells on the horrors of the closing period of Domitian's
reign and hints, though he forbears explicitly to assert as Dion Cassius does,
that Agricola was one of the Emperor's numerous victims.

Tt may be useful to give a brief account of the various expeditions against
Britain undertaken by the Romans; as there are allusions to most of them
in the text.

In B. C. 55, towards the close of summer (Caes. iv. 20), Julius Caesar
landed in Britain.

B. C. 54. Csesar landed again in the island, and penetrated about as far
as Hertfordshire (Caes. v. 5—23).

After his evacuation of the island, Britain was neglected under the Em-
perors Augustus and Tiberius. Caligula formed a design of entering Britain,
but it ended in nothing. A son of Cynobellin, a British chief, expelled by
his father, betook himself to the emperor. Caligula, harboring the fugitive,
and receiving him under his protection, wrote boastful dispatches to the
Senate at Eome, professing to have conquered the entire country.

A. D. 43. At the investigation of Bericus, a petty king of Britain, who
had been expelled from his home in consequence of party contests, Claudius
was induced to send Aulus Plautius into Britain. This general conquered
Caractacus and Cogodumnus. During his command, Claudius himself
crossed over to the island, and defeated the Britons near the Thames. The
Southern part of the country was first reduced, and Vespasian, the future
emperor, then conquered the Southwestern district from Hampshire to
Cornwall, and the Isle of Wight.

A. D. 49. Ostorius Scapula succeeded A. Plautius about this date. He
secured the Roman Province by erecting a line of forts extending from the
Severn to the Avon, or Nen. He put down the Iceni, and marched into
Shropshire and North Wales, but was recalled by the'revolt of the Brig-
antes. He made Camulodunum the head-quarters of Roman power. March-
ing against the Silures, he took Caractacus prisoner. The war howeverINTRODUCTION.

5

continued, and Ostorius, worn out with harass and fatigue, died. Avius
Didius Gallus succeeded him. He defeated the Silures, but relapsed into
inactivity. This general took part in the civil war between Cartismandua,
Queen of the Brigantes, and her husband, aiding the Queen.

A. D. 58. Yeranius followed, but died within the year.

A. D. 59. Suetonius Paulinus succeeded to the command, and began to
reduce Mona. During his absence on this campaign, the Iceni and Trino-
bantes under Boadicea arose in arms to avenge the insults they had received
from the Romans. The insurgents stormed Camulodunum, and defeated
Petilius Cerialis. Paulinus returned hastily, and sacrificing Londinium
and Yerulamium, entirely defeated Boadicea.

A. D. 62. Petronius Turpilianus followed, who did not push the Roman
conquests farther.

A. D. 64. Trebellius Maximus was the next governor. In consequence
of a feud with Roscius Caelius, lieutenant of the Twentieth Legion, he
threw up his command.

A. D. 69. Yettius Bolanus was next sent. During his rule a revolt of
the Brigantes broke out.

A. D. 71. Petilius Cerialis succeeded. Under him Agricola commanded
the Twentieth Legion. Together they reduced a large part of the country
of the Brigantes. He was soon recalled, and Julius Frontinus appointed,
under whom the Ordovices and Silures were conquered.

A. D. 78. Agricola took the command in Britain, and in his first year
reduced the Ordovices and the Island of Mona.

A. D. 79. (Altera aestate.) Agricola alarmed the enemy by sudden in-
cursions ; and again endeavored to exhibit to them the sweets of peace.

A. D. 80. (Tertius annus.) He marched through unknown tribes as far
as the Estuary of the Tay.

A. D. 81. (Quarta aestas.) Agricola spent this year in consolidating his
previous conquests, and strengthening the Isthmus between Clota and Bo-
dotria with garrisons.

A. D. 82. (Quinto expeditionum anno.) He crossed the Isthmus, and,
turning westwards, conquered the country lying near Dumbarton, and look-
ing towards Ireland.

A. D. 83. (JEstate qua sexturn officii annum inchoabat.) He again crossed
the Isthmus, and turning eastwards, marched along the coast, accompanied
by his fleet.

A. D. 84. (Initio aestatis.) Agricola defeats Calgacus at the Grampian
Hills. At the close of this year (exacta aestate) he sends a fleet to sail round
the North of Britain, and reduces the Orkneys.

A. D. 85. Agricola recalled.6

INTRODUCTION.

LIFE OF AGRICOLA.

Agricola born probably A. D. 40.

, Visits Britain, A. D. 59.

Returns to Rome, and marries Domitia Decidiana, A. D. 62.

A son born, who dies. (?)

Made Quaestor of Asia, and has a daughter born, A. D. 65.

Made Tribune, A. D. 67.

Made Praetor under Nero, A. D. 68.

Appointed by Galba to examine the state of the offerings in the temples.
A. D. 68. (?)

Loses his mother, and embraces the cause of Vespasian, A. D. 69.
Appointed to the command of the Twentieth Legion, A. D. 70.

Enrolled amongst the Patricians, A. D. 73.

Made Praefect of Aquitania, A. D. 74.

Made Consul, A. D. 77.

Appointed to the command of Britain, A. D. 78.

Recalled from Britain, A. D. 85.

Dies, A. D. 93.

The chief passages in the ancient writers on the subiect of Britain and its
customs are,—

I. C^sar, iv. 33.

y. 12—14.

II. Strabo, iv. 5.

III.	Pomponius Mela, iii. 6.

IV.	Piiimus, iv. 30.

V. Tacitus, Agricola, 10—12.

Annales, xii. 31. 40.

xiv. 29—39.IULII AGKICOLAE VITA.

CLARORUM yirorum facta moresque posteris tradere,
antiquitus usitatum, ne nostris quidem temporibus quam-
quain incuriosa suorum aetas omisit, quotiens magna aliqua ac
nobilis virtus vicit ac supergressa est vitium parvis magnisque
civitatibus commune, ignorantiam recti et invidiam. Sed apud 5

CHAP. I. 1. Clarorum virorum. A

clarus vir is one who is renowned for
eminent services to his country.

2. TTsitatum: a neuter participle in
the accusative, agreeing with the
clause clarorum .... traders, which
is the object of omisit. We would

rather expect a relative clause.-

Ne nostris quidem, even in our times,

vicious as they are.-Quamquam.

This word is commonly used to in-
troduce a distinct clause, while
quamvis generally modifies single
words. This use, however, is common
in Tacitus and the writers of his age.

3.	Incuriosa. This is a favorite
word of Tacitus (cf. An, II. 88; IV. 32;
XV. 31. Hist. I. 49.) not found in the
Augustan writers, but common in his
contemporaries.-Suorum, sc. cla-
rorum virorum; obj. gen. after incu-
riosa.-Aetas, the age.

4.	Vicit ac supergressa est, has over-
come and risen superior to.

5.	Commune. Communis is that
which belongs to the munus, or duty
of many: vulgaris is that which exists
among the vulgus, and hence ex-
presses what is generally prevalent.
-Ignorantiam .... invidiam,

78

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

priores ut agere digna memoratu pronum magisque in aperto
erat, ita celeberrimus quisque ingenio ad prodendam virtutis
memoriam, sine gratia ant ambitione, bonae tantnm conscien-
tiae pretio dncebatnr. Ac pleriqne suam ipsi vitam narrare
5 fiduciam potins mornm qnam adrogantiam arbitrati sunt;
nec id Rutilio et Scauro citra fidem aut obtrectationi fnit:
adeo virtutes iisdem temporibus optime aestimantur, qnibns
facillime gignuntur. At nunc narratnro mihi yitam defuncti

" blindness and hostility to goodness."

-Recti (=* virtus) is to be taken with

both nouns.

1.	Priores designates those who
lived while there was still a constitu-
tional government at Rome, under

the Republic.-Pronum tnagisque

in aperto, easy and more unobstructed.
Pronus is used for anything sloping
downwards, and represents the facil-
ity of a down-hill course. In aperto
implies the opposite of artus, or impe-
ditus, ' not pent in by obstacles
being a metaphor from open ground,
where one's movements are not ham-
pered by want of space.

2.	Celeberrimus quisque. Many re-
nowned men had written biogra-
phies. For the idiom vid. A. 93, c; G.
305; H. 458, 1.

3.	Sine gratia aut ambitione, "with-
out partiality or self--seeking." Gratia
expresses the desire to gratify; am-
bitione, the desire for advancement,
which might betray a writer into
flattery.

4.	Pretio; abl. of cause.-Plerique,

very many.-Ipsi (for ipsorum) is at-
tracted to arbitrati stmt. A. 195, I;
G. 298; H. 452,1.

5.	Fiduciam vnorum, confidence in
their oivn characters: predicate accusa-
tive. A. 239; G. 334; H. 373,1.

6.	Id, i. e., the writing of an autobi-
ography.-JRutilio. P. Rutilius Ru-

fus was a military tribune under
Scipio in the Numantine war, and
Consul, B. C. 105. He was a statesman,
orator, Stoic philosopher, and a man

of umblemished integrity. From
having repressed the extortions of
the public contractors, while legate
to Asia, B. C. 95, he incurred the
hatred of the Knights, who at that
time not only farmed the revenue,
but acted as judges in criminal
trials. On his return, he was ac-
cused de repetundis, and banished.
Although recalled by Sulla, he re-
fused to return, making Smyrna his
residence. He wrote an autobiog-
raphy, and a History of Rome

in Greek.-Scauro. M. Aemilius

Scaurus was Consul B. C. 115, when
he was the leader of the aristocratic
party. In B. C. 107, he was again
Consul. This is the same Scaurus,
whom Sallust mentions as having
been bribed by Jugurtha. As the
banishment of Rutilius was due to
the charges preferred against him by
Scaurus, it is possible that, when the
former wrote his life, the latter also
wrote his, in order to defend himself
from charges advanced against him.
-Citra: cf. N. Oer. XVI.-Obtrec-
tationi: dat. of the end. This union
of different constructions to express
the same relation is called enallage.
The figure is common in Tacitus.
A. p. 298; H. 636, IV.

7.	Adeo, so true is it that, qualifies
the whole sentence.

8.	Nunc, now, i. e., in these bad
times, referring to the general state
of things in Domitian's reign, and
in opposition to the olden times
when it was usual to write histories
of illustrious men,THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

9

hominis, venia opus fuit; quam non petissem incusaturus tam
saeva et infesta virtutibus tempora.

II. Legimus, cum Aruleno Kustico Paetus Thrasea,
Herennio Senecioni Priscus Helvidius laudati essent, capitale
fuisse; neque in ipsos modo auctores, sed in libros quoque
eorum saevitum, delegato triumviris ministerio, ut monumenta
clarissimorum ingeniorum in comitio ac foro urerentur.

1. Mihi venia opus fwit, I have been

obliged to ask leave.-Incusaturus(=

si incusaturus essem, had I intended to
attack) contains the protasis to quam
.... petissem. The general idea is
that" Tacitus feels that he might rely
on the acceptance which Satire and
invective always meet with, and need
not, had these, and not praise, been
his theme, have asked for indul-
gence."

CHAP. II. 3. Tiegimxis seems to be
opposed to vidimus, and to imply that
Tacitus was himself absent, and read
only of these occurrences in the acta
diurna, an official bulletin published
at Rome by authority of the Em-
peror, " and containing an account of
the public business, and other mat-
ters of general interest."-Oivm,

causal, introduces laudati essent. A.

326; G. 587; H. 517.-Mtistico and

Merrenio: dats. of the apparent
agent. Cf. Note on Ulixi. Ger. III.
Arulenus Rusticus was put to death
by Domitian because he studied
philosophy, and had called Paetus
Thrasea holy in his panegyric on

him.-Paetus Thrasea was a Stoic,

and is first mentioned, A. D. 57, as
supporting the Cicilians in their
charge against Cossutianus Capito,.
their late governor. He first pro-
voked the anger of the court by
speaking against a Senatus consultum,
allowing the Syracusans to exceed
the usual limits in gladitorial dis-
plays. In A. D. 59, on the death of
Agrippina, when honors were voted
to Nero, Thrasea abruptly left the
Senate house. Some years after-
wards he was accused by Cossutianus

and Eprius Marcellus, and con-
demned to death, A. D. 66.

4. Herennio Senecioni. Seneciowas
a native oi Baetica in Spain, and sub-
sequently Quaestor there. He was
put to death because he took no part
in public affairs for many years, and
for writing the life of Helvidius
Priscus, (his son-in-law, and friend
of the younger Pliny) who was exe-
cuted by order of Vespasian. The
events here mentioned took place in

the reign of Domitian, A. D. 93.-

Capitale, a capital crime: the neuter
adj. used as a noun.

6.	Saevitum (esse), 11 vengeance was

wreaked:'''' impersonal. - Tritim-

vivis, sc. capitalibus. The Triumviri
capitales were regular magistrates,
first appointed about B. C. 292, whose
functions combined some of the duties
of our magistrates and sheriffs. They
inquired into all capital crimes, en-
forced state fines, supervised prisons,
and carried out the sentence of the
law on criminals.	»

7.	Tti comitio ac foro. The comi-
tium was a part of the Roman forum,
forming its eastern and narrowest
end, and elevated above it by steps:
the rostrum being in the centre of the
line dividing the two parts. The comi-
tium was originally the scene of the
patrician elections and assemblies;
the forum being appropriated to the
plebs. At the eastern point of it was
the tribunal where justice used to be
administered, and where criminals
were punished; and therefore the
book was burned there for the sake
of disgracing it more deeply, the10

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

Scilicet illo igne vocem populi Romani et libertatem senatus
et conscientiam generis humani aboleri arbitrabantur, expulsis
insuper sapientiae professoribus atque omni bona arte in ex-
silium acta, ne quid usquam honestum occurreret. Dedimus

5 profecto grande patientiae documentum; et sieut vetus aetas
vidit quid ultimum in libertate esset, ita nos quid in servitute,
adempto per inquisitiones etiam loquendi audiendique com-
mercio. Memoriam quoque ipsam cum voce perdidissemus,
si tarn in nostra potestate esset oblivisci quam tacere. III.

10Nunc demum redit animus; et quamquam primo statim
beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar res olim dissociabiles
miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque quotidie feli-
citate m temporum Nerva Traianus, nec spem modo ac votum

burning in the forum being only to
give the proceeding publicity.

1.	Scilicet, forsooth: ironical.

2.	Conscientiam, consciousness.
They hoped that, all records of these
actions being destroyed, mankind
could never express its approval of

them.-Arbitrabantxir, sc. Domi-

tian and his attendants.-Empulsis.

This occurred about A. D. 94.

3.	Sapientiae, philosophy.-Pro-
fessoribus is a post Augustan word,
and is here used in its modern mean-
ing.

4.	Honestum, regarded as honorable.

What would quid honesti mean?.-

Occurreret, should meet one: subj. of
negative purpose. A. 331; G. 545, 3; H.
497, II.

5.	Profecto, indeed, certainly.-

Vetus aetas, "' the olden timeof the
republic." C.

6.	TJltimum, the extreme, i. e., the
last point that could be reached.

7.	Inquisitiones, a system of espion-
age, which reached its height under
Domitian. Yid. Merivale, Hist, of the
Romans under the Empiref~Vo\. VII.,
p. 127; V., p. 130.-Commercio, inter-
course.

8.	Memoriam,.... tacefe: i.e.,we
would not have dared to remember,
had we been able to forget.

CHAP. III. 10. Nunc demum,now, at
last, after the death of Domitian, and
the accession of Nerva and Trajan.

-Medit animus, our courage is only

just beginning to recover. The present

tense has its proper meaning.-

Primo statim ortu, immediately at the
very beginning. Statim gives em-
phasis to primo ortu.

11.	NervaCaesar. The name Caesar
with the title Augustus was borne by
all the Emperors down to the time of
Hadrian.-Dissociabiles, incompati-
ble.

12.	JKiscuerit. Tacitus uses the subj.
oftener than the indie, after quam-
quam. A. 313, g; G. 608, R. 1; H. 515, N.

1, 3).-Principatum. Principatus is

that form of government which puts
a Princeps at the head of the State. It
was a constitutional title, and pecu-
liarly acceptable to the Romans, who
clung to the form of liberty when the

reality had passed away.-JLugeat.

This, taken in connection with Nerva
Caesar above,shows that the Agricola
was written between September 18,97
(when Trajan was adopted by Nerva),
and January 27,98 (when Nerva died).

13.	Nerva Traianus. The man's
name was originally Marcus Ulpias
Traianus. He was adopted by Marcus
Cocceius Nerva. As a rule, under theTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

11

Securitas publica, sed ipsius voti fiduciam ac robar adsump-
serit: natura tamen infirmitatis humanae tardiora sunt remedia
quam mala; et, ut corpora nostra lente augescunt, cito ex-
stinguuntur, sic ingenia studiaque oppresseris facilius quam
revocaveris. Subit quippe etiam ipsius inertiae dulcedo, et 5
in visa primo desidia postremo amatur. Quid ? si per quin-
decim annos, grande mortalis aevi spatium, multi fortuitis
casibus, promptissimus quisque saevitia principis interciderunt,
pauci, ut ita dixerim, non modo aliorum, sed etiam nostri
superstites sumus, exemptis e media vita tot annis, quibuslO
iuvenes ad senectutem, senes prope ad ipsos exactae aetatis

Republic, if a man passed from one
gens to another, he would assume the
praenomen, nomen, and cognomen of
his adopter, and add his own gentile
name with the termination changed
into anus. But this rule was often
violated, and under the Empire many
irregularities occurred, as here.-

TRAJAN.

nec = et non.-Spem, ac votum,

hopes and good wishes.

1. " Securitas publica was a current
expression and wish, and was fre-
quently inscribed on medals." K.-

Ipsius voti .... robur, the certainty

and substance of the wish itself.-ad-

sumpserit. This means that public
security has been the subject of hope
and prayers before, but now for the
first time begins to feel confidence
and assurance in the fulfilment of its
wishes. Note the zeugma, as ad-
sumpserit is strictly appropriate
only to fidiiciatri ac robur. Spem ac
vottim would require conceperit.

4, 5. Oppresseris and revocaveris:
indefinite subject. A. 311, a; G. 252;
H. 485, N. 3.-Subit, steals in; poeti-
cal.

6.	Quidf sc. ais.-JPer quindecim

annos. The fifteen years of Domi-
tian's reign, from A. D. 81 to 96.

7.	Jfortaitis casibus, i. e., by na-
tural death, as opposed to death by
violence, saevitia principis.

8.	Promptissimus, the most energe-
tic, is derived from promo, and denotes
a person forward to display energy in
any way on occasion.

9.	Tit ita diocerim is an apology for
the forcible expression nostri super-
stites. In earlier writers we would

have dicam. Z. 528.-AXiorum, i. e.,

physically.-Nostri, i.-e., mentally

and morally. We are remnants of
our former selves.

11. Iuvenes ad senectutem: in
which class Tacitus ranks himself.
Up to the forty-sixth year of his life
a man was junior; beyond that senior.
This expression then would seem to12

the agricola of tacitus.

terminos per silentium venimus. Non tamen pigebit vel in-
condita ac rudi voce memoriam prioris servitutis ac testi-
monium praesentium bonorum composuisse. Hie interim
liber, honori Agricolae soceri mei destinatus, professione
5 pietatis aut laudatus erit aut excusatus.

IY. Gnaeus Iulius Agricola, yetere et inlustri Fo-
roiuliensium colonia ortus, utrumque avum proeuratorem
Caesarum habuit, quae eq.uestris nobilitas est. Pater Iulius

prove that Tacitus was at least forty-
five at Nerva's accession, and hence
must have been born as early as A.
D. 51.

1.	Silentium refers to the silence ol
mental inactivity) alluded to in stu-

diaque .... revocaveris.-Tamen,.

Although everything seems so un-
favorable for writing, yet.

2.	Memoriam, prioris servitutis no
doubt alludes to the Historicie, and the
records of tyranny included in them.

3.	Testimonium praesentium bo-
norum alludes to his intention of
writing a history of the reigns of
Nerva and Trajan, — an intention
which it seems he never carried into

execution.-Interim, i. e., until the

larger are more important works are
finished.

4.	JProfessione pietatis, "from its
profession of filial regard." 0. Cf. Cic.
pro Plancio xxxiii: Quid est pietas nisi
grata voluntas in parentes ?

CHAP. IV. 6 Gnaeus Iulius Agri-
cola. Every Roman had at least
three names: the praenomen or indi-
vidual name ending in %is {Gnaeus):
the nomen or name of the gens, house
or clan, founded originally on blood
relationship which always ended m
us (Julius); and the cognomen or
family name (Agricola). The general
custom of Tacitus in citing names is
to use two, the nomen and cognomen,
on the first mention (unless the per-
son be extraordinarily illustrious,
like the Caesars, or—extremes meet-
ing—very obscure), and the single

name afterwards. Here, however,
one can easily see why the historian
gave Agricola's full name, as he is the

subject of the present memoir.-

Vetere: founded by Julius Caesar, B.

C. 44.-Inlustri refers more to the

renown of its founder, than to its own

intrinsic importance.-Foroiulien-

sium (the name of the people put for
that of the town). This place is the
modern Frejus, on the coast between
Toulon and the Yar, about 25 miles
southwest of Nice. There was an-
other town of the same name in Um-
bria.

7.	Procurator em. TheProcuratores
managed the imperial patrimonium,
and also all the business connected
with the revenues of the imperial
provinces, as distinguished from the
Quaestors in the senatorial provinces.
In some of the less important pro-
vinces the Procuratores were sole
governors.

8.	Caesarum. Both grandfathers
were probably Procurators under
Augustus, the father having been

made a Senator by Tiberius.-Quae

equestris nobilitas est9 which is a dig-
nity peculiar to the Knights. All the
offices relating to the finances were in
the possession of the Roman Knights;
of whom the imperial procurators
were accounted noble. Emperors like
Claudius made procuratores even of
their freedmen, but this violated the

usual arrangement.-Julius Grae-

cinus. This is the man of whom
Seneca (de Benef. II. 21) says: "SiTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.	13

Graecinus, senatorii ordinis, studio eloquentiae sapientiaeque
notus, iisque ipsis virtutibus iram Gaii Caesaris meritus;
namqne M. Silanum accusare iussus et, quia abnuerat, inter-
fectus est. Mater Iulia Procilla fuit, rarae castitatis. In huius
sinu indulgentiaque educatus per omnem honestarum artium 5
cultum pueritiam adolescentiamque transegit. Arcebat eum ab
inlecebris peccantium, praeter ipsius bonam integramque
naturam, quod statim parvulus sedem ac magistram studiorum
Massiliam habuit, locum Graeca comitate et provinciali parsi-
monia mixtum ac bene compositum. Memoria teneo solitumlO
ipsum narrare se prima in iuventa studium philosophiae acrius,

exemplo magni animi opus est, ulamur,
Graecini Iulii, viri egregii quern C-
Caesar occidit ob hoc unum quod
melior vir esset quam esse quemquam
tyranno expediret." It was his refusal
to accuse Silanus that drew on him
the resentment of Caligula, who
seized probably the first fair pretext
he could find for getting rid of him.

1.	Ordinis, sc. vir. A. 214, b; 215; G.
365; H. 896, V; 398, 1.-" Or do is ap-
plied to any body of men, who form a
distinct class in the community,
either by possessing distinct privi-
leges, pursuing certain trades or pro-
fessions, or in any other way." C.-

Sapientiaef philosophy.

2.	1Yotus, sc. erat.-Gaii Caesaris

is better known in English Histories
as Caligula, emperor after Tiberius,

A. D. 37-41.-Meritus, sc. est, earned.

Note the Irony.

3.	Marcum Silanum. This Silanus
was Consul in A. D. 19 i his daughter,
A. D. 33, married Caligula, in whose
reign he was Proconsul of Africa.
The emperor, being jealous of him,
deprived him of power, and subse-
quently compelled him to put an end
to his life.-Iussus, sc. est.

4.	JRarae castitatis, sc. mulier.

5.	Sinu indulgentiaquef in her
bosom and fond affection, i. e., under
her personal supervision.

6.	Pueritiam adolescentiamque.

According to Isidorus (Orig. XI. 2) the
usual divisions of age amongst the
Romans were: infantia, which lasted
from one year to seven; pueritia, from
seven to fourteen; adolescentia, from
fourteen to twenty-eight; and inven-
tus, from twenty-eight to fortyfive.

-Arcebat. The subject is the

clause quod .... compositum.

7.	JPeccantium denotes here sins of
licentiousness. Tacitus is rather fond
of this absolute use of the participle
in the sense of the noun.

8.	Sedem ac magistram, uthe
scene and guide."

9.	Massiliam. Now Marseilles. It
seems to have had a great educa-
tional reputation. Augustus sent his
sister Octavia's grandson there into
polite banishment, under pretence of
study; and Strabo remarks that, in
his day, illustrious Romans of a liter-
ary turn frequented Massilia instead
of visiting Athens. Tacitus describes
the place as distinguished for Greek
politeness, because it was founded by

a colony of Phocaeans.-JParsimo-

niaf economy, as opposed to the ex-
travagance of Rome.

10.	Mixtum ac bene compositum
(■mingled and well united): by enallage
for locum, in quo Graeca comitas et
provincialis parsimonia mixtae ac bene

compositae erant. - JLcrius, sc.

aequo.14

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

ultra quam concessum Romano ac senator^ hausisse, ni pru-
dentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum coercuisset.
Scilicet sublime et erectum ingenium pulcritudinem ac speciem
magnae excelsaeque gloriae vehementius quam caute adpetebat.
5 Mox mitigavit ratio et aetas; retinuitque, quod est difficilli-
muiiij ex sapientia modum.

V. Prima castrorum rudimenta in Britannia Suetonio
Paulino, diligenti ac moderato duci, adprobavit, electus quem
contubernio aestimaret. Nec Agricola licenter, more iuvenum,
10 qui militiam in lasciyiam vertunt, neque segniter ad voluptates
et commeatus titulum tribunatus et inscitiam rettulit; sed

1. Concessum,, sc. erat.-Romano

ac senatori. A Roman senator was
a person, whose main business lay in
action, not in speculation. Too great
indulgence therefore in philosophical
studies was thought prejudicial, as
tending to foster a dreamy un-
practical character. The same idea
prevailed among the Greeks. CI.
Plato, Gorg, 484 c. Senatori, of course,
refers to the rank of Agricola by birth

and not to his office.-Hausisse is

the infinitive of what in the Oratio
recta would have been hatiriebat,
began to drink in. A. 308, b ; G. 599, R.

2; H. 527, III. and N. 2,1).-Pruden-

tia matris. Cf. Suet. Nero, 52. "A
philosophia eum mater avertit monens
imperaturo contrariam esse."

3.	Scilicet, naturally.-I'ltlcri-

tudinem ac speciem, comeliness and
beauty. The former expresses the
beauty of appropriate and sym-
metrical arrangement; the latter,
the beauty that strikes the eye, and
challenges observation.

4.	Vehementius quam caute. The
classical construction would, of
course, require cautius here. Tacitus
generally follows this, but sometimes
has that of text. A. 192, b ; G. 314; II.
444, 2 and N. 3.

5.	Mitigavit, sc. eum.

6.	JEx sapientia. This means that
after the mellowing influence of

reason and time had wrought a
change, Agricola retained—a hard
thing to do—as a relic of his old
philosophical pursuits, the power of
self conquest and moderation.

CHAP. V. 7. Castrorum, of military

service.-Suetonio Paulino: dat.

after adprobavit. For Tacitus opinion
of him, see Cap.XI V; Hist. II. 25; II. 31.

8.	Moderato: caution was his

most prominent characteristic.-

Adprobavit. Adprobare is to make
anything satisfactory to another. Cf.
An. XV. 59; Cic. Ad Attic. IV. 14; de
Fin. II. 25.

9.	Contubernio: abl. of means.-

Aestimaret: subj. of purpose, after
quem = ut eum. Aestimare here
means to ascertain the value o/; and
the general's aim was to find out by
constant association in war of what
metal the young soldier was made.
-lAcenter (sc. agens) refers to vo-
luptates; segniter to commeatus.

11. Titulum tribunatus expresses a
kind of brevet tribuneship; and as
the holders of this post, in spite of
their nominal rank, were really
ignorant, generally speaking, of a
soldier's duties, and regarded the
army as a convenient lounging
place, Tacitus adds et inscitiam.
The whole passage means as follows:
'Nor did Agricola, with a display of
disorderly license, or idle lounging,
make his nominal tribuneship,THE AGrRICOLA OF TACITUS.

15

noscere provineiam, nosci exercitui, discere a peritis, sequi
optimos, nihil adpetere in iactationem, nihil ob formidinem
recusare, simulque et anxius et intentus agere. Non sane alias
exercitatior magisque in ambiguo Britannia fuit. Trucidati
veterani, incensae coloniae, intercepti exercitus; turn de salute,
mox de victoria certavere. Quae cuncta esti consiliis ductuque
alterius agebantur, ac summa rerum et recuperatae provinciae
gloria in ducem cessit, artem et usum et stimulos addidere
iuveni, intravitque animum militaris gloriae cupido ingrata
temporibus, quibus sinistra erga eminentes interpretation nec
minus periculum ex magna fama quam ex mala.

VI. Hinc ad capessendos magistratus in urbem digressus

(which rank would have given op-
portunities for pleasure) and real
ignorance a ground for pleasurable
indulgence, or repeated furloughs
(which he could easily have obtained
as from his ignorance he was of no
use).

1.	Noscere, etc.: historical infini-
tives. Note the antitheses: "noscere-
nosci; discere-sequi; adpetere—recw-
sare; anxius - -intentus.''

2.	In iactationem: i. e., he did not
solicit dangerous duties with a view
to boast thereafter of his success.

8. Anxius et intenttis, careful and
energetic. Anxius refers to the future,
fearful of eventual miscarriage ; in-
tentus, to the present, with his whole
energies bent to the work in hand.

-Non sane alias, certainly at no

other time.

4.	Exercitatior (= agitatior) refers
to the famous revolt of Boadicea, A.

D. 60: vid. Caps. XV. and XVI..-

In ambiguo, in a state of uncertainty,

as to the possession of it.-Trticidati

(sc. erant) veterani. In the butchery
attending this outbreak 70,000 citizens
and allies perished. The 1 veterans'
were especially obnoxious to the
Britons.

5.	Incensae coloniae. The Colonia
Oamulodunum, the only real colonia

in Britain, and the Municipia
Verulamium and Londinium (all called
loosely coloniae here), were burned.

-Intercepti exercitus. Petilius

Cerealis hastening to the rescue of
the towns had been surprised and
destroyed, his cavalry only escaping.

-Turn refers to trucidati ; mox, to

the arrival of Paulinus and Agricola.

6.	Certavere, sc. Romani.

7.	Alterius: i. e., Suetonius.--

Summa rerum, "general manage-
mentT.

8.	In ducem cessit, fell to the sha7'e
of the general. For this sense of the

word, cf. Hist. I. 11; III. 83.-Artem

et usum et stimulos, skill and ex-
perience, and incentives.-luveni: i.

e., Agricola.

10,11. Temporibus, referring to
those of Nero, is best taken as a

dative depending on ingrata.-

Sinistra is best joined with erga

eminentes.-Nec minus . ... ex

mala.-"A remark worthy of no-
tice, and too often true." Tyler.

CHAP. VI. 12. Hinc, after these ser-
vices.-Ad capessendos magistra-
tus. In order to obtain high rank in
the public service, it was necessary
to go through the several grades of
the magistracy, which are all men-
tioned and explained below.16

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

Domitiam Decidianam, splendidis natalibus ortam, sibiiunxit;
idque matrimonium ad maiora nitenti decus ac robur fuit.
Vixeruntque mira concordia, per mutuam caritatem et invicem
se anteponendo, nisi quod in bona uxore tanto maior laus,
5 quanto in mala plus culpae est. Sors quaesturae provinciam
Asiam, proconsulem Salvium Titianum dedit; quorum neutro
corruptus est, quamquam et provincia dives ac parata peccan-
tibus, et proconsul, in omnem aviditatem pronus, quantalibet
facilitate redempturus esset mutuam dissimulation em mali.

1.	Natalibus, lineage; a post-Au-
gustan use of the word.

2.	Nitenti agrees with ei: dat. of

possessor understood.-Decus ac

robur, distinction and an assistance.
Her splendid descent and large
dowry were probably of material
help to Agricola, as adding lustre to
his pretensions, and giving him the
means for defraying the expenses in-
cidental to a dignified discharge of
office.

3.	Per mutuant caritatem is best
taken as causal. "Their affection
was the cause of their singular har-
mony."

4.	Anteponendo. Note the enallage.

-Nisi quod refers to a thought

suggested by the previous words,
viz., that they equally attained to excel-
lence, and therefore equally deserved
praise, rather than to the exact

words themselves.-Maior, i. eM

quam in bono viro.

5.	Plus, i. e., quam in malo viro.
Tacitus' idea is: As it is thought
more faulty for a wife to be a bad
wife than for a man to be a bad hus-
band, because it seems to be her
special province to discharge a wife's
duties well, so owing to the natural
weakness of her sex, to rise high in
excellence deserves more praise in a

woman than in a man.-Sors

quaesturae. Every proconsul was
attended to his province by a
quaestor (the first position in the
course of Roman honors), who was

paymaster to the forces, and levied
such portions of the revenue as were
not farmed by the JPublicani. After
they had been appointed at Rome,
they then drew lots for their destina-
tions. Agricola obtained it in his

25th year, A. D. 65.-Provinciam

Asiam. The province of Asia was
only a small part of Asia Minor, con-
taining Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and
Lydia. It originated in the bequest
of Attalus to the Romans, B. C. 133.

6.	Proconsulem. A proconsul was

usually an ex-consul.-Salvium

Titianum. Salvius Otho Titianus
was the elder brother of the Emperor
Otho, and, like him, a corrupt and

greedy man.-Dedit, sc. ei; i. e.,

Agricolae.-Netitro (dative of the

agent) alludes to both the richness
of the province, and the venality of
the governor.

7.	Parata peccantibus, ready for
offenders. This means that in Asia
there were people always ready to
assist a corruptly disposed Roman
official of rank in any scheme of
mischief he might put his hand to,
or to bribe him to pervert justice.

8.	9. Quantalibet facilitate, by any
license however great, i. e., by allowing
Agricola any facility for plundering
which he might wish.-Redemp-
turus esset; "Subj.in the apodosis
answering to a protasis understood,
viz., if Agricola had entered into the
plot." Tyler. A. 311; G. 602; H. 486,
and N. 2.-Dissimulationem. TheTHE AGBICOLA OF TACITUS.

17

Auctus est ibi filia, in subsidium simul et solacium; nam
filiuin ante snblatum brevi amisit. Mox inter quaesturam ac
tribunatum plebis atque ipsum etiam tribunatus annum quiete
et otio transiit, gnaxus sub Nerone temporum, quibus inertia
pro sapientia fuit. Idem praeturae tenor et silentium; nec
enim iurisdictio obvenerat. Ludos et inania honoris medio
rationis atque abundantiae duxit, uti longe a luxuria, ita famae
proprior. Turn electus a Galba ad dona templorum recog-

word generally means to disguise
what belongs to oneself. Tacitus,
however, uses it in the sense of con-
niving at the faults of others. Cf.
Hist. I. 26; ^Ln.XIII. 49.

1.	Filia: afterwards the wife of

of Tacitus.-In stibsidium. Wex

makes this refer to the enactment of
the Lex Papia Poppaea, whereby a
candidate with children was pre-
ferred to one without, and one with
more children to one with fewer,
but it seems better to give it a more
general signification.

2.	Sublatum, born; a phrase de-
rived from the custom by which a
Roman father took up (sustulit) the
child whom he acknowledged and

wished to rear.-Amisit, he lost.

Some understand itasperf. lor plup.,
and render had lost. The daughter
was a subsidium, as increasing his
family, and when he lost his son be-
came a solacium.-JKooa, sc. annum

as object ofiJranmtfforthe first clause:
i. e., A. D. 66. By a law passed, B. C.
180, certain ages were fixed at which
each office in the state might be held.
These periods appear to have been
for the Quaestorship 30; for the Tri-
bunate 38; for the Aedileship 36; for
the Praetorship 39; and for the Con-
sulate 42 or 43: so that two years
elapsed between successive offices.
Under the Caesars this arrangement
was altered; and besides the Quaes-
torship being attainable at 24, a year
only seems to have elapsed between
successive honors.

3.	Tribunatum plebis. This was

the second in the course of honors.
-Tribunatus annum, i. e., A. D. 67.

5.	Pro sapientia fuit, served for a
marh of wisdom. In the case of Agri-
cola the inertia was, of course, as-
sumed.-Praeturae. Agricola was

praetor in A. D. 68.-Tenor et silert-

titim is by hendiadys for continuum
silentium, constant quietude.

6.	Nec enim iurisdictio obvenerat,
for no actual jurisdiction had fallen to
his lot. There were twelve or more
Praetors at Rome at this period, but
only two, those who filled the places
of the old Praetor XJrbanus and Prae-
tor Peregrinus, had the his dicendi.
The others presided over the Quaes-
tiones perpetuae for repetundae, ambi-
tus, etc., but as even these, under the
Emperors, were in the hands of the
senate, and managed under imperial
direction, little else was left to the
Praetors than the management and

superintendence of the games.-

Inania honoris, " the pageantry of his
office."-Medio, in a mean between.

7.	Mationis, strict economy: inhu-

mana divitas. Seneca {ad Helvid.).-

Dumit, he conducted.-The meaning

of the passage is, 'the games and
empty pageantry of the Praetor's
office he regarded as requiring a mean
between strict economy and lavish
display; so that although the exhi-
bitions were not prodigally ostenta-
tious, there was enough splendor
about them to attract admiration.

8.	Galba: the successor of Nero, A.
D. 68.-Hecognoscenda, examining,18	THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

noscenda, diligentissima conquisitione fecit, ne cuius alterius
sacrilegium respublica quam Neronis sensisset.

VII. Sequens annus gravi vulnere animum domumque
eius adflixit. Nam classis Othoniana licenter vaga, dum
5 Intemelios (Liguriae pars est) hostiliter populatur? matrem
Agricolae in praediis suis interfecit, praediaque ipsa et magnam
patrimonii partem diripuit, quae causa caedis fuerat. Igitur
ad sollemnia pietatis profectus Agricola nuntio adfectati a
Vespasiano imperii deprehensus ac statim in partes trans-

2. JVe .... sensisset. The natural
sequence here would be sentiret, or
senserit, according to the sense to be
conveyed, but the force of the pluper-
fect may be thus explained. He so
ordered things that when his office
was discharged "the state found that
it had felt only the sacrilege of Nero,
everything having been recovered
except what he had appropriated."

C. and S. Cf. Pliny, Paneg. 40.-

Sacrilegitim. Nero had plundered
the temples for the supply of his ex-
travagances and debaucheries. Much
had been lavished on his favorites.

CHAP. VII. 3, 4. Sequens anmis,

A. D. 69.-Nam classis Othoniana.

There is an account of this Hist. II.
12, 13. Galba was murdered by the
Praetorian Guard on the 15th of Jan-
uary, and was succeeded by Otho.-

Iyicentevyfor purposes of plunder.

5.	Intemelios: the name of the
people, again, for that of the town.
The place is now Vintimiglia, about

twelve miles east of Monaco.-■

lAguriae. Liguria was the ninth of
the eleven regions into which Augus-
tus divided Italy: it was bounded on
the north by the JPadus; on the east
by the Trebia and Macra.

6,	7. Praediis suis, her own estates.
"Praedia includes both land and
buildings." T.-Patrimonii ap-
pears to have lost its original mean-
ing, of an inherited property, and
here denotes furniture and household
goods.-Quae. We should rather

expect quod. "But the meaning is
that whatever of her movable prop-
erty she had on the spot was plun-
dered, and that it was this that had
invited the crime."

8.	Ad sollemnia pietatisf 11 to per-
form the solemn duties of filial affec-
tion." It is probable that the funeral
rites had been performed when Agri-
cola arrived, but some of the ceremo-
nies could be repeated with more
solemnity. Thus in Cicero, Cluent. 9,
we are told of a mother, who finding
that her son was dead, and his corpse
already burnt, repeated the funeral

rites.-A.dfectati .... imperii, of

the empire1 s having been laid claim to by
Vespasian. This took place in the
beginning of July, A. D. 69. Otho,
after a short reign, had been suc-
ceeded by Vitellius, who was in turn
succeeded by Vespasian.

9.	Deprehensus? sc. est. A man is
said to be deprehensus by any news
which overtakes him unexpectedly, or

is brought in a hurried manner.-

Statim. From the Histories we learn
that at least three months must have
elapsed between his mother's death,
and his going over to Vespasian. II.

55, 70, 91.-In partes, sc. Vespasiani.

-Transgressus est. Agricola prob-
ably attached himself to Antonius
Primus. At least from the account
given of this general's movements in
Hist. II. 85,86, and III. 1-10, this would
be his natural point to take, as he
was on his way to Liguria, when the
news reached him.THE AGrRICOLA OF TACITUS.

19

gressus est. Initia principatus ac statum urbis Mucianus
regebat, iuvene admodum Domitiano et ex paterna fortuna
tantum licentiam usurpante. Is missum ad delectus agendos
Agricolam integreque ac strenue versatum vicesimae legioni,
tarde ad sacramentum transgressae, praeposuit, ubi decessor 5
seditiose agere narrabatur; quippe legatis quoque consularibus
nimia ac formidolosa erat, nec legatus praetorius ad cohibendum
potens, incertnm suo an militnm ingenio. Ita successor simul
et ultor electus rarissima moderatione maluit videri invenisse
bonos quam fecisse.	10

1.	JPrincipatus, sc. eius; i. e.,Ves-
pasiani. Note the use of the Em-
peror's title, princeps, as the civil
head of the state rather than impera-
tor, which always implies military

and even autocratic power.-Mud-

anus. He was consul A. D. 52, under
Claudius, and twice afterwards. At
the death of Nero he was governor of
Syria, and being reconciled to Ves-
pasian, supported his claim to the
imperial throne zealously, marching
into Europe while Vespasian re-
mained in Asia. On reaching Rome
he assumed in reality the reins of
power, although nominally Domitian
was at the head of affairs.

2.	Iuvene. Domitian was at this

time about eighteen years old.-

Domitiano. Domitian was the
younger son of Vespasian, and ac-
companied Mucianus to Rome as
the representative of his father. He
became afterwards one of the most
infamous and detestable of theRoman
emperors.

3,4. Is, i. e., Mucianus.—Missum.

Early in A. D. 70.-Vicesimae

legioni. This legion, known as Vic-
trix, was one of the four at this time
stationed in Britain, the other three
being the 2nd, 9th and 14th. In the
Itinerary, of Antoninus, it is men-
tioned as stationed at Deva, the mod-
ern Chester, where Roman remains,
inscriptions, altars, statues, baths,
etc., are numerous.

5. Tarde ad sacramentum. For

the feeling of the troops toward Ves-
pasian, cf. Hist. III. 44.-Decessor.

This was Roscius Caelius. Hist. 1.60.

6.	legatis consularibus. The im-
perial provinces were governed by
legati praetorii, consulares, etc., who
were so called because the Emperor
was proconsul of all the imperial
provinces, and therefore his deputies
were properly called legati. Their
rank depended on the importance of
the province: small provinces, which
required but a single legion being as-
signed to the commander of that
legion, who was a legatus praetorius ;
those, which required more than one
legion, were given to legati consur
lares.

7,	8. Nimia, too powerful.-lega-
tus jpvaetovius, i. e., Roscius Caelius.

the same person as decessor.-In-

certtim, sc. est utrum. This was either
because he had no talent for com-
mand, or the troops no idea of subor-
dination.-Successor ; i. e., to the

governor.

9. Ultor; i. e., to the soldiers.-

ttarissima, etc. This sentence means
that Agricola, instead of aiming at an
increase of his own reputation by
making a stir to bring the disorderly
to reason, by way of contrasting his
own energy and strictness with the
loose discipline of his predecessors,
chose rather to begin by blotting out
the past, and treating them as re-
spectable characters. He thus ap-
pealed to their better feelings.20

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

"VIII. Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius Bolanus placidius
quam feroci provincia dignum est. Temperavit Agricola vim
suam ardoremqne compescuit, ne incresceret, peritus obsequi
eruditusque utilia honestis miscere. Brevi deinde Britannia
5 consularem Petilium Cerialem accepit. Habuerunt virtutes
spatium exemplorum. Sed primo Cerialis labores modo et
discrimina, mox et gloriam commnnicabat; saepe parti
exercitus in experimentum, aliquando maioribus copiis ex
eventu praefecit. Nec Agricola umquam in suam famam
lOgestis exsultavit; ad auctorem et ducem ut minister fortunam
referebat. Ita virtute in obsequendo, verecundia in
praedicando, extra invidiam nec extra gloriam erat.

IX. Revertentem ab legatione legionis divus Vespasianus
inter patricios adscivit; ac deinde provinciae Aquitaniae

CHAP. VIII. 1. Tunc. A. D. 69.-

Vettius JSolanus. His character is
described at the close of Chap. XVI.
-Placidius, with more mildness.

2.	Dignum est. Tacitus uses est,
and not esset or erat (both of which
have been conjectured), because he is
speaking generally and not of Britain
particularly. Bolanus governed Bri-
tain with less energy than suits any
province where the people are only
half conquered.-Vim, energy.

3,	4. We incresceret, sc. Agricola.-

Peritus obsequi and miscere: poeti-
cal construction; cf. Verg. Eel. X. 32;
Persius II. 34. It is very rare in good
prose. A. 273, c ; G. 429, H. 4; H. 533,
II. 3.....Deincle. A. D. /1.

5.	Consularem, sc. legatum.-Pe-
ntium Cerialem. Cerialis had once
been lieutenant of the 9th legion in
Britain, under Suetonius Paulinus.
He was connected by marriage with
Vespasian and was one of his generals
in the civil war. He was engaged in
the capture of Rome, and was after-
wards despatched into Germany to
oppose Civilis, and the Batavi. He
appears to have died during his com-
mand in Britain.

6.	Exemplorum: objective geni-
tive.

7. Communicabat, sc. cum illo, i. e.
Agricola.

9.	JEx eventu, " on the strength of the

result-In suam famam, " with a

view to {increase) his own reputation."

10.	Gestis: abl. of cause.-

"Auctorem cannot be translated
here by any single word." It is the
one from whom he derived his authority,
or his superior officer.

12. Nec extra gloriam, but not witl\r

out glory. Nec = et non.-Extra =

sine. Cf. Hist. I. 49, extra vitia.

CHAP. IX. 13. Mevertentem. As he
was returning. It is possible that he
did not return to Rome, but stopped
on the way at his command in Aqui-

tania.-Legatione, sc. praetoria.-

Divus, i. e., when this was written.

14. Inter patricios. In A. D. 74
Vespasianus and his son Titus were
appointed Censors, the last who held
that office. They endeavored to re-
cruit the ranks of the Patricians,
thinned by a long series of cruelties
and deaths, few having survived of
those Patrician families, who in the
early days of Rome formed her sole
citizens. At the end of the Republic
there were only some fifty of these
families left. Julius Caesar there-
fore, by the lex Cassia, raised manyTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.	21

praeposuit, splendidae in primis dignitatis administratione ac
spe consulatus, cui destinarat. Credunt plerique militaribus
ingeniis subtilitatem deesse, quia castrensis inrisdictio secura
et obtnsior ac plura manu agens calliditatem fori non exerceat.
Agricola naturali prudentia, quamyis inter togatos, facile
iusteqne agebat. Iam vero tempora curarum remissionnmque
divisa: ubi conventus ac iudicia poscerent, gravis, intentus,

plebeians to that rank. Augustus
and Claudius did the same, but under
Vespasianus they had again dwin-
dled down to 200 families (.An. XI.

25).-Aquitaniae. This was one of

Caesar's three divisions of Gallia, but
it was afterwards enlarged and em-
braced " the country between the
Cevennes, the Loire, Garonne, and
Pyrenees.

1.	Splendidae dignitatis : genitive
of quality. Cf. Procillararae castitatis;
chap. IV. The dignity was twofold;
consisting absolutely in the govern-
ment of so extensive and important
a province, and, in the next place, in
the probability of its ruler being

elevated to the Consulship.-Ad-

ministratione, in the importance of its
duties.

2.	Destinarat, sc. Vespasianus as
most writers say; but some supply
provincia on the ground that the
splendor of a province could hardly
be affected by the isolated fact that
the Emperor thought of making
Agricola consul; whereas if its rulers
were as a matter of general routine
usually made Consuls (Galba is an
example. Suet. Galba, VI.), this
would add to its splendor consider-
ably. The pluperfect, then, occurs
as odd. Perhaps it is used, because,
as compared with the actual admin-
istration, this hope of the Consulate
was anterior to it. The province was
splendid from its actual government,
and even before that, from the hope
of the Consulate marked out for its
ruler in any particular case, from the
very moment of his nomination.

3.	Subtilitatem, "the faculty of

drawing nice distinctions.''''-Cas-
trensis inrisdictio, military law.-

Secura, summary, seems to imply a
justice not troubling itself overmuch
about legal subtleties; as not being
subject to appeal; or to the scrutiny
of opposing counsel; but founded on
the broad and practical principles of
equity.

4.	Obtusior, rather blunt.-Plura

manu agens. Agere manu is equi-
valent to vi agere, " to do things with

a strong hand."-Calliditatem. The

word is here used in a bad sense,

subtle distinctions, or craftiness.-

Fori. The Roman courts of justice

were held in the forum.-Exerceat:

subj. to express the views of others
than the author. A. 386; 341, d; G.
541; H. 516, II.

5.	Quamvis inter togatos. Togati
are civilians, the toga being the dress
of peace, as distinguished from
sagum, the soldier's cloak. The refer-
ence here is to the assizes held under
the governor's presidency, generally
in the winter months when the army
had gone into winter-quarters, in
certain towns in the province for the
settlement of all legal suits; hence
togatos ===== litigantes and not Roman
citizens only as it usually does.

6.	Facile iusteqtie agebat. Agri-
cola presided with ease to himself,
because he was up to his work. Cf.

Suet. Tib. 71.-Jam vero, andbesides.

-Cur arum, remissiomimque. N ote

the use of the abstracts in the plural,
where our idiom requires the sin-
gular. A. 75, c; G. 195, R. 5; H. 130, 2.

7.	Divisa, were kept distinct.-Con-
ventus, sc. iuridicij courts.-Indicia22

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

severus, et saepius misericors; ubi officio satisfactum, nulla
ultra potestatis persona. Tristitiam et adrogantiam et avari-
tiam exuerat; nec illi, quod est rarissimum, aut facilitas
auctoritatem aut severitas amorem deminuit. Integritatem
5 atque abstinentiam in tanto viro referre iniuria virtutum
fuerit. ISTe famam quidem, cui saepe etiam boni indulgent,
ostentanda virtute aut per artem quaesivit; procul ab aemula-
tione adversus collegas, procul a contentione adversus pro-
curators, et vincere inglorium et atteri sordidum arbitrabatur.

refers to the regular administration of
justice in the Capital city of the pro-
vince by the resident governor.-

Poscerewt: potential subj.

1.	JEt saepius, and at the same time

veryfrequently.-Officio, official duty.

-JSatisfactum9 sc. esset.

2.	Potestatis, of (the man of) power.

-Persona is properly a mask for

stage-players, to increase the com-
pass of their voices; by an easy
transition it means to sustain a
character or to play the part.-Tristi-
tiam, the official sterness which befits

a magistrate.-Adrogantiam, rigid

requirement of respect.-Avaritiam,

avarice, or rather what might seem
so in one who exacted the full pay-
ment of the tribute or the revenue.

3.	Exuerat. If a man puts off a
vice, one naturally supposes him to
have had that vice at first more or
less. Tacitus would hardly allow
that Agricola ever displayed the
faults mentioned here. His idea
seems to be that certain vices may be
looked for in persons holding certain
positions: avarice, etc., he regards as
the natural faults of a provincial
governor; probably they were such
in nine cases out of ten in his ex-
perience. By exuerat he means to
say that Agricola had kept himself
free from those vices, which might
naturally have been expected to
cling around him in his capacity of

governor.-Illi. A. 229; G. 344,2; H.

385, 2.-Facilitas, affability.

4,5. Severitas : opposed to facMi-
iaSy-Amorem,, i. e., of others for

him.-Integritatem atque absli-

nentiam. The first shows his up-
rightness on the bench, whereby he
was proof against corruption; the
latter, his honesty in not making a
fortune out of the State property

which he had to control.-Jteferre,

to mention. Cf. Hist. 1. 30.

6.	Fuerit: subj. of cautious state-
ment. A. 311, b; G. 252, R. 1; H. 486,

I.-Cit/i saepe etiam boni indulgent.

For the sentiment cf. Hist. IV. 6,
" erant quibus adpetentior famae vi-
deretur quando etiam sapientibus
cupido gloriae novissima exuitur."

7.	Per artem, by artifices. Note-
the enallage.

8.	Collegas. These would be the
governors of the neighboring pro-
vinces, Gallia Narbonensis, Lugdu-
nensis, Belgica. In An. XIII. 53,
Aelius Gracilis, Legatus of Belgica is
mentioned as looking enviously on
his neighbors, the Legati of Ger-
many.-Proctiratores. There was

only one Procurator in each pro-
vince, but in the three years of Agri-
cola's administration there may have
been several: or the plural may be
put generally, "such rivalry as is
generally seen between Legati and
Procuratores. The legato might
easily come into collision with them,
as they had special charge of the
revenues.

