H ILLINOI S UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Brittle Books Project, 2013. COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION. In Public Domain. Published prior to 1923. This digital copy was made from the printed version held by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It was made in compliance with copyright law. Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Main Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2013 ar. ..,nr -..r a a 'W"'~s �R"s"r' '' w.. '�"r^ynl r :Fje s" v R.v<-w- _ a.,r n ,,rs~ t,,,, 'lr riio. eir-t *-'ks+. a i"r-"^.w. 'n .+ 'M�M _"" .,.tom; str- ".-,_ .-..R- r..a . "'*sn4n..N Rv-4.. .,,lll"fr , zrc.".+ c rani s. M- c. -rte � r .-< r. r:.rw.a. ,,,,",. '+ " -. r r �- .,. ..< N '-.e. _ ,a.. :r.-q."o. f+-r r .f.. T i kp 'f a?' ' . kk-. "-' '� r y ,y~ 1 i hw y ,1y ar ''ice-: h+ H ,A ' }-'r ' T .^ '.j-4 - '. -,. " ." Y Y 1 d - t - -r'!- n m...v .,,r., -"ti>s. r'-r :; t vr Fs . _-r ]-.',. ''' r , l' _ _ N k' _ . p.N 1 . Y Y K<. ''[.4 ='"'.kth. .+, ls.-. S. - Y71 j' .. y, " _ .. Y Sf - ..y Y . K y Y...- )ta d v 'e Tyi rY 4 bee _ - t "st" a w':t T,. "aal..U n.. fl. ., ., Y. .d.. ..,. _. t - ... i 1 .l->. a x "st' f" . x n eu '" t-:. .-. - r r. . ! -t+-'.'i_". "- rss e. -ti.- ,.+h r '"w o ""' " 's '" '} _ i ; . e r ti. '. _ ?1G-" +y A ':r a 'Y'+ > :a.y t e ,+ :+.,r" rat-. "v 7: - s .ey';: %, 3 < f 1 n rr _.- 3 7 r - O. MY " � l ' i y s F ''" 4 a,_ ,t.a _a y - s ,}.,v y, t.e,,. F r ' '7 ^ h 1 a rr r ". t .- "y. t 'r ;#ai�Ff r > t 4 5.... - Jim rt y * ^a .i F y e - '! i i [ r "' _ _. r ._ - r--e# a 'ray i .h+ . 1 s. e Yr - s , -Mai-i- r r _i..y, ,,ti ,," :+s .._ ' ' -. .' fi . _ wx " - / Wry .:> 3 + - . r, ,. - . i + >.. a^-> .i "" 7 c.. t G 5 irrs y 't 'Y d N _ r "" � 'xG' ,A >w :..ti, +{ r.+a r Nv.-.s ad k d-. 9 , . K -. w, % .+..e. h' M ^. _ 1 a . " , T y? .. 5 y " - an,'d'!iy. 1-i -rr . - _ 5 � , n i-^ ,. , ~ -" y , '' -r. t ._ .. ._"'-S x -r7 V ._t.i J F,..Y - ~t .. !' 9ri ,/ y f. >_. 7'A+tl" . y ." Ire r _- --'i a '^' ,y,.F }z( .ey> .x -- , ' r >' a'. 'aI ^e '..-. .: .M w t�a "*'* ' - Ya - ..s r +, ' ..,......�r T ' ..'Y'" T T:rt.p ,., R K .. Y" .' ., n.e R d 4 M r ..a, - ,.. r F E rte.#xY i"" ,>'^ ' i A C.' , "".i > - -�- � i f p _ t s ' .,~ ( Y. '- ,fir M- F�> < e r' + ,r y y r y .N ?L Sr s .s'.,P ? . y a .+ ti, r r r . < 'Va- S - i T " " . y wt . Ye. 1 -r ' ~ fr "..' R ' ' " -"1 1 -tc ,_ - ,, ' '" s @ a ,fir '- ".v<+ -r r . _ "+. . ,--r"- . :. .. .."".. . .. .r y dh A _ r t y a mr. -'' '- t ,:,,. s - m ,S oa. � .. r f , o n " ti. i 1 > _ Fem. . ar r . a. ,r ,7 n 9 Y iH y A + r :,e NI I Y w.F e ) M1 - n, r - .a r T 1 ,. 'fi, + _ x_,.. ^ + to yr ' M r s wM a-. r ., .""* Ij R � - r- 'e x6it: , ,r , "r,. < . 1 --,M r r ... � . " ar J 4 r r a" . - y -r rte. �; ' jF x y'V 2 - 4 i' s ' 'C" ,. ,y r-- ' ,. r C'' f ) - k T 'i '. " f ., T.' 7 f }" � s v-m.",w . , .,. _ ar- ,.a...::,,, . r ,. - lk h .s. wy _ {hk+M ,.te 'r ,q-.a "-t .r. y ,,, w. ;<� v+ y y 9r 'fY - T_ . .. .. .; " +I4 a M -1.. c 'LM-nf.,.. J.t r'" {. .. ,f rl' 'r^ '1 _ _: :$ ,fr yl.R TM* A A F M -. P 'a -nfRi-b )n. Il'^u. A..fi r ... -. - ,:, -.w a .r..� - . , 's '+- ';' y. ^aP ^.. mgt ._ $'. U n r. . i } P w_,. ^ + .A "v - " ..... . _ A..i. ..,. , ,f,. . - .qtr--Jr ',y M- q, e+ .- Hti 'b^ i .. .. ' k ;";-. +s.i -r ... y .ter -r s_,,. i. ..... , , "+ .. ,w . r-r;..:? '1 ".,..,,fit y'. >v ry y R^* FrR.. s"' f y F.. ., _ w P'eYM 1 a . ,... rs .. , e ,. ' ' z ._ ' ?.t= a .s...,9 fi-11-a$r-s :: f . M JI-B r ..... _ ".a! I I L ~IPI ..,. __r THE IUNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 946 F66 HISTORY OF THE MOOR S OF SPAIN TRANSLATED M. FROM THE FLO FRENCH ORIGINAL OF R I A N. TO WHICH IS ADDED, A BRIEF NOTICE OF I SLA 1 I SM NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 329 & 331 PEARL STREET, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 186 8. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840 by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of tne Southern District of NewYork PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. WE are accustomed to look upon the'follow- ers of the Arabian Prophet as little better than barbarians, remarkable chiefly for ignorance, cruelty, and a blind and persecuting spirit of fanaticism. As it regards the character of the Mohammedans at the present day, and, indeed, their moral and intellectual condition for the last two centuries, there is no great error in this opinion. But they are a degenerated race. There has been a period of great brilliancy in their history, when they were distinguished for their love of knowledge, and the successful cultivation of science and the arts; nor is it too much to say, that to them Christian Europe is indebted for the generous impulse which led to the revival of learning in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Of the various nations of the great Moslem family, none were more re- V1 ADVERTISEME NT. nowned in arts, as well as arms, than the Moor- ish conquerors of Spain, whose history is con- tained in the following pa;ge. The French original of this work has long enjoyed a de- servedly high reputation; and the translation here offered is by an American lady, whose literary taste and acquirements well qualified her for the task. A sketch of Mohammedan history, &c., from Rev. S. Greene's Life of Mohammed, has been appended at the close of the volume, to present to the reader a comprehensive view of that very remarkable people, of whom the Moors of Spain formed so distinguished a branch. H. & B. New-York, October, 1840. CONTENTS. FIRST EPOCH. Page The Origin of the Moors . .......19 The Arabs ......... . 21 The Birth of Mohammed .......23 Religion of Mohammed ...... . 23 The Progress of Islamism . ..... . 25 Victories of the Mussulmans . . . . . . 26 New Conquests of the Mohammedans . 29 The Moors become Mussulmans . .... . 32 Conditioz of Spain under the Goths ..... 33 Conquest of Spain by the Moors ..... 35 Sthe Viceroys of Spain ...... . 36 Insurrection of Prince Pelagius . . . . . . 36 Abderamus attempts the Conquest of France 39 He penetrates as far as the Loire ..... 41 The Battle of Tours . . . .... . 42 Civil Wars distract Spain ..... . 43 SECOND EPOCH. The Kings of Cordova become the Caliphs of the West . 45 The Asiatic Mussulmans divide . . 46 The Dynasty of the Ommiades lose the Caliphate . 48 Horrible Massacre of the Ommiades . ... . 52 An Ommiade Prince repairs to Spain . . . . . 53 Abderamus, the first Caliph of the West . . . . 53 VIII CONTENTS. Reign of Abderamus I. . . . 54 Religion and Fetes of the Moors of Spain . . . 55 Civil Wars arise among the Moors . . . . . 57 The Reigns of Hacchem I. and of Abdelazis 58 Reign of Abderamus II. . ....... . 59 Condition of the Fine Arts at Cordova 60 Anecdote of Abderamus . ...... 61 Reigns of Mohammed, Almouzir, and Abdalla . . 62 Reign of Abderamus III. . ...... . 62 Embassy from a Greek Emperor . . . . . 64 Magnificence and Gallantry of the Moors .. 64 Description of the City and Palace of Zahra . 65 Wealth of the Caliphs of Cordova 68 The Fine Arts cultivated at Cordova . . . . . 71 Reign of El Hacchem . . . . ...... 74 Laws of the Moors, and their Mode of administering Justice 75 Authority possessed by Fathers and old Men . . 77 An Illustration of the Magnanimity of E1 Hakkam . . 78 Reign of Hacchem III. . ..... ... 80 Successful Rule of Mohammed Almonzir as Hadjeb under the imbecile Hacchem . ..... . 80 Disorders at Cordova .. ..... . 82 End of the Caliphate . ...... . 83 THIRD EPOCH. The principal Kingdoms erected from the Ruins of the Caliphate of the West . ..... . 85 Condition of Christian Spain at this Juncture . . 80 The Kingdom of Toledo; its Termination 87, 88 Success of the Christians . ..... . 89 The Cid .. . . . . . 89 The Kingdom of Seville . . . . . . 91 The Dynasty of the Almoravides hold Supremacy in Africa 92 CONTENTS IX Page Conquests of the Almoravides in Spain . 93 French Princes repair to Spain ..... . 94 Extinction of the Kingdom of Saragossa . . 95 Foundation of the Kingdom of Portugal . . 95 State of the Fine Arts among the Moors at this Period . 97 Abenzoar and Averroes . . . . . . 97 Dissensions between the Moors and Christians . . 98 The Africans, under Mohammed the Green, land in Spail . 100 Battle of Toloza . ...... . 102-104 Tactics of the Moors . ...... . 105 The discomfited Mohammed returns to Africa . . . 109 Extent of the Territories still retained by the Moors in Spain ... . . . . . . .110 St. Ferdinand and Jaques I. . . . . . . 111 Valencia is attacked by the Aragonians .. 113 Siege of Cordova . .. 114 Surrender of Valencia . . . . . . 116 FOURTH EPOCH. Page The Kings of Grenada . . .. ... 118 The Condition of the Moors; their Despondency . . 118 Mohammed Alhamar; his Character and Influence with his Countrymen ......... 119 He founds the Kingdom of Grenada . 120 Description of the City of Grenada and its Vega . 121 Extent and Resources of this Kingdom . 123 Reign of Mohammed Alhamar I. ..... . 124 The Moorish Sovereign becomes the Vassal of the King of Castile ......... . 124 Ferdinand Ill. besieges Seville . . 125 The Taking of Seville . . 126 Revenues of the Kings of Grenada . .. 127 Military Forces ........ . 129 Cavalry of the Moors . . 129 B X CONTENTS. Disturbances in Castile . . . . 133 Reign of Mohammed II. El Fakik . . 133 He forms a League with the King of Morocco . . 134 Misfortunes of Alphonso of Castile . . . . . 134 Interview between Alphonso and the Sovereign of Morocco 134 State of Learning and the Fine Arts under Mohammed al Mumenim . . . . . . . . . 136 Description of the Alhambra ..... . 137 The Court of Lions . ...... . 140 The Generalif . . . . . . . . . 145 Mohammed III. El ltama, or the Blind, ascends the Throne of Grenada ........ . 147 T'roubles in Grenada . . . ... . 149 iReign of Mohammed IV. Abenazar . . . . . 149 Reign of Ismael .. ...... . 149 Reign of Mohammed V. and of Joseph I . ... . 152 The Battle of Salado . . . . . . . 152 Successive Reigns of Mohammed VI. and Mohammed VII. 154 Horrible Crime of Peter the Cruel of Castile . . . 156 Condition of Spain-of Europe in general . . 156, 157 Moahammed VI..reassumes the Crown . . . 158 Reign of Mohammed VIII. Abouhadjad . . . . 158 Favourite Literary and Scientific Pursuits of the Moors under the munificent Rule of Abouhadjad . . . 160 Universal prevalence of a Taste for Fiction among the Arabs 161 Music and Gallantry of the Moors . . . . . 162 The mixture of Refinement and Ferocity in the Character of the Moors . ....... . 166 Description of the Women of Grenada . . . . 169 The national Costume of both Sexes . . . . . 170 Moorish Customs . . . . . . . . . 171 Folly of the Grand-master of Alcantara . 172 'he Result of his Expedition . . . . . . 174 Dreadful Death of Joseph II. . ..... . 175 Mohammed IX. usurps the Throne . . . . . 175 Singular Escape of a condemned Prince . 17F CONTENTS. xi Generous Disposition of Joseph III. ..... . 176 Disturbed Condition of the Kingdom after his Death . 177 A rapid Succession of Rulers . . . . . 177, 178 Reign of Ismael II. . ....... . 178 The Miseries of War most severely felt by the Cultivator of the Soil ... . . . . . . .179 Mulei-Hasseni succeeds Ismael II. . 179 Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella . . . . . 180 The respective Characters of these Sovereigns . . 181 They declare War against the Grenadians . . . 182 Statesmen and Soldiers of the Spanish Court . 182 Stern Reply of the Grenadian King . . . . . 183 Alhama is Surprised . . . . . . . . 184 Civl War is kindled in Grenada by the Feuds of the Roy- al Family . . . . . . . . . .184 Boabdil is proclaimed King ...... . 185 Cause of the ambitious hopes of Zagal . . . 185 Boabdil is taken Prisoner by the Spaniards . . . . 186 The politic Spanish Rulers restore Boabdil to Liberty . 187 The Moors become their own Destroyers . . . 187 Death of Mulei-Hassem . . . . . . . 187 Boabdil and his Uncle divide the Relics of Grenada be- tween them ......... 188 Baseness of Zagal . ...... . 188 Boabdil reigns alone at Grenada . . . . . 188 Ferdinand lays Siege to the City of Grenada . 189 Condition of the City .. ..... . 189 The Spanish Camp . ...... . 191 Isabella repairs to the Camp . . . . . 191 She builds a City . ...... . 192 Surrender of Grenada .. ..... . 194 Departure of Boabdil from the City . . . . . 194 The entrance of the Spanish Conquerors into the City . 195 Summary of the Causes of the Ruin of the Moors . . 196 Characteristics of the Moors . . 197 Xii CONTENTS. Anecdote illustrative of their Observance of the Laws of Hospitality . 198 Christian Persecution of the Moors . . . . 199 Revolts of the Moors, and their Results . 199 Final Expulsion of the Moors from Spain . . . 201 Notee . . . . ......... . 203 INTRODUCTION. THE name of the Moors of Spain recalls recol- lections of gallantry and refinement, and of the triumphs of arts and arms. But, though thus cel- ebrated, not much is generally known of the his- tory of that remarkable people. The fragments of their annals, scattered among the writings of the Spanish and Arabian authors, furnish little else than accounts of murdered kings, national dissensions, civil wars, and unceasing contests with their neighbours. Yet, mingled with these melancholy recitals, individual in- stances of goodness, justice, and magnanimity occasionally present themselves. These traits, too, strike us more forcibly than those of a simi- lar description with which we meet in perusing the histories of other nations; perhaps in conse- INTRODUCTION. quence of the peculiar colouring of originality lent them by their Oriental characteristics; or perhaps because, in contrast with numerous ex- amples of barbarity, a noble action, an eloquent discourse, or a touching expression, acquire an unusual charm. It is not my intention to write the history of the Moors in minute detail, but merely to retrace their principal revolutions, and attempt a faith- ful sketch of their national character and man- ners. The Spanish historians, whom I have carefully consulted in aid of this design, have been of but little assistance to me in my efforts. Careful to give a very prominent place in their extremely complicated narratives to the various sovereigns of Asturia, Navarre, Aragon, and Castile, they advert to the Moors only when their wars with the Christians inseparably mingle the interests of the two nations; but they never allude to the government, customs, or laws of the enemies of their faith. xiv INTRODUCTION. The translations from the Arabian writers to which I have had recourse, throw little more light upon the subject of my researches than the productions of Spanish authors. Blinded by fa- naticism and national pride, they expatiate with complacency on the warlike achievements of their countrymen, without even adverting to the reverses that attended their arms, and pass over whole dynasties without the slightest notice or comment. Some of our savans have, in several very esti- mable works, united the information to be col- lected from these Spanish and Arabian histories, with such additional particulars as they were able to derive from their own personal observa- tions. I have drawn materials from all these sources, and have, in addition, sought for descriptions of the manners of the Moors in the Spanish and ancient Castilian romances, and in manuscripts and memoirs obtained from Madrid. It is after these long and laborious researches XP IN TRODUCTION. that I venture to offer a brief history of a people who bore so little resemblance to any other; who had their national vices and virtues, as well as their characteristic physiognomy; and who so long united the bravery, generosity, and chivalry of the Europeans, with the excitable tempera- ment and strong passions of the Orientals. To render the order of time more intelligible, and the more clearly to elucidate facts, this his- torical sketch will be divided in four principal Epochs. The first will extend from the commencement of the Conquests of the Arabs to the Establish- ment of the Dynasty of the Ommiade princes at Cordova: the second will include the reigns of the Caliphs of the West: in the third will be related all that can now be ascertained concern- ing the various small kingdoms erected from the ruins of the Caliphate of Cordova: and the fourth will comprehend a narration of the prom- inent events in the lives of the successive sover- eigns of the Kingdom of Grenada, until the peri- xvi INTRODUCTION. XVii od of the final expulsion of the Mussulmans from that country. Care has been taken to compare the dates ac- cording to the Mohammedan method of compu- ting time, with the periods fixed by the ordinary mode of arrangement. Some of the Spanish historians, Garabai for instance, do not agree with the Arabian chronologists in relation to the years of the Hegira. I have thought proper to follow the Arabian authorities, and have adopt- ed, with occasional corrections, the chronological arrangements of M. Cardonne, whose personal assurance I possess, that he attaches high impor- tance to his calculations on this subject. I have thus reason to hope that this little work will serve to elucidate many points hitherto doubt- ful in relation to this matter. The proper names of the Moors vary even more in the different authorities than their state- ments respecting the date of events, either in consequence of the difficulty of pronouncing them, or from ignorance of their proper nrthog- xvll INTRODUCTION. raphy. In instances of this character I have al- ways given the preference to such as appeared to be most generally adopted, and were, at the same time, most harmonious in sound. A HISTORY OF THE MOORS OF SPAIN. FIRST EPOCH. THE CONQUESTS OF THE ARABS OR MOORS. Extending from the end of the Sixth Century to the middle of the Eighth. TH primitive Moors were the inhabitants of the vast portion of Africa bounded on the east by Egypt, on the north by the Mediterranean, on the west by the Atlantic, and on the south by the deserts of Barbary. The origin of the Moors, or Mauritanians, is, like that of most other ancient nations, obscure, and the information we possess concerning their early history confusedly mingled with fables. The fact, however, appears to be established, that Asiatic emigrations were, from the earliest times, made into Africa. In addition to this, the 20 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. historians of remote ages speak of a certain Me- leck Yarfrick, king of Arabia Felix, who con- ducted a people called Sabei* into Libya, made himself master of that country, established his followers there, and gave it the name of Africa. It is from these Sabians or Sabei that the prin- cipal Moorish tribes pretend to trace their de- scent. The derivation of the name Moors- is also supposed, in some degree, to confirm the impression that they came originally from Asia. But, without enlarging upon these ancient statements, let it suffice to say, that nearly cer- tain ground exists for the belief that the original Moors were Arabians. In confirmation of this impression, we find that, during every period of the existence of their race, the descendants of the primitive inhabitants of Mauritania have, like the Arabs, been divided into distinct tribes, and, like them, have pursued a wild and wander- ing mode of existence. Thle Moors of Africa are known in ancient * The Sabai, according to the best ancient authorities, were the inhabitants of the extensive Arabian kingdom of Saba.-Translator. t The term Moors, according to Bochart, comes from a Hebrew word, Mahuran, which signifies Western. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. history under the name of Nomades, Numide or Numidians, Getule, and Massyli. They were by turns the subjects, the enemies, or the allies of the Carthaginians, and with them they fell under the dominion of the Romans. After several unsuccessful revolts, to which they were instigated by their fiery, restless, and inconstant temper, the Moors were at length subjugated by the Vandals, A.D. 427. A century afterward these people were con- quered by Belisarius: but the Greeks were in their turn subdued by the Arabs, who then pro- ceeded to achieve the conquest of Mauritania. As, from the period when that event occurred, the Mauritanians or Moors, who were thus sud- denly converted to Mohammedanism, have fre- quently been confounded with the native ./ran bians, it will be proper to say a few words con- cerning that extraordinary people: a people who, after occupying for so many centuries an insignificant place among the nations of the earth, rapidly rendered themselves masters of the greater part of the known world. The Arabs are, beyond question, one of the most ancient races of men in existence ;* and * It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that these 22 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. have, of all others, perhaps, best preserved their national independence, and their distinctive char- acter and manners. Divided from the most re- mote times into tribes that either wandered in the desert or were collected together in cities, and obedient to chiefs who in the same per- son united the warrior and the magistrate, they have never been subjected to foreign domina- tion. The Persians, the Romans, and the Ma- cedonians *vainly attempted to subdue them: they only shattered their weapons in fragments against the rocks of the Nabatheans.* Proud if an origin which he traced back even to the patriarchs of olden time, exulting in his suc- cessful defence of his liberty and his rights, the Arab, from the midst of his deserts, regarded the rest of mankind as consisting of mere bands of slaves, changing masters as chance or conve- Children of the Desert are supposed to be the lineal descend- ants of Ishmael, the wandering, outcast son of the patriarch Abraham and the much-abused Hagar.--Translator. * The primitive name of the Arabs, from Nabathaa, an ap- pellation for their country which is probably derived from Na- bath, the son of Ishmael. The capital city of Nabathaea was that Petra, of whose present appearance and condition our eminent countryman, Stephens, has given his readers so graph- ic a sketch in his "Travels," &c.-Translator. THE MOORS OF SPAIN nience directed. Brave, temperate, and indefat- igable, inured from infancy to the severest toil, fearing neither thirst, hunger, nor death itself-- these were a people by whose assistance a lead- er suitably endowed could render himself mas- ter of the world. Mohammed appeared:* to him nature had accorded the requisite qualifica- tions for executing such a design. Courageous, sagacious, eloquent, polished, possessed in an em- inent degree of the powers which both awe and delight mankind, Mohammed would have been a great man had he belonged to the most en- lightened age-among an ignorant and fanati- cal people he became a prophet. Until Mohammed arose among them, the Arab tribes, surrounded by Jews, Christians, and idolators, had entertained a superstitious faith, compounded of the religious belief of their vari- ous neighbours and that of the ancient Sabmei They fully credited the existence of genii, de- mons, and witchcraft, adored the stars, and of- fered idolatrous sacrifices. But Mohammed- after having devoted many years to profound and solitary meditation upon the new dogmas he de- signed to establish; after having either convinced * A.D. 569. 23 24 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. or won to his interests the principal individuals of his own family,* possessing pre-eminent con- sequence among their countrymen-suddenly be- gan to preach a new religion, opposed to all those with which the Arabs were hitherto famil- iar, and whose principles were well-adapted to inflame the ardent temper of that excitable people. Children of Ishmael, said the Prophet to them, I bring you the faith that was professed by your father Abraham, by Noah, and by all the patri- archs. There is but one God, the Sovereign Ruler of all worlds: he is called THE MERCIFUL ; worship Him alone. Be beneficent towards or- phans, slaves, captives, and the poor: be just to all men--justice is the sister of piety. Pray and bestow alms. You will be rewarded in Heaven, by being permitted to dwell perpetually in de- licious gardens, where limpid waters will for ever flow, and where each one of you will eternally enjoy the companionship of women who will be ever beautiful, ever youthful, ever devoted to you alone. Courageously combat both the unbeliev- ing and the impious. Oppose them until they * The Coheshirites, the guardians of the Temple of the Caaba at Mecca. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. embrace Islamism* or render you tribute: Eve- ry soldier who dies in battle will share the treas- ures of God; nor can the coward prolong his life; for the moment when he is destined to be smitten by the angel of death is written in the Book of the Eternal. Such precepts, announced in majestic and highly figurative language, embellished with the charms of verse, and presented by a warrior, prophet, poet, and legislator, professing to be the representative of an angel, to the most sus- ceptible people in the world-to a people pos- sessing a passion alike for the .marvellous and the voluptuous, for heroism and for poetry-could scarcely fail to find disciples. Converts rapidly crowded around Mohammed, and their numbers were soon augmented by persecution His en- emies obliged the Prophet to fly from his native Mecca and take refuge in Medina. This flight was the epoch of his glory and of the Hegira of the Mussulmans. It occurred A.D. 622. From this moment Islamism spread like a tor- rent over the Arabias and Ethiopia. In vain did the Jewish and idolatrous tribes attempt to maintain their ancient faith; in vain did Mecca ' See Note A, page 203. C 25 26 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. arm heir soldiers against the destroyers of her gods; Mohammed, sword in hand, dispersed their armies, seized upon their cities, and won the affections of the people whom he subdued, by his clemency, his genius, and his fascinating address. A legislator, a pontiff, the chief of all the Arab tribes, the commander of an invincible ar- my, respected by the Asiatic sovereigns, adored by a powerful nation, and surrounded by cap- tains who had become heroes in serving under him, Mohammed was on the point of marching against Heraclius, when his designs were for ever interrupted by the termination of his existence. This event took place at Medina, A.D. 632, Hegira 2, and was the effect of poison, which had, some time before, been administered to this extraordinary man by a Jewess of Rhaibar. The death of the Prophet arrested neither the progress of his religion nor the triumphs of the Moslem arms. Abubeker, the father-in-law of Mohammed, became his successor, and assumed the title of Caliph, which simply signifies vicar. During his reign the Saracens penetrated into Syria, dispersed the armies of Heraclius, and took the THE MOORS OF SPAIN. city of Damascus, the siege of which will be. for ever celebrated in consequence of the almost superhuman exploits of the famous Kaled, sur- named the Sword of God.* Notwithstanding these successive victories, and the enormous amount of booty thus taken from the enemy and committed to his keeping, Abu- beker appropriated to his own particular use a sum scarcely equivalent to forty cents a day. Omar, the successor of Abubeker, commanded Kaled to march against Jerusalem. That city soon became the prize of the Arabs; Syria and Palestine were subdued; the Turks and the Persians demanded peace; Heraclius fled from Antioch; and all Asia trembled before Omar and the terrible Mussulmans. Modest, in spite of the triumphs that every- where attended them, and attributing their success to God alone, these Moslems preserved unaltered their austere manners, their frugality, their severe discipline, and their reverence for poverty, though surrounded by the most corrupt of the nations of the earth, and exposed to the seductive influen- ces of the delicious climates and the luxurious pleasures of some of the richest and most beau- * See Note B, page 206. 27 28 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. tiful countries in the world. During the sacking of a city, the most eager and impetuous soldier would be instantly arrested in the work of pil- lage by the word of his chief, and would, with the strictest fidelity, deliver up the booty he had obtained, that it might be deposited in the gen- eral treasury. Even the most independent and magnificent of the heroic chiefs would hasten, in accordance with the directions of the caliph, to take the command of an army, and would be- come successively generals, private soldiers, or ambassadors, in obedience to his slightest wish In fine, Omar himself-Omar, the richest, the greatest, the most puissant of the monarchs of Asia, set forward upon a journey to Jerusalem, mounted upon a red camel, which bore a sack of barley, one of rice, a well-filled water-skin, and a wooden vase. . Thus equipped, the caliph travelled through the midst of conquered na- tions, who crowded around his path at every step, entreating his blessing and praying him to adjudge their quarrels. At last he joined his army, and, inculcating precepts of simplicity, valour, and humility upon the soldiers, he made his entrance into the Holy City, liberated such of its former Christian possessors as had become THE MOORS OF SPAIN. the captives of his people, and commanded the preservation of the churches. Then remount- ing his camel, the representative of the Prophet returned to Medina, to perform the duties of the high-priest of his religion. The Mussulmans now advanced towards Egypt. That country was soon subdued. Al- exandrea was taken by Amrou, one of the most distinguished generals of Omar. It was then that the famous library was destroyed, whose loss still excites the profound regrets of the learned. The Arabians, though such enthusias- tic admirers of their national poetry, despised the literature of all the rest of the world. Amrou caused the library of the Ptolemies to be burn- ed, yet this same Amrou was nevertheless cel- ebrated for his poetical effusions. He entertain- ed the sincerest affection and respect for the cel- ebrated John the Grammarian, to whom, but for the opposing order of the caliph, he would have given this valuable collection of books. It was Amrou, too, who caused the execution of a design worthy of the best age of Rome, that of connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean by means of a navigable canal, at a point where the waters of the Nile nicht be diverted from 29 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. their course for its supply. This canal, so useful to Egypt, and so important to the commerce of both Europe and Asia, was accomplished in a few months. The Turks, in more modern times, have suffered it to be destroyed. Amrou continued to advance into Africa, while the other Arablian commanders passed the Euphrates and conquered the Persians. But Omar was already no more, and Othman occu- pied his place. It was during the reign of this caliph that the Saracens, banishing for ever its enfeebled Greek masters, conquered Mauritania, or the country of the Moors of Africa, A.D. 647, Heg. 27. The invaders met with serious resistance only from the warlike tribes of the Bereberes.* That bold and pastoral people, the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of Numidia, and preserving, even to this day, a species of independence, in- trenched as they are in the Atlas Mountains, long and successfully resisted the conquerors of 'the Moors. A Moslem general named Akba finally succeeded in subjugating them, and in compelling them to adopt the laws and faith of his country. * See note C, page 207. 30 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. After that achievement Akba carried his arms to the extreme western point of Africa, the ocean alone resisting him in his progress. There, inspired by courage and devotion with feelings of the highest enthusiasm, he forced his horse into the waves, and, drawing his sabre, cried, " God of Mohammed, thou beholdest that, but for the element which arrests me, I would have proceeded in search of unknown nations, whom I would have forced to adore thy name !" Until this epoch, the Moors, under the success- ive dominion of the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Vandals, and the Greeks, had taken but lit- tle interest in the affairs of their different mas- ters. Wandering in the deserts, they occupied them- selves chiefly with the care of their flocks; paid the arbitrary imposts levied upon them, some- times passively enduring the oppression of their rulers, and sometimes essaying to break their chains; taking refuge, after each defeat of their efforts, in the Atlas Mountains, or in the interior of their country. Their religion was a mixture of Christianity and idolatry; their manners those of the ensla- ved Nomades: rude, ignorant, and wretched, 31 TIHE MOORS OF SPAIN. their condition was the prototype of what it now is under the tyrants of Morocco. But the presence of the Arabs rapidly produ- ced a great change among these people. A common origin with that of their new masters, together with similarity of language and temper- ament, contributed to bind the conquered to their conquerors. The announcement of a religion which had been preached by a descendant of Ishmael, whom the Moors regarded as their father; the rapid conquests of the Mussulmans, who were already masters of half of Asia and a large portion of Africa, and who threatened to enslave the world, aroused the excitable imaginations of the Moors, and restored to their national char- acter all its passionate energy. They embraced the dogmas of Mohammed with transport; they united with the Arabs, volunteered to serve un- der the Moslem banners, and suddenly became simultaneously enamoured with Islamism and with glory. This reunion; which doubled the military strength of the two united nations, was disturb- ed for some time by the revolt of the Bereberes, who never yielded their liberty under any cir* cumstances. 32 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. The reigning caliph, Valid the First, despatch- ed into Egypt Moussa-ben-Nazir, a judicious and valiant commander, at the head of a hundred thousand men, A.D. 708, Heg. 89. Moussa defeated the Bereberes, restored quiet in Mauritania, and seized upon Tangier, which belonged to the Goths of Spain. Master of an immense region of country, of a redoubtable army, and of a people who consid- ered his supremacy as essential to their well- being, the Saracen general from this period con- templated carrying his arms into Spain. That beautiful kingdom, after having been successively under the yoke of the Carthagin- ians and the Romans, had finally become the prey of the Barbarians. The Alains, the Suevi, and the Vandals had divided its provinces among them; but Euric, one of the Visigoths, who en- tered the country from the south of Gaul, had, towards the end of the fifth century, gained pos- session of the whole of Spain, and transmitted it to his descendants. The softness of the climate, together with the effects of wealth and luxury, gradually enfee- bled these conquerors, creating vices from which they had been previously free, and depriving 33 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. them of the warlike qualities to which alone they had been indebted for their success. Of the kings who succeeded Euric, some were Ari ans and others Catholics, who abandoned their authority to the control of bishops, and occu- pied a throne shaken to its centre by internal disturbances. Roderick, the last of these Gothic sovereigns, polluted the throne by his vices ; and both history and tradition accuse him of the ba- sest crimes. Indeed, in the instance of nearly all these tyrants, their vices either directly occa- sioned, or were made the pretext of their final ruin. The fact is well established, that Count Ju- lian and his brother Oppas, archbishop of Tole- do, both of them distinguished and influential men, favoured the irruption of the Moors into Spain. Tarik, one of the most renowned captains of his time,* was sent into Spain by Moussa. He had at firs'but few troops; but he was not by this prevented from defeating the large army that, by command of Roderick, the last Gothic king, opposed his course. Subsequently, having received re-enforcements * See note D, page 208. 34 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. from Africa, Tarik vanquished Roderick himself at the battle of Xeres, where that unfortunate monarch perished during the general flight in which the conflict terminated, A.D. 714, Heg. 96. After this battle, the Mohammedan general, profiting by his victory, penetrated into Estre- madura, Andalusia, and the two Castiles, and took possession of the city of Toledo. Being soon after joined by Moussa, whose jealousy of the glory his lieutenant was so rapidly acqui- ring prompted him to hasten to his side, these two remarkable commanders, dividing their troops into several corps, achieved, in a few months, the conquest of the whole of Spain. It should be observed, that these Moors, whom several historians have represented as blood- thirsty barbarians, did not deprive the people whom they had subjugated either of their faith, their churches, or the administrators of their laws. They exacted from the Spaniards only the tribute they had been accustomed to pay their kings. One cannot but question the exist- ence of the ferocity that is ascribed to them, when it is remembered that the greater part of the Spanish cities submitted to the invaders 35 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. without making the least attempt at resistance; that the Christians readily united themselves with the Moors; that the inhabitants of Toledo desired to assume the name of .Musarabs; and that Queen Egilona, the widow of Roderick, the last of the Gothic sovereigns, publicly espoused, with the united consent of the two nations, Ab- delazis the son of Moussa. Moussa, whom the success of Tarik had great- ly exasperated, wishing to remove a lieutenant whose achievements eclipsed his own, preferred an accusation against him to the caliph. Valid recalled them both, but refused to adjudge their difference, and suffered them to die at court from chagrin at seeing themselves forgotten. Abdelazis, the husband of Egilona, became governor of Spain A.D. 718, Heg. 100, but did not long survive his elevation. Alahor, who succeeded him, carried his arms into Gaul, sub- dued the Warbonnais, and was preparing to push his conquests still farther, when he learned that Pelagius, a prince of the blood-royal of the Visigoths, had taken refuge in the mountains of Asturia with a handful of devoted followers; that with them he dared to brave the conquer- ors of Spain, and had formed the bold design of 36 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. attempting to rid himself of their yoke. Alahor sent some troops against him. Pelagius, in- trenched with his little army in the mountain gorges, twice gave battle to the Mussulmans, seized upon several castles, and, reanimating the spirits of the Christians, whose courage had been almost extinguished by so long a succession of. reverses, taught the astonished Spaniards that the Moors were not invincible. The insurrection of Pelagius occasioned the recall of Alahor by the Caliph Omar II. El- zemah, his successor, was of opinion that the most certain means of repressing revolts among a people is to render them prosperous and con- tented. He therefore devoted himself to the wise and humane government of Spain; to the regulation of imposts, until then quite arbitrary; and to quieting the discontents of the soldiery, and establishing their pay at a fixed rate. A lover of the fine arts, which the Arabs began from that time to cultivate, Elzemah embellish- ed Cordova, which was his capital, and attract- ed thither the savans of the age. He was him- self the author of a book containing a descrip- tion of the cities, rivers, provinces, and ports of Spain; of the metals, mines, and quarries it pos. 37 38 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. sesses; and, in short, of almost every object of interest either in science or government. But little disturbed by the insurrectionary movements of Pelagius, whose power was con- fined to the possession of some inaccessible mountain fortresses, Elzemah did not attempt to force him from his strongholds, but, impelled by the ardent desire of extending the Moorish con- quests into France, with which the governors of Spain were ever inflamed, he passed the Pyre- nees, and perished in a battle fought against Eudes, duke of Aquitania, A.D. 722, Heg. 104. During the remainder of the Caliphate of Ye- zid II.,* several governors followed each other in rapid succession after the death of Elzemah.-t None of their actions merit recital; but, during this period, the brave Pelagius aggrandized his petty state, advancing into the mountains of Leon, and, in addition, making himself master of several towns. This hero, whose invincible daring roused the Asturians and Cantabrians to struggle for liberty, laid the foundations of that powerful monarchy * See Note E, page 208. t Ambeza, Azra, Jahiah, Osman, Hazifa, Hacchem, and Mohammed. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. S. whose warriors afterward pursued the Moors even to the rocks of the Atlas. The Moslems, who dreamed only of new con- quests, made no considerable efforts against Pe- lagius: they were confident of checking his re- bellion with the utmost ease when they should have accomplished the subjugation of the French dominions; and that desire alone fired the ardent soul of the new governor Abdalrahman, or, as he is commonly called, Abderamus. His love of glory, his valour, his genius, and, above all, his immeasurable ambition, made the Mussulman governor regard this conquest as one that could be easily effected; but he himself was destined to be the vanquished. Charles Martel, the son of Pepin d'Heristel, and the grandfather of Charlemagne, whose ex- ploits effaced the recollection of those of his fa- ther, and whose fame was not eclipsed by that of his grandson, was at this time mayor of the palace, under the last princes of the first race; or, rather, Charles was the real monarch of the French and German nations. Eudes, duke of Aquitania, the possessor of Gascony and Guienne, had long maintained a quarrel with the French hero. Unable longer, 40 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. without assistance, to resist his foe, he sought an alliance with a Moor named Munuza, who was the governor of Catalonia and the secret enemy of Abderamus. These two powerful vassals, both discontented with their respective sover- eigns, and inspired as much by fear as dislike, united themselves in the closest bonds, in despite of the difference in their religious faith. The Christian duke did not hesitate to give his daughter in marriage to his Mohammedan ally, and the Princess Numerance espoused the Moor- ish Munuza, as Queen Egilona had espoused the Moorish Abdelazis. Abderamus, when informed of this alliance. immediately divined the motives which had in- duced it. He soon assembled an army, pene- trated with rapidity into Catalonia, and attack- ed Munuza, who was wounded in a fruitless endeavour to fly, and afterward perished by his own hand. His captive wife was conducted into the presence of the victorious governor Abderamus, struck with her beauty, sent the fair Numerance as a present to the Caliph Hac- cham, whose regard she elicited; and thus, by a singular chance, a princess of Gascony became an inmate of the seraglio of a sovereign of Da- n ascus. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Not content with having so signally punished Munuza, Abderamus crossed the Pyrenees, trav- ersed Navarre, entered Guienne, and besieged and took the City of Bordeaux. Eudes attempt- ed, at the head of an army, to arrest his progress, but was repelled in a decisive engagement. Ev- erything yielded to the Mussulman arms: Ab- deramus pursued his route, ravaged Perigord, Saintonge, and Poitou, appeared in triumph in Touraine, and paused only when within view of the streaming ensigns of Charles Martel. Charles came to this rencounter followed by the forces of France, Asturia, and Bourgogne, and attended by the veteran warriors whom he was accustomed to lead to victory. The Duke of Aquitania was also in the camp. Charles forgot his private injuries in the contemplation of the common danger: this danger was press- ing: the fate of France and Germany-indeed, of the whole of Christendom, depended on the event of the approaching conflict. Abderamnus was a rival worthy of the son of Pepin. Flushed, like him, with the proud rec- ollection of numerous victories; at the head of an innumerable army; surrounded by experien- ced captains, who had been the frequent witness- D 41 42 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. es of his martial triumphs; and long inspired with the warmest hopes of finally adding to the dominion of Islamism the only country belonging to the ancient Roman empire that still remained unsubdued by the Saracens, the Moorish leader met his brave foe, upon equal terms, on the bat- tle-field of Tours, A.D. 733, Heg. 114. The action was long and bloody. Abdel a- mus was slain; and this dispiriting loss, without doubt, decided the defeat of his army.* Histo- rians assert that more than three hundred thou- sand men perished. This statement is probably exaggerated; but it is certainly true, that the Moors, who had thus penetrated into the midst of France, were relentlessly pursued after their defeat, and were many of them unable to es- cape from the arms of the victors and the ven- geance of the people. This memorable battle, of which we possess no details, saved France from the yoke of the Arabs, and effectually arrested their spreading dominion. Once again, subsequent to this reverse, the Moors attempted to penetrate into France, and * It was in this battle that Charles acquired the title of Martel, or the Hammer. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. succeeded in seizing upon Avignon; but Charles Martel defeated them anew, retook the captured city, drove them from Narbonne, and deprived them forever of the hope with which they had so often flattered themselves. After the death of Abderamus, Spain was torn by dissensions between the two governors* named successively by the Caliph. A third pre- tender arrived from Africa. A fourth added himself to the list ;t factions multiplied; the different parties often had recourse to arms; chiefs were assassinated, cities taken, and prov- inces ravaged. The details of these events are variously rela- ted by different historians, but possess little inter- est in the narrations of any. These civil wars lasted nearly twenty years. The Christians, who had retired into Asturia, profited by them to the utmost. Alphonso I., the son-in-law and successor of Pelagius, imitated the career of that hero. Hie seized upon a part of Galicia and Leon, repulsed the Mussulmall troops who were sent to oppose him, and render- ed himself master of several towns. The Moors, occupied by their domestic quar- * Abdoulmelek and Akbe. t Aboulattar and Tevaba. 43 44 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. rels, neglected to arrest the progress of Alphon- so, and from that time the growth of a minia- ture kingdom commenced, whose interests were inimical to those of the Saracens in Spain. After many crimes and combats, a certain Jo- seph had succeeded in triumphing over his differ- ent rivals, and was at last reigning supreme in Cordova, when there occurred a memorable event in the East, which was destined greatly to affect the condition of Spain. From that period, A.D. 749, Heg. 134, com- mences the second epoch of the empire of the Moors of Spain, which makes it necessary to re- vert briefly to the history of the Eastern caliphs SECOND EPOCH. THE KINGS OF CORDOVA BECOME THE CALIPHS OF THE WEST. Extending from the middle of the Eighth to the com- mencement of the Eleventh Century. WE have seen that, under their first three ca- liphs, Abubeker, Omar, and Othman, the Arabian conquerors of Syria, Persia, and Africa preserved their ancient manners, their simplicity of char- acter, their obedience to the successors of the Prophet, and their contempt for luxury and wealth: but what people could continue to withstand the influence of such an accumulation of prosperity ? These resistless conquerors turn- ed their weapons against each other: they for- got the virtues which had rendered them invinci- ble, and assisted by their dissensions in dismem- bering the empire that their valour had created. The disastrous effects of the baneful spirit that had thus insidiously supplanted the original prin- ciples of union, moderation, and prudence, by which, as a nation, the Moslems had been ac- 46 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. thated, were first manifested in the assassination of the Caliph Othman. Ali, the friend, companion, and adopted son of the Prophet, whose courage, achievements, and relationship to Mohammed, as the husband of his only daughter, had rendered him so dear to the Mussulmans, was announced as the suc- cessor of Othman. But Moavias, the governor of Syria, refused to recognise the authority of Ali, and, under the guidance of the sagacious Amrou, the conqueror of Egypt, caused himself to be proclaimed Ca- liph of Damascus. Upon this, the Arabians di- vided: those of Medina sustaining Ali, and those of Syria Moavias. The first took the name of .glides, the others styled themselves Ommiades, deriving their denomination from the grandfather of Moavias. Such was the origin of the famous schism which still separates the Turks and Per- sians. Though Ali succeeded in vanquishing Moavias in the field, he did not avail himself judiciously of the advantage afforded him by his victory. He was soon after assassinated,* and the spirit and courage of his party vanished with the oc- * See Note A, page 208. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. 47 currence of that event. The sons of Ali made efforts to reanimate the ardour of his partisans, but in vain. Thus, in the midst of broils, revolts, and civil wars, the Ommiades still remained in possession of the Caliphate of Damascus.* It was during the reign of one of these princes, Valid the First, that the Arabian conquests extended in the East to the banks of the Ganges, and in the West to the shores of the Atlantic. The Ommiades, however, were for the most part feeble, but they were sustained by able commanders, and the an- * The dynasty of the Ommiades, whose capital, as M. Flo- rian informs us, was Damascus, is most familiarly known in history as that of the Caliphs of Syria; and the Abbassides, who succeeded them upon the throne of Islam, are usually designated as the Caliphs of Bagdad, which city they built, and there established the seat of their regal power and mag- nificence. It may be observed, in connexion with this sub- lect, that though the authority of the Caliphs of Damascus continued to be disputed and resisted after the death of Ali, yet with that event terminated the temporary division of the civil and sacerdotal power which had been at first occasioned by their usurpation of sovereignty. The political supremacy of the party of Ali ceased with his existence, and the authority that had belonged to the immediate successors of Moham- med long continued to centre in the family of the Ommiade princes.- Trans. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. cient valour of the Moslem soldiers was not yet degenerated. After the Ommiades had maintained their em- pire for the space of ninety-three years, Mervan II.,* the last caliph of the race, was deprived of his throne and his lifet through the instrumen- tality of Abdalla, a chief of the tribe of the Ab- bassides, who were, like the Ommiades, near rel- atives of Mohammed. Aboul-Abbas, the nephew of Abdalla, sup- planted the former caliph. With him com- menced the dynasty of the Abbassides, so cele- brated in the East for their love of science and their connexion with the names of Haroun Al Raschid, Almamon, and the Bermasides.t The Abbassides retained the caliphate during five successive centuries.� At the termination of * See Note B, page 209. t A.D. 752, Heg. 134. t See Note C, page 209. ( It was under the government of the Abbassides that the empire of the East possessed that superiority in wealth, mag- nificence, and learning for which it was once so celebrated. Under the sway of the Caliphs of Bagdad, the Mohammedans became as much renowned for their attainments in the higher branches of science as in the elegant and useful arts. To them the civilized world is indebted for the revival of the ex- act and physical sciences, and the discovery or restoration 48 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. that period, they were despoiled of their power by the Tartar posterity of Gengis Khan, after of most of the arts that afterward lent such beneficial aid to the progress of European literature and refinement. The far-famed capital of the Abbassides was adorned with every attraction that the most unbounded wealth could secure, or the most consummate art perfect. There taste and power had combined exquisite luxury with unparalleled splendour, and there all that imagination could suggest to fascinate the senses or enrapture the mind, was realized. These princes of Islam, by their unbounded liberality, attracted the learning and genius of other countries to their brilliant court; several of them were the ardent lovers of science as well as the mu- nificent patrons of its devotees. Thus Bagdad became the favoured and genial home of letters and the arts; and luxury and the pursuit of pleasure were ennobled by a graceful union with the more elevated enjoyments of cultivated intellect and refined taste. Nor were these beneficent influences confined to the Mohammedan court, or to the period of time when they were so powerfully exercised. The Moslem sovereigns gave laws to a wide realm in arts as well as arms; and if the whole of Europe did not acknowledge their political superiority, in the world of science their supremacy was everywhere undis- puted. That, like the gradually enlarging circles made by a pebble thrown into calm water, continued to spread farther and farther, until it reached the most distant shores, and communi- cated a generous impulse to nations long sunk in intellectual night. Such was the celebrated empire of the Abbassides in its hal- cyon days of undiminished power-such the beautiful City of E 49 50 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. having witnessed the establishment of a race of Egyptian caliphs named Fatimites, the pretend- ed descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Mo- hammed. Thus was the Eastern empire of the Arabs eventually destroyed: the descendants of Ish- mael returned to the country from which they had originally sprung, and gradually reverted to nearly the same condition as that in which they existed when the Prophet arose among them. Peace, the favoured home of imperial magnificence, ere the despoiling Tartar had profaned its loveliness and destroyed :ts grandeur. Yet, when we look beneath the brilliant exte- rior of these Oriental scenes and characters, we discover, un- der the splendour and elegance by which the eyes of the world were so long dazzled, the corruption and licentiousness of a government containing within itself the seeds of its own inse- curity and ultimate destruction. Wo behold the absence of all fixed principles of legislation; we frequently find absolute monarchs guided solely by passion or caprice in the adminis- tration of arbitrary laws, and swaying the destinies of a people who, as a whole, were far from deriving any substantial ad- vantage from the wealth and greatness of their despotic rulers. We are thus led to observe the evils that necessarily result from a want of those principles of vital religion, without which mere human learning is so inadequate to discipline the pas- sions or direct the reason, and of those just and equal laws. the supremacy of which can alone secure the happiness of a people or the permanency of political institutions.--Trans. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. rhese events, from the founding of the dynas- ty of the Abbassides, have been anticipated in point of time in the relation, because henceforth the history of Spain is no longer intermingled with that of the East. After having dwelt briefly upon an event inti- mately connected as well with the establishment of the Abbassides upon the Moslem throne as with the history of Spain, we will enter contin uously upon the main subject of our work. To return, then, for a moment, to the downfall of the Ommiade caliphs. When the cruel Abdalla had placed his neph- ew, Aboul-Abbas, on the throne of the Caliphs of Damascus, he formed the horrible design of exterminating the Ommiades. These princes were very numerous. With the Arabs, among whom polygamy is permitted, and where numer- ous offspring are regarded as the peculiar gift of Heaven, it is not unusual to find several thousand individuals belonging to the same family. Abdalla, despairing of effecting the destruc- tion of the race of his enemies, dispersed as they were by terror, published a general amnesty to all the Ommiades who should present themselves before him on a certain day. Those ill-fated 51 52 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. people, confiding in the fulfilment of his solemn promises, hastened to seek safety at the feet of Abdalla. The monster, when they were all as- sembled, caused his soldiers to surround them, and then commanded them all to be butchered in his presence. After this frightful massacre, Abdalla ordered the bloody bodies to be ranged side by side in close order, and then to be cov- ered with boards spread with Persian car- pets. Upon this horrible table he caused a magnificent feast to be served to his officers. One shudders at the perusal of such details, but they serve to portray the character of this Ori- ental conqueror. A solitary Ommiade escaped the miserable fate of his brethren; a prince named Abdera- mus. A fugitive wanderer, he reached Egypt, and concealed himself in the solitary recesses of its inhospitable deserts. The Moors of Spain, faithful to the Ommiades, though their governor Joseph had recognised the authority of the Abbassides, had no sooner learn- ed that there existed in Egypt a scion of the il- lustrious family to which they still retained their attachment, than they secretly sent deputies to offer him their crown. Abderamus foresaw the THE MOORS OF SPAIN. obstacles with which he would be compelled to struggle, but, guided by the impulses of a soul whose native greatness had been strengthened and purified by adversity, he did not hesitate to accept the proposal of the Moors. The Ommiade prince arrived in the Peninsu- la A.D. 755, Heg. 138. He speedily gained the hearts of his new subjects, assembled an army, took possession of Seville, and, soon after, marched towards Cordova, the capital of Mus- sulman Spain. Joseph, in the name of the Ab- bassides, vainly attempted to oppose his prog- ress. The governor was vanquished and Cor- dova taken, together with several other cities. Abderamus was now not only the acknowl- edged king of Spain, but was proclaimed Caliph of the West A.D. 759, Heg. 142. During the supremacy of the Ommiades in the empire of the East, Spain had continued to be ruled by governors sent thither from Asia by those sovereigns; but it was now permanently separated from the great Arabian empire, and elevated into a powerful and independent state, acknowledging no farther allegiance to the Asi- atic caliphs either in civil or religious matters. Thus was the control hitherto exerAsed over the 53 THE MOORS OF SPAxs affairs of Spain by the Oriental r,aliph foi ~vei wrested from them by the last fsurviving individ- ual of that royal race whom Abdalla had en- deavoured to exterminate. Abderamus the First established the seat of his new greatness at Cordova. He was not long allowed peacefully to enjoy it, however. Revolts instigated by the Abbassides, incursions into Catalonia by the French, and wars with the kings of Leon,* incessantly demanded his at- tention; but his courage and activity gained the ascendency even over such numerous enemies. He maintained his throne with honour, and mer- ited his beautiful surname of The Just. Abderamus cultivated and cherished the fine arts, even in the nmidst of the difficulties and dan- gers by which he was surrounded. It was he who first established schools at Cordova for the study of astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and grammar. IIe was also a poet, and was consid- ered the most eloquent man of his age. This first Caliph of the West adorned and for- tified his capital, erected a superb palace, which he surrounded by beautiful gardens, and com- menced the construction of a grand mosque, the * See note D, page 212. 54 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. OhJ remains of which continue even at this day to excite the admiration of the traveller. This monument of magnificence was completed du- ring the reign of Hacchem, the son and success- or of Abderamus. It is thought that the Span- iards have not preserved more than one half of the original structure, yet it is now six hundred feet long and two hundred wide, and is support- ed by more than three hundred columns of ala- baster, jasper, and marble. Formerly there were twenty-four doors of entrance, composed of bronze covered with sculptures of gold; and nearly five thousand lamps nightly served to illu- minate this magnificent edifice. In this mosque the caliphs of Cordova each Friday conducted the worship of the people, that being the day consecrated to religion by the precepts of Mohammed. Thither all the Mus- sulmans of Spain made pilgrimages, as those of the East resorted to the temple at Mecca. There they celebrated, with great solemnity, the fite of the great and the lesser Beiram, which corre- sponds with the Passover of the Jews; that of the Newyear, and that of Miloud, or the anniversa- ry of the birth of Mohammed. Each of these festivals lasted for eight days. During that time 56 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. all labour ceased, the people sent presents to each other, exchanged visits, and offered sacri- fices. Disunited families, forgetting their dif- ferences, pledged themselves to future concord, and consummated their renewed amity by deliv- ering themselves up to the enjoyment of every pleasure permitted by the laws of the Koran. At night the city was illuminated, the streets were festooned with flowers, and the promenades and public places resounded with the melody of various musical instruments. The more worthily to celebrate the occasion, alms were lavishly distributed by the wealthy, and the benedictions of the poor mingled with the songs of rejoicing that everywhere ascended around them. Abderamus, having imbibed with his Oriental education a fondness for these splendid f"tes, first introduced a taste for them into Spain. Uniting, in his character of caliph, the civil and the sacerdotal authority in his own person, he regulated the religious ceremonies on such occa- sions, and caused them to be celebrated with all the pomp and magnificence displayed under simi- lar circumstances by the sovereigns of Damascus. Though the caliph of Cordova was the enemy THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of the Christians, and numbered many of them among his subjects, he refrained from persecu- ting them, but deprived the bishoprics of their re- ligious heads and the churches of their priests, and encouraged marriages between the Moors and Spaniards. By these means the sagacious Moslem inflicted more injury upon the true reli- gion than could have been effected by the most rigorous severity. Under the reign of Abderamus, the successors of Pelagius, still retaining possession of Asturia, though weakened by the internal dissensions that already began to prevail among them, were for- ced to submit to the payment of the humiliating tribute -of a hundred young females, Abdera- mus refusing to grant them peace except at this price. Master of entire Spain, from Catalonia to the two seas, the first caliph died A.D. 788, Heg. 172, after a glorious reign of thirty years, leav- ing the crown to his son Hacchem, the third of his eleven sons. After the death of Abderamus the empire was disturbed by revolts, and by wars between the new caliph and his brothers, his uncles, or other princes of the royal blood. These civil wars 57 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. were inevitable under a despotic government, where not even the order of succession to the throne was regulated by law. To be an aspi- rant to the supreme authority of the state, it was sufficient to belong to the royal race; and as each of the caliphs, almost without exception, left numerous sons, all these princes became the head of a faction, every one of them established himself in some city, and, declaring himself its sovereign, took up arms in opposition to the au- thority of the caliph. From this arose the innu- merable petty states that were created, annihila- ted, and raised again with each change of sover- eigns. Thus also originated the many instances of conquered, deposed, or murdered kings, that make the history of the Moors of Spain so dif- ficult of methodical arrangement and so monot- onous in the perusal. Hacchem, and, after him, his son Abdelazis-el- Hacchem retained possession of the caliphate not- withstanding these unceasing dissensions. The former finished the beautiful mosque commenced by his father, and carried his arms into France, in which kingdom his generals penetrated as far as Narbonne. The latter, Abdelazis-el-Hacchem less fortunate than his predecessor, did not suc- 58 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ceed in opposing the Spaniards and his refracto- ry subjects with unvarying success. His exist- ence terminated in the midst of national difficul- ties, and his son Abderamus became his successor Abderamus II. was a great monarch, notwith- standing the fact that, during his reign, the power of the Christians began to balance that of the Moors. The Christians liad taken advantage of the continual divisions which prevailed among their former conquerors. Alphonso the Chaste, king of Asturia, a valiant and politic monarch, had ex- tended his dominions and refused to pay the trib- ute of the hundred young maidens. Ramir, the successor of Alphonso, maintained this independ- ence, and several times defeated the Mussul- mans. Navarre became a kingdom, and Ara- gon had its independent sovereigns, and was so fortunate as to possess a government that prop- erly respected the rights of the people.* The governors of Catalonia, until then subjected to the kings of France, took advantage of the fee- bleness of Louis le Debonnaire to render them- selves independent. In fine, all the north of Spain declared itself in opposition to the Moors, * See note E, page 212. 59 60 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. and the south became a prey to the irruptions of the Normans. Abderamus defended himself against all these adversaries, and obtained, by his warlike talents, the surname of Elrmonzaffer, which signifies the Victorious. And, though constantly occupied by the cares of government and of successive wars, this monarch afforded encouragement to the fine arts, embellished his capital' by a new mosque, and caused to be erected a superb aqueduct, from which water was carried in leaden pipes throughout the city in the utmost abundance. Abderamus possessed a soul capable of enjoy- ing the most refined and elevated pleasures. He attracted to his court poets and philosophers, with whose society he frequently delighted himself; thus cultivating in his own person the talents he encouraged in others. He invited from the East the famous musician Ali-Zeriab, who established himself in Spain through the beneficence of the caliph, and originated the celebrated school* whose pupils afterward afforded such delight to the Oriental world. The natural ferocity of the Moslems yielded to the influence of the chivalrous example of * See note F, page 212. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. the caliph, and Cordova became, under the do- minion of Abderamus, the home of taste and pleasure, as well as the chosen abode of science and the arts. A single anecdote will serve to illustrate the tenderness and generosity that so strongly char- acterized this illustrious descendant of the Om- miades. One day a favourite female slave left her mas- ter's presence in high displeasure, and, retiring to her apartment, vowed that, sooner than open the door for the admittance of Abderamus, she would suffer it to be walled up. The chief eu- nuch, alarmed at this discourse, which he regard- ed as almost blasphemous, hastened to prostrate himself before the Prince of Believers, and to communicate to him the horrible purpose of the rebellious slave. Abderamus smiled at the res- olution of the offended beauty, and commanded the eunuch to cause a wall composed of pieces of coin to be erected before the door of her re- treat, and avowed his intention not to pass this barrier until the fair slave should have volunta- rily demolished it, by possessing herself of the materials of which it was formed. The listo- 61 62 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. rian* adds, that the same evening the caliph en- tered the apartments of the appeased favourite without opposition. This prince left forty-five sons and nearly as many daughters. Mohammed, the eldest of his sons, succeeded him, A.D. 852, Heg. 238. The reigns of Mohammed and his successors, Alman- zor and Abdalla, offer to the historian nothing for a period of fifty years but details of an uninter- rupted continuation of troubles, civil wars, and revolts, by which the governors of the principal cities sought to render themselves independent. Alphonso the Great, king of Asturia, profited by these dissensions the more effectually to con- firm his own power. The Normans, from an- other side, ravaged Andalusia anew. Toledo, frequently punished, but ever rebellious, often possessed local sovereigns. Saragossa imitated the example of Toledo. The authority of the caliphs was weakened, and their empire, convul- sed in every part, seemed on the point of disso- lution, when Abderamus III., the nephew of Ab- dalla, ascended the throne of Cordova, and restored for some time its pristine splendour and power, A.D 912, Heg. 300. * Cardonne, in his History of Spain. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. This monarch, whose name, so dear to the Moslems, seemed to be an auspicious omen, took the title of Emir-al-.Mumenim, which signifies Prince of true Believers. Victory attended the commencement of his reign; the rebels, whom his predecessors had been unable to reduce to submission, were de- feated; factions were dissipated, and peace and order re-established. Being attacked by the Christians soon after he had assumed the crown, Abderamus applied for assistance to the Moors of Africa. He maintain- ed long wars against the kings of Leon and the counts of Castile, who wrested Madrid, then a place of comparative insignificance, from him, A.D. 931, Heg. 319. Often attacked and some- times overcome, but always great and redoubta- ble notwithstanding occasional reverses, Abder- amus knew how to repair his losses, and avail himself to the utmost of his good fortune. A profound statesman, and a brave and skilful com- mander, he fomented divisions among the Span- ish princes, carried his arms frequently into the very centre of their states, and, having estab- lished a navy, seized, in addition, upon Ceuta and Seldjemessa on the African coast. 63 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Notwithstanding the incessant wars which ,)c- cupied him during the whole of his reign, the enormous expense to which he was subjected by the maintenance of his armies and his naval force, and the purchase of military assistance from Africa, Emir-al-Mumenim supported a lux- ury and splendour at his court, the details of which would seem to be the mere creations of the imagination, were they not attested by every historian of the time. The contemporary Greek emperor, Constantine XI., wishing to oppose an enemy capable of re- sisting their power, to the Abbassides of Bagdad, sent ambassadors to Cordova to form an alliance with Abderamus. The Caliph of the West, flattered that Chris- tians should come from so distant a part of the world to request his support, signalized the oc- casion by the display of a gorgeous pomp which rivalled that of the most splendid Asiatic courts. He sent a suit of attendants to receive the am- bassadors at Jean. Numerous corps of cavalry, magnificently mounted and attired, awaited their approach to Cordova, and a still more brilliant display of infantry lined the avenues to the pal- ace. The courts were covered with the most 64 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. superb Persian and Egyptian carpets, and the walls hung with cloth of gold. The caliph, blazing with brilliants, and seated on a dazzling throne, surrounded by his family, his viziers, and a numerous train of courtiers, received the Greek envoys in a hall in which all his treasures were displayed. The Hadjeb, a dignitary whose office among the Moors corresponded to that of the ancient French mayors of the palace, introduced the ambassadors. They prostrated themselves before Abderamus in amazement at the splen- dour of this array, and presented to the Moorish sovereign the letter of Constantine, written on blue parchment and enclosed in a box of gold. The caliph signed the treaty, loaded the imperi- al messengers with presents, and ordered that a numerous suite should accompany them even to the walls of Constantinople. Abderamus III., though unceasingly occupied either by war or politics, was all his life enam- oured of one of his wives named Zahra.* He built a city for her two miles distant from Cor- lova, which he named Zahra. This place is now destroyed. It was situated * This word signifies, in the Arabic, Flower, or OrnamenI of the World. F 65 66 TIIE MOORS OF SPAIN. at the base of a high mountain, from which flowed numerous perpetual streams, whose wa- ters ran in all directions through the streets of the city, diffusing health and coolness in their course, and forming ever-flowing fountains in the centre of the public places. The houses, each built after the same model, were surmount- ed by terraces and surrounded by gardens adorn- ed with groves of orange, laurel, and lime, and in which the myrtle, the rose, and the jasmine mingled in pleasing confusion with all the varied productions of that sunny and delicious clime. The statue of the beautiful Zahra* was conspic- uously placed over the principal gate of this City of Love. But the attractions of the city were totally eclipsed by those of the fairy-like palace of the favourite. Abderamus, as the ally of their Impe- rial master, demanded the assistance of the most accomplished of the Greek architects; and the sovereign of Constantinople, which was at that time the chosen home of the fine arts, eagerly complied with his desires, and sent the caliph, in addition, forty columns of granite of the rares1 and most beautiful workmanship. Independent * See Note G, page 213. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of these magnificent columns, there were em- ployed in the construction of this palace more than twelve hundred others, formed of Spanish and Italian marble. The walls of the apart- ment named the Saloon of the Caliphate, were covered with ornaments of gold; and from the mouths of several animals, composed of the same metal, gushed jets of water that fell into an ala baster fountain, above which was suspended the famous pearl that the Emperor Leo had pre- sented to the caliph as a treasure of inestimable value. In the pavilion where the mistress of this enchanting abode usually passed the even- ing with the royal Moor, the ceiling was com- posed of gold and burnished steel, incrusted with precious stones. And in the resplendent light reflected from these brilliant ornaments by a hundred crystal lustres, flashed the waters of a fountain, formed like a sheaf of grain, from pol- ished silver, whose delicate spray was received again by the alabaster basin from whose centre it sprung. The reader might hesitate to believe these re- citals; might suppose himself perusing Oriental tales, or that the author vwas indebted for his history to the Thousand and One J'ights, were 67 68 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. not the facts here detailed attested by the Ara- bian writers, and corroborated by foreign authors of unquestionable veracity. It is true that the architectural magnificence, the splendid pa- geantry, the pomp of power that characterized the reign of this illustrious Saracenic king, re- sembled nothing with which we are now famil- iar; but the incredulous questioners of their for- mer existence might be asked whether, had the pyramids of Egypt been destroyed by an earth- quake, they would now credit historians who should give us the exact dimensions of those stupendous structures ? The writers from whom are derived the de- tails that have been given concerning the court of the Spanish Mussulmans, mention also the sums expended in the erection of the palace and city of Zahra. The cost amounted annually to three hundred thousand dinars of gold,* and twenty-five years hardly sufficed for the comple- tion of this princely monument of chivalrous de- votion. * The dinar is estimated by M. Florian to be equal to at least ten livres. According to that computation, the aggre- gate cost of the palace and city of Zahra would amount to considerably more than $14,000,000. Trans. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. To these enormous expenditures should be added the maintenance of a seraglio, in which the women, the slaves, and the black and white eunuchs arpounted to the number of six thousand persons. The officers of the court, and the hor- ses destined for their use, were in equally lavish proportion. The royal guard alone was compo- sed of twelve thousand cavaliers. When it is remembered, that, from being con- tinually at war with the Spanish princes, Abder- amus was obliged to keep numerous armies incessantly on foot, to support a naval force, fre- quently to hire stipendiaries from Africa, and to fortify and preserve in a state of defence the ever-endangered fortresses on his frontiers, it is hardly possible to comprehend how his revenues sufficed for the supply of such immense and va- ried demands. But his resources were equally immense and varied; and the sovereign of Cor- dova was perhaps the richest and most powerful monarch then in Europe.* He held possession of Portugal, Andalusia, the kingdom of Grenada, Mercia, Valencia, and the greater part of New-Castile, the most beautiful and fertile countries of Spain. * See note H, page 214. 69 70 THE MOORb OF SPAIN. These provinces were at that time extremely populous, and the Moors had attained the high- est perfection in agriculture. Historians assure us, that there existed on the shores of the Gua- dalquiver twelve thousand villages; and that a traveller could not proceed through the country without encountering some hamlet every quar- ter of an hour. There existed in the dominions of the caliph eighty great cities, three hundred of the second order, and an infinite number of smaller towns. Cordova, the capital of the kingdom, enclosed within its walls two hundred thousand houses and nine hundred public baths. All this prosperity was reversed by the expul- sion of the Moors from the Peninsula. The reason is apparent: the Moorish conquerors of Spain did not persecute their vanquished foes; the Spaniards, when they had subdued the Moors, oppressed and banished them. The revenues of the caliphs of Cordova are represented to have amounted annually to twelve millions and forty-five thousand dinars of gold.* Independent of this income in money, many imposts were paid in the products of the soil; and among an industrious agricultural popula- * About $22,500,000. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. tion, possessed of- the most fertile country in the world, this rural wealth was incalculable. The gold and silver mines, known in Spain from the earliest times, were another source of wealth. Commerce, too, enriched alike the sovereign and the people. The commerce of the Moors was carried on in many articles: silks, oils, sugar, cochineal, iron, wool (which was at that time extremely valuable), ambergris, yellow amber, loadstone, antimony, isinglass, rock-crystal, sul- phur, saffron, ginger, the product of the coral- beds on the coast of Andalusia, of the pearl fisheries on that of Catalonia, and rubies, of which they had discovered two localities, one at Malaga and another at Beja. These valuable articles were, either before or after being wrought, transported to Egypt or other parts of Africa, and to the East. The emperors of Constantinople, always allied from necessity to the caliphs of Cordova, favoured these commercial enterprises, and, by their countenance, assisted in enlarging, to a vast extent, the field of their operations; while the neighbourhood of Africa, Italy, and France contributed also to their prosperity. The arts, which are the children of commerce, and support the existence of their parent, added 71 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. a new splendour to the brilliant reign of Abder- amus. The superb palaces he erected, the deli- cious gardens he created, and the magnificent fetes he instituted, drew to his court from all parts architects and artists of every description. Cordova was the home of industry and the asy- lum of the sciences. Celebrated schools of ge- ometry, astronomy, chymistry, and medicine were established there-schools which, a century af- terward, produced such men as Averroes and Abenzoar. So distinguished were the learned Moorish poets, philosophers, and physicians, that Alphonso the Great, king of Asturia, wishing to confide the care of his son Ordogno to teachers capable of conducting the education of a prince, appointed him two Arabian preceptors, notwith- standing the difference of religious faith, and the hatred entertained by the Christians towards the Mussulmans. And one of the successors of Al- phonso, Sancho the Great, king of Leon, being attacked by a disease which it was supposed would prove fatal in its effects, went unhesita- tingly to Cordova, claimed the hospitality of his national enemy, and placed himself under the care of the Mohammedan physicians, who event- ually succeeded in curing the malady of the Christian king. 72 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. This singular fact does as much honour to the skill of the learned Saracens as to the magna- nimity of the caliph and the trusting confidence of Sancho. Such was the condition of the caliphate of Cordova under the dominion of Abderamus III. He occupied the throne fifty years, and we have' seen with what degree of honour to himself and benefit to his people. Perhaps nothing will better illustrate the superiority of this prince to monarchs generally than the following fragment, which was found, traced by his own hand, among his papers after his death. " Fifty years have passed away since I became caliph. Riches, honours, pleasures, I have en- joyed them all: I am satiated with them all. Rival kings respect me, fear, and envy me. All that the heart of man can desire, Heaven has lavishly bestowed on me. In this long period of seeming felicity I have estimated the number of days during which I have enjoyed perfect happiness: they amount to fourteen! Mortals, learn to appreciate greatness, the world, and hu- man life!" The successor of this monarch was his eldest 73 THE MOORS OF SP AIN. son, Aboul-Abbas El Hakkam, who assumed, like his father, the title of Emir-al-Mlumenim. The coronation of El Hakkam was celebrated with great pomp in the city of Zahra. The new caliph there received the oath of fidelity from the chiefs of the scythe guard, a numerous and redoubtable corps, composed of strangers, which Abderamus III. had formed. The brothers and relations of El Hakkam, the viziers and their chief, the Hadjeb, the white and black eunuchs, the archers and cuirassiers of the guard, all swore obedience to the monarch. These cere- monies were followed by the funeral honours of Abderamus, whose body was carried to Cordova, and there deposited in the tomb of his ancestors. Aboul-Abbas El Hakkam, equally wise with his father, but less warlike than he, enjoyed greater tranquillity during his reign. His was the dominion of justice and peace. The success and vigilance of Abderamus had extinguished, for a time, the spirit of revolt, and prepared the way for the continued possession of these great national blessings. Divided among themselves, the Christian kings entertained no desig is of disturbing their infidel neighbours. 