9.	Atteri. There was no credit in
getting the better of an inferior like
a Procurator, and great disgrace in
being trampled upon by one,THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

23

Minus triennium in ea legatione detentus ac statim ad spem
consulatus revocatus est, comitante opinione Britanniam ei
provinciam dari, nullis in hoc suis sermonibus, sed quia par
videbatur. Haud semper errat fama; aliquando et elegit.
Consul egregiae turn spei filiam iuveni raihi despondit ac post 5
consulatum collocavit; et statim Britanniae praepositus est,
adiecto pontificatus sacerdotio.

X. Britanniae situm populosque multis scriptoribus
memoratos non in comparationem curae ingeniive referam, sed
quia turn primum perdomita est; ita, quae priores nondum 10

1.	Minus, sc. quam, A. 247, c; G.

311, R. 4; H. 417, N. 2.-Triennium.

According to DioCassius, LII., it was
Maecenas who suggested three years
as the term for the Legati to hold
their government. Tiberius, and also
his successors, did not acton the sug-
gestion, but continued their Legati
in office for various periods and

sometimes all their lives.-Statim,

grammatically modifying revocatus
est, in sense modifies ad spem,.

2.	Constilatus. The consulship was
at this time hardly more than a
title, usually held for two months.

3.	Dari, was being offered to him, i.
e., it was understood that he was to

have it after his consulship.-In

hoc, to this effect.

4.	JEt elegit, it has even chosen. Note
the force of the perfect. The mean-
ing is that common report sometimes
causes a man to be chosen.

5.	Consul. He was Consul suffectus
with Domitian A. D. 77, Vespasian
and Titus having been Consuls from
the 1st of January to the end of June.
This is no doubt the reason why
Tacitus passes over his office so

lightly.-Turn, even then.-Filiam.

Agricola was Consul A. D. 77, and
this daughter having been born dur-
ing his quaestorship in A. D. 65, was
about twelve years of age at her
betrothal. It was customary to be-
troth girls when quite young (not un-
der seven). Augustus forbade be-
trothal under ten, so that the engage-

ment should not last more than two

years.-Iuveni. Tacitus was in his

twenty-fifth year.

6.	Collocavit, gave her in marriage:
the technical word.

7.	JPontificatus. The Pontifices
were not the priests of any particular
divinity, but were a college, exercis-
ing superintendence over religious
observances generally. Originally,
on a vacancy in their body, the Pon-
tifices chose a person to fill it; but
afterwards the right was transferred
to the people: again re-transferred to
the college by M. Antonius. At last
the right fell, like most other rights
into the Imperial hands. It was at
this time a mere dignity, all its
power being exercised by the Em-
peror, who was ex officio its head,pon-
tifiex maximus. Vid. Suet. Octav.
XXXI. Tac. An. I. 3; Hist. I. 77.

CHAP. X. Chapters X-XVIII give
an account of the nature and previ-
ous history of Britain preparatory to
the description of Agricola's admin-
istration.

8.	Multis scriptoribus. These were
Agathemerus, Caesar, Diodorus Sicu-
lus, Fabius Rusticus, Livy, Pliny,
Pomponius Mela, Ptolemy, Sue-
tonius, and Strabo.

9.	In comparationem, etc., with a,
view of comparing my accuracy and
talent (with that of others).

10.	Tum primum perdomita est.
Note the force of per. This statement
is no doubt true, As Tacitus men-24

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

comperta eloquentia percoluere, rerum fide tradentur.
Britannia, insularum, quas Eomana notitia complectitur,
maxima, spatio ac caelo in orientem Germaniae, in occidentem
Hispaniae obtenditur; Gallis in meridiem etiam inspicitar.

5 Septentrionalia eius, nullis contra terris, vasto atque aperto
mari pulsantur. Formam totius Britanniae Livius veterum,
Fabius Eusticus recentium eloquentissimi auctores oblongae
scutulae vel bipenni adsimulavere. Et est ea facies citra Cale-

tions in chap. XIII, the expeditions
of Julius Caesar were merely tem-
porary in their effects. In the last he
penetrated but a short distance, and
on his withdrawal his whole force
withdrew too. Augustus threatened
to reduce Britain but Gaul saw the
end of his expedition, and Horace's
remarks (I. 21. 35, etc.) are poetical
flourishes. Tiberius acted upon Au-
gustus' policy of letting Britain alone,
as not worth the trouble of conquer-
ing and retaining. Caligula's con-
quest of Britain amounted to having
sheltered the son of a British chief,
Cynobellin. Under Claudius the work
of conquest really began. Succeeding
governors retained what had been
gained, and, in the r£ign of Vespar
sian, Petilius Cerialis made large ad-
ditions to the Roman conquests, un-
til under Agricola almost the whole
country was subjugated, and many
of the adjacent islands.

1. Nondum comjperta, not very cer-
tain.-JEterum fide, " on the evidence

of facts."

3. Spatio ac caelo, in extent and in

latitude.-Spatium is here used for

extension, length of outline.-Cae-
lum means geographical position, as
astronomically and scientifically
considered. The ancient writers
seem to have held singular views as
to the relative position of Britain
(and Ireland) with regard to Spain.
Here Tacitus makes its western out-
line face Spain. They all seem to
have entirely overlooked the fact that
Normandy and Brittany run out for
a vast distance almost due west; and

that the French coast then takes a
short turn southward. They thought
the northern and the western shores
stretched away in a south-western
direction, in continuation of the Ger-
man coast, while the Spanish coast
rose to a great height towards the
north or north-west. In the angle
thus formed they placed Britain and
Ireland. It must be remembered
that Tacitus included Scandinavia in
what he called Germany.

4.	Obtenditur, lies opposite to.-

Gallis .... inspicitur. Gallis is
dat. of the apparent agt.: inspicitur
implies that Britain is much nearer
to Gaul than to Germany and Spain,
as it is visible from Gaul. The whole
expression is equivalent to Ita Gallis
in meridiem obtenditur ut ab Us inspici
possit.

5.	Nullis terris: ab. abs. Cf. Caes.
B. O. II. 14.

6.	Idvius. In his 105th book (now
lost), as is known from the Epitome,
Livy gives an account of Julius

Caesar's invasion of Britain.-

Veteru-m, recentitim, sc. auctorum.

7.	Fabius Musticus, who wrote a
history of the Roman Emperors be-
ginning with the reign of Claudius, is
quoted several times as an authority
for certain facts connected with the
history of Nero. Whether his work
extended beyond this is not known.

8.	Oblongae scutulae. This prob-
ably means a trapezium, and we
may imagine the southern shore to
be its longest side. The opposite or
nothern boundary would be the
shortest. This figure would be&rTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

25

doniam, unde et in universum fama est transgressa; sed im-
mensum et enorme spatiuni procurrentium extremo iam litore
terrarum velut in cuneum tenuatur. Hanc oram novissimi
maris tunc primum Romana classis circumyecta insulam esse
Britanniam adfirmavit, ac simul incognitas ad id tempus in- 5
sulasj quas Orcadas vocant; invenit domuitque. Dispecta est
et Thule/ quia hactenus iussum, et hiems adpetebat. Sed mare
pigrum et grave remigantibus; perhibent ne ventis quidem
perinde attolli; credo, quod rariores terrae montesque, causa ac
materia tempestatum, et profunda moles continui maris tardius 10
impellitur. Naturam Oceani atque aestus neque quaerere
huius operis est, ac multi rettulere. Unum addiderim, nusquam

some resemblance to the bipennis, if
we suppose the iron head only of that

weapon to be intended.-Citra

Caledoniam, excluding Caledonia.

1.	In universum: i. e., report ap-
plies to the whole island what is only-
true of a part.

2.	Enorme spatium. This means
that where the shore appears to be
already coming to an end (extremo
iam litore), the land suddenly juts
out and then again narrows like a
wedge. By extremo iam litore he
designates the narrow isthmus be-
tween the Clota and JBodotria
aesUiaria, or the Friths of Clyde and
Forth, which were the southern

boundary of Caledonia.-Iam does

not refer to time, but to the point
where the coast comes to an end.

3.	Sane oram: i. e., this wedge-
like projection.-Novissimi maris,

of the most distant sea.

4.	Tunc primum refers to the ad-
ministration of Agricola; vid. chap.
XXXVIII.

5.	Incognitas. Pomponius Mela,
who lived in the reign of Claudius,
mentions the Orcades (Orkneys) as
about thirty in number; therefore
incognitas must be unknown, in the
sense of unexplored, not unheard of.

6.	Dispecta est, was seen from a
distance.

7. Thule. What Tacitus means
by Thule is not very clear. Pliny's
account of Thule (IV. 30) is, that it
was the remotest island of the Ger-
man sea, a day's sail from the Frozen
Ocean, where at the Solstice there
was no darkness, and at the winter
no light. This would probably be
Iceland. It is very doubtful whether
Tacitus means Iceland, it being much
more probable that he alludes to
Mainland, the chief of the Shetland
Islands, which are visible from the
Orkneys. Some writers consider it

a part of Scandinavia.-Mactenus

iussum, sc. erat. A glimpse was had
of Thule; and two reasons are given
why it was only a glimpse and noth-
ing more; first, because Thule was
fixed as the limit of that voyage, and
on reaching it they returned at once;
second, because the winter was draw-
ing near, and time for reconnoiter-
ing the place more fully was want-
ing.-Mare pigrum, etc., cf. Pliny

IV. 27. Tac. Ger. XLV. Of course
this is all a mistake, as the seas
about Britain are never frozen.

9.	Perinde, sc. atque alia maria.
This is absolutely false, as these seas
are remarkably tempestuous.

10.	Continui maris, of the sea un-
broken by land.

12. Huius operis est, u belongs to this26

THE AG'RICOLA OF TACITUS.

latius dominari mare, multum fluminum hue atque illuc ferre,
nee litore tenus accrescere aut resorberi, sed influere penitus
atque ambire, et iugis etiam ae montibus inseri velut in suo.

XI. Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, in-
5 digenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros parum compertum.
Habitus corporum varii, atque ex eo argumenta. Namque
rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, magni artus German-
icam originem adseverant. Silurum colorati vultus, torti
plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania Iberos veteres

work; operis is predicate genitive."

C.-JLc multi. Note the use of

neque and ac as correlatives. Cf.

Strabo and Pliny.-A.ddiderim :

cautious statement.

1.	Multum: obj. of ferre.-Flu-

mimim refers to the currents of the
sea running among the islands along
the coast, locally called races.
-Ferre, sc. mare as subject.

2.	Idtore temis, as far as the shore,

and no farther.-Accrescere aut

resorberi, flow or ebb.-JPenitus, far

inland.

3.	By ambire he means that the
waves wind their way around the
I^lls, until the peaks are insulated.

-Inseri, makes it way, is used in

the middle sense.-Velut in suo,

sc. regno. The sea is quite at home
in the heart of the country; not an
intruder, but naturalized, cos though
it were in its own domain, the ocean.

CHAP. XI. 4. Qui mortales, etc.
Beyond vague inferences, drawn
from supposed resemblances, the
ancients did not care much for
ethnological researches. They were
content to acquiesce in the account
each people gave of itself, and of
course barbarous tribes would be able
to give very little account of them-
selves. Hence Tacitus says, ut inter
barbaros parum compertum, sc.
fieri solet. Really the classical na-
tions of antiquity knew about as lit-
tle of their own ultimate extraction
as of that of any other people, hav-

ing made no progress in analyses of
various languages.

5.	A.n> advecti, or strangers, sc.
utrum with indigenae. A. 211; G.
460; H. 353,2.

6.	Habitus corporum (cf. Ger. IV.),

physical characteristics.-Varii, i. e.,

in the different parts of the island,

-JEm eo; i. e., because they are

various.-A.rgumenta; i. e., as to

their definite origin; that they all
were not of the same nationality.

7.	liutilae comae. Cf. Ger. IV.
Some modern ethnologists consider
a portion at least of the inhabitants
of Caledonia to be of Teutonic origin.

-Caledoniam. The term originally

seems to have been restricted to a
small part of modern Scotland, ex-
tending from Loch Fyne to the Mur-
ray Frith. Agricola seems to have ex-
tended the name to all the people
north of the Grampian Hills.

8.	Siltirum. The Silures occupied
the valley of the Severn, in South
Wales.-Colorati, swarthy, sun-
burnt.-Torti, curly.

9.	Posita contra Hispania. Cf.
preceding chap., on the supposed

position of Spain.-Iberos. These

people are a great puzzle to the
ethnologists. In historic times they
occupied the Spanish Peninsula
throughout its chief parts, and were
the lineal ancestors of the Basques of
the Pyrenees. According to the com-
mon theory they were pressed on by
the Keltic immigration and dis-
placed. In another view, the KeltsTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

27

traiecisse easque sedes occupasse fidem faciunt. Proximi Gallis
et similes sunt, seu, durante originis vi; seu, procurrentibus
in diversa terris, positio caeli corporibus habitum dedit: in
universum tamen aestimanti Gallos yicinam insulam occu-
passe eredibile est. Eorum sacra deprehendas; superstitionum 5
persuasionessermo haud multum diversus; in deposcendis
periculis eadem audacia; et, ubi advenere, in detrectandis
eadem formido. Plus tamen ferociae Britanni praeferunt, ut
quos nondum longa pax emollierit. Nam Gallos quoque in
bellis floruisse accepimus; mox segnitia cum otio intra vit, 10
amissa virtute pariter ac libertate. Quod Britannorum olim
victis evenit; ceteri manent quales Galli fuerunt. XII. In
pedite robur; quaedam nationes et curru proeliantur;
honestior auriga, clientes propugnant. Olim regibus parebant,

were the original occupiers of Spain,
and were ejected "by the inroads of
the Iberi from the south and east of
the Peninsula. In either case adven-
turous or dispossessed Iberi may
have visited Britain. At any rate
there is a persistent tradition
amongst the ancients of the peopling
of some part of Britain and Ireland
from the Spanish coast.

1.	JProximi Gallis. Cf. Caes. B. G.
v. 14.

2.	Similes9 sc. Us; i. e., Gallis.-

Originis refers to their supposed

Gallic origin.-Procurrentibus. . . .

terris. According to the ancient idea,
the Gallic coast ran north-east, and
the British coast south-west. Neigh-
boring countries jutting out indif-
ferent directions would approximate
very closely^ would occupy the same
positio caeli, and so would be subject to
nearly the same climatic influences.

3.	In .... aestimanti. Yid. Note
on Ger. VI.

5.	JEorum: i. e., of the Gauls.-

Sacra, sacred rites.-Supersti-
tionum, persuasiones, their belief in
superstitions.

6.	Sermo, their speech.-In de-
poscendis periculis. This fickleness
seems to have been universally an

attribute of the Gauls. Of. Caes. B. G%
III. 19. Strabo. IV. 4, 2. Their light-
ness of character however threw
them into consternation when at all
worsted.

8.	JPraeferunt = prae se ferunt,
exhibit. T. Cf. An. II. 53; XVI. 22.

-Ut quos, because, = ut cumeos,ut

merely strengthening the relative.

9.	Emollierit: subj. of cause after
quos. A. 820, e; G. 636; H. 517, 3, 1).

-Gallos floruisse. Cf. Caes. B. G.

passim. Ger. XXVIII.

12. Olim victis; i. e., during the

reigns of Claudius and Nero.-

Quales Galli fuerunt. Such as the
Gauls were. The meaning of Tacitus
is that the Gauls before they were
conquered were great warriors; but
military spirit is incompatible with
servitude. Servitude has destroyed
it in the Gauls, but has not yet done
so with all the Britons; many of
them still remain what the Gauls
were.

CHAP. XII. 13. ttobtir. Their main
strength. The Britons had cavalry
(Mela III. 6) and war chariots (Caes.

B. G. IV. 24).-Curru. The use of the

chariot was confined to certain tribes.

14. Honestior auriga, sc. est. This
was the reverse of the Greek usage,28

THE AGBICOLA OF TACITUS.

nunc per principes factionibus et studiis trahuntur; nec aliud
adversus validissimas gentes pro nobis utilius quam quod in
commune non consulunt. Rarus duabus tribusve civitatibus
ad propulsandum commune periculum conventus; ita singuli
5 pugnant, universi vincuntur. Caelum crebris imbribus ac
nebulis foedum; asperitas frigorum abest. Dierum spatia
ultra nostri orbis mensuram; nox clara et extrema Britanniae
parte brevis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine
internoscas. Quod si nubes non officiant, aspici per noctem
lOsolis fulgorem, nec occidere et exsurgere, sed transire ad-
firmant. Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra
non erigunt tenebras, infraque caelum et sidera nox cadit.

where the rjvioxog was of inferior
rank to the 7rapa[3aTqg, and often call-
ed Oepaircdv. These chariots were
driven by the warrior, and carried a
number of his fighting men of lower

rank. Cf. Caesar B. G. IV. 33.-

Propug riant, fight for him, from the
chariot, not in advance of it; he

drives.-Olim regibus. Some of

these kings are mentioned by Tacitus.
An. XII. 33, 36; XIV. 31.

1. Principes means the heads of
the different parties, into which the

states were split up.--Factionibus:

combinations on the part of the

chiefs.-Studiis: partialities of the

people.-Trahuntur = distrahuntur.

-Nec aliud, sc. est, is a general pro-
position, and does not refer to the
Britons only.

3. Civitatibus: dat. of the possessor
for the genitive.

4,5. Singuli, sc. populi.-Caelum

foedum, sc. est. The fog and rain of
Britain is still proverbial.

6. Asperitas frigorum, abest.
Caesar (B. G. V. 12) makes a similar
statement. No doubt the temper-
ature of Britain, Germany and Gaul
was lower before the countries were
cleared than now, but there would
probably be the same ratio preserved
between their respective climates;
the insular position of Britain and

the Gulf Stream contributing to its
higher temperature.-Dierum spa-
tia. Pliny (II. 75) gives a list
of the length of the days at dif-
ferent places on the earth's sur-
face. In Italy the longest day has
fifteen hours, in Britain seventeen,
the nights being correspondingly
long at the opposite seasons of the
year. In the Orkneys, in lat. 60, the
longest day is a little over eighteen
hours in length.

7.	Nostri orbis = dierum nostri orbis.

8.	Brevis: i. e.,in summer.

10.	Solis fulgorenv. In more north-
ern latitudes the sun itself can be
seen above the horizon for six
months, and even in north latitude
65, it is light enough to read all night.

11,	12, Scilicet .... cadit. This ex-
planation is founded on the assump-
tion that night is the shadow cast by
the earth. Tacitus' idea is as follows:
the earth from Britain to the Pole
sloped abruptly, so as to be almost
flat, at all events much flatter than
elsewhere. Behind this the sun de-
scended only a little way. Clearly,
the result of this would be that the
central parts of the earth would
throwjupwards a long shadow reach-
ing to the sky and so causing night.
The parts near the Pole {extrema et
plana terrarum,), from their flatnessTHE AGrRICOLA OF TACITUS.

29

Solum, praeter oleam vitemque et cetera calidioribus terris
oriri sueta, patiens fruguni, fecundum; tarde mitescunt,
cito proveniunt, eademque utriusque rei causa, multus humor
terrarum caelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et alia
metalla, pretium victoriae. Gignit et oceanus margarita, sed 5
subfusca ac liventia. Quidam artem abesse legentibus arbi-
trantur; nam in rubro mari viva ac spirantia saxis avelli, in
Britannia, prout expulsa sint, colligi. Ego facilius crediderim
naturam margaritis deesse quam nobis avaritiam.

XIII. Ipsi Britanni delectum ac tributa et iniuncta imperii 10
munera impigre obeunt, si iniuriae absint; has aegre tolerant,

{plana), and the fact of the sun's be-
ing so little below the horizon, wonld
cast a shadow rising to a short dis-
tance only above the earth (Ivumili
umbra). By this shadow, or night
(" Quippe manifestum estnon aliud esse
noctem quam terrae umbramPliny
II. 7), the ground near the Pole would
be darkened, but far above its highest
point the stars would shine unob-
scured by the lower darkness (infra
caelum, et sidera now cadit).

1, 2. Praeter, except.- Patiens

frugum, fecundum, admits of the
growth of fruits, and is even fruitful.
Cf. Oer. V. " terra frugiferarum ar-

borum impatiens.99-Mitescunt, i.

e.,fruges.

4.	JLurum, etc. Strabo (IV. 5. 2)
mentions gold, silver, and iron as pro-
ducts of Britain. Caesar, iron and
lead or tin (plumbus albus).

5.	Pretium victoriae, the price of
victory. This may mean that Britain
paid tribute in money, or that they
were worth fighting for.-Mar-
garita. The Romans were excessive-
ly fond of these articles of luxury.
The neuter form, margaritum, is much
rarer than the feminine, margarita.

6.	Idventia, of a leadish hue. Pliny
(IX. 35) observes that pearls were
found in England but small and dis-
colored. Suetonius (Julius Caesar, 47)
makes Caesar's eagerness for pearls
his motive for invading Britain.-

Artem abesse. According to Pliny
(II. 55), the divers had to practice
considerable skill ; for the oyster
snapped at the diver's fingers, and
lopped them off if he were not quick
enough in his motions. The rocks
too, where pearls were found, were
dangerous.

7.	In rubro mari. By this Tacitus
means the Persian gulf, a portion of
the Qakaaaa epvdpa. Cf. Pliny iV". H.

IX. 54; An. II. 61.-Saxis : abl. of

separation, after avelli.

8.	Prout expulsa sint, as they have
been thrown up from the sea. A. 336;

G-. 653; H. 524.-Ego. Note the use.

-Crediderim: subj. of cautious

statement.

9.	Naturam.... avaritiam. Note
the antithesis and the keen satire.

CHAP. XIII. 10. Ipsi. Having de-
scribed the island (chap. X), its in-
habitants (chap. XI), its customs,
climate, natural products, etc., (chap.
XII), Tacitus now passes to the his-
tory of the Britons themselves.-De-
lectum,, levies, i. e., the recruiting of
troops.—Iniuncta imperii munera,
the services of the government enjoined
on them. This means the furnishing
of troops with provisions; all extra-
ordinary contributions; forced labor,
etc.

11. Obeunt. Note the zeugma, as
this verb is applicable only to mu-
nera: some verb as patiuntur may30

THE AGrRICOLA OF TACITUS.

iam domiti ut pareant, nondum ut serviant. Igitur primus
omnium Romanorum diyus Iulius cum exercitu Britanniam
ingressus, quamquam prospera pugna terruerit incolas ac litore
potitus sit, potest videri ostendisse posteris, non tradidisse.

5 Mox bella civilia, et in rempublicam versa principum arma,
ac longa oblivio Britanniae etiam in pace. Consilium id diyus
Augustus vocabat, Tiberius praeceptum. Agitasse Gaium

be supplied with delectum, and con-

ferunt, with tributa.-Mas, i. e., in-

iurias.

1. Igitur. Tacitus seems to regard
this description of the Britons as a
digression, and he resumes the
thread of his main narrative with
the word igitur, now. Cf. Sail. Jug.
XIX. Igitur ad Catabathmon, etc.,
after a parenthetical sentence.

3. Jiritarmviam ingressus. This
was in B. C. 55 and 54. Vid. Caes. B.

O. Books] IV. (28-36) and V. (8-23).-

Terruerit: the subj. again after
quamquam.

'4. Potest videri, l-can {only) appear
C.

5. Moac bella civilia, i. e., those be-
tween Caesar and Pompey,and Octa-

AUGUSTUS.

vius and Antony, which ended in
the establishment of the first and

second Triumvirates.-Principum,:

i. e., the leaders mentioned above.

6.	JOonga oblivio. Cf. An. IV. 5,
where in the list of legions, no men-
tion is made of a force in Britain.-

Consilium, policy. Tacitus mentions
{An. I. 11) a note-book complied by
Augustus, containing an account of
the provinces, taxes, armies, etc., of
the empire. The historian adds "ad-
diderat consilium coercendi intra
terminos imperii incertum metu an per
invidiam.-''

7.	Praeceptum, command. It suited
the wily and crooked policy of
Tiberius to fall back, with a view to
hide his real motives, on some order
handed down from Augustus. This
assumed or real regard paid by him to

TIBERIUS.

the wishes of Augustus is mentioned
also in An. I. 77, Valuit tamen inter-
cession quia divus Augustus immunes
verberum histriones quondam respond-
erat, neque fas Tiberio infringere dictaTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

31

Caesarem de intranda Britannia satis constat, ni velox ingenio,
mobilis paenitentiae, et ingentes adversus Germaniam conatus
frustra fuissent. Divus Claudius auctor iterati operis, trans-
vectis legionibus auxiliisque et adsumpto in partem rerum
Vespasiano; quod initium venturae mox fortunae fuit. 5
Domitae gentes, capti reges, et monstratus fatis Vespasianus.

XIV. Consularium primus Aulus Plautius praepositus, ac
subinde Ostorius Scapula, uterque bello egregius; redactaque
paulatim in formam provinciae proxima pars Britanniae.
Addita insuper veteranorum colonia. Quaedam civitates 10

eius; IV. 37, where Tiberius says of
himself, "qui omnia facta dictaque

eius vice legis observem.-Gaium

Caesarem: i. e., Caligula, the succes-
sor of Tiberius, who reigned A. D. 37-
41.

1.	Ni velooc .... fuissent. The
sentence is very elliptical. The full
sentence would be et intrasset, wi
fuisset velox ingenio, mobilis paeni-

tentiae, etc.-Ingenio is abl. of

specification.

2.	Mobilis paenitentiae is gen. of

quality.-Ingentes conatus. Cf.

Oer. XXXVII, ingentes C. Caesaris
minae in ludibrium versae; Hist. IV.
15, Gaianarum expeditionum ludi-
brium.

3.	Divus Claudius was the succes-
sor of Caligula, and reigned A. D. 41-
43. He made an expedition to
Britain in person, and remained six-
teen days upon the island in A. D.
43. He first made Britain into a pro-
vince. Note that the epithet divus is
applied by Tacitus to the good

Emperors only.-Operis: i.e., of

subduing Britain.

4.	Legionibus auxiliisque. The
legions were composed of Roman
citizens only; hence, the contrast.

5.	Vespasiano. Illic secundae le-
gioni a Claudio praepositus et bello
clarus egerat, Hist. III. 44. Cf. Suet.

Vesp. IV.-Quod .... fuit. The

idea is that Vespasian's successful
career in the war against the Britons
"was the commencement of his sub-

sequent brilliant fortunes" {■venturae
fortunae).

6. Domitae, sc. sunt. - Capti

reges. An inscription (Orell. Inscr.
715), partly restored, runs as follows :

((Ti Clav(6.io).....senatvs

jPopu(lvsque Rom. quod) reges
JBrii(anniae) gentesque prvwivs in

dicio(nem P. R. redegit)."-Fatis.

It seems better to consider this as a
dative than an ablative of the agent
(which it might be however), just as
in Greek after perf. participles the
dative is used instead of the regular
genitive and preposition.

CHAP. XIV. 7. Consularium pri-
mus: i. e., "first in the list of con-
sulars who commanded in Britain."

C.-AmIus Flautius was legatus con-

sularis or governor A. D. 44-47.

8.	Ostorius Scapula from 48-51. It
is said that Oyster-Hill, the site of a
Roman encampment, in the parish
of Dinder, near Hereford, was named
after him.

9.	In formam provinciae. The ap-
pointment of a governor established
the province, which was fully organ-
ized when the territory had been
divided into census districts, and the
financial arrangements fully made.

-Proxima, nearest; i. e., to the

Romans.

10.	Colonia. This was Camulo-
dunum. It is generally supposed to
be Colchester. Others think Maldon
retains traces of the old Roman
name. It was founded A. D. 50, and32

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

Cogidumno regi donatae (is ad nostram usque memoriam fidis-
simas mansit), ut, vetere ac iam pridem recepta populi Romani
consuetudine, haberet instrumenta servitutis et reges. Mox
Didius Gallus parta a prioribus continuity paucis admodum
5 castellis in ulteriora promotis, per quae fama aucti officii
quaereretur. Didium Veranius excepit, isque intra annum
exstinctus est. Suetonius hinc Paulinus biennio prosperas res
habuit, subactis nationibus firmatisque praesidiis; quorum
fiducia Monam insulam, ut vires rebellibus ministrantem,
10 adgressus terga occasioni patefeeit. XV. Namque absentia
legati remoto rnetu, Britanni agitare inter se mala servitutis,
eonferre iniurias et interpretando accendere. Nihil profici

the fourteenth legion, Gemina Martia
Vicirix, was stationed here, but re-
called by Vitellius.

1.	Cogidumno regi, of whom noth-
ing else is positively known. A
stone found at Chichester in the last
century had the following inscription
(the gaps being filled up by conjec-
ture): "(N)eptvno et Hinervae temp-
Ivvvb (pr)o salvte do(mvs) divinae (ex)
avctorlta( te) (Tiberii) Claud{ ii)
(Qo)gidvbni r(egis) lega{ti) JLi/#(vsti)
in etc. This no doubt refers
to Cogidubnus or Cogidumnus, who
apparently took the Emperor's name
in addition to his own, and embel-
lished Chichester.-Donatae (sunt).

This was to attach him to Rome and
her interests.

2.	Itecepta in this sense of long re-
ceived is post-Augustan.

3.	Et regesf kings also, as well as
other means. On this policy of Rome,
cf. Liv. XLIV. 24. Tacitus mentions
kings of this kind in An. XIV. 26.
Hist. II. 81; III. 21.

4.	Didius Gallus was governor A.

D. 51-57.-Parta a prioribtis, "the

acquisitions of his predecessors.''

5.	In ulteriora, in the remoter parts,
i. e., outside the organized province.

-Audi officii. The offlcium of a

governor was simply to administer
his province as he found it.

6.	Quaereretur: subj. of purpose
after per quae = ut per ea. A. 317; G.

632; H. 497, I.-Veranius, who was

consul A. D. 49, under Claudius, had
command from A. D. 57-58.

7.	Suetonius J*a%ilinus was gover-
nor A. D. 59-61.--Hiennio: afc>l. de-
noting time how long, (A. 256, b; II.
379,1) and equivalent to per biennium.

8.	Subactis nationiJnis. This may
be understood as explanatory of
prosperas res, or as giving the rea-
son why he calls his work prosperas.
-Quorum. refers to firmatis prae-
sidiis.

9.	Monam. The modern Anglesey,
a stronghold of Druidical supersti-
tion. The Mona of Caesar is the Isle

of Man, called Monapia by Pliny.-

Ut ... . ministrantem. The Druids
encouraged the troops, and even led
them into battle. Vid. An. XIV. 30
for a description of the reception
Paulinus met with on landing.

10.	Terga occasioni patefeeit. The
next chapter tells us in what way.

CHAP. XV. 10. Absentia: cause of
remoto metu.

11.	Agitare, eonferre: historical in-
finitives. The first denotes discus-
sions in which all took part, the
second, discussions and interviews
of a more private nature.

12.	Interpretandof by explainingTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

33

patientia, nisi ut graviora tamquam ex facili tolerantibus
imperentur. Singulos sibi olim reges fuisse, nunc binos
imponi, e quibus legatus in sanguinem, procurator in bona
saeviret. Aeque discordiam praepositorum, aeque concordiam
subiectis exitiosam ; alterius manum, centuriones, alterius 5
servos vim et contumelias miscere. Nihil iam cupiditati, nihil
libidini exceptum. In proelio fortiorem esse, qui spoliet;
nunc ab ignavis plerumque et imbellibus eripi domos, abstrahi
liberos, iniungi delectus, tamquam mori tantum pro patria
nescientibus. Quantulum enim transisse militum, si seselO

their meaning, showing a common

meaning or purpose in them.-

" Nihil profici commences a series of
reflections and declarations reported
in oratio obliquci, and continuing to
the end of the chapter." C.

1.	Tamquam modifies eoc facili.

-Mva facili is a Graecism. Beside

this we find in Tacitus: ex adfluenti,
ex aequo. Graecisms were character-
istic of the Silver age.

2.	Singulos. Note the force of the

distributive, one for each tribe.-

Binos: i. e., the legatus and procura-
tor. It does not mean that the two
were in each case different, but that
every tribe had received a double
ruler in lieu of their own single one.

3.	E quibus = quorum.-legatus

in sanguinem. The Legatus, hav-
ing the military imperium, had power

of life and death.-Procurator in

bona. The Procurator, having the
power to assess taxes and to see that
they were paid, could seize their pro-
perty in satisfaction of fiscal claims.
Tacitus (An. XIV. 32) says it was the
avarice of Decianus, the Procura-
tor, which forced the Britons into
this war.

4.	Saeviret. The subj. is used to
denote the purpose with which the
officers were set over them; this, at
least, was the interpretation which
the Britons themselves put on the
matter. The clause then=wi5 ex Us
legatus saeviret.-Aeque, aeque. '

Such repetition, used here however
to show the absolute equivalency, is
rare.

5.	Subiectis, sc. Us.-Alterius, al-
terius. The former refers to the
legatus; the latter, to the procurator.

-Manum answers nearly to our

staff, and it would chiefly consist of
soldiers of a centurion's rank.

6.	Servos. The procurator acted
chiefly through clerks, accountants,
and persons employed to collect fines
and debts, who were probably not sol-
diers, and possibly were slaves.-

Cupiditatif libidini. A. 229; G. 344,
2; H. 385, 2.

7.	In proelio is contrasted with
nunc: fortiorem with ab ignavis.
The meaning is, in war it is the weak
who suffer, whereas now matters are
reversed, and we, the braver, suffer
at the hands of the coward, etc., etc.

8.	Imbellibus refers especially to
veterans quartered at Camulo-
dunum. Vid. chap. XIV.

9.	Delectus. A British levy of 8,000
men is mentioned as forming a part
of Vitellius' own division after the
battle ofBedriacum. Vid. Hist. 11.57.

-Tamquam limits nescientibus;

tantum limits pro patria.

10.	Nescientibus, sc. sibi, which is
dative after the several infinitives.

-Quantulum: diminutive. What

a mere fraction.-Transisse. The in-
finitive is used in oratio obliqua in
questions which are simply rhetori-
cal. A. 338; G. 654, R. 1; H. 523, II. 2.34

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

Britanni numerent ? Sic Germanias excussisse iugum: et
flumine, non Oceano, defendi; sibi patriam, coniuges, parentes,
illis avaritiam et luxuriam cansas belli esse. Recessuros, ut
divus Iulius recessisset, modo virtutem maiorum suorum
5 aemularentur. Neve proelii unins ant alterius eventu paves-
cerent; plus impetus, maiorem constantiam penes miseros
esse. Iam Britannorum etiam deos misereri, qui Romanum
ducem absentem, qui relegatum in alia insula exercitum de-
tinerent ; iam ipsos, quod difficillimum fuerit, deliberare.
10 Porro in eiusmodi consiliis periculosius esse deprehendi, quam
audere.

XVI. His atque talibus invicem instincti, Boadicea, generis
regii femina, duce (neque enim sexum in imperiis discernunt),
sumpsere universi bellum; ac sparsos per castella milites

1.	Sic; i. e., by counting their

forces and uniting their strength.-

Germanias. This noun usually de-
notes the two provinces on the left
bank of the Rhine. The plural here
may either be an error in the text, or
it is used rhetorically, for the pur-
pose of amplification, as the revolt
was strictly limited to a portion of
lower Germany. This refers to the
uprising of Arminius and the defeat
and destruction of the army of
Varus, A. D. 9.

2.	Flumine, by a river (only). From
this it is pretty clear that Germania

Transrhenana was meant above.-

Defendi, sc. eas.

3.	Illis: i. e., the Romans.-Re-

cessuros, sc. eos esse.

4.	Divus. This use of divus in the
mouth of savage Britons sounds
odd. Probably Tacitus forgot him-
self, and made the Britons speak
through a Roman mouth. Wex sug-
gests that the word is used contempt-
uously and points to an & fortiori
argument. If their deified Julius had
to withdraw, much more will their
inferior leaders.

5.	JPavescerent. The imperative
was used in the oratio recta.

6, 7. Plus impetus, umore fury."

-Britannorum. A. 221, a; G. 376;

H. 406, 1.

8. Detinerent: subj. of the reason
in a relative clause. A. 320, e; G. 636;
H. 517.-Quod difficillimum. Diffi-
cult, because, as he remarks in Chap.
XII., it was a hard thing to induce
the Britons to band together to re-
sist a common aggressor.

10. In eiusmodi consiliis, in such
designs ; i. e., where such designs are
in question.

CHAP. XVI. 12. Invicem instincti,
mutually rousing themselves. Instincti
has a middle sense. The events here
related occurred A. D. 61. They are
related more fully, Ann. XIV. 31-38.
JESoadicea. The name is variously
spelled, jBoudicea, Boodicea, Boudicea,
Voadicea. and Boadicea, which last is
the form familiar in literature. She
was the wife of Prasutagus, King of
the Iceni, a tribe inhabiting the
eastern coast of Britain. When con-
quered she put an end to her life by
poison.

13. Imperiis, "positions of authority,"
referring here to both civil and mili-
tary duties; it properly refers to the
latter only.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

35

consectati, expugnatis praesidiis, ipsam coloniam invasere ut
sedem servitutis. Nec ullum in barbaris saevitiae genus omisit
ira et victoria. Quod nisi Paulinus, cognito provinciae mjotu,
propere subvenisset, amissa Britannia foret ; quam unius
proelii fortuna veteri patientiae restituit, tenentibus arma pie-
risque, quos conscientia defectionis et proprius ex legato timor
agitabat, ne quamquam egregius cetera arroganter in deditos,
et, ut suae cuiusque iniuriae ultor, durius consuleret. Missus
igitur Petronius Turpilianus tamquam exorabilior ; et delicti s
hostium novus eoque paenitentiae mitior, compositis prioribus,
nihil ultra ausus Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit.
Trebellius segnior et nullis castrorum experimentis comitate
quadam curandi provinciam tenuit. Didicere iam barbari

1.	Consectati. The idea of this word
is that of a searching and vindictive

pursuit.-Expugnatis denotes the

actual taking of the place by storm,
while oppugnatis would denote only
the assault itself. In Camulodu-
num, Londinium and Verulamium,
all three ox which were taken, nearly
seventy thousand Romans and Ro-
man allies were put to death.--

Coloniam: i.e., Camulodunum.

2.	In barbaris = qualis inter bar-
baros esse solet: i. e., usual among the
barbarians.

• 3. Ira et victoria, anger and the

(license of) victory.-Quod nisi, and

had not.

5.	Fortuna is abl. of means.-

Veteri patientiae, to its ancient sub-
jection. We would rather expect

bere ad patientiam. -Mestituit,

" brought back."->Tenentibus arma

plerisque; a parenthetical clause in
the ab. abs., denoting concession ;
i. e., he put down the rebellion, al-
though very many still retained their
arms.

6.	JProprius must be construed
with agitabat, with strong emphasis
on timor; whom fear from the legate
(i. e., of which he was the source) was
more urgently harassing.

8. Ut suae cuiusque iniuriae ultor,

an avenger of each wrong, as (if it were)
his own: ut modifies suae. They
feared lest Paulinus should regard
their revolt not merely as an offence
against the State, but a personal
affront, as their venturing to rebel
was in some sort a proof of their con-
tempt for him.-Consuleret; subj.

in the clause after ne, expressing the

ground of their fear.-Durius, too

harshly.

9.	Igitur, i. e., " because Paulinus
was not able to crush out the spirit
of rebellion.,r C.-Petronius Turpi-
lianus, who was governor of Britain
A. D. 62-64, was murdered at the be-
ginning of Galba's reign. Cf. An. XIV.

39; Hist. I. 6.-Delictis (dative) no-

%)us, a stranger to their faults. T.

10.	JEoque: abl. of cause.-Priori-

bus: i. e., the irritation and discon-
tent remaining from the outbreak
and its suppression by Paulinus.

12.	Trebellius. Trebellius was gov-
ernor from A. D. 64 to 69.-Nullis

castrorum experimentis: abl. of
quality. Cf. An. I. 19, Blaesus multa
dicendi arte. He had had no actual
experience of campaigns.

13.	Curandi is elsewhere used ab-
solutely in this sense of governing
Cf. Sail, Jug. LX.; Tac. An. XI. 22.36

THE AGrBICOLA OF TACITTT8.

quoque ignoscere vitiis blandientibus, et interventus civilium
armorum praebuit iustani segnitiae excusationem. Sed dis-
cordja laboratum, cum adsuetus expeditionibus miles otio
lasciviret. Trebellius, fuga ac latebris vitata exercitus ira?
5 indecorus atque humilis precario mox praefuit, ac velut pacti?
exercitus licentiam, dux salutem; et seditio sine sanguine
stetit. Nec Vettius Bolanus, manentibus adhuc civilibus
bellis, agitavit Britanniam disciplina: eadem inertia erga
hostes, similis petulantia castrorum; nisi quod innocens Bola-
10 nus et nullis delictis invisus caritatem paraverat loco auctori-
tatis.

XVII. Sed, ubi cum cetero orbe Vespasianus et Britanniam
recuperavit, magni duces, egregii exercitus, minuta hostium
spes. Et terrorem statim intulit Petilius Cerialis, Brigantum

1.	Vitiis blandientibus. It seems
better to consider this as dative, to
show indulgence to vices as they became

attractive. - Civilitim armorum.

The civil wars which followed the
death of Nero, A. D. 69, (1) between
Galba and Otho, (2) between Otho
and Vitellius, (3) between Vitellius
and Vespasian.

2.	Sed discordia laboratum, sc.
est. Chap. VII. and Hist. I. 60 show
that this alludes to the quarrels be-
tween Trebellius and Roscius
Caelius, who commanded the twen-
tieth legion.

3.	Cum, because; hence the subj.
lasciviret. A. 321, c; G. 538, 3; H. ^
517.

5.	JPraecario, on sufferance.-

Praefuit, sc. exercitui.-Velutpacti,

they stipulated as it were, implies a
tacit compact. The ellipsis here is
sunt to agree with both exercitus and
dux.

6,	7. JEJt, and so. T.-Stetit, was

checked.-Vettius JBolanus was gov-
ernor A- D. 70, and under him Agri-
cola was the commander of the
twentieth legion.

9. Petulantia, insubordination, such
as would lead to outrages.-Nisi

quod, except that.-Innocens. The

word especially denotes, free from
the guilt of rapacity. In this re-
spect Bolanus was a contrast to Tre-
bellius, who is said (Hist. I. 60) to
have been per avaritiam ac sordem
contemptus exercitui invisusque.

10. Delictis: abl. of cause.-Cari-
tatem .... auctoritatis; i. e. had
made himself loved rather than
feared

CHAP. XVII. 12. Cetero orbe: i. e.,
" the rest of the Roman world besides
Britain."

13.	Mecuperavit. The word implies
that Vespasian recovered the Roman
empire, previously lost, or held by
those who had no right to it. He
rescued it from the degradation it
suffered in the hands of such men as
Otho and Vitellius, and restored it

to its former unity and dignity.-

Magni duces, sc. erant.

14.	Petilius Cerialis was governor
A. D. 71-75. Vid. note on cap. VIII.
-JBrigantum. The Brigantes oc-
cupied the northern part of the
island, embracing Cumberland,
Westmoreland, Lancashire, Durham,
and Yorkshire, and were thus out-
side of the Roman province.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

37

civitatem, quae numerosissima provinciae totius perhibetur,
adgressus. Multa proelia, et aliquando non incruenta; mag-
namque Brigantum partem aut victoria amplexus est aut bello.
Et Cerialis quidem alterius successoris curam famamque
obruisset; sed sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus/vir magnus, 5
quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem
armis subegit, super virtutem hostium locorum quoque diffi-
cultates eluctatus.

XVIII. Hunc Britanniae statum,has bellorum vices media
iam aestate transgressus Agricola invenit, cum et milites velut 10
omissa expeditione ad securitatem et hostes ad occasionem
verterentur. Ordovicum civit^s haud multo ante adventum
eius alam in finibus suis agentem prope universam obtriverat,
eoque initio erecta provincia; et quibus bellum volentibus

8. Aut victoria aut bello, i. e., noth-
ing escaped him; he fought every-
where, and even if unsuccessful in
some parts, he harassed them by war.

4.	Alterius. The editors generally
refer this to Frontinus, though Wex
insists that Agricola is meant, on
the ground that alter cannot be used
in the s^use of alius. He says that
alter successor can only mean
secundus a Ceriali, i. e., Agricola.

5.	Obtmisset, would have completely

extinguished. -Molem, i. e., the

weight ofresponsibility thrown upon
him by his being obliged to complete

what Cerialis had so ably begun.-

Julius Frontimis was Praetor TJr-
banus, A. D. 70, and Consul Buffectus,
A. D. 74. Under Nerva he was made
Curator Aquarum, and an augur. He
is the author of two works, which
have come down to us, de Aquaeducti-
bus and de jStrategematis.

6.	Quantum licebat modifies susti-
nuit molem, i. e., he carried out the
duties imposed on him, so far as the
difficulties of his position permitted.
The whole passage is hopelessly cor-
rupt, and the MSS. afford no assist-
ance.-Silurum. TheSilures occu-
pied South Wales.

7, 8. Super, besides.-EluctaUis.

Cf. Hist. III. 59, vix quieto agmine nives
eluctantibus, etc., etc.

CHAP. XVIII. 9. Vices, vicissi-
tudes,, marks a result, not what was
passing at the time.

10.	Aestate: A. D. 78, the tenth year
of Vespasian's reign.

11.	JEscpeditione : i. e., the campaign

for this year.-Ad securitatemf to

careless enjoyment; ad occasionem,
to an opportunity for attack. There is
no zeugma here, since ad securitatem
verti and ad occasionem verti are both
legitimate expressions.

12.	Verterentur is here used in a

middle sense. Note the tense.-

Ordovicum. TheOrdovices inhabit-
ed North Wales, exclusive ot the
Isle of Anglesey.

13.	Alam. The ala was a division
of allied cavalry, serving in the Bo-

man army.-Agentem, stationed.

For this absolute use of agere, cf.
Hist. I. 74; An. II. 17.

14.	Erecta provincia: i. e., the in-
surrection spread to the province.

-Quibus bellum volentibus erat,

those who wished for war, is a con-
struction in imitation of one com-
mon in Greek. Tacitus uses it also38

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

erat, probare exemplum, ac recentis legati animum opperiri,
cum Agricola, quamquam transvecta aestas, sparsi per provin-
ciam numeri, praesumpta apud militem illius anni quies, tarda
et contraria bellum incohaturo, et plerisque custodiri suspecta
5 potius videbatur, ire obviam discrimini statuit; contractisque
legionum vexillis et modica auxiliorum manu, quia in aequum
degredi Ordovices non audebant, ipse ante agmen, quo ceteris
par animus simili periculo esset, erexit aciem. Caesaque
prope uniyersa gente, non ignarus instandum famae, ac, prout
10 prima cessissent, terrorem Ceteris fore, Monam insulam, cuius

in Hist. III. 43; An. I. 51. Sallust has
it in Jug. LXXXIV., and Oat. Also
Livy XXI. 50; quibus (dat. of
possess.) relates to the subject of the
historical infinitive probare, ap-
proved, and has volentibus agreeing
with it. A. 232, c; G. 354, R; H. 387,
N. 3.

1.	Animum, temper.

2.	Agricola is the subject of statuit.
-Quamquam. The clauses intro-
duced by quamquam> end at vide-

batur.-Transvecta, sc. est. Tacitus

is the only writer who uses this word
in reference to time.

3.	Humeri. Humerus is used by
late writers for a body of soldiers of
any magnitude. Cf. Hist. I. 6, and 87.

Suet. Vesp. VI. -Praesumpta.

Praesumere is to enjoy by anticipar
Hon. Cf. Ann. XI. 7. Pliny. IV. 15.

-Tarda et contraria. These words

are in apposition with the preceding
clauses; three circumstances causing
delay and adverse.

4.	Plerisque, l. e., of the inferior

officers.-Suspecta, sc. loca, i. e.,

tribes imperfectly conquered, or
likely to revolt.

5.	Ire obviam, to face.

6.	Vexillis. By vexilla are meant
bodies of troops detached from their
own legions, and serving apart from
them when occasion required. They
must not be confounded with the
vexillarii or veterans, ^although Taci-
tus uses (An. II. 78; Hist. I. 70; II.
11) the word with this sense. "The

veocillum was a small square of cloth
attached to a cross-bar at the top of a
staff, and was the standard of the
cavalry and probably of the auxili-
aries. When a body of troops was
detached for special service, its signa

THE EOMAN STANDARD.

or regular standards were left behind
with the legion, and it took with it a
vexillum instead; hence the term,

vexilla." A.-Quia, etc., gives the

reason for the statement which fol-
lows.-In aequum, into the plain.

8.	Periculo: abl. of cause.-

JEreocit aciem. JErigere is used of
marching troops up hill. Cf. Livy I.
27; III. 18.

9.	Instandum, sc. esse sibi.-

Prout prima cessissent, in proportion
as his first attempts had succeeded.
This is a favorite remark of Tacitus.
Vid. Hist. II. 20; An. XII. 31.

10.	Prima = initia belli.-Ceteris9

i. e., the other insurgents,THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

39

possessione revocatum Paulinum rebellione totins Britanniae
supra memoravi, redigere in potestatem animo intendit. Sed,
ut in dnbiis consiliis, naves deerant; ratio et constantia ducis
transvexit. Depositis omnibus sarcinis lectissimos auxiliarium,
quibus nota vada et patrius nandi nsus, quo simul seque et 5
arma et equos regunt, ita repente inmisit, ut obstupefacti
hostess qui classem, qui naves, qui mare exspectabant, nihil
arduum ant invictum crediderint sic ad bellum venientibns.
Ita petita pace ac dedita insula, clarus ac magnus haberi Agri-
cola ; quippe cui ingredienti provinciam, quod tempus alii per 10
ostentationem et officiorum ambitum transigunt, labor et peri-

1. Possessione. After revocari
Cicero always uses a preposition, a
or ab. Tacitus omits the preposition,
as he does in the case of verbs com-
pounded with re, when followed by a
noun of place.

3.	TJt, sc. " solet fieri." T.-In du-

biis consiliisf in imperfectly matured
plans. Since all the successive stages
of a campaign cannot be predicted
from the beginning, when the time
of action arrived, Agricola found his
means inadequately provided. Had
he been able to map out his intended
operations with perfect certainty, he

would have had ships ready.-

Hatio et constantia,, the judgment and
decision.

4.	Transvescit, sc. copias.-Ajiiocili-

arum. These could hardly have
been the Batavian auxiliaries, al-
though they served in Britain (Vid.
Hist. IV. 12. An. II. 8), for they would
scarcely have been acquainted with
the British fords. They must have
been native troops serving in the Ro-
man army, as Tacitus mentions in
Chaps. XXXI. XXXII.

5.	Patrius, peculiar to their coun-
try.

6.	Obstupefacti hostes. Wex sug-
gests that if the auxiliaries were
Britons, the Britons of Mona could
not be said to be astounded at their
proceedings. There seems to be no
reason, however, why they might

not be equally astounded at being
taken in an unexpected quarter,
whether their assailants were
foreigners or their own countrymen.

7.	Qui mare eocspectabant, who ex-
pected a sea attack. This assault made
by fording the shallows did not seem
a sea fight, so much as an attack by
land, because they expected the
enemy to make his appearance in
ships on the western or northern coast
of the island.

8.	Crediderint. We would expect
here crederent as the regular se-
quence after the historical perfect
inmisit, but this peculiarity, (arising
from the fact that the result of a past
action may itself be present and may
thus be expressed by a Principal
tense) is common in clauses denoting
consequence or result. A. 287, c; G.

513; H. 495, VI.-Venientibus, sc.

Us; dat. after arduum.

9.	Haberi: historical infinitive.

10.	Cui is governed by placuisset,
subj. in the relative cause denoting
the reason. A. 320, e; G. 636; H. 517,

3.1).-Quod tempus: i. e. just after

the arrival of the governor.

11.	Officiorum ambitum, round of
ceremonies. Officia are the usual
complimentary visits, ceremonial
addresses, and the like, made to a
new magistrate on taking possession
of his government. Cf. jHist. V. 1,
Suet. Tib. XII,40	THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

culum placuisset. Nec Agricola, prosperitate rerum in vani-
tatem usus, expeditionem aut victoriam vocabat victos contin-
uisse; ne laureatis quidem gesta prosecutus est. Sed ipsa
dissimulatione famae famam auxit aestimantibus quanta futuri
5 spe tam magna tacuisset.

XIX. Ceterum animorum provinciae prudens, simulque
doctus per aliena experimenta parum profici armis, si iniuriae
sequerentur, causas bellorum statuit excidere. A se suisque
orsus, primum domum suam coercuit, quod plerisque haud
1U minus arduum est quam provinciam regere. Nihil per libertos
servosque publicae rei; non studiis privatis nee ex eommenda-
tione aut precibus centurionem, milites ascire, sed optimum
quemque fidissimum putare; omnia scire, non omnia exsequi;
parvis peccatis veniam, magnis severitatem commodare, nec
15paena semper sed saepius paenitentia contentus esse; officiis
et administrationibus potius non peccaturos praeponere, quam
damnare cum peccassent. Frumenti et tributorum exactio-

2.	Victos continuisse, {the) having
kept the conquered in subjection: subj.
of expeditionem aut victoriam, (esse).

3.	ILaureatis, sc. litteris, which is
always found with it except in this
passage. Pliny mentions (XV. 40) the
custom of sending home despatches
wreathed with laurel on the an-
nouncement of victory. Cf. Liv. V. 28:
Suet. Bom. VI: Tac. Hist. III. 77.