74 THE MOORS Of' SPAIN. The truce that existed between the Mussul- mans and Castile and Leon was broken but once during the life of El Hacchem. The caliph then commanded his army in person, and com- pleted a glorious campaign, taking several cities from the Spaniards, and convincing them, by his achievements, of the policy of future adherence to the terms of their treaty with their Saracen opponents. During the remainder of his reign the Moorish sovereign applied himself wholly to promoting the happiness of his subjects, to the cultivation of science, to the collection of an extensive li- brary, and, above all, to en orcing a strict ob- servance of the laws. The laws of the Moors were few and simple. It does not appear that there existed among them any civil laws apart from those incorpora- ted with their religious code. Jurisprudence was reduced to the application of the principles contained in the Koran. The caliph, as the su- preme head of their religion, possessed the pow- er of interpreting these principles; but even he would not have ventured to violate them. At least as often as once a week, he publicly gave audience to his subjects, listened to their com- 75 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. plaints, examined the guilty, and, without quit. ting the tribunal, caused punishment to be im- mediately inflicted. The governors placed by the sovereign over the different cities and provin- ces, commanded the military force belonging to each, collected the public revenues, superintend- ed the administration of the police, and adjudg- ed the offences committed within their respective governments. Public officers well versed in the laws discharged the functions of notaries, and gave a juridical form to records relating to the possession of property. When any lawsuits arose, magistrates called cadis, whose authority was respected both by the king and the people, could alone decide them. These suits were speedily determined; lawyers and attorneys were unknown, and there was no expense nor _hicanery connected with them. Each party pleaded his cause in person, and the decrees of the cadi were immediately executed. Criminal jurisprudence was scarcely more complicated. The Moors almost invariably re- sorted to the punishment of retaliation prescri- bed by the founder of their religion. In truth, the wealthy were permitted to exonerate them- selves from the charge of bloodshed by the aid 76 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of money; but it was necessary that the rela- tions of the deceased should consent to this: the caliph himself would not have ventured to with- hold the head of one of his own sons who had been guilty of homicide, if its delivery had been inexorably insisted upon. This simple code would not have sufficed had not the unlimited authority exercised by fathers over their children, and husbands over their wives, supplied the deficiencies of the laws. With regard to this implicit obedience on the part of a family to the will of its chief, the Moors preserved the ancient patriarchal customs of their ancestors. Every father possessed, un- der his own roof, rights nearly equal to those of the caliph. He decided, without appeal, the quarrels of his wives and those of his sons: he punished with severity the slightest faults, and even possessed the power of punishing certain crimes with death. Age alone conferred this su- premacy. An old man was always an object of reverence. His presence arrested disorders: the most haughty young man cast down his eyes at meeting him, and listened patiently to his re- proofs. In short, he possessor of a white beard 77 78 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. was everywhere invest.ed with the authority of a magistrate. This authority, which was more powerful among the Moors than that of their laws, long subsisted unimpaired at Cordova. That the wise Hacchem did nothing to enfeeble it, may be judg- ed from the following illustration. A poor woman of Zahra possessed a small field contiguous to the gardens of the caliph. El Hacchem, wishing to erect a pavilion there, directed that the owner should be requested to dispose of it to him. But the woman refused every remuneration that was offered her, and de clared that she would never sell the heritage of her ancestry. The king was, doubtless, not in- formed of the obstinacy of this woman; but the superintendent of the palace gardens, a minister worthy of a despotic sovereign, forcibly seized upon the field, and the pavilion was built. The poor woman hastened in despair to Cordova, to relate the story of her misfortune to the Cadi Bechir, and to consult him respecting the course she should pursue. The cadi thought that the Prince of true Believers had no more right than any other man to possess himself by violence of the property of another; and he endeavoured to THE MOORS OF SPAIN. discover some means of recalling to his recollec- tion a truth which the best of rulers will some- times forget. One day, as the Moorish sovereign was sur- rounded by his court in the beautiful pavilion built on the ground belonging to the poor wom- an, the Cadi Bechir presented himself before him, seated on an ass, and carrying in his hand a large sack. The astonished caliph demanded his errand. " Prince of the Faithful !" replied Bechir, "I come to ask permission of thee to fill this sack with the earth upon which thou stand- est." The caliph cheerfully consented to this desire, and the cadi filled his sack with the earth. He then left it standing, and, approach- ing his sovereign, entreated him to crown his goodness by aiding him in loading his ass with its burden. El Hacchem, amused by the request, yielded to it, and attempted to raise the sack. Scarcely able to move it, he let it fall again, and, laughing, complained of its enormous weight. "Prince of Believers !" said Bechir then, with impressive gravity, " this sack, which thou find- est so heavy, contains, nevertheless, but a small portion of the field thou hast usurped from one of thy subjects; how wilt thou sustain the weight 79 80 THE MOORS OF SPA IN. of this entire field .when thou shalt appear in the presence of the Great Judge charged with this iniquity ?" The caliph, struck with this address, embraced the cadi, thanked him, acknowledged his fault, and immediately restored to the poor woman the field of which she had been despoil- ed, together with the pavilion and everything it contained. The praise due to a despotic sovereign capable of such an action, is inferior only to that which should be accorded to the cadi who induced him to perform it. After reigning twelve years, El Hakkam died, A.D. 976, Heg. 366. His son Hacchem suc- ceeded him. This prince was an infant when he ascended the throne, and his intellectual immaturity con- tinued through life. During and after his mi- nority, a celebrated Moor named Mohammed Al- manzor, being invested with the important office of Hadjeb, governed the state with wisdom and success. Almanzor united to the talents of a statesman the genius of a great commander. He was the most formidable and fatal enemy with whom the Christians had yet been obliged to contend. He THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ruled the Moorish empire twenty-six years under the name of the indolent Hacchem. More than fifty different times he carried the terrors of war into Castile or Asturia: he took and sacked the cities of Barcelona and Leon, and advanced even to Compostella, destroying its fam9us church and carrying the spoils to Cordova. The genius and influence of Mohammed tempo- rarily restored the Moors to their ancient strength and energy, and forced the whole Peninsula to respect the rights of his feeble master, who, like another Sardanapalus, dreamed away his life in the enjoyment of effeminate and debasing pleas- ures.* But this was the last ray of unclouded splen- dour that shone upon the empire of the Ommi- ades in Spain. The kings of Leon and Navarre, and the Count of Castile, united their forces for the purpose of opposing the redoubtable Alman- zor. The opposing armies met near Medina-Celi. The conflict was long and sanguinary, and the victory doubtful. The Moors, after the termi- nation of the combat, took to flight, terrified by the fearful loss they had sustained; and Alman- * See Note I, page 214. G 81 82 TIfr MOORS OF SPAIN. zor, whom fifty years of uninterrupted military success had persuaded that he was invincible, died of grief at this first mortifying reverse. With this great man expired the good fortune of the Saracens of Spain. From the period of his death, the Spaniards continued to ipcrease their own prosperity by the gradual ruin of the Moors. The sons of the hadjeb Almanzor successively replaced their illustrious father; but, in inherit- ing his power, they did not inherit his talents. Factions were again created. One of the rela- tions of the caliph took up arms against him, and possessed himself of the person of the mon- arch, A.D. 1005, Heg. 596; and, though the rebellious prince dared not sacrifice the life of Hacchem, he imprisoned him, and spread a re- port of his death. This news reaching Africa, an Ommiade prince hastened thence to Spain with an army, under pretext of avenging the death of Hacchem. The Count of Castile formed an alliance with this stranger, and civil war was kindled in Cordova. It soon spread throughout Spain, and the Chris- tian princes availed themselves of its disastrous effects to repossess themselves of the cities of THE MOORS OF SPAIN. which they had been deprived during the su- premacy of Almanzor. The imbecile Hacchem, negotiating and tri- fling alike with all parties, was finally replaced on the throne, but was soon after forced again to renounce it to save his life. After this event a multitude of conspirators* were in turn proclaimed caliph, and in turn depo- sed, poisoned, or otherwise murdered. Almun- dir, the last lingering branch of the race of the Ommiades, was bold enough to claim the restora- tion of the rights of his family, even amid the tumult of conflicting parties. His friends repre- sented to him the dangers he was about to en- counter. " Should I reign but one day," replied he, "and expire on the next, I would not mur- mur at my fate !" But the desire of the prince, even to this extent, was not gratified; he was assassinated without obtaining possession of the caliphate. Usurpers of momentary authority followed. Jalmar-ben-Mohammed was the last in order. His death terminated the empire of the Caliphs * Mahadi, Suleiman, All, Abderamus IV., Casim, Jahiah, Hacchem III., Mohammed, A'oderamus V., Jahiah IIL, IIac- chem IV., and Jalmar-ben-Mohammed. 83 84 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of the West, which had been possessed by the dynasty of the Ommiades for the period of three centuries, A.D. 1027, Heg. 416. With the extinction of this line of princes van- ished the power and the glory of Cordova. The governors of the different cities, who had hitherto been the vassals of the court of Cordo- va, profiting by the anarchy that prevailed, erect- ed themselves into independent sovereigns.- That city was therefore no longer the capital of a kingdom, though it still retained the religious supremacy which it derived from its mosque. Enfeebled by divisions and subjected to such diversity of rule, the Mussulmans were no longer able successfully to resist the encroachments of the Spaniards. The Third Epoch of their histo- tory, therefore, will present nothing but a narra- tive of their rapid decline. THIRD EPOCH. co7NTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL KING- DOMS THAT SPRANG FROM THE RUINS OF THE CALIPHATE. Extending from the Commencement of the Eleventh to the Middle of the Thirteenth Century. AT the commencement of the eleventh centu- ry, when the throne of Cordova was daily stain- ed by the blood of some new usurper, the gov- ernors of the different cities, as has been already remarked, had assumed the title of kings. To- ledo, Saragossa, Seville, Valencia, Lisbon, Hu- esca, and several other places of inferior impor- tance, each possessed independent sovereigns. The history of these numerous kingdoms would be nearly as fatiguing to the reader as to the writer. It presents, for the space of two hun- dred years, nothing but accounts of repeated massacres, of fortresses taken and retaken, of pillages and seditions, of occasional instances of heroic conduct, but far more numerous crimes. Passing rapidly over two centuries of misfor- 86 TUE MOORS OF SPAIN. tunes, let it suffice to contemplate the termination of these petty Moorish sovereignties. Christian Spain, in the mean time, presented nearly the same picture as that exhibited by the portion of the Peninsula still in possession of the Mohammedans. The kings of Leon, Navarre, Castile, and Aragon were almost always rela- tives, and sometimes brothers ; but they were not, for that reason, the less sanguinary in their designs towards each other. Difference of religion did not prevent them from uniting with the Moors, the more effectually to oppress other Christians, or other Moors with whom they chanced to be at enmity. Thus, in a battle which occurred A.D. 1010 between two Mussulman leaders, there were found among the slain a count of Urgel and three bishops of Catalonia.* And the King of Leon, Alphonso V., gave his sister Theresa in marriage to Abdalla, the Moorish king of Toledo, to convert him into an ally against Castile. Among the Christians, as among the Moors, crimes were multiplied; civil wars of both a lo- cal and general nature at the same time distract- ed Spain, and the unhappy people expiated with * See note A, page 216 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. their property and their lives the iniquities of their rulers. While thus regarding a long succession of melancholy events, it is agreeable to find a king of Toledo called Almamon, and Benabad, the Mussulman king of Seville, affording an asylum at their courts, the one to Alphonso, the young king of Leon, and the other to the unfortunate Garcias, king of Galicia, both of whom had been driven from their kingdoms by their broth- er Sancho, of Castile, A.D. 1071 Heg. 465. Sancho pursued his brothers as though they had been his most implacable enemies; and the Moorish monarchs, the natural enemies of all the Christians, received these two fugitive princes as brothers. Almamon, especially, lavished the most affectionate attention upon the unfortunate Alphonso: he endeavoured to entertain him at Toledo with such varied pleasures as should ban- ish regret for the loss of a throne: he gave him an income, and, in short, treated the prince as though he had been a near and beloved relative. When the death of the cruel Sancho (A.D. 1072, Heg. 466) had rendered Alphonso king of Leon and Castile, the generous Almamon, who now had the person of the king of his enemies in his pow. 87 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. er, accompanied the prince to the frontiers of his kingdom, loaded him with presents and caresses, and, at parting, offered the free use of his troops and treasures to his late guest. While Almamon lived, Alphonso IV. never forgot his obligations to his benefactor. He maintained peace with him, aided him in his campaigns against the King of Seville, and even entered into a treaty with Hacchem, the son and successor of his ally. But, after a brief reign, Hacchem left the throne of Toledo to his youth- ful brother Jahiah. That prince oppressed the Christians, who were very numerous in his city; and they secretly implored Alphonso to make war upon Jahiah. The memory of Almamon long caused the Spanish monarch to hesitate in relation to this subject. Gratitude impelled him not to listen to the suggestions of ambition and the prayers of his countrymen; but the argu- ments of gratitude proved the least strong, and Alphonso encamped before Toledo. After a long and celebrated siege, to which several French and other foreign warriors eager. ly hastened, Toledo finally capitulated, A.D 1085, Heg. 478. The conqueror allowed the sons of Almamon 88 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. to go and reign at Valencia, and engaged by an oath to preserve the mosques from destruction. He could not, however, prevent the Christians from speedily violating this promise. Such was the end of the Moorish kingdom of Toledo. This ancient capital of the Goths had belonged to the Arabs three hundred and eighty two years. Several other less important cities now submit- ted to the Christian yoke. The kings of Ara- gon and Navarre, and the Count of Barcelona, incessantly harassed and besieged the petty Mus- sulman princes who still remained in the north of Spain. The attacks of the kings of Castile and Leon afforded sufficient occupation for those of the south, effectually to prevent their render- ing any assistance to their brethren. Above all, the Cid, the famous Cid, flew from one part of Spain to another, at the head of the invincible band with whom his fame had surrounded him, everywhere achieving victories for the Christians, and even lending the aid of his arms to the Moors when they were internally divided, but always securing success to the party he favoured. This hero, one of the most truly admirable of those whom history has celebrated, since in his 89 90 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. character were united the most exalted virtue and the highest qualities of the soldier; this sim- ple Castilian cavalier, upon whom his reputation alone bestowed the control of armies, became master of several cities, assisted the King of Ara- gon to seize upon Huesca, and conquered the kingdom of Valencia without any other assistance than that of his men-at-arms. Equal in power with his sovereign, of whose treatment he fre- quently had reason to complain, and envied and persecuted by the jealous courtiers, the Cid never forgot for a moment that he was the subject of the King of Castile. Banished from court, and even exiled from his estates, he hastened, with his brave companions, to attack and conquer the Moors, and to send those of them whom he van- quished to render homage to the king who had deprived him of his rights. Being soon recalled to the presence of Alphon- so, in consequence of the king's needing his mil- itary aid, the Cid left the scenes of his martial triumphs, and, without demanding reparation for the injuries he had sustained, returned to defend his persecutors; ever ready, while in disgrace, to forget everything in the performance of his duty to his king, and equally ready, when enjoy- THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ing the favour of the sovereign, to displease him, if it should be necessary to-do so, by advocating the cause of truth and justice.* While the prowess of the Cid maintained the contest, the Christians had the advantage; but a few years after his death, which occurred in the year 1099 and the 492d of the Hegira, the Moors of Andalusia changed masters, and became, for a time, more formidable than ever to their Span- ish foes. After the fall of Toledo, Seville had increased in power. The sovereigns of that city were also masters of ancient Cordova, and possessed, in addition, Estremadura and a part of Portugal. Benabad, king of Seville, one of the most esti- mable princes of his age, was now the only one of its enemies capable of disturbing the safety of Castile. Alphonso IV., desirous of allying himself with this powerful Moor, demanded his daughter in marriage. His proposal was acce- ded to, and the Castilian monarch received sev- eral towns as the dowry of the Moorish princess; but this extraordinary union, which seemed to ensure peace between the two nations, neverthe- less soon became either the cause or the pretext of renewed contests. * See note B, page 216. 91 92 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Africa, after having been separated from the vast empire of the Caliphs of the East by the Fatimite caliphs, and being, during three centu- ries of civil war, the prey of a succession of con- querors more ferocious and sanguinary than the lions of their deserts,* was now subjected to the family of the ./ilmoravides, a powerful tribe of Egyptian origin. Joseph-ben-Tessefin, the sec- ond prince of this dynasty, founded the kingdom and city of Morocco. Endowed with some warlike talents, proud of his power, and burning to augment it, Joseph regarded with a covetous eye the beautiful Eu- ropean provinces which had formerly been con- quered by the Mussulmans of Africa. Some historians assert that the King of Cas- tile, Alphonso IV., and his father-in-law Bena- bad, king of Seville, having formed the project of dividing Spain between them, committed the capital error of summoning the Moors of Africa to their assistance in this grand design. But others, founding their assertions upon more plau- sible reasoning, say that the petty Mussulman kings, who were the neighbours or tributaries of Benabad, justly alarmed at his alliance with a * See note C, page 218. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Christian king, solicited the support of the Al- moravide. But, be that as it may, the ambitious Joseph eagerly availed himself of the fortunate pretext presented by the invitation he had received, and crossed the Mediterranean at the head of an army. He hastened to attack Alphonso, and succeeded in overcoming him in a battle that took place between them, A.D. 1097, Heg. 490. Then turning his arms against Benabad, Joseph took Cordova, besieged Seville, and was pre- paring for the assault of that city, when the vir- tuous Benabad, sacrificing his crown and even his liberty to save his subjects from the horrors that threatened them, delivered himself up, to- gether with his family of a hundred children, to the disposal of the Almoravide. The barbarous African, dreading the influence of a monarch whose virtues had rendered him so justly dear to his people, sent him to end his days in an African prison, where his daughters were obliged to support their father and brothers by the labour of their hands. The unfortunate Benabad lived six years after the commencement of his imprisonment, regret- ting his lost throne only for the sake of his peo- 93 94 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. pie, and beguiling the period of his protracted leisure by the composition of several poems which are still in existence. In them he at- tempts to console his daughters under their heavy afflictions, recalls the remembrance of his vanished greatness, and offers himself as a warn- ing and example to kings who shall presume to trust too confidently to the unchanging contin- uance of the favours of fortune. Joseph-ben-Tessefin, after he had thus become master of Seville and Cordova, soon succeeded in subjugating the other petty Mussulman states; and the Moors, united under a single monarch as powerful as Joseph, threatened again to oc- cupy the important position they had sustained during the supremacy of their caliphs. The Spanish princes, alarmed at this prospect, sus- pended their individual quarrels, and joined Al- phonso in resisting the Africans. At this particular juncture, a fanatical love of religion and glory induced" many European war- riors to take up arms against the infidels. Ray- mond of Bourgogne, and his kinsman Henry, both French princes of the blood, Raymond of Saint-Gilles, count of Toulouse, with some other cavaliers from among their vassals, crossed the THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Pyrenees with their retainers, and fought under the banners of the King of Castile. Thus as- sisted, that sovereign put the Egyptian com- mander to flight, and compelled him, soon after- ward, to recross the Mediterranean. The grateful Alphonso gave his daughters as a recompense to the distinguished Frenchmen who had lent him the aid of their arms. The eldest, Urraca, espoused Raymond of Bourgogne, and their son afterward inherited the kingdom of Castile. Theresa became the wife of Henry, and brought him as a dowry all the land he had thus far conquered or should hereafter con- quer in Portugal: from thence originated that kingdom. Elvira was given to Raymond, count of Toulouse, who carried her with him to the Holy Land, where he gained some possessions by his valour. Excited by these illustrious examples, other French cavaliers resorted soon after to the stand- ard of the King of .dragon, Alphonso I., who made himself master of Saragossa, and for ever destroyed that ancient kingdom of the Moors, A.D. 1118, Heg. 512. The son of Henry of Bourgogne, Alphonso 1. king of Portugal, a prince renowned for his 95 96 THE.MOORS OF SPAIN. bravery, availed himself of the presence of a combined fleet of English, Flemings, and Ger- mans, who had anchored in the harbour of that city on their way to the Holy Land, to lay siege to Lisbon. He carried that place by assault, in spite of its great strength, and made it the capital of his kingdom, A.D. 1147, Heg. 541. During this period the kings of Castile and Navarre were extending their conquests in An- dalusia. The Moors were attacked on all sides, and their cities were everywhere compelled to sur- render, now that they were no longer materially aided by the Almoravides. Those African prin- ces were at this time sufficiently occupied at home in opposing some new sectaries, the prin- cipal of whom, under pretext of reinitiating the people in a knowledge of the pure doctrines of Mohammed, opened for themselves a path to the throne, and, after many struggles, ended by ef- fectually driving the family of the Almoravides from its possession. The new conquerors, be- coming by these means masters of Morocco and Fez, destroyed, according to the African custom, every individual of the supplanted race, and founded a new dynasty, which is known under THE MOORS OF SPAIN. the name of the .211mohades, A.D. 1149, Heg. 543. In the midst of these divisions, these wars and combats, the fine arts still continued to be culti- vated at Cordova. And though they were no longer in the flourishing condition in which they were maintained during the reigns of the several caliphs who bore the cherished name of Abder- amus, yet the schools of philosophy, poetry, and medicine had continued to exist. These schools produced, in the twelfth century, several distin- guished men, among the most celebrated of whom were the learned Abenzoar and the fa- mous Averroes. The former, equally profound in medicine, pharmacy, and surgery, lived, it is said, to the age of one hundred and thirty-five years. Some estimable works which he pro- duced are still extant. Averroes was also a physician, but he was more of a philosopher, poet, lawyer, and commentator. He acquired a reputation so profound, that passing centuries have only served more firmly to establish it. The disposition made by this remarkable man of his time during the different periods of his existence, will illustrate his mental character. In his youth he was the passionate votary of 97 98 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. pleasure and poetry: in more mature age he burned the verses he had previously composed, studied the principles of legislation, and dis- charged the duties of a judicial officer: having advanced still farther in life, he abandoned these occupations for the pursuit of medicine, in which he attained very great eminence: at last philosophy alone supplied the place of every earlier taste, and wholly engrossed his attention for the remainder of his life. It was Averroes who first created among the Moors a taste for Greek literature. He translated the works of Aristotle into Arabic, and wrote commentaries upon them. He also published several other works upon philosophy and medicine, and pos- sessed the united glory of having both enlight- ened and benefited mankind.* As Africa, distracted by the long war of the Almoravides and the Almohades, was unable to offer any opposition to the progress of the Chris- tians in Spain, these last, availing themselves c this condition of affairs, continued to extend their conquests in Andalusia. If the Spanish princes had been less disunited, and had acted in concert against the infidels, they would have been able * See Note D, page 220. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. at this period to deprive the Mussulmans of their entire dominions in the Peninsula. But these ever-contending princes had no sooner taken a Moorish city than they began to dispute among themselves about its possession. The newly-created kingdom of Portugal, es- tablished by the military powers of Alphonso, was soon at war with that of Leon.* Aragon and Castile, after many bloody quarrels, united in a league against Navarre. Sancho VIII., the sovereign of that little state, was forced to re- sort to Africa for assistance, and implore the aid of the Almohades. But they, being but re- cently established on the throne of Morocco, were still employed in exterminating the dis- membered fragments of the party of the Almo- ravides, and could not, in spite of their eager de- sire to do so, establish any claim to their assumed rights in Spain. Nevertheless, two kings of the race of the Almohades, both named Joseph, pass- ed the Mediterranean more than once with nu- merous armies. The one was successfully op- posed by the Portuguese, and did not survive his final defeat; the other was more fortunate, and succeeddl in vanquishing the Castilians, but * A.D. 1178. 99 100 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. was soon after obliged to accept a truce and return in haste to Morocco, to which new dis- turbances recalled him, A.D. 1195, Heg. 591. But these useless victories, these ill-sustained efforts, did not permanently disable either the Mussulmans or the Christians. On both sides, the vanquished parties soon re-entered the field, in utter neglect of the treaties into which they might ever so recently have entered. The sov- ereigns of Morocco, though regarded as the kings of Andalusia, nevertheless possessed only a precarious authority in that country, which was always disputed when they were absent, and acknowledged only when necessity forced the Mussulman inhabitants to have recourse to their protection. At last Mohammed El .Nazir, the fourth prince of the dynasty of the Almohades, to whom the Spaniards gave the name of the Green, from the colour of his turban, finding himself in quiet possession of the Moorish em- pire of Africa, resolved to assemble all his for- ces, to lead them into Spain, and to renew in that country the ancient conquests of Tarik and Moussa. A holy war was proclaimed, A.D. 1211, Heg 608, and an innumerable army THE MOORS OF SPAIN. crowded around the ensigns of Mohammed, left the snores of Africa under the guidance of that monaich, and safely arrived in Andalusia. There their numbers were nearly doubled by the Spanish Moors, whom hatred to the very name of Christian, arising from the vivid re- membrance of accumulated injuries, induced to join the bands of El Nazir. The sanguine Mohammed promised an easy triumph to his followers, together with the cer- tainty of rendering themselves masters of all that their ancestors had formerly possessed; and, burning to commence the contest, he im- mediately advanced towards Castile at the head of his formidable army, which, according to the reports of historians, amounted to more than six hundred thousand men. The king of Castile, Alphonso the Noble, in- formed of the warlike preparations of the King of Morocco, implored the assistance of the Chris- tian princes of Europe. Pope Innocent III. pro- claimed a crusade and granted indulgences most lavishly. Rodrique, archbishop of Toledo, made in person a voyage to Rome, to solicit the aid of the sovereign pontiff; and, returning home- ward through France, preached to the people 101 102 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. on his route, and induced many cavaliers to pro- ceed at the head of bands of recruits to Spain, and join the opponents of the Mussulmans. The general rendezvous was at Toledo, at which point there were soon collected more than sixty thousand crusaders from Italy and France, who united themselves with the soldiers of Castile. The King of Aragon, Peter II., the same who afterward perished in the war of the Albigense, led his valiant army to the place of meeting, and Sancho VIII., king of Navarre, was not backward in presenting himself at the head of his brave subjects. The Portuguese had re- cently lost their king, but they despatched their best warriors to Toledo. In short, all Spain flew to arms. There was general union for the promotion of mutual safety; for never, since the time of King Rodrique, had the Christians been placed in such imminent danger. It was at the foot of the Sierra Morena, at a place named Las .N'avas de Toloza, that the three Spanish princes encountered the Moors, A.D. 1212, Heg. 609. Mohammed El Nazir had taken possession of the mountain gorges through which it had been the intention of the Christians to approach THE MOORS OF SPAIN. his camp. The adroit African thus designed, either to force his opponents to turn back, which would expose them to the danger of a failure of provisions, or to overwhelm them in the pass if they should attempt to enter it. Upon discov- ering this circumstance, a council was called by the embarrassed Christian leaders. Alphonso was desirous of attempting the passage, but the kings of Navarre and Aragon advised a retreat. In the midst of this dilemma, a shepherd pre- sented himself before them, and offered to co- duct them through a defile of the mountain, with which he was familiar. This proposal, which was the salvation of their army, was eagerly accepted, and the shepherd guided the Catholic sovereigns through difficult paths and across rocks and torrents, until, with their followers, they finally succeeded in attaining the summit of the mountain. There, suddenly presenting themselves before the eyes of the astonished Moors, they were en- gaged for the space of two days in preparing themselves for the conflict, by prayer, confession, and the solemn reception of the holy sacrament. Their leaders set an example to the soldiers in this zealous devotion; and the prelates and ec- 103 104 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. clesiastics, of whom there were a great number in the camp, after having absolved these devout warriors, prepared to accompany them into the midst of the conflict. Upon the third day, the sixteenth of July, in the year twelve hundred and twelve, the Chris- tian army was drawn up in battle array. The troops were formed into three divisions, each commanded by a king. Alphonso was in the centre, at the head of his Castilians and the Chevaliers of the newly-instituted orders of Saint James and Calatrava; Rodrique, archbishop of Toledo, the eyewitness and historian of this great battle, advanced by the side of Alphonso, preceded by a large cross, the principal ensign of the army; Sancho and his Navarrois formed the right, while Peter and his subjects occupied the left. The French crusaders, now reduced to a small number by the desertion of many of their companions, who had been unable to en- dure the scorching heat of the climate, marched in the van of the other troops, under the com- mand of Arnault, archbishop of Narbonne. Thus disposed, the Christians descended to- wards the valley which separated them from their enemies. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. The Moors, according to their ancient custom, everywhere displayed their innumerable soldiers, without order or arrangement. An admirable cavalry, to the number of a hundred thousand men, composed their principal strength: the rest of their army was made up of a crowd of ill-armed and imperfectly trained foot-soldiers. Mohammed, stationed on a height, from which he could command a view of his whole army, was encompassed by a defence made of chains of iron, guarded by the choicest of his cavaliers on foot. Standing in the midst of this enclo- sure, with the Koran in one hand and an un- sheathed sabre in the other, the Saracen com- mander was visible to all his troops, of whom the bravest squadrons occupied the four sides of the hill. The Castilians directed their first efforts to- wards this elevation. At first they drove back the Moors, but, repulsed in their turn, they re- coiled in disorder and began to retreat. Al- phonso flew here and there, attempting to rally their broken ranks. " Archbishop," said he to the prelate who everywhere accompanied him, preceded by the grand standard of the Cross, "Archbishop, here are we destined to die !" I 105 106 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. "Not so, sire," replied the ecclesiastic; " we are destined here to live and conquer !" At that moment the brave canon who carried the chief ensign threw himself with it into the midst of the infidels; the prelate and the king followed him, and the Castilian soldiers rushed forward to protect their sovereign and their sacred stand- ard. The already victorious kings of Aragon and Navarre now advanced at the head of their wings to unite in the attack upon the height. The Moors were assaulted at all points: they bravely resisted their opponents; but the Chris- tians crowded upon them-the Aragonais, the Navarrois, and the Castilians endeavouring mu- tually to surpass each other in courage and da- ring. The brave King of Navarre, making a path for himself through the midst of its de- fenders, reached the enclosure, and struck and broke the chains by which the Moorish com- mander was surrounded.* Mohammed took to flight on beholding this catastrophe; and L:is soldiers, no longer beholding their king, lost both hope and courage. They gave way in all directions, and fled before the Christians. Thousands of the Mussulmans fell beneath the * See Note E, page 221. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. weapons of their pursuers, while the *Archbishop of Toledo, with the other ecclesiastics, surround- ing the victorious sovereigns, chanted a Te Deum on the field of battle. Thus was gained the famous battle of Toloza, of which some details have been given in con- sequence of its great importance, and in illustra- tion of the military tactics of the Moors. With them the arts of war consisted solely in min- gling with the enemy, and fighting, each one for himself, until either the strongest or the bravest of the two parties remained masters of the field. The Spaniards possessed but little more mili- tary skill than their Moslem neighbours; but their infantry, at least, could attack and resist in mass, while the discipline of that of the Saracens amounted to scarcely anything. On the other hand, again, the cavalry of the Moors was ad- mirably trained. The cavaliers who composed it belonged to the principal families in the king- dom, and possessed excellent horses, in the art of managing which they had been trained from childhood. Their mode of combat was to rash forward with the rapidity of light, strike with the sabre or the lance, fly away as quickly, and then wheel suddenly and return again to the en 107 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. counter. Thus they often succeeded in recalling victory to their standard when she seemed just about to desert them. The Christians, covered as they were with iron, had in some respects the advantage of these knights, whose persons were protected only by a breastplate and headpiece of steel. The Moorish foot-soldiers were nearly naked, and armed only with a wretched pike It is easy to perceive that, when involved in the melee, and, above all, during a route, vast num- bers of them must have perished. This, too, renders less incredible the seemingly extravagant accounts given by historians of their losses in the field. They assert, for example, that, at the bat- tle of Toloza, the Christians killed two hundred thousand Moors, while they lost themselves but fifteen hundred soldiers. Even when these as- sertions are estimated at their true value, it re- mains certain that the infidels sustained an im- mense loss; and this important defeat, which is still celebrated yearly at Toledo by a solemn fete, long deprived the kings of Morocco of all hope of subjugating the Spaniards. The victory of Toloza was followed by more fatal consequences to the unfortunate Moham- med than to the Moors of Andalusia; for the 108 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. latter retired to their cities, defended them by means of the remains of the African army, and successfully resisted the Spanish princes, who succeeded in taking but few of their strong places, and, speedily dissolving their league, separated for their respective kingdoms. But Mohammed, despised by his subjects after his defeat, and assailed by the treachery of his near- est relations, lost all authority in Spain, and be- held the principal Moors, whom he had now no power to control, again forming little states, the independence of which they were prepared to assert by force of arms.* The discomfited El Nazir consequently returned to Africa, where he soon after died of chagrin. With Mohammed the Green vanished the good fortune of the Almohades. The princes of that house, who followed El Nazir in rapid suc- cession, purchased their royal prerogatives at the expense of continual unhappiness and danger, and were finally driven from the throne. The empire of Morocco was then divided, and three new dynasties were established; that of Fez, of Tunis, and of Tremecen. These three powerful and rival sovereignties greatly multiplied the * A.D. 1213, Heg. 610. 109 110 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. conflicts, crimes, and atrocities, the narration of which alone constitutes the history of Africa. About this period some dissensions arose in Castile, which, together with the part assumed by the King of Aragon in the war of the Albi- gense in France, allowed the Moors time to breathe. The Moslems were still masters of the kingdoms of Valencia, Murcia, Grenada, and Andalusia, with part of Algarva and the Ba- learic Isles, which last, until that time, had con- tinued to be but little known to the Christians of the Continent. These states were divided between several sovereigns, the principal of whom was Benhoud, a descendant of the ancient kings of Saragossa, a sagacious monarch and a great commander, who by his genius and courage had obtained dominion over all the southeastern part of Spain. Next to Benhoud in rank, the most important of these Mohammedan princes were the kings of Seville and Valentia. The barba- rian who reigned at Majorca was a mere pirati- cal chief, whose enmity was formidable only to the inhabitants of the neighbouring coast of Catalonia. Such was the condition of Moorish Spain, THE MOORS OF SPAIN. when two young heroes seated themselves, nearly at the same time, on the thrones of the two principal Christian states; and, after having allayed the commotions created during the pe- riod of their minority, directed their concentra- ted efforts against the Mussulmans, A.D. 1224, Heg. 621. These princes, who were niutually desirous to emulate each other in fame, but were never ri- vals in interest, both consecrated their lives to the extirpation of the inflexible enemies of their native land. One of these sovereigns was Jacques I., king of Aragon (a son of the Peter of Aragon who distinguished himself on the field of Toloza), who united to the courage, grace, and energy of his father, a greater degree of genius and success than fell to the lot of that sovereign. The other was Ferdinand III., king of Castile and Leon, a discerning, courageous, and enterprising monarch, whom the Romish Church has numbered with its saints, and histo- ry ranks among its great men. This prince was the nephew of Blanche of Castile, queen of France, and cousin-german of St. Lewis,* whom he nearly resembled in his * See Note F, page 221. 