4.	A.estimantibus, in the eyes of
those who considered. Cf. aestimanti.
Cap. XI. Some consider this abla-
tive absolute.«

CHAP. XIX. 6. Trudens=gnarus.

7. JPer aliena experimenta, by the ex-
perience of others.-Iniuriae. Some

*read incuriae, which seems hardly de-
fensible, though the MSS. have it.

9.	Domum suam; i. e., his staff,
servants and subordinates generally.

10.	Nihil, sc, agere ; historical infin.

11.	Publicae rei, limiting nihil, is

part, genitive.-Studiis privatis,

"according to his own personal inclina-
tions.''1-JEx commendatione : i. e.,

of others,

12.	JMilites ascire, sc. in numerum
accensorum. This refers to the pro-
motion of soldiers to offices about the
governor's establishment, such as
the posts of lictor, apparitor, clerk,
secretary, purveyors of corn, etc., etc.
These persons were comprehended
under the common designation
cohors accensorum, and being released
from all strictly military duties were

called beneficiarii.-Sed optimum

.... putare, " but he thought all the
best men the most trustworthyC.

13.	Non exsequi, he did not punish.
Livy and the later writers use it in
this sense. Cicero's word is persequi.

14.	Severitatem commodare. There
need be no zeugma here as many
say, since commodare is used, very
much by the writers of the Silver
age in the sense of giving, assigning,
applying,—a meaning which suits the
first clause as well as the second.

15,16. JPaena: abl. of cause.-Non

peccaturos, those who would; not do
wrong.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

41

nem aequalitate munerum mollire, circumcisis quae in quaes-
turn reperta ipso tributo gravius tolerabantur. Namque per
ludibrium adsidere clausis horreis et emere ultro frumenta ae
ludere pretio cogebantur; devortia itinerum et longinquitas
regionum indicebatur, ut civitates, proxi mis liibernis, in remota 5
et a via deferrent, donee, quod omnibus in promptu erat, paucis
lucrosum fieret.

XX. Haec primo statim anno comprimendo egregiam
famam paci cireumdedit, quae vel incuria vel intolerantia pri-
orum haud minus quam bellum timebatur. Sed, ubi aestas 10

1.	JMCunerum, duties or burdens, as
(1) contributions of corn, (2) the pay-
ment of a money tribute.-Cir-
cumcisis, sc. Us, i. e., muneribus.-

In quaestum reperta, devised with a
view to gain.

2.	Namque, etc. The rest of this
chapter, which presents considerable
difficulty, is to be taken as explain-
ing some of the methods of extortion
practised by previous governors. A
certain amount of corn called fru-
mentum imperatum, had to be fur-
nished by the Britons. This they
could have easily supplied, had not
the Roman agents previously secured
in some way or other all the corn in
any given neighborhood, and stored
it in their own granaries, kept closed
(clausis horreis) because full. When
the Britons had to supply the corn,
there was none forthcoming, and, as
the Romans refused to accept a
money equivalent, the Britons were
compelled to purchase corn from the
Roman granaries up to the required
amount. The Britons were, of course,
compelled to pay an enormous
.(ludere pretio) price for it, and as it
remained in the granaries when
bought, the whole affair was a ludi-
brium. Besides this there was the
second wrong done them. They were
ordered to carry the corn to some re-
mote quarter. As this was trouble-
some and also expensive, they would

olfer the money contribution and
buy corn of the Romans in the man-
ner before stated.-JPer ludibrium,

in mockery.

3.	Vitro, needlessly, as it was the
money they were parting with, no
equivalent being received.

4.	Jjudere pretio, to be going through
a farce with the price, since they were
paying dear for what remained in the
seller's possession.-Devortia itine-
rum, places off the roads.-JLongin-

quitas regionum, distant parts of the
country.

5.	JProocimis hibernis : ab. abs., de-
noting concession.

6.	Deferrent, sc.frumentum. Cicero
accuses Verres (III. 82) of the same
thing. This proceeding, however,
was not actually illegal, as the mag-
istrates were allowed to name the
place where the corn was to be de-
livered.-In promptu: i. e., if they

had been allowed to arrange the

matter fairly.-Paucis: i. e., the

Roman officials.

7.	Fierei. A. 328; G. 574; H. 519,
II. 2, N. 2.

CHAP. XX. 8. Haec: i. e., such
abuses.-Statim, at once.-Egre-
giam .... circumdedit, he invested
peace with great glory. Cf. Hist. IV.
11. Dial, de Orat. XXXVII.

9.	Intolerantia, insufferable haughti-
ness.

10,	Aestas: A. D. 79.42

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

advenit, contracto exercitu, multus in agmine, laudare modes-
tiam, disiectos coercere: loca castris ipse capere, aestuaria ac
silvas ipse praetentare; et nihil interim apud hostes quietum
pati, quo minus subitis excursibus popularetur; atque, ubi
5 satis terruerat, parcendo rursus inritamenta pacis ostentare.
Quibus rebus multae civitates, quae in ilium diem ex aequo
egerant, datis obsidibus, iram posuere, et praesidiis castellisque
eireumdatae tanta ratione curaque, ut nulla ante Britanniae
nova pars pariter illacessita transient.

10 XXI. Sequens hiems saluberrimis consiliis absumpta.
Namque, ut homines dispersi ac rudes eoque in bella faciles
quieti et otio per voluptates adsuescerent, hortari privatimr
adiuvare publice, ut templa fora domos exstruerent, laudando
promptos et castigando segnes. Ita honoris aemulatio pro
15 necessitate erat. Iam vero principum filios liberalibus artibus

1.	Multus in agmine, sc. esse. The
phrase is used of one who shows him-
self frequently on the line of march,
first here, and then there. Cf. Sail.
Jug. XCVL It is also used in the
sense of ever present, continually on
the march.-Modestiam, obedience.

2.	Disiectos, stragglers, is opposed

to modesti.-loca castris. Many

traces of Roman encampments are
still visible along the route appar-
ently taken by Agricola.

3.	Praetentare: to find a passage.

4.	Popularetur. The subject is
Agricola.

5.	Inritamenta, allurements, is a
much stronger word than incita-
menta or illecebrae.

6.	JEoc aeqtio, independently; i. e.,
the states in question had not been
conquered or enslaved by the Ro-
mans. Cf. Hist. IV. 64.

8. Circitmdatae, sc. sunt.-Tit ....

transierit. 1' The reading of this
passage is doubtful. Several editors
place the period after pars, and
make illacessita transiit (changed
from transierit) begin the next
chapter." C. The word pariter is not
£ovi»4 in the manuscripts, The best

that can be done with it is this:
they were so encompassed, etc., that no
part of Britain, new {to us) before, came
over (to us) equally unharrassed; i. e.,
no recently conquered territory be-
fore this had ever been annexed with
so little annoyance. Tacitus is the
only writer who uses the word
illacessita.

CHAP. XXI. 10. Sequens hiems:
A. D. 79-80.

11.	Uoque ; abl. of cause.-In bella

faciles, easily moved to war.

12.	JPrivatim, as aprivate individual.

13.	JPublice: i. e., by governmental
authority he assisted them by grants

from the public treasury.-Templa.

A Roman temple, now called Ar-
thur's Oon, or Oven, near the Carron,
in Stirlingshire, is said to have been
built by Agricola.

14.	Castigando, i. e., with words.

-Ita .... necessitate erat, so that

rivalry in obtaining distinction took the
place of compulsion.

15.	Iam vero, moreover,-Filios . . .

erudire. This seems to have been a
usual policy with the Romans, the
result of which would naturally be
to secure friends to tbe Roman in-THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.	43

erudire, et ingenia Britannorum studiis Gallorum anteferre,
ut, qui modo linguam Romanam abnuebant, eloquentiam con-
cupiscerent. Inde etiam habitus nostri honor et frequens
toga, paulatimque discessum ad delenimenta vitiorum, porti-
cus et balnea et conviviorum elegantiam; idque apud imperi- 5
tos humanitas vocabatur, cum pars servitutis esset.

XXII. Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes aperuit,
vastatis usque ad Tanaum (aestuario nomen est) nationibus.
Qua formidine territi hostes quamquam conflictatum saevis
tempestatibus exercitum lacessere non ausi ; ponendisquelO
insuper castellis spatium fuit. Adnotabant periti non alium
ducem opportunitates locorum sapientias legisse. Nullum ab
Agricola positum castellum aut vi hostium expugnatum aut
pactione ac fuga desertum; crebrae eruptiones ; nam ad versus
moras obsidionis annuis copiis firmabantur. Ita intrepida ibi 15

terest when these princes ascended
their own thrones. Cf. An. XI. 16;
XII. 10. Snet. Octav. XLVIII.

1.	JEt ingenia .... anteferre, and
he preferred the natural talents of the
Britons to the industry of the Gauls, i.
e., Agricola believed the Briton to be
the naturally cleverer man; the Gaul
to have improved his scantier talents
by greater care.

2.	JJt, so that, denoting a conse-
quence.-Eloqtientiam concupisce-

rent. Juvenal (XV. Ill) jokes about
the spread of Roman learning:

" Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos ;
De conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule."

3.	Habitus: i. e. mode of dress.

4.	Toga. "This adoption of the
toga, which was the distinctive dress
of a Roman citizen, is like the adop-
tion of dress coats and silk hats by

the Japanese." A.-Discessum, sc.

est ab Us apatrum moribus.-Delen-
imenta, attractive accompaniments.-

Porticus, arcades.

5.	Balnea. Boadicea, in Dion Cas-
sius, expresses a thorough contempt
for the Romans, as men who bathe in

hot water. There were public baths
all over Britain.

6. Humanitas, civilization.—JEsset:
subj. of concession, after cum, al-
though. A. 326; G. 588 ; H. 515, III.

CHAP. XXII. 7. Tertius annus:
A. D. 80.

8.	Ad Tanaum. This is supposed
to refer to the Estuary of the Tyne al-
though its identity is uncertain.-

Another reading is Tatim, the firth of
Tay, but this is not probable. Vid.
note on Clota, Cap. XXIII.

9.	Quamquam modifies conflicta-
tum.

10.	Ausi, sc., sunt.

11.	Adnotabant. Observe the force
of the imperfect.-Periti, men of ex-
perience.

14.	Pactione, i. e., by capitulation.

-Crebrae eruptiones (sc. erant),i. e.,

from the fortresses.

15.	Annuis copiis, with provisions for
the year. The enemy thought it use-
less to attempt a blockade on the
chance of starving them out, as they
had plenty of provisions. Hence, be-
ing unmolested, they were able to
make frequent sallies,44

THE AGrRICOLA OF TACITUS.

hiems, et sibi quisque praesidio, irritis hostibus eoque desper-
antibus, quia soliti plerumque damna aestatis hibernis eventi-
bus pensare, turn aestate atque hieme iuxta pellebantur. Nee
Agricola umquam per alios gesta avid us intercepit; seu cen-
5 turio seu praefectus incorruptum facti testem habebat. Apud
quosdam acerbior in conviciis narrabatur; ut erat comis bonis,
ita adversus malos iniucundus. Ceterum ex iraeundia nihil
supererat secretum, ut silentium eius non timeres; honestius
putabat offend ere quam odisse.

10 XXIII. Quarta aestas obtinendis, quae percucurrerat,
insumpta; ac, si virtus exercituum et Eomani nominis gloria
pateretur, inventus in ipsa Britannia terminus. Namque
Clota et Bodotria, diversi maris aestibus per immensum
revectae,. angusto terrarum spatio dirimuntur, quod turn
15praesidiis firmabatur, atque omnis propior sinus tenebatur,
summotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus.

1. Quisque, i. e., every commander
of a castellum.-Irritis, baffled. Sel-
dom used in prose with reference to

people.

8,	4. Pensare = compensare.'-Adi-
das has here the force of an adverb.

-Intercepit, appropriated.

5. Sen centurio, seu praefectus.
The centurio was a legionary office ;
thQpraefectxis one connected with the
auxiliaries.-Incorruptum, impar-
tial.-Apud qtiosdam=a quibusdam,

and " indicates those who related, not
those who were reproached." C.

7. JBonis, adversus malos. Note

the enallage.-Nihil secret-urn,

nothing hidden. Tacitus seems to be
contrasting Agricola with Domitian
whojyas just at this time raised to
the imperial throne, of whom he says
in Chap. XXXIX. " Talibus curis ex-
ercitus, quodque saevae cogitationis in-
dicium erat, secreto suo satiatus, etc.

9.	Offendere quam odisse, i. e., to
give open offence rather than to
-cherish hatred.

CHAP. XXIII. 10. Quarta aestas,
A. IX 81.-Obtinendis} sc. Us locis.

Obtinere is to continue holding, to main-
tain or secure.

12.	Pateretur, sc. " terminum inve-
niri." T.-Inventus, sc. esset.-Ter-
minus, sc. imperii.

13.	Clota et Hodotria. As he here
mentions the firths of Clyde and
Forth as the limit of what Agricola
had run over, it is evident that he
did not reach the Tay, which is still
farther north.

14.	Mevectae. Tacitus' idea is that
the waters of these two estuaries on
their discharge into the ocean, on the
eastern and the western coasts (di-
versi maris), are carried by the
strength of the tides a great distance

inland.-Angusto spatio, which is

now cut by a ship canal.

15.	Sinus. This means the whole
shore with its projecting nooks,1 in
the vicinity of the Isthmus, on its
southern or English side. Cf. sinus.
Ger. I.

16.	In aliam insulam, i. e., Caledo-
nia to the north of Clota and Bodotria,
which all but divided it from its
southern portion.THE AGBICOLA OF TACITUS.	45

XXIV. Quinto expeditionnm anno nave prima trans-
gressus ignotas ad id tempus gentes crebris simul ac prosperis
proeliis domuit, eamque partem Britanniae, quae Hiberniam
aspicit, copiis instruxit, in spem magis quam ob formidinem;
si quidem Hibernia, medio inter Britanniam atque Hispaniam 5
sita et Gallico quoque mari opportuna, valentissimam imperii
partem magnis mvicem usibus miscuerit. Spatium eius, si
Britanniae comparetur, angustius, nostri maris insulas superat.
Solum caeliimque etingeniacultusquehominumhaud multum
a Britannia differunt. Melius aditus portusque per commercia 10
et negotiatores eogniti. Agricola expulsum seditione domes-
tica unum ex regulis gentis exceperat ae specie amicitiae in
oceasionem retinebat. Saepe ex eo audivi legione una et
modicis auxiliis debellari obtinerique Hiberniam posse, idque
etiam adversus Britanniam profuturum, si B.omana ubique 15
arma, et velut e conspectu libertas tolleretur.

CHAP. XXIV. 1. Quinto anno,

A.D. 82.-Nave prima. It is not very

clear what this expression means. It
can hardly be probable that Agricola
wintered at Rome, and returned by
the first ship on the opening of navi-
gation. Of the three other possible
interpretations, viz., (1) that it was
the first Roman ship which had vis-
ited these parts; (2) that it was the
foremost vessel of the fleet; (3) that
it was the first ship he had had occa-
sion to use, the first is preferable, as
grammatically the simplest, and as

best suiting the context.-Trans-

gressus / over Clota.

4.	In spem magis. Rather to pave
the way for what he hoped to effect
subsequently, than because he was
alarmed for its safety.

5.	Medio inter Britanniam. Vid.
chap. X.,

6.	Gallico .... opportuna, con-
venient to the seas of Gaul.-Valen-
tissimam . . . .partem. Gaul,Spain,
and Britain are thus designated, be-
cause large armies were stationed in
them, and the forces of the Empire

thence drew their bravest recruits.
Cf. Hist. III. 53.

7.	Magnis .... miscuerit, might
unite with great mutual advantages.
The snbj. seems intended to express
the writer's own idea of Agricola's
views. The advantages to Ireland
would be the civilization derived
from Rome; to the other countries
the opening of new sources of traffic,
and the drawing of recruits thence.

8.	Nostri maris, i. e., the Mediter-
ranean.

9.	Caelum, climate.-Cultusque,

and the general mode of life.

10.	A. Britannia, i.e.,a solo caeloque
et ingeniis cultibusque hominum Bri-
tanniae : a very common ellipse.-

Melius, i. e., than the interior of the
island.

13.	In occasionem retinebat. Agri-
cola kept the chief to nfake a pretext
out of him for meddling in the affairs
of Ireland, but he never found the
opportunity.-JSxeo, i. e., Agricola.

14.	Debellari, completely subjugated. ■
-Idque, and that that event.

15.	Momana arma, sc., essent.46	THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

XXV. Ceterum aestate, qua sextum officii annum incoha-
bat, amplexus civitates trans Bodotriam sitas, quia motus
universarum ultra gentium et infesta hostilis exercitus itinera
timebantur, portus classe exploravit. Quae ab Agricola
5 primum adsumpta in partem virium sequebatur egregia specie,
cum simul terra simul mari bellum impelleretur, ac saepe
iisdem castris pedes equesque et nauticus miles, mixti copiis et
laetitia, sua quisque facta, suos casus attollerent; ac modo sil-
varum ac montium profunda, modo tempestatum ac fluctuum
10 ad versa, hinc terra et hostis, hinc victus oceanus militari iac-
tantia compararentur. Britannos quoque, ut ex captivis
audiebatur, visa classis obstupefaciebat, tamquam, aperto maris
sui secreto, ultimum victis perfugium clauderetur. Ad man us
et arma eonversi Caledoniam incolentes populi, paratu magno,
15maiore fama, uti mos est de ignotis, oppugnare ultro castella
adorti, metum ut provocantes addiderant; regrediendumque
citra Bodotriam, et excedendum potius quam pellerentur,
ignavi specie prudentium admonebant, cum interim cognoscit
hostes pluribus agminibus irrupturos. Ac ne superante numero

CHAP. XXV. 1. Seoctum annum,
A. D. 83.

2.	A.mplemus, sc. hello. Cf. chap.
XVII.

3.	Infesta .... itinera. If this
reading be correct, the genitive de-
pends on itinera, and hostilis eocercv-
tns is the Roman army. Agricola was
afraid lest the routes that his army
must take would be beset with dan-
ger (infesta), hence he did not ven-
ture to march directly inland over
the Isthmus, but kept within a mod-
erate distance of the eastern shore,
and his fleet coasted along at the
same time, so that in case of extrem-
ity he could receive provision or suc-
cor, or retire on shipboard.

5.	In partem virium, as apart of

his forces.-Egregia specie, with a

remarkably imposing appearance.

6.	Impelleretur, was being hurried .
on.

7.	Mixti copiis et laetitia, sharing

their ?'ations, and mingled in merri-
ment. The meaning is that the sol-
diers and sailors mingled in merry
gatherings over their meals.

9.	Profunda, recesses.

10.	A.dversa, hardships.-Victus

belongs to both clauses.

13. Secreto, the secretretreat-Clau-
deretur, i. e., the British thought so.

-A-d manus et arma, to resistance

and arms.

15.	Maiore fama, i. e., the reports
made the preparation greater than it

really was.-Oppugnare depends

on adorti.-Vitro, actually.

16.	Tit provocantes, as being the
challengers.

17.	JPotius quam pellerentur. Po-
tius is here used like pritis.

18.	Specie prudentium, with the

air of prudent advisers.-Cognoscit,

i. e., Agricola.

19.	Pluribus agminibus, in several
divisions.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

47

et peritia locorum circumiretur, diviso et ipse in tres partes
exercitu incessit.

XXVI. Quod ubi cognitum hosti, mutato repente consilio,
universi nonam legionem, ut maxime invalidam, nocte
5 aggressi, inter somnum ac trepidationem caesis vigilibus,
irrupere. lamque in ipsis castris pugnabatur, cum Agricola,
iter hostium ab exploratoribus edoetus et vestigiis insecutus,
yelocissimos equitum peditumque adsnltare tergis pugnantium
iubet, mox ab universis adiici clamorem; et propinqua luce
lOfulsere sign a. Ita ancipiti malo territi Britanni; et Eomanis
rediit animus, ac securi pro salute de gloria certabant. Ultro
quin etiam erupere, et fuit atrox in ipsis portarum angustiis
proelium, donee pulsi hostes, utroque exercitu certante, his, ut
tulisse opem, illis, ne eguisse auxilio viderentur. Quod nisi
15paludes et silvae fugientes texissent, debellatum ilia victoria
foret. XXVII. Cuius conscientia ac fama ferox exercitus
nihil virtuti suae invium et penetrandam Caledoniaminvenien-
dumque tandem Britanniae terminum continuo proeliorum
cursu fremebant; atque illi modo cauti ac sapientes, prompti

1. JEt ipse. Notice the unusual
position of the subject in the abla-
tive absolute clause.

CHAP. XXVI. 4. JJt maxime in-
validam. This ninth legion was the
one defeated under the command of
Publius Cerialis by the Britons, while
Paulinus was absent in Wales. They
were afterwards recruited by legion-
aries from Germany, although their
ranks were probably only partially
filled {An. XIV. 32, 38).

7.	Vestigiis. This adverbial use of
the word is common in military
operations. Cf. La v. VI. 32; IX. 45.

8.	Adsultare specially denotes the
rapid movements of cavalry or light
armed troops, to charge, to dash upon.
Cf. An. XII. 35; XIII. 40.

9.	Ab universis, i. e., the legions as
well as those who had been ordered

front. - Propinqua = appropin-

quante,

10.	Ancipiti malo, i. e., the battle in
front and rear.

11.	Securi pro salute, having no fears
for their safety.-De gloria. The Ro-
mans fought to obtain new glory; pro
gloriawoMld be in defence of the glory
they possessed already. Cf. Hist. IV.
58. Liv. XXI. 41.-TJltro, actually.

12.	Quin etiam, moreover.-Mru-

pere, i. e., the soldiers of the ninth
legion.

13.	Pulsi, sc. sunt.-Utro exercitu,

i. e., the ninth legion in the camp,
and the army which Agricola brought
up to the rescue.

14.	Quod nisi, and had not.

15.	Debellatum foret, the war would
have been ended.

CHAP. XXVII. 16. Cuitis refers
back to victoria in the previous
chapter. A. 201, e; G. 612; H. 453.

17. Nihil, sc. esse.

19. Fremebant is plural to agree with
the collective noun exercitus. A.48

THE AGRICOLA OF TA€ITUS.

post eventum ae magniloqui erant. Iniquissima haec bellorum
condicio est; prospera omnes sibi vindicant, ad versa uni impu-
tantur. At Britanni, non virtute, sed oecasione et arte ducis
rati, nihil ex adrogantia remittere, quo minus iuventutem
5 armarent, coniuges ac liberos in loca tuta transferrent, coet-
ibus ac sacrifices conspirationem civitatium sancirent; atque
ita inritatis utrimque animis discessum.

XXVIII. Eadem aestate cohors Usipiorum, per Ger-
manias conscripta et in Britanniam transmissa, magnum ac
lOmemorabile facinus ausa est. Occiso centurione ac militibus,
qui ad tradendam disciplinam immixti manipulis exemplum
et rectores habebantur, tres liburnicas adactis per vim guber-
natoribus ascendere; et uno remigante, suspectis duobus eoque
interfectis, nondum vulgato rumore ut miraculum praevehe-

205, c; G. 202, Except. 1); H. 461,1.-

lllimodo catiti. These are the peo-
ple referred to in Chap. XXV., as
advising the evacuation of the dis-
trict beyond Bodotria.

1.	Iniquissima .... hnpiitantiir.
For a like sentiment, cf. Sail. Jug.
LIII, in victoria vel ignavis gloriari
licet; adversae res etiam bonos de-
tractant.

2.	Omnesf sc. milites.-JJni, i. e.,

duci.

3.	Virtute, i. e., of the Romans.

4.	Hati, sc. (se) victos (esse), which
has been conjectured by Lipsius for
ducis of the MSS. and is incorporated
in some texts.

6.	Conspirationem sancirent, estab-
lish a confederacy.

7.	Inritatis, embittered: the Ro-
mans by their victory; the Britains
by the establishment of the confed-
eracy.-Discessum, sc. est ab Us.

That is, Agricola withdrew beyond
the fortified Isthmus between Clota
and Bodotria, and there, defended by
his chain of forts, went into winter-
quarters. The Britons, ofN course, on
their side retired also, and the cam-
paign was at an end.

CHAP. XXVIII. 8. Cohors XTsi-
piorum. Cf. Germ. XXXII. This

was very likely a part of the force
stationed by Agricola in the district
mentioned in chap. XXIV. as look-
ing towards Ireland. They started
from this part of the island, and sail-
ing by the western part of Scotland
and rounding its northern ex-
tremity, entered the German Ocean.
They were carried past their own
home in Germany, and stranded,
some near the Elbe, where the Suevi
would seize them, and some near
the Ems, thus falling into the hands

of the Frisii.-Germanias, i. e.,the

two provinces of "Upper and Lower
Germany.

11.	Manipulis. There were three
maniples of two hundred men each
in a cohort, and ten cohorts in a
legion.

12.	TAburnicaSf sc. naves. These
were swift galleys, named from the
country Liburnia, where they were
first used.

13.	JRemigante, " directing the row-
ers."

14.	Mumore, i. e., of their mutiny

and flight.-lit miraculum, i. e., as

they passed along the coast they
were considered as a sort of prod-
igy. -JV a ev e h e b antur — praeter-

vehebantur. Cf. Hist. II, 2. An. II. 6.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

49

bantur. Mox ad aquam atqne utilia rapientes cum plerisque
Britannorum sua defensantium proelio congressi, ac saepe
victores, aliquando pulsi, eo ad extremum inopiae venere, ut
infirmissimos suorum, mox sorte ductos vescerentur. Atque
ita circumvecti Britanniam, amissis per inseitiam regendi 5
navibus, pro praedonibus habiti, primum a Suevis; mox
a Frisiis intercepti sunt. Ac fuere, quos per commercia
venumdatos et in nostram usque ripam mutatione ementium
ad ductos, indicium tanti casus inlustravit.

XXIX. Initio aestatis Agricola, domestico vulnere ictus, 10
anno ante natum filium amisit. Quem casum neque ut
plerique fortium yirorum ambitiose, neque per lamenta rursus
ac maerorem muliebriter tulit; et in luctu bellum inter
remedia erat. Igitur praemissa classe, quae pluribus locis
praedata magnum et incertum terrorem faceret, expedito 15
exercitu, cui ex Britannis fortissimos et longa pace exploratos
addiderat, ad montem Grampium pervenit, quem iam hostis

1. Mox ad aquam, etc. This pass-
age is hopelessly corrupt, but Kritz'
reading, which is followed in the

text, is perhaps as good as any.-Ad

aquam — in aquatione, sc. egressi.-

Utilia, provisions.

3.	Eo: old dative, to such a degree.
-Ad extremum, at last.-Con-
strue inopiae with eo. A. 216, a, 4; G.
371, R. 4; H. 397, 4.

4.	Infirmissimos, ductos. Phae-
drus, Tibullus, and Pliny use the ac-
cusative after vesci. Perhaps the ab-
lative sorte induced Tacitus to avoid
another, by putting the accusative.
A. 249, b ; G. 405, R. 1; H. 421, N. 4.

6.	Primum, mox, i. e., part were
taken by the Suevi, and part by the
Frisii.

7.	JPer commercia, in trade.

8..In nostram ripam: i. e., the
left or western bank of the Rhine,
which the Romans held.-Muta-
tione ementium: i. e., by being re-
sold by those who had previously
bought them.

9. Casus, adventure.-Inlustravit.

We would naturally expect the sub-
junctive after the relative with an in-
definite antecendent (fuere quos).;
but the indicative is common, even
in the best prose, when the fact itself
is to be made prominent. G. 634, R. 1;
H. 503, N. 3, 2).

CHAP. XXIX. 10. Initio aestatis.
A. D. 84.

12. Fortium virorum,"military men."

T.-Ambitiose: i. e., with a view to

gain glory from the display ol philo-
sophical Stoicism in bearing sorrow.
-Itursus, on the other hand.

14.	Quae — ut ea.

15.	Incertum: as the Britons would
not know whence to expect the at-
tack.-JExpedito exercitu. The army

was in light marching order, because
the baggage, provisions, etc., were on
board the fleet in advance.

16.	JExploratos, tried and not found
wanting.

17.	Grampium. The reading is un-
certain, most MSS. having Graupium.
There is strong evidence that the
Gh'ampian Hills are meant.50

THE AORICOLA OF TACITUS.

insederat. Nam Britanni, nihil fracti pugnae prioris eventu,
et ultionem aut servitium exspectantes, tandemque docti com-
mune periculum concordia propulsandum, legationibus et
foederibus omnium civitatium vires exciverant. Xamque super

5 triginta milia armatorum aspiciebantur, et adhuc adfluebat
omnis iuventus et quibus cruda ac viridis senectus, clari bello
et sua quisque decora gestantes, cum inter plures duces virtute
et genere praestans, nomine Calgacus, apud contractam multi-
tudinem proelium poscentem in hunc modum locutus fertur:

10 XXX. "Quotiens causas belli et necessitatem nostram
intueor, magnus mihi animus est hodiernum diem consensum-
que vestrum initium libertatis toti Britanniae fore. Nam et
universi servitutis expertes, et nullae ultra terrae, ac ne mare
quidem securum, imminente nobis classe Romana; ita proelium

15atque arma, quae fortibus honesta, eadem etiam ignavis
tutissima sunt. Priores pugnae, quibus adversus Romanos
varia fortuna certatum est, spem ac subsidium in nostris

1. Nihil: accns. of specification.-

Pugnae prioris. Vid. Chap. XXVI.

6.	Quibusf sc. erat.-Cruda ac

viridis. Tacitus probably had in his
mind Vergil's account of Charon
(Aen. VI. 304), sed cruda deo viridisque
senectus.

7.	Decora means anything in the
way of ornament, and seems to in-
clude spoils taken from an enemy
and rewards conferred by the chief-
tains on their followers.

8.	Praestans, "one distinguished

C.-Calgacus. The more usual

spelling of this name is Galgacus.

9.	Fertur shows that Tacitus is the
author of the following speech.

CHAP. XXX. 10. Causas. The mo-
tive for the war" was the determina-
tion of the inhabitants to drive
slavery away from Caledonia; ex-
plained by Calgacus below in tmi-
versi servitutis expertes.-Necessi-
tatem. The necessity is the fact that
they are driven into a corner by the
avarice and thirst for power dis-

played by the Romans, from which
there is no escape; also explained in
nullae ultra terrae.

11. Amtimus, confidence.

13,	Servitutis is complementary gen-
itive after expertes (sumus). A. 218, a;

G. 373; H. 399, I. 3.-Nullae ultra

terrae, sc. sunt, i. e., for refuge.

14,	15. Proelium atque arma. In
this chapter, by three other ex-
amples, spem ac subsidium; recessus
ac sinus ; obsequium ac modestiam, the
author well illustrates his fondness
for pairs of words of kindred signifi-
cation.-Honest a, honorable.

16.	Priores pugnae: i. e., previous
battles of other tribes with the Ro-
mans.

17.	Spem ae stibsidium is best taken

as a hendiadys for spem subsidii.-

In nostris manibusfi. e., the Britons,
by whom the previous battles had
been fought, always had had the
Caledonians to fall back on as a kind
of reserve, but now the reserve itself
was going into action.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

51

manibus habebant; quia nobilissimi totius Britanniae, eoque
in ipsis penetralibus siti nec servientium litora aspicientes,
oculos quoque a contactu dominationis inviolatos habebamus.
Nos terrarum ac libertatis extremos recessus ipse ac sinus
famae in hune diem defendit; nunc terminus Britanniae 5
patet, atque omne ignotum pro magnifico est. Sed nulla
iam ultra gens, nihil nisi fluetus et saxa, et infestiores Homani,
quorum superbiam frustra per obsequium ac modestiam
effugeris. Raptores orbis, postquam cuncta vastantibus de-
fuere terrae, iam et mare scrutantur: si locuples hostis est, 10
avari, si pauper, ambitiosi; quos non Oriens, non Occidens
satiaverit. Soli omnium opes atque inopiam pari adfectu
concupiscunt. Auferre, trucidare, rapere, falsis nominibus
imperium, atque, ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant.
XXXI. Liberos cuique ac propinquos suos natura carissimosl5
esse voluit: hi per delectus alibi servituri auferuntur: coniuges

1.	Nobilissimi has here its primi-
tive meaning, the purest born.-

Eoque, and therefore, as all that was
valued was always kept in the pene-
tralia.

2.	Tenetralibus. " Penetralia sunt
penatium deorum sacraria." Quoted
by C. On this passage cf. Caes. B. G.
V. 12, " Britanniae pars interior ab Us
incolitur, quos natos in insula ipsa
memoriae proditum dicunt; maritima
pars ab Us qui praedae ac belli in-
fer endi causa ex Belgis transieranV

-Servientium litora, i. e., the

shores of Gaul.

4. Terrarum ac libertatis esc- .
tremos. They were situated at the
edge of the habitable world, and were
the last remnant not yet enslaved by
Rome.-JKecessus ipse, our very re-
moteness ; explained by mine ....

patet.-Sinus famae, obscurity of

our fame; explained by omne ....
magnifico est. The idea is that the
people in their distant fastnesses are
little known.

6. Omne .... magnifico estf i.^e.
so long as we were unknown, we
were dreaded.-Sed seems to be

antithetic to some idea to be sup-
plied, e. g., we might, some one may
say, ask aid from other nations, but,
etc. The connection of this sentence
with the previous ones is variously
interpreted.

7. Infestiores, i. e., even than the
waves and the rocks are.

9. Haptores, plunderers. On this
passage, the commentators quote a
fragment of Sallust, worth reading.
" An ignoras Homanos .... arma
hue convertisse, neque quidquam a
prineipio nisi raptum habere, domum
coniuges agros imperium; quibus non
humana ulla neque divina obstant quin
socios, amicos procul iuxtaque sitos, in-
opespotentesque trahant excidanV

11.	Avari, sc. sunt.-Ambitiosi, i.

e., for the glory of conquering them.

12.	Satiaverit: subj. after quos =

cumeos.-Opes .... concupiscunt.

Cf. Sallust, Cat. XI., tlavaritia neque
copia neque inopiaminuitur."

13.	Auferre .... imperium, sc.
appellant.

CHAP. XXXI. 16. Per delectus. It
was the policy of Rome to send the
recimits raised in the provinces to52

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

sororesque, etiam si hostilem libidinem effugiant, nomine
amicorum atque hospitum polluuntur. Bona fortunaeque in
tributum, ager atqne annus in frumentum, corpora ipsa ac
manus silvis ac paludibus emuniendis inter verbera ac con-
5 tumelias conteruntur. Nata servituti mancipia semel veneunt,
atque ultro a dominis aluntur: Britannia servitutem suam
quotidie emit, quotidie pascit. Ac sicut in familia recen-
tissimus quisque servorum etiam conservis ludibrio est, sic in
hoc orbis terrarum vetere famulatu novi nos et viles in ex-
lOcidium petimur. Neque enim arva nobis aut metalla aut
portus sunt, quibus exercendis reservemur. Virtus porro ac
ferocia subiectorum ingrata imperantibus ; et longinquitas ac
secretum ipsum quo tutius, eo suspectius. Ita sublata spe
veniae tandem sumite animum, tarn quibus salus, quam quibus
15 gloria carissima est. Brigantes, femina duce, exurere coloniam,

some distant country, for fear of their
desertion or revolt. Cf. Hist. I. 70;
II. 57.-Servituri: the fut. part, de-
noting purpose. A. 318, (7) and d; G.
678,3; H. 549, 3. Note the deliberate
use of the degrading word servire.

2.	Aimicorum atque hospitum re-
fers to the times of peace.-In tri-

butum, i. e., the money tribute levied
on the Britons.

3.	A.nnus == proventus annorum,

yearly produce. Cf. Germ. XIV.-In

frumentum does not refer to tithe
corn, for the Britons did not pay it,
but the corn contributed for the sup-
port of the Roman government, staff
and army.

4.	JEmuniendis. Munire victs, the
term regularly used for making
roads, originated in the fact that the
Roman roads were constructed with
such solidity as to be like a fortifica-
tion. Therefore silvis .... emu-
niendis is in constructing elaborate
roads through woods and bogs.

5.	6. Nat a servituti. Cf. Sail. Jug.
XXXI., "vos, Quirites, imperio nati."

-Semel, once for all.- JJltro,

actually.

7.	Quotidie emit, quotidie pascit.
The Briton pays the price of his own
slavery by paying tribute to the Ro-
mans, and, besides this, he produces

corn for his masters' support.-

Familia, the household of slaves.

8.	Conservis ludibrio: two da-
tives; one to which, the other for
■which. A. 233; G. 350; H. 390.

9.	Novi; i. e., to slavery.-Viles,

worthless, and hence to be destroyed.

10.	Nobis; i. e., as compared with
the other Britons.

11.	JEJmercendis, for ivorking. -

JEteservemur: subj. after quibus=ut
Us. A. 317; G. 545,1; H. 497,1.

12.	13. Ferocia, high spirit.-Quo,

eo: abl. of degree of difference.-

Suspectius, sc. est.

14.	Tam, quam, as well, as.

15.	JBrigantes is the reading of all
the MSS., and they are probably
mentioned here (although not men-
tioned in his account of the revolt,
An. XIV. 31) as being one of the most
powerful tribes known to the Cale-
donians.-Femina duce probably

refers to Boadicea. Cf. chap. XVI.
-Coloniam, sc. Camulodunum.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

53

expugnare castra, ac, nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset,
exuere iugum potuere; nos integri et indomiti et libertatem
non in paenitentiam laturi, primo statim congressu ostenda-
mus quos sibi Caledonia viros seposuerit. XXXII. An
eandem Romanis in bello virtutem, qnam in pace lasciviam 5
ad esse creditis? Nostris illi dissensionibus acdiscordiis clari
yitia hostium in gloriam exercitus sni vertunt; quern con-
tractum ex diversissimis gentibns ut secundae res tenent, ita
adversae dissolvent: nisi Gallos et Germanos et (pudet dictu)
Britannorum plerosque, licet dominationi alien ae sanguinemlO
commodent, diutius tamen hostes qnam servos, fide et affectu
teneri pntatis. Metus ac terror est, infirma vincla caritatis •
quae ubi removeris, qui timere desierint, odisse incipient.
Omnia victoriae incitamenta pro nobis sunt; nullae Romanos
coniuges accendunt, nulli parentes fugam exprobraturi sunt; 15
aut nulla plerisque patria, aut alia est. Paucos numero,
trepidos ignorantia, caelum ipsum ac mare et silvas, ignota
omnia, circumspectantes, clausos quodammodo ac vinctos dii
nobis tradiderunt. Ne terreat vanus aspectus et auri fulgor
atque argenti, quod neque tegit neque vulnerat. In ipsa 20
hostium acie inveniemus nostras manus; agnoscent Britanni
suam causam, recordabuntur Galli priorem libertatem, de-

I,	2. Felicitas, their good luck.-

Integri, i. e., not as yet having met
the enemy.

3.	In paenitentiam, so as to repent
of it, as those do who suffer the penal-
ties of an unsuccessful rebellion.

4.	Quosf what kind of = quales.-

Seposnerit, has in reserve. Cf. Germ,.
XXIX.

CHAP. XXXII. 9. 2Pudet (sc. me)
dictu: a very rare construction,
pudet dicere is usually found. A. 303;
G. 437; H. 547.

10. licet, although.-Dominationi

alienae,for a foreign tyrant.

II.	"Hostes and servos are in ap-
position with Gallos, etc." C.

12. Metus ac terror est, sc. which re-
tains them.

13. Hemoveris, desierint: future
perfects.

16.	Nulla patria. Those who have
no country will be soldiers of fortune
and those from those nations whose
separate existence had been de-
stroyed by conquest, from which the
Romans had many soldiers; alia re-
fers to all the foreign troops, like the
Usipii, Batavi,etc., serving in Britain.

17.	Ignorantia: i. e., of the country

in which they were fighting.-

Ignota omnia: appos. with caelum,
etc.

21, Nostras manus, i. e., those who
in heart are with us, and will desert
to us.-JBritanni, i. e., those com-
pelled to light a^ levies in the Roman
army,54

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

serent illos ceteri Germani, tamquam nuper Usipii reli-
querunt. Nec quidquam ultra formidinis; vacua castella,
senum coloniae, inter male parentes et iniuste imperantes
aegra municipia et discordantia. Hie dux, hie exercitus; ibi
5 tributa et metalla et ceterae servientium poenae, quas in
aeternum perferre aut statim ulcisei in hoc campo est.
Proinde ituri in aciem et maiores vestros et posteros cogitate."

XXXIII. Excepere orationem alacres, ut barbaris moris,
cantu fremituque et clamoribus dissonis. Iamque agmina et
lOarmorum fulgores audentissimi cuiusque procursu; simul in-
struebatur acies, cum Agricola, quamquam laetum et vix
munimentis coercitum militem accendendum adhuc ratus, ita
disseruit:

"Octavus annus est, commilitones, ex quo virtute et
15auspiciis imperii Romani, fide atque opera vestra Britanniam
vicistis; tot expeditionibus, tot proeliis, seu fortitudine ad-
versus hostes seu patientia ac labore paene adversus ipsam

1.	Ceteri: i. e., besides the Usipii.

-Tamquam? just as.-Usipii. He

has given us the description of their
revolt in chap. XXVIII.

2.	TJTtra: i. e., if they gain this vic-
tory.-Vacua, destitute of soldiers.

3.	Senum = veteranorum. - Co-

loniae. There was really but one
colony, Camulodunum, the senum be-
ing the veteran soldiers settled there.

4.	Aegra, disaffected. This was due
to the want of union between the in-
habitants and their rulers.-Mtmi-

cipia: i. e., towns not founded by
Rome, but having most of the rights
of Roman citizenship. Londinium
and Verulamium were two of these.

-Sic: i. e., on our side.-Ibi:i. e.,

on the side of the Romans.

5.	Metalla : i. e., labor in the mines ;
a very common form of slavery.

6.	In hoc campo est, it rests with
this battle-field.

CHAP. XXXIII. 8. Moris (sc. est):
pred. gen. of possession. A. 214, c; G.
365; H. 402.

9. Cantuf i. e., " the war shout of all

barbarous nations." A.-Agmina,

sc. conspiciebantur.

10. Procursu: abl. of the means by
which the gleam of light was seen.

11,12. Acies, i.e., of the Caledonians.
-Adhucf besides.

14.	Octavus annus. He was just en-
tering on his 8th year in Britain.

15.	Auspiciis imperii Momani. One
would have expected imperatoris.
Perhaps, Domitian being now dead,
Tacitus preferred avoiding any men-
tion of so unworthy an occupant of
the throne. As the Emperor was
Generalissimo of the forces,allvictories
were ascribed to his auspices, and the
actual commander was regarded as
his lieutenant only. In An. II. 18,
when Germanicus conquered the
Germans, it was not he, but Tiberius,
who was saluted Imperator, in accord-
ance with 'the old distinction be-
tween fighting ductu suo and auspiciis
alicuius.''

16.	Tot eocpeditionibus, etc., in the
course of so many campaigns.

17.	Ipsam rerum naturam, nature
itself,THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS.

55

rerum naturam opus fuit, neque me militum neque yos ducis
paenituit. Ergo egressi, ego yeterum legatorum,vos priorum
exercituum terminos, finem Britanniae non fama nec rumore
sed castris et armis tenemus. Inventa Britannia et subacta.
Equidem saepe in agmine, cum vos paludes montesve et 5
flumina fatigarent, fortissimi cuiusque voces audiebam:
quando dabitur hostis, quando acies? Veniunt, e latebris
suis extrusi; et vota virtusque in aperto, omniaque prona
victoribus, atque eadem victis ad versa. Nam, ut superasse
tantum itineris, silvas evasisse, transisse aestuaria pulchrum 10
ac decorum in frontem; ita fugientibus periculosissima, quae
hodie prosperrima sunt. Neque enim nobis aut locorum
eadem notitia aut commeatuum eadem abundantia, sed manus
et arma et in his omnia. Quod ad me attinet, iam pridem
mihi decretum est neque exercitus neque ducis terga tuta esse. 15
Proinde et honesta mors turpi vita potior, et incolumitas ac
decus eodem loco sita sunt; nec inglorium fuerit in ipso
terrarum ac naturae fine cecidisse. XXXIV. Si novae
gentes atque ignota acies constitisset, aliorum exercituum
exemplis vos hortarer; nunc vestra decora recensete, vestros 20
oculos interrogate. Hi sunt quos proximo anno unam

1.	Me militum. A.221,b; G.376; H.
409, III.

2.	Mgressi, here transitive, agrees
with both ego and vos. A. 186, d; H.
439.-Veterum=priorurn.

3.	Terminos: accus. after egressi.
A. 228, a; H. 372.—Fama wee rumore.
Jttimor is a vague flying report, rest-
ing on no authentic basis. Fama is
a report resting on some foundation.

4,5. Britannia, "i.e., the whole
of it." C.-In agmihe, on the march.

8. Vota virtusqxie in aperto, " your
wishes and your bravery have free
scope." Cf. chap. I. pronum magisque
in aperto.

11.	In frontem, while advancing;
antithetic to fugientibus, while re-
treating: sc. nobis.

12.	Hodie, i. e., in our present pros-

perous circumstances.—Neque enim,
i. e., in case of retreat.

14, 15. Jam pridem mihi decretum
est, I came to the conclusion long ago.
-Terga, the retreat.

17.	Inglorium fuerit, i. e., when all
is over " and men look back upon our
achievements."

18.	Naturae fine. Cf. Germ. XLV.
illuc usque tantum natura.

CHAP. XXXIV. 19. Novae gentes,
unknown nations.-Ignota acies, un-
tried troops.-Constitisset, had taken

their stand against you, i. e., were now
standing.

20.	Ifortarer. Note the use of the
imp. subj. where oui* idiom would re-
quire the pluperfect.— Vestra decora,
your glorious deeds. Cf. Liv. XXI. 43.

21.	Proximo anno is here the last
year. Vid. chap. XXVI.56

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

legionem furto noctis aggressos clamore debellastis; hi
ceterorum Britannorum fugacissimi, ideoque tam din super-
stites. Quomodo silvas saltusque penetrantibus fortissimum
quodque animal contra ruere, pavida et inertia ipso agminis
sono pelluntur, sic acerrimi Britannoram iam pridem cecide- 5
runt, reliquus est numerus ignavorum et metuentium. Quos
quod tandem invenistis, non restiterunt, sed deprehensi sunt;
novissimae res et extremo metu corpora defixere aciem in his
vestigiis, in quibus pulchram et spectabilem victoriam ederetis.
Transigite cum expeditionibus; imponite quinquaginta annis 10
magnum diem; adprobate reipublicae numquam exercitui
imputari potuisse aut moras belli aut causas rebellandi."

XXXV. Et adloquente adhuc Agricola militum ardor
eminebat, et finem orationis ingens alacritas consecuta est,

1.	Furto noctis, under cover of the
night. Vergil (Aen. IX. 397) has fraude
noctis in the same sense. Q,uintus
Curtius uses the same expression
(IV. 13); and Livy (XXVI. 51) has furto

unius diei.-Clamore, by a mere

shout.

2.	Hi ceterorum. This is a Greek
idiom for hi quarn ceteri fugaciores.
Milton copies this in his expression:
"Adam, the goodliest man of men since born

His sons ; the fairest of her daughters Eve."

3.	Quomodo, just as.-Penetrants -

bus, sc. lis, making this a general sen-
timent: dat. of disadvantage after
contra, ruere=resistere.

4.	Huere can hardly be historical
infinitive, because the use of that
form seems restricted to the narra-
tive of past events. Ritter seems
right in explaining it by supposing
that Tacitus intended to write pelli
solent at the end of the next clause,
but for it substituted its equivalent
pelUmtur, and so left mere, which
was meant to depend on solet, with-
out any governing word.-Pavida,

sc. animalia.

6, 7. Numerus is here used con-
temptuously, mere ciphers.-Quos

quod .... restiterunt, that you have
at last found them is not because they
have stood their ground. The expres-
sion is in imitation of the Greek, and
is for qui, quod tandem invenistis eos,
non restiterunt.

8.	Novissimae res, their desperate

fortunes.-Extremo metu corpora =

corpora extremo metu correpta.

9.	JEderetis: subj. of purpose after
in quibus=ut in Us, i. e., vestigiis.

10.	Transigite, make an end of. This
is a legal term, and denotes the settle-
ment of a suit. Vid. Oer. XIX. tran-

sigitur.-Quinquaginta. Claudius

began the conquest of Britain by
sending A. Plautius, A. D. 43. Agri-
cola is speaking in A. D. 84. This
makes the fifty years only a round
way of reckoning.

12. Moras belli: caused by carrying
on the war with no energy, or by will-
fully protracting it.-Causas rebel-

landi seems to refer to the pretexts
of possible rebellion, which the care-
lessness of the conquerors might give,
or which were the effective causes of
rebellion.

CHAP. XXXV. 13. Et, both.

14, Alacritas, enthusiasm,THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

57

statimque ad arma discursum. Instinctos ruentesque ita
disposuit, ut peditum auxilia, quae octo milium erant, mediam
aciem firmarent, equitum tria milia cornibus adfunderentur;
legiones pro vallo stetere, ingens victoriae decus citra
Eomanum sanguinem bellanti, et auxilium, si pellerentur.
Britannorum acies, in speciem simul ac terrorem, editioribus
locis constiterat ita, ut primum agmen aequo, ceteri per
acclive iugum conexi velut insurgerent; media campi co-
vinnarius eques strepitu ac diseursu complebat. Turn

1.	Discursum. Note the force of
the prefix: they collected to hear the
address, and then ran apart.

2.	Peditum: partitive genitive.-

Mediam aciem fir mar cut, made a
strong centre.

3.	Adfunderentur (" where we
would expect adderentur) seems to be
used with reference to the rapid move-
ments of cavalry "

4. Pro vallo, before
the intrenchments, i.

in apposition with

stetere.

Citra,

legiones .

without.

5.	Bellanti, sc. ei, i. e., Agricolae.-
Pellerentur, i. e., the auxiliaries.

6.	In speciem, for display, i. e., s

to make an imposing appearance.-

Terrorem, i. e., to cause a panic.

7.	A.gmen, sc. consisteret, implied in
constiterat, to correspond with in-
surgerent.

8.	Conexi velut, as if
linked together.-Media

only in this passage and is

ROMAN SOLDIERS.58

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

Agricola superante hostium mnltitudine veritus, ne in
frontem simul et latera suornm pugnaretur, didnctis or-
dinibus, quamquam porrectior acies futnra erat et arcessendas
plerique legiones admonebant, promptior in spem et firmus
5 adversis, dimisso equo pedes ante vexilla constitit.

XXXVI. Ac primo congressu eminus certabatur; simul-
que constantia simul arte Britanni ingentibus gladiis et
brevibns cetris missilia nostrorum vitare vel excutere, atque
ipsi magnam vim telorum superfundere, donee Agricola
lOBatavornm cohortes ac Tungrorum dnas cohortatus est, ut
rem ad mucrones ac manus adducerent; quod et ipsis vetustate
militiae exercitatum, et hostibus inhabile parva scuta et
enormes gladios gerentibus. Nam Britannorum gladii sine
mucrone complexum armorum et in arto pugnam non

used for covinarii (== the essedarii
of Caesar), which form is used in
the next chapter. Covinnarius
eques would mean the combatants
who were carried to the fight in
covinni, or possibly et may be under-
stood, as Caesar draws a distinction
between the war-chariots and the
regular cavalry of the Britons. Pom-
ponius Mela says (III. 6) the covinni
were scythe chariots: covinnos vocant
quorum fcilcatis axibus utuntur.

2.	Diductis ordinibus, having ex-
tended his ranks.

3.	Porrectior futura erat, " was
likely to be too extended-Arces-
sendas, sc. esse.

4.	JPromptior in spent, filled with

hope.-Firmus adversis, "resolute

under adverse circumstances.''''

5.	Pedes: appos. with the subject

of constitit.-Vexilla. Cf. Note in

chap. XVIII.

CHAP. XXXVI. 7. Constantia,

with calm, self-possessed courage.-

'Ingentibus gladiis, brevibtis cetris:
abl. of instrument. The Roman
swords were generally short, being
somewhere between a foot and a half
and two feet long, and adapted for
stabbing. The British swords, like

the Gallic and German, were for cut-
ting. From discoveries made by vari-
ous antiquaries, these British glaives
are supposed to have often been close
upon four feet in length. The cetra
was a small, round shield of hide,
used by the Spaniards, Oscans, and
others.

8. Vitare vel excutere. The Roman
re cruit was taught11 p lagam prudenter
vitare et obliquis ictibus venientia tela
deftectere." Vegetius. I. 4. This ap-
pears to be the meaning of Tacitus.
They avoided the darts by shifting
their bodies, or struck them off with
their shields.