111 112 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. piety, his bravery, and the wise laws he framed for the benefit of his subjects. Ferdinand carried his arms first into Andalu- sia. When he entered the territories of the in- fidels, he received the homage of several Moor- ish princes, who came to acknowledge them- selves his vassals. As he proceeded, he seized upon a great number of places, and, among oth- ers, the town of Alhambra, whose frightened inhabitants retired to Grenada, and established themselves in a portion of that city, which thus obtained the name by which it was afterward so much celebrated. Jacques of Aragon, on his part, set sail with an army for the Balearic Isles. Though im- peded in his progress by contrary winds, he succeeded at last in reaching Majorca, on the shore of which island he defeated the Moorish force that attempted to oppose his landing, and then marched towards their capital and laid siege to it. The chivalrous Jacques, who, when danger was to be encountered, always took precedence of even his bravest officers and most daring sol- diers, was, as usual, the first to mount the walls in the assault upon this city. It was carried, THE MOORS OF SPAIN. notwithstanding its great strength, the Mussul- man king driven from the throne, and this new crown permanently incorporated with that of Aragon, A.D. 1229, Heg. 627. Jacques had long been meditating a most im- portant conquest. Valencia, after the death of the Cid, had again fallen into the hands of the Moors. This beautiful and fertile province, where nature seemed to delight herself by cov- ering anew with fruit and flowers the soil that man had so often deluged with blood, was now under the dominion of Zeith, a brother of Mo- hammed El Nazir, the African king who was vanquished at Toloza by the Christians. A powerful faction, inimical to the power of Zeith, wished to place upon the throne a prince named Zean. The two competitors appealed to arms to decide their respective claims. The King of .Aragon espoused the cause of Zeith, and, under pretext of marching to his assistance, advanced into the kingdom of Valencia, several times de- feated Zean, seized upon his strong places, and, with the active intrepidity that rendered him so formidable a foe, invested the capital of his enemy, A.D. 1234, Heg. 632. Thus pressed by the sovereign of Aragon, 113 114 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Zean implored the aid of Benhoud, the most puissant of the kings of Andalusia. But Ben- houd was at this time occupied in resisting the encroachments of Ferdinand. The Castilians, under the conduct of that valiant prince, had made new progress against the Moors. After possessing themselves of a great number of oth- er cities, they had now laid siege to ancient Cordova. Benhoud had been often vanquished, but al- ways retained the affections of a people who regarded him as their last support. He had again collected an army, and, though possessed with an equally earnest desire to relieve both Cordova and Valencia, was about to march to- wards the latter, from a belief that he was most likely to be there successful, when his life was treacherously terminated by one of his lieuten- ants. The Catholic kings were by this means de- livered from the opposition of the only man who was capable of impeding the accomplishment of their wishes. The death of Benhoud deprived the inhabi- tants of Cordova of all courage and hope. Un- til then they had defended themselves with THE MOORS OF SPAIN. equal courage and constancy; but they offered to capitulate upon receiving intelligence of this disastrous event.* The Christians made the most rigorous use of their victory, granting only life and liberty of departure to the unfortunate disciples of the Prophet. An innumerable host of these wretch- ed people came forth from their former homes, weeping, and despoiled of all their possessions. Slowly they left the superb city which had been for more than five hundred and twenty years the principal seat of their national greatness, their luxurious magnificence, their cherished re- ligion, and their favourite literature and fine arts. Often did these desolate exiles pause on their way, and turn their despairing eyes once again towards the towering palaces, the splendid tem- ples, the beautiful gardens, that five centuries of lavish expense and toilsome effort had served to adorn and perfect, only to become the spoil of the enemies of their faith and their race. The Catholic soldiers who were now the oc- cupants of these enchanting abodes, were so far from appreciating their loveliness and value, SA.D. 1236, Heg. 634. 115 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. that they preferred rather to destroy than in- habit them; and Ferdinand soon found himself the possessor of a deserted city. He was there- fore compelled to attract inhabitants to Cordo- va from other parts of his dominions, by the of- fer of extraordinary immunities. But, notwith- standing the privileges thus accorded them, the Spaniards murmured at leaving their arid rocks and barren fields, to dwell in the palaces of ca- liphs and amid nature's most luxuriant scenes. The grand mosque of Abderamus was con- verted into a cathedral, and Cordova became the residence of a bishop and canons, but it was never restored to the faintest shadow of its for- mer splendour. Not long after the fall of Cordova, Valencia also submitted to the Christian yoke. Zean, besides being assailed externally by the force of the intrepid Jacques, had, in addition, to op- pose within his walls the faction of Zeith, whom he had dethroned. The king of Tunis, too, had been unsuccessful in an attempt to send a fleet to the relief of Valencia: it at once took to flight on the appearance of the vessels of Jacques. Abandoned by the whole world, dis- heartened by the fate of Cordova, and betrayed 116 THE MOORS OF SPAIN by the party of his competitor, Zean offered to become the vassal of the crown of Aragon, and to pay a tribute in acknowledgment of his vas- salage; but the Christian monarch was inflexi- ble, and would accede to no terms that did not include a stipulation to surrender the city. Fifty thousand Moors, bearing their treasures with them, accompanied the departure of their sovereign from Valencia. Jacques had pledged his royal word to protect the rich booty which they so highly valued from the cupidity of his soldiers, and he faithfully performed his prom- ise. After the destruction of the two powerful kingdoms of Andalusia and Valencia, there seemed to exist no Moorish power capable of arresting the progress of the Spanish arms. That of Seville, which alone remained, was al- ready menaced by the victorious Ferdinand. But, just at this period, a, new state rose sud- denly into importance, which maintained a high degree of celebrity for two hundred years, and long prevented the final ruin of the Moors. 117 FOURTH EPOCH. THE KINGS OF GRENADA. Extending from the middle of the Thirteenth Century to the period of the Total Expulsion of the Moors from Spain, A.D. 1492. THE unprecedented success of the Spaniards, and, above all, the loss of Cordova, spread con- sternation among the Moors. That ardent and superstitious people, who were ever equally ready to cherish delusive hopes, and to yield to despondency when those anticipations were disappointed, looked upon their empire as ruin- ed the moment the Christian cross surmounted the pinnacle of their grand mosque, and the ban- ner of Castile waved over the walls of their an- cient capital-those walls on which the stand- ards of the Caliphs of the West and of their Prophet had for centuries floated in triumph. Notwithstanding this national dejection, how- ever, Seville, Grenada, Murcia, and the king- dom of Algarva still belonged to the Mussul- mans. They possessed all the seaports, and the THE MOORS OF SPAIN. whole maritime coast of the south of Spain. Their enormous popiulation, and great national wealth and industry, also secured to them im- mense resources; but Cordova, the holy city, the rival of Mecca in the West-Cordova was in the possession of the Christians, and the Moors believed that all was lost. But the hopes of these despairing followers of Islam were rekindled by the almost magical in- fluence of a single individual, a scion of the tribe of the .llhamars, named Mohammed Aboussaid, who came originally from the celebrated Ara- bian city of Couffa. Several historians, who speak of Mohammed under the title of .Mohammed .A/lhamar, assure us that he commenced his career as a simple shepherd, and that, having afterward borne arms, he aspired to the attainment of royal power in consequence of his martial exploits. Such an incident is not extraordinary among the Arabs, where all whlo are not descended either from the family of the Prophet or from the royal race, possessing none of the privileges of birth, are esteemed solely according to their personal merits. But, be that as it may, Mohammed Aboussaid 119 120 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. possessed sufficient intellectual povwers to reani- mate the expiring courage of the vanquished Moslems. He assembled an army in the city of Arjona, and, well knowing the peculiar char- acter of the nation that he wished to control, proceeded to gain over to his interests a santon, a species of religious character highly venerated among the Moors. This oracular individual publicly predicted to the people of Algarva that Mohammed Alhamar was destined speedily to become their king. Accordingly, he was soon proclaimed by the inhabitants, and several other cities followed the example thus set them. Mohammed now filled the place of Benhoud, to whom he possessed similar talents for gov- ernment; and, feeling the necessity of selecting a city to replace Cordova in the affections of the Moors, to become the sacred asylum of their re- ligion, and the centring point for their military strength, he founded a new kingdom, and made the city of Grenada its capital, A.D. 1236, Heg 634. This city, powerful from the remotest times, and supposed to be the ancient Illiberis of the Romans, was built upon two hills, not far dis- tant from the Sierra Nevada, a chain of mount- THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ains whose summits are covered with perpetual snow. The town was traversed by the river Darra, and the waters of the Xenil bathed its walls. Each of the two hills was crowned by a fortress: on the one was that of the Alhambra, and on the other that of the Albayzin. These strongholds were either of them sufficient in ex- tent to accommodate forty thousand men within their walls. The fugitives from the city of Al- hambra, as has already been stated, had given the name of their former home to the new quar- ter that they peopled; and the Moors who had been driven from Baeca when Ferdinand III. became master of that place, had established themselves, in a similar manner, in the quarter of the Albayzin. This city had also received many exiles from Valencia, Cordova, and other places which the Mussulnans had deserted. With a population whose numbers were daily augmented, Grenada, at the period of which we now speak, was more than three leagues in cir- cuit, surrounded by impregnable ramparts, de- fended by many strong towers, and by a" brave and numerous people, whose military prowess seemed to ensure their safety and independence. K 123 122 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Various were the advantages that combined in giving to Grenada the supremacy she had assumed. Her location was one of the most agreeable and beautiful in the world, and ren- dered her mistress of a country on which nature had lavished her choicest gifts. The famous vega, or plain, by which the city was surround- ed, was thirty leagues in length and eight in breadth. It was terminated on the north by the mountains of Elvira and the Sierra Nevada, and enclosed on the remaining sides. by hills clothed with the verdure of the olive, the mul- berry, the lemon, and the vine. This enchanting plain was watered by five small rivers* and an infinite number of gushing springs, whose streams wandered in graceful meanderings through meadows of perpetual ver- dure, through forests of oak and plantations of grain, flax, and sugar-cane, or burst forth in the midst of gardens, and orchards, and orange- groves. All the rich, and beautiful, and varied pro- ductions of the soil required but little attention in their culture. The earth was continually * The Darra, Xenil, Dilar, Vagro, and Monachil. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. covered with vegetation, in myriads of changing forms, and never knew the repose of winter. During the heat of summer, the mountain breezes spread a refreshing coolness through the air of this lovely vega, and preserved the early brilliancy and beauty of the flowers, that were ever mingled in delightful confusion with the varied fruits of a tropical region. On this celebrated plain, whose charms no description can embellish; on this enchanting vega, where nature seemed to have exhausted her efforts in lavishing all that the heart of man could desire or his imagination conceive, more blood has been shed than on any other spot in the world. There-where, during two centuries of unceasing warfare, whose baleful effects ex- tended from generation to generation, from city to city, and from man to man-there does not exist a single isolated portion of earth where the trees have not been wantonly destroyed, the vil- lages reduced to ashes, and the desolated fields strewn with the 'mingled corses of slaughtered Moors and Christians. Independent of this vega, which was of such inestimable value to Grenada, fourteen great cities and more than one hundred of smaller 123 124 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. size, together with a prodigious number of towns, were embraced within the boundaries of this fine kingdom. The extent of Grenada, from Gibraltar (which was not taken by the Christians until long after this period) to the city of Lorca, was more than eighty leagues. It was thirty leagues in breadth from Cambril to the Mediterranean. The mountains by which the kingdom of Grenada was intersected, produced gold, silver, granite, amethysts, and various kinds of marble. Among these mountains, those of the Alpuxa- ries alone formed a province, and yielded the monarch of Grenada more precious' treasures than their mines could furnish-active and ath- letic men, who became either hardy and indus- trious husbandmen, or faithful and indefatigable soldiers. In addition to all this, the ports of Almeria, Malaga, and Algeziras received into their har- bours the vessels of both Europe and Africa, and became places of deposite for the commerce of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Such, at its birth, was the kingdom of Grena- da, and such it long continued. Mohammed Alhamar, from the period of its establishment, THE MOORS OF SPAIN. made useless efforts to unite all the remaining dominions of the Mussulmans of Spain under one sceptre, as the only means of successfully resisting the encroachments of the Christians. But the little kingdom of Murcia and that of Algarva were each governed by separate prin- ces, who persisted in maintaining their inde- pendence. This was the cause of their ruin, for they thus became more readily the prey of the Spaniards. Alhamar signalized the commencement of his reign by military achievements. In the year 1242, Heg. 640, he gained some important ad- vantages over the troops of Ferdinand. But re- peated revolts in the capital and disturbances in other parts of his new empire, eventually com- pelled Mohammed to conclude a dishonourable peace with the King of Castile. He agreed to do homage for his crown to the Castilian sov- ereign, to put the strong place of Jaen into his hands, to pay him a tribute, and to furnish him with auxiliary troops for any wars in which he should engage. On these conditions Ferdinand acknowledged him King of Grenada, and even aided him in subduing his rebellious subjects. The sagacious Ferdinand thus established a 1.25 126 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. truce with Grenada, that he might the more effectually concentrate his forces against Seville, which he had long entertained hopes of con- quering. The important city of Seville was no longer under the dominion of a king, but formed a kind of republic, governed by military magistrates. Its situation at no great distance from the mouth of the Guadalquivir, its commerce, its popula- tion, the mildness of the climate, and the fertility of the environs, rendered Seville one of the most flourishing cities of Spain. Ferdinand, foreseeing a long resistance, com- menced the campaign by seizing upon all the neighbouring towns. Finally, he laid siege to Seville itself, and his fleet, stationed at the mouth of the Guadal- quivir, closed the door to any assistance which might be sent from Africa in aid of the belea- guered city. The siege was long and bloody. The Sevil- lians were numerous and well skilled in the arts of war, and their ally, the King of Algarva, harassed the besiegers unceasingly. Notwith- standing the extreme bravery displayed by the Christians in their assaults, and the scarcity of THE MOORS OF SPAIN. provisions which began to be felt within the walls, the city, after an investment of a whole year, still refused to surrender. Ferdinand then summoned the King of Gre- nada to come, in accordance with their treaty, and serve under his banners. Alhamar was forced to obey, and soon presented himself in the Christian camp at the head of a brilliant army. The inhabitants of Seville lost all hope after this occurrence, and surrendered to the Castilian monarch. The King of Grenada re- turned to his own dominions with the humiliating glory of having contributed, by his assistance, to the ruin of his countrymen. Ferdinand, with more piety than policy, ban- ished the infidels from Seville. One hundred thousand of that unfortunate people left the city, to seek an exile's home in Africa or in the provinces of Grenada. The kingdom of Grenada now became the sole and last asylum of the Spanish Moslems. The little kingdom of Algarva was soon obliged to receive the yoke of Portugal, and Murcia, in consequence of its separation from Grenada, be- came the prey of the Castilians. 127 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. During the life of Ferdinand III., nothing oc- curred to interrupt the good understanding that existed between that monarch and Mohammed Alhamar. The King of Grenada wisely took advantagt of this peaceful period more effectually to con- firm himself in the possession of his crown, and to make preparations for a renewal of hostilities against the Christians, who would not, he fore- saw, long remain his friends. Mohammed, by this means, ultimately found himself in a condition that would enable him long to defend his power and dominions. He was master of a country of great extent, and he possessed considerable revenues, the amount of which it is now difficult correctly to estimate, in consequence of the ignorance which prevails on the subject of the peculiar financial system of the Moors, and the different sources from which the public treasury was supplied. Every husband- man, for example, paid the seventh part of the produce of his fields to his sovereign; his flocks even were not exempted from this exaction. The royal domain comprised numerous valuable farms; and, as agriculture was carried to the highest degree of perfection, the revenues from 128 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. these, in so luxuriant a country, must have amounted to a very large sum. The annual in- come of the sovereign was augmented by vari- ous taxes levied on the sale, marking, and pas- sage from one point to another of all kinds of cattle. The laws bestowed on the king the ins- heritance of such of his subjects as died childless, and gave him, in addition, a portion in the es- tates of other deceased persons. He also pos- sessed, as has been already shown, mines of gold, silver, and precious stones; and though the Moors were but little skilled in the art of mining, still there was no country in Europe in which gold and silver were more common than among them. The commerce carried on in their beautiful silks, and in a great variety of other produc- tions; their contiguity to the Mediterranean and Atlantic; their activity, industry, and astonish- ing population; their superior knowledge of the science of agriculture; the sobriety natural to all the inhabitants of Spain; and that peculiar property of a southern climate, by which much is produced from the soil, while very little suf- fices for the maintenance of its possessor; all these, united with their other national advanta. L 199 130 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ges, will furnish some idea of the great power and resources of this singular people. Their standing military force-it can scarcely be said in times of peace, for they rarely knew the blessings of that state-amounted to nearly a hundred thousand men; and this army, in case of necessity, could easily be increased to double that number. The single city of Grenada could furnish fifty thousand soldiers. Indeed, every Moor would readily become a soldier to oppose the Christians. The difference of faith rendered these wars sacred in their eyes; and the mutual hatred entertained by these two almost equally superstitious nations never failed to arm, when necessary, every individual of both sides, even from children to old men. Independent of the numerous and brave, but ill-disciplined troops, who would assemble for a campaign, and afterward return to their homes without occasioning any expense to the state, the Moorish monarch maintained a considerable corps of cavaliers, who were dispersed along the frontiers, particularly in the directions of Murcia and Jaen, those parts of the country being most exposed to the repeated incursions of the Span- iards. Upon each of these cavaliers the king THE MOORS OF SPAIN. bestowed for life a small habitation, with suf- ficient adjoining ground for his own mainte- nance, and that of his family and horse. This method of keeping soldiers in service, while it occasioned no expense to the public treasury, served to attach them more firmly to their coun- try, by identifying their interests with hers; and it held out to them the strongest motives faith- fully to defend their charge, inasmuch as their patrimony was always first exposed to the rava- ges of the enemy. At a time when the art of war had not reach- ed the perfection it has now attained, and when large bodies of troops were not kept continually assembled and exercised, the system of station- ing this peculiar guard along the frontiers was of admirable effect. The knights who composed this unrivalled cavalry were mounted on African or Andalusian chargers, whose merits in the field are so well- known, and were accustomed from infancy to their management; treating them with the ten- derest care, and regarding them as their insep- arable companions: by these means they acqui- red that remarkable superiority for which the Moorish cavalry is still so celebrated. 131 132 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. These redoubtable squadrons, whose velocity of movement was unequalled; who would, almost at the same moment, charge in mass, break into detached troops, scatter, rally, fly off, and again form in line; these cavaliers, whose voice, whose slightest gesture, whose very thoughts, so to speak, were intelligible to their docile and sagacious steeds, and who were able to recover a lance or sabre that had fallen to the earth while in full gallop, constituted the principal military force of the Moors. Their infantry was of little value; and their ill-fortified towns, sur- rounded only by walls and moats, and defended by this worthless infantry, could offer but an im- perfect resistance to that of the Spaniards, which began already to deserve the reputation it after- ward so well sustained in Italy, under Gonzalvo, the Great Captain. After the death of St. Ferdinand, his son Al- phonso the Sage* mounted the throne, A.D. 1252, Heg. 650. The first care of Mohammed Alhamar after this event was to go in person to Toledo, followed by a brilliant retinue, to re- new the treaty of alliance, or, rather, of depend- ance, by which he was united to Ferdinand * See note A, page 222 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. The new king of Castile remitted on this occa- sion a part of the tribute to which the Moors had been subjected. But this peace was not of long continuance; and the two contending nations now recom- menced the war with nearly equal advantages. An incident is related as having occurred du- ring this war, which reflects equal honour on the humanity of the Moors and the courage of the Spaniards. It refers to Garcias Gomes, gov- ernor of the city of Xeres. He was besieged by the Grenadians, and his garrison nearly destroy- ed, but still he refused to surrender; and, stand- ing on the ramparts covered with blood, and lit- erally bristling with arrows, he sustained alone the onset of the assailants. The Moors, on see- ing him in this situation, agreed, with one ac- cord, to spare the life of so brave a man. Gar- cias then threw himself from the walls upon some iron hooks; but he was rescued alive in spite of his efforts to prevent it, treated with respect by his captors, and, after his wounds were healed, dismissed with presents. Alhamar could not prevent Alphonso from adding the kingdom of Murcia to his dominions; and the fortunes of war com pelled him to obtain 133 134 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. peace by submitting anew to the payment of tribute to the Catholic sovereign, A.D. 1266, Heg. 665. But some dissensions which soon after arose between the Castilian monarch and some of the grandees of his kingdom, inspired the Grenadian king with the hope of repairing the loss he had sustained. The brother of Alphonso, together with several noblemen belonging to the princi- pal Castilian families, retired to Grenada in open defiance of the authority of the Spanish monarch, and materially aided Mohammed Alhamar in repressing the insurrectionary movements of two of his rebellious subjects, who were countenanced in their attempts by the Christians. But, just at this juncture, the wise and politic King of Grenada died, leaving the throne that he had acquired and preserved by his talents to his son Mohammed II., El Fakik, A.D. 1273, Heg. 672. The new Mussulman king, who took the title of Emir al .Mumenim, adopted in all respects the policy of his father. He took every advan- tage in his power of the discord which reigned at the Castilian court, and of the ineffectual voy- ages undertaken by Alphonso in the hope of THE MOORS OF SPAIN. being elected emperor.* Finally, during the absence of his enemy, Mohammed formed an offensive league with Jacob, the king of Moroc- co, a prince of the race of the .Merines, the con- querors and successors of the Almohades. The Grenadian sovereign ceded to his African ally the two important places of Tariffe and Alge- ziras, on condition of his crossing the Mediter- ranean to the Peninsula. Jacob, in accordance with this agreement, ar- rived in Spain, at the head of an army, in the year 1275 (the 675th of the Hegira); and the two Moorish leaders, by acting in concert, gain- ed some important advantages. But the criminal revolt of Sancho, the Infant of Castile, against his father Alphonso the Sage, soon afterward divided these Mussulman mon- archs. The King of Grenada took the part of the rebellious son, while Alphonso, reduced to extremity by the abandonment of his subjects, implored the assistance of the King of Morocco. Jacob recrossed the sea with his troops, and met Alphonso at Zara. At that celebrated interview, the unfortunate Castilian wished to concede the place of honour to the king, who was there as * See note B, page 222. 135 136 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. his defender. "It belongs to you," said Jacob to him, "because you are unfortunate ! I came here to avenge a cause which should be that of every father. I came here to aid you in punish- ing an ingrate, who, though he received life from you, would still deprive you of your crown. When I shall have fulfilled this duty, and you are again prosperous and happy, I will once more become your enemy, and contest every point of precedence with you." The soul of the Christian prince was not suf- ficiently noble, however, to prompt him to con- fide himself to the monarch who had uttered these sentiments, and he escaped from the camp. Alphonso died soon after this event, disinheriting his guilty son before he expired, A.D. 1284, Heg. 683. Sancho* reigned in his father's stead, how- ever, notwithstanding this prohibition, and inter- national troubles convulsed Castile anew. Mohammed seized this moment to enter An- dalusia. He gained several battles, and took some important places in that kingdom, and thus victoriously terminated a long and glorious reign, A.D. 1302, Heg. 703. * See note C, page 222. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. This. Mohammed Emir al .Jlumenim, the principal political events of whose life have now been briefly narrated, was a munificent pa- tron of the fine arts. He added their charms to the attractions of a court which poets, philoso- phers, and astronomers alike contributed to ren- der celebrated. As an illustration of the scientific superiority that the Moors still maintained over the Span- iards, the fact may be mentioned that Alphonso the Sage, king of Castile, availed himself, in the arrangement of his astronomical tables (still known as the ./Jlphonsine Tables), of the assist- ance of some contemporary Moslem savans. Grenada began by this time to replace Cor- dova. Architecture, above all, made great ad- vances. It was during the reign of Mohammed II. that the famous palace of the Alhambra was commenced, a part of which still remains to as- tonish travellers, whom its name alone suffices to attract to Grenada. To prove to what a height of perfection the Moors had succeeded in carrying the art, then so little known to Europeans, of uniting the magnificent and the luxurious, a few details may perhaps be pardoned concerning this sin- 137 138 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. gular edifice, and as an illustration, also, of the particular manners and customs of the Moors. The Alhambra, as has been said, was at first only a vast fortress, standing upon one of the two hills enclosed within the city of Grenada. This hill, though environed on every side by the waters either of the Darra or the Xenil, was de- fended, in addition, by a double enclosure of walls. It was on the summit of this elevation, which overlooked the whole city, and from which one might behold the most beautiful prospect in the world, in the midst of an espla- nade covered with trees and fountains, that Mo- hammed selected the site of his palace. Nothing with which we are familiar in archi- tecture can give us a correct idea of that of the Moors. They piled up buildings without order, symmetry, or any attention to the external ap- pearance they would present. All their cares were bestowed upon the interior of their struc- tures. There they exhausted all the resources of taste and magnificence, to combine in their apartments the requisites for luxurious indul- gence with the charms of nature in her most en- chanting forms. There, in saloons adorned with the most beautiful marble, and paved with a THE MOORS OF SPAIN. brilliant imitation of porcelain, couches, covered with stuffs of gold or silver, were arranged near jets d'eau, whose waters glanced upward to- wards the vaulted roof, and spread a delicious coolness through an atmosphere embalmed by the delicate odours arising from exquisite vases of precious perfumes, mingled with the fragrant breath of the myrtle, jasmine, orange, and other sweet-scented flowers that adorned the apart- ments. The beautiful palace of the Alhambra, as it now exists at Grenada,* presents no facade. It is approached through a charming avenue, which is constantly intersected by rivulets, whose streams wander in graceful curves amid groups of trees. The entrance is through a large square tower, which formerly bore the name of the Hall of Judgment. A religious inscription announ- ces that it was there that the king administered justice after the ancient manner of the Hebrew and other Oriental nations. Several buildings, * It should be borne in mind, that the description given by M. Florian of the remains of the once gorgeous splendours of this palace was written nearly half a century ago ; and that time, and the yet more ruthless destroyer man, may have wrought great changes since that period air xl e ruins of the Alhambra.- Trans. 139 140 THE MOCRS OF SPAIN. which once adjoined this tower were destroyed in more recent times, to give place to a magnifi- cent palace erected by Charles V., a description of which is not necessary to our subject. Upon penetrating on the northern side into the an- cient palace of the Moorish kings, one feels as if suddenly transported to the regions of fairy- land. The first court is an oblong square, sur- rounded on each side by a gallery in the form of an arcade, the walls and ceiling of which are covered with Mosaic work, festoons, arabesque paintings, gilding, and carving in stucco, of the most admirable workmanship. All the plain spaces between these various ornaments are filled with passages transcribed from the Alko- ran, or by inscriptions of a similar character to the following, which will suffice to create some idea of the figurative style of Moorish composi- tion. " Oh Nazir ! thou wert born the master of a throne, and, like the star that announces the approach of day, thou art refulgent with a brill- iancy that belongs to thee alone! Thine arm is the rampart of a nation; thy justice an all- pervading luminary. Thou canst, by thy valour, subdue those who have given companions to THE MOORS OF SPAIN. God! Thy numerous people are thy children, and thou renderest them all happy by thy good- ness. The bright stars of the firmament shine lovingly upon thee, and the glorious light of the sun beams upon thee with affection. The stately cedar, the proud monarch of the forest, bows his lofty head at thy approach, and is again uplifted by thy puissant hand !" In the midst of this court, which is paved with white marble, is a long basin always filled with running water of sufficient depth for bathing. It is bordered on each side by beds of flowers, and surrounded by walks lined with orange- trees. The place wgs called the J.Mesuar, and served as the common bathing-place .of those who were attached to the service of the palace. From thence one passes into the celebrated Court of Lions. It is a hundred feet in length and fifty in breadTh. A colonnade of white marble supports tle gallery that runs around the whole. These columns, standing sometimes two and sometimes three together, are of slender proportions and fantastic design; but their light- ness and grace afford pleasure to the eye of the wondering beholder. The walls, and, above all, the ceiling of the circular gallery, are covered 141 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. with embellishments of gold, azure, and stucco, wrought into arabesques, with an exquisite deli- cacy of execution that the most skilful modern workmen would find it difficult to rival. In the midst of these ornaments of ever-changing varie- ty and beauty are inscribed passages from the Koran, such as the following, which all good Mussulmans are required frequently to repeat: God is great : God alone is supreme : There is no god but God: Celestial enjoyment, gratifica- tions of the heart, delights of the soul to all those who believe. At either extremity of the Court of Lions are placed, within the interior space enclosed by the gallery, and, like it, supported by marble col- umns, two elegant cupolas of fifteen or sixteen feet in circumference. These graceful domes form a covering for beautiful jets d'eau. In the centre of the lengthened square, a superb alabas- ter vase, six feet in diameter, is supported in an elevated position in the midst of a vast basin by the forms of twelve lions sculptured from white marble. This vessel, which is believed to have been modelled after the design of the " molten sea" of the Temple of Solomon, is again sur- mounted by a smaller vase, from which shoot 142 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. forth innumerable tiny cascades, which together present the form of a great sheaf; and, falling again from one vase into another, and from these into the large basin beneath, create a perpetual flow, whose volume is increased by the floods of limpid water which gush in a continual stream from the mouth of each of the marble lions. This fountain, like each of the others, is adorn- ed with inscriptions; for the Moors ever took pleasure in mingling the eloquence of poetry with the graces of sculpture. To us their con- ceptions appear singular and their expressions exaggerated; but our manners are so opposite to theirs; the period of .their existence as a nation is so far removed, and we know so little of the genius of their language, that we have, perhaps, no right to judge the literature of the Moors by the severe rules of modern criticism. And, in- deed, the specimens we possess of the French and Spanish poetry of the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries are, many of them, little supe- rior to the verses engraven on the Fountain of Lions, of which the following is a translation.* * The translator has adopted the literal French version of this inscription, given in a note by M. Florian, from the im- pression that the spirit of the original would thus be better 143 144 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. " Oh thou who beholdest these lions ! dost thou not perceive that they need only to breathe to possess the perfection of nature ? Oh Moham- med! Oh potent sovereign! God originated and prolonged thy existence, that thou mightest be inspired with the genius to conceive and accom- plish these novel and beautiful embellishments! Thy soul is adorned by the most ennobling qual- ities of humanity. This enchanting spot pictures thy admirable virtues. Like the lion, thou art terrible in combat; and nothing can be more justly compared to the bountiful and unceasing profusion of the limpid waters which gush from the bosom of this fountain, and fill the air with glittering and brilliant particles, than the liberal hand of Mohammed." We will not attempt a description in detail of such other portions of the palace of the Alham- bra as still exist. Some of these served as halls of audience or of justice; others enclosed the baths of the king, the queen, and their children Sleeping apartments still remain, where the couches were disposed either in alcoves, or upon platforms covered with the peculiar pavement preserved than by attempting to render into rhyme his poet ical interpretation. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. already alluded to; but always near a fountain, the unceasing murmur of whose dreamy voice might sooth the occupants to repose. In the music saloon of this once luxurious royal abode are four elevated galleries, which, ere the glory of the Alhambra had passed away, were often filled by Moorish musicians, the de- lightful strains of whose varied instruments en- chanited the court of Grenada. Then the fair and the brave reclined in graceful groups in the centre of the apartment, upon rich Oriental carpets, surrounding the alabaster fountain, whose balmy breath diffused refreshing coolness, and whose softly gurgling sounds mingled with the gentle music which was ever the accompani- ment of repose and enjoyment. In an apartment which was at the same time the oratory and dressing-room of the queen of this magnificent residence, there still exists a slab of marble, pierced with an infinite number of small apertures, to admit the exhalations of the perfumes that were incessantly burning be- neath the lofty ceiling. From this part of the palace, too, the views are exquisitely beautiful. The windows and doors opening from it are so arranged, that the most agreeable prospects, the M 145 146 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. mellowest and most pleasing effects of light, per- petually fall upon the delighted eyes of those within, while balmy breezes constantly renew the delicious coolness of the air that breathes through this enchanting retreat. Upon leaving the marble halls and lofty tow- ers of the Alhambra, one discerns, on the side of a neighbouring mountain, the famous garden of the Generalif, which signifies, in the Moorish tongue, the Home of Love. In this garden was the palace to which the kings of Grenada re- paired to pass the season of spring. It was built in a style similar to that of the Alhambra: the same gorgeous splendour, the same costly magnificence reigned there. The edifice is now destroyed; but the picturesque situation, the ever-varied and ever-charming landscape, the limpid fountains, the sparkling jets d'eau, and tumbling wvaterfalls of the Generalif, are still left to excite admiration. The terraces of this garden are in the form of an amphitheatre, and the lingering remains of their once beautiful Mosaic pavements are still to be seen. The walks are now darkly umbra- geous, from the interwoven branches of gigantic cypresses and aged myrtles, beneath whose grate. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. fu shades the kings and queens of Grenada have so often wandered. Then blooming groves and forests of fruit-trees were agreeably intermingled with graceful domes and marble pavilions: then the sweet perfume of the countless flowers that mingled their varied dyes in delightful confusion, floated in the soft air. Then the delicate ten- drils of the vine clasped the supporting branches of the orange, and both together hung the min- gled gold and purple of their clustering fruits over the bright waters that from marble founts "Gushed up to sun and air !" Then valour and beauty strayed side by side, beneath embowering branches, the fire of the one attempered to gentleness by the softer graces of the other, and the souls of both elevated and purified by nature's holy and resistless influences. But now the luxuriant vine lies prostrate, its climbing trunk and clinging tendrils rudely torn from their once firm support: even the voice of the fountain no longer warbles in the same glad- some tone as of yore; the mouldering fragments of the polished column and sculptured dome are now strewed on the earth; the sighing of the gentle breeze no longer awakens the soit breath 147 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of responding flowers; the loveliness and the glory of the Home of Love are vanished away for ever; and the crumbling stones of the tesse- lated pavements echo naught but the lingering footfall of the solitary stranger, who wanders thither to enjoy those mournful charms of which the destroyer cannot divest a spot that must ever appeal so strongly to the vision and the heart, to the memory and the imagination. It is painful to quit the Alhambra and the Generalif, to return to the ravages, incursions, and sanguinary quarrels of the Moors and Chris- "t was the fate of Mohammed III. (surnamed *0 Blind) to be obliged at the same time to re- press the rebellious movements of his own sub- jects and repel the invasions of his Catholic neighbours. Compelled by the infirmity from which he derived his appellation to choose a prime minister, he bestowed that important post upon Farady, the husband of his sister, a judi- cious statesman and a brave soldier, who for some time prosperously continued the war against the Castilians, and finally concluded it by an hon ourable peace. But the courtiers, jealous of the glory and en- 148 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. vious of the good-fortune of the favourite, form- ed a conspiracy against his master, and instiga- ted revolts among the people. To complete his calamities, foreign war again broke forth; the King of Castile, Ferdinand .IV., surnamed the Summoned,# united with the King of Aragon in attacking the Grenadians.t- Gibraltar was taken by the Castilians, and the conqueror expelled its Moorish inhabitants from its walls. Among the unfortunate exiles who departed from the city was an old man, who, perceiving Ferdinand, approached him, leaning on his staff: " King of Castile," he said to him, " what injury have I done to thee or thine ? Thy great-grandfather Ferdinand drove me from my native Seville: I sought an asylum at Xeres; thy grandfather Alphonso banished me from thence: retiring within the walls of Tariffe,t thy father Sancho exiled me from that city. At last I came to find a grave at the extremity of Spain, on the shore of Gibraltar; but thy hatred hath pursued me even here: tell me now of one place on earth where I can die unmolested by the Christians !'' * See Note D, page 223. t A.D. 1302,.Heg. 703. $ See note E, page 224 149 150 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. " Cross the sea !" replied the Spanish prince; and he caused the aged petiioner to be convey ed to Africa. Vanquished by the Aragonians, harassed by the Castilians, and alarmed by the seditious pro- ceedings which the grandees of his court were encouraging among his own subjects, the King of Grenada and his prime minister were forced to conclude a shameful peace. The intestine storm, whose gathering had long disturbed the domestic security of the kingdom, soon after burst forth. Mohammed Abenazar, brother to Mohammed the Blind, and the head of the conspiracy, seized the unfortunate mon- arch, put him to death, and assumed his place, A.D. 1310, Heg. 710. But the usurper himself was soon driven from his throne by Farady, the ancient minister, who, not daring to appropriate the crown to himself, placed it on the head of his son Ismael, the nephew of Mohammed the Blind, through his mother, the sister of that monarch. This event took place A.D. 1313, Heg. 713. From that period the royal family of Grenada was divided into two branches, which were ever after at enmity with each other; the one, called THE MOORS OF SPAIN. the Aqlhamar, included the descendants of the first king through the males of the line, and the other, named Farady, was that of such of his off- spring as were the children of the female branch- es of the royal race. The Castilians, whose interests were always promoted by cherishing dissensions among their Moorish neighbours, lent their countenance to Abenazar, who had taken refuge in the city of Grenada. The Infant Don Pedro, uncle to the youthful King of Castile, Alphonso the ./lvenger, as he was surnamed, took the field against Is- mael, and several times gave battle to the fol- lowers of the Crescent. Then joining his forces to those of another Infant named Don Juan, the two friends carried fire and sword to the very ramparts of Grenada. The infidel warriors did not venture to sally from their walls to repel the invaders; but when, loaded with booty, the Christians had commenced their return to Cas- tile, Ismael followed on their route with his ar- my, and, soon overtaking his ruthless foes, fell suddenly upon their rear. It was now the 26th of June,* and the time chosen by the Mussul- mans for the attack was the hottest hour of a * A.D. 1319, Heg. 719. 151 152 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. burning day. The two Spanish princes made such violent efforts to reorganize their scattered bands and to recover their lost authority, that, exhausted at last by thirst and fatigue, they both fell dead without having received a wound. The dismayed and exhausted Spaniards could now no longer offer any resistance to their furi- ous enemies. They betook themselves to flight, leaving their baggage, with the bodies of the two unfortunate Infants, on the field of battle. Ismael caused the remains of these princes to be con- veyed to Grenada and deposited in coffins cov- ered with cloth of gold: he then restored them to the Castilians, after having bestowed on them the most distinguished funeral honours.* This victory was rapidly followed by the con- quest of several cities and the establishment of an honourable truce. But Ismael did not live to enjoy the fruits of his success: being enam- oured of a young Spanish captive, who had fall- en, in the division of the spoils, to the share of one of his officers, the king so far forgot the laws of justice and honour as to possess himself * The mountains of Grenada, in the neighbourhood of which this action took place, have, ever since that event, borne the name of LA SIERRA DE LOS INFANTES. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. by force of the beautiful slave. Such an insult among the followers of Islam can only be expi- ated by blood: the monarch was assassinated by his exasperated officer. His son Mohammed V. mounted the throne in his stead, A.D. 1322, Heg. 722. The reign of Mohammed V. and that of his successor Joseph I., both of whom perished in the same manner (being murdered in their pal- ace), present nothing during thirty years but an unbroken series of ravages, seditions, and com- bats. At the request of the Grenadians, Abil-Has- san, king of Morocco, of the dynasty of the .Me- rinis, landed in Spain at the head of innumera- ble troops, with whom he joined the army of Joseph. The kings of Castile and Portugal uni- tedly gave battle to this immense army on the shores of Salado, not far from the city of Tariffe. This encounter, equally celebrated with the vic- tory of Toloza in the history of Spain, termina- ted in the defeat of the Moors. Abil-Hassan returned hastily to Morocco, to conceal within his own dominions his chagrin at its unexpected and disastrous issue. The strong place of Algeziras, the bulwark of 153 154 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Grenada, and the magazine in which was de- posited the necessary supplies received by that kingdom from Africa, was besieged by the Cas- tilians A.D. 1342, Heg. 742. Several French, English, and- Navarrois cavaliers resorted on this occasion to the camp of the beleaguering army. The Mussulmans availed themselves of the use of cannon in the defence of their city; and this is the first time that the employment of that description of ordnance is spoken of in his- tory. We are told that it was used at the bat- tle of Cressy by the English; but that event did not take place until four years after the date of the present siege. It is, then, to the Spanish Moors that we owe, not the discovery of gun- powder (for that is attributed by some to the Chinese, by others to a German monk named Schwartz, and by others again to Roger Bacon, an Englishman), but the terrible invention of artillery. It is at least certain, that the Moors planted the first cannon of which we have any account. But, in spite of the advantages it thus possessed, Algeziras was taken by the Chris- tians, A.D. 1344, Heg. 745. About ten years after this event, the unfortu. nate Joseph, who had been so often attacked b3 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. foreign enemies, met his death from the hands of his own subjects. It may have been remarked by the reader, that no established law regulated the regal suc- cession among the Moors. Yet, notwithstanding the perpetual conspiracies and intrigues which rendered the possession of the crown so insecure and of such uncertain duration, a prince of the royal race always occupied the throne. We have seen Grenada divided, since the violent termination of the reign of Ismael, between the factions of the ./llhamar and the Farady, and the former deposed by the latter, who always regarded the Alhamars as usurpers. This un- happy contest was the source of numberless dis- orders, conspiracies, and assassinations. The monarch next in order to Joseph I. on the throne of Grenada was his uncle, a Farady prince named Mohammed VI., and called the Old, in consequence of his succeeding at a some- what advanced period of life. Mohammed the Red, a scion of the Alhamar race, drove his cousin, Mohammed the Old, from the throne, A.D. 1360, Heg. 762, and retained it for some years, through the protection of the King of Aragon. 155 156 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Peter the Cruel, then king of Castile, espoused the cause of the banished Farady, supported his claims by warlike arguments, and so closely pressed Mohammed the Alhamar, that he adopt- ed the resolution of repairing to Seville, and abandoning himself to the magnanimity of his royal foe. Mohammed arrived at the court of Seville accompanied by a suite composed of his most faithful friends, and bearing with him vast treas- ures. He presented himself with noble confi- dence in the presence of the monarch. " King of Castile !" said he to Peter, " the blood alike of Christian and Moor has too long flowed in my contest with the Farady. You protect my rival; yet it is you whom I select to adjudge our quarrel. Examine my claims and those of my enemy, and pronounce who shall be the sovereign of Grenada. If you decide in favour of the Farady, I demand only to be conducted to Africa; if you accord the preference to me, receive the homage that I have come to render you for my crown !" The astonished Peter lavished honours upon the Mussulman king, and caused him to be seat- ed at his side during the magnificent feast by THE MOORS OF SPAIN. which he signalized the occasion. But, when the Alhamar retired from the entertainment, he was seized and thrown into prison. From thence he was afterward conducted through the streets of the city, seated, half naked, upon an ass and led to a field termed the Tablada, where thirty-seven of his devoted followers were de- prived of their heads in his presence. The ex- ecrable Peter, envying the executioner the pleas- ure of shedding his blood, then thrust through the unfortunate King of Grenada with his own lance. The dying sovereign uttered only these words as he expired, " Oh Peter, Peter, what a deed for a cavalier !" By a very extraordinary fatality, every throne in Spain was at this period occupied by prin- ces whose characters were blackened by the most atrocious crimes. Peter the Cr'uel, the Nero of Castile, assassinated the kings who con- fided themselves to his protection, put to death his wile Blanche of Bourbon, and, in short, daily imbrued his hands in the blood of his relatives or friends. Peter IV. of Aragon, less violent than the Castilian, but equally unfeeling and even more perfidious, despoiled one of his broth- ers of his kingdom, commanded another to be 157 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. put to death, and delivered his ancient preceptor to the executioners. Peter I., king of Portu- gal, the lover of the celebrated Inez de Castro,* whose ferocity was doubtless excited and in- creased by the cruelty that had been exercised against his mistress, tore out the hearts of the murderers of Inez, and poisoned a sister with whom he was displeased. Finally, the contem- porary King of Navarre was that Charles the Bad, whose name alone is sufficient still to cause a shudder. All Spain groaned beneath the iron rule of these monsters of cruelty, and was inun- dated by the blood of their victims. If it be re- membered that, at the same time, France had become a prey to the horrors which followed the imprisonment of King John; that England witnessed the commencement of the troubled reign of Richard II.; that Italy was delivered up to the contentions of the rival factions of the Guelfs and Ghibelines, and beheld two occu- pants at the same time upon the papal throne; that two emperors disputed the right to the im- perial crown of Germany; and that Timurlane ravaged Asia from the territories of the Usbeks to the borders of India, it will not be disputed * See Note F, page 224. 158 THE .MOORS OF SPAIN. that the history of the world records the annals ot no more unhappy epoch in its affairs. Grenada was at last tranquil after the crime of Peter the Cruel. Mohammed the Old, or the Farady, being now freed from the rival claims of his competitor, remounted the throne without opposition. Mohammed was the only ally of the King of Castile who remained faithful to that inhuman monster up to the period of his death. Peter was at last the victim of a crime similar to those of which he had so often himself been guilty: his illegitimate brother, Henry de Transtamare, deprived him of his crown and his life, A.D. 1369, Heg: 771. The King of Grenada made peace with the new sovereign of Castile, maintained it for sev- eral years, and finally left his kingdom in a flourishing condition to his son Mohammed VIII., Abouhadjad, called by the Spanish historians Mohammed Gaudix. This prince commenced his reign A.D. 1379, Heg. 782. He was the best and wisest of the Spanish Mohammedan kings. Intent only upon promoting the happiness of his people, he was desirous of securing to them the enjoyment of 159 THE MOORS OF STAIN. that foreign and domestic peace to which they had so long been almost utter strangers. The more effectually to ensure this, Abouhadjad com- menced his reign with fortifying his towns, rais- ing a strong army, and allying himself with the King of Tunis, whose daughter Cadiga he es- poused. When well prepared for war, the Moorish sovereign sent ambassadors to the King of Castile, to solicit his friendship. Don Juan, the son and successor of Henry de Transtamare, being sufficiently occupied by his quarrels with. Portugal and England, readily signed a treaty with the royal follower of the Crescent; and Abouhadjad, on his part, kept it unbroken. Se- cured from the inroads of the Christians, this wise monarch now occupied himself in promo- ting the increase of agriculture and commerce: he likewise diminished the rates of imposts, and soon found his income increased in consequence of this judicious measure. Beloved by a people whom he rendered happy, respected by foreign neighbours whom he had no reason to fear, and possessed of an amiable wife, who alone engaged his affections, this excellent Mussulman prince spent the wealth and leisure that he could with propriety devote to such objects, in adorn- 160 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ing his capital, in cherishing the fine arts, and in cultivating architecture and poetry. Several monuments of his munificence existed at Grena- da, and at Gaudix, a city in favour of which lie entertained strong predilections. His court was the favoured abode of genius and elegance. The Moors of Spain still possessed poets, phy- sicians, painters, sculptors, academies, and uni- versities. And these were all liberally encoura- ged and endowed by Mohammed Gaudix. Most of the productions of the Grenadian au- thors of this period perished at the final conquest of their country ;* but some of them have been preserved, and still exist in the library of the Escurial. They chiefly treat of grammar, as- trology (then greatly esteemed), and, above all, of theology, a study in which the Moors excell- ed. That people, naturally gifted with discrim- inating minds and ardent imaginations, pro- duced many distinguished theologians, who may easily be supposed to have introduced into Eu- rope the unfortunate scholastic taste for subtle questions and disputes, which once rendered so celebrated, men whose names and achievements have since sunk for ever into oblivion. The pre- * See Note G, page 225. N 161 162 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. tended secrets of the cabal, of alchymy, of judi. cial astronomy, of the divining rod, and all the accounts, formerly so common, of sorcerers, ma- gicians, and enchanters, are derived from these descendants of the Arabs. They were a super- stitious race from the remotest times; and it is probable that to their residence in Spain, and their long intercourse with the Spaniards, is ow- ing that love for the marvellous, and that well- deserved reputation for superstitious credulity, with which philosophy still reproaches a spright- ly and intellectual nation, upon whom nature has bestowed the germes of the best qualities that adorn humanity. A kind of literature which was common among these Saracens, and for which the Span- iards were indebted to them, was that of novels or romances. The Arabs were ever, as they still are, passionate lovers of story-telling. As well in the tents of the wild Bedouin as in the palaces of the East, alike under the gilded domes and peasant roofs of Grenada, this taste prevailed. Everywhere they assembled nightly to listen to romantic narratives of love and val- our. Everywhere they listened in silent atten- tion, or wept from sympathetic interest in the fate THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of those whose adventures formed the subject of the tale. The Grenadians joined with this pas- sion for exciting incident, a taste for music and singing. Their poets imbodied in verse these fa- vourite recitals of love and war. .Musicians were employed in composing suitable airs for them, and they were thus sung by the youthful Moors with all the enthusiasm that passion, poetry, and dulcet harmony can unitedly inspire. From this national custom are derived the multitude of Spanish romances, translated or imitated from the Arabic, which, in a simple and sometimes touching style, recount the fierce combats of the Moors and Christians, the fatal quarrels of jeal- ous and haughty rivals, or the tender conversa- tion of lovers. They describe with great exact- ness everything relating to the peculiar man- ners and amusements of this interesting and ex- tinguished nation: their fetes, their games of the ring and of canes, and their bull-fights, the latter of which they adopted from the Spaniards, are all portrayed. Thus we learn that their war- like equipments consisted of a large cimeter, a slender lance, a short coat of mail, and a light leathern buckler. We have descriptions of su- perb horses, with their richly-jewelled and erm- 163 164 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. broidered housings sweeping the earth in am- ple folds, and of the devises emblazoned on the arms of the graceful Moorish cavaliers. These last consisted frequently of a heart pierced by an arrow, or perhaps of a star guiding a vessel, or of the first letter of the name of the fair recipi- ents of their vows of love. We learn, too, thai their colours each bore a peculiar signification: yellow and black expressed grief; green, hope.; blue, jealousy ; violet and flame colour, passion- ate love. The following abridged translation of one of these little compositions will produce a more correct idea of them in the mind of the reader than any description could convey. GONZULO AND ZELINDA. A MOORISH ROMANCE. In a transport of jealousy and pride, Zelinda spurned her lover from her side ! * The translator ventures to offer an imitation of M. Flo- rian's French version of this Moorish ballad, and appends the Spanish original with which he presents his readers. GANZUL Y ZELINDA. ROMANCE MORO. En el tiempo que Zelinda Cerro ayrada la ventana THE MOORS OF SPAIN. His cruel doom Gonzulo heard With bosom wrung; and disappeared ! But the fair maid soon deeply felt The torturing wound herself had dealt; As glides the snow from mountain crest, So fled resentment from her breast. They tell her that the Moor's proud heart Is pierced by grief's most poisoned dart, And that he'd doffed, when flying from her side, The tender colours that were once his pride; That green, of hope the cherished emblem gay, To sorrow's mournful hues had given way. A badge of crape his lance's point now wears, A blackened crown his shield as emblem bears! A la disculpa a los zelos Que el Moro Ganzul le daya, Confusa y arrepentida De averse fingido ayrada, Por verle y desagravialle, El corazon se le abraza; Que en el villano de amor Es mui cierta la mudanza, etc. Y como supo que el Moro Rompio furioso la lanca, etc Y que la librea verde Avia trocado en leonada; Saco luego una marlota De tufetan roxo y plata, Un bizarro capellar De tela de oro morada, etc. 165 166 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. To proffer gifts with different meaning fraught, Zelinda now her errant lover sought: The blue of jealousy she had united With all the hues most dear to lovers plighted ; A violet gem, entwined with gold, Gleamed mid a broidered turban's fold; And every silken riband that she bore, Of lovely innocence the symbol wore. Zelinda reached the soft retreat Where Gonzulo his fate must meet ! O'erwhelmed with doubt, the dark-eyed maid Reclined beneath a myrtle shade, And sent a faithful page to guide Her banished lover to her side. Gonzulo scarce the message would receive, For wo had taught his heart to disbelieve! Con une bonete cubierto De zaphires y esparaldas, Que publican zelos muertos, Y vivas las esperancos, Con una nevada toga; Que el color de la veleta Tambien publica bononga Informandose primero. A donde Ganzul estava, A una caza de plazer Aquella tarde le liama; Y diziendole a Ganzul Que Zelinda le aguardava, Al page le pregunto THE MOORS OF SPAIN But soon he flew, on wing of love, To seek Zelinda's chosen grove. Then tearful glances of regret By words of tenderness were met ; And ne'er did guardian nymphs record More ardent vows than there were poured ! 'Twas-thus triumphant love repaired The cruel wrongs that each had shared! The delicate and peculiar gallantry, which rendered the Moors of Grenada famous through- out Europe, formed a singular contrast to the ferocity that is so natural to all nations of Afri- can origin. These Islamites, whose chief glory it was dexterously to deprive their enemies of their heads, attach them to their saddle-bows, and afterward display them as trophies on the Tres vezes si se burlava; Que son malaas de creer Las nuevas mui desseadas, etc. Hollola en un jardin, Entre mosquetta y jasmine, etc. Viendose Moro con ella, A penas los ojos alga; Zelinda le asio la mano, Un poco roxa y turbada; Y al fin de infinitas guexas Que en tales passos se passan, Vistio se las ricas presas Con las manos de su dama, etc. 167 168 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. battlements of their towers or at the entrance of their palaces; these restless and ungovernable warriors, who were ever ready to revolt against their rulers, to depose or to murder them, were the most tender, the most devoted, the most ar- dent of lovers. Their wives, though their do- mestic position was little superior to that of slaves, became, when they were beloved, the absolute sovereigns, the supreme divinities of those whose hearts they possessed. It was to please these idolized beings that the Moorish cavaliers sought distinction in the field; it was to shine in their eyes that they lavished their treasures and their lives--that they mutually en- deavoured to eclipse each other in deeds of arms, in the splendour of their warlike exploits, and the Oriental magnificence of their fetes. It cannot now be determined whether the Moors derived this extraordinary union of soft- ness and cruelty, of delicacy and barbarity-this generous rivalry in courage and in constancy from the Spaniards, or whether the Spaniards acquired these characteristics from the Moors. But when it is remembered that they do not be- long to the Asiatic Arabs, from whom these gal- lant knights originally sprang; that they are THE MOORS OF SPAIN. 14 mand, even in a less degree, if possible, among th ese followers of Mohammed in that portion of Africa where their conquests have naturalized them; and, that after their departure from Spain, the Grenadians lost every trace of the peculiarly interesting and chivalrous qualities by which they had previously been so remarkably distin- guished, there is some ground for the opinion 'that it was to the Spaniards that their Moslem neighbours were indebted for the existence of these national attributes. In truth, before the invasion of Spain by the Arabs, the courts of the Gothic kings had already offered knightly ex- amples of a similar spirit. And after that event we find the cavaliers of Leon, Navarre, and Cas- tile equally renowned for their achievements in war and their romantic devotion to the fair sex. The mere name of the Cid awakens in the mind recollections alike of tenderness and bravery. It should be remembered, too, that, long after the expulsion of the Moors from the Peninsula, the Spaniards maintained a reputation for gal- lantry far superior to that of the French, some portion of the spirit of which, though extinct among every other European nation, still lingers in Spain. O 169 170 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. But, be this point decided as it may, it is not to be disputed that the daughters of Grenada merited the devotion which they inspired: they were perhaps the most fascinating women in the world. We find in the narrative of a Moorish historian, who wrote at Grenada during the reign of Mohammed the Old, the following description of his countrywomen: " Their beauty is remarkable; but the loveli- ness which strikes the beholder at first sight af- terward receives its principal charm from the grace and gentleness of their manners. In stat- ure they are above the middle height, and of delicate and slender proportions. Their long black hair descends to the earth. Their teeth embellish with the whiteness of alabaster, ver- million lips, which perpetually smile with a be- witching air. The constant use which they make of the most exquisite perfumes, gives a freshness and brilliancy to their complexions possessed by no other Mohammedan women. Their walking, their dancing, their every move- ment, is distinguished by a graceful softness, an ease, a lightness, which surpasses all their other charms. Their conversation is lively and sensible, and their fine intellects are constant- THE MOORS OF SPAIN. ly displayed in brilliant wit or judicious senti- ments." The dress of these elegant females was com- posed, as that of the Turkish women still is, of a long tunic of linen confined by a cincture, of a doliman or Turkish dress with close sleeves, of wide trousers and Morocco slippers. The ma- terials of their clothing were of the finest fabric, and were usually woven in stripes: they were embroidered with gold and silver, and profusely spangled with jewels. Their waving tresses floated over their shoulders; and a small cap, adorned with the richest gems, supported an embroidered veil, which fell nearly to the feet. The men were clothed in a similar manner: with them were carried in the girdle the purse, the handkerchief, and the poniard: a white, and sometimes a coloured, turban covered the head; and over the Turkish doliman they wore in sum- mer a wide and flowing white robe, and in win- ter the albornos or African mantle. The only change made in their dress by the Moorish cav aliers when preparing for battle was the addi- tion of a coat of mail, and an iron lining within their turbans. It was the custom of the Grenadians to repair 171 172 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. every year, during the autumn, to the charming villas by which the city was surrounded. There they yielded themselves up to the pursuit of pleasure. The chase and the dance, music and feasting, occupied every hour. The manners of those who participated in these national dances were in a high degree unreserved, as was the language of the songs and ballads in which they joined. Were it not for the contradictions in the human character, one might be surprised at this want of delicacy in a people who were capable of so much refine- ment of feeling. But, in general, nations of Ori- ental origin possess but little reserve in their manners: they have more of passion than senti- ment, more of jealousy than delicacy in their haughty and excitable natures. In giving these details, we have perhaps tres- passed too long on the period of calm repose en- joyed by the kingdom of Grenada during the reign of Abouhadjad. That excellent sovereign, after having filled the throne for thirteen years, left his flourishing dominions to his son Joseph, who succeeded him without opposition, A.D 1392, Heg. 795. Joseph II. was desirous, in imitation of the THE MOORS OF SPAIN. course pursued by his father, of maintaining the truce with the Christians. It was, however, soon disturbed by a fanatical hermit, who per- suaded the Grand-master of Alcantara, Martin de Barbuda, a Portuguese, that he had been se- lected by Heaven as the chosen instrument for expelling the infidels from Spain. He promised the credulous Martin, in the name of God, that he should succeed in conquering the enemies of the Cross, and in carrying the city of Grenada by assault, without the loss of a single soldier. The infatuated grand-master, convinced of the certainty of the fulfilment of this promise, im- mediately sent ambassadors to Joseph, with or- ders to- declare to that sovereign, in his name, that, since the religion of Mohammed was false and detestable, and that of Jesus Christ the only true and saving faith, he, Martin de Barbuda, defied the King of Grenada to a combat of two hundred Mussulmans against one hundred Chris- tians, upon condition that the vanquished nation should instantly adopt the faith of the conquer- ors. The reception these ambassadors met with may be easily imagined. Joseph could scarcely restrain the indignation of his people. The en. 173 174 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. voys, driven contemptuously away, returned to the presence of the grand-master, who, surpri- sed at receiving no response to his proposal, soon assembled a thousand foot-soldiers and three hundred cavaliers, and hastened to the conquest of Grenada under the guidance of the prophetic hermit. The King of Castile, Henry III., who desired to preserve peace with the followers of the Proph- et at the commencement of a reign during which his own dominions were but ill at rest, was no sooner informed of the enterprise of Barbuda, than he sent him positive orders not to cross the frontiers; but that dignitary replying that he ought to obey the commands of Jehovah rather than those of any earthly master, proceeded on his way. The governors of the different cities through which he passed on his route endeav- oured, though vainly, to arrest his progress; but the people overwhelmed him with homage, and everywhere added to the number of his forces. The army of the grand-master amounted to six thousand men, when, in A.D. 1394, Heg. 798, he entered the country which his folly taught him to regard as already in his posses- sion. In attacking the first castle at which he THE MOORS OF SPAIN. arrived, three soldiers were killed and their fa- natical commander himself wounded. Surpri- sed beyond measure at beholding his own blood flow and three soldiers fall, he summoned the anchorite into his presence, and sedately de- manded what this mneant, after his express prom- ise that not a single champion of the true faith should perish. The fanatic replied, that the word he had pledged extended only to regu- lar battles. Barbuda complained no more, and presently perceived the approach of a Moorish army composed of fifty thousand mren. The con- flict soon commenced: the grand-master and his three hundred mounted followers perished in the field, after having performed prodigies of valour. The remainder of the Spanish army were either taken prisoners or put to flight; and the silence of historians respecting the hermit, leads to the opinion that he was not among the last to seek safety at a distance from the scene of action. This foolish enterprise did not interrupt the good understanding subsisting between the two nations. The King of Castile disavowed all ap- proval of the conduct of Martin de Barbuda, and Joseph long continued to reign with honour and tranquillity. But he was at last poisoned, 175 176 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. it is said, by a magnificei..t robe which he re ceived from his secret enemy, the King of F'ez through the ambassadors of that sovereign. His- torians assert that this garment was impreg- nated with a terrible poison, which caused the death of the unfortunate Joseph by the most horrible torments. The peculiar effects it pro- duced was that of detaching the flesh from the bones, the misery of the wretched sufferer en- during for the protracted period of thirty days. Mohammed IX., the second son of this hap- less monarch, wiho, even during the lifetime of his father, had excited commotions in the realm, usurped the crown that of right belonged to his elder brother Joseph, whom he caused to be confined in prison. Mohammed was courageous, and possessed some talents for war. Allied with the King of Tunis, who joined his fleet with that of Grena- da, he broke the truce maintained with Castile during the two preceding reigns, and at first gained some advantages over his adversaries; but the Infant Don Ferdinand, the uncle and tu- tor of the young king John II., was not long ii avenging the cause of Spain. Mohammed IX. died in the year 1408, Heg TRE MOORS OF SPAIN. 811. When the expiring monarch became con- scious that his end was rapidly approaching, de- sirous of securing the crown to his son, he sent one of his principal officers to the prison of his brother Joseph, with orders to cut off the head of the royal occupant. The officer found Joseph engaged in a game of chess with an iman :* he sorrowfully announced the mournful commission with which tbe was charged. The prince, with- out manifesting any emotion at the communica- tion, only demanded time to conclude his game; and the officer could not refuse this slight favour. While the philosophical Mussulman continued to play, a second messenger arrived, bearing the news of the death of the usurper, and of the proclamation of Joseph as his successor to the throne. The people of Grenada were happy under the rule of the good King Joseph III. So far was he from avenging himself upon those who had aided his brother in depriving him of his rights that he lavished favours and offices on them, and educated the son of Mohammed in the same manner as his own children. When his coun- cillors blamed him for a degree of indulgence * Mohammedan priest. 177 178 THE MOORS OF SP1iN. which they regarded as hazardous, "Allow me," replied the sovereign, " to deprive my enemies of all excuse for having preferred my younger brother to me !" This excellent prince was often obliged to take arms against the Christians. He was so unfortunate as to lose some cities, but he pre- served the respect and affection of his subjects, and died lamented by the whole kingdom, after a reign of fifteen years, A.D. 1423, Heg. 927. After the death of Joseph the state was dis- tracted by civil wars. Mohammed X. Abena- zar, or the Left-handed, the son and successor of that benevolent king, was banished from the throne by Mohammed XI. El Zugair, or the Lit- tle, who preserved his ill-gotten power but two years. The Abencerrages, a powerful tribe* at Grenada, re-established Mohammed the Left- handed in his former place, and his competitor perished on the scaffold. About four years after the death of Joseph, the Spaniards renewed their inroads into Grena- da, and carried fire and sword to the very gates of the capital. All the neighbouring fields were devastated; the crops were burned and the vil- ' See Note H, page 225. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. lages destroyed. John II., who then reigned in Castile, wishing to add to the miseries he had already occasioned these unhappy people the still greater misfortune of civil war, instigated the proclamation at Grenada of a certain Joseph Alhamar, a grandson of that IMShammed the Red so basely assassinated at Seville by Peter the Cruel. All the discontented spirits in the kingdom joined the faction of Joseph Alhamar; and the Zegris, a powerful tribe, who were at enmi- ty with the Abencerrages, lent their aid to the usurper. Mohammed Abenazar was again driv- en from the capital, A.D. 1432, Heg. 836, and Joseph IV. Alhamar possessed his dominions six months. At the termination of that time he ex- pired. Mohammed the Left-handed once more re- sumed his royal seat; but, after thirteen years of misfortune, this unhappy prince was again deposed for the third time, and imprisoned by one of his nephews, named Mohammed XII. the Osmin, who was himself afterward dethroned* by his own brother Ismael, and ended his days * A.D. 1453, Heg. 857. 179 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. in the same dungeon in which his uncle Mo- hammed Abenazar had languished. All these revolutions did not prevent the Christian and Moorish governors who command- ed on their respective frontiers from making incessant irrtiitions into the enemy's country. Sometimes a little troop of cavalry or infantry surprised a village, massacred the inhabitants, pillaged their houses, and carried away their flocks. Sometimes an army suddenly appeared in a fertile plain, devastated the fields, uprooted the vines, felled the trees, besieged and took some town or fortress, and retired with their booty. This kind of warfare was ruinous, most of all, to the unfortunate cultivator of the soil. The Grenadian dominions suffered so much du- ring the reign of Ismael II., that the king was compelled to cause immense forests to be cleared for the support of his capital, which then drew scarcely any supplies from the vast and fertile vega which had been so often desolated by the Spaniards. Ismael II. left the crown to his son M alei= Hassem, a young and highly courageous prince, who, profiting by the disastrous condition of Cas- tile under the deplorable reign of Henry IV. the 180 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Impotent, carried his arms into the centre of Andalusia. The success that marked the com- mencement of the reign of this sovereign, to- gether with his talents and warlike ardour, tempted the Moors to believe that they might yet recover their former greatness. But the oc- currence at this juncture of a great and unlook- ed-for event, arrested the victorious progress of Mulei-Hassam, and prepared the way for the total ruin of his kingdom. Isabella of Castile, the sister of Henry the Im- potent, notwithstanding the opposition of her brother and the intervention of almost insur- mountable obstacles, espoused Ferdinand the Catholic, the king of Sicily, and heir presump- tive of the kingdom of Aragon.* This marriage, by uniting the two most powerful monarchs of Spain, gave a fatal blow to the prosperity of the Moors, which they had been able to maintain, even in the degree in which it now existed, only through the divisions which had hitherto per- petually prevailed among their Christian oppo- nents. Either of the two enemies, now unitedly ar- rayed against them, had been singly sufficient * A.D. 1469, Heg 874. 181 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. to overwhelm the Mussulmans. Ferdinand was alike politic, able, and adroit. He was pliant, and, at the same time, firm; cautious to a degree sometimes amounting to pusillanimity; cunning even to falsehood, and endowed in an extraordi- nary degree with the power of discerning at a single glance all the various means of attaining a particular end. Isabella was of a prouder and more noble nature; endowed with heroic cour- age and the most unyielding constancy of pur- pose, she was admirably qualified for the pursuit and accomplishment of any enterprise to which she might direct the energies of her powerful mind. The exalted endowments of one of these royal personages have been employed to enno- ble the character of the other. Ferdinand often played the part of a weak, perfidious woman, negotiating only to deceive; whereas Isabella was always the high-souled sovereign, advan- cing openly to her purposes, and marching di- rectly to honourable conflict and generous tri- umph. No sooner had these distinguished individuals secured possession of their respective kingdoms, suppressed all domestic disturbances, and effect- ed peaceful arrangements with foreign powers, 182 THE MOORS OF SPA N. than they mutually resolved to concentrate all their efforts for the annihilation of the Moham- medan dominion in Spain. This century seemed destined to be marked by the glory of the Spaniards. In addition to the immense advantages afforded them by the union of their forces, Ferdinand and Isabella were surrounded by the wisest and most experi- enced advisers. The celebrated Cardinal Xime- nes, at one time a simple monk, was now at the head of their councils; and that able minister " led," as he himself averred, " all Spain by his girdle !" The civil wars with which the Penin- sula had been so long disturbed, had created among the Christian powers a host of brave soldiers and excellent commanders. Among the latter were particularly distinguished the Count de Cabra, the Marquis of Cadiz, and the famous Gonzalvo of Cordova, whose just claim to the surname of the Great Captain, given him by his countrymen, the lapse of time has only served to confirm. The public treasury, which had been exhausted by the lavish prodigality of Henry, was soon replenished by the rigid econ- omy of Isabella, aided by a bull from the pope, permitting the royal appropriation of the eccle- 183 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. siastical revenues. The troops were numerous and admirably disciplined, and the emulation which existed between the Castilians and Ara- gonians redoubled the valour of both. Every- thing, in short, prognosticated the downfall of the last remaining throne of the Moors. Its royal champion, Mulei-Hassem, was not dismayed, however, even by such an accumula- tion of danger. He was the first to break the truce, by taking forcible possession of the city of Zahra, A.D. 1481, Heg. 886. Ferdinand de- spatched ambassadors to the Moslem court to complain of this breach of faith; with orders, at the same time, to demand the ancient tribute which had been paid by the kings of Grenada to the sovereigns of Castile. " I know," replied Mulei-Hassem, when the envoys of the Spanish prince had delivered their message, " I know that some of my predecessors rendered you tribute in pieces of gold; but this is the only metal now coined in the national mint of Grenada !" And, as he spoke, the stern and haughty monarch presented the head of his lance to the Spanish ambassadors. The army of Ferdinand first marched upon Alhamar, a very strong fortress iri the neigh- 184 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. 