10.	Hatavorum cohortes. It appears
from the Histories that eight cohorts
of the Batavi (who lived at the mouth
of the Rhine) formed the auxilia of
the 14th legion.-Duas, sc. cohortes

11.	Ad mucrones ac manus, to the
sword point, and a hand-to-hand fight
-Quod, " which mode of fighting.'

■-Ipsis, i. e., the cohorts.

12.	Inhabile, sc. erat, was " impracti-
cable.^ C.

14. Complexum armor um, the thrusts
of (the Roman) weapoTis. What this
means is well explained by Vergil,
Aen. X. 360:THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

59

tolerabant. Igitur, nt Batavi miscere ictus, ferire umbonibus,
ora foedare, et stratis, qui in aequo adstiterant, erigere in
colles aciem coepere, ceterae cohortes aemulatione et impetu
conisae proximos quosque caedere; ac plerique semineees aut
integri festinatione victoriae relinquebantur. Interim equitum 5
turmae fugere; covinnarii peditum se proelio miscuere, et,
quanquam recentem terrorem intulerant, densis tamen hostium
agminibus et inaequalibus locis haerebant; minimeque
equestris ea iam pugnae facies erat, cum aegre clivo astantes
simul equorum corporibus impellerentur; ac saepe vagi 10
currus, exterriti sine rectoribus equi, ut quemque formido
tulerat, transversos aut obvios incursabant. XXXVII. Et

/

Haud aliter Troianae acies, aciesque Lati-
nae,

Concurrunt; haeret pede pes, densusque
viro vir, etc.

Statins, Theb. VIII. 398:

lam clypeus clypeis, umbone repellitur
umbo,

Ense minax ensis, pede pes et cuspide
cuspis.

1, 2. Miscere, to deal out at close
quarters. Ferire; foedare; erigere,
to lead up. Note the rapidity and ani-
mation which this succession of in-
finitives adds to the narration.-

Stratis, sc. Us, as antecedent to qui.

4.	Conisae, straining every nerve.

5,	6. Festinatione victoriae, in their

haste for victory.-JEquitum turmae,

i. e., of the Caledonians. Cf. An.

XIV. 34.-Feditum, i. e., of the

Caledonians.

7.	Fecentem. Recens is here used
of a panic, the effect of which has not

yet passed away.-Terrorem, intu-

lerant, i. e., at first.-Sostium must

be the Caledonians.

8.	Haerebant, were soon entangled.
-Minimeque, by no means.

9,10. Astantes, sc. JBritanni.-Im-
pellerentur, were driven forward.
12. Obvios, sc. Homanos.

Owing to the corruptness of the
text, and the concise style of Tacitus,
the description of this battle is not
easy to be understood. It seems,

however, to mean: The Britons were
posted on rising ground; the level
space between them and the Romans
was filled with covinnarii. The foot
on both sides, being some distance
apart, began the engagement. As
this was unsatisfactory, the Batavi
and Tungri rush forward, break the
line of the Britons, and with the other
cohorts rush up the hill with such
impetuosity as to leave many Britons
unwounded or only half-dead behind
them. The cavalry of the Britons,
being terrified by the sudden onset,
fled, and the covinnarii, also repulsed,
retreated to their own infantry, and
although they occasioned some con-
sternation on their first arrival, they
soon became entangled in the dense
masses of their infantry, and were
rendered useless by the unevenness
of the ground. Although cavalry
took such a large part in the battle, it
had no resemblance to an equestrian
fight; for the Britons, maintaining
their position on the slope with diffi-
culty, were driven forward by the
pressure of the cavalry horses, mixed
in among them. The chariot horses,
over which they had no control, and
the cavalry horses, without riders,
then went rushing obliquely athwart,
or directly against the lines, as their
fears severally impelled them.60	THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

Britanni, qui adhue pugnae expertes summa collinm in-
sederant et paucitatem nostrorum vacui spernebant, degredi
paulatim et circumire terga vincentium coeperant, ni id ipsum
veritus Agricola quattuor equitum alas, ad subita belli
5 retentas, venientibus opposuisset, quantoque ferocius ad-
cucurrerant, tanto acrius pnlsos in fugam disiecisset. Ita
consilium Britannorum in ipsos versum, transvectaeque
praecepto ducis a fronte pugnantium ^lae aversam hostium
aciem invasere. Turn vero patentibus locis grande et atrox
lOspectaculum; sequi, vulnerare, capere, atque eosdem, oblatis
aliis, trucidare. Iam hostium, prout cuique ingenium erat,
catervae armatorum paucioribus terga praestare, quidam
inermes ultro ruere ac se inorti offerre; passim arma et
corpora et laceri artus et eruenta humus; et aliquando etiam
15victis ira virtusque. Postquam silvis adpropinquaverunt,
collecti primos sequentium, incautos et locorum ignaros,
circumveniebant. Quod ni frequens ubique Agricola validas
et expeditas cohortes idaginis modo, et, sicubi artiora erant,

CHAP. XXXVII. 1. JEocpertes,
having no share in the battle.

2.	Vacui, while thus disengaged.

3.	Ni. Before this word we must
understand et circumissent. Cf. Note,

chap. IV.-Id ipstim, that very

thing. C.

4.	Ad subita belli. This is a com-
mon phrase to express the sudden
emergencies which arise in war. Cf.
Liv. XXV. 15. Tac. Hist. V. 13.

7, 8. Consilium, i. e., of attacking

the Romans in the rear.-Trans-

vcctae .... alae, i. e., the squadrons
were ordered to wheel from the front
of the battle, across the field to the
rear of the enemy, aversam hostiuvn
aciem.

9. Turn vero, etc. Lipsius suggests
that Tacitus wrote this in imitation
of Sallust, Jug. CI. " Turn spectaculum
horribile campis patentibus; sequi,
fugere, oecidi, capi; equi, viri, adflieti;
ac multi vulneribus acceptis neque fugere
posse neque quietempati; niti modo, ac

statim concidere; postremo omnia qua
visus erat constrata telis, armis, cada-
veribuSy et inter ea humus infecta san-
guine." Note the animation produced
by the series of historical infinitives,
and the omission of connectives.

10. JEosdem refers to the capti. They
took some, and then falling in with
others, not being able to keep both,
they killed those first taken.

12. Catervae is contrasted with
paucioribus.-Armatorum, agree-
ing with hostium, is concessive, al-
though armed, and is contrasted with
inermes.

13,14. Ultro, actually.—Aliquando,
at times.

15. Victis .... virtusque. " Cf.
Verg. A en. II. 367, quondam etiam victis
redit inpraecordia virtus."

16,17. Primos, the foremost.-Quod

ni, and had not.-Frequens ubique,

everywhere present.-Validas, fresh.

18. Indaginis modo. Indago is a
hunting term and denotes the processTHE AGrRICOliA OF TACITUS.

61

partem equitum, dimissis equis, simul rariores silvas equitem
persultare iussisset, acceptum aliquod vulnus per nimiam
fiduciam foret. Cefcerum ubi compositos firmis ordin-
ibus sequi rnrsus videre, in fngam versi, non agminibus,
ut prius, nec alius alium respectantes, rari et vitabundi in- 5
vicem, longinqua atque avia petiere. Finis sequendi nox et
satietas fuit. Caesa hostium ad decern milia; nostrorum
trecenti sexaginta cecidere, in quis Aulus Atticus, praefectns
cohortis, iuvenili ardore et ferocia equi hostibus inlatus.
XXXVIII. Et nox quidem gaudio praedaqne laeta vie-10
toribus. Britanni palantes, mixtoque virorum mulierumque
ploratu; trahere vulneratos, vocare integros, deserere domos
ac per iram ultro incendere; eligere latebras et statim re-
linquere; miscere invicem eonsilia aliqua, dein separare;
aliquando frangi aspectu pignornm suorum, saepius concitari; 15
satisque constabat saevisse quosdam in eoniuges ac liberos,
tamquam misererentur. Proximus dies faciem victoriae latius
aperuit; vastum nbique silentium, secreti colles, fumantia
procnl tecta, nemo exploratoribus obvius. Quibus in omnem

of enclosing a wood with a ring of
nets, dogs, men, etc., and gradually,
by contracting it, driving the game

into a narrow compass.-Artiora,

sc. loca.

1.	1iariores silvas, the less dense
parts of the forest.

2.	JPersultare. This word is only
strictly applicable to the cavalry;
hence we have a zeugma. "With
cohortes it is to be rendered, to encom-
pass; with partem equitum, to make
their way through, and with equitem,
to scour.

3.	4. Compositos firmis ordinibus,
arranged in compact order, refers to
cohortes.-Versi, sc. sunt.

5. Hari, scattered, thus escaping

more easily.-- Yitabundi invicem,

" avoiding one another."

7.	Satietas, i. e., of slaughter.-

Ad with numerals, about.

8.	Quis -= quibus.-JPrafectus co~

hortis, i. e., of auxiliaries.

9. Ferocia, impetuosity, or unman-
ageableness.

dHAP. XXXVIII. 10. Gaudio
praedaque, by the joy {of victory) and
by plunder.-Laeta, sc. erat.

12.	Trahere, carried away.

13.	Ultro incendere, actually fired
them.

14.	Miscere .... aliqua, they occa-
sionally held counsel together. Aliqua
seems to imply that they made only
a few weak efforts at united action.

-Dein separare, i. e., eonsilia, and

then acted separately ,i. e., each thought
only of his own safety.

15.	JPignorum, pledges of affection,

i. e., their wives and children.-

Concitari, they were routed to fury.

16.	Saevisse in=occidisse.

17.	Misererentur: subj. of the rea-
son.

18.	Vastum, gloomy.-Secreti, de-
serted, i. e., hills left lonely by the ab-
sence of occupiers.62

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

partem dimissis, ubi incerta fugae vestigia neque usquam
conglobari hostes compertum, et exacta iam aestate spargi
bellum nequibat, in fines Borestorum exercitum deducit. Ibi
acceptis obsidibus, praefecto classis circumvehi Britanniam
5 praecipit. Datae ad id vires, et praecesserat terror. Ipse
peditem atque equites lento itinere, quo novarum gentium
animi ipsa transitus mora terrerentur, in hibernis locavit. Et
simul classis seeunda tempestate ac fama Trutulensem por-
tum tenuity unde proximo Britanniae latere lecto omni
lOredierat.

XXXIX. Hunc rerum cursurn, quamquam nulla verbo-
rum iactantia epistolis Agricolae auetum, ut Domitiano moris
erat, fronte laetus, pectore anxius excepit. Inerat conseientia
derisui fuisse nuper falsum e Germania triumph um, emptis
15 per commercia, quorum habitus et crines in captivorum
speciem formarentur; at nunc veram magnamque victoriam,

1.	IJbif when. "Its force extends
to nequibat, and with the clause,
gives the reason why Agricola led off
his forces into the country of the
Boresti." Tyler.-Incerta, sc.esse.

2.	Spargi, protracted, lit., carried
on in different places at the same
time.

3.	Horestorum. These people are
not mentioned elsewhere.

4.	Circumvehi. The infinitive after
praecipere is found only in late
writers.

5.	Vires, a military force, thus
showing that the purpose of the ex-
pedition was one of conquest rather
than discovery.

6.	7. Itinera abl. of manner.-

Ipsa transitus mora, by the very
slowness of his march across their terri-
tories.

8.	Seeunda tempestate ac fama,
" with favorable weather and great re-
nown."-Trtitulensem portwm can

not be identified.

9.	Unde = quo inde, modifies lecto,
whence having coasted the nearer shore
of Britain, it had returned to it. Note

that it had returned before entering
the port; hence the pluperfect.

CHAP. XXXIX. 12. Epistolis refers

to his reports and dispatches.-

Auctum, embellished, is the correction

of Lipsius for actum of the MSS.:-

Moris erat. Cf. Germ. XIII, arma
sumere non cuiquam moris; XXI,
concedere moris; Ag. XXXIII, utbar-
baris moris.

13.	Fronte laetus, with joy on his

countenance.-Inerat, there was in

(his bosom). This word is often used
absolutely, as here. Cf. Liv. IX. 16.
Sail. Cat. XXV.

14.	FalsumtriumpJium. Suetonius
(Dom. VI.) says, De Cattis Dacisquepost
varia proelia duplicem triumphum egit.
Dio Cassius however tells us that he
marched with an army into Ger-
many, and returned without even
the sight of an enemy: and yet he
bought slaves, dressed them in Ger-
man style, had their hair stained red,
and then marched into Rome in tri-
umph.-Emtis, sc. Us.

16. Formarentur : subj. of the pur-
pose, after quorum^ut eorum.THE A&RICOHiA. OF TACITUS.

63

tot milibus liostium caesis, ingenti fama celebrari. Id sibi
maxime formidolosum, privati hominis nomen supra principis
attolli; frustra stndia fori et civilium artium decus in silentium
acta, si militarem gloriam alius occuparet; et cetera utcumque
facilius dissimulari, ducis boni imperatoriam virtutem esse. 5
Talibus curis exercitus, quodque saevae cogitationis indicium
erat, secreto suo satiatus, optimum in praesentia statuit re-
ponere odium, donee impetus famae et favor exercitus
languesceret; nam etiam turn Agricola Britanniam obtinebat.

XL. Igitur triumphalia ornamenta et inlustris statuaelO
honorem, et quidquid pro triumpho datur, multo verborum
h on ore cumulata, decerni in senatu iubet, addique insuper
opinionem, Syriam provinciam Agricolae destinari, vacuam

1. Celebrari depends on inerat

conscientia.-Id sibi, etc. Most

commentators supply existimabat, or
some equivalent verb, from inerat
conscientia, on which, however, it
may depend.

3.	Studia fori, the eloquence of the
bar.-Civilitim artium refers espe-
cially to knowledge of the law, and
the pursuit of politics and govern-
ment.-In silentium, into (actual)

silence, not obscurity.

4.	Acta, sc. esse.-Alius, i. e., than

the Emperor.-Occuparet, preoc-
cupy, forestall, " So as to rob him of
it." T.-Cetera, " all other distinc-
tions " than great military reputa-
tion.-JJtcumque, by some means or

other.

5.	Imperatoriam, is imperial, i. e.,
marks its possessor as a fit aspirant
to the imperial throne. His own
father, Vespasian, had been made
Emperor by his soldiers, after ex-
ploits in no ways - to be compared
with those of Agricola.

6.	Saevae cogitationis, of some cruel
intent.

7.	Secreto suo satiatus, gorging him-
self with his own secret {intentions).-

JReponere, to treasure up, for the fu-
ture.

8.	Impetus, the first burst.

9. languesceret: subj. after donee.

-Nam .... obtinebat. This clause

throws light on secreto suo, in so far
that it shows us his intention to re-
move Agricola from Britain, and his
army.

CHAP. XL. 10. Triumphalia or-
namenta. Under the emperors, after
B. C. 14, the actual triumph was their
privilege, as generalissimos of the
empire, and therefore possessors of
the auspicia. The legati, in real com-
mand, were only allowed the empty
insignia of the triumph. They were
permitted to receive the titles be-
stowed on the Imperatores of the Re-
public; to appear in the garb worn
by them, a gold embroidered dress
(itoga picta), and flowered tunic {tunica
palmeata), and a crown of laurel
(corona laurea). They also were al-.
lowed to hand down to their descend-
ants the laurel-wreathed statue, in a
triumphal car, or to have them
erected in the city. This statue is
here called inlustris; elsewhere lau~
reata, and triumphalis.

11. Quidquid pro triumpho datur.
This would include the supplicatio,
and sacra, offered in the name of the
victorious leader.

13. Opinionem, an impression, to be
produced in the minds of the people,64

THE AGrRICOLA OF TACITUS.

ROMAN CONSUL AND MOTORS.

turn morte Atilii Eufi consularis et maioribus reservatam.
Credidere plerique libertum ex secretioribus ministeriis
missurn ad Agricolam codicillos, quibus ei Syria dabatur,
tulisse, cum praecepto ut, si in Britannia foret, traderentur;
eumque libertum in ipso freto Oceani obvium Agricolae, ne
appellato quidem eo? ad Domitianum remeasse: sive verum
istud, sive ex ingenio principis fictum ac compositum est.
Tradiderat interim Agricola successori suo provinciam quietam

probably by the wording of the de-
cree.-Syriam. Syria, being a very

rich province, was considered the
best position in the gift of the Em-
peror.

1.	Maioribus here=*illustrioribus.

2.	IAbertii/m. Freedmen were em-
ployed by Nero and Domitian as their
confidential agents, and many of
them, being cunning and unscrupu-
lous, rose to great wealth and influ-
ence.

3.	Codieillos, the official documents..

4.	Traderentur. These papers were
sent merely to detach him from his

British legions. As the freedman
met him already returning, the de-
vice was unnecessary, and he there-
fore returned to Rome at once, with-
out even addressing Agricola.

5. Freto, i. e., of Dover.

7.	JEoc ingenio principis, in accord-
ance with the character of the prince.
The story was either true, or might
easily have been so, for the scheme
it supposed was exactly suited to the
Emperor's character.

8.	Tradiderat. Agricola left Bri-
tain, A. D. 85.-Successori suo. It

is not known who succeeded him.THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

65

tutamque. Ac ne notabilis celebritate et frequentia oc-
currentium introitus esset, vitato amicornm officio, noctn in
urbem, noctu in palatium, ita tit praeceptum erat, venit; ex»
ceptusque brevi oscnlo et nullo sermone turbae servientium
immixtus est. Ceterum, ut militare nomen, grave' inter 5
otiosos, aliis yirtutibns temperaret, tranqnillitatem atque otium
penitus auxit, cultn modicus; sermone facilis, uno ant altero
amicorum comitatus, adeo ut plerique qnibus magnos yiros
per ambitionem aestimare mos est, viso aspectoque Agricola,
quaererent famam, pauci interpretarentnr.	10

XLI. Crebro per eos dies apud Domitianum absens
accusatus, absens absolutus est. Causa periculi non crimen
ullum aut querela laesi cuiusquam, sed infensus virtutibus
princeps et gloria viri ac pessimum inimicorum genus,
laudantes. Et ea insecuta sunt reipublicae tempora, quael5
sileri Agricolam non sinerent: tot exercitus in Moesia
Daciaque et Germania et Pannonia temeritate aut per

1.	Celebritate et frequentia, on ac-
count of the rank and numbers.

2.	Officio, complimentary attentions.

4.	Jirevi, hasty, i. e., cold and

formal.-Turbae servientium, with

the crowd of servile courtiers.

5.	Grave, an object of dislike.

6.	Otiosos, mere civilians, is anti-
thetic to militare.

7.	8. JPenitus auocit, he carried to

the furthermost possible limit.-Cultn

Cultus refers to his dress, house, fur-
niture, and, in general, to his manner
of living.-Adeo, so.

9.	Ambitionem. Ambitio specially
refers to that outward show and
splendor which at Rome took the
form of being waited on by a large
number of clients.

10.	Quaererent famam, asked {the

reason of his) fame.-Iwterpretaren-

tur, sc. eum; i. e., understood without
asking.

CHAP. XLI. 11. Absens. The
charges against him were so trans-

parently false, that he was acquitted
even in his absence.

12.	Crimen, crime against the state.

13.	Querela, private complaint.

15.	Jjaudantes. (Sc. causa periculi as
predicate.) These crafty maligners,
knowing the Emperor's jealousy, en-
deavored to inspire him with hatred
of Agricola by constantly praising
the latter in the Emperor's hearing
Some however refer it to his sincere

but injudicious friends.-JEa=talia.

--Quae=ut ea.

16.	Sileri, to rest in silence.—Woesia
Daciaque. The Daci under Decebalus
entered Moesia, stormed the winter
camp of the legions, and slew Oppius
Sabinus, the legate. Subsequently
Cornelius Fuscus, sent to revenge
this defeat, was surprised by the
Daci, his army destroyed, and his
baggage and standards taken.

17.	JEt Germania et Pannonia. This
refers to the wars against the Marco-
manni and Quadi, carried on by the
legions in Pannonia.66

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

ignaviam ducum amissi; tot militares viri cum tot cohortibus
expugnati et capti; nec iam de limite imperii et ripa, sed de
hibernis legionnm et possessione dubitatum. Ita cum damna
damnis continuarentur atque omnis annus funeribus et
5 cladibus insigniretur, poscebatur ore vulgi dux Agricola, com-
parantibus cunctis vigorem et constantiam et expertum bellis
animum cum inertia et formidine eorum, quibus exercitus
committi solerent. Quibus sermonibus satis constat Domi-
tiani quoque aures verberatas, dum optimus quisque libertorum
lOamore et fide, pessimi malignitate et livore pronum deterio-
ribus principem exstimulabant. Sic Agricola simul virtuti-
bus, simul vitiis aliorum in ipsam gloriam praeceps agebatur.

XLII. Aderat iam annus, quo proconsulatum Asiae et
Africae sortiretur; et, occiso Civica nuper, nec Agricolae
15 consilium deerat, nec Domitiano exemplum. Accessere qui-

1.	militares viri = " duces."

2.	" JLvmite here denotes the actual
fortified boundary line drawn for the
defence of the Empire against the
German and Sarmatian tribes on the
side of Pannonia and Dacia" There
are said to be still visible remains of
a line of Roman forts from Peter-
wardin to Bees, on the Theiss. The
ripa here mentioned is the right
bank of the Danube, as far as the
Quadi.

3.	Possessione, sc. provindarum.

4.	5. Damnis: dative.-Funeri-
busf sc. ducum.-Cladibus, sc. co-

hortium.

7. Forum. This is the reading of
the MSS. Something appears (from
the Vatican MS.) to have dropped
out after eorum and the words in
italics are Halm's conjecture. Most
recent editors since Grotius read
eeterorum.

9.	V'erberatas, sc. esse.

10.	Amore et fide: i. e., for Domi-

mitian.-JPessimi, sc. liberti.-

Malignitate et livore: i. e., of Agri-
cola.-Deterioribus: neuter.

11.	Mxstimulabant, were working
powerfully on.

12. Vitiis includes the faults of in-
capacity hinted at in inertia and
formidine, and the moral faults of

malignitas and livor.-In ipsam

gloriamf 11 to the very height of glory"

■-Praeceps: i. e., this glory was his

ruin.

CHAP. XLII. lS.A.deratiamannus.
In the time of the Republic, the pro-
vinces were assigned to magistrates
immediately upon leaving their
offices, but under the empire there
must be an interval of some years,
varying at different periods,—at this
time generally thirteen years. The

date is supposed to be A. D. 90.-

Proconsulatum Asiae et Africae.
These provinces of Asia and Africa,
both senatorial provinces, and each
forming a proconsulate, were the
most important and of chiefest
dignity. They were given as a rule to
the two oldest consulars. Agricola,
as one of the two oldest was to decide
by lot which of the two provinces he
should take.

14,15. Occiso Civica. Suetonius (Do-
mit. X.) tells us that Civica Cerialis
was put to death by Domitian on a
charge of treason, while holding theTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

67

dam cogitationum principis periti, qui iturusne esset in pro-
vinciam ultro Agricolam interrogarent. Ac primo occultius
quietem et otium laudare, mox operam suarn in adprobanda
excusatione offer re; postremo non iam obscuri suadentes
simul terrentesque pertraxere ad Domitianum. Qui paratus 5
simulation^ in adrogantiam compositus, et audiit preces
excusantis, et, cum adnuisset, agi sibi gratias passus est, nec
erubuit beneficii invidia. Salarium tamen, proconsulari
solitum offerri et quibusdam a se ipso concessum, Agricolae
non dedit; sive offensus non petitum, sive ex conscientia, nelO
quod yetuerat videretur emisse. Proprium humani ingenii
est odisse quern laeseris; Domitiani vero natura, praeceps in
iram, et quo obscuri or, eo inrevocabilior, moderatione tamen
prudentiaque Agricolae leniebatur, quia non contumacia
neque inani iactatione libertatis famam fatumque provocabat-15
Sciant, quibus moris est inlicita mirari, posse etiam sub malis

proconsulate of Asia. This supplied
Agricola with a warning (consilium)
to avoid a similar dignity himself
and would have afforded Domitian a
precedent (exemplum) for dispatch-
ing him, had he accepted it.

1.	Cogitationum principis periti,
" familiar with theMnperor's views."

2.	Ultrof actually; i. e., went so far
as to ask.-Occultius, somewhat ob-
scurely. O.

3.	laudare, sc. w.,the emissaries of
Domitian.—In adprobanda excusa-
tione: i. e., in satisfying the Emperor
that Agricola's reasons for declining
the province were good.

4.	Non iam, (ino longer."

5,6. Pertraasere: i. e., against his

will.-Paratus simulations, armed

with hypocrisy: instrumental abla-
tive.-In adrogantiam: i. e., with

complete indifference to the matter.

7.	Eoccusantis, sc. eius, i. e., Agri-
colae.

8.	Erubuit .... invidia. He did
not blush to undergo the odium that
must ensue with all right-thinking
men from such a sham act of conces-

sion to Agricola's wishes.-Sala-
rium. The salary to the governors
of the provinces was instituted by
Augustus, by advice of Maecenas.
The amount of the salary here alluded
to is not definitely known, but it was
somewhere between $40,000 and $50,-
000. Cf. Dio. Cass. LII. 28; LXXVIII,
22.

10.	JYon petitum (esse), sc. id; i. e.,
salarium.

11.	Emisse. The Emperor was fear-
ful lest people should imagine that he
dare not forbid Agricola from going
to his province, but had been obliged
to bribe him.

13. Inrevocabilior = implaeabilior,
the more implacable: used in this
sense only by Tacitus.

16. Inlicita, unlawful, i. e., "forbid-
den by the powers that be." T. The
idea seems to be: some admire the
boldness and spirit of those who aim
at freedom and independence no
longer possible to attain under the
existing state of the empire, and are
inclined to despise all who lower their
aspirations to the merely possible.68

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

principibus magnos yiros esse, obsequiumque ac modestiam, si
indnstria ac vigor adsint, eo laudis excedere, quo plerique per
abrupta, sed in nullum reipublicae usum? ambitiosa morte
inclaruerunt.

5 XLIII. Finis vitae eius nobis luctuosus, amicis tristis,
extraneis etiam ignotisque non sine cura fuit. Vulgus quo-
que et hie aliud agens populus et ventitavere ad domum et
per fora et circulos locuti sunt: nec quisquam, audita morte
Agricolae, aut laetatus est aut statim oblitus. Augebat

lOmiserationem constans rumor veneno interceptum; nobis nihil
eomperti adfirmare ausim. Ceterum per omnem yaletudinem
eius, crebrius quam ex more. prineipatus per nuntios visentis,
et libertorum primi et medicorum intimi venere; sive cura
illud sive inquisitio erat. Supremo quidem die momenta ipsa

15 deficientis per dispositos cursores nuntiata constabat, "hullo
credente sic accelerari, quae tristis audiret. Speciem tamen
doloris animo vultuque prae se tulit, securus iam odii; et qui

2.	JEo laudis, to that degree of excel-
lence.-JExcedere is generally used

for ' passing beyond moderate

bounds.'-Per abrupta, " by steep

{and, consequently, dangerous) paths."

3.	Ajmbitiosa: i. e., intended for
effect. Tacitus is here alluding to the
conduct of certain stoics and repub-
licans, whose violent and offensive
acts were of no benefit to the state,
except to show their spirit and to
bring them the glory of martyrdom.

CHAP. XLIII. 5. JLuctuosus, "af-
flictive, is much stronger than tristis,
sad." Tyler.-Nobis: i. e., his family.

6.	Hkvtraneis: i. e., persons who
were unconnected with Agricola
either by blood or close friendship.
-Vulgus, the common people,

7.	Mic aliud ag ens == incuriosus.-

JPopulus is only an enlargement of
vulgus, and no marked distinction
is intended.

8.	Per fora, the public places.-Cir-
culos, little gatherings ; for gossip.-

JLocuti sunt: sc. eum, talked about him.

10.	Interceptum (esse), sc. eum as
subject.-Nihil, sc. esse.

11.	Comperti: part, genitive modify-
ing nihil.

12.	Prineipatus. The custom here
alluded to is not stated as peculiar to
Domitian. All emperors send persons
to make inquiries rather than make
them in person; and as it is gener-
ally a formal compliment, the in-
quiries are rarely made frequently.

14.	Inquisitio, espionage. —r- Mo-
menta deficientis, sc. eius, the gradual
steps in his decline.

15.	Per dispositos ctir sores. Domi-
tian was probably at his Alban villa
some distance from Rome. Vid. chap.
XLV.

16.	A.ccelerari, sc. ea.

17.	A.nimo vultuque. " Animus de-
notes the frame of mind, which in-
clines a person to the usual manifes-
tations of , grief; vultus denotes its
expression on the countenance.
Domitian's assumed grief showed it-
self not merely in his looks but inTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

69

facilius dissimularet gaudium quam metum. Satis constabat,
lecto testamento Agricolae, quo coheredem optimae nxori et
piissimae filiae Domitianum scripsit, laetatum eum velut
honore iudicioqne. Tam caeca et corrupta mens assiduis
adulationibus erat, ut nesciret a bono patre non scribi 5
heredem nisi malum principem.

XLIY. JSTatus erat Agricola, Gaio Caesare tertium
consule, Idibus Iuniis; excessit quarto et quinquagesimo
anno, decimo Kalendas Septembris, Collega Priscoque con-
sulibus. Quod si habitum quoque eius posteri noscere velint, 10
decentior quam sublimior fuit; nihil metus in vultu, gratia
oris supererat. Bonum virum facile crederes, magnum li-
benter. Et ipse quidem, quamquam medio in spatio integrae
aetatis ereptus, quantum ad gloriam, longissimum aevum
peregit; quippe et vera bona, quae in virtutibus sita sunt, 15
impleverat, et consulari ac triumphalibus ornamentis praedito
quid aliud adstruere fortuna poterat? Opibus nimiis non
gaudebat, speciosae contigerant. Filia atque uxore super-

his general demeanor."-JPrae se

tulit, showed, manifested.-Sectirus

iam odii, certain now of gratifying his
dislike. Domitian was now sure of
his victim, and being no longer afraid
of Agricola, only glad at the cer-
tainty of getting rid of him, he was
able to conceal the latter feeling more

successfully than the former.-Et

qui = et talis ut.

2.	Coheredem: probably ex dimidia
parte; done of course to secure some
of his property to his own family.

3.	Piissimae. Cicero jeers at Mar-
cus Antonius for using the phrase
piissimi hominis, and introducing a
new word into the language {quod
verbum nullum omnino est). The word,
however, is frequently used by the
late writers, Seneca, Quintilian and
others.-Velutras if.

6. Nisi malum, unless bad.

CHAP. XLIV. 7. Gaio Caesare: i.
e., Caligula.-—Tertium consule. A.
D. 40.

9.	Collega JPriscoqtie consulibus.
A. D. 93.

10.	Habitum, personal appearance.

11.	Decentior quam sublimior, well
built rather than tall; i. e., symmet-
rical. -Nihil .... supererat

there was nothing in his looks to inspire
terror; rather sweetness of expression,
abundantly portrayed, was there. Note
the force of stiper, and cf. Germ., VI:
XXVI.

13.	Medio in spatio integrae aetatis,
"in the mid career of unimpaired age=
in the prime of life." C.

14.	Quantum ad gloriam, sc. attinet.

16. Impleverat, he had fully at-
tained.

18. Speciosae contigerant: i. e.,
Agricola had wealth enough to make
a respectable figure. Dion Cassius
says that Agricola, after his return
from Britain, lived in neglect and
want(sv ts arifila ml ev evdeia). This
assertion is directly contradicted by70

THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

stitibus, potest videri etiam beatus; incolumi dignitate,
florente fama, salvis adfinitatibus et amicitiis futura effiigisse.
Nam sicuti durare in hanc beatissimi saecnli lucem ac
principem Traianum videre, quod augurio votisque apud
5 nostras aures ominabatur, ita festinatae mortis grande solacium
tulit evasisse postremum illud tempus, quo Domitianus non
iam per intervalla ac spiramenta temporum, sed continuo et
velut uno ictu rempublicam exhausit. XLV. Non vidit
Agricola obsessam curiam et clausum armis senatum et eadem
lOstragetot consularium caedes, tot nobilissimarum feminarum
exsilia et fugas. Una adhuc victoria Carus Metius cense-
batur, et intra Albanam arcem sententia Messalini strepebat,
et Massa Baebius turn reus erat. Mox nostrae duxere
Helvidium in carcerem manus, nos Maurici Rusticique visus,

this passage and the general tenor of
the sixth chapter.

3.	Sicutif sc. grande solacium fuisset.

4.	Augurio, by prediction, shows
his sagacity in foreseeing the coming
man. Dion Cassius (LXIX., 12) says
that the elevation of Trajan to the
imperial throne was foretold two
years before the death of Agricola,
and Tacitus may allude to this.

7.	Spiramenta, pauses, in which to
gain breath.

8.	XTno ictu. Caligula is said to
have wished that the Roman people
had one neck, that he might destroy
them at one blow.

CHAP. XLV. 9. Obsessam, curiam.
This is not mentioned elsewhere.
The Emperor Nero, when he was
anxious to secure the condemnation
of Thrasea, placed Praetorian cohorts
around the temple of Venus where
the Senate was in session and guarded
the approach with civilians armed
with swords openly displayed. It is
possible that Domitian may have
done the same thing.

10. Tot consularium caedes. A list
of Domitian's victims is found in
Suetonius (Dom. X.), most of them
being put to death on the most trivial
charges. One was killed for calling a
new dish by his name, another for a

joke, a third for celebrating his uncle

Otho's birthday, etc.-Feminarum

exsilia: e. g. Arria, Fannia, Gratilla,
Flavia Domitilla and Pontia Domi-
tilla.

11.	Adhuc: i. e., at the time of Agri-

cola's death.-Carus Metius is

mentioned with Massa Baebius in
Juvenal (I. 35, 36) as the prince of in-
formers.-Censebatur9 was rated at.

12.	Albanam arcem. This is the
palace of Domitian under the Alban
mount. He used to summon the
Senate thither for consultation. Cf.

Juv. IV. 145.-Messalini. Catullus

Messalinus was governor of Libyan
Pentapolis under Vespasian and
Titus, in which office he treated the
provincial Jews, including Josephus,
with great cruelty. He was recalled
from his province, but escaped
punishment, turned informer, and
afterwards died a wretched death.

13.	Massa JSaebius was impeached
by the province of Baetica, where he

had been procurator, in A. D. 70.-

Nostrae manus — nos senatores.
Tacitus was not at Rome for some
time after Agricola's death, and he
only uses nostrae as he himself was
a senator.

14.	HelviMum. Helvidius Priscus
the younger, on the charge of havingTHE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

71

nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit. Nero tamen sub-
traxit oculos suos iussitque scelera, non spectavit; praecipua
sub Domitiano miseriarum pars erat videre et aspici, cum
suspiria nostra subscriberentur, cum denotandis tot hominum
palloribus sufficeret saevus ille yultus et rubor, quo se contra 5
pudorem muniebat.

Tu yero felix, Agricola, non yitae tantum claritate, sed
etiam opportunitate mortis. Ut perhibent, qui interfuerunt
novissimis sermonibus tuis, constans et libens fatum excepisti,
tamquam pro virili portione innocentiam principi donares. 10
Sed mihi filiaeque eius; praeter acerbitatem parentis erepti,
auget maestitiam, quod adsidere valetudini, fovere de-
ficientem, satiari vultu complexuque non contigit. Exce-
pissemus certe mandata vocesque, quas penitus animo figere-
mus. Noster hie dolor, nostrum vulnus; nobis tam longae 15
absentiae conditione ante quadriennium amissus est. Omnia

in a farce of Paris and Aenone in-
tended to portray the Emperor's
divorce from all his wives, was ap-
parently seized in the senate, and
dragged off to prison by the obse-
quious senators.-Waurici Jlusti-

cique. These were two brothers of
the Julian gens, who were cruelly
separated in the sight of the senate,
Rusticus being hurried away to
execution and Helvidius to banish-
ment.-Visus: on account of the

bold zeugma in perfudit, some verb
to suit visus must be supplied, as
perculit or adflixit.

1. Senecio. This statement is not
literally true, as Senecio was not put
to death in the Senate-house. The act,
however, stained the Senators with
the guilt of innocent blood.

3.	Videre, sc. Domitianum.-JLs-

pici, sc. a Domitiano.

4.	Subscriber entur, were noted
down as matters of accusation against
us. Any one, who supported an ac-
cusation brought by another, by en-
tering his name on the indictment as
subsidiary accuser was said sub-
scribere.

5, 6. Sufficeret, sufficed, i. e., bore

up without flinching.-JRubor.

Pliny the Younger (Paneg. XLTVTI.)
says of Domitian, ltfemineuspallor in
corpore, in ore impudentia multo ru-
bor e sujfusa." Cf. Suet. Domitianus
XyilL, " Vultu modesto, ruborisque
pleno."-Pudorem, shame.

9.	Constans et libens, " with courage
and cheerfulness

10.	Pro virili portione is found also
in Hist. III. 20, in the sense of pro
virili parte, which is Cicero's form.

-Xnnocenticvm,, i. e., freedom from

guilt, implying that he was guilty.

-Principi donares. Agricola, by

accepting his death with resignation,
as in the course of nature, did his
best to shield the Emperor from the
suspicion of having dispatched him.

15.	Mic dolor, sc.fuit.

16.	JOongae absentiae. Tacitus is
speaking of his own absence from

Rome. - JLnte quadriennium.

Tacitus was praetor in A. D. 88, and
in the following year seems to have
left Rome, on what account we are
nowhere informed. Possibly he ob-72

THE AGBICOLA OF TACITUS.

sine dubio, optime parentum, adsidente amantissima uxore,
superfuere honori tuo; paueioribus tamen lacrimis compositus
es, et novissima in luce desideravere aliquid oculi tui.

XLVI. Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus
5 placet, non cum corpore exstinguuntur magnae animae,
placide quiescas, nosque, domum tuam, ab infirnio desiderio et
muliebribus lamentis ad contemplationem virtu turn tuarum
voces, quas neque lugeri neque plangi fas est. Admiratione
te potius quam temporalibus laudibus, et, si natura suppe-
lOditet, aemulatione decoremus. Is verus honos, ea con-
iunctissimi cuiusque pietas. Id filiae quoque uxorique prae-
ceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam venerari, ut omnia
facta dictaque eius secum revolvant, formamque ac figuram
animi magis quam corporis complectantur; non quia interce-
15dendum putem imaginibus, quae marmore aut aere finguntur;
sed ut vultus hominum, ita simulacra vultus imbecilla ac
mortalia sunt, forma mentis aeterna, quam tenere et expri-

tainedthe administration of some
province.

2.	Paueioribus, too few.

3.	Desideravere aliquid, u longed
for something in vain."

CHAP. XLVI. 4. Si qtiis piorum
manibus locus. Note that Tacitus
simply hopes that the souls of the de-
parted may still live. That he had
no firm belief in this is evident from
An.. III., 18; VI. 22, which was fully
in accordance with the character of

that period.-Tit sapientibus placet,

" as is believed by 'philosophers.''1

6.	Domum: appos. with nos.-

Infirmo, feeble ; i. e., resulting from
a morbid state of mind.

7.	Muliebribus lamentis. Cf. Seneca
A. XV. 63. " Rogat oratque temperaret
dolori, ne aeternum susciperet sed in
contemplatione vitaeper virtutem actae
desiderium mariti solatiis honestis tole-
rareV

8.	JPlcvngi. Plango is construed like
TvirTOfjiai and KoirTOjiai in Greek.
When they mean 1 to beat oneself in
sorrow for anyonethey take an ac-

cusative. Lugeri has reference to
the real sentiment of grief, while
plangi denotes outward manifesta-
tions only.

9.	Quam is not found in the MSS.,
but is required if teniporalibtis
(which is found) be retained.-Na-
tura, " natural powers."

10.	Decoremus, let us honor. Cf
, Ennius quoted by Cic. de iSenect. XX:

Nemo me lacrumis decoret nee funera
fletu faxit.

13.	Formamque ac figuram. Forma
has reference to the visible embodi-
ment of the internal nature of that to
which it corresponds, while Mgura
means shape as regards outline.

14.	Intercedendum. Inlercedo, here
used figuratively, refers properly to
the tribunitian veto.

15.	Putem: subj. after non, quia,
not that. A. 341, R; G. 541, B; H. 516,2,
This meaning is given the conjunc-
tion by late writers.

17. Mentis = animi, and refers to
"the entire mental and spiritual
being."THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS.

73

mere non per alienam materiam et artem, sed tuis ipse mori-
bns possis. Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, quidquid
mirati sumus, manet mansurumque est in animis hominum,
in aeternitate temporum, fama rerum. Nam multos veterum,
velut inglorios et ignobiles, obliyio obruit; Agricola posteri-
tati narratns et traditus superstes erit.

1. Per alienam materiam et ar-
tem refers to marble or bronze and
the skill of the artist, " which are
necessarily foreign to the truest and
best representation of human char-
acter."

3.	JTaitsurum est, is destined to re-
main.

4.	Fama rerum, in the fame of
aehievments; i. e., in the records of
the human race.

5.	Oblivio obrtiit: because the men
had no historian to recount their
deeds. Cf. Hor. Od. IV., ix., 25:

Vixere fortes ante Agamemnona
Multi: sed omnes illacrimabiles
Urgentur ignotique longa
Nocte, carent quia vate sacro.

There is an epigram by Antiphilus
in the Anthologia supposed to refer to
Agricola, the subject of this biogra-
phy,-

Kprjvalat ?n(3ddeg ri wetyevyare ; ttov
roaov vScop ;

rig aevaovg eapeoev fjeXiov ;
daupvav 'AypcK,6?M0 rerpv^eda • irav 6'
OGOV TjflLV

7}v tcotov rj kelvov diifjag exei airodlr].

TOMBS ON THE APPIAN WAY,COIN OF NERO.CORNELII TACITI
DE ORIGINE SITU MORIBUS
POPULISQUE GERMANIAE

LIBER.MA~P gDOJXLXrSTRATE ffHE GEKMAMi QJE1 {TACTEPFS

_ x 10 a >" ! /SO	
& ^ 0 jr > T I  JA^%WW'W" ^ r1  ° ** j*»I c vs, v| -rw\ „ {  / «b S^^aoses Suax3^^^rf^ ^ 0 tioiC e s 1 ^  hff He-udignii * ) 1 ^  J?\l A 1 <6 v^'c0]! S_ \VTi0°es / * ^ 1  /%,-Hr. £« >$L p &°"oZNJjiitlicmes/ _ f~~^^ p 1  l£k^r~~\ f r^L« Til %~s< \  i L\^fCHsL rr^ / M•*^1 «  .fne^fvarii \>s £A L S eur-fiLGSLffs -JA\ ) \ 1 A V ^  G\S * »i k«A^V 3v X r® "^W, — Sat x A H  l^, 1 VZ ?i li ^ C3/ wJivecoiiesS.  ■ U£ /lC^^^\A [ ~ ^ Ely"1 \f ./ H <Esi&# ^rp&'^Sdi '* '^v,.i / ^ ?KLxw,^.^.af5ls°lVN r /V »  /l\ / ?t?1	w
6 E.Gr; 10 15 #>,	

MA~P gDOJXLXrSTRATE ffHE GEKMAMi QJE1 {TACTEPFSINTRODUCTION TO THE "GEKMAKtA."

AjAACITUS apparently wrote his treatise l! De Situ, Moribus, Populisque
Germaniae" in A. D. 98. In cap. 37 of the work he reckons about
210 years to have elapsed from the epoch when the Cimbri first became
known to the Romans to the " second Consulship of the Emperor Trajan."
This was in A. D. 98; and Tacitus most probably computed the years to
the date of the publication of the pamphlet in question. There is also an
additional argument for its early composition, derived from the fact that
although fuller information might be looked for in a work entirely devoted
to the history of the Teutonic races than from a general history of the Ro-
man Empire, yet in the Annates and Historiae, German tribes are men-
tioned which in this treatise are entirely omitted: for instance, the Can-
ninefates,1 the Gugerni,2 the Tubantes,3 the Ampsivarii,4 and the Sugambri.5
Tacitus probably learned more as he advanced in years, and carried out
more fully his historical researches.

His object in writing it Has been much contested. Some think it was in
order to dissuade Trajan from a projected expedition that he painted the
German people as foes so formidable; others, that it is a satire on the vices
of Rome couched under the guise of an innocent ethnographic treatise;
others, that it is inspired by the genuine scientific desire to investigate the
many objects of historic and natural interest with which a vast and un-
known territory abounded. But none of these motives supplies a satisfac-
tory explanation. The first can hardly be maintained owing to the his-
torical difficulties; the second, though an object congenial to the Roman
mind, is not lofty enough to have moved the pen of Tacitus; the third,
though it may have had some weight with him, would argue a state of
scientific curiosity in advance of Tacitus' position and age, and besides is
incompatible with his culpable laziness in sifting information on matters of
still greater ethnographic interest.6 If we are to have a theory on the sub-

1.	Hist.. IV., 15.	3. An., I., 51.	5. An., II., 26.

2.	Id. 26.	4. An., XIII., 56

6. Notably the history of the Jews. History V.

34

INTRODUCTION.

ject, we incline to think that cap. 37, which enumerates the Roman losses
in Germany and dwells on the fierce independence of the people, more ter-
rible even than the Samnite, Carthaginian, Gaul or Parthian, hints at the
motive which led to its composition. A country so formidable, from which
alone, as Tacitus might well think, serious danger was. to be apprehended
by Rome, would at least be worth a description so full and so accurate as
his opportunities enabled him to give. Thus, the design of the work was
purely and pre-eminently patriotic; nor is any other purpose worthy of the
great historian, patrician, patriot, and soldier that he was. At the same
time subsidiary motives are not excluded; we may well believe that the
gall of satire kindles his eloquence, and that the insatiable desire of knowl-
edge stimulated his research while inquiring into the less accessible details
of the German polity.

It is to Tacitus that we are mainly indebted for whatever knowledge we
possess of ancient Germany, and of the character of its various peoples.
From the other writers something in the way of comparison and illustra-
tion may be learned, but he is the only writer who gives us a picture of the
life of the ancient Germans. As it is extremely probable that he never had
been in Germany, his knowledge was collected from those who had visited
it for the purpose of either war or commerce; hence, he naturally falls
from time to time into the errors incident to imperfect information; and
one rather pines for the good faith of Herodotus, who never leaves us in
the least doubt as to the sources of his second-hand intelligence. Tacitus'
accepimus does not even tell us whether he is quoting from books or from
travelers or from natives. Hence his geographical descriptions are very
often vague and inaccurate, and he now and then seems to attribute to the
whole German population the peculiarities of a single people ; a mixture
of the marvelous shows that some of his narratives consist in mere
traveler's tales, while the salient points and characteristic features of the
national manners bear the impress of truth, and are supported by the well-
known habits and institutions of the Teutonic nations. He has contrived
to compress into a small compass more of ethics and politics, more fine de-
lineations of character, more substance and pith (sue), than can be collected
from many a ponderous volume. It is not one of those barely agreeable
descriptions which gradually diffuse their influence over the soul, and leave
it in undisturbed tranquility. It is a picture in a strong light, like the
subject itself, full of fire, of sentiment, of lightning-flashes, that go at once
to the heart. We imagine ourselves in Germany; we become familiar with
these so-called barbarians; we pardon their faults, and almost their vices,
out of regard for their virtues; and, in our moments of enthusiasm, we even
wish we were Germans. Thus, we see that he has given us much really
valuable matter, and has enabled us to perceive in their earliest workings
the germs of certain mediaeval and modern institutions. It would be too much
to suppose that he was guided to this result by a deliberate and consciousINTRODUCTION.

5

foresight, or that he ever so dimly anticipated from what most impressed him
with admiration in the character of these tribes, the establishment of a new
world on the ruins of the Roman empire.

The work is divided into two parts. The first gives an account of the
situation, climate, soil, and inhabitants of the country; it investigates the
etymology of several German names of men and gods, describes the na-
tional customs, religion, laws, amusements, and especially celebrates the
moral strictness of the people: but at the same time not without contrasting
them unfavorably with Rome whenever the advantage is on her side. The
second part contains a catalogue of the different tribes with their geo-
graphical limits, salient characteristics, and a short historical account of
each, whenever accessible.

We gather from this work that the Germans were not for the most part
an utterly barbarous people. Of art and literature they knew next to noth-
ing, and to the civilization of Greek and Italian cities they were entire
strangers. They had a regular social organization on an aristocratic basis,
their political constitutions being elective monarchies, but the monarch was
always of noble birth, and his powers were limited j1 and all matters of im-
portance were debated by the estate of the people.2 They had no distinct
order of priests, as that of the Druids in Gaul; no temples, no images of
the gods, still their religion was not without noble and awe-inspiring ele-
ments. Tacitus hints at many wild legends and dark superstitions with
which the German imagination still loves to people the dark recesses of
their forests.3 He describes their pure and unmixed race, and, conse-
quently, the universal prevalence of the national features—blue eyes, red
or sandy hair, and stalwart and gigantic frames.4 In the solemn permis-
sion accorded to a German youth to bear arms, and in his investiture with
lance and shield, is seen the origin of knighthood ;5 and in the sanctity of
the marriage tie, the chastity of the female sex, their social influence, and
the respect paid to them—the rarity of adultery and its severe punishment,
and the total absence of polygamy, with which modern readers will find it
difficult to believe that masculine caprice has nothing to do—we recognize
the germ of the distinguishing characteristics of chivalry.6 This last fea-
ture of the German manners Tacitus singles out for special commendation
and he connects this virtue with their simple life, which knew nothing of
the various artificial excitements of Roman civilization; but he mentions,
too, that the Germans, like most other savages, left all serious work to the
women and slaves.7 They were hospitable and constant to their hereditary
friendships, but stern in perpetuating family feuds ;8 passionately fond of
gambling, and strict in their regard for debts of honor ;9 inveterate drinkers
and their favorite potation was beer ;10 they could not consult on important

1. Cap. vii 2. Cap. xi. 3. Cap. ix., xxxix., xl., xliii. 4. Cap. iv. 5. Cap. xiii.

6. Cap. xviii., xix. 7. Cap. xv. 8. Cap. xxi. 9. Cap. xxiv. 10. Cap. xxiii.6

INTRODUCTION.

matters without a convivial meeting,1 and they deliberated even on the
most important matters when drunk as well as when sober, without the
slightest suspicion, apparently, that their sober deliberations were often
compromised by the boasts to which they had committed themselves when
intoxicated; if they quarreled over their cups, they had recourse rarely to
words, usually to blows.2 Their slaves were in the condition of serfs or
villains, and paid to the lord a fixed rent in corn, or cattle or manufac-
tures.3 They reckoned their time by nights instead of days,4 just as we are
accustomed to use the expressions sennight and fortnight. After remark-
ing that money is unknown among them, Tacitus adds—an observation
otherwise somewhat unnecessary, unless for stigmatizing indirectly the
vices of the Romans—that usury was not practised among them. In de-
scribing the laziness of the Germans, Tacitus is at pains to be emphatic,
and,, for him, almost diffuse: he recurs to it again and again. They do not
even hunt; they eat as soon as they wake, and spend their whole time,
when not at war, between eating and sleeping. Fixed habitations, separate
and apart from each other, answering to our homesteads, were the rule
among them. Everything about them seems to imply a love of severe sim-
plicity and a determined spirit of independence. To one brought up amid
the elegant luxuries and refinement of Rome the German life and character
must have seemed as uncongenial as the climate, which so strikingly con-
trasted with the sunny skies of Italy.

After thus having sketched the manners and customs of the nation as a
whole, he proceeds to treat of each tribe separately. The information, so
far as it relates to the tribes bordering on the Rhine, and therefore well
known to the Romans, is no doubt precise and authentic, but in the account
of the remoter tribes much is based on vague hearsay and obscure report.
In speaking of our own forefathers, the Angli, who inhabited part of the
modern territory of Sleswig-Holstein, and whose name is still retained in
the district of Angeln, one word which he uses is an English one. The
Angli, he says, together with the conterminous tribes, worship Herthus,
i. e., Terra. Even in those early times he mentions the naval superiority of
the Suiones, who were the ancestors of the Normans and the Vikings.
With these he affirms that the Continent of Europe terminates, and all
beyond is a motionless and frozen ocean. Truth in these distant climes
mingles with fable. Daylight continues after the sun has set, but a hissing
noise is heard as his blazing orb plunges into the sea, and the forms of the
gods, and the radiant glories which surround their heads are visible. The
list of marvels ends with fabulous beings whose bodies and limbs are those
of wild beasts, while their heads and faces are human. Adapted.

1. Cap. xxii. 2. Cap. xxii. . 3. Cap, xxv. 4. Cap. xi.INTRODUCTION.

7

The style of the Oermania is almost the mature style of Tacitus, and the
note of sarcasm is already predominant. There is nothing much bitterer
in any of his writings, than the passage in which the fall of the Cherusci
is traced to their becoming peaceable, good neighbors j1 and the sneer at
Rome is bitter enough when we read that the Germans do not call it the
way of the world to corrupt and to be corrupted.2 The bitterness is quite
impartial: when the Germans go quietly into slavery for a gambling debt,
they call it honor, and Tacitus calls it madness.3

The following remarks of Murphy, quoted from Tyler, will illustrate the
value of the treatise to modern Europeans and their descendants: " It is a
draught of savage manners, delineated by a masterly hand; the more inter-
esting, as the part of the world which it describes was the seminary of the
modern European nations, the Vagina Gentium, as historians have em-
phatically called it. The work is short, but, as Montesquieu observes, it is
the work of a man who abridged everything, because he knew everything.
A thorough knowledge of the transactions of barbarous ages will throw
more light than is generally imagined on the laws of modern times.
Wherever the barbarians, who issued from their northern hive, settled in
new habitations, they carried with them their native genius, their original
manners^ and the first rudiments of the political system which has prevailed
in different parts of Europe. They established monarchy and liberty,
subordination and freedom, the prerogative of the prince and the rights of
the subject, all united in so bold a combination that the fabric, in some
places, stands to this hour the wonder of mankind. The British Constitu-
tion, says Montesquieu, came out of the woods of Germany. What the state
of this country (Britain) was before the arrival of our Saxon ancestors,
Tacitus has shown in the life of Agricola. If we add to his account of the
Germans and Britains what has been transmitted to us concerning them by
Julius Csesar, we shall see the origin of Anglo-Saxon government, the great
outline of that Gothic constitution under which the people enjoy their rights
and liberties at this hour. Montesquieu, speaking of his own country, de-
clares it impossible to form an adequate notion of the French monarchy
and the changes of their government, without a previous inquiry into the
manners, genius, and spirit of the German nations. Much of what was in-
corporated with the institutions of those fierce invaders has flowed down in
the stream of time, and still mingles with our modern jurisprudence. The
subject, it is conceived, is interesting to every Briton. In the manners of
the Germans, the reader will see our present frame of government, as it
were, in its cradle, gentis cunabula nostrae ! in the Germans themselves, a

1. Cap. xxxvi. 2. Cap. xix. 3. Cap. xxiv.8

INTRODUCTION.

fierce and warlike people, to whom this country owes that spirit of liberty
which, through so many centuries, has preserved our excellent form of
government, and raised the glory of the British nation:

"-Genus unde Latinum,

Albanique patres, atque altae moenia Romae."

The authorities on the subject of the Germans amongst the ancients are,—

I.	Caesar, Bell. Gall. i. 30—54.

ii. 4 and 15.

iv. 1—19.

vi. 9—28.

II.	VELiiEius Paterculus, ii. 108, 109, and 117—122.

III. Strabo, vii. 1.

IY. Pomponius Mela, iii. 2, 3.

V. PiiiNius, iv. 27—29.

xvi. 1.

VI. Tacitus, An. i. 55—71.

ii. 5—26, and 44—46, and 88,

xi. 16—20.

Hist. iv. 12—30, and 54—79.

v. 14—25.

VII. Ptolemaeus, ii. 11, etc.CORNELII TACITI GERM A NT A.

Germania onmis a Gallis Raetisque et Pannoniis

CHAP. I. Germania. The coun-
try intended by Tacitus is Germania
east of the Rhine, sometimes called
Trans-rhenana, Magna, or Barbara.
Distinct from this was Germania Cis-
rhenana, a district west of the Rhine,
occupied by transplanted Germanic
tribes. This was subdivided into
Germania Prima, or Superior, extend-
ing from Augusta Rauracorum,
(Augst), a little above Bale, to Mo-
guntiacum (Mainz), and Germania iSe-
cunda or Inferior, reaching from this
last point to the sea. These two divi-
sions are comprehended in the plural
form; used by Tacitus (An. II. 73).
The area, embraced under the name
Germania by our author, is larger
than that included in its modern
equivalent, Germany. Kiepert. Atlas

Antiquus, XI.-Omnis, as a whole,

i. e., Germany entire, as distinguished
from the two provinces of Germania
Superior and Inferior, regarded as de-
tached fragments, dislocated from
the true German area. So Caesar
speaks of Gallia omnis (B. G. 1.1.), as
distinguished from Cisalpine Gaul.
Note the order here, and in the pas-
sage just quoted; the name of the
country to be described in the work

occupies the emphatic position.-

Gallis, etc. The names of the people
are used for those of their countries.

-Haetis. Haetia Proper, or Prima,

extended from the Helvetii to Nori-
cum, embracing the upper portions
of the valleys of the IAcus (Lech),
Aenus (Inn), and Athesis (Adige), the
modern Grisons, Tyrol, and part of

910

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

Rheno et Danubio fluminibus, a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo
metu aut montibus separatur. Cetera Oceanus ambit, latos
sinus et insularnm immensa spatia complectens, nuper cognitis

Lombardy. The Raetians are said by
Kiepert to have been akin to the

Etruscans.--que et. "We have two

conjunctions here, because the Raeti
and Pannonii were more closely con-
nected with one another than with
the Galli."-JPannoniis. The coun-
try occupied by this people stretched
from Mons Cetius to the Danube,
near its junction with the Tiviscus
(Theiss), and from the Danube in the
North to the Savus (Save) in the
South, comprising Croatia, Carniola,
Bosnia, Slavonia, Western Hungary,
Styria, and part of Lower Austria.
The inhabitants were Kelts, largely
mixed with an earlier population.

1. Mheno. This separates Germany
from Gaul.-Danubio. This sepa-
rates Germany from Raetia and Pan-
nonia.-Sarmatis. This race occu-
pied the vast region between the Vis-
tula and the Tanais (Don), embracing
modern Poland, East Prussia, Lithu-
ania, and Russia. From an exam-
ination of their language they are
supposed to belong to the Indo-Ger-
manic family. In the time of Herodo-
tus they were on the left bank of the
Don, and they gradually advanced
westward. The name disappears
from history after the third century,
and is replaced by that of Slavi, Sla-
ving etc., the modern Slavonic race.
Some, however, think they were a
Turanian race, perhaps Tartars, as
the real Slaves are mentioned in Cap.

XLYI.-Dacisque. When Dacia

became a Roman province, after the
conquests of Trajan, its boundaries
were the Tiviscus on the West, and
the Hierasus (Pruth) on the East,
while it stretched from Mons Carpa-
tus to the Danube; thus comprising
Wallachia, Transylvania, Moldavia,

and Eastern Hungary. -Mtttuo

metu. A very fanciful boundary!
Where there is no physical boundary
between the Germans on the one

hand and Dacians and Sarmatians
on the other, they still forbear to
molest each other, each being afraid
to attack the other.

2.	Montibus. The Carpathian

Mountains in Upper Hungary.-

Cetera, sc. loca, referring to the

northern and western parts.-

Oceamis. The German ocean and

the Baltic Sea.-Latos sin/us, broad

peninsulas. Sinus is a term for any-
thing that is gathered into a fold or
makes a bend, and most commonly
is used for gulfs, bays, and the like,
but also for projecting headlands
where the boundary line makes a
sweep. Tacitus here seems to speak
of the Danish Peninsula, Holstein,
Sleswig, and Jutland.

3.	lnsularum immensa spatia.
Poetical for "Islands of vast size."
These are no doubt amongst others
Seeland, Funen,Norway and Sweden;
for of the Scandinavian peninsula
the Romans had a very slight knowl-
edge, and supposed it to be an island.

Cf. Pliny IY. 27.-Ntiper .... regi-

bus. Understand ut compertum est,
i. e., these geographical features were
discovered by the Romans in prose-
cuting their wars against these
hitherto unknown tribes. Some, how-
ever, take it to define the locality of
sinus and spatia just mentioned and
translate, where have lately become
known to us, etc. Nxiper does not
refer here to what immediately pre-
cedes, but is used loosely, referring
to campaigns from 80 to 100 years
before the publication of the Ger-

mania.-Cognitis : abl. of cause.

The chief knowledge of Germany
possessed by the Romans was gained,
after the conquests of Julius Caesar,
from the expeditions of Domitius
Ahenobarbus, and -especially those
of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus,
and his son Caesar Germanicus. The
former was the first Roman generalTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

11

quibusdam gentibus ac regibus, quos bellum aperuit.
Rhenus, Raeticarum Alpium inaccesso ac praecipiti vertice
ortus, modico flexu in occidentem versus septentrionali
Oceano miscetur. Danubius, molli et clementer edito montis

who penetrated to the German Ocean
(c. 34), probably by the Canal of
Drusus, from the northern arm of the
Rhine near Arnheim to the Sala
(Yssel) at Does burg. Possibly he may
have reached the Amisia (Ems) and
subjugated the islands of the coast.
Subsequently he reached the Visurgis
(Weser), but had to retire; afterwards
he penetrated into the country of the
Suevi, and turning his arms against
theCherusci, reached'the Albis (Elbe),
but, without advancing further re-
tired and soon after died, B. C. 9.

Caesar Germanicus, after visiting
Germany on the destruction of Varus
and his legions, in conjunction with
Tiberius, commenced a brilliant ca-
reer in that country. He crossed the
Rhine, and after crushing the Marsi
and Chatti, on the organization of a
revolt against the Romans by Armi-
nius, embarked in a flotilla, and sail-
ing by the Lacus Flevus (Zuyder-Zee)
to the ocean and up the Ems, laid
waste the country between that river
and the Lippe. In the following
year, collecting a fleet at the Insula
Batavorum, he sailed by the Canal of
Drusus and the fflevus to the sea, and
disembarking at Amisia on the Ems,
crossed that river and the Weser,
and defeated Arminius. On return-
ing by the Ems to the ocean, the fleet
was shattered by terrific storms, and
the soldiers dispersed along the coast.
From these stragglers,on their return,
a good deal of information, accom-
panied, according to Tacitus, with a
good deal of fable, was gleaned. Soon
after these events, Germanicus was
recalled, A. D. 16. In A. D. 84, the
Emperor Domitian undertook a cam-
paign against the Chatti, and appar-
ently with some trifling success.

1. J5elluwi, i. e., the warlike expedi-
tions above mentioned,

2.	Hhenus. The ancient Geogra
phers—Strabo, for instance (IV. 3)—
made the Rhine rise in Mt. Adula.
As this last author also places the
sources of the Addua (Adda) in the
same mountain, he probably re-
garded the Upper Rhine as the true
river, and not the Lower Rhine,
which has a course less directly
northwards. In that case the moun-
tain would be the range near the
passes of the Spliigen, and S. Benar-
dino, not the St. Gothard. The name
of the Rhine seems only another form
of Rhodanus, and to be connected
with Eridanus, Danube, Don, Tanais,
etc. In this view the name was a
Keltic one, signifying the water, or
river; perhaps originally the name
for a part of the river only, and used
by the Romans to designate the

whole. -llaeticartiwi Alpium.

These are the Grisons and the Tyrol.
The word Alpes is apparently of Kel-
tic origin; its root being < alb/ high,
the same word appearing in Albion
the hilly land, or Scotland, and thence

Great Britain generally.-Inac-

cesso=inaecessibili- Vertice: abl.

of source.

3.	Ortus, rising. A. 290, b; G. 279,

R; H. 550, N. 1.-Modico jflevcu. This

refers, no doubt, to the portion of the
river lying between Arenacum (Arn-
heim), and Lugdunum Batavorum

(Leyden).-Versus, having turned'.

the participle, taken in a middle
sense, and not an adverb or preposi-
tion as supposed by sopie. A. 135, e.

■-Septentrionali Oceano, i. e., the

Ocean on the North of Germany.

4.	Damibi'iis. As stated above,
under Rhenus, the derivation of this
word seems the Keltic Don, or Dan,
water. The upper portion of the
stream, as far as Vienna, commonly
went by that name; below that town12

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

Abnobae iugo effusus, plures populos adit, donee in Ponticum
mare sex meatibus erumpat: septimum os paludibus hauritur.

II. Ipsos Germanos indigenas crediderim, minimeque

Ister was the usual term. According
to Adelung, Danubius is equivalent to
the upper water and (.Dan)ister, the

lower water.-Molli et clementev

edito, gently rising and moderately
high. Note the antithesis to inaccesso
ac praecipiti.

1.	JLbnobae. This is the range of the
Schwarzwald, or Blk. Forest, extend-
ing from the Oberland of Baden to
Pforzheim; on the eastern declivity
of which, at a height of about 3,000
feet, are the sources of the Danube.
--Iugo: abl. of separation.-Plu-
res populos. Beginning at the head
of the river, and advancing eastward,
these would be the Vindelici, Norici,
Pannonii, Illyrii, Maesi, on the right
bank: on the left the occupants of
the Decumates Agri, Narisci, Marco-
manni, Quadi, Daci, Getae and Bas-
tarnae; the river being divided be-
tween the Keltic, Teutonic and Sla-
vonic races.-Ponticum mare=

JPontus Euxinus.

2.	Seoc meatibus. The ancients
were not agreed upon the number of
the mouths of the Danube. Herodo-
tus (IV. 47) mentions five; Pliny (IV.
24), six; Strabo (VII. 3), seven; and
Mela (II. 1), the same, four only being
navigable. Tacitus appears to unite
the two latter accounts. There are
still three principal mouths, of which
the Kilia mouth is of the greatest im-
portance and is divided into nine
smaller channels.-JErumpat is cor-
rectly used, as the Danube discharges
its waters into the Euxine with such
force, that its course may be dis-
tinctly traced for miles out to sea.
Donee, with the indicative, is used to
convey the expression of some actual
fact; with the subjunctive, when the
event is not stated positively, but
only contemplated as a future con-
tingency. Hence the meaning is
Until such time as it shall succeed in

its aim of forcing its way into the sea.
A. 328; G. 574; H. 519, II. 2, and N. 2.
In late writers, however, the subjunc-
tive is used with donee with the same
force as the indicative. It may be so
taken here.

CHAP. II. 3. Ipsos, emphatic,
marks the transition from the sub-
ject of the country, to the people

themselves.-Indigenas. This word

is derived from indu, a form of in
(still found in induperator for impera-
tor,) and gigno. To be thus avroxOoveg
was a matter of boast among the an-
cients. As far as the Germans are
concerned there is little doubt that
the Teutonic races belong to the
Indo-Germanic stock once occupying
Bactriana and part of Armenia; a
fact rendered almost certain from the
general resemblance of their lan-
guage to those of Persia, India, etc.
According to one view the name of
one of the tribes of this Teutonic peo-
ple, the Saxons, is itself a confirma-
tion of this; that appellation being a
corruption from Sacasunu, sons of the
Sacae. They formed then a portion
of that people who, ages ago, issued
from the regions of Upper Asia, and
making their way by the Caucasus
and the route north of the Caspian
and Euxine seas entered Europe.
Under this view they are more or less
of the same stock as the Greeks,
Latins, Kelts, and Slavonians. As
to the time of their entering Europe
nothing whatever is known ; al-
though some consider the great in-
roads to have been successively those
of the Fins, Kelts, Slavonians, Teu-
tons, these last cutting through the
Slavonians, and being insulated by

their closing up behind.-Credi-

derim: the subj. of cautious state-
ment, to soften the assertion. A.311,b;

G. 250; H. 486, I. N. 1.-Minimeqtie,

and by no means.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

13

aliarum gentium adventibus et hospitiis mixtos; quia nee
terra olim? sed classibus, advehebantur, qui mutare sedes
quaerebant, et immensus ultra, utque sic dixerim, adversus
Oeeanus raris ab orbe nostro navibus aditur. Quis porro,
praeter periculum horridi et ignoti maris, Asia aut Africa aut
Italia relicta, Germaniam peteret, informem terris, asperam
caelo, tristem cultu aspectuque, nisi si patria sit ?

1. Adventibus, immigrations.-

Hospitiis, casual visitors. Notice the
use of abstract (instead of the con-
crete) nouns in the plural to denote
the recurrence of an act. This is very
common in Tacitus. A. 75, c; G. 195,

R. 5; H. 130, 2.-Quia nee terra

olim. Tacitus gives three reasons for
his belief in the indigenous origin of
the Germans; first, that the chief
movements of nations were by sea,
and the sea of those countries was too
boisterous to enter on; second, that
the land had no attractions to offer to
foreigners to induce them to settle in
it; and, third, because the traditions
of the Germans themselves repre-
sented them as the original occupiers
of the soil.

As far as the first of these reasons
is concerned, Tacitus was misled by
the want of any adequate knowledge
of the great movements of the early
races who successively entered Eu-
rope. No doubt the migrations with
which he was historically acquainted
were effected by sea; the coloniza-
tion, for instance, of the African coast
by the Phoenicians, of certain parts
of Greece by the Egyptians, of Mas-
silia by the Phoceans, and others, was
maritime. The great movements,
however, by which Europe was peo-
pled, were in some instances, at all
events, long anterior to the rise of
commerce, and the route was un-
doubtedly overland, above the Eux-

ine.-H"ec==et non, and then a second

et follows naturally in the next clause.
Cf. Cic. Ep. ad Fam. X. 1: Tac. An. II.
51; XY. 28; Agr. 10.

2.	Advehebanttir. Note the zeugma,
as this word, properly referring only
to transportation by ships, only suits
classibus, and another word, as
adveniebant, must be supplied to suit
terra. A. p. 298; G. 690; H. 636, II. 1.
-Qui, sc. ii as subj. of advehe-
banttir.

3.	Quaerebant. Quaerere with the
infinitive, a poetical construction,
is rarely found except in the later
prose writers. The usual classic prose

form is cupio or volo.-Ultra, beyond

the north shore of Germany.-

Dixerim,, for dicam, is found only in
late writers. Z. 528. The clause on
which it depends is omitted.-Ad-
versus, hostile, difficult of navigation.
Tacitus seems to think the idea of the
ocean showing a sort of active hostil-
ity to navigators required a little
softening down by an introductory
phrase. This boisterousness of the
German Ocean appears to have struck
Tacitus; cf. An. II. 24. The Romans
certainly had not much encourage-
ment in navigating these seas, as the
disasters Germanicus met with, and
the alarming account of their horrors
his soldiers carried home, would
hardly induce traders to visit them.

4.	Ab orbe nostro, i. e., that portion
of the Roman empire lying about the
Mediterranean.

5.	Praeter, in addition to.-Hor-
ridi, boisterous.-Asia, sc. Minor.-

Africa. The Mediterranean coast.

6.	Peter et: dubitative subj. A. 265,

a, 3; G. 592, R. 2; H. 507, 3, N.4.-

Sit. The present is used to imply the
reality of the case supposed.14

THE GEE-MANIA OF TACITUS.

Celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos
memoriae et annalium genus est, Tuistonem deum terra edi-
tum, et filium Mannum, originem gentis conditoresque.
Manno tris filios adsignant, e quorum nominibus proximi
5 Oceano Ingaevones, medii Herminones, eeteri Istaevones vo-
centur. Quidam, ut in licentia vetustatis, pluris deo ortos
plurisque gentis appellationes, Marsos, Gambrivios, Suevos,

1.	Carminibus. Verse has been used
by all barbarous nations, and in all
ages, before prose for this purpose.

j Of these old Teutonic songs no speci-
mens have survived, but their general
character, as regards matter, can be
ascertained from the Scandinavian
Eddas, which are filled with the ad-
ventures of the gods, Odin and his
sons, their battles against the powers
of evil, giants, etc.-Unum, the only.

2.	Memoriae, tradition.-Anna-

Hum, written history.-Tuistonem.

Although this reading is given in the
best MSS., Tuisconem is very likely
the true one. It is probably con-
nected with Deus, divis, dsog, 6log:
etc., appearing in the Eddas under
the form Tyr, Odin's son, from whom
our Tuesday derives its appellation.
-Terra editum, i. e., indigenous.

3.	Jllanmim. This name is curi-
ously like the Hindoo Menu, the
Egyptian Menes, the Lydian Manes,
and the Cretan Minos. Probably it is
the same as the German Mensch,
Mann, and our 'man,' and in it and
Tuisto, humanity and divinity are
personified. Some identify him with
the double-god, male and female, of

the Scandinavian mythology.-

Originem gentis, i. e., parents of
the people. It was the usual cus-
tom of the nations of antiquity to
trace their pedigree up to some im-
aginary hero. The Hellenes, for in-
stance, had an ancestor Hellen; and

the Aeolians, Aeolus.-Conditores,

i. e., founders of their laws and cus-
toms.

4.	Manno .... adsignant. It has
been thought by some that in Man-

nus and his three sons an obscure tra-
dition is preserved of Adam, and his
sons Cain, Abel, and Seth; or of Noah,
and his sons Shem, Ham, and Japhet.

5.	Ingaevones, sc. vocentur. There
seems no possibility of success in the
attempt to arrange accurately the
various tribes under these heads.
Nevertheless, it may be true in the
main, that the Ingaevones are the
men of the Ing-gau, i. e., the country
of the Angli under which view the
Ingaevones would represent the great
Saxon confederacy. The Istaevones
(a various reading for Iscaevones)
would be the men of the Isk district,
or the Franks of a later age. The
Herminones again, or Hermiones, for
there are both readings, would be the
army men, the high Germans of the
South. This view is held by the best
ethnographers, and by Adelung,
Grimm, Kiepert, Latham, Orelli,
Prichard, Hitter, Ukert, and Teuss.
Vocentur shows that Tacitus makes
this statement on the authority of
others. A. 340; G. 630; H. 516, II. N.

6.	TJt, sc. fit.-1/ieentia: abl. of

accordance.-JPUiris, i. e., than the

three before mentioned.-Deo, i. e.,

Mannus.-Ortos, sc. esse.

7.	Gentis, i. e., the Germanic race.

-Marsos. The Marsi seem to have

once been settled in Westphalia, be-
tween Munster and Paderborn ; but
they withdrew further into the inte-
rior, and occupied the country be-
tween the Lippe and the Ruhr, or still
further south. They seem to have
been concerned in the affair of Varus
and his legions, and were severely
punished by Germanicus? who de-THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

15

Vandalios adfirmant, eaque vera et antiqiia nomina. Ceternm
Germaniae vocabulum recens et nuper additum, quoniam qui
primi Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint, ac nunc Tungri,
tunc Germani vocati sint. Ita nationis nomen non gentis
evaluisse paulatim, ut omnes primum a victore ob metum,

stroyed the famous temple of Tam-
fana, situated near their boundaries
{Ann. I. 51, etc.). As they are not
again mentioned by Tacitus, in his
account of the various tribes, they
had perhaps ceased to have any sep-
arate existence. -- Gambrivios.

Strabo mentions these people (VII, 1,
3), but their exact location cannot be

determined.-Suevos. From this

people modern Suabia takes its
name.

1.	Vandalios. This tribe originally
was settled on the northern coast of
Germany, in Pomerania; later they
were found near the Riesengebirge,
north of the Marcomanni ; subse-
quently they entered Fannonia and
Dacia, and about A. D. 400 entered
Spain. Driven hence by the Goths,
they crossed to Africa, and were there

conquered by Justinian, A. D. 534.-

JEaquef sc. esse.-Ceterum marks a

transition as the author passes from
the various ancient names of the Ger-
mans to their modern and universal
name.

2.	Germaniae vocabultvm, sc. esse.
Tacitus does not mean that the word
itself was only recently used. It
seems to have been known long be-
fore his time; for in the Fasti Capi-
tolini, for B. C. 222, they are mentioned
as defeated with the InsubrianGauls
by the Roman consul Marcellus.
What he intends to say is, that the
name had only recently been given
to the whole country, having previ-
ously been the designation of a single
tribe; j ust as the Gracci, a tribe some-
where in the vicinity of the Achelous,
eventually gave their name to the

whole country of Greece.-Qui, sc.

iit as subj. of vocati sint.

3.	Mhemim transgressi. Accord-
ing to Gaesar, the Belgae were of Ger-

man origin, having crossed the Rhine
and dispossessed the Gauls.—Expule-
rint: subj. in indirect discourse. Cf.
Vocentur above. For confirmation of
the statement here made. Cf. Caes.

B. G. II. 4.-Tungrif sc. vocentur. The

part occupied by the Tungri seems to
have been held previously by the
Eburones,in the modern province of
Limburg, near Tongres, Liege, and
Maastricht.

4.	Germani. Various meanings
have been assigned to this word.
According to some they were called
Germani, as true Gauls, and brothers
of the Keltic race; according to
others the name is connected with
the Germani, a Persian tribe (Herod.
1.125); others derive it from the Ger-
man Giver or Wehr, making it equiv-
alent to warriors (Wehrmanner). It,
however, seems most likely to be a
Keltic word, derived from the Gaelic
goir, or gair, to cry out, and gairm,
gairmean, a cry: in the sense of men
good at the battle shout; like Homer's
fiorjv ayaddg. If so, it was the name
used by their neighbors to designate
the Germans; not by the Germans to
designate either the whole, or any
portion of themselves. This practice
of calling a people by a name never
adopted by themselves is common.

-Vocati sint. The subjunctive,

again, conveying the opinion of

others. Vid. N. on vocentur above.-

Ita, in this way, does not belong to the
following ut in the sense of adeo ut,
etc.—Nationis, of a single tribe. Natio
is here used to denote a subdivision
of the whole race, or gens.

5.	Evaluisse paulatim, gradually
prevailed.-JL victore, i. e., the Tun-
gri.-Ob metum, for the purpose of

inspiring fear,=ut m$tu$ Gallis iniice-
returf16

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

mox etiam a se ipsis, invento nomine, Germani vocarentur.
III. Fuisse apud eos et Herculem memorant, primumque
omnium virorum fortium ituri in proelia cannnt. Sunt illis
haec quoque earmina, quorum relatu, quem barditum vocant,
5 accendunt animos, futuraeque pugnae fortunam ipso cantu
augurantur. Terrent enim trepidantve, prout sonuit acies;

1. A. se ipsis, i. e., the people
of Germany as a whole.—Invento
nomine, i. e., " when once the name
had been invented." As far as I am
able to understand this most per-
plexing passage, it means this: the
Tungri, having crossed the Rhine,
established themselves on the left
bank: in order to keep the neighbor-
ing Gauls in a chronic state of fear,
and possibly deter them from com-
bining to expel them, they were con-
stantly reminding them of the prob-
ability of the arrival of other tribes
like themselves to effect farther con-
quests. As their own name, Ger-
mani, was an alarming one to the
Gauls they thought it politic to apply
the same appellation to their coun-
trymen generally. Presently these
tribes themselves saw their advan-
tage in adopting the same name, as it
invested them at once with a formid-
able prestige.-Vocarentur. A. 336;

G.	653; H. 524.

CHAP. III. 2. Apud eos shows that
the subject of memorant is not Ger-
mani, but some word as populi, or
scriplores. A. 98, c; G. 294; H. 449, 1.

-Herculem, i. e., some German

deity, whose attributes correspond in
the main with those of the Greek and
Roman Hercules. This habit is com-
mon in the Latin writers. Vid.

Note in Chap. IX.-Primum, sc.

eum=principem, the most eminent.

3.	Virorum fortium, i. e., heroes
and warriors.-Cannnt, sc. Ger-
mani.—Sunt introduces a digression
which extends to ceterum.

4.	jHaec quoque carmina, these well
known songs. Quoque following liaee
makes it emphatic. A. 345, b; G. 481;

H.	569, III. These songs in honor of

Hercules, and other heroes, chanted
before entering into battle to influ-
ence the courage of the warriors, are
to be distinguished from the purely
mythological poems, mentioned in

chap. II.-Melatu, recital, indicates

that these songs were actual narra-
tives of illustrious exploits. The word
is found only in Tacitus.-.Bardi-
tum. This is the reading of most
manuscripts. The word is of Keltic
origin, so, the Germans can hardly
be supposed to have designated a na-
tive custom by a foreign term. The
practice of course existed among
the Kelts; and it is probable that
Tacitus derived his information in
this respect from a Keltic source, and
consequently the practice of the Ger-
mans, resembling as it did that of the
Gauls, was not unnaturally described
by his informers in words familiar to
their ears, as descriptive of their own
customs. This custom was retained
by the Scandinavian nations. Lucan,
I. 447 et seq. mentions these Keltic
bards.

5.	Futuraeque pugnae. This idea
of divining the result of a battle from
the character of the shouts raised by
the two armies before engaging ex-
isted among the Highlanders. At
the battle of Killicrankie, Cameron
declared to his men that the battle
would be gained because their shouts
were more lively than those of their
opponents,—a prediction, as it hap-
pened, verified.-Ipso cantu=ex

solo sonoyfrom the mere sound of the
song.

6.	Trepidantve, or tremble with fear.
Ve, although giving a choice, implies
that the probability is in favor of the
first alternative.-Prout sonuitTHE GrERMANIA OF TACITUS.

17

nec tam vocis ille quamvirtutis concentus videtur. Adfecta-
tur praecipue asperitas soni et fractum murmur, obiectis ad os
scutis, quo plenior et gravior vox repercussu intumescat.
Ceterum et Ulixem quidam opinantur longo illo et fabuloso
errore in hunc Oceanum delatum adisse Germaniae terras, 5
Asciburgiumque, quod in ripa E-heni situm hodieque ineoli- -
tur, ab illo constitutum nominatumque; aram quin etiam
Ulixi consecratam, adiecto Laertae patris nomine, eodem loco
olim repertam, monumentaque et tumulos quosdam Graecis
litteris inscriptos in confinio Germaniae Raetiaeque adhuclO
exstare. Quae neque confirmare argumentis neque refellere

acies, i. e., according to the nature of
the cry proceeding from the line,when
drawn up in battle array.

1.	Vocis (concentus), a chorus of hu-
man voices.-Ille refers to barditum.

-Virtutis concentus, the conspiring

cry of valor.-Adfectatur, is pleas-
ing.

2.	Fractum murmur, a broken, sul-
len roar, like that of thunder, the sea,
etc., made in the manner described
in the next clause.

3.	Hepercussu is a late Latin word
for the earlier repercussa, or repercu-
tiendo.-Inttimescat: subj. of pur-
pose, after quo, in order that, which
usually takes the place of ut when
used in conjunction with a compara-
tive. A. 317, b ; G. 545, 2; H. 497, 2.

4.	JJlixem. The ten years' wander-
ing of Ulysses formed a convenient
receptacle for stray traditions or
guesses among the ancients. Strabo
(III. 2) gets him to Iberia, as the
founder of TJiyssea, or Lisbon. Soli-
nus carries him still further north, to

Caledonia.-Longo, i. e., extending

over ten years.-Illo : emphatic,

that well known.-Fabuloso, "storied,

celebrated in song." T.

5.	Hunc Oceanum, i. e., the North-
ern Ocean which has already been
mentioned.

6.	Asciburgium. Probably the
modern Asburg, where many antiq-
uities have been found, near the left 1

bank of the Lower Rhine, nearNeuss
(opposite Dusseldorf).—Situm, sc. est.

7.	Constitutum, nominatumque,
sc. esse.-Quin etiam, furthermore.

8.	Ulioci: dat. of apparent agent.

A. 232, a; G. 352; H. 388,1.-Adiecto

.... nomine. On the altar, after
the name of Ulysses, was inscribed
Aaeprtady^ Son of Laertes, according to

the Grecian custom.-JEodem loco:

sc. in, which is commonly omitted
with loco, whenever an adjective
modifying it is used. A. 258, f; G.
385, R; H. 425, 2.

9.	JRepertam, sc. esse.-Tumulos,

tombs.-Graecis litteris inscriptos.

Caesar mentions (I. 29) that in the
camp of the Helvetii were found lists
made out in Greek characters; and
also (VI. 14) that the Druids em-
ploy the same. The knowledge of
them no doubt spread from Massilia,
a Phocaean colony; but it was prob-
ably very partially extended. As for
these inscriptions on the confines of
Raetia, as that country was Keltic,
the characters were probably Keltic
also; although Count Marsigli and
others have found monuments with
Greek inscriptions in Germany, but
not of so early an age.

11. Quae neque, etc. Cf. Livy.
Preface: 1 Ea nec adfirmare nec refel-
lere in animo est,'' which Tacitus may
have had in view when he wrote this
1 sentence.18

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

in animo est; ex ingenio suo quisque demat vel addat
fidem.

IV. Ipse eorum opinionibus accedo, qui Germaniae popu-
los nullis aliis aliarnm nationum conubiis infeetos propriam
et sinceram et tantum sui similem gentem exstitisse arbi-
trantur. Unde habitus quoque corporum, quamquam in
tanto hominum numero, idem omnibus; truces et caerulei
oculi, rutilae comae, magna corpora et tantum ad impe-
tum valida; laboris atque operum non eadem patientia:

1. In animo est, sc. mihi.-JEx

ingenio suo, according to his inclinar

tion.-Demat: imperative subj. A.

266; G. 256, 3; H. 484, IV. This idea is:
If he be credulous, let him believe it;
but if skeptical deny it.

CHAP. IV. 4. Aliis, apparently re-
dundant, is used to bring out the idea
of the difference between the Ger-
mans and all other barbarians more
clearly: one with one nation, and an-
other with another. It is omitted by
some editors ; bracketed by others,
although found in all MSS.-In-
feetos, changed. Although inflcio does
not always imply a change for the
worse, yet Tacitus does here certainly
mean that any intermixture of blood

would make the race deteriorate.-

Propriam, peculiar.

5.	Sinceram is here used in its
original sense, without admixture or

alloy.-Tantum sui similem, only

like itself. Similis usually has the
gen. when it expresses some internal
resemblance of character; otherwise
the dative. A. 218, d; G. 356, R. 1; H.
391, II. 4.

6.	Habittis corporum,physical char-
acteristics.

7.	Idem, sc. est.-Omnibus, dat.

of possess.-Truces. This fierceness

of aspect was a peculiarity of the Ger-
mans mentioned to Caesar by the
Gauls and Roman traders. Caes. 1.39.

-Caerulei oculi. This feature is

often alluded to by the Roman
writers: cf. Juv. XIII. 164; Hor. Ep.
XVI. 7; Tac. Ag. XI.

8.	Hutilae comae. Pliny (XXVIII.
12) says the Germans endeavored to
increase the redness of their hair by
the use of a soap, lixivium, and this
was used by the Romans, as Martial
notices {Ep. VIII. 33). The prevalence
of these physical features (although
they are still preserved to a consid-
erable extent, especially among the
people of the highlands of middle
Germany, and the adjoining borders
of the northern lowlands) is, by no
means, in our day universal among
the Germans: nevertheless, as com-
pared with the dark complexions
and hair of Italy, these descriptions
of them were no doubt true; besides
which the type of the race may have
been materially altered by mixture
with other nations.-Magna cor-
pora. Strabo (VII. 1) says the Ger-
mans were bigger men than the
Kelts, although these were always
considered a much taller race than
the Italians. Sidonius Apollinaris
makes a joke about the muses'
scorning a metre of six feet when
the patrons of their verses were

seven feet high.-Tanttim ad im-

pettim valida, powerful only for a brief
onset.

9.	Operum, protracted work. Caesar
(VI. 21) says the Germans labori
ac duritiae student; by which he prob-
ably means that they were trained
up to undergo toil and hardship in

war.-If on eadem patientia, sc.

est Us.-Minimegue, and least of

all.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

19

minimeque sitim aestumque tolerare, frigora atque inediam
caelo solove adsueverunt.

V. Terra, etsi aliquanto specie differt, in universum tamen
aut silvis horrida aut palndibus foeda; humidior qua Gal lias,
ventosior qua Noricum ac Pannoniam aspicit; satis ferax,
frugiferarum arborum impatiens, pecorum fecunda; sed ple-

1, 2. Aestximque. In the battle of
Vercellae, the Cimbri are said by
Plutarch to have been totally over-
come by the excessive heat, running
down with perspiration, and using
their shields to cover their faces

from the sun.-Tolerare depends

on adsueverunt. It belongs to both

clauses.-Before frigora supply sed,

antithetic to minimeque. The mean
temperature of Europe was proba-
bly more severe in winter than it is
now; and it was certainly so in Ger-
many, one indication being that
reindeer appear to have existed
there, now only found in higher lati-
tudes. No doubt the clearing away
the forests, draining the marshes,
and similar operations, have con-
siderably mitigated the climate.-

Caelo solove: abl. of cause. Ve is
disjunctive, referring caelo to frigora,
and solo to inediam. "What Tacitus
implies is that the climate produces
endurance in the. one case, and the
natural character of the soil, endur-
ance in the other.

CHAP. V. 3. Aliquanto, to a con-
siderable extent', an abl. denoting
the degree of difference commonly

regarded as an adverb.-Specie:

abl. of respect.

' 4. Silvis horrida, sc. est. These
forests lay chiefly in the parts occu-
pied by the High Germans in Thu-
ringia, Saubia, Hesse, and Franconia.
Some of the best known were the
Hercynia, Marciana (southern part
of the Blk. Forest), Bacenis, Semanus
(parts of the Hartz and Thurm-
gerwald), Gabreta (the Bohmerwald),
the Oaesia (between the Lippe and
the Yssel), and the Lucus Baduhennae
(in Friesland). The woods are still

extensive in Germany, especially
among the hills, where the forest
trees grow to a large size. The east-
ern regions of the northern lowlands
abound with trees, and a narrow
strip along the Baltic is covered with

oaks and beeches.-JPaUidibus

foeda. These fen districts lay chiefly
in the north-western parts of the
country, Friesland, Westphalia, etc.
Even at the present day the shores
of the North sea are lined with
marshes, five or six miles across, and
below the level of the ocean at high
water. To these Tacitus alludes when
he says it is damp towards the Gallic
frontier. Pomponius Mela gives the
names of three, viz., Suesia, Estia,

and Melisagiurn.-Humidior, qua

Gallias, sc. aspicit. This humidity is
owing to the large forests, rivers,
lakes, and marshes. Gallias is used
in the plural to denote all the Roman
divisions of Gaul.

'5. Ventosior^the Homeric Tjvefideiq,
windy, i. e., exposed to winds, or lofty.

-Noricum. This country extended

from the Aenus on the west, to Mt.
Cetius on the east, by which it was
separated from JPannonia, and lay
between the Save and Julian Alps in
the south: it consequently comprised
the modern districts of Carinthia, the

Tyrol, and Salzburg.-Satis: abl.

plu. perf. pass. part, of sero. It is used
for any crops raised by cultivation,
and is frequent in Vei'gil. There are
especially mentioned oats, wheat,
barley, and millet, as grown in Ger-
many.

6. Arborum impatiens, unproduc-
tive of fruit trees. This must not be
taken absolutely, as Tacitus was no
doubt thinking here of the contrast20

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

rumque improcera. Ne armentis quidem suus honor aut
gloria frontis; nnmero gaudent, eaeque solae et gratis-
simae opes sunt. Argentum et aurnm propitii an irati dii
negaverint dubito. Nec tamen adfirmaverim nullam Ger-
5 maniae venam argentum aurnmve gignere; quis enim
scrutatus est ? Possessione et usu hand perinde adficiuntur.
Est videre apud illos argentea vasa, legatis et principibns
eorum muneri data, non in alia vilitate quam quae humo
finguntur, quamquam proximi, ob usum commerciorum, au-
lOrum et argentum in pretio habent, formasque quasdam
nostrae pecuniae agnoscunt atque eligunt. Interiores simpli-
cius et antiquius permutatione mercium utuntur. Pecuniam

presented by Germany to Italy with
its olive, vines, cherry, plum, and
other rich fruit trees, for he himself
speaks of arboresfrugiferae, and poma

agrestia in this book (cap. X.).-

Pec orum / smaller cattle, or flocks in
general.

1.	Improcera, sc. ilia sunt,referring
to pecora. They were no doubt
dwarfed by the severity of the
climate, as they still are in colder
latitudes.-Armentis, dat. of pos-
sess. after est understood, refers to
the larger cattle, and Tacitus here in-
cludes apparently both horses and
oxen; the suus honor, usual stately-
ness, will then mean that the horses
do not attain their full growth and
beauty, and gloria frontis (dignity of
brow, i. e., horns), will refer to the
oxen.

2.	Ntimero, in the number of them,

rather than in the quality.-Eaeque

agrees with opes, instead of ea with
armenta,

3.	JPropitii an irati, " whether in
kindness or in anger."

4.	Negaverint: subj. of ind. ques-
tion.-Adfirmaverim. Cf. Note on

crediderim, cap. II.

5.	Argentum aurumve gignere.
Tacitus (An. XI. 20) mentions a silver
mine opened and worked for a short
time, but soon exhausted, in the

lands of the Mattiaci. Of this he had
probably not heard when he wrote
the present work. Mines of gold and
silver have since been discovered in
Germany, which are very valuable.

6.	JPossessione et usu, by the posses-
sion and use of such vessels, etc., as

they have.-Perinde, sc. ac aliae

nationes. Cf. Agric. X.' mare neventis
quidem perinde attolli not raised like
other seas.

7.	Est = earlier licet. Cf. Greek
sort for e^egtl.-JPrincipibus mu-
neri : two datives ; one to which, the
other/or which.

8.	Non in alia vilitate = in eadem
vilitate; i. e., in the same low estima-
tion as, etc.-Sumo: abl. of ma-
terial.

9.	Quamquam denotes concession.

-JProocimi, i. e., to the Romans,

from dwelling on the banks of the
Rhine or Danube.

10.	In pretio, in value.-Formas,

i. e., pieces of money, evidently with
reference to the device upon the
coin.

11,12. Eligunt, they prefer them be-
cause they know them.-Interiores

is contrasted with,prossimi.—Simpli-
cius et antiquius, i. e., according to
the simpler and more primitive
mode.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

21

probant veterem et diu notam, serratos bigatosque. Argen-
tum quoque magis quam aurum sequuntur, nulla adfectione
animij sed quia numerus argenteorum facilior usui est
promiscua ac vilia mercantibus.

YI. Ne ferrum quidem superest, sicut ex genere telorum 5
colligitur. Rari gladiis aut maioribus lanceis utuntur.
Hastas, vel ipsorum yocabulo frameas, gerunt angusto et
brevi ferro, sed ita acri et ad usurn habili, ut eodem telo,
prout ratio poscit, vel cominus vel eminus pugnent. Et

1.	Serratos bigatosque. These
coins are the denarii. They were sil-
ver, and on the obverse usually have
the head of Rome with a helmet, or
the Dioscuri, or Jupiter, and on the
reverse a two horsed chariot. Owing
to the vice and corruption among the
Romans, their coin became debased
and adulterated. The serrati and
bigati being old coins, and of purer
silver than those of the Emperors
were preferred by the Germans owing
to their fear of being cheated. One
means of testing coin was to cut the
edges like the teeth of a saw [.serra],
by which it could be seen whether
the metal was the same throughout,
or only plated. These were the Serrati.
Sometimes the reverse bore a four-
horsed chariot, when they were called
quadrigati.

2.	Sequuntur, they seek after. The
Romans had this same predilection
for silver coin, and probably for the

same reason.-Nulla adfectione

animi, not on account of any bias.

3.	Numerus, the great number, on
account of their lesser relative value.

-Argenteorum, sc. nummorum.-

Facilior, more convenient.

4.	JVCercantibus, sc. Us: dat. of re-
moter object.

CHAP. VI. 5. Ne ferrum quidem
superest. There is a simlar use of
the word in Cap. XXVI.,1 arva per
annos mutant et superest ager,' there
is land enough and to spare: here it
means, even of iron there is no super-

abundance. This of course only proves
the Germans not to have had any
great amount of skill in extracting
the ore, for there are large iron mines
in certain parts of the country, Bohe-
mia for instance. In the graves of
the earliest period known in Ger-
many the weapons found are of bone
or stone, and it is after a considerable
period apparently that iron or bronze
arms are found.-JEJoo genere telo-
rum. "According to An., II. 14,the
Germans had neither helmet nor
coat of mail; even their shields were
not strengthened with iron or
leather, but were merely a contexture
of twigs or thin painted boards; only
their first rank was armed with
spears, the rest had short darts hard-
ened by fire."

6.	Colligitur, can be inferred.-

Mari, a very few. This word is used
of anything, the parts of which are
separated by large interstices or inter-
vals, and is opposed to densus.

7.	Frameas, This word is undoubt-
edly a Latinized form of the Teutonic
pfriem, the point, of a weapon. An awl,
or bodkin, is still in German called
pfrieme.

8.	Ferro: abl. of description. -

Habili, convenient, handy.

9.	Ratio, the case, lit., a considera-
tion of the case.-Cominus vel emi-
nus. It would appear from An., II.
14, that these spears were unman-
ageable in an engagement among
trees and bushes, on account of their
length.-Pugnent: result.22

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

eques quidem scuto frameaque contentus est; pedites et
missilia spargunt, pluraque singuli atque in immensum
vibrant nudi aut sagnlo leves. Nulla cultus iactatio; scuta
tantum lectissimis coloribus distinguunt. Paucis loricae,
vix uni alterive cassis aut galea. Equi non forma, non
velocitate conspicui. Sed nec variare gyros in morem

1.	Scuto frameaqtie: abl. of the
cause of contentus est.

2.	Spargtmt: poetical.-Plura

singuli. The construction is singuli

pedites spargunt plura missilia.-In

immensum, sc. spatinm.

3.	Ntidi denotes that the person

was without any upper garment.-

Sagtilo: diminutive of sagum. --

heves, lightly clad.-Cultus,personal

equipments.-Iactatio. Note the use

of the abstract noun, where Augus-
tan writers would use the verb.

have been found in England—seem
to have been round, and, like the
others, formed of wood, often that of
the linden-tree. These round bucklers
were perhaps borrowed from the
Slavonian tribes in the east of Ger-
many.-horicae, sc. sunt.

5. Cassis aut galea. The Cassis,
a casque, was a helmet of which me-
tallic plates formed a constituent
part: galea was a headpiece made of

leather or skin.-Forma, in build:

abl. of cause.



GROUP OF ROMAN ARMS.

4. Scuta tantum lectissimis colori-
btis. These shields are described,
An., II. 14; they were made of twisted
osiers, or boards stained with vari-
ous colors, and were very large. The
coloring at first denoted the valor,
afterward the nobility of the bearer;
and in process of time gave origin to
the armorial designs so famous in
the ages of chivalry. The Norse
shields, probably not unlike them,
were three cornered, long, and cover-
ing the whole body; in time of war
they were painted red; in time of
peace, white. The Saxon shields, on
the contrary—the remains of which

6. Conspicui, sc. sunt.-Sed nec.

Nec=ne quidem.-Variare gyros.

Gyrus is used to denote the ring in
which horses run when first broken
in; and the words variare gyros seem
to mean * to wheel rapidly to right
or left at the word of command,' so
as to pivot round the innermostman,
the whole line throughout the
manoeuvre remaining unbent; in
fact, its extremity traced out a circle,
round a fixed point. Others describe
it to be a movement something like
the figure 8. The idea is that the
horses are neither swift, handsome
nor well trained.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

23

nostrum docentur; in rectum aut uno flexu dextros agunt,
ita coniuncto orbe ut nemo posterior sit. In uniyersum
aestimanti plus penes peditem roboris; eoque mixti proe-
liantur, apta et congruente ad equestrem pugnam velocitate
peditum, quos ex omni iuventute deleetos ante aciem locant.
Definitur et numerus; centeni ex singulis pagis sunt, idque
ipsum inter suos vocantur, et quod primo numerus fuit, iam
nomen et honor est. Aeies per cuneos componitur. Cedere
loco, dummodo rursus instes, consilii quam formidinis arbi-
trantur. Corpora suorum etiam in dubiis proeliis referunt.
Scutum reliquisse praecipuum flagitium, nec aut sacris adesse

1.	In rectum, .... posterior sit.

They drive them straight forward, or by
a continued turning towards the right
in so connected a circle, that no one is
behind. Tacitus may mean that the
riders moved forward on the radius
of a circle, in a manner correspond-
ing to our 'wheeling;' or that the
riders followed one another so closely
that the ring once formed may be
said to have neither beginning nor
end, and hence no one was behind
the rest.

2,	3. In tmiversum aestimanti.
This use of the dative of the partici-
ple, expressing a sort of judgment or
opinion in any one, and equivalent
here to a protasis, si quis aestimat, is
found elsewhere in Tacitus. Cf. Hist.,
1Y. 17; Y. 11: Ag., XI. The ellipsis is
supplied by venit in mentern, credibile
est, etc. A. 235; G. 354; H. 384, 4, N. 3.

-jEoque mixti proeliantur9 i. e.,

equites mixti cum peditibus proeliantur.
Caesar (1.48) gives an exact account
of this mode of fighting.

6. Centeni. This division by hun-
dreds was wide spread among the
ancient tribes of Germany and Scan-
dinavia.-Idque ipsum, this very

thing, i. e., they were called 4 the Hun-
dred.' To understand this, it is to be
noted that the Germans were divided
into nations or tribes,—these into
cantons, and these into districts or
townships. The cantons {pagi in

Latin) were called by themselves
gauen. The districts or townships
were called hunderts, whence the
English 1hundreds.' The Suevi are
said to have had 100 of these pagi; the
Helvetii only 4.

7.	Ut quod (== id quod) primo mm-
merus fuit, and that which was at first
a mere number.

8.	Nomen et honor is a hendiadys.

-JPer cuneos. The cuneus was a

body of men arranged in the form of
a wedge—narrow in front and widen-
ing towards the rear; hence well
adapted for breaking the lines of the
enemy, as all their weapons were di-
rected to one spot. " The plural indi-
cates that each body formed a cuneus
and that many cunei formed the
acies." C. and S.

9.	locof sc. ex. -Instes: subj.

after dummodo implying condition.

-Consilii quam formidinis, sc.

potius. This ellipsis is not uncommon
in Tacitus. Cf. An., IV. 61; XIII. 6;
III. 17.

10.	Corpora, i. e., of the dead.-In

dubiis proeliisj i. e., while the result

of the battle is still doubtful.-

1leferunt, they carry back, i. e., to the
rear.

11.	Scutum reliquisse (est) flagi-
tium. To leave the shield behind in
battle was regarded by Teutonic na-
tions, long after the age of Tacitus, as
a singular disgrace. By the Salic24

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

aut concilium inire ignominioso fas; multique superstites
bellorum infamiam laqueo finierunt.

YII. lieges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt. Nec
regibus infinita aut libera potestas, et duces exemplo potius
quam imperio, si promptly si conspicui, si ante aciem agant,

law, any freeman, who accused an-
other of having thrown his shield
away, was condemned to pay a heavy
fine, if unable to prove his words. In
this respect these nations resembled
the Greeks and Romans. The fact that
piijja&jug was a term of bitter re-
proach, and the Spartan mother's
laconic address to her son on issuing
to battle, "H rav rj hrl rag, this, or upon
this, are indications of this feeling.

1.	Ignominioso fas, sc. est.-

JHulti, sc. ignominioso.-Superstites

bellorum. The use of the gen. after
superstes is very rare except in late
Latin.

2.	laqueo. A feeling similar to
this was displayed by a Spartan who
from accidental absence escaped the
carnage of the three hundred at
Thermopylae. Unable to bear the
disgrace of surviving he hanged him-
self. Herod., VII. 229.-Finierunt:

aoristic.

CHAP. YII. 3. lieges, Civil rulers.
It is distinctly stated in other pas-
sages that not all of the nations of
Germany had kings. As the repub-
lican nations were chiefly in the
western parts, they were better
known by the Romans. This will
explain the apparent disagreement
with Caesar, who says (B. G., VI. 23),
in pace nullus est communis magistra-
tus.-JEoc nobilitate, according to no-
bility of birth. Nobiliias is used by
several writers for the body of nobles,
but here it has its usual meaning of
high birth; and the monarchy is de-
scribed as at once elective and hered-
itary. The regard paid to family in
this matter is seen from the account
recorded by Tacitus (An. XI. 16) of
the'wish of the Cherusci to procure a
scion of their royal house from Rome.

The real fact probably was that the
king was chosen from one family, or
occasionally from more than one.
In a rude and turbulent age, when a
good deal depended on the personal
character of the ruler, weak princes
and minors were not likely to meet
with much consideration; and, con-
sequently, although the succession
was thus limited to one family, the
electors would not pay much regard
to the claims of any particular mem-
ber of it, thinking more of thews and
sinews than of strict hereditary right.
In the Saxon history, at all events,
instances of the sort were not un-
common. Alfred, for instance, as-
cended the throne to the exclusion
of the children of his elder brother.
In the early periods the king was
only the chief magistrate in peace.
If he were warlike (virtute), the na-
tion no doubt accepted him as their
leader in war (duces) y if not they
chose others.-Sumunt. From Taci-
tus' account (Hist., IV. 15) the usual
ceremony observed on election was,
to place the man on a shield, and
carry him about on the shoulders of
his countrymen. Gregory of Tours
mentions the same custom as pre-
vailing among the Franks. See en-
graving at the head of the Germania.
.-"Nec is correlative to et.»

4.	Infinita potestas. Caesar (V. 27)
makes Ambiorix, king of the Eburo-
nes, remark that the power of the
people over him was quite as great as
his over the people; and this was
probably as applicable to the Ger-
mans beyond the Rhine, who were
not likely, with their fondness for
liberty, to submit to much restraint.

-Duces, sc. ducunt.-Exemplo,

imperio : abl. of means; not datives.

5.	JPromptij sc. sint: also with con-THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

25

admiratione praesunt. Ceterum neque animadvertere neque
vincire, ne verberare quidem nisi sacerdotibus permissum,
non quasi in poenam nec dueis iussu, sed velut deo im-
perante, quem adesse bellantibus credunt; effigiesque et
signa quaedam detracta lueis in proelium ferunt. Quodque 5
praecipuum fortitudinis incitamentum est, non casus nec
fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et
propinquitates; et in proximo pignora, unde feminarum
ululatus audiri, unde yagitus infantium: hi cuique sanc-
tissimi testes, hi maximi laudatores. Ad matres, ad coniugeslQ
vulnera ferunt; nec illae numerare aut exigere plagas pavent,
cibosque et hortamina pugnantibus gestant.

spicui. These with agant are subj.
as giving the views of others than
Tacitus.