1iS bourhood of Grenada, and particularly famous for the magnificent baths with which it had been embellished by the Moorish kings. The place was taken by surprise, and thus a war was light- ed up that was destined to be extinguished only with the last expiring sigh of Grenada. Victory seemed at first to be equally poised between the two contending powers. The King of Grenada possessed ample resources in troops, artillery, and treasure. He might have long maintained the contest, but for an act of imprudence which precipitated him into an abyss of misfortune from which he was never afterward able to extricate himself. The wife of Mulei-Hassem, named Aixa, be- longed, before her marriage with the king, to one of the most important of the Grenadian tribes. The offspring of this marriage was a son named Boabdil, whose right 1 was to suo- ceed to his fither's throne. But the reckless Mulei repudiated his wife at the instance of a Christian slave, of whom he became enamoured, and who governed the doting monarch at will. This act of cruelty and injustice was the signal for civil war. The injured Aixa, in concert with her son, excited her relatives and friends, P THE MOORS OF SPAIN. and a large number of the inhabitants of the capital, to throw off their allegiance to their sovereign. Mulei-Hassem was eventually driven from the city, and Boabdil assumed the title of king. Thus father and son were involved in a contest for the possession of a crown, of which Ferdi- nand was seeking to deprive them both. To add to the misfortunes which were already fast crushing this distracted and miserable coun- try beneath their weight, another aspirant to the throne presented himself, in the person of a brother of Mulei-Hassem named Zagel. This prince, at the head of a band of Moorish adven- turers, had succeeded in obtaining some impor- tant advantages over the Spaniards in the de- files of Malaga, A.D. 1483, Heg. 888. His achievements having won for him the hearts of his countrymen, Zagel now conceived the design of dethroning his brother and neph- ew, and of appropriating the dominions of both to himself. Thus a third faction arose to in- crease the dissensions of the state. Boabdil still held insecure possession of the capital; and, desirous of attempting some action, the brilliancy of which would reanimate the 186 THIE MOORS OF SPAIN. hopes and confidence of a party that was ready to abandon him, he sallied forth at the head of a small force, with the intention of surprising Lucena, a city belonging to the Castilians. But the ill-fated Boabdil was made a prisoner in this expedition. He was the first Moorish king who had ever been a captive to the Spaniards. Ferdinand lavished on him the attentions due to misfor- tune, and caused him to be conducted to Cor- dova, attended by an escort. The old king, Mulei-Hassem, seized this op- portunity to repossess himself of the crown of which his rebellious son had deprived him, and, in spite of the party of Zagel, he again became master of his capital. But the restored monarch could oppose but a feeble resistance to the progress of the Spaniards, who were rapidly re- ducing his cities and advancing nearer to his devoted capital. Within the walls of that city the wretched inhabitants were madly warring against one another, as if unconscious of the destruction that was fast approaching them from without. To increase the sanguinary feuds which already so surely presaged their destruc tion, the Catholic sovereigns had become the al 187 188 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. lies of the captive Boabdil, engaging to assist him in his efforts against his father on condi- tion that he should pay them a tribute of twelve thousand crowns of gold, acknowledge himself their vassal, and deliver certain strong places into their hands. The base Boabdil acceded to eve- rything; and, aided by the politic Spanish prin- ces, hastened again to take arms against his father. The kingdom of Grenada was now converted into one wide field of carnage, where Mulei- Hassem, Boabdil, and Zagel were furiously con- tending for the mournful relics of their country. The Spaniards, in the mean time, marched rapidly from one conquest to another, sometimes under pretext of sustaining their ally Boabdil, and often in open defiance of the treaty they had formed with that prince; but always care- fully feeding the fire of discord, while they were despoiling each of the three rival parties, and leaving to the vanquished inhabitants their laws, their customs, and the free exercise of their reli- gion In the midst of these frightful scenes of ca- lamity and crime, old Mulei-Hassem died, either worn out by grief and misfortune, or through THE MOORS OF SPAIN. the agency of his ambitious brother. This event occurred A.D. 1485, Heg. 890. Ferdinand had now rendered himself master of all the western part of the kingdom of Gre- nada, and Boabdil agreed to divide with Zagel the remnant of this desolated state. The city of Grenada was retained by Boabdil, while Gau- dix and Almeria fell to the share of Zagel. The war was not the less vigorously prosecuted in consequence of this arrangement; and the unprincipled Zagel, doubting his ability long to fetain the cities in his possession, sold them to King Ferdinand in consideration of an annual pension. By virtue of this treaty, the Catholic sover- eigns took possession of the purchased cities; and the traitor Zagel even lent the aid of his arms to the Christian army, the more speedily to overthrow the royal power of his nephew, and thereby terminate the existence of his ex- piring country. All that now remained to the Mussulmans was the single city of Grenada. There Boabdil still reigned; and, exasperated by misfortune, he vented his rage and despair in acts of barbarous cruity towards its wretched inhabitants. 189 190 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. Ferdinand and Isabella, disregarding the con ditions of their pretended alliance with this now powerless prince, summoned him to surrender his capital, in compliance, as they said, with the terms of a secret treaty, which they affirmed had been concluded between them. Boabdil protested against this perfidious conduct. But there was no time allowed for complaint: he must successfully defend himself, or cease to reign. The Moorish prince adopted, therefore, to say the least, the most heroic alternative; and resolved to defend to the last what remain- ed to him of his once beautiful and flourishing country. The Spanish sovereign, at the head of an army of sixty thousand men, the flower and chivalry of the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, laid siege to Grenada on the 9th of May, 1491, and in the 897th year of the HIegira. This great citT, as has been already mention- ed, was defended by strong ramparts, flanked by a multitude of towers, and by numerous other fortifications, built one above the other. Not- withstanding the civil wars which had inunda- ted it with blood, Grenada still enclosed within its walls more than two hundred thousand in. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. habitants. Every brave Moorish cavalier who still remained true to his country, its religion, and its laws, had here taken refuge. Despair redoubled their strength in this last desperate struggle; and had these fierce and intrepid war- riors been guided by a more worthy chief than Boabdil, their noble constancy might+ still have saved them; but this weak and ferocious mon- arch hesitated not, on the slightest suspicion, to consign his most faithful defenders to the axe of the executioner. Thus he became daily more and more an object of hatred and contempt to the Grenadians, by whom he was surnamed Zogoybi, that is to say, the Little King. The different tribes now grew dissatisfied and dispir- ited, especially the numerous and powerful tribe of the Abencerrages. The alfaquis and the imans, also, loudly predicted the approaching downfall of the Moorish empire; and nothing upheld the sinking courage of the people against the pressure of a foreign foe and the tyranny of their own rulers but their unconquerable horror of the Spanish yoke. The Catholic soldiers, on the other hand, ela- ted by their past success, regarded themselves as invincible, and never for a moment doubted the 191 192 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. certainty of their triumph. They were com- manded, also, by leaders to whom they were devotedly attached: Ponce de Leon, marquis of Cadiz, Henry de Guzman, duke of Medina, Mendoza, Aguillar, Villena, and Gonzalvo of Cordova, together with many other famous cap- tains, accompanied their victorious king. Isa- bella, too, whose virtues excited the highest re- spect, and whose affability and grace won for her the affectionate regard of all, had repaired to the camp of her husband with the Infant and the Infantas, and attended by the most brilliant court in Europe. This politic princess, though naturally grave and serious, wisely accommoda- ted herself to the existing circumstances. She mingled fetes and amusements with warlike toil: jousts and tournaments delighted at inter- vals the war-worn soldiery; and dances, games, and illuminations filled up the delicious sum- mer evenings. Queen Isabella was the animating genius that directed everything; a gracious word from her was a sufficient recompense for the most gallant achievement; and her look alone had power to transform the meanest soldier into a hero. Abundance reigned in the Christian camp; THE MOORS OF SPAIN. while joy and hope animated every heart. But within the beleaguered city, mutual distrust, uni- versal consternation, and the prospect of inevita- ble destruction, had damped the courage and al- most annihilated the hopes of the wretched in- habitants. The siege, nevertheless, lasted for nine months. The cautious commander of the Christian army did not attempt to carry by assault a place so admiratbly fortified. After having laid waste the environs, therefore, he waited patiently un- til famine should deliver the city into his hands. Satisfied with battering the ramparts and repell- ing the frequent sorties of the Moors, he never engaged in any decisive action, but daily hem- med in more closely the chafed lion that could not now escape his toils. Accident one night set fire to the pavilion of Isabella, and the spreading conflagration con- sumed every tent in the camp. But Boabdil derived no advantage from this disaster. The queen directed that a city should supply the place of the ruined camp, to convince the ene- mies of the cross that the siege would never be raised until Grenada should come into possession of the conquering Spaniards. This great and 193 194 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. extraordinary design, so worthy the genius of Isabella, was executed in eighty days. The Christian camp thus became a walled city; and Santa Fe still exists as a monument of the piety and perseverance of the heroic Queen of Castile. At last, oppressed by famine, less frequently successful than at first in the partial engage- ments that were constantly taking place under the walls, and abandoned by Africa, from which there were no attempts made to relieve them, the Moors now felt the necessity of a surrender. Gonzalvo of Cordova was empowered by the conquerors to arrange the articles of capitula- tion. These provided that the people of Grena- da should recognise Ferdinand and Isabella, and their royal successors, as their rightful sover- eigns; that all their Christian captives should be released without ransom; that the Moors should continue to be governed by their own laws; should retain their national customs, their judges, half the number of their mosques, and the free exercise of their faith; that they should be permitted either to keep or sell their proper- ty, and to retire to Africa, or to any other coun- try they might choose, while, at the same time, they should not be compelled to leave their na- THE MOORS OF SPAIN. five land. It was also agreed that Boabdil should have assigned to him a rich and ample domain in the Alpuxares, of which he should possess the entire command. Such were the terms of capitulation, and but ill were they observed by the Spaniards. Boab- dil fulfilled his part of the stipulations some days before the time specified, in consequence of be- ing informed that his people, roused by the rep- resentations of the imans, wished to break off the negotiations, and to bury themselves beneath the ruins of the city rather than suffer their des- olate and deserted homes to be profaned by the intruding foot of the spoiler. The wretched Moslem prince hastened there- fore to deliver the keys of the city, and of the fortresses of the Albazin and the Alhambra, into the hands of Ferdinand. Entering no more, after this mournful cere- mony, within the walls where he no longer re- tained any authority, Boabdil took his melan- choly journey, accompanied by his family and a small number of followers, to the petty domin- Ions which were now all that remained to him of the once powerful and extensive empire of his ancestors. 195 196 THE OORS OF SPAIN. When the cavalcade reached an eminence from which the towers of Grenada might still be discerned, the wretched exile turned his last sad regards upon the distant city, amid ill-suppress- ed tears and groans. " You do well," said Aixa, his mother, "to weep like a woman fo the throne you could not defend like a man !" But the now powerless Boabdil could not long endure existence as a subject in a country where he had reigned as a sovereign: he cross- ed the Mediterranean to Africa, and there he ended his days on the battle-field. Ferdinand and Isabella made their public en- trance into Grenada on the 1st of January, 1492, through double ranks of soldiers, and amid the thunder of artillery. The city seemed deserted; the inhabitants fled from the presence of the conquerors, and concealed their tears and their despair within the innermost recesses of their habitations. The royal victors repaired first to the grand mosque, which was consecrated as a Christian church, and where they rendered thanks to God for the brilliant success that had crowned their arms. While the sovereigns fulfilled this pious duty, the Count de Tendilla, the new governor THE MOORS OF SPAIN. of Grenada, elevated the triumphant cross, and the standards of Castile and St. James, on the highest towers of the Alhambra. Thus fell this famous city, and thus perished the power of the Moors of Spain, after an exist- ence of seven hundred and eighty-two years from the first conquest of the country by Tarik. It may now be proper briefly to remark upon the principal causes of the extinction of the na- tional independence of the kingdom of Grenada. The first of these arose from the peculiar character of the Moors: from that spirit of in- constancy, that love of novelty, and that n- ceasing inquietude, which prompted them to such frequent change of their rulers; which multiplied factions among them, and constantly convulsed the empire with internal discords, ex- pending its strength and power in dissensions at home, and thus leaving it defenceless against foreign enemies. The Moors may also be re- proached with an extravagant fondness for ar- chitectural magnificence, splendid fetes, and other expensive entertainments, which aided in exhausting the national treasury at times when protracted warfare scarcely ever permitted this most fertile region of the earth to reproduce the 197 198 THE MOORS OF SPAIN. crops the Spaniards had destroyed. But, more than all, they were a people without an estab- lished code of laws, that only permanent basis of the prosperity of nations. And then, too, a despotic form of government, which deprives men of patriotism, induced each individual to regard his virtues and attainments merely as affording the means of personal consideration, and not, as they should be considered, the prop- erty of his country. These grave defects in the national character of the Moors were redeemed by many excellent qualities, which even the Spaniards admitted them to possess. In battle they were no less brave and prudent than their Christian antago- nists, though inferior in skill and discipline. They excelled them, however, in the art of at- tack. Adversity never long overwhelmed them; they saw in misfortune the will of Heaven, and without a murmur submitted to it. Their fa- vourite dogma of fatalism doubtless contributed to this result. Fervently devoted to the laws oi Mohammed, they obeyed with great exactness his humane injunctions respecting almsgiving :* they bestowed on the poor not only food and * See Note I, page 226. THE MOORS OF SPAIN. money, but a portion of their grain, fruit, and flocks, and of every kind of merchandise. In the towns and throughout the country, the indi- gent sick were collected, attended, and nursed with the most assiduous care. Hospitality, so sacred from the remotest time among the Arabs, was not less carefully observed among the peo- ple of Grenada, who seemed to take peculiar pleasure in its exercise. The following touch- ing anecdote is told in illustration of the pow- erful influence of this principle. A stranger, bathed in blood, sought refuge from the officers of justice under the roof of an aged Moor. The old man concealed him in his house. But he had scarcely done so before a guard arrived to demand possession of the murderer, and, at the same time, to deliver to the horror-stricken Mus- sulman the dead body of his son, whom the stranger had just assassinated. Still the aged father would not give up his guest. When the guard, however, were gone, he entreated the as- sassin to leave him. "Depart from me," he cried, " that I may be at liberty to pursue thee !" These Moslems were but little known to the historians by whom they have been so often ca- lumniated. Polished, enthusiastic, hospitable, 199 200 THE MOORS OF SPAN. brave, and chivalrous, but haughty, passionate, inconstant, and vindictive, their unfortunate fate entitles them, at least, to compassion and sym- pathy, while their virtues may well excite re- spect and interest. After their final defeat, many of the followers of the Prophet retired to Africa. Those who remained in Grenada suffered greatly from the persecution and oppression to which they were subjected by their new masters. The article in their last treaty with the Spaniards, which for- mally ensured their religious freedom, was gross- ly violated by the Catholics, who compelled the Mussulmans to abjure their national faith by force, terror, and every other unworthy means. At last, outraged beyond endurance by this want of good faith, and wrought to desperation by the cruelties they were compelled to endure, in the year 1500 the Moors attempted to revolt against their oppressors. Their efforts were, however, unavailing: Ferdinand marched in person against them, repressed by force of arms the struggles of a people whom he designated as rebels, and, sword in hand, administered the rite of baptism to more than fifty thousand cap- tive Moslems THE MOORS OF SPAIN. The successors of Ferdinand, Charles V. and especially Philip II., continued to harass the Moors.* The Inquisition was established in the city of Grenada, and all the terrors of that dreaded institution were added to gentler means for the conversion of the infidels to Christianity. Their children were taken from them to be edu- cated in accordance with the precepts of that re- ligion whose Adorable Founder enjoined peace, mercy, and forbearance upon his followers, and forbade the practice of injustice and cruelty in every form. Yielding to the promptings of despair, this :rushed and wretched remnant of a once pow- erful and glorious nation again flew to arms in the year 1569, and executed the most terrible vengeance upon the Catholic priesthood. Mo- hammed-ben-Ommah, the new king whom they chose to direct their destinies, and who was * The edicts of Charles V., which were renewed and ren- dered more severe by Philip II., directed an entire change in :he peculiar domestic habits and manners of the Moors, pre- scribed their adoption of the Spanish costume and language, forbade their women to wear veils, interdicted the use of the bath and the celebration of their national dances, and ordered that all their children from the age of five to fifteen should be registered, that they might be sent to Catholic schools. Q 201 202 THE MOORS OF SPAIN said to have sprung from the cherished race of the Ommiades, several times gave battle to his opponents in the mountains of the Alpuxares, where he sustained the cause of his injured countrymen for the space of two years. At the end of that time he was assassinated by his own people. His successor shared the same fate, and the Mussulmans were again compelled to submit to a yoke their revolt had rendered even more intolerable than before. Finally, King Philip III. totally banished the Moors from Spain. The depopulation thus pro- duced inflicted a wound upon that kingdom, from. the effects of which it has never since re- covered. More than one hundred and fifty thousand of this persecuted race took refuge in France, where Henry IV. received them with great hu- manity. A small number also concealed them- selves in the recess a of the Alpuxares; but the greatest part of the expatriated Islamites sought a home in Africa. There their descendants still drag out a miserable existence under the despot ic rule of the sovereigns of Morocco, and unceas- ingly pray that they may be restored to their beloved Grenada. NOTE S. FIRST EPOCH. A, page 25. Until they embrace Islamism, &c The word Islamism is derived from islam, which signifies consecration to God. The brief synopsis given in the text of the principles of the Mohammedan religion, is literally rendered by the author from several different chapters of the Koran. These precepts are there to be found almost lost amid a mass of absurdities, repetitions, and incoherent rhapsodies. Yet, throughout the entire work, there are occasionally bright gleams of fervid elo- quence or pure morality. Mohammed never speaks on his own authority; he pretends always to be prompted by the angel Gabriel, who repeats to him the commands.of the Most High: the Prophet does but listen and repeat them. The angelic messenger has taken care to enter into a multitude of details, not only in relation to religion, but also to legislation and government. And thus it happens that the Koran is re- garded by the Mussulmans as their standard, no less for c'vil than for moral law. One half of this book is written in verse, and the remainder in poetical prose. Mohammed possessed great poetical talent; an endowment so highly esteemed by his countrymen. that they were mn the habit of assembling at Mecca to pronounce judgment on the different poems affixed by their respective authors to the walls of the temple of the Caaba; and the individual in whose favour the popular voice decided was crowned with great solemnity. When the sec- ond chapter of the Koran, Labia ebn rabia, appeared on the walls, the most famous poet of the time, who had previously posted up a rival production of his own, tore it down, and ac- knowledged himself conquered by the Prophet. Mohammed was not altogether the monster of cruelty so many authors represent him to have been. He often dis- played much humanity towards offenders who were in his power, and even forgave personal injuries. One of the most unrelenting of his enemies, named Caab, on whose head a price had been set, had the audacity suddenly to appear in the mosque at Medina while Mohammed was preaching to the multitude. Caab recited some verses which he had com- posed in honour of the Prophet. Mohammed listened to them with pleasure, embraced the poet, and invested him with his own mantle. This precious garment was afterward bought by one of the caliphs of the East, from the family of Caab, for the sum of twenty thousand drachms, and became the pride of those Asiatic sovereigns, who wore it only on the occasion of.some solemn festival. The last moments of Mohammed would seem to prove that he was far from possessing an ignoble mind. Feeling his end approaching, he repaired to the mosque, supported by his friend Ali. Mounting the tribune, he made a prayer, and then, turning to the assembly, uttered these words: " Mus. gulmans, I am about to die. No one, therefore, need any longer fear me ; if I have struck any one among you, here is my breast, let him strike me in return: if I have wrongfully taken the property of any one, here is my purse, let him re- munerate himself: if I have humbled any one, let him now 204 NOTES. spurn me: I surrender myself to the justice of my country- men !" The people sobbed aloud: one individual alone de- manded three drachms of the dying Prophet, who instantly discharged the debt with interest. After this he took an affec- tionate leave of the brave Medinians who had so faithfully defended him, gave liberty to his slaves, and ordered the ar- rangements for his funeral. His last interview with his wife and daughter, and Omar and Ali, his friends and disciples, was marked by much tenderness. Sorrow and lamentation were universal throughout Arabia on this occasion; and his daughter Fatima died of grief for his loss. The respect and veneration entertained by his followers for Mohammed is almost inconceivable. Their doctors have gravely asserted in their writings that the world was created for him; that the first thing made was light, and that that light bedame the substance of the soul of Mohammed, etc. Some of them have maintained that the Alcoran was un- created, while others have adopted a contrary opinion; and out of these discordant views have arisen numerous sects, and even wars that have deluged Asia with blood. The life of Mohammed was terminated by poison, which had been administered to him some years before by a Jewess named Zainab, whose brother had been slain by Ali. This woman, to avenge the death of her brother, poisoned some roasted lamb which she served up for the Prophet. Scarcely had he put a morsel of it into his mouth, when, instantly re- jecting it, he exclaimed that the meat was poisoned. Not- withstanding the prompt use of antidotes, the injurious con- sequences were so severe, that he suffered from them during the remainder of his life, and died four years after, in the sixty- third year of his age. 205 NOTES. NOTES. B, page 27. Kaled, surnamed the Sword of God, &c. The feats of arms ascribed by historians to Kaled resemble those of a hero of romance. He was at first the enemy of the great Arabian leader, and vanquished that commander in the conflict of Aheh, the only battle which Mohammed ever lost. Having afterward become a zealous Mussulman, he subjugated such parts of the Mohammedan dominions as had revolted after the death of the Prophet, opposed the armies of Heraclius, conquered Syria, Palestine, and a part of Per- sia, and came off victor in numerous single combats in which he was at different times engaged: always challenging to an encounter of this kind the general of the hostile army. The following anecdote will illustrate his character. Kaled be- sieged the city of Bostra. The Greek governor, named Ro- main, under pretence of making a sortie, passed the walls with his troops, and arranged them in order of battle in front of the Mussulman army. At the moment when he should have given the signal for the onset, the valiant Greek de- manded an interview with Kaled. The two commanders, therefore, advanced into the centre of the space which separ- ated the opposing armies. Romain declared to the Saracen general that he had determined not only to deliver the city to him, but to embrace the religion of the crescent : he at the same time expressed a fear that his soldiers, among whom he was by no means popular, intended to take his life, and in- treated Kaled to protect him against their vengeance. " The best thing you can do," replied the Moslem leader, " is immediately to accept a challenge to a single combat with me. Such an exhibition of courage will gain for you the re- spect of your troops, and we can treat together afterward !" 206 NOTES. 207 At these words, without waiting for a reply from the gov- ernor, the champion of Islamism drew his cimeter and at- tacked the unfortunate Romain, who defended himself with a trembling hand. At each blow inflicted by the redoubtable follower of the Prophet, Romain cried out, " Do you then wish to kill me " "No," replied the Mussulman; "my only ob- ject is, to load you with honour; the more you are beaten, the more esteem you will acquire !" At last, when he had nearly deprived the poor Greek of life, Kaled gave up the contest, and shortly after took possession of the city : when he next saw the pusillanimous governor, he politely inquired after his health. C, page 30. The warlike tribes of the Bereberes, &c. The name of the portion of Africa called Barbary is de rived from the Bereberes. This people regarded themselves, with much appearance of truth, as the descendants of those Arabs who originally came into the country with Malek Yar- fric, and who are often confounded with the ancient Numidi- ans. Their language, which differs from that of every other people, is, in the opinion of some authors, a corruption of the Punic or Carthaginian. Divided into tribes and wandering among the mountains, this peculiar race still exists in the king- dom of Morocco. The Bereberes were never allied with the Moors, for whom they always entertained a feeling of enmity. Though at present under the dominion of the kings of Mo- recco as their religious head, they brave his displeasure and authority at will. They are formidable in consequence of their numbers, courage, and indomitable spirit of independ- ence; and still preserve unimpaired the peculiar simplicity of their ancient manners and habits. NOTES. D, page 34. Tarik, one of the most renowned captains of his time, &c. Tarik landed at the foot of the Calpe Mountain, and took the city of Herculia, to which the Arabs gave the name of Djebel Tarik, of which we have made Gibraltar. E, page 38. During the remainder of the Caliphate of Yezid II., &c. This caliph, the ninth of the Ommiades, ended his exist- ence in a manner that at least merits pity. He was amusing himself one day with throwing grapes at his favourite female slave, who caught them in her mouth. This fruit, it must be remembered, is much larger in Syria than in Europe. Unfor- tunately, one of the grapes passed into the throat of the slave and instantly suffocated her. The despairing Yezid would not permit the interment of this dearest object of his affec- tions, and watched incessantly beside the corpse for eight successive days. Being compelled at last, by the condition of the body, to separate himself from it, he died of grief, entreat- ing, as he expired, that his remains might be interred in the same tomb with his beloved Hubabah. SECOND EPOCH. A, page 46. He was soon after assassinated, &c. Three Karagites (a name applied to a pre-eminently fanati- cal sect of Mussulmans), beholding the disorders created in the Arabian empire by the contentions of Ali, Moavias, and 208 NOTE S. 209 Amrou, believed that they should perform a service that would be acceptable to God, and restore peace to their country, by simultaneously assassinating the three rivals. One of them repaired to Damascus, and wounded the usurper Moavias in the back; but the wound did not prove mortal. The con- federate charged with the murder of Amrou, stabbed, by mis. take, one of the friends of that rebel. The third, who had undertaken to despatch Ali, struck him as he was about to enter the mosque, and the virtuous caliph was the only one who fell a victim to the design of the assassins. B, page 48. Mervan II, the last caliph of the race, &c. This Ommiade was surnamed Alkemar, that is to say, The Ass : an appellation which, in the East, is considered highly honourable, from the singular regard there entertained for that patient and indefatigable animal. Ariosto derived his touching episode of Isabella of Gallicia from the history of this prince. Mervan, being at one time in Egypt, became enamoured of a religious recluse whom he chanced to see there, and endeavoured to persuade her to break her monastic vows. Effectually to relieve herself from his persecutions, the young devotee promised him an ointment which woula render him invulnerable, and volunteered to prove its efficacy 6n her own person. After having anointed her neck with the mixture, she requested the caliph to test the keenness of his cimeter on it, which the barbarian did; and the result may bb easily imagined. C, page 48. The names of Haroun al Raschid, &c. Haroun al Raschid (which signifies Haroun the Just) was R greatly renowned in the East. He undoubtedly, in part, owed his fame, as well ahis surname, to the protection he afforded to men of letters. His military exploits and his love of sci- ence prove this caliph to have been no ordinary man; but then the glory of his achievements was tarnished by his cru- elty to the Bermacides. These were a distinguished tribe or family, descended from the ancient kings of Persia. They had rendered the most signal services to the successive ca- liphs, and won the respect and affection of the whole empire. Giaffar Barmacide, who was considered the most virtuous of Mussulmans and the most eminent author of the age, was the vizier of Haroun. He entertained a passionate regard for Abassa, the beautiful and accomplished sister of the caliph, and the princess reciprocated his affection; but the sovereign made the most unreasonable opposition to the celebration of their nuptials. This they effected, however, without his knowledge; and for some time Haroun remainred ignorant of the union of the lovers. But, at the end of some years, the caliph made a pilgrimage to Mecca, to which city, the more effectually to secure the inviolability of his secret, the Bermacide had sent his infant son to be reared. There the representative of the Prophet, through the instrumentality of a perfidious slave, became acquainted with all the circum- stances of the deception that had been practised on him. It would be difficult to believe the account of what followed, but that the facts were so well authenticated throughout Asia. Haroun caused his sister to be thrown into a well, commanded that Giaffar should lose his head, and ordered every relative of the unfortunate Bermacide to be put to death. The father of the vizier, a venerable old man, respected throughout the empire, which he had long governed, met his fate with the most heroic firmness. Before he expired, he wrote these 210 NOTES. NOTES. 211 words to the sanguinary despot: " The accused departs first ; the accuser will shortly follow. Both will appear in the pres- ence of a Judge whom no arguments can deceive !" The implacable Haroun carried his vengeance so far as to forbid that any one should mention the names of his hapless victims. One of his subjects, named Mundir, had the cour- age to brave this edict, and publicly to pronounce the eulogy of the beloved Bermacides. The tyrant commanded that the offending Mussulman should appear before him, and threatened him with punish- ment for what he had done. " You can silence me only by inflicting death upon me !" replied Mundir: " that you have the power of doing; but you cannot extinguish the gratitude entertained by the whole empire for those virtuous ministers : even the ruins you have made of the monuments which they erected, speak of their fame in spite of you !" It is said that the monarch was touched by the words of this fearless defender of the dead, and that he commanded a golden plate to be presented to him. Such was the famous caliph who bore the name of the Just. Almamon, his son, received no surname; but he de- served to be ranked with the wisest and the most virtuous of men. Some idea of his character may be formed from the fo.lowing anecdote. It is recorded of him, that his viziers urged him to punish with death one of his relations who had taken arms against him, and caused himself to be proclaimed caliph. Almamon, however, rejected this sanguinary counsel, saying at the same time, "Alas ! if they who have injured me, knew how much pleasure I experience in forgiving my enemies, they would hasten to appear before me to confess their faults !" This excellent prince was the munificent pa- tron of science and the arts, and his reign formed the most brilliant epoch of the glorious days of the Arabs. D, page 54. Wars with the kings of Leon, and incursions into Catalonia, &c. Historians do not agree concerning the precise period when Charlemagne entered Spain. It would appear, however, that it was during the reign of Abderamus that the emperor crossed the Pyrenees, took Pampeluna and Saragossa, and was attacked, during his retreat, in the defiles of Roncevaux, a place rendered famous in romantic literature by the death of Roland. E, page 59. A government that properly respected the rights of the peo- ple, &c. The ancient laws of Aragon, known under the name of Fore de Sobarbe, limited the power of the sovereign by cre- ating a balance for it in that of the ricos Hombres, and of a magistrate who bore the name of Justice. F, page 60. The celebrated school, &c. The musical school, founded at Cordova by Ali-Zeriab, produced the famous Moussali, who was regarded by the Ori- entals as the greatest musician of his time. The music of the Moors did not consist, like ours, in the concord of differ- ent instruments, but simply in soft and tender airs, which the musicians sung to the accompaniment of the lute. Some- times several voices and lutes executed the same air in uni- son. This simple style of music satisfied a people who.were 212 NOTES. NOTES. 213 such passionate lovers of poetry, that their first desire, when listening to a singer, was to hear the words he uttered. Moussali, who was the pupil of Ali-Zeriab at Cordova, be- came afterward, in consequence of his musical talents, the favourite of Haroun al Raschid, the celebrated caliph of the East. It is related that this prince, in consequence of a mis- understanding with one of his favourite wives, fell into such a state of melancholy that fears were entertained for his life Giaffar, the Bermacide, at that time the principal vizier of the caliph, entreated the poet Abbas-ben-Ahnaf to compose some verses on the subject of this quarrel. He did so, and they were sung in the presence of the prince by Moussali; and the royal lover was so softened by the sentiments of the poet and the melody of the musician, that he immediately flew to the feet of his fair enslaver, and a reconciliation took place be- tween the disconsolate monarch and the offended beauty. The grateful slave sent twenty thousand drachms of gold to the poet and Moussali, and Haroun added forty thousand more to her gift. G, page 66. The statue of the beautiful Zahra, &c. Mohammed, to discourage idolatry, forbade his followers, in the Koran, to make images in any form; but this injunc- tion was very imperfectly observed. The Oriental caliphs adopted the custom of stamping their coins with an impres- sion of their own features, as is proved by specimens still ex- isting in the collections of the curious. On one side of these was represented the head of the reigning caliph, and on the other appeared his name, with some passages from the Alco- ran. In the palaces of Bagdad, Cordova, and Grenada, fig- ures of animals, and sculpture of various kinds, both in gold and aarble, abounded. NOTES. H, page 69. The richest and most powerful, &c. Some conception of the opulence of the caliphs of the West, during the palmy days of their prosperity, may be formed from the value of the gifts presented to Abderamus III. by one of his subjects, Abdoumalek-ben-Chien, on the occasion of his being appointed to the dignity of chief vizier. The ar- ticles composing this present are thus enumerated : Four hun- dred pounds of virgin gold; four hundred and twenty thou- sand sequins, in the form of ingots of silver; four hundred and twenty pounds of the wood of aloes ; five hundred ounces of ambergris ; three hundred ounces of camphor ; thirty pieces of silk and cloth of gold ; ten robes of the sable fur of Korassan ; one hundred others, of less valuable fur; forty- eight flowing housings for steeds, a thousand bucklers; a hundred thousand arrows; gold tissues, from Bagdad; four thousand pounds of silk; thirty Persian carpets; eight hun- dred suits of armour for war horses ; fifteen Arabian coursers for the caliph ; a hundred for the use of his officers; twenty mules, saddled and caparisoned; forty youths and twenty young maidens, of rare beauty. I, page 81. About this time occurred the famous adventure of the seven sons of Lara, so celebrated in Spanish history and romance, and of which, as in some degree connected with Moorish his- tory, we may briefly narrate the particulars. These young warriors were brothers, the sons of Gonzalvo Gustos, a near relative of the first counts of Castile, and lords of Salas de Lara. Ruy Velasquez, brother-in-law of Gonzalvo Gustos, instigated by his wife, who pretended to 214 have some ca ase of offence against the youngest of the seven brothers, meditated the execution of a horrible scheme for their destruction. He commenced by sending their father Gonzalvo on an embassy to the court of Cordova, making him, at the same time, the bearer of letters, in which he prayed the caliph to put the envoy to death, as the enemy of the crescent and its followers. The Mussulman sovereign, being unwill- ing to commit so barbarous an act, contented himself with retaining Gonzalvo as a prisoner. In the mean time, the perfidious Velasquez, under pretence of conducting an attack against the Moors, led his nephews into the midst of an am- buscade, where, overpowered by numbers, they all perished, after a most heroic defence, accompanied by circumstances which render their end truly affecting. The barbarous uncle sent the gory heads of the murdered youths to the royal palace of Cordova, and caused them to be presented to the unhappy father, in a golden dish covered with a veil. No sooner did Gonzalvo behold the ghastly contents of the dish, than he fell to the earth, deprived of sense. The Caliph of the West, filled with indignation at the demoniac cruelty of Velasquez, restored his captive to liberty. But the foe of his race was too powerful to permit the childless Gonzalvo to avenge the murder of his offspring. He attempted, indeed, to do so ; but old age had deprived him of his former strength and vigour. With his wife, therefore, he mourned in solitude over the untimely fate of his sons, and entreated Heaven to permit him to follow them to the tomb : but a champion of his cause unexpectedly arose in the person of an illegitimate son of Gonzalvo's at the Moorish court. When this boy had attained the age of twelve years, he was informed of his pa- rentage by his mother, who was the sister of the sovereign of Cordova, and of the wrongs which his father had suffered. 