1.	Admiratione9 bp means of the ad-
miration Which they inspire.-JLni-

madvertere here means to put to
death. Caesar says (VI. 23), that the
leaders in war have the power of life
and death, but this may only mean
that they have the highest judicial
authority.

2.	Vincire, to put in irons.-Ne ver-
berare quidem. The Roman centur
rion could do as much as this, and for
that purpose he carried a staff of vine

wood.-Nisi sacerdotibus. In this

way the punishment would seem to

be clothed with divine authority.-

JPermissum, sc. est.

3.	In poenam9 for punishment.-

Deo. The god Thor, the German
Mars, after whom Thursday was
named, is meant.

4.	5. Effigiesque et signa. What
these were is seen from Cap. XLV,
Hnsigne superstitionis formas ap'forum
gestant;'' and Hist. IV. 22, * depromp-
tae silvis lueisque ferarum imagines, ut
cuique genti inire proelium mos est.1
Hence it seems that they were sym-
bolic images, generally of wild ani-
mals, and were national standards
preserved with religious care in
sacred woods and groves, whence
they were brought out {detracta lucis)
When the clan was about to take the

field.-Quodque (=etquod) refers to

the following clause.

7.	Conglobatio,mass of men. A word
found only in post-Augustan writers

and very rare in them.-Turmam:

cavalry.-Cuneum: infantry.

8.	Propinquitatesf kindred, is a
word of wider extent than familiae.
As Ritter observes, gentes would have
been the natural word to use, if it
would not have rendered the passage
ambiguous from its double use for

clan and tribe.-In proximo (loco),

sc. sunt.-I*ignoraf pledges, i. e.,

whatever they hold most dear. What
Tacitus refers to is explained by the
immediate mention of wives and
children.—Unde refers to in proximo.

9.	Aradiri, sc. possit. Some call it
the historic infinitive. Ritter, how-
ever, says this infinitive is restricted
to past narratives. Kritz reads audi-

tur.-Cuique: dat. of poss. after sunt

understood.

10.	Testes, witnesses of their conduct
in the battle.

11.	Ferunt: when the battle is over.

-Exigere here seems to be used in

the sense of requiring a strict reckon-
ing or scrutinizing. The women ex-
amined the wounds to see if there
were- enough of them, and in the
right place, in front, not behind; re-
garding the number of the wounds as
a measure of the prowess of the men.

12.	Cibosque hortaminay food and26	THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

VIII. Memoriae proditnr quasdam acies inclinatas iam et
labantes a feminis restitutas constantia precum et obiectu
pectorum et monstrata cominns captivitate, quam longe
impatientius feminarum suarum nomine timent, adeo, ut
5 efficacius obligentur animi civitatum, quibus inter obsides
puellae quoque nobiles imperantur. Inesse quin etiam sanc-
tum aliquid et providum putant, nec aut consilia earum
aspernantur, aut responsa negligunt. "Vidimus sub divo
Vespasiano Veledam, diu apud plerosque numinis loco
lOhabitam. Sed et olim Auriniam et compluris alias venerati
sunt, non adulatione, nec tamquam facerent deas.

encouragement: Cf. Cap. I. lmutuo
metu et montibus separatur.'

CHAP. VIII. 1. Quasdam acies,

certain armies.-Inclinatas iam, et

labantes, already giving way and
wavering.

2. Mestitutas, sc. esse.-Constantia

precum, The German women ap-
pear to have been useful occasionally
in another way. In Marius' battle
with the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae
they seem to have been nearly as
hard to beat as their husbands; after
these last were disposed of, the wives
killed the fugitive soldiers, and with
swords and axes gave the Romans
considerable trouble before they were

got rid of. Plut. Marius, XIX.-

Obiectu pectorum, by presenting to
them their• breasts, begging death in
preference to captivity, which they
judged to be close at hand (comimis).
Cf. Caes. B., G. I. 50. Some, however,
refer it to the perils of the battle.

4.	Nomine, "on the score o/." Cf.

Hist. I. 29; Horace III. 21, 5.-Adeo,

ut, in so much that.

5.	Quibus: ind. obj. of disadvan-
tage.-Obsides puellae. Augustus

Caesar turned this peculiarity to a
useful account, and insisted on the
German tribes sending female host-
ages. (Suet. Aug. XVI).

6.	Inesse, sc.feminis.—Quin etiam,
moreover.

7.	Providum ( = pro -+■ video), pres-

cient, prophetic.-Consilia, advice of-
fered when unasked.

8.	1lesponsa, answers given when

consulted.-Vidimus. This does

not absolutely prove that Tacitus ever
was in Germany, or that Veleda was
brought to Rome; but simply shows
that he and his contemporaries had
by some means knowledge of this

case of Veleda.-Divo, now deified.

A stock epithet for deceased Roman
emperors.

9.	Veledam. Veleda, the prophetess,
(Hist. IV. 61) belonged to the Bruc-
teri, and dwelt near the Lippe. She
encouraged the revolt of the Batavian
chief, Civilis, and was eventually
taken prisoner by the Romans under

Rutilius Gallicus.-JPlerosque, i. e.,

of the Germans.

10.	Habitam, sc. esse.-Olim, here-
tofore.-Auriniam. One is inclined

to think Tacitus made a proper name
out of a term applied to a whole class,
and that this represents the lAlrur
nae' as the Goths termed their in-
spired women.-Compltiris alias.

An oracular maiden, Ganna, men-
tioned by Dion Cassius, and a Chat-
tan prophetess are said by Suetonius
to have uttered predictions to Vitel-
lius.

11.	Adulatione, from servile adula-
tion to the royal family.-Facerent,

sc. eas. In this remark Tacitus ob-
liquely censures the folly of theTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

27

IX. Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt, cui certis diebus
humanis quoque hostiis litare fas habent. Hercnlem ac
Martem concessis animalibus placant. Pars Suevorum et
Isidi sacrificat; unde causa et origo peregrino sacro parum

Romans in deifying the female mem-
bers of the imperial family. Nero's
infant daughter had divine honors
paid her, and afterwards\the same
compliment was paid Poppaea her-
self. He means simply that the Ger-
man tribes reverence and love wo-
men, but do not profess to believe
them divine, when they really do not
believe them so.

CHAP. IX. 1. Deorum: gen. of

the whole.-Mercurium. Tacitus

might have identified the Teutonic
deities with the gods of Rome on
either of two principles, similarity
of name, or similarity of offices and
attributes. The first of these might
be subdivided again, perhaps, into
similarity of name, compared to the
Hellenic gods, or their usual Roman
equivalents. In this particular case
similarity of attributes appears to
have decided the question. Woden,
the Scandinavian Odin, was probably
the god represented as equivalent to
Mercurius. He was the inventor of
magic, and all arts, the god of elo-
quence and supervisor of traffic, and
the fourth day of the week was named
after him, Wodenstag, our Wednes-
day. In these respects he coincided
with Mercurius, after whom the same
day was called Dies Mercurii, the
French Mercredi. That the two cor-
respond is expressly stated by the
old writers. Caesar makes Mercurius
the chief god of the Gauls. Deurn
maxime Mercurium colunt (VI. 17), and
observes that the Germans have no
deities beyond the powers of nature,
the Sun, Moon, and Fire. This might
be his own inference from their hav-
ing no temples.-Certis,fixed, stated.

2. Humanis: emphatic. Other
victims could be used on other days.
It appears that human sacrifices
were made to other gods than Woden.

-Herculem. The second great god

was Thor, the god of strength, the
wielder of the thunderbolt, who is
commonly identified with Jupiter.
Dies Jovis (in French Jeudi) is Thor's-
tag, our Thursday. Some, however,
identify Thor with Hercules, whom
he resembles as regards his adven-
tures.

3.	Martem. Perhaps this represents
the god Tyr, the bravest of the race,
who is described in the Edda as alone
venturing to put his hand into the
wolf's mouth. Moreover, the old
name for Tuesday, or Dies Mar Us,
was Tyrstag, the French Mardi, and
these facts point to the identity of the

two.-Concessis9 lawfully used as

opposed to humanis hostiis, mentioned
before. These human sacrifices were
by no means entirely unknown at
Rome. They were formally abolished
about a century before the birth of
Christ; but according to Pliny's state-
ment, the practice was existing in
his own day. In fact, instances were
common throughout the world, from
the belief that human life, as the
most valuable of all things, must be
acceptable to the gods. Among the
Germans the custom seems to have
occasionally taken a wholesale form.
Tacitus mentions (An. XIII. 57) that
in a war between the Hermunduri
and Chatti, the victors devoted the
entire army of the vanquished in
sacrifice to the gods.

4.	Isidi. Grimm in his Deutsche
Mythologie, p. 188, suggests that Isis
may represent a goddess Zisa, or
Oisa, whose memory had survived so
late as the thirteenth century, about
Augsburg. If so, the name decided
the identity. It seems more proba-
ble that Ritter is right, who identifies
this goddess with the Nerthus of
chap. XL.; the Egyptian Isis and28

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

comperi, nisi quod signum ipsum in modum liburnae figura-
tum docet advectam religionem. Ceterum nec cohibere pari-
etibus deos neque in ullam humani oris speciem adsimulare ex
magnitudine caelestium arbitrantur; lucos ac nemora conse-
5 crant, deorumque nominibus appellant secretum illud quod
sola reverentia vident. X. Auspicia sortesque, ut qui maxime,
observant. Sortium eonsuetudo simplex. Virgam frugiferae
arbori decisam in surculos amputant, eosque notis quibusdam

Nerthus being both, equivalent to
Mother Earth, the Terra or Tellus of

the Romans.-Sacro: dat. of poss.

after sit understood.

1.	Nisi quod, i. e., this only is cer-
tain, that, etc.-Signum ipsum9

the symbol itself'. ipsum=per se.-

Idbumae, sc. navis, of a Liburnian
galley, so called from the Hibernians,
a people of Illyricum, who built and
navigated them. The liburna here,
and the vehiculum in chap. XL., were
probably the same; the ships being
put on wheels, and rolled along.
There is mention about A. D. 1130, of
a procession formed by the people of
the Lower Rhine, in which a ship
was put on wheels, and rolled from
Tongres to Lou vain. It seems also,
that early in March, on the opening
of navigation, a boat was offered to
Isis at Rome; and Pelagia was one
of her Greek surnames. This coinci-
dence of the boat very likely de-
termined the identity of the two god-
desses in Tacitus' view.

2.	ALdvectavn, sc. esse.-Nec cohi-
bere parietibus, etc. Tacitus else-
where mentions temples. For in-
stance, in An. 1.51, he speaks of tern-
plum Tamfanae, among the Marsi; in
chap. XL. templum Nerthi; but he
probably means by it a sacred en-
closure, or grove {templum from
TEfivg), cut offj set apart).

3.	In ullam humani oris speciem
adsimulare, " to liken them to any ap-
pearance of humanity."-J2x=secun-

dum, in accordance with. .

4.	Imcos ac nemora. Lucus is al-

ways used for a grove consecrated to
the gods, and so differs from nemus.

5.	Secretum illud. Secretum does
not mean the retirementofthegrove,
but the abstract idea they formed in
their imagination of the deity, or
mysterious being, called by different
names, but which they never em-
body in external form.

6.	Sola reverentia. This would
show the greater spirituality of the
religion of the Germans than that of
the southern nations, although both
were Pagan. With the whole of this
account of the German religion com-
pare Hist. V. 5, where, in his account
of the Jews he says, Judaei mente
sola, unumque numen intelligunt: pro-
fanos qui deum imagines mortalibus
materiis in species hominum effingant.
Igitur nulla simulacra .... templis
sinunt.

CHAP. X. 6. Auspicia {avis •+■ spicio)
is properly divination by observ-
ing birds.-Sortes is divination

by drawing lots.-TTt qui maxime,

observant. The full sentence would
be, observant, tit ii observant, qui
maxime observant.

7.	Consuetudo, sc. est, the usual

method of taking. - Virgam, etc.

Some thing like this is mentioned by
Herodotus (IV. 67) as practised by
the Scythians. The Alani too are
said to have collected bundles of
twigs, and, letting them fall with in-
cantations, from the position they
took to have divined the future.

8.	Arbori: dat. after de in composi-
tion.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

29

discretos super candidam vestem temere ac fortuito spargunt;
mox, si publice consultetur, sacerdos civitatis; sin privatim, ipse
pater familiae precatus deos caelnmqne suspiciens ter singulos
tollit, sublatos secnndnm impressam ante notam interpretatur.
Si prohibuerunt, nulla de eadem re in eundem diem consultatio;
sin permissum, auspiciorum adhuc fides exigitur. Et illud
quidem etiam hie notum, avium voces volatusque interrogare ;
proprium gentis equorum quoque praesagia ac monitus
experiri. Publice aluntur iisdem nemoribus ac lucis candidi
et nullo mortali opere contacti ; quos pressos sacro curru
sacerdos ac rex vel princeps civitatis comitantur, hinnitusque
ac fremitus observant. Nec ulli auspicio maior fides non

1. Discretos, distinguished. Accord-
ing to some the marks were in Runic
characters, but the knowledge of
these symbols was probably confined
to the priests, and this species of
divination seems to have been per-
formed by the head of the family as
often as not, who would know noth-
ing whatever of these Runes.-

Temere ac fortuito. One does not see
any great difference between these
words; but the former means at ran-
dom, without any care on the part of
the diviner; and the latter, that the
twigs fall just as it happens. There
might be a given way to throw them,
and yet it might be done temere; but
one way was as good as another, and
this made it done fortuito.

2,3. Publice, on behalf of the state.-

Ter singulos, sc. surculos. This would
naturally mean he takes them up one
by one thrice; but it seems here to
mean rather, he takes up single twigs
three times in succession. It is not easy
to see how there could be any divina-
tion at all by the first interpretation,
unless indeed some account were
taken of the order in which the
marks, favorable or unfavorable,
were taken up. As Orellius observes,
by the latter interpretation there
were four possible combinations, all
favorable, all unfavorable, two good
and one bad, or two bad and one

good. Of. Caes. I. 58; Tibull. I.
3, 10.

5.	Prohibuerunt, sc. surculi, i. e.,
sortes, i. e., dii.-Consultatio, sc. est.

6.	Sin permissum, sc. est. Note the
change of voice, a change common in
Tacitus. Sin, thus used in antithesis
with si, always takes the same con-
struction.-A.dhuc=praeterea. The

word in this sense is found in the

later writers only.-Fides emigitur,

l(confirmation is requiredi. e., sanc-
tion by auspices.-lllud, that other

custom, known in Greece and Rome.

7.	Etiam, hie, even here in Ger-
many.-JVotum, sc. est.

8.	JProprium, sc. est. This is not
strictly true, as the same practice
prevailed among the Persians. Cf.
Herod. III. 85; 1.189; VII. 55; Justin

1.10.-Gentis, sc. Germanicde: pred.

genitive. A. 218, d; G. 356, R. 1; H.
399,111.

9.	Iisdem nemoribus, sc. in. Of.
cap. IX.

10.	Mortali = hominum.—Contacti,

defiled.-Pressos (harnessed to, lit.,

pressed by) is more poetical than

iunctos, the usual word, would be.-

Sacro; because used in the sacred
rites.

11.	Princeps probably refers to the
head of thepagust or hundred.

12.	JJlli auspicio, other kind of,
augury.-Fides9 credit.30

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

solum apud plebem sed apud proceres, apud sacerdotes; se
enim ministros deorum, illos conscios putant. Est et alia
observatio auspiciorum, qua gravium bellorum eventus
explorant. Eius gentis, cum qua bellum est, captivum quoquo
5 modo interceptum cum electo popularium suorum, patriis
quemque armis, committunt ; victoria huius vel illius pro
praeiudicio accipitur.

XI. De miuoribus rebus priucipes consultant, de maioribus
omnes, ita tamen ut ea quoque, quorum penes plebem
lOarbitrium est, apud principes pertractentur. Coeunt, nisi
quid fortuitum et subitum incidit, certis diebus, cum aut
incohatur luna aut impletur; nam agendis rebus hoc auspi-

2.	Ministros deorum, i. e., during

the ceremony.-lllos, i. e., equos.

-Conscios, sc. deorum. Tibullus(I.

9. 3) speaks of the victims' entrails
as conseia fibra deorum.

3.	Observatio, manner of taking.

5.	Patriis armis, sc. cum, with the
arms of his own country.

6.	Committunt is used for match-
ing two combatants together. Some-
thing not unlike the practice existed
among the Scotch clans formerly.
Before the battle of Tippermuir,
Montrose's Highlanders are said to
have murdered a herdsman, in order
to secure the advantage of drawing
the first blood, and Montesquieu
finds in it the origin of the duel, and
of knight-errantry.

7.	Praeiudicio = prae •+- iudicio, a
means of judging beforehand.

CHAP. XI. 8. Principes is de-
rived from primus and capio, hence,
princes. Their functions seem to have
been those of magistrates exercising
judicial duties, and collectively they
formed a governing board and by
their own authority administered
all trifling affairs; the more impor-
tant matters being left to the council
(concilium).

9. Ita tamen ut, " in such a way,

however, that" C.-Quorum penes

plebem arbitrium est, the decision of

which rests with the people. All impor-
tant questions, of peace and war, for
instance, of capital punishment,
election oi principes, etc., came before
the concilium, the ge-mdt, or folc-mot,
where every member of the tribe
(plebs), other than the servi or liberti,
had a voice in the deliberations.

10.	Pertractentur, are thoroughly
discussed. Note the intensive force of
per.-Nisi refers to certis diebus.

11.	Fortuitum et subitum,. The first
word implies the occurrence of any
event unexpectedly happening; su-
bitum, that the event was an urgent

one, requiring instant discussion.-

Certis, fixed, set.

12.	Luna: contracted from lucina,

from luceo.-Impletur, is filling.

This does not imply that they came
every new moon, but on fixed ones
only.-Agendis rebus: dat. of pur-
pose.-Hoc auspicatissimum ini-

tium. Ariovistus would not fight
before the new moon because he was
forbidden by his prophetesses. (Caes.
I. 50). The Greeks were equally
superstitious in this respect. On the
first invasion of Greece by the Per-
sians, the Spartans, when urgent ap-
peals were sent by the Athenians,
could not march at once, because it
was only the ninth day of the moon,
and they could not march until the
full moon.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

31

catissimum initinm credunt. Nec dierum numerum, ut nos,
sed noctium computant; sic constituunt, sic condicunt; nox
ducere diem videtur. Illud ex libertate vitium, quod non
simul nec ut iussi conveniunt, sed et alter et tertius dies
canctatione coeuntium absumitur. Ut turbae placuit, consi- 5
dunt armati. Silentium per sacerdotes, quibus turn et coer-
cendi ius est, imperatur. Mox rex vel princeps, prout aetas
cuique, prout nobilitas, prout decus bellorum, prout facundia
est, audiuntur, auctoritate suadendi magisquam iubendi potes-
tate. Si displicuit sententia, fremitu aspernantur; sin placuit, 10
frameas concutiunt. Honoratissimum assensus genus est armis
laudare. XII. Licet apud concilium accusare quoque et dis-
crimen capitis intendere. Distinetio poenarum ex delicto.

1.	Nec dierum. Caesar (VI. 18)
mentions the same custom among
the Gauls; and gives their reason—a
curious one—for it, viz., that they
were the progeny of the infernal Dis:
' Ob earn causam spatia omnis temporis
non numer'o dierum, sed noctium fini-
unt; dies natales et mensium et annorum
initio, sic observant ut noctem dies subse-
quatur.' Our expressions se'nnight,
fortnight, seem remnants of this cus-
tom. Vid. Gen., I. 5, and Levit. XXIII.
32, showing the antiquity of this
mode of reckoning.

2.	Constituent, establish, make ap-
pointments; condicunt, proclaim, make
agreements. Instead of fixing such
and such a day, they fix such and
such a night. The con implies
unanimity. The words are legal
terms.

3.	Ducere, precede, lead, go-before.
-Illud (sc. est) refers to what fol-
lows.-JEoc libertate, sc. ortum.

4.	Simul nec ut iussi, at once, nor

when ordered to come.-Alter = se-

cundus.

5.	Cunctatione. It is evident from
the context (eoo libertate vitium) that
this delay was not intentional, but
arose simply from negligence, be-
cause there was no one to compel
them.-Jit — simul ac, as soon as.

That this refers to the time of com-
mencing the session, and not to their
sitting in arms, is evident from cap.
XIII, and from f rameas concutiunt
at the end of this section.

6.	Turn, i. e., when they are in

their seats.-J3t = etiam.-Coer-

cendi ius est. Cf. cap. VII.

7,	8. Prout refers to the influence
they possess, and not to the order of

speaking.-Cuique: dat. of poss.

after est understood.

9.	A.uctoritate, on account of their
weight of influence in advising.

10.	Displicuit, sc. Us.

11.	Frameas concutiunt. Cf. Hist.
V. 17; and for a similar custom among
the Gauls, compare Caesar, VII. 21.
-Honoratissimum, most compli-
mentary.

CHAP. XII. 12. TAcet shows that
to hear charges was not the principal

power of this body.-Quoque, i. e.,

in addition to the legislative func-
tions just mentioned.-Discrimen

capitis intendere, to impeach for
capital crimes, lit., to aim (at one) the
peril of (his) head. The metaphor
seems to be that of stretching a bow
to aim at any one; intendere arcum,
sagittas, etc., being common phrases.

13. JEoc delicto, according to the nature
of the crime.32	THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

Proditores et transfugas arboribus suspendunt; ignavos et im-
belles et corpore infames caeno ac palude, inieeta insuper crate,
mergunt. Diversitas supplieii illuc respicit, tamquam scelera
ostendi oporteat dum puniuntur, flagitia abscondi. Sed et levi-
5 oribus delictis pro modo poena. Equorum pecorumque numero
conyicti multantur; pars multae regi vel civitati, pars ipsi,
qui vindicatur, vel propinqnis eius exsolvitur. Eliguntur in
iisdem conciliis et principes, qui iura per pagos vicosque red-

1.	Suspendunt, i. e., they are gib-
beted alive. Heavy penalties were
denounced against those who should

take them down, alive or dead.-

Ignavos: those who show fear in
battle; imbelles: those who decline
military service; corpore infames:
the incestuous.

2.	Caeno ac palude: a hendiadys

for caenosa palude.-Insuper = siv-

perne.-Crate. It is probable that

heavy stones were placed on the hur-
dle.

3.	Diversitas is a post-Augustan

word.-Supplieii. The original

idea of this word was that of a kneel-
ing posture, assumed for the pur-
pose of entreaty, derived from sub -t-
plico. It is used subsequently for any
occasion where this attitude would
be required, as a thanksgiving for
victory (Sal. Jug. 55), although suppli-
eatio is the usual form in this sense.
It is also said by Festus to designate
the caduceus or s taff, wreathed round
with fillets, borne by messengers sent
to negotiate peace. (Sal. Jug. 46.)
Then, either because the punishment
of criminals was either an act of
solemn worship and dedication to
the infernal gods, or from the posture
of the malefactor while undergoing
his sentence, it came to bear its usual

meaning of punishment.-Illuc

respicitf has this end in view. -

Sceleraf crimes against society. This
proves a high stage of political con-
ception; offences against the state
being the only ones punished by
death.

4.	Flagitia, disgraceful vices; gen-

erally in the way of profligacy or dis-
soluteness.-Abscondi. This secret

punishment was not unknown to the

Romans.-JLevioribus delictis: dat.

of the poss. after est understood.
These slighter offences were adultery,
homicide, theft, etc.

5.	" JPro modo, according to the mea-
sure of the offence.'1''-Numero: (sc.

aliquo) abl. of the fine after multan-
tur. A. 220, b; G. 377, R. 1; H. 410,111.

6.	JPars multae. Multa properly
implies a fine of money or cattle,
raised at the discretion of the im-
poser. The part of this fine (wehrgild)
paid to the king, as the guardian of
peace (one-third of the whole), was
called fredum, or peace-offering; the
penal sum paid to the injured person
was termed faidus.

7.	Qui vindicatur, i. e., the plain-
tiff.-JPropinquis eius: as in case

of homicide, when the injured party
is represented by others.

8.	Qui iura per pagos vicosque
reddunt, who administer justice
throughout the districts and villages. In
their civil economy, "the Germans
were divided into nations; of which
some were under a regal govern-
ment, others under a republican.
The former had kings, the latter
chiefs. Both in kingdoms and re-
publics, military affairs were under
the conduct of generals. The nations
were divided^ into cantons; each of
which was superintended by a chief,
or count, who administered j ustice
in it. The cantons were divided into
districts or hundreds, so called be-
cause they contained a hundredTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

33

dunt. Centeni singulis ex plebe comites, consilium simul et
auctoritas, adsunt.

XIII. Nihil autem neque publicae neque privatae rei nisi
armati agunt. Sed arma sumere non ante cuiquam moris
quam civitas suffecturum probaverit. Turn in ipso concilio 5
vel principum aliquis vel pater vel propinquus scuto framea-
que iuvenem ornant. Haec apud illos toga, hie primus
iuventae honos; ante hoc domus pars videntur, mox rei-
publicae. Insignis nobilitas aut magna patrum merita

townships. In each hundred was a
companion, or centenary, chosen
from the people, before whom all
causes were tried. Before the count,
all causes, as well great as small,
were amenable. The centenaries are
called companions by Tacitus after
the custom of the Romans; among
whom the titles of honor were,
Caesar, the Legatus or Lieutenant of
Caesar, and his comites or com-
panions."

1. Consilium simtil et auctoritas,
at the same time his advisers and (sup-
porters of his) authority. Consilium,
is used with reference to the Roman
usage in judicial inquiries. In the
quaestiones perpetuae one of the prae-
tors presided; but the actual verdict
was given by a body of iudices, who
were termed his consilium. Cf. Cic.
ad Att. 1.16. ' Ut quaeque ad consilium
primis postulationibus referebantur.'

CHAP. XIII. 3. Mei: gen. of the

whole after nihil.-Nisi armati.

Even judges were armed when on
the bench. The Romans, on the con-
trary, never carried arms except in
time of war, or on a journey ; in fact,
it was expressly forbidden, among
other acts of violence, by the Lex
Plotia. In Sail., Cat. XXVII., that
Cataline was seen in the city with a
sword is given as a symptom of the
approaching outbreak. Cf. Caes., Y.
56; Thucyd., I. 6. The practice is still
kept up by the Swiss.

4. Won ante cuiquam, moris, sc.

est, it is no part of their custom for any
one. This is a favorite expression of
Tacitus. Cf. Ag. XXXIX. and XLII;
Hist. I. 15; An. I. 56. It is a form
adopted by the writers of the silver
age, instead of the other terms mos est,
in more est, etc., used by the Augus-
tan writers.

5.	Suffecturum (esse), sc. eum arma

sumere.-Probaverit (subj. of limit

after ante-quam. A. 327; G. 579; H.
520, 1.2), implies that some sort of ex-
amination was required of the young
man.

6.	JPrincipum: gen. of the whole

after aliquis.-Scuto frameaque

iuvenem ornant. We see here the
rudiments of the famous institution
of chivalry, when the knight at the
outset of his career had his armor
braced on, and the sword and spear
placed in his hands, and he rode
about brandishing them.

7.	Ornant after the disj unctive vel
is peculiar, but the construction is
not unfrequent in Tacitus and in

other writers.-Haec (i. e., arma)

apud illos toga, sc. est. This refers to
the assumption of the toga virilis by
the Roman youths on arriving at
the age of manhood; of which custom
this investiture in armor takes the
place.

8.	MonoSf honor bestowed by the

state.-Mox reipublicae. The power

of the father over the child ended
with this ceremony.

9.	Insignis nobilitasf high birth,-

Merita, services.34

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

principis dignationem etiam adolescentulis adsignant; ceteris
robustioribus ac iampridem probatis aggregantur, nec rubor
inter comites aspici. Gradus quin etiam ipse comitatus habet
iudicio eius, quem sectantur; magnaque et comitum aemu-
5 latio, quibus primus apud principem suum locus, et princi-
pum, cui plurimi et acerrimi comites. Haec dignitas, hae
vires, magno semper electorum iuvenum globo circumdari;
in pace decus, in bello praesidium. Nec solum in sua gente
cuique, sed apud finitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea
10 gloria est, si numero ac virtute comitatus emineat; expe-
tuntur enim legationibus et muneribus ornantur et ipsa
plerumque fama bella profligant. XIV. Cum ventum in
aciem, turpe principi virtute vinei, turpe comitatui virtutem
principis non adaequare. Iam vero infame in omnem vitam

1.	Dignationem,j rank. 1 Office '
would be dignitatem.

2.	Aggregantur is here used in a

reflexive sense.-Nec rubor, sc. est

illis. Cf. Ovid. Ars. Am. III. 167.
' Nee rubor est emisse palam.'

3.	Comites. Hence it seems that
these noble lads, although consid-
ered principes in rank, had their
position among the attendants only.
They are called clientes in Ann. I. 57 ;

II. 45; XII. 30.-Gradus, "various

degrees \" emphatic by position.-

Quin etiam, ipse comitatus, moreover
the retinue itself. Note the anastrophe,
as qtiin etiam, seldom occupies the
second place. A. p. 298; H. 636, V. 1.

5.	Quibusf sc. sit.

6.	Cui, sc. shit.-Haec, sc. est.

8.	Decus (in appos. with the pre-
ceding clause) answers to dignitas /
praesidium, to vires.

9.	Cuiqxie, i. e., of the princes.

10.	Si emineat, if he be distinguished:
epexegetical of id nomen, ea gloria.

11.	JEJxpetuntur legationibus. This
means that when embassies are sent
to the state to which these illustrious
chiefs belong, the ambassadors apply
to them, and {muneribus omatur)

make them presents, in the hope of
obtaining their co-operation.

12.	Ipsa fama, by their reputation

only, without coming to arms.-

Brofligant means 'to deal a blow
that sets anything tottering,' or first
gives it an effective check; and pro-
fligare helium is 4 to break the back of
a war,' as we say; so that the subse-
quent "completion of it is an easy
thing. Of. Livy, XXI. 40; Tac., An.,
XIV. 36; Hist. II. 4; Seneca, de Benef.
VII. 15.

CHAP. XIV. 12. Ventum; sc. est
abiis: aoristic perf.

13.	Turpe, sc. est.

14.	Iam vero, sc. est, always marks
the transition to an additional sub-
ject that is specially important.-

Infame .... ac probosum. The for-
mer implies that the act tarnished
the character of any one who was
guilty of it; the latter that it exposed
him to the reproaches of others. This
was true only with reference to the
desertion of the princeps by the
comites; as for the mass of the fight-
ing men they were too independent
to pay much regard to their leaders.
Cf. An, II. 14.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.	35

ac probrosum superstitem principi sno ex acie recessisse.
Ilium defendere, tueri, sua quoque fortia facta gloriae eius
adsignare praecipuum sacramentum est. Principes pro victoria
pugnant, comites pro principe. Si civitas, in qua orti sunt,
longa pace et otio torpeat, plerique nobilium adolescentium 5
petunt ultro eas nationes, quae turn bellum aliquod gerunt,
quia et ingrata genti quies, et facilius inter ancipitia
clarescunt, magnumque comitatum non nisi vi belloque
tueare. Exigunt enim principis sui liberalitate ilium bella-
torem equum, illam cruentam yictricemque frameam. JSTam 10
epulae et quamquam incompti largi tamen apparatus pro
stipendio cedunt; materia munificentiae per bella et raptus.
Nee arare terram, aut exspectare annum tam facile persua-
seris quam vocare hostes et vulnera mereri. Pigrum quin

1.	Superstitem principi. Cf. chap.
VI, when superstites is followed by
the genitive bellorum.

2.	Defenders, tueri. The former
only implies, to ward off actual dan-
ger in battle; the latter, generally to
protect his interests.

3.	Sacramentum, "peculiar loyalty."
This was strictly the oath voluntarily
taken by the early Roman soldiers,
not to desert, quit the ranks, etc. The
word is here used to show how bind-
ing this oath, to which he refers, was
among the Germans.

5.	Torpeat. A. 307, b; G. 598; H. 511,1.

6.	JPetunt ultro. This was the same
plan as that pursued by the Free
Companies, and Oondottieri, of the
Middle Ages, who took service as
soldiers of fortune under any prince
who offered to pay for their services.
-Aliquod is usedadjectively quali-
fying bellum.

7.	Ingrataf sc. est. - Ancipitia

H- caput), dangers, arising from

war.

9. ISxigunt, they expect, as these
were probably promised when the
young man became one of the comites.
Montesquieu {Esprit des Lois, XXX. 3)
justly derives from this the origin

of vassalage. At first, the prince
gave to his nobles arms and pro-
visions : as avarice advanced, money,
and then lands were required, which,
from beneficia, became at length
hereditary possessions, called ftefs."

Hence arises the feudal system.-

Iliumf illam. These words, as ges-
tures, point to the objects mentioned
as the well-known rewards of valor.

10.	JBellatorem equum is poetical.
Cf. Verg. Georg. II. 145.

11.	Incompti, largi tamen, although

homely, yet plentiful.-Apparatus

refers to the appointments of the
banquet, rather than to the banquet
itself.

12.	Cedtmt = Us dantur.-Materia

(sc. est), the funds.

13.	Arare. The use of the infin.
after persuaseris is common to
poetry, and to late Latin. A. 331, a;
G. 546, R. 1; H. 535, IV. This state-
ment is applicable to the comites only.
-Anmim is here used for the pro-
duce of the year, the harvest. Cf. Ag.
XXXI; Lucan, III., 452.

14.	Vocare=provocare. For this use
cf. Hist. IV. 80. The full form of the
phrase occurs in An. VI. 40,1 interim
Orodem Pharsamanes vocare ad pug-36

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

immo et iners videtur sudore adquirere, quod possis sanguine
parare.

XV. Quotiens bella non ineunt, non multum venatibus,
plus per otium transigunt, dediti somno ciboque, fortissimus
5 quisque ac bellicosissimus nihil agens, delegata domus et
penatium et agrorum cura feminis senibusque et infirmissimo
cuique ex familia; ipsi hebent, mira diversitate naturae, cum
iidem homines sic ament inertiam et oderint quietem. Mos
est civitatibus ultro ac yiritim conferre principibus vel
lOarmentorum vel frugum, quod pro honore acceptum etiam
necessitatibus subvenit. Gaudent praecipue finitimarum
gentium donis, quae non modo a singulis sed et publice mit-

wara.'-Meveri, earn, deserve by

valor.-Pigrum9 " tame. "-Quin

immo, nay more. These words, com-
monly placed first by other writers,
introduce the clause. Cf. gradus quin
etiam in chap. XIII, Immo always
adds emphasis to the following
clause, making it stronger than any-
thing that has been previously said.

1.	Triers9 " spiritless."-Quod = id

quod.-Possis : potential subj.

2.	Parare: complementary infin.

CHAP. XV. 3. Non multum, sc.

temporis. This assertion at first sight
appears to contradict Caesar (VI. 21),
who says that a German's life was
entirely spent in hunting and war.
All that Tacitus means is, that the
chase was their only employment in
time of peace, and took up only a
small part of their time compared to
the large amount they idled away.
If there were really any irreconcil-
able discrepancy between the two
authors, one would, in questions of
custom, at all events, give the prefer-
ence to Tacitus, much having oc-
curred since Caesar's time to make
the Germans better known. Besides
Tacitus seems to be speaking here of
the chiefs and their followers, just
described, rather than of the Ger-
mans as a race.

4. Per otium. Note the enallage,
which is very common in Tacitus. ,

Cf. XL. per obsequium, proeliis; Ag.
IX. virtute aut per artem; Ag. XLI.
temeritate aut per ignavium. A. p. 298;
H. 636, IV. JPer with the acc. denotes
more of continuance than the preced-
ing ablative.

5.	Delegata, transferred.

6.	Penatium, household affairs.--

Agrorum cura feminis, " In some
portions of Germany the severest
agricultural duties are still per-
formed by women." This is the way
among all savage tribes. War and
the chase are the only occupations of
the men; everything else is thought
beneath their dignity; and the hard
work falls to the lot of the women.

7.	Familiaj the family. The word
properly refers to the slave-gang be-
longing to a family.-Ipsi, sc. viri.

-Diversitate, contrariety.

- 8. Ament: concession.-Oderint:

perf. with the sense of the present, as
memini and odi always are. A. 143,
N; G. 190, 5; H. 297, I. 2.-Quie-
tem =pacem.

9.	Viritim, individually. Here we
have the beginning of taxation, after-
wards made compulsory.

10.	Armentorum, (sc. aliquid): gen.
of the whole.

11,12. Necessitatibus: especially for

the public entertainments.-Gati-

dent: i. e., principes.-Donis: abl. of

cause.-Singtilis, individuals.THE GERMANIA OE TACITUS.

37

tuntur, electi equi, magna arma, phalerae torquesque. Iam
et pecuniam accipere doeuimus.

XVI. Nullas Gerrnanorum populis urbes habitari satis
notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes. Colunt
discreti ae diversi, ut fons, nt campus, ut nemus placnit. 5
Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et coliaerentibus
aedificiis; suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive ad-
versus casus ignis remedium, sive inscitia aedificandi. Ne
caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus; materia
ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem. 10

1.	Electi, sc. sunt. -Phalerae,

torquesque. Of these, the first (de-
rived from (palog) were bosses or
metal plates, used as ornaments for
helmets, and then attached to the
harness of horses, as pendants to pro-
duce a jingling noise when the
animal was at speed. Torqties were
twisted circlets of gold, worn round
the neck, originally l?y the Persians
and other nations of Northern and
Western Europe.

2.	Pecuniam is in censure of the
Romans for purchasing the friend-
ship of Ariovistus, Segestus, Malo-
vendus, and others, and for attempt-
ing to purchase peace of the Ger-
mans. Cf. chap. XLII; Hist. IV., 76;

Herod. VI. 7,139.-Accipere, sc. eos

as second accusative.-" Doeuimus

is obviously a satire on Roman eovet-
ousness." The effect of such teaching
may be seen in the ruin of the em-
pire.

CHAP. XVI. 3. Populis: dat. of

agt.- JJrbes. Ptolemy, writing

some sixty years later than Tacitus,
mentions as many as seventy cities.
By these he no doubt meant clusters
of huts or wigwams gathered round
some wood or spring, and these
(Tacitus himself speaks of, An. I. 56.
But by urbs the Romans intended a
town with fortifications, temples,
etc., and of these there were of course
none among the Germans, Caesar,
to the contrary, notwithstanding.

4. Pati (sc. eos), although in the em-

phatic position, does not seem to
have the emphasis, which appears
rather to belong to the whole clause.
The aversion of the Germans to cities
is shown in the fact that they always
destroyed them when found in con-
quered countries, and this manner of
living in scattered habitations con-
tinued until after the time of

Charlemagne.-Inter se, with each

other: to be taken with iunctas.

5.	Discreti ac diversi, separate and
scattered about without streets or re-
gard to regularity.-Fons, campus,

nemus. Traces of this early mode of
dwelling are seen in the ending of
the names of many German towns
and villages, which to this day end
in 'Bach' (brook), 'Born' (spring),
1 Feld' (field),1 Holz' Hayn' (grove),
'Wald' (wood).

6.	Conexis, i. e., with some connect-
ing link, as fences, hedges, etc.-

Cohaerentibus,i. e., in actual contact.

7.	Sive .... sive expresses an al-
ternative conditionally.

8.	Casus is derived from cado.-

Hemedium: appos. with the preced-
ing clause.-Inscitia: abl. of cause.

9.	Caementortim, derived from
caedo, is properly hewn stone; but is
applied generally to any stone for

building purposes. - Tegularum

(from tego) denotes any material for

the roof.-Materia, timber ; abl. of

means.

10.	Citra speciem aut delectationem,
stopping short of beauty or attractive-38

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splen-
dente, ut picturam ac lineamenta colorum imitetur. Solent et
subterraneos specus aperire, eosque multo insuper fimo one-
rant, suffugium hiemi et receptaculum frugibus, quia rigorem
5 frigorum eiusmodi locis molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit,
aperta populatur, abdita aiitem et defossa aut ignorantur aut
eo ipso fallunt quod quaerenda sunt.

XVII. Tegumen omnibus sagum fibula aut; si desit, spina
consertum; cetera intecti totos dies iuxta focum atque ignem
lOagunt. Locupletissimi veste distinguuntur non fluitante,

ness, i. e., not going far enough in
their work to cross the line dividing
plainness from beauty; not taking
pains to make it handsome. The
preposition citra, probably con-
nected with hie, means on this side of.

1.	Quaedam loca, i. e., the interior

walls.-Terray ita pura ac splen-

dente is probably some kind of red
earth, such as chalk or gypsum.

2.	Picturam, painting in one color.

-hineamenta, outlines, probably

refers to frescoes.

3.	Aperire: poetical for fodere, to
excavate.

4.	Suffugium. Cf. remedium above.
-Hiemi: dat. of disadvantage, de-
pending on a noun, suffiigium.

6.	Aperta, sc. loca; acc.-JPopu-

latur, sc. hostis from the preceding

clause.-Abdita et defossa, sc. loca ;

nom. -Ignorantur9 remain un-
known.

7.	JESo ipso: abl. of cause, from the

very fact.-Fallunt. Fallo is used

here in the sense of escaping notice
and is equivalent to the Greek
XavdavsL, in which sense it is often
used by Tacitus. The passage means
that these subterranean caves are
either altogether unknown to the
enemy, or supposing the enemy to
have a general idea of their locality,
yet they baffle discovery, because
they can only be found by rigorous
search, for which the enemy lacks
time and inclination. "Giinther

calls attention to the multiform enal-
lage in this sentence: 1. in number
(populaturf ignorantur, fallunt) / 2.
of the active, passive, and deponent
verbs; 3. in the change of cases
{apertaf acc; abdita and defossa,
nom)." Tyler.

CHAP. XVII. 8. Tegumen. We

would here expect the dative.-

Sagum, sc. est. The sagum was a
thick cloak, covering the back and
shoulders, and worn by Roman sol-
diers and countrymen.-Fibula:

any artificial fastening.-Desit.

Note the force of the present.-

Spina. Vergil {Aen. IIL 594), and
Ovid {Met. XIV. 166) use a thorn for
the same purpose.

9. Cetera: acc. of specif., i. e., of

course, when in the house.-Totos

dies: time how long.

10., Veste seems to mean an inner
garment, distinguished from the
outer cloak, which formed the sole
dress of the great mass of the people,
here designated by the word sagum.
The vestis was the dress of the richer
sort, who do not seem to have worn
the sagum at all, judging from chap'.
VI. where the words nudi aut sagulo
leves are used apparently to desig-
nate the two classes.-Fluitante re-
fers to the loose, flowing garments
of the southern and eastern nations;
stricta to the close, short clothes of
the northern nations.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

89

sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singulos artus expri-
mente. Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae negligenter,
ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus per commercia cultus.
Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargnnt maculis pelli-
busque beluarum, quas exterior Oceanus atque ignotum mare
gignit. Nec alius feminis quam yiris habitus, nisi quod
feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur, eosque purpura
variant, partemque vestitus superioris in manicas non exten-
dunt, nudae brachia ac laeertos; sed et proxima pars pectoris
patet.

XVIII. Quamquam severa illic matrimonia, nec ullam
morum partem magis laudaveris. Nam prope soli barba-

1.	Sarmatae, sc. distinguuntur.

2.	JProocimi ripae, sc. Hheni. Those
of the Germans, who dwell near the
Rhine, and from proximity to Gallia
and the Roman traders are able to
procure a more civilized dress, take
less pride in their skin coverings, and
are rather careless (negligenter) in
the arrangement of them, not think-
ing them good enough to take much
trouble about. But those in the in-
terior (ulteriores), being less ac-
quainted with the Roman and Gallic
wares, and having nothing better,
are anxious, therefore, to make the
most they can of their native mate-
rials, and hence wear them more ele-
gantly (exquisitius).

3.	Ut quibus, sc. sit: subj. of reason

in a relative clause.-A. 320, e; G.

636; H. 517, 3, 1).-Cultus, kind of

dress, procurable by the Germans
only through commerce.

4.	Velamina = pelles.- Maculis

pellibusque. This means that they
decorate the hides of wild beasts with
spots or different colored patches
m4de out of the skins of sea mons-
ters. Hence, maculis pellibusque
belluarum is put by hendiadys for
maculis pellium belluinarum, perhaps
to avoid the concurrence of genitives.
T. "The practice is still continued
with regard to the ermine, which is
spotted with black lamb's-skin."

5.	Exterior Oceanus ; the German
Ocean.-Ignotum mare: the Baltic.

6.	Habitus (sc. est) = vestitus.

7.	Saepius. The comparative im-
plies that the men wore linen more
or less.-Eos, i. e., habitus.-Pur-
pura. This was not the genuine pur-
pura, obtained from the murext but a
dye obtained from some plant.

8.	Partemque vestitus superioris
= superiorem partem vestitus. This
was the fashion of the Roman tunic.

9.	ae laeertos: acc. of
specif. The Brachium was the por-
tion of the arm between the hand
and the elbow; laeertos, that from the
elbow to the shoulder. The stola,
worn by the Roman women, had
sleeves.

CHAP. XVIII. 11. Quamquam (=
sed tamen) refers to the words at
the end of the last chapter, and is
added to remove any wrong inference
that might be drawn from them.
The dress of the women is scanty,
but it is a matter of custom only, and
no proof nor cause of dissoluteness of
morals, as it might be with a more
refined people.

12. haudaveris: potential subj. A.

311, R; G. 602; H. 486, I.-Bwrbaro-

rum, among barbarous nations: gen.
of the whole.40

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

rorum singulis uxoribus contenti sunt, exceptis admodum
paucis, qui non libidine sed ob nobilitatem plurimis nuptiis
ambiuntur. Dotem non uxor marito, sed uxori maritus
offert. Intersunt parentes et propinqui, ac munera pro-
5 bant, munera non ad delicias muliebres quaesita, nee
quibus nova nupta comatur, sed boves et frenatum equum

1.	Singulis uscoribus, with one wife
each. Note the force of the distribu-
tive.

2.	Qui .... ambiuntur, who take
many wives, not from lust,. but on ac-
count of their nobility (rank) are solic-
ited by very many offers of marriage.
In support of this interpretation, vid.
An. II., 43; Caesar, B. G. I., 53. The
Scandinavian nations retained the
same custom, even long after they
were Christianized, and few habits
proved harder for the clergy to weed
out from the people than this, the
practice lingering on as late as the
tenth century.

3.	Dotem, etc. Tacitus is contrast-
ing here the German custom with
that of his own countrymen at Rome;
but in truth the difference seems one
not so much of different nations as
between the same nation in different
stages of civilization. When Medea
(v. 232) remarks that the destined
bride had to buy her spouse with a
vast -sum of money, the Scholiast
observes that Euripides was transfer-
ring to heroic times the usage of his
own day. In most nations, in the
early period, the bridegroom appears
to have paid for his wife. In patri-
archal days, Shechem offered to
Dinah's father and brethren as much
dowry as they required, on condition
of their giving him the damsel to wife
(Gen. XXXIV. 12). Homer attests the
existence of the custom in early
Greece, speaking of a hundred beeves,
and a thousand sheep and goats, as
the price. The laws of the early
Saxons recognize the continuance of
the same practice. As civilization
advances, however, and the onera
matrimonii become more sensibly felt,

this custom disappears, and is re-
placed by the opposite; a change
which, in the eyes of the Greek and
Roman satirists, at least wrought no
great amount of good, to judge from
their complaints of the pride and
waywardness of largely-dowered
dames.

4.	Intersunt, are present and take

part.-JProbant, i. e., examine into

their sufficiency.-Note the force

added to the narration by the repeti-
tion of munera.

5.	Non ad delicias muliebres quae—
sita,not adapted to delight the fastidi-
ous tastes of women.

DRESSING A ROMAN BRIDE.

6. Comatur: subj. of purpose, after
nec quibus = nec talia ut iis. A. 317;
G. 632; H. 497,1.THE GrERMANIA OF TACITUS.

41

et scutum cum «framea gladioque. In haec munera uxor
accipitur, atque invicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro affert •
hoc maximum vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos coniugales
deos arbitrantur. Ne se mulier extra virtutum cogitationes
extraque bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis matrimonii 5
auspiciis admonetur venire se laborum periculorumque
sociam, idem in pace, idem in proelio passuram ausuramque.
Hoc iuncti boves, hoc paratus equus, hoc data arma denunti-
ant; sic vivendum, sic pereundum; accipere se, quae liberis
inviolata ac digna reddat, quae nurus accipiant rursusque ad 10
nepotes referant. XIX. Ergo saepta pudicitia agunt, nullis
spectaculorum inlecebris, nullis conviviorum irritationibus
corruptae. Litterarum secreta viri pariter ac feminae igno-
rant. Paucissima in tam numerosa gente adulteria, quorum

1. In haecmunera = ettI rovroig rolg
Scjpotg, In consideration of these gifts.
In may however mean into: the fu-
ture husband parts with the articles
given, and fills up the gap made in
his possessions by taking a wife.

3.	Haec arcana sacra. Probably
Tacitus has in view here the marriage
by confarreatio, in which the panis
farreus was used, and certain relig-
ious ceremonies observed. As this
was the most solemn method of con-
tracting marriages in use among the
Romans, Tacitus probably refers to it.

-Coniugales deos. Jupiter, Juno,

Diana, Venus, Hymenaeus, etc., pre-
sided over marriages at Rome.

4.	Extra, excused from, for positum
extra.

5.	Putet: subj. of purpose.

7.	Idem, sc. " quod vir suus vel pati-
tur vel audet."-Passuram, ausu-
ramque: fut. part, denoting purpose.

8.	De nuntlant, denote.

9.	Vivendum, sc. esse sibi. This
and the following infinitives depend

on denuntiant.-Accipere se, sc. ea

referring to the gifts.

10.	Meddat: subj. of purpose, after

qtiae = ut ea.-JLccipiantf i. e., from

her sons, as she did from her husband.

11.	JRefer ant, sc. illae, i. e., nurus.

CHAP. XIX. 11. Sceepta pudicitia,

with their chastity guarded, from all
that could assail it externally, by the
sacredness of marriage, and the laws
of the Germans. One MS. has septae,
which implies that they were pro-
tected from harm by their own
purity.

12.	Nullis spectaculorum inlecebris.
The corrupting effect on the morality
of the Roman ladies produced by the
games and theatres, is often men-
tioned by the Roman writers, Juve-
nal for instance, XI. 162, etc. Seneca,
too, describes himself as returning
home from the show, a worse man
than he went (" Nihil vero est tam
damnosum bonis moribus quam in aliquo
spectaculo desidere ; avarior redeo, am-
bitiosior, luxuriosior''''). - Convivi-
orum. On the corrupting influences
of convivial entertainments, Vid.
Hor. Od. III. 6. 27; Nepos JPref.

13.	lAtterarum secreta = litteras se-
cretas, clandestine correspondence, as
is evident from the context.

14.	Numerosa is generally used of
verse. It is probable that the popu-
lation of Germany was six or seven
millions, judging from the state-48

T'HE GBBMAHIA. Of TACITUS,

SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE ("POIiLICE VERSO," PAINTING BY GEROME).

poena praesens et maritis permissa. Abscisis crinibus, nuda-
tam, coram propinquis expellit domo maritus, ac per omnem
vicum yerbere agit. Publicatae enim pudicitiae nulla venia;
non forma, non aetate, non opibus maritum invenerit. Nemo
enim illic vitia ridet, nec corrumpere et corrumpi saeculum

ments of Caesar and Tacitus. -

Adulteria. Vid. Juv. VI. 48; IX. 24:
Tac. Ann. II. 85, on the frequency of
this crime at Rome.

1.	Praesens, immediate.-Maritis

permissa shows that they regard it as

a domestic crime. Cf. Caes. VI. 19.-

Abscisis crinibus. It was considered
a disgrace, among the Germans, to cut
the hair, so that it was made a punish-
ment for certain crimes, and was re-
sented as an injury if practiced upon
an innocent person. Cf. 1. Cor. XI. 6.

2.	Omnem=totum, cf. Germania om~
nis. Cap. I. Among the Saxons, the
women themselves inflicted the pun-
ishment.

3.	Publicatae, prostituted. This is
said with reference to unmarried
women. Tacitus (Ann. II. 85) tells us
that the Roman ladies under the
Empire were so profligate " that the
Senate had to provide by law that no
woman whose father or grandfather
or husband was an eques, should give
in her name to the aediles as a pros-
titute. "

4.	Aetate — iuventate.-Invenerit:

subj. of guarded assertion. A. 311, R;
G.602; H. 486,1.

5.	Saecnlum, the style, the spirit of
the age. For a similar use cf. Martial
IX. 27: Et cum theatris saeculoque
rixaris.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.	43

vocatur. Melius quidem adhuc eae civitates, in quibus
tantum virgines nubunt, et cum spe yotoque uxoris semel
transigitur. Sic unum accipiunt maritum, quomodo unum
corpus unamque vitam, ne ulla cogitatio ultra, ne longior
cupiditas, ne tamquam maritum sed tamquam matrimonium 5
ament. Numerum liberorum finire aut quemquam ex agnatis
necare flagitium habetur, plusque ibi boni mores valent quam
alibi bonae leges. XX. In omni domo nudi ac sordidi in
hos artus, in haee corpora, quae miramur, excrescunt. Sua
quemque mater uberibus alit, nec ancillis ac nutricibus dele-10
gantur. Dominum ac servum nullis educationis deliciis
dignoscas; inter eadem pecora, in eadem humo degunt, donee

1.	AdTiuc is used in the sense of
still farther, still more, by the later
writers. Cf. Plin. XXXIII. 2; Tac.

Agr. XXXIII.-Eae civitates, sc.

agunt. This ellipsis is not uncom-
mon. Cf. An. I. 43; Agr. XIX.