215 NOTE S. The heroic youth, who bore the name of Mendarra Gonza'- vo, resolved to become the avenger of his brothers. Hasten- mg to execute his purpose, he left Cordova, challenged Va- lasquez, and slew him. Cutting off the head of his father's foe, he sought with his burden the presence of the old man, demanded to be acknowledged as his son, and admitted into the Christian church. The wife of Gonzalvo joyfully con- sented to receive the brave Mendarra as her son, and he was solemnly adopted by the venerable pair. The wife of Velas- quez, who, it will be remembered, had instigated the ferocious uncle to his murderous deed, was stoned to death and after- ward burned. It is from this valiant Mendarra Gonzalvo that the Mauriques de Lara, one of the most important Span- ish families, seek to trace their descent. THIRD EPOCH. A, page 86. Three bishops of Catalonia, &c. These three bishops of Catalonia, who died fighting for the Mussulmans at the battle of Albakara, which took place in the year 1010, were Arnaulpha, bishop of Vic ; Accia, bishop of Barcelona; and Othon, bishop of Girona. B, page 91. And equally ready, when enjoying the favour of the sovereign, to displease him, if it should be necessary to do so, &c. RoDRIUE DIAs DE BIVAR, surnamed the Cid, so well known by his affection for Chimena and his duel with the Count Gormas, has been the subject of many poems, novels, 216 NOTES. and romances in the Spanish tongue. Without crediting all the extraordinary adventures ascribed to this hero by his coun- trymen, it is proved by the testimony of reputable historians, that the Cid was not only the bravest and most dreaded war- rior of his time, but one of the most virtuous and generous of men. De Bivar was already famed for his exploits while Castile was still under the dominion of Ferdinand I. When the successor of that monarch, Sancho II., endeavoured to despoil his sister Uraque of the city of Zamora, this cham- pion of the oppressed, with noble firmness, represented to the king that he was about being guilty of an act of injustice, by which he would violate, at the same time, the laws of honour and the ties of blood. The offended Sancho exiled the Cid, but was soon after obliged by necessity to recall'him. When the treacherous assassination of Sancho, while encamped be- fore Zamora, entitled his brother Alphonso to the throne, the Castilians were anxious that their new sovereign should disa- vow, by a solemn oath, having had any agency in the murder of his brother. No one dared demand of the king to take this oath except the Cid, who constrained him to pronounce it aloud at the same altar where his coronation was celebrated; adding, at the same time, the most fearful maledictions against perjury. Alphonso never forgave the liberty thus taken with him, and soon after banished the Spanish hero from court, under pretence of his having trespassed on the territories .of an ally of Castile, the King of Toledo, into whose dominions the Cid had inadvertently pursued some fugitives from justice. The period of his exile became the most glorious epock i the history of the Chevalier de Bivar: it was then that he achieved so many triumphs over the Moors, aided solely by the brave companions in arms whom his reputation drew to his standard. After a time AlDhonso recalled the Cid, anid re 217 NOTES.. ceived him into apparent favour; but liodrigue was too can- did long to enjoy the royal smiles. Banished from court anew, he hastened to accomplish the conquest of Valencia; and master of that strong city, with many others, and of a territory of great extent, to make the Cid a monarch it was only necessary that he himself should desire it. But the no- ble Spaniard never for a moment indulged the wish, and ever continued the faithful subject of the ungrateful and often- offending Alphonso. This celebrated hero died at Valencia A.D. 1099, crowned with years and honours. He had but one son, and of him he was early deprived by death. The two daughters of the Cid espoused princes of the house of Navarre ; and, through a long succession of alliances, formed at length the root whence is derived the present royal race of Bourbons. C, page 92. More ferocious and sanguinary than the lions of their deserts, &c. The history of Africa, during the period referred to in the text, is but a narrative of one continued succession of the most atrocious murders. Were we to judge of humanity by these sanguinary annals, we should be tempted to believe, that, of all ferocious animals, man is the most bloodthirsty and cruel. Amid the multitude of these African tyrants, there was one, of the race of the Aglhebites, named Abon Ishak, who was particularly distinguished for the demoniac barbarity of nis character. Having butchered eight of his brothers, he next indulged his horrid thirst for blood in the sacrifice of his own offspring. The mother of this monster succeeded with diffi- eulty in preserving from his fury a part of his family. One 218 NOTES. day, while dining with Ishak, upon his expressing some feel- ing of momentary regret that he had no more children, his mother tremblingly ventured to confess that she had preserved the lives of six of his daughters. The sanguinary wretch ap. peared softened, and expressed a desire to see' them. When they were summoned to his presence, their youth and love- liness touched the ferocious father ; and while Isbhk lavished caresses upon his innocent children, his mother retired, with tears of joy, to render thanks to Heaven for this. apparent change in the temper of her son. Ar hour afterward, a eu nuch brought her, by order of the emperor, the heads of the young princesses. It would be easy to cite other parallel deeds, attested by historians, which were perpetrated by this execrable n.;onster. Suffice it to say, he escaped the violent death: due to uch a life, and long maintained his hateful rule. Time has not softened the sanguinary ferocity, which seems like an inherent vice produced by the climate of Africa. Iu- Iei-Abdalla, the father of Sidi Mohammed, the recent Iking .f Morocco, renewed these scenes of horror. One day, while crossing a river, he was on the point of drowning, when one of his negroes succeeded in rescuing him from the waves. The slave expressed his delight at having had the good fortune to serve his master. His words were heard by Abdalla, who, drawing his cimeter, and crying, " Behold an infidel, who sup- poses that God required his assistance in preserving the life of an emperor," instantly struck off the head of his preserver. This same monarch had a confidential domestic who had been long in his service, and for whom the savage Abdallo appeared to entertain some affection. In a moment of good- nature he entreated this aged servant to accept two thousand ducats at his hand and leave his service, lest he should be 219 NOTES. seized with an irrepressible desire to kill him, as he had so many others. The old man clang to the feet of the king, ie. fused the two thousand ducats, and assured him that he pre. ferred perishing by his hand rather than abandon so beloved a master. Mule, with some hesitation, consented to retain his aged servant. Some days afterward, impelled by that thirst for blood whosf, impulses were sometimes uncontrollable, and without the slightest provocation to the deed, the fiendish des- pot struck the unfortunate man dead at his feet, saying, at the same moment, that he had been a fool not to accept his per- mission to leave him. It is painful to relate these shocking details; but they pre- sent a true picture of the character of these African sover- eigns, while they inspire us with a horror of tyranny, and a veneration for the restraints of civilization and law, so indis- pensr.ble to the well-being of every community. D, page 98. And possessed the united glory of having both enlightened, &e Averroes belonged to one of the first families in Cordova. His version of the writings of Aristotle was translated into Latin, and was for a long time the only translation of the works of that author. The other productions of Averroes are still esteemed by the learned. He is justly regarded as the chief of the Arabic philosophers : a class of men not nu- merous in a nation abounding in prophets and conquerors. The principles he entertained exposed him to much persecu- tion. His indifference to the religious creed of his country- men excited the enmity of the imans or priests against him, and afforded a pretext for the animosity of all whom his geriua inspired with envy. lie was accused of heresy before the Em- 220O NOTE S. peror of Morocco; and the punishment decreed against him was, that he should do homage at the door of the mosque, while every true Mussulman who came thither to pray for his conversion should spit in his face. He submitted patiently to the humiliating infliction, merely repeating the words Moriatur anima mea morle philosophorum (Let me die the death of a philosopher). E, page 106. And broke the chains, &c. This King of Navarre was Sancho VIII., surnamed the Strong. It was in commemoration of the chains broken by him at the battle of Toloza that Sancho added the chains of gold to the arms of Navarre, which are still to be seen on the field of gules. F, page 111. Cousin-german of St. Lewis, &c. Blanche, the mother of St. Lewis, was the daughter of Al- phonso the Noble of Castile. She had a sister named Be- ringira, who became the wife of the King of Leon, and the mother of Ferdinand III. Several historians, among others Mariana and Garibai, maintain that Blanche was older than Beringira. If it were so, St. Lewis was the rightful heir to the throne of Castile. France long asserted the pretensions thus created. It is surprising that historians have not settled this disputed point. One thing, however, is certain: the claims of Ferdinand, sustained as they were by the partiality of the Castilians, prevailed over those of his cousin. 221 NOTES. NOTES. FOURTH EPOCH. A, page 132. Alphonso the Sage, &c. Alphonso the Sage was a great astronomer: his Alphion sine Tables prove that the happiness of his people occupied his attention as much, .at least, as his literary pursuits. It is in this collection that this remarkable sentence occurs-remark- able when it is considered that it expresses the sentiments of a monarch of the thirteenth century : " The despot uproots the tree : the wise sovereign prunes it." B, page 135. In the hope of being elected emperor, &c. ALPHONSO THE SAGE was elected Emperor of Germany in the year twelve hundred and fifty-seven : but he was at too great a distance from that country, and too much occupied at home, to be able to support his claims to the imperial throne. Sixteen years afterward, however, he made a voyage to Ly- ons, where Pope Gregory X. then was, to advocate his rights before that dignitary. But the sovereign pontiff decided in favour of Rodolph of Hapsburg, a scion of the house of Aus- tria. C, page 136. Sancho reigned in his father's stead, &c. s Sancho, surnamed the Brave, who took up arma against his father and afterward obtained his throne, was the second son of Alphonso the Sage. His elder brother, Ferdi- nand de la Cerda, a mild and virtuous prince, died in the 222 flower of his age, leaving two infant sons, the offspring of his marriage with Blanche, the daughter of St. Lewis of France. It was to deprive these children of their reversionary right to the crown of Castile that the ambitious Sancho made war upon his father. He succeeded in his criminal designs; but ;he princes of La Cerda, protected by France and Aragon, rallied around them all the malecontents of Castile, and the claims they were thus enabled to support long formed a pre- text or occasion for the most bloody dissensions. D, page 149. Ferdinand IV., surnamed the Summoned, &c. Ferdinand IV., the son and successor of Sancho the Brave, was still in his infancy when he succeeded to the throne. His minority was overshadowed by impending clouds; but the power and influence of Queen Mary, his mother, enabled her eventually to dissipate the dangers which threatened the safety of her son. This prince obtained his appellation of the Summoned from the following circumstance. Actuated by feelings of strong indignation, Ferdinand commanded that two brothers, named Carvajal, who had been accused, but not convicted, of the crime of assassination, should be precipi- tated from a rocky precipice. Both the supposed criminals, in their last moments, asserted their innocence of the crime alleged against them, appealed to Heaven and the laws to verify the truth of their protestations, and summoned the pas- sionate Ferdinand to appear before the Great Judge of all men at the end of thirty days. At the precise time thus in- dicated, the Castilian king, wlho was marching against the Moors, retired for repose after dinner, and was found dead upon his couch. The Spaniards attributed this sudden death to the effects of Divine justice. It had been well if the mon- 223 NOTES. archs who succeeded Ferdinand, Peter the Cruel in particu- lar, had been convinced of the truth of this sentiment. E, page 149. Retiring within the walls of Tariffe, &c. After Sancho the Brave became master of Tariffe, it was besieged by the Africans. It was during this siege that Al- phonso de Guzman, the Spanish governor of the city, exhib- ited an example of invincible firmness and self-command, of which none but parents can form a just estimate. The son of De Guzman was taken prisoner during a sortie. The Af. ricans conducted their captive to the walls, and threatened the governor with his immolation unless the city should be immediately surrendered. The undaunted Spaniard replied only by hurling a poniard at his enemies, and retired from the battlements. In a moment loud cries burst from the garrison. Hastily demanding the cause of this alarm, the unhappy father was told that the Africans had put to death his son. " God be praised," said he, " I thought that the city had been taken !" F, page 158. The celebrated Inez de Castro, &c. The passion of Peter the Cruel for Inez de Castro was carried to such excess as, perhaps, in some degree, to ac- count for the atrocity of his revenge upon her murderers. These were three distinguished Portuguese lords, who them- selves stabbed the unfortunate Inez in the arms of her wom- en. Peter, who, at the time this barbarous deed was com- mitted, had not yet attained regal power, seemed from that period to lose all command of himself : from being gentle and virtuous, he became ferocious and almost insane. He openly rebelled against his father, carried fire and sword into those 224 NOTES. parts of the kingdom in which the domains of the assassins of Inez were situated, and, when he afterward came into pos- session of the crown, insisted that the King of Castile should deliver up Gonzales arad Coello, two of the guilty noblemen, who had taken refuge at his court. Thus master of the per- sons of two of his victims (the third had fled into France, where he died), Peter subjected them to the most dreadful tortures. He caused their hearts to be torn out while they were yet living, and assisted himself at this horrible sagrifice. After thus glutting his vengeance, the inconsolable lover ex- humed the body of his murdered mistress, clothed it in mag- nificent habiliments, and, placing his crown upon the livid and revolting brow, proclaimed Inez de Castro queen of Portugal; compelling, at the same time, the grandees of his court to do homage to the insensible remains which he had invested with the attributes of royalty. G, page 161. Most of the productions of the Grenadian authors, &c. After the surrender of Grenada, Cardinal Ximenes caused every copy of the Koran of which he could obtain possession to be burned. The ignorant and superstitious soldiery mis- took for that work everything written in the Arabic language, and committed to the flames a multitude of compositions both in prose and verse. H, page 178. The Abencerrages, &c. The inhabitants of Grenada, and, indeed, the whole Moorish people, were divided into tribes, composed of the different branches of the same family. Some of these tribes were more numerous and important than others: but two distinct S NOTES. 225 races were never united together, nor was one of them ever divided. At the head of each of these tribes was a chief who was descended in a direct male line from the original founder of the family. In the city of Grenada there existed thirty-two considerable tribes. The most important of these were the Abencerrages, the Zegris, the Alcenabez, the Al- morades, the Vanegas, the Gomeles, the Abidbars, the Gau- zuls, the Abenamars, the Aliatars, the Reduans, the Aldo- radins, etc. These separate races were, many of them, at enmity with each other; and their animosity being perpet- uated from one generation to another, gave rise to the fre- quent civil wars which were attended with such disastrous consequences to the nation at large. I, page 198 His humane injunctions respecting almsgiving, &c. Almsgiving is one of the leading principles of the Mo. hammedan religion. It was enjoined upon the followers of the Prophet by a variety of allegories, among which is the following : " The sovereign Judge shall, at the last great day, entwine him who has not bestowed alms with a frightful ser- pent, whose envenomed sting shall for ever pierce the avari- cious hand that never opened for the relief of the unfortunate !" 226 NOTE S. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE IRISE AND DECLINE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRE; THE LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION OF THF ARAB~' AND THE PRESENT CO'IDITION OF MOHAMMEDANISM. BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE MIOHAMMEDAN EMPIRE. CHAPTER I. Extent of the Arabian Empire.-Causes which led to that ex- tent.-Continuance of Mohammedanism.-Decay of the Em. pire.-What led to it.-Spain revolts and sets up a separate Caliph.-Africa.-Egypt.-Bagdad.-Fall of the House of the Abbassides. THE first battle in which the Arabs tried their power against the disciplined forces of the Romar. empire was the battle of Muta. Though on that occasion they were successful, the most sanguine could not have ventured to predict that, before the close of a 'century, their empire would become more extensive than any that had ever before ex- isted. Yet such was the fact. It overthrew the power of the Romans, and rendered the successors of the Prophet the mightiest and most absolute sov- ereigns on earth. Under the last monarch of the Ommiade race, 230 EXTENT OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. the Arabian empire, excepting only an obscure part of Africa, of little account, embraced a com- pact territory equal to six months' march of a car- avan in length and four in breadth, with innu- merable tributary and dependant states. In the exercise of their power, the caliphs were fettered neither by popular rights, the votes of a senate, nor constitutional laws: the Koran was, indeed, their professed rule of action; but, inasmuch as they alone were its interpreters, their will was in all cases law. The loss of Spain to the empire was more than made up by conquests in India, Tartary, and European Turkey. Samarcand and Timbuctoo studied with equal devotion the lan. guage and religion of the Koran, and at the temple of Mecca the Moor and the Indian met as brother pilgrims. Throughout the countries west of the Tigris, the language of Arabia became the vehicle of popular intercourse; and, although in Persia, Tartary, and Hindostan the native dialects con- tinued in common use, the Arabic was also there the sacred tongue. We will advert to some of the causes which led to this astonishing success. The leading article of the Mohammedan faith, the unity of God, har- monized with what Jews and Christians univer. sally believed. Mohammed propounded this doc- trine, by excluding the Deity of Jesus Christ, so as CAUSE OF MOHAMMED'S SUCCESS. 231 to fall in with the views of the greater number of the Christian sectaries. He moreover enjoined practices which, in the then corrupt state of reli. gion, were beginning widely to prevail. To the untutored mind of the desert wanderer, his doc. trine would thus possess all the attractiveness he might have heard ascribed to Christianity, while his being of the same country would secure for him the greater attention. Systems in which truth and error have been combined are by no means unwillingly received, especially by those who are already superstitious and fanatical, and such was pre-eminently the character of the Arabians. Mo- hammed's religious, moral, and juridical system was in general accordance with Asiatic opinions; it provided a paradise exactly suited to the imagi. nation and taste of the Orientals; and, as the su. perstitious are always more powerfully influenced by that which awakens apprehension and appeals to fear than by what enkindles hope, his hell con. tributed even more than his heaven to multiply disciples. Still, had no resort been had to arms, the Mo. hammedan faith would in all probability have been confined to the deserts of Arabia. The whole of Asia was at that time in a state of unprecedented military inactivity, and opportunity was thus af. forded for the success of his enterprise. Empires 232 WARLIKE CHARACTER OF THE ARABS. were tottering and powerless; political wisdom had almost disappeared ; and to military talents and courage the Arabs alone could make any preten. sions. Previous contentions between the Persian and Byzantine empires had entirely destroyed what little remains of internal vigour those govern- ments might otherwise have possessed. Civil re. volts, tyranny, extortion, sensuality, and sloth, had annihilated the ambition of universal rule which the Greek and Roman governments had once cher. ished; and their provinces, neglected or oppressed, became an easy prey to the Moslem power. The nations were the more rapidly subdued, since to the indomitable ferocity of the desert wan. derer the Saracens added those other features which complete a warlike character. They de- spised death, and were self-denying and energetic to a degree far beyond the soldiers of civilized countries, while they were scarcely less familiar with the military art. The lieutenants of the ca- liphs soon vied with the Roman generals in skill; and it is by no means difficult to explain their al- most uniform superiority, when we bear in mind the character of the armies they respectively com. manded. Terror, moreover, is epidemic; and a force already successful commonly finds its vic- torious progress greatly aided by the prevailing notion of its crowess. Thus we have witnessed, FANATICISM OF THE ARABS. in the wars of more disciplined troops, the tre- mendous effect of a name alone. It may be added, also, that the Saracen success is greatly attributable to that ardent and impetuous spirit of religious enthusiasm with which they fought. They deemed their cause the cause of God; heav: p, they were persuaded, was engaged in their behalf; every one who fell in their wars was a martyr; and cowardice was tantamount to apostacy. The religious ardour of the Crusaders, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to exterminate Mo- hammedanism, did not exceed, if it even equalled, that of the Arab soldiers by whom that system had been originally propagated. Whatever secu. lar principles and ambition influenced them, they took credit for fighting in the support of truth and virtue. The sword and the Koran were equally the companions and the instruments of their wars. " The circumstance," says Paley, in his admirable exhibition of the Evidences of Christianity,* "that Mohammed's conquests should carry his religion along with them, will excite little surprise when we know the conditions which he proposed to the vanquished: death or conversion was the only choice offered to idolators. To the Jews and Christians was left the somewhat milder alterna. * Yol. ii., 4 3. 233 234 SUPERSTITION OF THE GREEKS. tive of subjection and tribute if they persisted in their own religion, or of an equal participation of the rights and liberties, the honours and privileges of the faithful if they embraced the religion of their conquerors." Literature, in the days of Mohammed, was as little regarded as was pure and practical Chris. tianity. His followers everywhere met with an ignorant and easilydeluded people. Both the monuments of science and the means of freedom had been abolished by the barbarians of the North Philosophy and the liberal arts found no patrons among indolent and luxurious emperors and no. bles. Superstition, therefore, naturally took pos. session of the minds of men, and, as neither fears nor hopes were moderated by knowledge, idle, pre- posterous, and unnecessary ceremonies easily ob. tained currency. Mohammed merely changed one set of ceremonies for another; and in this there was little difficulty, since, in the almost universal darkness of mankind, terror and credulity every. where prevailed. The continuance of the religion of Mohammed in countries after the Arab dominion over theml had ceased, may be also easily accounted for. " Everything in Asia is a matter of regulation ; and freedom of opinion being but little permitted or encouraged in the despotic governments of the PERMANENCY OF THE MOSLEM FAITH. 235 East, 1Vohammedanism, when once received, be- came stationary. The hurhan code is mingled with the divine, and the ideas of change and prof- anation are inseparable. As the unsettling of the political and social fabric might ensue from a change of modes of faith, all classes of men are in- terested in preserving the national religion."* Be- sides this, in their own nature religious doctrines are more permanent in their hold than forms of civil government: it may be questioned, for in- stance, whether, whatever civil changes Scotland might undergo, Presbyterianism would ever cease to be the prevalent faith of its inhabitants. A peo- ple may, with the overthrow of usurped civil pow- er, return to their ancient religion, whatever it is: but when once a religion has become, so to speak, indigenous, it is likely to be permanent. Such is the religion of the Koran both in Asia and Africa. The elements of political weakness and decay soon began to be developed in the chief seat of the Saracen empire. In the earliest days of the ca- liphate, after the accession of the Ommiade dynas- ty, the princes of Damascus were regarded as the heads of the Moslem faith; while the governors of Arabia successively obtained, as to civil rule, their independence. 'To this the widely-extended wars in which the caliphs were engaged no doubt coum * Mills, p. 179. 236 DECLINE OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE tributed. Other provinces followed the example: and, as the empire enlarged, the remoteness and degeneracy of the Syrian court encouraged the governors to assume to themselves everything ex. cept the name of king, and to render their digni- ties hereditary. All the provinces were nominally connected with the empire by the payment of trib- ute; but means were easily devised to withhold this, under pretence of prosecuting the wars of the caliph, though really to strengthen his rebellious deputies against him. If in this we discover a want of efficiency in the government, we need not be surprised: the systems of the Macedonian hero and of the Roman conquerors were equally defect- ive; and perhaps we should attribute such defi- ciency to a wise and beneficent arrangement of Providence, which, that oppression may never be- come permanent and universal, permits not any empire for a very long time to hold dominion over countries dissimilar in their habits and character, and independent of each other. To the establishment of these separate states, the luxury and effeminacy of the court at Damascus in no small degree contributed. In the, early periods of the caliphate, simplicity and charity chiefly dis. tinguished their rulers ; but, as the wealth and power of the Saracens increased, they imitated the splen- dour and magnificence of the monarchs of Persia MAGNIFICENCE OF THE CALIPHS. 237 and (reece. Abulfeda says of the coulrt in the year 917: "The Caliph Moctadi's whole army, both horse and foot, were under arms, which to- gether made a body of one hundred and sixty thou. sand men. His state officers stood near him in the most splendid apparel, their belts shining with gold and gems. Near them were seven thousand black and white eunuchs. The porters or door. keepers were in number seven hundred. Barges and boats, with the most superb decorations, were swimming on the Tigris. Nor was the palace it. self less splendid, in which were hung thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, twelve thousand five hundred of which were of silk embroidered with gold. The carpets on the floor were twenty-two thousand. A hundred lions were brought out, with a keeper to each lion. Among the other spectacles of rare and stupendous luxury was a tree of gold and silver, which opened itself into eighteen larger branches, upon which and the other smaller branches sat birds of every sort, made also of gold and silver. The tree glittered with leaves of the same metals; and while its branches, through machinery, appeared to move of themselves, the several birds upon them warbled their natural notes." When, moreover, decline had once commenced, its progress was accelerated by the means taken 238 INDEPENDENT CALIPHATE OF SPAIN. to arrest it. After the regular troops had been corrupted by faction, the caliphs, for the defence of their person and government, formed a militia; but the soldiers composing this force, not unfre. quently foreigners, soon governed with a military despotism similar to that of the janizaries of Tur. key, the Mamelukes of Egypt, or the praetorian guards of Rome ; and, in addition to these causes of decay, a furious spirit of sectarianism tore asun. der the very strength and heart of the empire. The colossal power of the successors of Moham. med, suddenly towering to its awful height, almost as suddenly fell, as if to yield more perfect confir. mation of the truth, that all earthly things are des. tined to pass away, while the word of the living God abideth for ever. Spain, as has been seen, was the first distant province of the Arabian empire which succeeded in separating itself and setting up an independent caliph. *As this country had been brought under the Moslem yoke by means chiefly furnished from the northern states of Africa, its independence was likely to produce a corresponding effect upon those states. They were governed in the name of the Bagdad caliphs; but for nearly a century they had been growing into independence, under rulers usu. ally known, from the name of their progenitor, as the Aglabite dynasty. Early in the ninth century, THE AFRICAN PROVINCES REVOLT. 239 the throne of Mauritania, Massilia, and Carthage was seized by Obeidollah, whose successors as. sumed the title of Mihidi, or directors of the faith- ful. The districts of Fez and Tangiers, which had been already wrested from the princes of Bagdad by the real or pretended posterity of Ali, were soon brought under his dominion; and, before the end of the tenth century, all acknowledgment of the Abbassidan rule was obliterated by the sup. pression of public prayers for the princes of that race. A succession of changes distracted the country for some five centuries afterward; but, about the year 1516, the descendants of Moham. med were raised to the throne of Morocco, which has been transmitted, without interruption, in the same line, to its present possessors. Moez, the last of the African princes of the house of Obeidol. lah, who seems to have depended for his dominion more on his prowess than on his supposed descent from Mohammed,* transferred his court to Grand Cairo, a city which he had built in Egypt after his conquest of that country. Africa was to be held as' a fief of this new empire. Large tracts of Syria and the whole of Palestine acknowledged the * When it was demanded of Moez from what branch of Mo- hammed's family he drew his title, "This," said he, showing his cimeter, " is my pedigree ; and these," throwing gold among his soldiers, "are my children." supremacy of his descendants, commonly known as Fatimitgs, from their supposed relationship to Ali, and to Fatima, the Prophet's daughter. They possessed also the sovereignty of the Holy Land: against them, therefore, the crusades of Europe were chiefly directed. During these formidable wars the caliphs of Egypt sought assistance from those of Bagdad; and Noureddin, a prince of that empire, protected them against their Western as. sailants. The weakness of Egypt, however, came thus to be known to the crafty and powerful ca- liphs of Bagdad, and in a short time its Asiatic dominions were seized upon by Noureddin and Saladin: As Adhed, the last caliph of Egypt, was dying in the mosque of Cairo, these generals pro. claimed Morthadi, the thirty-third caliph of Bag. dad, as his successor. Saladin, whose name, from his activity, courage, and success against the cru. saders, is better known to the readers 'of European history than that of almost any other Mohammedan prince, soon made himself master of Egypt; but his successors could not maintain the power he had acquired. The country is now governed by the celebrated Mohammed Ali, nominally as vice. roy of the Turkish emperor, though he is in reali. ty a sovereign and independent prince. The caliphs of the house of Abbas, having built the city of Bagdad soon after their accession to the 240 SALADIG. FIRST DYNASTY OF THE ABBASSIDES. 241 throne, transferred thither their court and the seat of power. For five centuries they reigned there with various degrees of authority; but foreign wars and domestic revolts gradually dissolved the empire,- and their dominion at length passed away. Radhi, the twentieth caliph of the race, was " the last," says Abulfeda, " who harangued the people from the pulpit; who passed the cheerful hour of leisure with men of learning and taste; whose ex- penses, resources, and treasures, whose table and magnificence, had any resemblance to those of the ancient caliphs." "During the next three centu- ries," says a modern historian of the Arabian em. pire, "the successors of Mohammed swayed a fee- ble sceptre. Sometimes their state was so de. graded that they were confined in their palaces like prisoners, and occasionally were almost re- duced to the want of corporeal subsistence. The tragic scenes of fallen royalty at length were closed ; for, towards the middle of the seventh cen. tury of the Hegira, the metropolis of Islamism fell into the hands of Houlagou Khan, the grandson of Zenghis Khan, and emperor of the Moguls and Tar tars, who reigned at that period with absolute and unmixed despotism over every nation of the East. The caliph Mostasem, the thirty.seventh of his house, was murdered under circumstances of pe. culiar barbarity, and the caliphate of Bagdad ex. T 242 SECOND DYNASTY OF THE ABBASSIDES. pired. Though the 1dignity and sovereignty of the caliphs were lost by this fatal event, and the soul which animated the form had fled, yet the name existed for three centuries longer in the eighteen descendants of Mostanser Billah, a son, or pretend. ed son, of Daker, the last but one of this race of princes. " Mostanser Billah and his successors, to the num. ber of eighteen, were called the second dynasty of the Abbassides, and were spiritual chiefs of the Mo. hammedan religion, but without the slightest ves. tige of temporal authority. When Selim, emperor of the Turks, conquered Egypt and destroyed the power of the Mamelukes, he carried the caliph, whom he found there a prisoner, to Constantinople, and accepted from him a renunciation of his eccle. siastical supremacy. On the death of the caliph, the family of the Abbassides, once so illustrious, and which had borne the title of caliph for almost eight hundred years, sunk with him from obscurity into oblivion."* * Mill's History, 10. EARLY BARBARISM OF THE ARABS. 243 CHAPTER II. Laterature and Science of the Arabs.-Their Facilities for Lit. erary and Scientific Pursuits.-Patronage of Literature by the Princes of the House of Abbas.--Almamoun.-Arabian Schools.--Eloquence.---Poetry.-The Arabian Tales.-Histo- ry.-Geography.-Speculative Sciences.-Astrology.--Math- ematical Knowledge of the Arabs.-Astronomy.-Architec- ture.-The Fine Arts.-Agriculture.-Medicine.-Chymistry. --Our obligations to Arab Literature. THE early followers of the Arabian prophet were only enthusiastic military adventurers, subduing in their wide and rapid progress most of the nations of the then known world. The lust of power, and successful military enterprise, are commonly un. favourable to the cultivation of the liberal arts, so that a conquering people usually exhibit but little taste for science or literature. The Goths and the Huns, for instance, were among the most im- placable foes of knowledge. Nor did the early Arabs regard it with more favour. Mohammed found his countrymen sunk in the deepest barba. rism : he was incapable of any direct effort to raise them; and, from the 'ruthless destruction of the Alexandrean library by Omar, one of his earliest successors, they appear not to have been in a much 244 TASTE FOR LITERATURE EXCITED. better condition after the close than at the com. mencement of his eventful career. Their settlement in the count:ies they had sub. dued, the unlimited resources which their wide. spread conquests placed within their reach, and probably the leisure which their almost universal dominion afforded, speedily led to a change in their character in relation to literary pursuits, of which the more enlightened nations of the West are still reaping the advantage. It was about the ~middle of the seventh century that Omar committed the famous library of Alexandrea to the flames: be- fore the end of the eighth, literature began to en- joy the munificent patronage of the caliphs of the Abbassidan race, who superinduced upon the stern fanaticismn of the followers of the Prophet the soft- ening influences of learning; and, by an anomaly in the history of mankind, the most valuable les. sons in science and the arts have been received from a people who pursued with relentless hostil- ity the religion and liberties of every other nation. The Greeks were the most distinguished pa- trons of literature and science. Among them phi. losophy found its earliest home, and the arts are commonly supposed to have sprung up chiefly un- der their fostering care, though modern researches have shown that much of their knowledge was de- rived from still more ancient sources. Their phi- PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. losophy, though greatly improved by them, was borrowed from the mysteries of the Egyptian priests and the Persian magi. Their system of the universe, which made the nearest approach to the more correct discoveries of modern times, was previously known to the learned Hindus; and it may admit of question whether their whole my. thology, allowing for the additions which a chas. tened and vivid imagination would make to it, had not its prototype in some Asiatic religio-philosoph. ical system. A learned writer on the erudition of the Asiatics says, that the whole of the theology of the Greeks, and part of the philosophy of mod. ern scientific research, may be found in the Hindu Vedas. He adds, " That most subtile spirit which Newton suspected to pervade natural bodies, and to lie concealed in them so as to cause attraction and repulsion, the emission, reflection, and refrac. tion of light, electrictiy, calefaction, sensation, and muscular motion, is described by the Hindus as a fifth element, endued with those very powers; and the Vedas abound with allusions to a force univer- sally attractive, which they chiefly attribute to the sun." The extension, therefore, of the Arabian victories over the Eastern world, and their entire command, after the overthrow of the Greek em. pire, of the resources possessed by that people, 245 246 MOHAMMED ENCOURAGES LEARNING. gave them access to all the literary stores then in existence. It has been said, and probably not without good reason, that Mohammed himself saw and felt the importance of literary distinction. Among the sayings attributed to him, the following has been considered as evincing his sense of the value of learning : "A mind without erudition is like a body without a soul. Glory consists not in wealth, but in knowledge;" and, as the Koran affords abundant proof, he was by no means unmindful of that mental cultivation, of which the means were within his reach. His immediate followers, occu. pied only with the ideas of conquest and conver. sion, despised equally the religion and learning of the nations they subdued; but when the age of rapine and violence yielded at length to compara. tive security and quiet, and the fair and splendid city of the Oriental caliphs arose, the Muses were courted from their ancient temples, and by the milder and more graceful achievements of litera. ture and science, efforts were made to expiate the guilt of former conquest, and to shed a purer lustre over the Mohammedan name. Almansor; the second of the dynasty of the Ab. bassides, whose reign commenced A.D. 754, and lasted twenty-one years, was among the first of the Arab princes to foster learning and the arts. Ju. HAROUN AL RASCIIID. risprudence and astronomy were the principal sub. jects of his study, which, however, through the in. struction of a Greek physician in his court, he ex- tended to the art of healing, and probably to those kindred arts with which, in all ages and countries, medical science has been connected. What prog. ress was made by himself or his subjects, we can. not now ascertain. His two immediate successors seem not to have trodden in his steps, though it is probable they did not undo what he had done; for the next caliph, Haroun al Raschid, is renowned as one of the most munificent patrons that litera- ture ever enjoyed. He was fond of poetry and music: he is said to have constantly surrounded himself with a great number of learned men; and t6 him the Arabs were deeply indebted for the progress in knowledge which they were enabled to make. Every mosque in his dominions had a school attached to it by his order; and, as if his love of learning were superior even to his heredi- tary faith, he readily tolerated men of science who refused to yield to the bold pretensions of the Prophet. A Nestorian Christian presided over his schools, and directed the academical studies of his subjects. His successor imitated his wise and gen. erous course; and thus knowledge extended from the capital to the most distant extremities of the empire. 247 But it was during the reign of Almamoun, the seventh of the Abbassidan princes, A.D. 813-833, that literature flourished most among the Arabs. Learned men, professors of the Christian faith, had multiplied at Bagdad under the tolerant reigns of his predecessors, and they were now liberally en. couraged to unfold their ample stores of knowledge. The copious language of Arabia was employed to communicate whatever that of the- Greeks had hitherto concealed, though, with a barbarism for which it is difficult to account, many of the origi. nal works were destroyed as soon as translations of them were made. Almamoun in his youth had associated with the most eminent scholars of Greece, Persia, and Chaldea; and he now invi. ted them to his court. Bagdad was resorted to by poets, philosophers, and mathematicians, from every country and of every creed. Armenia, Syria, and Egypt were explored by his agents for literary treasures, which were amassed with infi. nite care, and presented at the foot of the throne as the richest and most acceptable tribute that con. quered provinces could render. Camels, hitherto employed exclusively in traffic, were seen entering the royal city laden with Hebrew, Persian, and Grecian manuscripts. The court assumed the ap. pearance rather of an academy than of a council guiding the affairs of a luxurious and warlike gov. 248 ALMAIMOUIN. SCHOOLS OF THE ARABS. ernment, and all classes were encouraged to apply themselves to the acquisition of knowledge with a seal commensurate to the advantages thus afforded. "I chose," said Almamoun, when remonstrated with for appointing a learned Christian to an office of no small influence over the intellectual pursuits of his people, " I chose this learned man, not to be my guide in religious affairs, but to be my teacher Df science; and it is well known that the wisest men are to be found among the Jews and Chris. tians."* Under such favourable auspices, it is not to be wondered at that the Saracens became a literary people. The caliphs of the West and of Africa imitated their brethren of the East. " At one pe. riod, six thousand professors and pupils cultivated liberal studies in the college of Bagdad. Twenty schools made Grand Cairo a chief seat of letters; and the talents of the students were exercised in the perusal of the royal library, which consisted of one hundred thousand manuscripts. The African writers dwell with pride and satisfaction on the lit. erary institutions which adorned the towns on the northern coast of their sandy plain. The sun of science arose even in Africa, and the manners of the Moorish savage were softened by philosophy. * Abulferage, p. 160. U 249 250 TWO CLASSES OF SCHOOLS. Their brethren in Europe amassed numerous and magnificent collections; two hundred and eighty thousand volumes were in Cordova, and more than seventy libraries were open to public curiosity in the kingdom of Andalusia." We know but little of the internal government of the Arabian schools, or of the studies actually pursued. Aristotle, no doubt, was the great mas- ter to whom, in philosophy, all deference was paid. The Prophet had prescribed their religion. Their schools were of two kinds, or rather classes; the one comprehending the inferior institutions, in which elementary branches of instruction, such as reading, writing, and religious doctrine were chiefly attended to ; the other, called Madras, most- ly connected with the mosques, as were all the schools of the former class, included those institu- tions in which the higher departments of knowl- edge were explored. Here grammar, logic, the- ology, and jurisprudence were studied. The man- agement of each school was confided to a princi. pal of known ability, and not always a Mohamme- dan. The professors lectured on the several sci- ences; and the pupils, if not in every department, of which there is some doubt, certainly in that of medicine, were publicly examined, and diplomas were given under the hand of the chief physician. Of elegant composition, the Koran was univer. ELOQUENCE AND POETRY OF THE ARABS. 