2.	Semel, once for all.

3.	Transigitur, the business is con-
cluded. Tacitus, in this whole pas-
sage, is drawing a strong contrast be-
tween the customs of the Germans
and those of Rome. Martial (VI. 7)
complains that in spite of the Julian
law, Telesina had married ten hus-
bands in thirty days, but here only
virgins marry; and divorce is un-
known. Widows were expected to
hang themselves at once at the graves
of their husbands, unless they chose
to live in perpetual infamy.

4.	Ultra, sc. sit, beyond this, i. e.,
the first marriage.

5.	JVe tamquam .... ament, sc.
maritum, that they may not love a hus-
band merely as a husband, but as they
love marriage itself. On losing their
husbands, they lose marriage.

6.	Liber ovum finire, i. e., by any
means contrary to nature, as murder
and abortion. On the frequency of
infanticide among the Romans, Vid.
Ann. III. 25, 26; XV. 19: Juv. II. 32;
VI. 366.-Agnati here means chil-
dren born after there was an heir to
the name and property of the lather.

8.	Alibi, i. e., at Rome. " The refer-
ence is to the Lex Julia, passed in the
reign of Augustus, about 17 B. C., and
to the Lex JPapia JPoppaea, passed
A. D. 9, as a supplement to the former.
These laws had for their object the
regulation and encouragement of
marriage; they proved however, as
Tacitus tells us (Ann. III. 25), a fail-
ure, and simply increased the power
of the delator es"

CHAP. XX. 8. JVudi ac sordidi,
slightly and meanly clad.

9.	Quae miramur. Cf. Cap. IV.

magna corpora. Caes. I. 39.-Sua,

his own.

10.	Uberibus is generally used when

speaking of animals.-Nec ancillis

ac nutricibus. Tacitus is here re-
proving the customs of his own day
at Rome. The author of the Dialogus
de Oratoribus draws a contrast be-
tween the old Romans and their de-
scendants in this respect: " Iampri-
mum suus cuique filius .... non in
cellae emptae nutricis, sed gremio ac
sinu matris educabatur. At nunc natus
infans delegatur Graeculae alicui an-
cillae, cui adiungitur unus aut alter ex
omnibus servis, plerumque vilissimus
nec cuiquam serio ministerio accomo-
datus."

11.	Nullis educationis deliciis, by no
indulgence in the manner of rearing,

12.	Dignoscas: potential subj,44

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

aetas separet ingenuos, virtus agnoscat. Seraiuvenum Venus,
eoque inexhausta pubertas. Nec virgines festinantur; eadem
iuventa, similis proceritas : pares validaeque miscentur, ac
robora parentum liberi referunt.

5 Sororum filiis idem apud avunculum, qui apud patrem
honor. Quidam sanctiorem arctioremque hunc nexum
sanguinis arbitrantur, et in accipiendis obsidibus magis
exigunt, tamquam et animum firmius et domum latius
teneant. Heredes tamen successoresque sui cuique

10 liberi, et nullum testamentum. Si liberi non sunt,
proximus gradus in possessione fratres, patrui, avunculi.

1.	Aetas. Age is said to separate
the free-born, when they are found
on trial to he able to bear arms. At
first this age was twelve years, as ap-
pears from the Salic law: " If a child
under twelve commit a fault,4 mulct'
shall not be required of him." Later
it was fifteen years. Thus the Ripu-
ary laws say: "A child under fifteen
shall not be responsible; " and, " If a
man die, or be killed, and leave a son,
before he have completed his fif-
teenth year, he shall neither prose-
cute a cause, nor be called upon to
answer in a suit: but at this term, he
must either answer himself or choose
an advocate." This then was the
term of majority, which in still later
times, when heavier armor was used,

was still longer delayed.-Virtus

agnoscat, until virtue recognizes them as
her own. For the subj. after donee see
note on Cap. I.-Venus = concubitus.

2.	Eoque: abl. of cause.-Pubertas

=facultas generandi.-Festinantur:

poetical for nuptiae virginum festinan-
tur. At Rome, however, boys of four-
teen married girls of twelve. -

Eadem iuventa, sc. est, i. e., to the
young men and the maidens.

3.	Proceritas, full growth, develop-
ment of form.-Pares validaeque

miscentur, they are wedded to young
husbands, equally-matched and robust,
i. e., they were equal not only in age,
and constitution, but in condition.

Many German codes of law annex
penalties to those of both sexes, who
marry persons of inferior rank.

5. Sororum, filiis. The respect thus
paid to sisters' sons may have arisen
from the estimation in which women

were held among the Germans.--

JLvunculum. This was an uncle by
the mother's side, as distinguished
from patruus. Among the Romans
the patruus was the more impor-
tant person, because he was both ag-
natus and eognatus, while the avuncu-
lus was only eognatus; and by the
law of the XII Tables, in default of a
will, the tutela was given to agnati
only.

8.	HIxigunt, sc. sororum filios.-

Domum latius. Because to take a
man's sons as hostages would bind
only their father; whereas to take
his nephews, would give a hold not
only on the man himself, but the par-
ents of the hostages as well.

9.	Teneant, subj. after tamquam to
denote the views of others than the
writer.-Heredesf heirs to the prop-
erty.-Successoresque, and succes-
sors to the rank.

10.	Nullum testamentum. A will
was unnecessary as the succession
was determined by law.

11.	Proximus gradus. In this mat-
ter the German custom differed from
the Roman. By the Roman law
(U]pian7 Frag. Tit, XXVI. 51), a man'sTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

45

Quanto plus propinquorum, quo maior adfinium numerus,
tanto gratiosior senectus; nec ulla orbitatis pretia. XXI.
Suscipere tam inimicitias, seu patris, seu propinqui, quam
amicitias, necesse est. Nec implacabiles durant; luitur enim
etiam homicidium certo armentorum ac pecorum numero,
recepitque satisfactionem universa domus, utiliter in publicum,
quia periculosiores sunt inimicitiae iuxta libertatem.

Convictibus et hospitiis non alia gens effusius indulget.

heirs were first his own children,
grandchildren, etc., or failing them,
his brothers and sisters by the same
father (consanguinei): next, the near-
est of the remaining agnati. Conse-
quently the avunculus "being adfinis
only, and not agnatus, could not in-
herit, except of course by the express
direction of a testator.

1,	JPropinquorum: blood rela-
tives. -A.dfinium ; relations by

marriage.

2.	Orbitatis pretia. At Rome the
advantages of childlessness were great;
not indeed legally: for the orbus was
subject by the Lex Julia et Papia Pop-
paea to certain penalties. From the
actual state of society, however, he
was regarded as a fortunate man. Cf.
Hist. 1. 73; Dial, de Orat. VI. Great
court was paid them by their friends,
in the hope of obtaining a legacy, and
they were inundated with presents,
large fish, etc. Cf. Juv. V. 98; III.
221; etc.

CHAP. XXI. 3. Suscipere tam
inimicitias. Such was also the cus-
tom of the Scottish clans, where
feuds raged for centuries, because the
son felt bound to take up his father's
quarrels. Thus the Mackintosh and
Macdonald clans were at feud in
consequence of some dispute origi-
nating so far back as the days when
Danish pirates wasted the coasts of
Scotland. Similarly the Kerrs and
the Scots were hereditary foes. This
right was a natural outgrowth of the
family, i. e., developed side by side
with it.

4.	Wee = sed non. -Durant, sc.

inimicitiae.

5.	Homicidium, is not found in

writers of th6 golden age.-Armen-

torum ac pecorum. Cf. cap. V. This
plan of atoning for homicide is found
in many uncivilized peoples. It ex-
isted among the Greeks (lliadTK632,
Kal fiev tlq rs nagiyvrjtolo (povijog Txoivrjv
rj ovnaidog ede^aro rsOvrjurog), Latins,
Franks, Saxons, Welsh, and Irish.
The amount of this payment was
regulated by the station of the person
killed; so much for a peasant, more
for a noble, and so on. It is curious
that, among the Saxons, although
homicide was thus atoned for by fixed
payment, certain offences, in our
eyes, of less atrocity, such as stealing
a horse, were made capital, probably
because among a warlike and fierce
people the slaughter of an adversary,
carrying with it the idea of manli-
ness and prowess, was not regarded
harshly.

6.	Jtecepitque satisfactionem, i. e.,
the whole household is bound to rest
contented with the payment thus
made, and has no right afterwards to
carry on the feud longer.

7.	Iuxta libertatem f i. e., in a free
state. This use of iuxta for apud is
characteristic of the writers of the
silver age.

8.	Convictibus et hospitiis. Of
these words the former refers to hos-
pitality shown to friends, the latter

to strangers.-Effusius, Cf. Caes.

VI. 23.46

THE GEKMANIA OF TACITUS.

Quemcumque mortalium arcere tecto nefas habetur ; pro
fortuna quisque apparatis epulis excipit. Cum defecere, qui
modo hospes fuerat, monstrator hospitii et comes; proximam
domum non invitati adeunt. Nec interest; pari humanitate

5 accipiuntur. Notum ignotumque, quantum ad ius hospitii,
nemo discernit. Abeunti, si quid poposcerit, concedere
moris; et poscendi invicem eadem faeilitas. Gaudent mu-
neribus, sed nec data imputant nec acceptis obligantur.
Vietus inter hospites comis.

10 XXII. Statim e somno, quem plerumque in diem extra-
hunt, lavantur, saepius calida, ut apud quos plurimum hiems
occupat. Lauti cibum capiunt; separatae singulis sedes et
sua cuique mensa. Turn ad negotia nec minus saepe ad con-
vivia procedunt armati. Diem noctemque continuare potando

1.	Nefas habetur. A law of the
Burgundians punished by a fine any-
one who refused shelter to a chance
visitor. This unbounded hospitality
is one of the virtues of uncivilized

races.-Pro fortuna, in accordance

with his means.

2.	A/pparatis, well furnished. -

Defecere, sc. epulae. This is sup-
posed by Holtzmann to refer to the
old custom of the Germans of not
extending the right of hospitality be-
yond three days.

3.	Hospes: here the host.-Mon-
strator hospitii. The man who lately
supplied the feast points out a new
entertainer, and accompanies his
late guest there.

4.	Non invitati, i. e., even if they

are not invited.-Nec interest, i. e.,

whether they come by invitation or
not.-Pari, as if they had been in-
vited.

5.	Quantum ad ius hospitii, as far
as regards the rights of hospitality, i. e.,
the right of the guest to a hospitable
reception.

7.	Moris, sc. est: pred. gen.

8.	Sed nee data .... obligantur,
but they neither make an account of the
things given (by them), nor do they feel

themselves bound by the things which
have been received (by them).

9. Victus, manner of life. This
clause contrasts the behavior of the
Germans toward strangers who are
sharing their hospitality with their
conduct when friends only are pres-
ent. In the former case quietness
and courtesy prevail; in the latter
quarreling is sure to arise.

CHAP. XXII. 10. JE7 somno, on aris-
ing from sleep.-In diem. This, and

every other custom here noticed, was
contrary to the practice of the Ro-
mans.

11.	JLavantur,washthemselves: clear-
ly used in a middle sense.-Calida,

sc. aqua. Cf. Juv. V. 63: Pliny, Epist.
III. 5; VI. 16.-Plurimum, sc. anni.

12.	Occupat: subj. of the reason
in a relative clause. Vt merely

strengthens the relative.-Singulis,

cuique, dat. of posses. Sedes is op-
posed to the triclinia, on which the
Romans were accustomed to recline
at meals.

13.	Mensa. "Eating at separate
tables is generally an indication of

voracity.''-Negotia (nec -j- otium),

in the plural, indicates their various
pursuit;THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

47

nulli probrum. Crebrae ut inter vinolentos rixae raro con-
viciis, saepins caede et vulneribus transiguntur. Sed et de
reconciliandis invicem inimicis et iungendis adfinitatibus et
adciscendis principibus, de pace denique ac bello plerumque
in conviviis consultant, tamquam nullo magis tempore aut 5
ad simplices cogitationes pateat animus aut ad magnas
incalescat. Gens non astuta nec callida aperit adhuc
secreta pectoris licentia ioci; ergo detecta et nuda omnium
mens. Postera die retractatur, et salva utriusque temporis
ratio est: deliberant dum fingere nesciunt, constituunt dumlO
errare non possunt. XXIII. Potui humor ex hordeo aut
frumento, in quandam similitudinem vini corruptus; proximi

1.	Nulli probrum, sc. est. - Tit

inter vinolentos, sc. fieri solet. -

Itiocae, Rixa is a pugna duorum, in-
volving blows, and is more compre-
hensive than iurgium, which is a
wordy contest.

2.	Saepius caede. This was no doubt
a common occurrence; for by the
Salic law, if any one was killed at a
feast, the survivors were either to
pay among them the composition for
homicide, or convict some one indi-
vidual of the crime. -Transi-
guntur. Vid. Note on transigitur,
cap. XIX.

3.	Invicem, mutually.-Iungendis

adfinitatibus, contracting family alli-
ances.

4.	Adciscendis — eligendis. The
word, denoting properly a recep-
tion into a body of men, is here
properly used, as the elections were,
as we say, for life.

5.	In conviviis consultant. Hero-
dotus (1.138) relates the same custom
amongst the Persians.

6.	Simplices, ingenuous, undis-
guised.-WagnaSf heroic ones. The

idea is, that over their cups they dis-
close their real sentiments, and a
man's real thoughts are got at. Cf.
"In vino Veritas

7.	Astuta, cunning, keeping one's
own interests in view, and having
a-n eye to the main chance,-Callida,

(derived from callum, the horny skin
on the hand, produced by hard
labor) denotes the wisdom obtained
by long contact with the world, i. e.,

worldly wise.-Adhuc, to this day, in

spite of the degeneracy of the age.

8.	loci, festivity. -Detecta et

nuda, sc. est.

9.	Hetractatur: impersonal. There
is a reconsideration.-Salva utri-
usque temporis ratio est, the account
of both occasions is safe, i. e., by dis-
cussing when they cannot dissemble,
and deciding when there is no chance
of erring. The expression salva ratio
is properly used when the debit and
credit sides of an account balance
one another.

CHAP. XXIII. 11. JPotui humor, sc.
est iis. Ale or beer does not seem to
have been known to the Romans,
except as the drink of foreign nations.
The Egyptians (Herod. II. 77) used
barley wine; and Pliny the elder
(XIV. 22) mentions its use by the peo-
ple of Northern and Western Europe.

12. Frurriento, wheat.-Corruptus

does not necessarily imply anything
more than that an entire change had
taken place in the character of the
liquid. In an account left of the old
method of making beer, in use among
the Britons and Kelts generally, we
are told that the grain is steeped in
weiter ^ntil it germinates. It is then48

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

ripae et viiium mercantur. Cibi simplices; agrestia poma,
recens fera, aut lac concretum. Sine apparatu, sine blandi-
mentis expellunt famem. Adversns sitim non eadem tempe-
rantia. Si indulseris ebrietati suggerendo quantum concu-
5 piscunt, haud minus facile yitiis quam armis vincentur.

XXIV. Genus spectaculorum unum atque in omni coetu
idem. Nudi iuvenes, quibus id ludicrum est, inter gladios
se atque infestas frameas saltu iaciunt. Exercitatio artem
paravit, ars decorem; non in quaestum tamen aut mercedem;
lOquamvis audacis lasciviae pretium est voluptas spectantium.
Aleam, quod mirere, sobrii inter seria exercent tanta lucrandi

dried, and ground, and mixed with
water, which is afterwards fermented,
which is the rendering here.

1.	Hipae, i. e., of the Rhine.-Cibi,

sc. sunt.-JPoma, i. e., fruits of any

kind.

2.	JEtecens. The Germans had no
fancy for tender meat, and therefore
dressed it as soon as it was killed.
Vid. Pomponius Mela, III. 3; Florus,

III. 3.-lac concretum, curdled

milk. Caesar (VI. 22) says, an impor-
tant item in the food of the Germans
was cheese (caseus). However, as
Pliny (XI. 96) remarks that it was a
strange thing that barbarous nations
had so long remained without the
knowledge of cheese, Caesar proba-
bly meant by this term, curds of milk.

-Apparatu, luxurious preparation„

-Blandimentis, dainties for coax-
ing the appetite.

4.	Si indulseris ebrietati, etc. This
policy has been practiced by the
European nations with regard to our
American Indians, some tribes of
which have been almost extirpated
by it.

5.	Haud minus facile—multo faei-
lius by Litotes. Tacitus could hardly
intend to say that the Germans were
ever easily conquered by the Ro-
mans—an assertion notoriously the
reverse of true; but that their own
vices proved formidable means of
subjugation.

CHAP. XXIV. 6. In omni coetu,
in every gathering.

7.	Nudi. Vid. Note, cap. XX.-

Quibus id ludicrum est, for whom it is
a sport; not whose business it is to
furnish the amusement: that would

be quorum est. T.-Inter gladios.

It was a common amusement among
the Greeks and Romans at banquets
and elsewhere to witness feats of this
description. Cf. Plato, Euthyd. 294, E.
Xen. 8ymp. II. 11.

8.	Infestas, i. e., pointed at them.
-Artem, skill.

9.	Decorem is poetic.-In quaes-

turn, sc. hocfaciunt. They do this not
as a source of profit or for wages as
Roman jugglers and mountebanks
do.

10.	Quamvis limits audacis. -

Pretium, (sole) recompense.

11.	Mirere: indefinite potential
subj. Not so much after all to wonder
at; for gaming being "an enchanting
witchery gotten between idleness and
avarice," is almost universally pre-
valent among savages, when the
time unoccupied by the chase or war
hangs heavily on their hands. The
wonder, here considered as remark-
able, was therefore "that they
practiced it not merely as an amuse-
ment, at their feasts, but when sober
among their ordinary every-day pur-
suits." Gaming at Rome, although
common, was disreputable, and for-THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

49

perdendive temeritate, ut, cum omnia defecerunt, extremo ac
novissimo iactu de libertate ac de corpore contendant. Vic-
tus yoluntariam servitutem adit; quamvis iuvenior, quamvis
robustior, adligari se ac venire patitur. Ea est in re prava
pervicacia; ipsi fidem vocant. Servos condicionis huius per 5
commercia tradunt, ut se quoque pudore victoriae exsolyant.
XXV. Ceteris servis non in nostrum morem, descriptis per
familiam ministeriis, utuntur; suam quisque sedem, suos
penates regit. Frumenti modum dominus aut pecoris aut
vestis ut colono iniungit, et servus hactenus paret; cetera 10
domus officia uxor ac liberi exsequuntur. Verberare servum
ac vinculis et opere coercere rarum. Occidere solent, non

bidden by the laws, except at the
Saturnalia.

1, 2. JWaatremo ac novissimo, last
and final {throw). JSoc.tremo conveys
the idea that the throw is the last in
a series; novissimo, that it is desper-
ate, the man having nothing farther
to stake. A throw might therefore
be extremus, and yet not novissimus.

-De libertate ac de corpore, their

personal liberty; by hendiadys.

3.	Voluntarism. Cicero, and writ-
ers of his time, would here have used
ultrOy ipse7 or some such word in
agreement with the subject of the

verb, instead of the object.-luve-

nior. The more common form is
iunior. This form is very rare.

4.	Venire, to be sold: from veneo.
-JEa = tanta or talis.

5.	6. Fidem, honor.-Pudore victo-
riae, from the disgrace of such a vic-
tory. In the earlier writers, pudor
always denotes a sense of shame,
modesty.

CHAP. XXV. 7.. Ceteris, i. e., those

retained for domestic purposes.-

In, nostrum trior em. The extent of
the division of duties among the Ro-
man household slaves may be in-
ferred from the variety of names
used to designate their offices, such as
pistores, coqui, dulciarii, salmentarii,
etc.-Descriptis, distributed.

8. Familiam is the entire body of

slaves owned by one master.-

Quisque. i. e., of course, each slave.

11.	Domus refers to the house of the

master.-TJocor ac liberi, of the

master. The great difference be-
tween the Greek and Roman slaves,
and those mentioned in this chapter,
consists in this, that the former were
absolutely at the disposal of the
master, whereas, the latter were
glebae adscripti, attached to the soil.
These serfs, it seems, had their own
homes and were obliged to provide
corn and cattle for consumption, or
materials for the dress of their
master, but in the other household
duties the serf had no concern. After-
wards the Germans, imitating the
Romans, began to have personal
slaves.

12.	Opere, hard labor. In this respect
there was a decided contrast to the
Roman treatment; for the lash was
in such frequent use, that the slaves
professed often to have given up
caring for it; and the lorarii are re-
presented as worn out with flogging
to no purpose. Cf. Plaut. Asin. Act.

III. Sc. II. 29.-Occidere solent....

impune. In this respect the usage
of the Germans and the Romans
seems to have been the same. Under
the republic the law hardly appears50

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

diseiplina et severitate, sed impetu et ira, at inimicum, nisi
quod impune est. Liberti non multum supra servos sunt.
Raro aliquod momentum in domo, numquam in civitate, ex-
ceptis dumtaxat iis gentibus, quae regnantur: ibi enim et super
5 ingenuos et super nobiles ascendunt; apud ceteros impares
libertini libertatis argumentum sunt.

XXVI. Faenus agitare et in usuras extendere ignotum,
ideoque magis servatur quam si vetitum esset.

Agri pro numero cultorum ab universis in vices occu-
lOpantur, quos mox inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur.

to have interfered at all with the
power of a master over his slave.
Under the emperors, however, enact-
ments were at different times passed
to restrict the severity of punish-
ment arbitrarily inflicted.

1. TTtinimicum. A "privateenemy
could not be slain with impunity,
since a fine was affixed to homicide,
but a man might kill his own slave
without any punishment. If, how-
ever, he killed another person's
slave, he was obliged to pay his price
to the owner."

3.	Momentum, influence.-Dorno,

i. e., of their former master.

4.	Quae regnantur, which are ruled
by kings. Cf. Hist. 1.16; An. XIII., 54.
-Ibi refers to Rome.

5.	Ingemios, free bom.-Nobiles,

high born, nobles.-Ascendunt. "The

amazing height of power and in-
solence, to which freedmen arrived
by making themselves subservient
to the vices of the prince, is a strik-
ing characteristic of the reigns of
some of the worst of the Roman em-
perors."-Ceteros is for ceteras (sc.

gentes) by synesis.

6.	Impares libertini, the subor-
dinate (condition of the) freedmen. At
the beginning of the sentence, Tacitus
uses Liberti ; and one expects to find
some reason for the difference.
Generally speaking, libertus desig-
nates a manumitted slave, viewed
With reference to his master; while

libertinus denotes his social position.
It does not seem unlikely, therefore,
that when contrasted as here with
servus, libertus may be used pur-
posely. The word servus of necessity
brings up the idea of dominus; and
with reference to him, libertus would
naturally suggest itself, and not
libertinus. On the other hand when
the free-born and noble are con-
trasted with freedmen, and no idea
of a master is introduced, libertini
would be the natural term to use.

-Argumentum: "because they

value liberty and citizenship too
highly to confer it on freedmen and
slaves." Tyler.

CHAP. XXVI. 7. Faenus agitare,

To loan money at interest.-In us uras

extendere, to put that interest on in-
terest, i. e., to exact compound inter-
est.

8.	The subject of servatur is some-
thing like non faenerari to be sup-
plied. Cf. Ann. VI. 16; 'sane vetus
urbi faenebre malum et seditionum
discordiarumque creberrima causa.'

9.	Agri, the public lands. -Pro

numero, in proportion to the number.

-Ab universis, by whole tribes, as

distinguished from individual own-
ers.-In vices, by turns.

10.	Mox, afterwards, i. e., as soon as
the allotments are made.-Secun-
dum dignationem, l. e., some por-
tions are larger, some smaller, for the
principes andpZe&s respectively,THE GERMANIA OF TAOTFUS.

51

Facilitatem partiendi camporum spatia praestant; arva per
annos mutant, et superest ager. Nee enim cum ubertate et
amplitudine soli labore contend ant, ut pomaria conserant et
prata separent et hortos rigent; sola terrae seges imperatur.
Unde annum quoque ipsum non in totidem digerunt species:
hiems et ver et aestas intellectum ac vocabula habent; au-
tumni perinde nomen ac bona ignorantur.

XXVII. Funerum nulla ambitio; id solum observatur,
ut corpora clarorum virorum certis lignis crementur. Struem
rogi nec vestibus nec odoribus cumulant; sua cuique arma,

1, 2. Camporum,, of the fields.
Campus is any level surface, whether

of land or water.-Arva. Arvum

is ploughed land. This does not im-
ply that the occupants of the soil
differ every year (per annos), but
that what is arable one year, becomes
fallow the next, and vice versa. This
they were able to do, as there was
land enough and to spare (,superest

ager).-Nec enim .... contendunt.

Tacitus means that they do not pre-
tend by their labor to try to equal
the fertility and extent of their land.

4.	Terrae. Terra is the earth as op-
posed to sea and sky.

5.	Unde, i. e., from their not plant-
ing fruit-trees.-In totidem species,

into so many seasons, sc. quot Romani,
as the Romans do. They grow only
corn; and winter, spring, and sum-
mer completing this department of
husbandry, they have no name for
autumn, the great time for fruit-
crops. There is even now in English
no word of home growth to designate
this part of the year; autumn, of
course, being of Latin origin.

6.	Intellectum indicates the silver
age of Latinity, "a marked charac-
teristic of which was the growth of
abstract terms." Intellectum ha-
bent = nota sunt.

7.	Autumni nomen. The Ger-
mans have now all the autumnal
fruits of their climate; yet their lan-
guage still retains a memorial of

their ancient deficiencies, in having
no term for this season of the year,
but one denoting the gathering in of

corn alone. — Herbst, harvest.-

JBona, blessings, especially the grape
and olive.

CHAP. XXVII. 8. Ambitio, osten-
tatious parade. In this respect, there
was a direct contrast between the
manners of the Germans, and those
of the Romans and also of the Gauls
as we see from Caesar (VI. 19).

9.	Certis, i. e., decreed by law or
custom. -Crementur. The Ger-
mans retained this custom until for-
bidden by Charlemagne under pain

of capital punishment.-Struem

rogi, i. e., the wood heaped up to form
the pile.

10.	Vestibus. Cf. Lucan IX. 175, in a
description of the honors paid to
Pompeius Magnus by Cornelia,—

" Collegit vestes, miserique insignia Magni,

Armaque, et impressas auro, quas gesserat
olim,

Exuvias, pictasque togas ; velamina summo

Ter conspecta Jovi, funestoque intulit igni."

Odoribus. Pliny says, "Intelligent
persons asserted that Arabia did not
produce such a quantity of spices in
a year as Nero burned at the obse-
quies of his Poppaea."-Sua cuique

arma. This practice was long con-
tinued by the Teutonic nations. In
the tombs, that have been opened, of
the Frankish kings, and others,
swords, spears, shields, and bones of52

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

quorundam igni et equus adicitur. Sepulcrum caespes erigit;
monumentorum arduum et operosum honorem ut gravem
defunctis aspernantur. Lamenta ac lacrimas cito, dolorem
et tristitiam tarde ponunt. Feminis lugere honestum est,
viris meminisse.

Haee in commune de omnium Germanorum origine ac
moribus accepimus. Nunc singularum gentium instituta
ritusque, quatenus differant, quae nationes e Germania in
Gallias commigraverint, expediam.

XXVIII. Validiores olim Gallorum res fuisse summus
auctorum divus lulius tradit; eoque credibile est etiam Gallos

horses, witli a shoe, and gold buckles
and housings, have been found. The
same custom still exists among our
American Indians ; bows, arrows,
skins, domestic utensils being depos-
ited in the graves with the dead, on
the supposition of course that the de-
ceased would follow the same occu-
pations after death as in life. Cf.
Herod. IV. 71; Caes. VI. 19, 24.

1.	Quorundam: probably the chiefs.
-Sepulcrum caespes erigit: poeti-
cal for sepulcrum caespite erigitur.

2.	JLrduum et operosum, lofty and
elaborate.

4. Ponunt, = deponunt.

6.	In comumne: late Latin for uni-
verse.

7.	Singularum gentium instituta
ritusque. Tacitus here begins the
second part of his work, a description
of the localities of the several Ger-
man tribes, with an account of their
civil institutions (instituta) and re-
ligious observances (ritus). He does
this in a certain order. In cap.
XXVIII. he speaks of tribes of uncer-
tain origin; in cap. XXIX-XXXIV.,
he describes those who border on the
Rhine toward the West; in cap.
XXXV-XXXVII., the Rhine peoples
toward the North; in cap. XXXVIII-
XLI., the members of the Suevic
league; in cap. XLII. and XLIII., the
tribes lying along the Danube; and

in cap. XLIV., andXLV., the dwell-
ers on the shores of the Northern
Ocean.

8, 9. Quae = quaeque. - Commi-

graverint: ind. quest.

CHAP. XXVIII. 10. Summus auc-
torum, the highest of authorities. Taci-
tus here refers to Caesar's account of
Germany as found in B. G., VI. 24.

CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR.

11. Divus. The Roman emperors on
their decease were usually deified.
The custom apparently began with
Caius Julius Caesar (Suet. Jul. 88),
and seems to have merged into aTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

53

in Germaniam transgressos. Quantulum enim amnis obsta-
bat quominus, ut quaeque gens evaluerat, occuparet permu-
taretque sedes promiscuas adhuc et nulla regnorum potentia
divisas ? Igitur inter Hercyniam silvam Rhenumque et
Moenum amnes Helvetii, ulteriora Boii, Gallica utraque 5
gens, tenuere. Manet adhuc Boihemi nomen, signatque loci
veterem memoriam quamvis mutatis cultoribus. Sed utrum
Aravisci in Pannoniam ah Osis, Germanorum natione, an Osi
ab Araviscis in Germaniam commigraverint, cum eodem
adhuc sermone, institutis, moribus utantur, incertum est; 10
quia, pari olim inopia ac libertate, eadem utriusque ripae
bona malaque erant. Treveri et Nervii circa adfectationem

mere routine.-JEoque, and on this

account.

1.	Amnis, i. e., the Rhine.

2.	Occuparet permuta^etque: subj.
after quominus, depending on a verb
of1 hindering.''

3.	Promiscuas adhuc, as yet un-
claimed.-JEJt nulla regnorum po-
tentia divisas, i. e., not yet appor-
tioned among different and powerful
kingdoms.

4.	Igitur, sc. loca, as object of tenu-
ere.-Hercyniaan silvam. Writers

disagree as to the extent and situa-
tion of this forest, but when the
mountains of Germany were well
known by the Romans, the name
was applied to the range of moun-
tains extending around Bohemia,
and through Moravia and Hungary.

5.	Moenum, the Main.-Helvetii.

The locality here assigned to the
Helvetii would nearly coincide with
the duchy of Baden. If the Helvetians
ever were in this place, the Germans
must have driven them back; for in
Caesar's time they were west of the

Rhine, between it and the Jura.-

Ulterior a, sc. loca, the district beyond.

6.	JBoihemi. This name means
"home of the Boii'■hem'' being the
1heim' in Mannheim, and the 1ham"
of English towns.

7.	Memoriam, tradition.-Quam-
vis mutatis cultoribus. The Boii,

having been driven from Boihemum
in the time of Augustus, retired to
Noricwm, which from them was called
Boioaria, now Bavaria.

8. Aravisci. This people were situ-
ated in the north-east corner of Pan-

nonia.-Ab Osis. The Osi were

east of Moravia.-Germanorum

nations. This statement here is a
geographical, not an ethnological one,
as in cap. XLIII. Tacitus says that
the Osi were proved by their Panno-
nian language not to be Germans,
therefore the description here given of
their being a nation of Germans only
implies that their position was in a
country mainly occupied by Ger-
mans.

10,11. Utantur: subj. after cxim, since.

-Olim, i.e., before their migration

took place.-Utritisque ripae, i.e., of

the Danube, the Aravisci living on
the right bank, the Osi, on the left.

12. Treveri. As Tacitus below
speaks of certain tribes as unequivo-
cally German, it seems a fair infer-
ence that, in his opinion, the Teu-
tonic origin of the Treveri and Nervii
was doubtful, Besides St. Jerome
distinctly asserts the language of the
Galatae of Phrygia to be the same as
that of the Treveri. This people lived
on the banks of the Moselle in Bel-
gian Gaul. Their chief town was
made a Roman colony by Augustus,54

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS,

German icae originis ultro ambitiosi sunt, tamquam per banc
gloriam sanguinis a similitudine et inertia Gallorum separen-
tur. Ipsam Rheni ripam haud dubie Germanorum populi
eolunt, Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes. Ne Ubii quidem,
quamquam Romana colonia esse meruerint ac libentius
Agrippinenses conditoris sui nomine vocentur, origine erubes-
cunt, transgressi olim et experimento fidei super ipsam
Rheni ripam collocati, ut arcerent, non ut custodirentur.

XXIX. Omnium harum gentium virtute praeeipui Batavi
>non multum ex ripa sed insulam Rheni amnis eolunt, Chat-

and was called Augusta Treverorum,

now Ti'eves.-JSTervii. A. powerful

people of Belgian Gaul whose terri-
tory extended from the River Sabis
to the ocean, and part of which was
covered by the Silva Arduenna. Ac-
cording to Appian they were de-
scended from the Cimbri. If so, this
would be an argument in favor of
their Keltic, rather than Germanic

origin.-Circa,in respect to. "This

meaning and use of the word is post

Augustan.''-Adfectation em,, eager

desire.

1, 2. TJltro, very, really, actually.
-Sepawentur: in a middle sense.

3.	JELaud dubie = haud dubii, and
limits Germanorum populi.

4.	Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes.
Their chief towns are now respec-
tively Worms, Strasburg and Spires.-

JJbii. The Ubii in Caesar's time were
east of the Rhine; but {An. XII. 27)
in the reign of Augustus were trans-
ported across the river, to escape
from the hostilities of the Chatti,
under the protection of Yipsanius
Agrippa, from whom, according to
this passage, they were called Agrip-
pinenses, Generally however the
foundation of the colony is ascribed
to Agrippina, daughter of Caesar Ger-
manicus, and wife of Claudius. The
old town called Colonia Agrippina is
now Cologne.

5.	Meruerint, earned by their long
and faithful services to the Romans.
The subj. is after quamquam which

in late Latin changes parts with
quamvis.

7.	JEj'o&perimento fidei, i. e., in con-
sequence of their tried fidelity.

8.	Arcerent, sc. their own country-
men and prevent them from crossing
over into the Roman territories.

CHAP. XXIX. 9. Gentium: gen.

of whole after praeeipui.-Virtute,

i. e., in war.-Batavi. Traces of the

name still remain in Betuwe, the dis-
trict between the Rhine, "Waal, and
Meuse. They were a Keltic people,
and were for a long time allies of the
Romans in their wars against the
Germans, but at length, exasperated
by the oppression of the Roman offi-
cers, they rose in revolt in A. D. 69,
and were with great difficulty sub-
dued. Their chief town was I/ugdur
num, now Leyden.

10. Non multum eoc ripa, i. e., over
and above the island they occupied a
portion of the bank of the Rhine, out-
side the island altogether.-Insu-
lam JEtheni. Tacitus (An. II. 6) places
the Batavi in the island between the
main branch of the Rhine, where it
divides at Burgenatium, the Vahalis
(Waal), and the Mosa (Meuse) after
the Vahalis flows into it. The island
is bounded on the west by the sea.

-Chattorum. Some think that the

name Batavi is a corrupted form of
Chatti. This migration of the Chatti
is mentioned by no other writer. Vid.
Hist. IV. 12.THE GrERMANIA OF TACITUS.	55

torum quondam populus et seditione domestica in eas sedes
transgressus, in quibus pars Eomani imperii fierent. Manet
honos et antiquae societatis insigne. Nam nec tributis con-
temnuntur, nec publicanus atterit; exempti oneribus et colla-
tionibus, et tantum in usum proeliorum sepositi, velut tela 5
atque arma, bellis reservantur. Est in eodem obsequio et
Mattiacornm gens; protulit enim magnitudo populi Romani
ultra Rhenum ultraque veteres terminos imperii reverentiam.
Ita sede finibusque in sua ripa, mente animoque nobiscum
agunt, cetera similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae suae 10
solo et caelo acrius animantur.

1, 2. Seditione: abl. of cause.-

Transgressus. Gaesar (IV. 10) found
them in their new territory.-Fie-
rent : subj. of result after in quibus =

ut in Us.

3.	Societatis alludes to their being

allies of Rome.-Insigne, badge,

seems only to refer to the exemptions
from tribute mentioned directly af-
terwards, and to have no reference to
hands of silver joined together, de-
scribed in Hist. I. 54.-Tributis.

Tributum was originally the direct
tax levied on Roman citizens accord-
ing to the value of their property,
real or personal: this was afterwards
remitted, so far as they were con-
cerned, but imposed on the prov-
inces. There, every subject possess-
ing land paid a tax of ten per cent,
on the annual produce in grain, and
five percent, on that in wine, fruits,
etc.; while those who had no land
paid on their personal property. If
these imposts were paid in kind, the
provincials were veetigales ; if a
money contribution was made, they
were termed stipendiarii. From these
taxes the Batavi were free, being not
only exempt from oner a, fixed im-
posts, but from collationes, extraordi-
nary charges, either voluntary, like
the English benevolences, or forced.

4.	Publicanus, the farmer of the rev-
enue. The revenues which Rome
derived from conquered countries,

consisting chiefly of tolls, tithes, har-
bor duties, the tax paid for the use
of mines and salt works, were let out,
or, as the Romans expressed it, were
sold by the censors in Rome itself to
the highest bidder. The farming of
the revenues was almost exclusively
in the hands of the Equites or wealthy
equestrian order, whence the words
equites and publicani are sometimes
used as synonymous. Diet. Antiqq.

5, 6. Tela: offensive armor. -

JLrma: defensive.-Obsequio, obe-
dience.

7.	Mattiacorum. This people in-
habited the country between the
Maenus {Main), Lagana (Lahn), and
the Rhine. Their chief towns were
Aquae Mattiacae (Wiesbaden), and
Mattiacum {Marburg). They are
spoken of here out of their proper
place (see note in cap. XXVIII.) be-
cause they are on a similar footing
with the Batavi.

8.	Veteres terminos. The Rhine
was always regarded as the natural
division between the Roman and the
German sway.

9.	In sua ripa, i. e., the east bank.
It is antithetic to nobiscum.—Mente
animoque, from rational conviction
and attachment.

10.	Agunt = vivunt = sunt. - Ce-
tera: accus. of spec.-Adhuc, still.

11.	Solo et caelo, i. e., their country
was hilly, and not marshy, like that56

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

Non numeraverim inter Germaniae populos, quamquam
trans Rhenum Danubiumque consederint, eos qui Decumates
agros exercent. Levissimus quisque Gallorum et inopia
audax dubiae possessionis solum occupavere; mox limite
5 acto promotisque praesidiis, sinus imperii et pars provinciae
habentur.

XXX. Ultra hos Chatti initium sedis ab Hercynio saltu
incohant, non ita effusis ac palustribus locis ut ceterae civi-
tates, in quas Germania patescit; durant siquidem colles,
lOpaulatim rarescunt, et Chattos suos saltus Hercynius prose-
quitur simul atque deponit. Duriora genti corpora, stricti
artus, minax vultus et maior animi vigor. Multum ut inter

of the Batavi: the air was therefore
keener, and more bracing than the
fogs of the Insula Batavorum.

1.	Numeraverim. Of. note on cre-
diderim, cap. II.

2.	Decumates agros. This was a
district north of the Danube, and
east of the Rhine (Baden, most of
Wurtemburg, and a small part of
Bavaria Vere in it) seized by the Ro-
mans, when the Germans retreated
east, and given by them to Gauls and
immigrating Germans, and then to
their own veterans to occupy, sub-
ject to a tax of one-tenth of the pro-
duce. This word is found here only,
(the usual one being decumani) per-
haps because decumani was used to
designate tithe-lands in a regular
province, whereas these here alluded
to formed no province, but were an
appendage to Upper Germany.

3.	Exercent = colunt.

4.	Dubiae: because unprotected
against the incursions of the hostile
Germans. To keep these off it was
protected, probably under Domitian,
by a bank (limes), from the Rhine,
near Cologne, to Mt. Taunus and the
Odenwald, and from Lorch to Ratis-
bon, on the Danube, by a wall, of

which traces still remain.-Sinus,

bwrder.

5.	Provinciae. This land, partly

in Germania Superior, partly in
Haetia, had no regular organization.
It was ruled by military law, the
commanders of the troops being sub-
ject to the governors of the two ad-
joining provinces.

CHAP. XXX. 7. The Chatti, one
of the most important nations of Ger-
many, inhabited the country lying
between the Moenus on the south,
and the sources of the Visurgis
(Weser); and from the Westerwald in
the west to the Sala (Saale) in Fran-
conia, occupying the modern Hessian

district.- Initium incohant is

pleonastic.

8. Effusis, extensive.

9-11. Durant .... atque deponit,
since the hills are continuous, and
gradually become fewer, and the Her-
cynianforest at once accompanies, and

leaves behind its own Chatti.-

Durant precedes siquidem for the
sake of emphasis. The idea is that
the hills here are not isolated, but
continue for a long distance, and

gradually subside.-X*aulatim, sc.

que, which Ritter inserts in the text.

-Suos, i. e.,as if the Chatti were

the children of the Forest.-Prose-
quitur. Prosequi is a word often used
with reference to escorting persons
who are setting out from home on
some official errand-Deponit9 lit..THE GrERMANIA OF TACITUS.

57

Germanos rationis ac sollertiae: praeponere el'ectos, audire
praepositos, nosse ordines, intellegere oecasiones, differre
impetus, disponere diem, vallare noctem, fortunam inter
dubia, virtutem inter certa numerare; quodque rarissimum
nec nisi Romanae disciplinae concessum, plus reponere in duce
quam in exercitu. Omne robur in pedite, quem super arma
ferramentis quoque et copiis onerant. Alios ad proelium ire
yideas, Chattos ad bellum. Eari excursus et fortuita pugna.
Equestrium sane virium id proprium, cito parare victoriam,
cito cedere; velocitas iuxta formidinem, cunctatio proprior con-
stantiae est. XXXI. Et aliis Germanorum populis usurpa-
tum raro et privata cuiusque audentia apud Chattos in
consensum vertit, ut primum adoleverint, crinem barbamque

sets down, i. e., the mountains and the
Chatti are coextensive; when the
forest sinks to the plain, the Chatti
extend no farther. It is a beautiful,

bold and poetic expression.-

Duriora, sc. ceteris Germanorum,.-

Stricti. Tacitus, speaking (Hist. II.
32) of the Germans generally, says
that they were loose-limbed. Opposed
to this characteristic, the Chatti have
close-knit, compact frames.

1.	Ut inter Germanos, as far as
(we may expect this) among Germans ;
for generally they were deficient in
these qualities, and therefore you
would not expect to find much
cleverness among them.

2.	Praeponere, etc. This and the
other infinitives, (without connec-
tives, denoting a hasty enumeration
of particulars) are in appos. with
multum .... sollertiae. C. and T.

-Nosse ordines, they know their

ranks m the military lines, and keep

them-Occasiones. Occasio always

means 'a favorable opportunity,' a
sense our English word does not now
necessarily possess.

3.	Disponere diem. Disponere was
a common word for stationing pick-
ets, and arranging troops in due
military order for their respective
duties. Here the phrase means that

in the day-time they posted the vari-
ous parts of their armies - in due
order, with outposts, pickets, etc.; at
night they confined their soldiery
(vallare noctem), after the Roman
fashion, within ramparts and
trenches.

4, 5. Quodque = et quod, sc. est.-

Nisi, except.

7.	Ferramentis, i. e., tools made
of iron, e. g., spades, pickaxes, etc.

-Cop Us, provisions.-JProelium,

battle; bellum, a series of battles, a
campaign, war.

8.	Jtari is predicated of pugna, as
well as of escctirsus.

9.	Id proprium, sc. est. This re-
mark is not applicable to the Chatti,
who had no cavalry, but is used with
reference to cavalry engagements in
general.

10.	Velocitas, applying to cavalry,
means that in the opinion of the
Chatti, 'rapidity borders on alarm,
while slowness of movement (cunc-
tatio, applying to infantry) is more
akin to steadiness/

CHAP. XXXI. 11. JPqpulis: dat. of
agt. after usurpatum, which, with
its modifiers, is the subject of vertit.

13. JLdoleverint: subj. as referring

the thought to the Chatti.-Crinem

barbamque submittere: appos. with58

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

submittere, nec nisi hoste caeso exuere votivum obligatumque
virtuti oris habitum. Super sanguinem et spolia revelant
frontem, seque turn demum pretia nascendi rettulisse dignos-
que patria ac parentibus ferunt. Ignavis et imbellibus
5 manet squalor. Fortissimus quisque ferreum insuper anulum
(ignominiosum id genti) yelut vinculum gestat, donee se
caede hostis absolvat. Plurimis Chattorum hie placet habi-
tus ; iamque canent insignes et hostibus simul suisque mon-
strati. Omnium penes hos initia pugnarum; haec prima
10 semper acies, visu nova; nam ne in pace quidern vultu
mitiore mansuescunt. Nulli domus aut ager aut aliqua cura:
prout ad quemque venere, aluntur, prodigi alieni, contemptores
sui, donee exsanguis senectus tam durae virtuti impares faciat.

usurpatum. There is an instance of
this custom mentioned in the His-
tory (IV. 61), when Civilis, the Bata-
vian chief after a great slaughter of
the Romans, shaved off the hair al-
lowed to grow since the beginning of
the war.

1, 2. Nec .... habitum: appos.
with usurpatum. Translate, and not
to strip off this guise of face, vowed and
pledged to valor, until they had slain an
enemy.-Hevelant front em, by cut-
ting their hair, and shaving the beard.

3. Mettulisse, repaid the debt due
their country and parents for having
been born.-Dignosque, sc. esse.

5. Squalor, i. e., the unshorn hair

and beard.-Insuper, i. e., " besides

the long hair and beard." T.-Ami-

lum. With the Romans the ring was
an emblem of social rank, not as
with the Germans, a badge of dis-
grace. Senators, chief magistrates,
and, at last, equites, all wore gold
rings, others iron ones, although cer-
tain noble families retained rings of
the last metal. In the days of
chivalry, vows similar to those here
described were common. Vertot
mentions a Duke of Bourbon, who,
in order to win the favor of his mis-
tress, with sixteen of his companions
vowed to wear a ring round the left
leg every Sunday for two years, until

they should meet with an equal
number of opponents to contend
with them in a tournament.

7.	AJbsolvat ^subj. after donee) i. e.,
from the disgrace attached to him.

- JPlurimis =permultis. - Hie

habitus, i. e., of wearing rings and
letting the hair grow. The idea is
that even after killing an enemy,
many of the Chatti permanently
adopt the custom, for this seems to
be the meaning of placet.

8,	9. Hostibus : dat. of the agt.-

Initia, sc. sunt.

10.	Visu nova, strange to behold. Cf.
cap. XLIII., primi in omnibus proeliis
oculi vincuntur,

11.	Mansuescunt, properly used of
wild animals, is here 1 do they soften
down,' lit., 'do they become tame.

-Nulli, sc. est, i. e., to no warriors

of this class.

12.	Contemptores. These forms in
or are great favorites with Tacitus.
This particular word is found in
Livy, Sallust, and the poets, but, ac-
cording to Boeticher, accumulator,
concertator, detractor, exstimulator ,pro-
fligator, sanctor, subversor, venditator,
visor, are found in him alone; and
some seventeen or eighteen more,
chiefly in later writers.

13.	JEJxsanguis, languid, feeble, lit.,
bloodless, lifeless.THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS.

59

XXXII.	Proximi Chattis certum iam alveo Rhenum,
quique terminus esse sufficiat, Usipii ac Tencteri eolnnt.
Tencteri, super solitum bellorum decus, equestris disciplinae
arte praecellunt; nec maior apud Chattos peditum laus quam
Tencteris equitum. Sic instituere maiores, posteri imitantur; 5
hi lusus infantium, haec iuvenum aemulatio, perseverant
senes. Inter familiam et penates et iura suceessionum equi
traduntur; excipit Alius non ut cetera maximus natu, sed
prout ferox bello et melior.

XXXIII.	Iuxta Tencteros Bructeri olim occurrebant: 10
nunc Chamavos et Angrivarios inmigrasse narratur, pulsis
Bructeris ac penitus excisis vicinarum consensu nationum,

CHAP. XXXII. 1. Alveo: abl. of
respect, i. e., where the stream is con-
fined within fixed limits, and not
divided and diffused as in the coun-
try of Batavi.-Mhenum = Rheni

ripam.

2.	Qui = talis ut, hence, sufficiat,

subj. of result.-Usipii ac Tencteri.

According to Caesar, these tribes,
(generally mentioned together in
geography and history), being ex-
pelled from their abodes by the Suevi,
after three years' wandering seized
the lands of the Menapii, between
the Rhine and the Moselle. After
their conquest by Caesar, the survi-
vors took refuge among the Sygam-
bri, and on the removal ol the latter
to Gaul, occupied their seats near the
Luppia (Lippe). Afterwards the
Usipii moved south between the
Sieg and the Lahn; the Tencteri set-
tled between the Sieg and the Ruhr.

3.	Solitum,, i. e., with the German
race.

5.	Tencteris. We would expect the
more regular apud Tencteros.

6.	Hi lusus, sc. sunt, i. e., eques-
trian exercises.-Aemulatio, the

point of emulation.

7.	Inter familiam,, along with the
slaves. Penates, i. e., the house and
all its adjuncts ='4 the homesteadT.
*—Jjuvty si^ccessiorium, i, e.? "all

that goes down by hereditary de-
scent." T.

8. Excipit is here used in the un-
usual sense of inherits.-Non, ut

cetera .... melior. The horses be-
come the property of the son, who is
the bravest, whether he be the eldest
or not.

CHAP. XXXIII. 10. Bructeri. The
Bructeri lived between the rivers
Rhine, Luppia (Lippe), and Amisia
{Ems), in the modern districts of

Westphalia and Over-Issel.-- Oc-

curebant, sc. oculis, met the view.

11.	Chamavos. According to Tacitus
(An. XIII. 55) the Chamavi dwelt on
the Rhine, in a district afterwards
occupied by the Tubantes and Usi-
petes; afterwards they are found
farther in the interior. They are sub-
sequently enumerated with other
tribes as members of the Frankish

league.-Angrivarios. The Angri-

varii dwelt between the Bructeri and
the Fosi on both sides of the Visurgis
(Weser), and extended eastward al-
most to the Albis (Elbe). They were
separated by a mound from the
Cherusci on the south. The earlier
writers would have said Chamavi
narrantur instead of narratur, im-
pers., which is very rare.

12.	Bructeris penitus excisis. This
entire aestryiction by other German60

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

seu superbiae odio, seu praedae dulcedine, sen favore quodam
erga nos deorum. Nam ne spectaculo quidem proelii in-
videre; super sexaginta milia non armis telisque Romanis,
sed, quod magnificentins est, oblectationi oenlisqne ceciderunt.

5 Maneat, quaeso, dnretqne gentibns, si non amor nostri, at
certe odium sui; quando urgentibus imperii fatis nihil iam
praestare fortuna maius potest quam hostium discordiam.

XXXIV. Angrivarios et Chamavos a tergo Dulgibini et
Chasuarii cludunt, aliaeque gentes haud perinde memoratae.

10 A fronte Frisii excipiunt. Maioribus minoribusque Frisiis

tribes must be intended as an exag-
geration for they are afterwards men-
tioned by Pliny and Ptolemy as de-
feated by Spurinna in the reign of
Trajan; and under the slightly varied
names of Burcturi and Bricteri occur
in the Itineraries and Sulpicius Alex-
ander; being ranked by the last as
members of the Frank confederacy.
-Consensu, coalition,

1.	Odio: abl. of cause. The arro-
gance of the Bructeri was largely due
to the fact that they were governed
by kings, and had maintained many
wars against the Romans.

2.	JSTos = JRomanos.--Spectaculo

. . . . invidere, sg. nobis. Invidere was
construed by the Latins in four ways,
viz ; invidere alicui aliquid; alicui
alicuiusrei; alicui aliqua re; alicui in
aliqua re. This construction of the
dat. of the person (nobis), and the
ablative of the thing is characteristic
of the silver age.

4.	Oblectationi oculis is commonly
regarded as a hendiadys for ad oblec-
tationem oculorum. The allusion is to
the gladiatorial combats. The slaugh-
ter alluded to is supposed to have
happened near the canal of Drusus,
from which place the Roman guard
could have been spectators of it. The
account of it first came to Rome in
the first year of Trajan.

5.	Maneat: subj. of wish.—Quaeso,

sc. deos.-Duretque, " and continue

strongly seated

6. Sui is used reflexively, of each

other.-TTrgentibus imperii fatis.

These words were written in Trajan's
reign, and before his great military
enterprises were undertaken.

CHAP. XXXIV. 8. A tergo ....
cludunt. These words must imply
that the Dulgibini and Chasuarii are
South-east of the Chamavi and Angri-
varii, judging from the other expres-
sion, a fronte, which can only mean
on the North-west, from the position
of the Frisii along the coast.-Dul-
gibini. The Dulgibini were settled
near the sources of the Lippe and the
Weser. Ptolemy places them across
the Weser, but they probably moved
about a good deal between the two
dates.

9.	Chasuarii. There is some doubt
as to the locality of this people.
Wilhelm places them north of the
Chatti, and west of the Chamavi.
According to Ptolemy, they are
north-west of the Chatti and near the
head-waters of the Ems. Afterwards
they appear among the Franks in the

duchy of Gueldres.-Aliae gentes,

as the Ansibarii, Tubantes, Turonii,
etc.

10.	A. fronte, i.e., toward the North-
west.-Frisii. The Frisii have re-
tained about the same settlements,
always, and their descendants are
still settled in the islands west of
Sleswig. They were steadfast allies
of the Romans, and aided DrususTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

61

vocabulum est ex modo virium; utraeque nationes usque ad
Oceanum Rheno praetextuntur, ambiuntque inmensos insuper
lacus et Romanis classibus navigatos. Ipsum quin etiam
Oceanum ilia tentavimus. Et superesse adhuc Herculis
columnas fama vulgavit, sive adiit Hercules, seu quidquid 5
ubique magnificum est in claritatem eius referre consensimus.
Nee defuit audentia Druso Germanico ; sed obstitit Oceanus
in se simul atque in Herculem inquiri. Mox nemo tentavit,
sanctiusque ac reverentius visum de actis deorum credere
quam scire.	10

and Germanicus in their war against
the Cherusci. In A. D. 28 they re-
volted, when Olennius oppressed
them, and after putting a number of
Romans to the sword near the Silva
Baduhenna, threw off the Roman
yoke. In A. D. 59 they took posses-
sion of vacant lands near the Rhine;
and on being threatened by Dubius
Avitus, the governor of the province,
with vengeance unless they retired,
they sent their two- kings, Verritus
and Malorex to Rome; these distin-
guished themselves by their noble
spirit, and were presented with the
Roman citizenship. There is no
farther mention of them until the
fourth and fifth centuries, when they
appear as members of the Saxon and
Angle leagues and crossed into Bri-
tain with them.-Maioribus mino-

ribusque. No other writer mentions
this division.-Frisiis ; dat. by at-
traction, agreeing with illis under-
stood.

2.	JPraetextuntur. Praetexto is prop-
erly to 1 weave a fringe or border at
at the extremity of anything;' the
toga praetexta, for instance, being
called so because it had a purple
stripe along the edge. Cf. Vergil:

praetextunt litora puppes.-Inmen-

sos insuper lacos. The lakes here
mentioned are the Flevo and others,
which by the frequent inundations
of the sea, afterwards became the
Zuyder Zee.

3.	liomanis classibus navigatos♦

Suetonius (Claudius L.) informs us
that Drusus first navigated the
Northern Ocean, and his son Ger-
manicus passed with four legions on
board his ships, from the Rhine, by
the Fossa Drusiana, through these
lakes into the ocean, as far as the
Ems (A. D. 60, Ann. II. 8). According
to Suetonius Drusus was warned by

a vision to go no farther.-Quin

etiam, moreover.

4.	Ilia, sc. via, or regione.-Hercu-
lis columnas. Besides the well-
known Pillars of Hercules at the
Straits of Gibraltar,maritime nations
have feigned others, wherever the
land seemed to terminate, and it ap-
peared impossible to proceed farther.

5.	Seu quidquid .... consensimus.
Note again the Roman construction
put upon the German theology.

6.	Claritatemf renown.

7.	Druso Germanico, brother of
Tiberius, styled Germanicus by the
Senate on account of the eminent

services performed in Germany.-

Obstitit inquiri, opposed farther in-
quiry.

8.	Herculem, i. e., as regards his Pil-
lars.-3.Tom nemo tentavitt sc. ocea-
num, i. e., although others navigated
the sea afterDrusus,y et expeditions in
this direction were soon abandoned.

9.	Visumf sc. est. The idea is that
it is more pious to believe that Her-
cules actually did visit here, and
that the pillars actually exist, than to
seek to ascertain their real position.62

THE GERMAN IA OF TACITUS.

XXXV. Hactenus in occidentem Germaniam novimus.
In septentrionem ingenti flexu redit. Ac primo statim
Chaueorum gens, quamquam incipiat a Frisiis ac partem
litoris occupet, omnium, quas exposui, gentium lateribus ob-
5 tenditur, donee in Chattos usque sinuetur. Tam immensum
terrarum spatium non tenent tantum Chauci, sed et implent,
populus inter Germanos nobilissimus, quique magnitudinem
suam malit iustitia tueri. Sine cupiditate, sine impotentia,
quieti secretique nulla provocant bella, nullis raptibus aut
lOlatrociniis populantur. Id praecipuum virtutis ac virium
argumentum est, quod ut superiores agant non per iniurias
adsequuntur. Prompta tamen omnibus arma ac, si res pos-
cat, exercitus, plurimum virorum equorumque; et quiescen-
tibus eadem fama.

15 XXXVI. In latere Chaueorum Chattorumque Gherusci

CHAP. XXXY. 2. In septentrio-
nem,• ingenti flexu. By this Tacitus
means that the line of the coast, after
a huge sweep to the North, returns to
its old direction. He thus describes
the Peninsula of Denmark, called

sinus in cap. XXXVII.-Primo

statim, i. e., at the very beginning of
the bend.

3.	Chaucorum. The Chauci were
neighbors of the Frisii on the East,
and lived between the Ems, and the
Elbe. " Their name is still preserved
in that of their harbor, Cuxhaven."

--Incipiat: subj. afterqtiamquam;

common in Tacitus, rare in Cicero.

4.	Quas exposui gentium. These are
the Frisii, Angrivarii, Chamavi, Dul-

gibini, Chausarii, etc.-lateribus,

i. e., the eastern.

5.	Sinuetur. The country bends
first in a southeastern and then in a
southerly direction. For the con-
struction, see A. 328; G. 574; H. 519,
N. 2.

6.	Sed et, but even.

7.	Quique = et talis ut, hence malit.

8.	Impotentia, ungoverned desires.

9.	Secreti, retired.

jLlj 12. TTt superiores agant} that they

rank as superiors: obj. clause after

adsequuntur.-Omnibus, dat. of

possess, after sunt understood.

13.	JExercitus, sc. promptus est.-

Plurimum, a very great number. Taci-
tus seems to have added these words
by way of explaining what he meant
by exercitus. Some of the German
tribes were powerful in infantry, like
the Chatti; others in cavalry as the
Batavi and Tencteri; the Chauci
however had large numbers of each.

-Quiescentibus, i. e., even when

not engaged in war.

14.	Eadem, sc. quae in hello est.

CHAP. XXXVI. 15. Cherusci. This

people dwelt at this time between
the Weser and the Elbe. They were
on good terms w'ith the Romans
until the conduct of Varus roused
them to rebellion, and they formed a
league of their neighbors, and totally
defeated Varus and his three legions,
under the command of Arminius,
who was therefore hailed as " Deliv-
erer of Germany," and celebrated in
ballad songs, many of which are pre-
served to this day. They appear af-
terwards as the head of the great

Saxon confederacy.THE (xERMANIA OF TACITUS.

63

nimiam ac marcentem diu pacem illacessiti nutrierunt.
Idque iucundius qnam tutius fuit, quia inter inpotentes et
validos falso quiescas; ubi manu agitur, modestia ac probitas
nomina superioris sunt. Ita qui olim boni aequique Cherusei,
nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur ; Chattis victoribus fortuna in 5
sapientiam cessit. Tracti ruina Cheruscorum et Fosi, con-
termina gens; adyersarum rerum ex aequo socii sunt, cum in
secundis minores fuissent.

XXXVII. Eundem Germaniae sinum proximi Oceano
Cimbri tenent, parva nunc civitas, sed gloria ingens. Vete-10
risque famae lata vestigia manent, utraque ripa castra ac

1.	Take diu with nimiam and

marcentem.-Illacessiti is found

only in the writers of the silver age.

2.	Iucundius quam tutius. Con-
trary to the usual use, Tacitus some-
times uses the positive in one part,
when two adjectives or adverbs are
compared together. To get the force
turn the sentence in this way—of two
courses it was the pleasanter, rather

than the safer.-Inpotentes: cf. vrrv-

potentia above.

3.	Falso quiescas, you may enjoy a

false security: potential subj. -

Manu agitur, when matters are de-
cided by the sword, i. e., when might
rather than right decides the ques-
tion.-Modestia, moderation.

4.	Nomina superioris, i. e., moder-
ation and mildness are only to be
applied to those who having the
power of injury over their neighbors
refrain from using it. The inference
is that the despicable cowardice of
the weak is to be considered as praise-
worthy moderation in the strong.-

Qui, sc. vocati sunt. Tacitus does not
mean that they had deteriorated;
but that they were once powerful,
and then their peaceful tendency
appeared the result of moderation
and justice. When their power was
gone, this forbearance was regarded
as a proof of weakness and cowardice.

5.	Chattis: dat. of advantage. The
Chatti were more lucky than the
Ohauci: they were victorious arid

their superior fortune passed (cessit)
for superior wisdom.

6.	Fosi. They probably inhabited
the banks of the Fusa, and were
probably an appendage to the Cher-
usci.

7.	Fx aequo, on equal terms.

8.	Minores fuissentf they had been
less powerful; subj. of concession.

CHAP. XXXVII. 9. Eundem si-
num9 the same peninsula. This refers
to the Cimbric Chersonese, or pro-
montory of Sleswig, Jutland, etc.,
alluded to in ingenti flexu, at the be-
ginning of chap. XXXV.

10.	Cimbri. The name of this people
still exists in different localities in
their route from Western Asia to the
British Isles, e. g., the Cimmerian
Bosphorus, the Cimbric Chersonesus,
Cumberland, etc. It is a disputed
point whether they were a Teutonic
or Keltic race.-Gloria: abl. of spe-
cification, limiting ingens.

11.	JJtraque ripa. Whether these
words refer to both banks of the
Rhine, to the Rhine and the Danube, or
to both shores of the Cimbric Cher-
sonesus, cannot be definitely settled.

-Castra ac spatia: appos. with

lata vestigia. After defeating Papi-
rius Carbo at Noreia, between the
Mur and the Drave, for a space of
three years they plundered the prov-
inces south of the Danube. During
this period their encampments left
traces visible iii the days of Tacitus,64

THE GERM A NIA OF TACITUS.

spatia, quorum ambitu nunc quoque metiaris molem manus-
que gentis et tam magni exitus fidem. Sexcentesimum et
quadragesimum annum urbs nostra agebat, cum primum
Cimbrorum audita sunt arma, Caecilio Metello et Papirio
5 Carbone consulibus. Ex quo si ad alteram Imperatoris
Traiani consulatum computemus, ducenti ferme et decern anni
colliguntur; tam diu Germania vincitur. Medio tam longi
aevi spatio multa invicem damna. Non Samnis, non Poeni,
non Hispaniae Galliaeve, ne Parthi quidem saepius admo-
lOnuere; quippe regno Arsacis acrior est Germanorum libertas.
Quid enim aliud nobis, quam caedem Crassi, amisso et ipse
Pacoro, infra Ventidium deiectus Oriens obiecerit? At

1.	(( JSIoleni mantis que gentisf the
mass of their population and the num-
ber of their armies." T.

2.	JEocitus, migration. Plutarch says
that they had 300,000 fighting men.

-Fidem,, proof.-Sexcentesimum

.... annum. This is according to
the Catonian Era, but according to
the Varronian Era, commonly fol-
lowed by moderns, this date would
be A. U. C. 641 = B. C. 113.

4.	Audita sunt. In Noricum, and
on the banks of the Danube, where
Carbo was defeated.

5.	JEm quo, sc. tempore.-Alterum

consulatum. Trajan was consul the
second time in the 851st year of Rome
= A. D. 98; in which year Tacitus
composed this treatise.

7.	Vincitur. This use of the pres-
ent tense, with a particle of time,
points out the duration of the fact for
a long time past, and its continuance
at the present moment. He means
that the Romans have been so long
in conquering Germany, and the
conquest is not completed yet. Ger-
many never was conquered by the

Romans.-Medio spatio, i. e., of 210

years.

8.	Invicem, mutually.-Samnis.

The Samnites were the most stub-
born enemies of Rome in Italy.-

Poeni alludes to the several Punic
wars.

9.	Hispaniae, Galliae. Many of
the Roman provinces were divided
into two parts: there were Hispania
trans Iberum, and Hispaniacis Iberum ;
also Gallia Transalpina, and Gallia
Cisalpina.-JParthi. They had over-
thrown Crassus and checked the

course of Miarc Antony.-Admo-

nuere, sc. "nos cladibus, nos vinci
posse."

10.	Arsacis. Ars&ces was the foun-
der of the Parthian empire, and the
sovereigns after him were called
Arsaeidae. The idea is that the Ger-
mans, fighting in behalf of liberty,
were more vigorous opponents than
the Parthians, who only fought to
maintain the power of their royal
house.

11.	Crassi. Crassus was defeated
and slain by the Parthians, B. C. 53.

12.	Infra Ventidium deiectus, hum-
bled beneath a Ventidius. Ventidius
Bassus was a native of Picenum,
taken prisoner when young by the
Romans in the Social War. After
earning a living by furnishing mules
to magistrates on their way to the
provinces, he became known to.
Caesar, and rose in B. C. 43 to the rank
of Praetor. In B. C. 39 he was sent by
Antonius into Asia to oppose Labi-
enus, who was supported by the Par-
thians. "When these last attacked
him he defeated them near Mt. Tau-THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

65

Germani^ Carbone, et Cassio, et Scauro Aurelio, et Servilio
Caepione, Cn. quoque Manlio fnsis vel captis, quinque simul
consnlares exercitus Populo Romano} Varum trisque cum eo
legiones etiam Caesari abstulerunt; nec impune C. Marius in
Italia, divus lulius in Gallia, Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus

rus, and gained possession of Syria.
The next year, Pacorus, son of Orodes,
the Parthian king, advanced against
him, but was defeated in Cyrrhestica
and fell in battle. By the words
" infra Ventidium delectus" Tacitus
means that the East must have fallen
low indeed to be defeated by a man
of so lowly an origin as Ventidius.

-Obiecerit. Cf. Note on peter et,

chap. II.

1.	Carbone. Carbo was defeated by
the Cimbri at Noreia, B. C. 113. (Liv.
Epit., 63).—Cassio. Cassius Longinus
was defeated and slain by the Tigu-
rini, in the confines of the Allo-
broges, B. C. 107 (Caes. B. G. I. 7,12):

-Scauro. M. Aurelius Scaurus was

defeated and taken by the Cimbri;
and when, being asked for advice,
he dissuaded them from passing the
Alps into Italy, he was slain by a
furious youth, named Boiorix (Liv.
Epit. 67).

2.	Caepione. Q,. Servilius Caepio
and Manlius through their rashness
and dissensions, suffered a severe
defeat from the Cimbri, near Tolosa,

B. C. 105. (Liv. Epit. 67).-Manlio.

*His name should be written Cn. in-
stead of M (frequently confounded in
the MSS. and followed by some

editors) as after the condemnation of
Marcus Manlius, the preserver of the
Capitol when the Gauls took Rome
after the battle of the Allia, on the
charge of aiming at the supreme
power, no person of the Manlian
gens was allowed to bear the prae-
nomen of Marcus (Liv. VI. 20).

3.	I'opulo Itomano, from the Ro-
man people: dat. of disadv. The idea
is: under, the Republic, contrasted
with the Empire under Augustus
(Caesari).—Varum. The reference is
to the defeat of P. Quinctilius Varus
in A. D. 9 by the Germans under
Arminius near the defiles of the
Saltus Teutobergiensis, between Osna-
bruck and Paderborn. This defeat
lost the Romans all between the
Rhine and the Weser; and they
never succeeded in firmly re-estab-
lishing themselves in that part of
Germany. The battle is placed by
Prof. Creasy among the fifteen de-
cisive battles of the world.

4.	Cains Marius. The allusion is
to the famous defeat of the Cimbri in
the Campi Raudii, B. C. 101.

5.	lulius. Vid. Caes. B. G. I. 32,
seq.; II. 1. seq; IV. 1. seq; VI. 9. seq.

-Drusus i. e., Claudius Drusus,

who invaded Germany four times

COIN OF TIBERIUS NERO,66

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

in suis eos sedibus perculerunt. Mox ingentes Gaii Caesaris
minae in ludibrium versae. Inde otium, donee occasione dis-
cordiae nostrae et civilium armorum, expugnatis legionum
hibernis, etiam Gallias adfectavere; ac rursus pulsi, inde
5 proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi sunt.

XXXVIII. Nunc de Sueyis dicendum est, quorum non
una ut Chattorum Tencterorumve gens; maiorem enim Ger-
maniae partem obtinent, propriis adhuc nationibus nomin-
ibusque discreti, quamquam in commune Suevi vocentur.
lOlnsigne gentis obliquare crinem nodoque substringere; sic
Suevi a ceteris Germanis, sic Suevorum ingenui a servis sepa-

and named Germanicus B. C. 11 and

10. Yid. N. chap. XXXIY. -

Nero, i. e., Tiberius Claudius Nero,
the emperor, who had command in
Germany, B. C. 7-6; A. D. 3-6, 11-12.

-Germanicus, son of Drusus, made

four campaigns in Germany, A. D.
14-16.

1.	Mox. A. D. 39.-Gaii Caesaris,

i. e., Caligula, who after making vast
preparations marched into Ger-
many. After some ridiculous pro-
ceedings, detailed by Suetonius
(Calig. XLVII), he drew up his army
on the shore, and bade the soldiers
gather shells as trophies of their
bravery. According to Persius he
was reduced to hire red wigs for his
sham captives to wear.

2.	Inde otium: during the reigns

of Claudius and Nero.-1Hscordiae

nostrae et civilium armorum refers
to the disordered state of the Roman
empire consequent on the violent
deaths of Nero, Galba, and Otho, and
the struggle between Vitellius and
Vespasian.

3.	Expugnatis hibernis: by the
Batavi and Canninefantes, who, at
the instigation of Civilis, threw off
the Roman yoke.

4.	A.dfectcwere, aimed at the posses-
sion of. Cf. Note on adfectationem,
chap. XXVIII.

5.	Proximis temporibus, in later
times, under Domitian especially,
&n4 aJsoNerva, Trajan? and Jl&clrian.

-Triumphati refers to the sham

triumph of Domitian for his suc-
cesses over the Chatti, an enemy
whom he had never seen " in which
slaves, purchased and dressed out for
the purpose, were borne as captives
through the streets." T. Vid. Suet.
Domit. VI.; Tac. Agr. XXXIX.

CHAP. XXXVIII. 6. Suevis. These
are not to be confounded with the
Suevi of Caesar (IV. 1-17). As before
remarked his Suevi are the Chatti of
Tacitus. The Suevi here mentioned
were rather an aggregate of peoples,
than a single tribe, and occupied the
country from the Elbe to the Vistula,
and from the Baltic to the Danube.
They embraced many tribes enu-
merated in cap. XXXIX-XLV. " We
still have a trace of their name in the
modern Suabia."

8.	jJLdhuc modifies discreti, still
distinguished from one another.

9.	In commune9 in common: an ex-
pression peculiar to the silver age.

10.	Insigne .... substring eref it is
a characteristic of the race to turn the
hair back, and to fasten it up in a knot.
The Suevi gathered up the hair in
every direction, instead of letting it
hang straight to the back part of the
head, and then fastened it in a knot
on the crown of the head. Cf. Sen.
de Ira. III. 26; Juv. XIII. 164.

11.	A. Germanisf a servis. Accord-
ing to Tacitus the rest of the Ger-
mans? and tfte sliav§s seem to hav§THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

67

rantur. In aliis gentibus, (seu cognatione aliqua Suevorum
sen, quod saepe accidit, imitatione,) rarum et intra iuventae
spatium; apud Suevos usque ad canitiem horrentem eapillum
retro sequuntur, ac saepe in ipso solo vertice religant. Prin-
cipes et ornatiorem habent. Ea cura formae, sed innoxia: 5
neque enim ut ament amenturve, in altitudinem quandam et
terrorem adituri bella compti ut hostium oculis ornantur.

XXXIX. Vetustissimos se nobilissimosque Suevorum
Semnones memorant. Fides antiquitatis religione firmatur.
Stato tempore in silvam auguriis patrum et prisca formidinelO
sacram omnes eiusdem sanguinis populi legationibus coeunt,
caesoque publice homine celebrant barbari ritus horrenda
primordia. Est et alia luco reverentia; nemo nisi vinculo
ligatus ingreditur, ut minor et potestatem numinis prae se

been cropped so short that they could

not twist the hair into a knot.-

Separantur, are distinguished

2.	JEtarum, i. e., obliquare crinem
rarum (est) et intra iuventae spatium
(fieri solet).

3.	Horrentem, bristly.

4.	Metro sequuntur, they put back,
lit., follow back, referring to their
constant habit.

5.	Ornatiorem,. They not only tied
their hair up, but by an elaborate
process they raised it to a great

height.-JEa = talis.-Innoxia.

Tacitus means that although the
Suevi are careful of their appear-
ance, and deck themselves out, they
have no immoral object in doing so.
They do not trick themselves out
like Roman Lotharios, to win the
admiration and love of the fair sex:
it has a warlike object, to terrify
their enemies.

6.	In altitudinem et terrorem,
(but) "for the sake of (increased) height
and terror, i. e., so as to appear taller
and thus inspire terror."

7.	Hostium oculis. Cf. cap. XLIII.
Nam primi in omnibus proeliis oculi
vincuntwr.

CHAP. XXXIX. 9. Semnones. In
An. IJ. 45, they are mentioned in

connection with the Langobardi.
They inhabited a territory between
the Elbe and the Oder.-Fides anti-
quitatis, the credibility of their anti-
quity. Vetus is old, that which has
long been in existence; antiquus,
ancient, that which belonged to a
preceding age.

10.	In silvam. This is placed by
"Wilhelm between the Elster and the
Spree, in the Finsterwald, or Son-
nenwald. In this neighborhood, be-
tween Uebigan and Schlieben, re-
mains of vessels used for sacrificial

purposes have been found.-JLu-

guriis .... sacram. As all the com-
mentators notice, this clause forms
an hexameter. They have collected
at least nineteen similar instances

in Tacitus.-Patrum = maiorum.—

Prisca. Priscus generally has the
notion of primitive or old-fashioned at-
tached to it.—Formidine = religione.

11.	hegationihus coeunt, convene by
their representatives.

12.	Publice=publicaauctoritate. This
was probably a prisoner of war. Cf.
Ann. XIV. 30.

13.	Primordia, beginning.

14.	Minor, sc. numine. Cf. Hor. Odes
1.12,57; III. 6,5.68

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

ferens. Si forte prolapsus est, attolli et insurgere haud lici-
tum; per humum evolvantur. Eoque omnis superstitio re-
spicit, tamquam inde initia gentis, ibi regnator omnium deus,
cetera subiecta atque parentia. Adiicit auctoritatem fortuna
5 Semnonum; centum pagis habitant, magnoque corpore efficitur
ut se Suevorum caput credant.

XL. Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat; plurimis ac
valentissimis nationibus cincti non per obsequium, sed proeliis
et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde et Aviones et An-
lOglii et Varini et Eudoses et Suardones et Nuithones flumi-
nibus aut silvis muniuntur. Nec quidquam notabile in sin-
gulis, nisi quod in commune Nerthum, id est terrain matrem,

2.	JEvolvuntur, in a middle sense,
= se evolvunt.-JEo respicit, has re-
ference to this, i. e., has this in view.

3,	4. The clause tamquam inde ....
parentia is epexegetical of eo.—Inde,

i. e., from the grove.-Initia, sc. sint.

-Deus, i. e., Tuisto, originem gentis,

cap. II.-Adiicit auctoritatem, so.

illi superstitioni.—Fortuna, greatness,
prosperity.

5. Magno corpore — civitatis mag-
nitudine. Corpus is used to denote
the aggregate association of several
bodies. Cf. An. XIII. 27; Hist. IV. 64.

CHAP. XL. 7. langobardos. This
tribe is said to have come originally
from Scandinavia, as the Winili, and
to have received their name from
the length of their beards. In their
original locality they occupied the
tract called Bardengau, west of the
Elbe, between Luneberg and Magde-
burg. Subsequently they were re-
moved across the river by Tiberius,
when they occupied that part of the
country where are now Prignitz,
Ruppin, and part of the Middle
March. They afterwards founded the
Lombard kingdom in Italy, which
was destroyed by Charlemagne (A.
D. 774), who took their king Desi-

derius, and subdued all Italy.-

Taucitas is here contrasted with the
magno corpore of the Semnones in
cap. XXXIX. -Nobilitat, makes

them famous: because they held their
ground against the powerful tribes
by which they were surrounded.

8.	Cincti denotes concession, al-
though surrounded.—JPer obsequium,
proeliis et periclitando. Note the
varied construction, and compare
Note on chap. XVI.

9.	Meudigni. The Reudigni were
probably situated in part of the
duchy of Mecklenburg, and of Lauen-
burg.-Aviones. From their vicin-
ity to the fore-mentioned nations,
they must have inhabited part of
the duchy of Mecklenburg. For-
merly they had dwelt this side of
the Elbe in Luneburg, which is now
called Ava; whence, probably, the

name of the people. -Anglii.

Ptolemy places this people north of
the Langobardi, and east of the
Angrivarii, extending as far as the
Elbe, in the old duchy of Magdeburg.
They afterwards joined the Saxons
in the invasion of England in the
fifth century.

10,11. Varini, Eudoses, Suardones,
Nuithones. Ethnologists differ'1
widely as to localities inhabited by

these tribes.-In singulis, 11 among

them individually." C.

12. Nerthum. The ancient name still
remains in the German Erde, and in

the English Earth.--Matrem. Cf.

II. Tuistonem deum, terra editum.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

69

colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis
arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, dicatumque
in eo vehiculum veste contectum. Attingere uni sacerdoti
concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intellegit, vectamque
bubus feminis multa cum veneratione prosequitur. Laeti 5
tunc dies, festa loca, quaecumque adventu hospitioque digna-
tur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt; clausum omne
ferrum; pax et quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata,
donee idem sacerdos satiatam conyersatione mortalium deam
templo reddat. Mox vehiculum et vestes et, si credere velis, 10
numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, quos
statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror sanctaque
ignorantia, quid sit illud, quod tantum perituri vident.

XLI. Et haec quidem pars Suevorum in secretiora Ger-
maniae porrigitur. Propior (ut, quo modo paulo ante 15

1.	Intervenire, takes part in. -

Populis: ablative.

2.	Insula. This island is generally
thought to be Rugen, "where the
secretus lacus, mentioned below, is
still shown, still associated with
superstitious legends." T.—Castum,
unpolluted, is more commonly the
epithet of a person than of a thing. It
is especially appropriate to a grove
sacred to a goddess.

3.	Vehiculum. Of. Notes on Isidi
and signum. Cap. IX.

4.	Concessum, sc. est. -Is: em-
phatic, he knows.--Penetrali is here

used for the covered car, as the abode
of the divinity.

5.	JBubus feminis. When nouns
denoting animals are of the common
gender, and the sex of the particular
animal is to be stated, the term mas

or femina is added.--laeti, etc. The

full expression would be laeti tunc
dies aguntur,festa tunc ilia loca sunt.

6.	Dignatur, " deems worthy.'

10. Templo, i. e., the sacred grove.
The word is here used in its strict
sense of re/isvog, i. e., a place marked

out for sacred purposes.-Si credere

velis, numen. By this it is clear that
Tacitus means to imply that the
goddess herself underwent ablutions
(and not the image of the goddess;
for in fact there does not seem to
have been one, Yid. cap. IX.) in
order to wash away the pollution
arising from intercourse with
mortals. The priests believed, or
wished others to believe—not appar-
ently succeeding in the case of the
writer himself—that the goddess was
actually present in the cart.

12.	Haurit, swallows up. "The
slaves were drowned in order that
the imposture of the priests might
not be divulged. The ostensible rea-
son, however, was, that those per-
sons must needs perish, who had be-
held the goddess herself in her real
form." An.

13.	Tantum perituri, only those who
are doomed to perish.

CHAP. XLI. 14. Secretiora, more
remote recesses ; toward the north.

15. Propior, nearer, i. e., tt> the
Danube, and the Roman provinces
along its right bank.70

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

Rhenum, sic nunc Danubium seqnar) Hermundurorum civi-
tas, fida Romanis; eoque solis Germanorum non in ripa
commercium, sed penitus atque in splendidissima Raetiae
provinciae colonia. Passim et sine custode transeunt; et
5 cum ceteris gentibus arma modo castraque nostra ostendamus,
his domos villasque patefecimus non concupiscentibus. In
Hermunduris Albis oritur, flumen inclitum et notum olim;
nunc tantum auditur.

XLII. Iuxta Hermunduros Narisci, ac deinde Marcomani
lOet Quadi agunt. Praecipua Marcomanorum gloria viresque,
atque ipsa etiam sedes, pulsis olim Boiis, virtute parta. Nec
Narisci Quadive degenerant. Eaque Germaniae velut frons
est, quatenus Danubio peragitur. Marcomanis Quadisque
usque ad nostram memoriam reges manserunt ex gente ipso-
15 rum, nobile Marobodui et Tudri genus. Iam et externos

1.	Khenum, sc. secutus sum.-

Hermundurorum. This people were
first settled between the Elbe, the
Sala, and Bohemia.

2.	Eoque, i. e., because they are
faithful.-Non in ripa, sc. solum.

3.	Commercium, sc. est.-Penitus,

far in the interior.-Maetiae. In

Raetia Tacitus includes Vindelica,
which was then a part of it.

4.	Colonia, i. e., Augusta Vindeli-
corum, now Augsburg, founded by-

Augustus about A. D. 14.-Passim,

i. e. wherever they please.-Sine

custode. Others went sub custode. Cf.
Hist. IV. 64.

5.	Cum, although, denoting conces-
sion. Hence ostendawnus is subj.

6.	Non concupiscentibus, i. e., with-
out exciting their cupidity.

7.	Albis, the Elbe. The true source
of the Elbe is in Bohemia, a country
of which, surrounded as it is by
mountains, Tacitus would know
scarcely anything. He undoubtedly
has confounded it with one of its

affluents, the Bgra.--Notwm olim,

by the conquests of Drusus, Tiberius,
and Germanicus. At the time Tacitus
wrote this book the Romans had re-
tired from this part of Germany.

CHAP. XLII. 9. Narisci. This
people lay east of the Hermunduri
and west of the Marcomani, and
were separated from the latter by the
Silva Gabreta, occupying Upper
Bavaria. -Marcomani: inhabi-
tants of Bohemia. They are men-
tioned by Caesar, (B. O. I. 51), as
allies of Ariovistus. The word means
men of the border.

10.	Quadi. They were settled to the
east of the Marcomani in Moravia
and northwestern Hungary. Both the
Marcomani and the Quadi waged
war with the Emperor Marcus An-
toninus, A. D. 166.

11.	Pulsis olim JBoiis : about A.D. 7.
-Parta, sc. est.

12.	Degenerant, sc. ab Us virtute.--

Frons, the front, facing the Romans.

13.	Peragitur, sc. frons as subject.
It implies a long extended boundary.

15. Marobodui. Vid. An. II. 62;
Suet. Tib. XXXVII., on this prince,
and his alliance with the Romans

against Arminius.-Tudri. Tuder

or Tudrus is not mentioned else-
where, nor by any other writer.-

Externos, sc. reges. Cf. An. II. 62, 63
XII. 30.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

71

patiuntur, sed vis et potentia regibus ex auetoritate Eomana.
Raro armis nostris, saepius pecunia iuvantur, nec minus valent.

XLIII. Retro Marsigni, Gothini, Osi, Buri terga Marco-
manoruni Quadorumque clandnnt. E quibus Marsigni et
Buri sermone cultuque Suevos referunt; Gothinos Gallica, 5
Osos Pannonica lingua coarguit non esse Germanos, et quod
tributa patiuntur. Partem tributorum Sarmatae, partem
Quadi ut alienigenis imponunt. Gothini, quo magis pudeat,
et ferrum effodiunt. Omnesque hi populi pauca campestrium
ceterum saltus et vertices montium iugumque insederunt. 10
Dirimit enim scinditque Sueviam continuum montium iugum,
ultra quod plurimae gentes agunt. Ex quibus latissime patet
Lygiorum nomen in plures civitates diffiisum. Valentissimas

2. Nec minus valent. i. e., the Ger-
man kings found the Roman sub-
sidies of money as effectual a means
of strengthening their position, as
the support of the Roman arms.

CHAP. XLIII. 3. Metro9 farther
back (and north of the tribes just

mentioned); opposed to frons.--

Marsigni. This people probably ex-
tended from the Riesengebirge, in
Northern Bohemia, to the Oder, oc-
cupying part of modern Silesia.-

The Gothini were situated near the
head-waters of the Marus (March), in

Upper Silesia and Moravia.-The

Osi were between the sources of the
Oder, and the Grau, on the frontiers

of Moravia and Hungary.--The

Buri were between the Oder and the
Vistula, between Cracow and Trop-
pau, in Silesia. They were allies of
Traj an in his war against the Dacians,
and also of Marcus Aurelius in the
Marcomanic War.—Terga claudunt,
close the rear.

5. Sermone cultuque. It is probable
that the Suevi were distinguished
from the rest of the Germans by a
peculiar dialect, as well as by their
dress and manners.--Keferunt, re-
semble. Cf. cap. XX.-Gothinos.

The Gothini were probably a rem-
nant of the expejled Boii. Hence

their Gallic language, or they may
have been a remnant of the great
Keltic migration eastward. Cf. cap.
XXVIII.

6,7. JPannonica, probably Sla-
vonic; at all events their locality
seems to have been Slavonic as far

back as can be traced.-Et quod

tributa patiuntur: subj. of coarg u it.
Quite a compliment to the Germans.

--Sawmatae. It can not be proven

what tribe is meant, probably the
lazyges Metanastae, who lived near
the Quadi, or else the Sidones.

8.	Quo magis pudeat. The Gothini
were not bound to be ashamed of dig-
ging up iron, although this was gen-
erally the work of slaves and crimi-
nals; but the disgrace lay in this,
that, instead of submitting to tribute,
they did not convert the iron into
swords and spears to free themselves
from their oppressors.

9.	}Pauca campestrium, but little of
the level country: poetical for the
more usual pauca eampestria loca.

10.	Ceterum opposes saltus to the
■precedingpauca campestrium.-Ver-
tices, summits.-Iugum, the ridge of

a mountain chain.

IB. Jjygiorum. The Lygii inhab-
ited the country between the Oder
and the Vistula, extending from the72

THE GEitMANIA OF TACITUS.

nominasse sufficiet, Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, Elysios,
Nahanarvalos. Apud Nahanarvalos antiquae religionis lucus
ostenditur. Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu; sed deos
interpretatione Romana Castorem Pollucemque memorant.
5 Ea vis numini, nomen Alcis. Nulla simulacra, nullum pere-
grinae superstitionis vestigium; ut fratres tamen, ut iuvenes
venerantur. Ceterum Harii super vires, quibus enumeratos
paulo ante populos antecedunt, truces insitae feritati arte ac
tempore lenocinantur. Nigra scuta, tincta corpora • atras ad
lOproelia noctes legunt, ipsaque formidine atque umbra feralis
exercitus terrorem inferunt, nullo hostium sustinente novum
ac velut infernum aspectum: nam primi in omnibus proeliis
oculi vicuntur.

Trans Lygios Gothones regnantur, paulo iam adductius
15 quam ceterae Germanorum gentes, nondum tamen supra liber-

4.	Interpretatione Montana. "The
Romans, whenever giving accounts
of the gods of other nations, trans-
ferred to them the names of their
own deities, according to some slight,
or perhaps fancied, resemblance."
Tyler.

5.	Ma vis numini, i. e., their attri-
butes are the same.-Alcis, sc. est

Us: dat. plu. by attraction.-JPere-

grinae, i. e., Greek or Roman.

6.	Superstitionis = religionis.-

Tamen. Note its force.

8, 9. Arte ac tempore is explained
directly afterwards. The art is their
practice of coloring their bodies: the
time is the dark night they choose.
-Jjenocinantur, increase, lit., pan-
der.

10. Formidine, frightfulness.--

Umbra may refer to the real shadows
of men, or to the general aspect of

the army. The authorities differ.--

Feralis is found as an adj., only in
poetry, and in prose of the silver age.

14. Gothones. This people is proba-
bly the Getae of earlier, and the
Goths of later history. Ptolemy says
that they lived on the banks of the

Vistula.--lam adductius. Jam and

nondum both have reference to the

source oi me latter nver tu txie jjui-ub
near Brimberg,where it turns sharply
to the North-east, in part of Gallicia

and Western Poland.-Nomen =

gens.

1. Marios, etc. The Harii were
somewhere near Cracow; the Helve-
cones, near Warsaw; the Manimi, in
Posen; the JElysii in Silesia (to which
they are supposed to have given the
, name), near Breslau; the jVahanar-
vali were between the Wartha and
the Vistula.

3. jyiuliehri ornatu. The flowing
robe, probably worn by the priest,
may have been mistaken for female
apparel.

CASTOR AND POLLUX.THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

73

tatem. Protinus deinde ab Oceano E-ugii et Lemovii; omni-
umque harum gentium insigne rotunda scuta, breves gladii et
erga reges obsequium.

XLIV. Suionum hinc civitates ipso in Oceano praeter
viros armaque classibus valent. Forma navium eo differt,
quod utrimque prora paratam semper appulsui frontem agit.
Nee velis ministrantur, nec remos in ordinem lateribus adiun-
gunt; solutum, ut in quibusdam fluminum, et mutabile, ut
res poscit? hinc vel illinc remigium. Est apud illos et opibus
honos, eoque unus imperitat, nullis iam exceptionibus, non
precario iure parendi. Nec arma, ut apud ceteros Germanos,
in promiscuo, sed clausa sub custode, (et quidem servo, quia
subitos hostium incursus prohibet Oceanus, otiosae porro ar-

writer's progress in going over the
tribes of Germany, those tribes grow-
ing less and less free as he advances
eastward; already under more sub-
jection than the foregoing tribes, but
not yet in such abject slavery as some
we shall read of in the next chapter."
Tyler.

1. JProtinus deinde ab Oceano,
Immediately thereafter, along the
ocean, i. e., their territory extended
from the ocean inwards to that of the
Gothones. The " ocean "is the Baltic

Sea.-Itugii. The island of Rugen

is named from them. Their territory
was around the mouths of the Oder.
-Lemovii. These people were set-
tled along the Baltic, about the mod-
ern Stolpe, Dantzig, and Lauenberg.

3. Obsequiumwilling submission.

CHAP. XLIV. 4. Suionum, Swedes.
They inhabited the south of Sweden,
which Tacitus seems to have consid-
ered as an island. Pliny (IV. 27) cer-
tainly did: "qui sinus Codanus (i. e.,
the Baltic) vocatur, refertus insulis
quarum clarissima Scandinavia est, in-
compertaemagnitudinis." Probably the
name Sweden is only a corruption of

Suiones.-Ipso is emphatic, and

contrasts ab Oceano of the previous
chapter with in Oceano here.

5. Diffevty i. e., from ours (Roman).

6.	JJtrimque jprora, i. e., resem-
bling an Indian canoe.

7.	Ministranturf sc. naves.-In

ordinem, i. e., ita ut or do fiat, to form
a regular tier of oars after the Roman
fashion.

8.	Solutum means loose, not strap-
ped in.-In quibusdam fluminum,

e. g., where the banks were steep, so
that the boat could be brought close
to them.

9,10. JEst .... honos. Cf. cap. V.

-Eoque; because of his superior

wealth.- Unus then means the

wealthiest man among them.-Nul-
lis iam exceptionibus. This expres-
sion marks the contrast between the
Suiones and the Lygii and Gothones
in the last chapter: here there are no
limits to the authority of the king.
For the force of iam here, see note on
iam adductius in XLIII.

11. Precario iure. Precarium ius is
a privilege only granted to a person's
entreaty, as a favor, which cannot be
claimed as a strict right. Cf. Hist. I.
52 and An. I. 42.

12,13. In promiscuo, i. e., by the

mass of the people.-JEt quidem,

and he too.-Quia .... Oceanus

gives the reason why the arms are
locked up.74

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

matorum manus facile lasciviunt. Enimvero neque nobilem
neque ingenuum, ne libertinum quidem armis praeponere
regia utilitas est.

XLV. Trans Suionas aliud mare, pigrum ac prope inmo-
5 turn, quo cingi cludique terrarum orbem hinc fides, quod ex-
tremus cadentis iam solis fulgor in ortus edurat adeo clarus ut
sidera hebetet; sonum insuper emergentis audiri, formasque
deorum et radios capitis aspici persuasio adicit. Illuc usque
(et fama vera) tantum natura.

10 Ergo iam dextro Suevici maris litore Aestiorum gentes
alluuntur, quibus ritus habitusque Suevorum, lingua Britan-
nicae propior. Matrem deum venerantur; insigne supersti-
tionis formas aprorum gestant. Id pro armis omnique tutela
securum deae cultorem etiam inter hostes praestat. Rarus

1-3. hasciviunt, " become demoral-
ized,-Enimvero .... utilitas est

explains why the arms are in the cus-
tody of a slave. Tacitus seems to
have had no conception of a king
other than of the despotic oriental
type. Even the worst of the Roman
emperors, cloaking their tyranny
under a guise, however thin, of con-
stitutionalism, would hardly realize
his idea of rex. Cf. An. XVI. 28; Hist.
V. 8.

CHAP. XLV. 4. Aliud mare prob-
ably refers to the North Sea. He de-
scribes this sea in similar language
in Agr. cap. X. Some, however, refer

it to the Arctic Ocean.-Pigr\im ac

prope inmotum, i. e., on account of
the ice.

5-7. Sine (sc. est) refers to what fol-
lows, quod exlremus, etc.-Quod eoc-

tremus .... hebetet. "The idea is,
that though the sun sets, the evening
and the morning twilights follow
each other so closely, that there is no
night; at least no night dark enough
to show the stars." C. The cause of
this is clearly explained by the true
principles of astronomy. For Taci-
tus' explanation, see Agr. XII.-

JSmergentis, sc. solis. This has noth-
ing to do with the belief prevalent
among the ancients, that when the

sun sets in the West, his descent into
the ocean is attended with hissings.
Tacitus is speaking of the North,
bending toward the East.-Formas-
que deorum. The commentators dis-
cuss the question who these gods
were. I do not suppose that any par-
ticular gods are meant.

8, 9. Itadios capitis. Some suppose
this to refer to the Aurora Borealis.

-Persuasio, popular belief.-llluc

.... natura, thus far only (and the
repcyrt is true) does nature extend. Sc.
est with both fama and natura.

10.	Ergo iam is a resumption of the
subject broken off by the digression.

-Suevici maris, i. e.. the Baltic.

-Aestiortim gentes. These people

—the men of the East—occupied the
coast of Eastern Prussia, and Cour-
land. Their name is preserved in
Esthonia.

11.	JtiUis is explained directly after
to be the worship of Mother Earth,

also prevalent among the Suevi.-

Habitus, dress.

12.	Matrem deum, i.e., according to
the Roman interpretation, Qybele;
but the same as Nerthus mentioned
in cap. XL.

13.	Formas aprorum gestant.
These were no doubt small images of
boars, worn round the persons asTHE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

75

ferri, frequens fustium usus. Frumenta ceterosque fructus
patientius quam pro solita Germanorum inertia laborant. Sed
et mare scrutantur, ac soli omnium sucinum, quod ipsi glesum
vocant, inter vada atque in ipso litore legunt. Nec quae
natura quaeve ratio gignat, ut barbaris, quaesitum com- 5
pertumve. Diu quin etiam inter cetera eiectamenta maris
iacebat, donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen. Ipsis in nullo
usu; rude legitur, informe perfertur, pretiumque mirantes ac-
cipiunt. Sucum tamen arborum esse intelligas, quia terrena
quaedam atque etiam volucria animalia plerumque inter lucent, 10
quae implicata humore mox durescente materia cluduntur.
Fecundiora igitur nemora lucosque, sicut Orientis secretis,
ubi tura balsamaque sudantur, ita Occidentis insulis terrisque
inesse crediderim; quae yicini solis radiis expressa atque
liquentia in proximum mare labuntur, ac vi tempestatum in 15

amulets or charms. Many vestiges
of this superstition remain to this
day in Sweden. The peasants in the
month of February, the season for-
merly sacred to the goddess Frea,
make little images of boars in paste,
which are applied to various supersti-
tious uses.

2, 3. JLaborant. This transitive

use of the word is poetical.-Suci-

num, Amber, so called because it was
believed to be the juice {sucus) of a

tree.-Glesum. "This name was

transferred to glass, when it came
into use." T.

5. Natura, sc. sit eius.-1latio,

;process of nature.-Compertumve,

sc. iis, with which ut barbaris is in
apposition.

6,7. Diu iacebat. The Gothones,
who formerly inhabited this coast,
used it for fuel, and sold it, for that
purpose, to the neighboring Teutones.

Plin. XXXVII, 2.-Eiectamenta,

things thrown up; a word of rare oc-
currence. We have no corresponding

word in English.-Luxuria nostra.

Amber was used in various ways by
the Romans; for ornamenting drink-
ing-cups (Juv. V. 38), for bracelets and

necklaces. Balls of amber were also
carried by the Roman ladies in their
hands, for the sake of the agreeable
perfume given out by it when rubbed.

Cf. Mart. V. 37, and III. 65.--Ipsis

in nullo usu. It would seem that the
ancient Germans held amber in some
estimation, as small balls strung on
horse-hair, and large unwrought
pieces, have been found in tombs.

8.	Perfertur. It reached Rome by
an overland route, being carried by
the inhabitants of the Baltic coast
into Pannonia to Carnuntum on the
Danube, and thence conveyed by the
Yeneti to the shores of the Adriatic,
thence to Rome.

9.	Sucum arborum. Amber is
now known to be a fossil resin, thus
establishing the ancient opinion of
its vegetable origin.

11. Implicata humore, entangled in

it while in a liquid state.-Cluduntur

= includuntur.

12,13. Secretis, sc. terris.--Sudan-

tur, are exuded.-Insulis: dat.

after inesse.

14. Crediderim, I am inclined to be-
lieve: subj. of softened assertion.-

Quae (= quorum sucus) refers gram-76

THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS.

adversa litora exundant. Si naturam sueini admoto igni
tentes, in modum taedae accenditur, alitque flammam pin-
guem et olentem; mox ut in picem resinamve lentescit.

Suionibus Sitonum gentes continuantur. Cetera similes uno
5 differunt, quod femina dominatur; in tantum non modo a
libertate, sed etiam a servitate degenerant. Hie Sueviae finis.

XLVI. Peucinorum Venetorumque et Fennorum nationes
Germanis an Sarmatis adscribara dubito, quamquam Peucini,
quos quidam Bastarnas vocant, sermone, cultu, sede ac domi-
lOciliis ut Germani agunt. Sordes omnium ac torpor pro-
cerum; conubiis mixtis nonnihil in Sarmatarum habitum
foedantur. Veneti multum ex moribus traxerunt; nam
quidquid inter Peucinos Fennosque silvarum ac montium
erigitur, latrociniis pererrant. Hi tamen inter Germanos

matically to nemora lucosque, but
Tacitus of course meant it to refer to
the gums which exude from them.
These gums are drawn out by the ac-
tion of the sun near to them when he
sinks into the west. They are carried
by the ocean currents to the opposite
shores, the far northeastern coasts.

1-3. Admoto igni, by applying fire to
it, lit., by fire applied to it—Finguem,

i.e., thick or smoky.-Jit in picem

resinamve, as if into pitch or resin, i. e.,
into something resembling pitch or
resin.

4.	Sitonum, Norwegians, men-
tioned in this passage only.-Con-

tinuantur, are joined to, i. e., are con-
tiguous to.--Similes, sc. Suionibus.

5.	In tantum, so low, lit., to such
a degree. Found only in late Latin.

6.	A servitute. Elsewhere slaves,
however degraded as in Oriental
countries, are still ruled by men, and
are not therefore sunk so low as the
Sitones, who are ruled by a woman.
--Finis, i. e., to the north.

CHAP. XLVI. 7. JPeucinorum. The
Peucini were allies of Philip and
Perseus, kings of Macedonia, and
thus brought into contact with the
Romans. Some of the classical au-
thors make them Germans, others

Gauls, and it does not seem clear
which they were. From Strabo it
appears that they were a branch of
the Bastarnae and inhabited the
country about the mouth of the
Danube, and particularly the island
Peuce, now Piczina, formed by the

river.- Venetorum. The Veneti

were east of the Vistula along the
Sinus Veneticus, or Gulf of Dantzic,
in East Prussia and Courland. They
were a Lithuanic or Slavonian peo-
ple ; and Wends is still the name by
which the Slavonians are known to
the Germans. Afterwards they seem
to have been associated with the

Huns and Goths on the Danube.-

Fennorum. These were probably
the Finns of Finland, and perhaps
the &LWOL of Ptolemy (III. 5).

8. (Utrum) Germanis an Sarmatis.
This has not been definitely settled.

10. Agunt = vivunt.-Sordes (sc.

est) .... procerum. That is, all are
filthily dirty; but the nobles enjoy
the superior privilege of idleness be-
sides. Cf. XV., fortissimus quisque ac

bellicosissimus nihil agens.-Torpor

(sc. est), laziness.

11,12. Conubiis mixtis, by intermar-
riages, i.e., with the Sarmati.-Habi-

tum here denotesjpersonaZ appearance.
-—moribus, sc. Sarmatarum*THE GrERMANIA OF TACITUS.

77

potixis referuntur, quia et domos figunt et scuta gestant et
pedum usu ac pernicitate gaudent; quae omnia diversa Sar-
matis sunt in plaustro equoque viventibus. Fennis mira
feritas, foeda paupertas; non arma, non equi, non penates;
victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis 5
spes, quas, inopia ferri, ossibus asperant. Idemque venatus
viros pariter ac feminas alit; passim enim comitantur par-
temque praedae petunt. Nec aliud infantibus ferarum im-
briumque suffugium quam ut in aliquo ramorum nexu conte-
gantur; hue redeunt iuvenes, hoc senum receptaculum. SedlO
beatius arbitrantur, quam ingemere agris, inlaborare domibus,
suas alienasque fortunas spe metuque versare. Securi adver-
sus homines, securi adversus deos, rem difficillimam adsecuti
sunt, ut illis ne voto quidem opus esset. Cetera iam fabulosa;
Hellusios et Oxionas ora hominum vultusque, corpora atquel5
artus ferarum gerere; quod ego, ut incompertum, in medium
relinquam.

I,2.	Domos figunt. The nomad life
of the Sarmatians is described by
Horace (Car., III. 24,10), whereas these
people have fixed homes. The
Sarmatae were the stock of the mod-
ern Russians.-Scvrmatis: dat.with

diversa.

5.	Cubile humus. Note the change
of construction. The nominative, as
more emphatic, is substituted for
cubili, which we should expect, to
correspond with victui and vestitui.

6.	Asperant, roughly point. A poetic
expression, not found in Cicero. The
Esquimaux and South Sea Islanders
do the same thing to this day.

7.	8. Comitantur, sc. viris.-Fera-
rum imbriumque, from wild beasts
and storms.

II.	Ingemere agris, to groan over
the fields, i. e., in tilling them. A
very poetical use of ingemere.-In-
laborare is here formed upon the
model of ingemere. It nowhere else

occurs in this meaning.-Domibus,

i. e., in building them.

12. Spe metuque, i. e., hope of gain

and fear of loss.--Versare, to be con-
stantly employed in increasing.--

Securi, without anxiety, as they have
nothing to lose, and the pleasure or
displeasure of the gods is all one to
them.

14.	Illis: emphatic.-Cetera, all

further accounts.

15.	Hellusios et Oxionas. People of
Lapland. " The origin of this fable
is probably due to the manner of
clothing in these cold regions, where
the inhabitants bury themselves in
the thickest furs, scarcely leaving
anything of the form of a human
creature."

16.	In medium relinquam. Cicero
{Pro Cluent. XX.) has in medio relin-
quam; also Sallust {Cat. XIX).
Tacitus, however, is fond of using the
accusative after the preposition, as
An. XIII. 41. aliaque in eandem for-
mam decernuntur. Here it is used
like in ordinem, in cap. XLIV., and is
equivalent to relinquam ita ut me-
dium sit, so as to be a neutral asser-
tion, neither affirmed nor denied.This book is a preservation facsimile produced for
the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
It is made in compliance with copyright law
and produced on acid-free archival

60# book weight paper
which meets the requirements of
ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper).

Preservation facsimile printing and binding
by

Northern Micrographics
Brookhaven Bindery
La Crosse, Wisconsin
2013