251 sally esteemed the model. Hence it was studied with the most diligent care by all who sought to distinguish themselves in the art of eloquence, one of the leading acquirements of Arab scholars. Subordinate to this pre-eminent composition, their schools of oratory boasted of models scarcely infe- rior to the celebrated orators of antiquity. Malek and Shai-aif, the one for pathos, the other for brill. iancy, are the chief of these. Horaiai was es. teemed as the compeer of Demosthenes and Cicero. Bedreddin, of Grenada, was their "torch of elo. quence ;" and Sekaki obtained the honourable des- ignation of the Arabian Quinctilian. The ancient Arabs were much inclined to poe- try. The wild, romantic scenery of the land they inhabited, the sacred recollections of their earliest history, the life they led, everything around them, contributed to poetic inspiration. After the revi- val of letters, this art was cultivated with enthusi. asm. The heroic measures of Ferdousi, the didac- tic verses of Sadi, and the lyric strains of Hafiz, even through the medium of imperfect translations, dis. cover animated descriptions, bold metaphors, and striking expressions, that at once delight and sur- prise us. In splendour, if not in strength, the po. ets of the courts of Haroun and Almamoun, or those of the Ommiades of Spain, have, perhaps, in no age been excelled. In this art, as among other 252 CHARACTER OF ARAB POETRY. people, so among the Arabs, the fair sex have dis. tinguished themselves. Valadata, Aysha, Labana, Safia, and others, have obtained the highest enco. miums. So great is the number of Arabian poets, that Abul Abbas, a son of Motassem, who wrote an abridgment of their lives in the ninth century, num- bers one hundred and thirty. Other authors have occupied twenty-four, thirty, and one no less than fifty volumes, in recording their history. The Arabs, hovver, are entirely without epic poetry, so important a department of the art; nor have they anything that may be properly ranked as dramatic composition. Sophocles, Euripides, Terence, and Seneca, the classic models of Greece and Rome, they despised as timid, constrained, and cold; and under whatever obligation to these an- cient nations the Arabs may have been in other departments of literature, they owe them nothing, or next to nothing, in this. Their poetry was original and local; their figures and comparisons were strictly their own. To understand and prop. erly appreciate them, we must have a knowledge of the productions of their country, and of the char. acter, institutions, and manners of its inhabitants. The muse delights in illustrations and figures bor. rowed from pastoral life; that of Judea revels among the roses of Sharon, the verdant slopes of ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENT. 253 Carmel, and the glory of Lebanon; while the Arab muse selects for her ornaments the pearls of Omar, the musk of Hadramaut, the groves and nightingales of Aden, and the spicy odours of Ye. men. If these appear to us fantastic, it must be remembered they are borrowed from objects and scenes to which we are almost utter strangers. Who is not familiar with the Alif lita wa lilin, or the thousand and one tales, commonly known as the Arabian Nights' Entertainment ? Some have questioned whether they are an original work, or a translation from the Indian or Persian, made in the Augustan age of Arab literature : a doubt certainly not warranted by any want of ex- actness in their description of Arabian life and manners. They seem to have been originally the legends, of itinerant story-tellers, a class of persons still very numerous in every part of the Moham- medan world. The scenes they unfold, true to na. ture; the simplicity displayed in their characters, their beauty and their moral instruction, appeal ir. resistibly to the hearts of all; while the learned concede to them the merit of more perfectly descri- bing the manners of the singular people from whom they sprung, than the works of any traveller, how. ever accomplished and indefatigable. Of history the ancient Arabs were strangely negligent; but, by the more modern, this depart. 254 HISTORICAL WORKS OF THE ARAB. ment of knowledge has been cultivated with greater care and success. Annals, chronicles, and me. moirs, almost numberless, are extant among them: kingdoms, provinces, and towns are described, and their history is narrated in volumes, a bare cat. alogue of which would extend to a wearisome length. They abound, however, more in the fan. ciful than in the substantial and correct. Of this, the titles of some of the most approved works of this kind may be taken as specimens: A Chro- nology of the Caliphs of Spain and Africa is de. nominated " A Silken Vest, embroidered with the Needle ;" a History of Grenada, "A Specimen of the Full Moon ;" Ibu Abbas and Abu Bakri are authors of historical collections, entitled respect. ively, "Mines of Silver," and " Pearls and picked. up Flowers." Yet some of their writers, as Ibn Katibi, are chiefly remarkable for the extent and accuracy of their historical knowledge; and some of their works are exceedingly voluminous. A full history of Spain occupied six authors in suc- cession, and cost the labour of one hundred and fifteen years to complete. Their biography was not confined to men. Ibn Zaid and Abul Mon. dar wrote a genealogical history of distinguished horses; and Alasucco and Abdolmalec performed the same service for camels worthy of being had in remembrance. Encyclopaedias and gazetteers, KNOWLEDGE OF GEOGRAPIHY. with dictionaries of the sciences and other similar works, occupied Arabian pens long before they came into vogue among more modern literati. Every species of composition, indeed, and almost every subject, in one age or another, have engaged the attention of learned Mohammedans. Geography they did not so well understand, their means of acquiring knowledge on this sub- ject being exceedingly limited. Yet their public libraries could boast of globes, voyages, and itin eraries, the productions of men who travelled to acquire geographical information. With statistics and political economy they had but an imperfect acquaintance; yet so early as the reign of Omar II. we find a work devoted to these subjects, giv- ing an account of the provinces and cities of Spain, with its rivers, ports, and harbours; of the cli- mate, soil, mountains, plants, and minerals of that country; with its imports, and the manner in which its several productions, natural and artificial, might be manufactured and applied to the best advantage. Money, weights, and measures, with whatever else political economy may be understood to include, were also subjects which employed their ingenious speculations, and, in some cases, their laborious re. search. The speculative sciences, scarcely less than po. !ite literature, flourished among the Arabs. In. 255 STUDY OF ASTROLOGY. deed, what superstitious, enthusiastic people has ever neglected these ? Their ardour in the more dignified of these pursuits was badly regulated; subtleties were preferred to important practical truths; and, frequently, the more ingenious the sophism, constructed after the rules of Aristotle, the more welcome was it to men who rendered to that philosopher a homage almost idolatrous. The later Arabs, and the Turks of the present day, pay no little attention to astrology, though it is strong ly prohibited by their Prophet. This science was universally employed by the idolaters, against whom his denunciations are scarcely less inveterate than are those of the inspired volume; and doubtless he apprehended that its prevalence would hazard the integrity, if not the very existence, of his own system of religion. For many ages, therefore, it was discountenanced; but, at length, the habit of consulting the stars on important public occasions became frequent, and was attended with as much anxiety and as many absurd ceremonies as dis. graced the nations of antiquity. Among the mod. ern Mohammedans, no dignity of state is con- ferred; no public edifice is founded, except at a time recommended by astrologers. These pre- tenders to knowledge are supported by persons of rank; and in vain do the more enlightened part of the community exclaim that astrology is a false 256 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYS1CAL SCIENCE. 25 science. " Do not think," said a prime minister, who had been consulting a soothsayer as to the time of putting on a new dress, " that I am such a fool as to put faith in all this nonsense; but I must not make my family unhappy by refusing to com- ply with forms which some of them deem of con. sequence." After these references to the polite literature of the Arabs, it will be expected that they should have paid attention to the natural sciences. They were not, indeed, discoverers and inventors, but they considerably improved upon what they ac- quired in their extensive intercourse with other na- tions; and, as forming the link which unites an- cient and modern letters, they are entitled to our respect and gratitude. We derive our mathemat- ics from them; and to them, also, we owe much of our astronomical knowledge. Almamoun, by a liberal reward, sought to engage in his service a famous mathematician of Constantinople ; and Ibn Korrah enriched the stores of his country in this department with translations of Archimedes and the conics of Apollonius. Some have said that, on the revival of European literature in the fif- teenth century, mathematical science was found nearly in the state in which it had been left by Eu. clid; and the justly celebrated Briicker contends, that the Arabs made no progress whatever in this 258 TRIGONOMETRY AND ALGEBRA. most important branch of knowledge: later wri ters, however, and particularly Montucla, the au. thor of the HI-istoire des Mathematiques, have done ample justice to their researches. Numerical char- acters, without which our study of the exact sci. ences were almost in vain, beyond all doubt came to us from the Arabs: not that they invented them --it is probable they were originally words, per. haps Hindu words, expressing the quantities they respectively represent, but abbreviated and brought to their present convenient form by the followers of the Prophet. Trigonometry and algebra are both indebted to their genius. The sines of the one of these sciences instead of the more ancient chord, and the representatives of quantities in the other, descend through the Arabs to us, if they did not at first invent them. Original works on spher- ical trigonometry are among the productions of Ibn Musa and Geber, the former of whom is accounted the inventor of the solution of equations of the sec- ond degree. The University of Leyden still re- tains a manuscript treatise on the algebra of cubic equations, by Omar ibn Ibrahim; and Casiri, who preserved and classed 1851 manuscripts, even after a fire had destroyed the magnificent collection of the Escurial, informs us, that the principles and praises of algebraic science were sung in an elab. orate poem by Alcassem, a native of Grenada, ASTRONOMY OF THE ARABS. These departments of knowledge were studied by the Arabs as early as the eighth and ninth cen. turies. Astronomy, the science of a pastoral people, and eminently so. in regions with an almost cloudless sky, like the East, was studied with great eager- ness by Arabian philosophers. Almamoun, who has been before mentioned, was ardently devoted to it: at his cost the necessary instruments of ob. servation were provided, and a complete digest of the science was made. The land where, many ages before, this science had been successfully studied by the Chaldeans, was in his power, and upon its ample plains a degree of the earth's circle was repeatedly measured, so as to determine the whole circumference of the globe to be twenty- four thousand miles. The obliquity of the ecliptic they settled at twenty-three degrees and a half: the annual movement of the equinoxes and the du. ration of the tropical year were brought to within a very little of the exact observations of modern times, the slight error they admitted resulting from the preference they gave to the system of Ptolemy. Albathani, or, as his name has been Latinized, Al- batenius, in the ninth century, after contnuing his observations for forty years, drew up tables, known as the Sabean tables, which, though not now in very high repute because of more accurate calculations, 259 260 ARCHITECTURE OF THE ARABS. were for a long time justly esteemed. Other Ara. bian astronomers have rendered considerable ser- vice to this science. Mohammedanism did not, like ancient paganism, adore the stars; but its dis. ciples studied them with a diligence, without which, perhaps, Newton, Flamstead, and Halley had ob- served and calculated almost in vain. Architecture was an art in which the Arabs greatly excelled; their wide extension gave them command of whatever was worthy of observation, and their vast revenues afforded the most abun- dant means of indulging a taste thus called into exercise. The history of Arabian architecture comprises a period of about eight centuries, in. eluding its rise, progress, and decay : their building materials were mostly obtained from the ruined structures and cities that fell into their hands; and if no one particular style was followed by them, it was because they successfully studied most of the styles then known. On their buildings but little external art was bestowed; all their pains were exhausted on the interior, where no expense was spared that could promote luxurious ease and per. sonal comfort. Their walls and ceilings were highly embellished, and the light was mostly ad. mitted in such manner as, by excluding all exter- ial objects, to confine the admiration of the specta. tor to tho beauties produced within. With the at THE FINE ARTS AMONG THE ARABS. 261 of preserving their structures from decay they must have had an adequate acquaintance. Their stucco composition may still be found as hard as stone, without a crack or flaw : the floors and ceilings of the Alhambra, the ancient palace of Grenada, have been comparatively uninjured by the neglect and dilapidation of nearly seven centuries; while their paint retains its colour so bright and rich as to be occasionally mistaken for mother-of-pearl. Sir Christopher Wren derives the Gothic architec- ture from the Mohammedans; and the crescent arch, a symbol of one of the deities anciently wor. shipped throughout the heathen world, was first adopted by the Arabs of Syria, and invariably used in all the edifices erected during the supremacy of the Ommiades. The succeeding dynasty declined following this model; but, during the reign of the house of Moawiyah, in Spain, it was imitated from the Atlantic to the Pyrenees. The fine arts, painting, and sculpture, were not so much cultivated among the early Mohamme- dans: they were thought to involve a breach of the divine law. In this particular they agreed with the Jews. Subsequently, however, these scruples were, by degrees, overcome; that style of embel- lishment denominated Arabesque, which rejects figures of men and animals, being first adopted, and afterward sculpture, more nearly resembling MUSIC OF THE ARABS. that of modern times. The Alhambra, or palace of that suburb, had its lions, its ornamented tiles, and its paintings. Abdalrahman III. placed a statue of his favourite mistress over the palace he erected for her abode. Music was ardently cultivated. At first, in the desert, its strains were rude and simple; subsequently, the professors of the art were as much cherished, honoured, and rewarded, as were the poets in the courts of the Arab sover. eigns. Many were celebrated for their skill in this art, especially Isaac Almouseli. Al Farabi has been denominated the Arabian Orpheus: by his astonishing command of the lute, he could pro. duce laughter, or tears, or sleep in his auditors at pleasure. He wrote a considerable work on mu. sic, which is preserved in the Escurial. Abul Fa- ragi is also a famous writer among the Moham. medans on this subject. To them we are indebted for the invention of the lute, which they accounted more perfect than any other instrument; the use, also, of many of our modern instruments, as the organ, flute, harp, tabor, and mandoline, was com. mon among them. Some say that the national in- strument of the Scottish highlander is taken from them. In many of the useful arts of modern days the Arabs were proficients ; as agriculture, gardening, metallurgy, and the preparing of leather. The 262 MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ARABS. 2b3 names Morocco and Cordovan are still applied, in this latter art, to leather prepared after the Ara. bian method. They manufactured and dyed silk and cotton, made paper, were acquainted with the use of gunpowder, and have claims to the honour of inventing the mariner's compass. But perhaps there is no art in which their knowledge is so much a subject of curious inquiry as medicine. Their country was salubrious, their habits simple, and their indulgences few; so that large opportunities of practically studying the art, at least among the Arabs of earlier date, would not occur. Anatomy, except that of the brute creation, was shut up from their study by the prejudices of their creed; yet they excelled in medical skill. Hareth ibn Kaldar, an eminent practitioner settled at Mecca, was hon. oured with the conversation and applause of Mo. hammed. Honain was an eminent Arab physi. cian in the middle of the sixth century; Messue, the celebrated preceptor of Almamoun, belonged to this profession; and a host of others adorn the early annals of the Saracens. Al Rhagi, or Rha. ges, as commonly called, and Abdallah ibn Sina, or Avicenna, are names to which, for centuries, deference was paid by professors of the healing art throughout Europe, though it would not be difficult to show that their doctrines and practice must have been beyond measure absurd. They admin. 264 CHYMISTRY AMONG THE ARABS. istered gold, and silver, and precious stones to purify the blood. Of chymistry, so far as it relates to medicine, the Arabs may be considered as the inventors; and bottny, in the same c nnexion, they cultivated with great success. Geber, in the eighth century, is known as their principal chymical writer; he is said to have composed five hundred volumes, a. most every one of which is lost. The early nom. enclature of the science indicates how much it owes to this people. Alcohol, alembic, alkali, aludel, and other similar terms, are evidently of Arabic origin; nor should it be forgotten that the charac- ters used for drugs, essences, extracts, and medi. cines, the import of which is now almost entirely unknown (and which are consequently invested, in vulgar estimation, with occult powers), are all to be traced to the same source. It may be impossible now to estimate accurately the extent of our obligations to Arabian literature. An empire so widely spread, by the encourage- ment it gave to letters, must have had a beneficial influence on almost every country. Europeans, whether subject to its sway or only contemplating it from a distance, copied or emulated the exam- ple. Gerbert, who subsequently occupied the pa. pal chair as Silvester II., acquired the Arabic method of computation during his travels in Spain, OBLIGATIONS OF SCIENCE TO THIE ARABS. 265 previously to his elevation. Leonardo, a Pisan merchant, obtained a knowledge of the same art in his intercourse with the Mohammedans on the coast of Africa; and by him it was introduced into his own native republic, from whence it was soon communicated to the Western World. In the city of Salernum, a port of Italy, Mussulmans and Chris. tians so intermixed as to communicate insensibly the literature of the Saracens to the Italians, and in the schools of that city students were collected from every quarter of Europe. Arabic books, by command of Charlemagne, were translated into Latin for the use of learned men throughout his vast empire; and, without exaggerating the merits of the followers of the Prophet, it may be admitted that we are indebted to them for the revival of the exact and physical sciences, and for many of those useful arts and inventions that have totally changed the aspect of European literature, and are still contributing to the civilization, freedom, and best interests of man. x 266 PRESENT CONDITION OF MOHAMMEDANISM. CHAPTER III. The present Condition of Mohammedanism.--In Turkey.--The Doctrines believed there.-Their Forms of Devotion.-Lus- trations.-Prayer.-Mohammedan Sabbath.--Fast of Rama- dan.-Meccan Pilgrimage.--Proselytism.-Mohammedan Hi- erarchy.-Islamism in Tartary.-In Hindustan.-In China.- In Persia.--In Africa. -In the Indian Archipelago.--The Sooffees.-The Wahabees. THE present condition of the Mohammedan faith, with some account of the standing it maintains in the world, will not be deemed an inappropriate sub. ject for the closing pages of this volume. Its vo. taries have long ceased to spread alarm through the nations by their victorious and devastating prog. ress; the fire of its fanaticism is almost extinct; nevertheless, its doctrines prevail over a larger number of mankind than any other system of false religion: they are professed in nations and coun. tries remote from each other, and having no other mutual resemblance than that involved in their common superstition. In Spain, indeed, Christi. anity has triumphed over Islamism; and in the in- hospitable regions of Siberia, a part of the ancient Tartary, its advance has been somewhat checked; but in middle and lower Asia, and in Africa, the TURKISH EMPIRE. number of Mohammed's followers has increased. We cannot state with accuracy the number either of Mohammedan or of nominal Christians; but, looking at religion geographically, while Christi. anity has almost entire dominion in Europe, in Asia Islamism is the dominant faith: in America the cross is rapidly becoming the symbol of faith throughout both its vast continents; but in Africa the crescent waves to tlhe almost entire exclusion of every other emblem. It is in Turkey that Mohammedanism exists at the present day in its most perfect form. To this country, therefore, our attention shall be first di- rected. Constantinople, anciently called Byzantium, and the countries over which the Greek emperors re- siding in that city reigned, were subdued by the powerful caliphs of Bagdad, while those of Spain and the West were endeavouring to push their con- quests over the fairest portions of Europe. The situation of Constantinople and the surrounding empire lay especially open to the Eastern Moham. medans, whose warlike incursions were incessant. Tartars from Asia overran the empire. Othman, in the early part of the thirteenth century, laid the foundation of Turkish greatness. Orchan, Amu- rath, and Bajazet, his successors, amid both for. eign and domestic wars, greatly contributed to its 267 TURKISH EMPIRE. establishment and increase. The children of the last of these conquerors threw the empire into a frightful state of distraction by their unnatural quarrels, till, at last, the youngest of them, named after the Prophet, restored its integrity, and es. tablished something like domestic tranquillity. Un. der a grandson of his, Mohammed II., whom Bayle describes as one of the greatest men recorded in history, the Morea was subjugated, and the Greek empire, so long shaken by internal dissensions, and tottering to dissolution by its luxury, was trampled in the dust by the Moslem conquerors. Constan. tinople at last yielded to their power, and a palace for the victor was erected on the very spot which Constantine had chosen for his magnificent abode. From this time to that of Solyman the Magnifi. cent, to whom the Turks owe their laws and po. lice, the empire continued to prosper, but immedi. ately afterward its decline commenced. Letters and science have made but little progress among that people, and their sultans have possessed none of the martial enterprise and energy of their early predecessors; still the faith of Mohammed has maintained, and down to this day continues to main- tain, a hold which it enjoys in almost no other country. The Turks generally repose the most implicit faith in the two leading articles of the Mohamme- 268 RELIGIOUS CREED OF THE TURKS 269 dan creed, that there is but one God, and that Mo. hammed is his Prophet; and since, in the opinion of the Moslems, a simple assent to these doctrines comprises all that is valuable in religion, and wil be surely followed by the possession of heaven, either immediately or remotely, it is readily con. ceivable that infidelity will be exceedingly rare. In religious matters, the heart opposes not so much what is to be believed as what is to be done. Minor points of their theology have been from time to time disputed, but these may be regarded as generally settled. Predestination is one of the chief dogmas on which the faith of the Turk is as firmly fixed as on the most momentous article in his creed. Fatalism was the great engine em. ployed by Mohammed in establishing his religion; and among the Tlrks this doctrine is received as regulating their destiny, controlling all events, and determining the results of every individual's ac- tions; thus unnerving the soul fqr generous and manly enterprise, and casting a lethargy on the whole nation. In everything the operations of rea- son are checked, and even made to wait for the imagined manifestations of Deity. According to the creed of the Turks, not only is everything foreknown to God, but everything is predetermined, and brought about by his direct and immediate agency. DOCTRINE OF FATALISM. The Turk is keen and wise in his ordinary transactions: in promoting his own interests, he knows how to exercise the powers of his mind; but, when difficulty or doubt overtakes him, he makes no effort. Tile thick cloud of his misfor- tunes is suffered to remain; his troubles are yield. ed to with sullen indifference ; he considers it im- pious to oppose the determinations of the Most High. To all improvement, such a doctrine is a decided and invincible foe ; in some circumstances, however, it appears to have its advantages. Does a Mohammedan suffer by calamity? Is he plun- dered or ruined? He does not fruitlessly bewail his lot. His answer to all murmuring suggestions is, " It was written ;" and to the most unexpected transition from opulence to poverty, he submits without a sigh. The approach of death does not disturb his tranrquillity; he makes his ablution, re- peats his prayers, professes his belief in God and his Prophet, and in a last appeal to the aid of affec. tion, he says to his child, " turn my head towards Mecca," and calmly expires. A people's religion is traced in their established and common forms of devotion, and none are more attentive to these than the Turks. To neglect any ceremony which their religion prescribes, is deemed a mark either of inferior understanding or of depraved character. Public decorum is every. 2'70 PURIFICATIONS AMONG TIlE TURKS. 271 where observed; and though both moral and reli- gious precepts are violated with impunity and without remorse, they are always spoken of with great respect. A Mohammedan is never ashamed to defend his faith; and of his sincerity and firm- ness, the earnestness of his vindication may be ta. ken as sufficient proof: he not unfrequently inter- rupts the progress of conversation by repeating his religious formula. In the Turkish towns, travel- lers are incessantly met with the cry of Allah Ack- bar; and by Mussulmans, who would be esteemed pious, the divine name is as frequently repeated as if reverent and devout thoughts were habitually up- permost in their minds. Purifications are constantly, and with great strict. ness, performed by the Mussulmans of every coun- try, but especially by those of Turkey. Their professed object is to render the body fit for the decorous performance of religious duties; no act being praiseworthy or acceptable; in their estima- tion, unless the person of the performer be in a condition of purity. Some have thought, but with- out sufficient grounds, that these external purifica- tions are believed to supersede an inward cleans- ing of the heart. Fountains placed round their mosques, and numerous baths in every city, ena- ble the devout to perform their five prayers daily, during which, if they chance to receive pollution FREQUENT PRAYERS. from anything accidentally coming in contact with them, their devotions are suspended till the offen- sive. inconvenience is removed by water or other means. At the appointed hour, the Maazeens or criers, with their faces towards Mecca, their eyes closed, and their hands upraised, pace the little galleries of the minarets or towers of the mosques, and proclaim in Arabic, the Moslem language of devo. tion, that the season of prayer has arrived. In- stantly, every one, whatever may be his rank or employment, gives himself up to it. Ministers of state suspend the most important affairs, and pros. trate themselves on the floor; the tradesman for- gets his dealings, and transforms his shop into a place of devotion; and the student lays aside his books, to go through his accustomed supplications. "Never to fail in his prayers" is the highest com- mendation a Turk can receive; and so prejudicial is the suspicion 'of irreligion, that even libertines dare not disregard the notices of the Maazeen. The mosques, like chapels in Catholic countries, are always open, and two or three times every day prayers are offered within their walls. It has often been remarked, that the devotions of Christians might acquire something valuable from the gravity, the decorum, and the apparently intense occupa- tion of mind in Turkish worship. The Jews trod 272 SABBATH OF THE TURKS. their holy place barefoot: the Turks, on the con- trary, keep on their boots and shoes. Christians uncover their heads in prayer; the Moslems sel. dom lay aside their turbans; but for hours they will remain prostrate, or standing in one position, as if absorbed in the most intense abstraction. They have neither altars, pictures, nor statues in their places of worship. Verses of the Koran, the names and personal descriptions of their Prophet, of Ali and his two sons, Hassan and Hosein, with other Moslem saints, are sometimes inscribed in letters of gold on their walls. All distinctions of rank and profession are forgotten when they pray. Persons of every class, on the first sound of the ac. customed cry, cast themselves on the ground, and thus declare their belief in the equality of mankind, in the sight of the great Father of all. The Mohammedans of Turkey have a Sabbath, for which the Jewish or Christian may be supposed to have furnished the model. Friday is their day of rest, which commences on the preceding even. ing, when the illuminated- minarets and colon- nades of the mosques give to their cities the ap- pearance of a festival. At noon, on Friday, all business is suspended, the mosques are filled, and prayers are read by the appointed officers, accom- panied by the prostrations of the people. Dis- courses are likewise frequently delivered on prac- 273 274 NATURE OF THEIR PRAYERS. tical points in their theology; and sometimes, in the ardour of excitement, political corruption and courtly depravity are fiercely assailed. A volup. tuous sultan has been known, under the effect of these discourses, to tear himself from the soft in- dulgences of his harem and court, to lead his mar. tial subjects to war and victory on the plains of their enemies. As soon as the public religious ser- vices are concluded, all return to their ordinary pursuits; the day, however, is strictly observed by all blasses in the manner prescribed by law, it be- ing a received maxim that he who, without legiti- mate cause, absents himself from public devotion on three successive Fridays, abjures his religion. It is worthy of observation, that the prayers of the Turks consist chiefly of adoration, of confessions of the Divine attributes and the nothingness of man, and of homage and gratitude to the Supreme Being. A Turk must not pray for the frail and perishable blessings of this life; the health of the sultan, the prosperity of his country, and divisions and wars among the Christians alone excepted. The legitimate object of prayer they hold to be spiritual gifts, and happiness in a future state of being. No one of their religious institutions is more strictly observed by the Turks than the fast of Ramadan. He who violates it is reckoned either FAST OF RAMADAN. an infidel or an apostate; and if two witnesses es- tablish his offence, he is deemed to have incurred the severest penalty of the law. Abstinence from food, and even from the use of perfumes, from sun- rise to sunset, is enjoined. The rich pass the hours in meditation and prayer, the grandees sleep away their time, but the labouring man, pursuing his daily toil, most heavily feels its rigour. "When the month of Ramadan happens in the extremities of the seasons, the prescribed abstinence is almost intolerable, and is more severe than the practice of any moral duty, even to the most vicious and de. praved of mankind." During the day all traffic is suspended; but in the evening, and till late at night, it is actively carried on in the streets, shops, and bazars, most splendidly illuminated. From sunset to sunrise, revelry and excess are indulged in. Every night there is a feast among the great officers of the court: the reserve of the Turkish character is laid aside, and friends and relations cement their union by mutual intercourse. Sump- tuous banquets and convivial hilarity are universal; and, were not women everywhere excluded from the tables of the men, the pleasure of the festivals would amply compensate the rigorous self-denial of their fasts. The pilgrimage to Mecca is with the Turks more a matter of form than of reality. Its im- 275 PILGRIMAGE TC MECCA. portance as a part of the Moslem ritual is admittea, and apparently felt, but the number of pilgrims an. nually decreases. " The sultan, having dominion over the country through which the pilgrims must pass, preserves the public ways leading to the ven- erated city; the best soldiers of his empire are charged with the protection of the caravans, which are sometimes numer0us; but of his own subjects, properly so called, few comparatively accompany them ; they are made up of devotees from a greater distance. The sultan, no doubt, encourages the pilgrimage as much on commercial as on reli- gious grounds. The Koran has determined it to be very proper to intermingle commerce and reli- gion: "It shall be no crime in you," it says, "if ye seek an increase from your Lord by trading during the pilgrimage." Accordingly, articles of easy carriage and ready sale are brought by the pilgrims from every country. The productions and manufactures of India thus find their way into other parts of Asia and throughout Africa. The muslins and chintses of Bengal and the Deccan, the shawls of Cashmere, the pepper of Malabar, the diamonds of Golconda, the peaIr s of Kilkau, the cinnamon of Ceylon, and the spices of the Mo. luccas, are made to yield advantage to the Otto- man empire, and the luxury of its subjects is sus- tained by contributions from the most distant na- tions. 276 PROSELYTISM AMONG THE TURKS. 277 Mohammedans of the present day, at least those of Turkey, are less anxious to make proselytes than were those of a former age. Those of India and Africa may, to some extent, still retain the sentiment, that to convert infidels is an ordinance of God, and must be observed by the faithful in all ages; but in Turkey little desire of this kind is felt, chiefly because, by a refinement of uncharita- bleness, the conversion of the world is deemed un- worthy of their endeavours. Now and then a de- vout Moslem, instigated by zeal or personal attach- ment, may offer up this prayer for a Jew or a Christian: " Great God, enlighten this infidel; and- graciously dispose his heart to embrace thy holy religion;" and perhaps to a youth, esteemed for his talents or knowledge, the language of persua. sion may occasionally be addressed with an air of gentleness and urbanity; but the zeal of the mis- sionary is in such cases commonly subject to what are conceived to be the rules of good breeding, and a vague reply or silence is regarded as an indica. tion that the subject is disagreeable, and should not be continued. A Mussulman may pray for the conversion of infidels, but, till they are converted, no blessing may be supplicated in their behalf. "Their death is eternal, why pray for them ?" is the language of the Mohammedan creed: do not THE OULEMA. "defile your feet by passing over the graves of men who are enemies of God and of his Prophet." Of the Mohammedan hierarchy, some idea may be obtained from the form it assumes in Turkey. The Koran is considered the treasure of all laws, divine and human, and the caliphs as the deposita- ries of this treasure; so that they are at once the pontiffs, legislators, and judges of the people, and their office combines all authority, whether sacer. dotal, regal, or judicial. To the grand sultan titles are given, styling him the vicar, or the shadow of God. The several powers which pertain-to him in this august capacity are delegated to a body of learned men, called the Oulema. In this body three descriptions of officers are included: the ministers of religion, called the Imams; the ex. pounders of the law, called the Muftis; and the ministers of justice, called the Cadis. The minis. ters of religion are divided into chief and inferior, the former of whom only belong to the Oulema. Both classes are made up of Sheiks, or ordinary preachers; the Khatibs, readers or deacons; the Imams, a title comprising those who perform the service of the mosque on ordinary days, and those to whom pertain the ceremonies of circumcision, marriage, and burial; the Maazeens, or criers, who announce the hours of prayer; and the Cay- uns, or common attendants of the mosque. The 278 MINISTERS OF RELIGION idea of this classification was, perhaps, taken from the Mosaic priesthood; the Khatib being the Aa- ron, and the next four the several orders of the . Levites, with thleir servants or helpers. The inm. perial temples have one Sheik, one Khatib, from two to four Imams, twelve Maazeens, and twenty Cayuns, among whom, except in a few of the chief mosques of Constantinople, the Khatibs have the pre-eminence. All these ministers are subject to the civil magistrate, who is looked upon as a sort of diocesan, and who may perform at any time all the sacerdotal functions. The ministers of religion are not distinguishable from other people; they mix in the same society, engage in similar pursuits, and affect no greater austerity than marks the behaviour of Mussulmans generally. Their influence depends entirely on their reputation for learning and tal- ents, for gravity and correct moral conduct; their employment is, for the most part, very simple, as chanting aloud the public service, and performing such offices as every master of a family may dis. charge. As Mohammedanism acknowledges no sacrifices, it appoints no priests; the duties per. formed by the ministers of religion being seeming. ly devolved on them more as a matter of conve- nience than on account of any sacredness attaching to their order. The vast country to which the general name of 279 280 EXTENT OF TIE MOHAMMEDA FAITH. Tartary has been given, is that fromn whence Mo. hammedanism has gone forth to the East, the West,. and the South. In Thibet, the Grand Lama and various national idols hold divided empire with the Prophet; and in the inhospitable regions of Siberia, the churches of Greece and Russia have success. fully promulgated the Christian doctrines; while the Circassians, with some other Tartar races, are almost without religion. In the Crimea, the peo- ple are Mussulmans, as rigid and devoted as the Turks; and over the vast tract called by modern geographers Independent Tartary, the crescent tri- umphantly waves. From these regions sprung, in the earlier ages of Mohammedan conquest, those vast empires which, in the East, comprise so large a number of the professors of the faith of Islam. The first sovereign of this country, to whom the title of sultan was awarded early in the tenth cen. tury, conducged several expeditions into Hindustan, and secured the homage of many of the cities. The ancient Indian superstition was in a great measure overturned by his victorious arms. Long and fierce contests ensued: the princes of the sub. dued provinces, often throwing off their forced al. legiance, endeavoured to regain their independ. ence and re.establish their ancient faith, till, at length, the great Timurlane, having overrun the country with his legions, received at Agra the title MOHAMMEDANISM AMONG THE HINDUS. 281 of Emperor of Hindustan. Scarcely, however, had two centuries and a half rolled away, when his successors fell in their turn under the Persian power; and the empire he established was weak- ened, and ultimately destroyed. As the result of these conquests, Mohammedanism prevailed to a great extent, but rather nominally than really, among the millions of India : it was the religion of the court and government; but, either from indif- ference or timidity in the Moslem conquerors, the ancient idols still held extensive influence, and were at length gradually restored. In the twelfth cen- tury, Benares, the ancient seat of Brahminical learning and of Hindu idolatry, fell into the hands of the conqueror, who destroyed its numerous ob- jects of popular adoration. Yet, soon afterward, the religious character of the place was restored, and the demolished idols were replaced by others, that were as eagerly resorted to as had been their predecessors. To this consecrated metropolis, &a pilgrimage was regarded by the millions of India as imperatively commanded, and as necessary as was a visit to Mecca by the Mohammedans; and the weakness or the policy of its Moslem conquer- ors did not long withhold from them this valued privilege; the government of the city was com. mitted to the Hindus, and their conquerors, in the plenitude of their bigotry, pride, and power, never Y 282 TARTARS, PERSIANS, ETC., IN HINDUSTAN. thought of suffering their own magistrates to exer- cise authority within its walls. Thus Mohamme. danism is the religion, not of the ancient inhabi- tants of India, but of the descendants of the mill. ions of Tartars, Persians, and Arabians who, at various periods, have left their native seats to par- ticipate in the riches of these far-famed plains. The north and northwestern parts are filled with them, and from thence they have wandered over the whole of that vast country. Perhaps their numbers may now amount to nearly twenty mill. ions, among whom, however, though they are mostly of foreign extraction, are many converts from Hinduism. They form separate communi- ties, amalgamating in some parts of the country, and living as sociably with Hindus as the differ. ences in their respective faiths will permit. Hin. du princes have at times paid their devotions at Mohammedan shrines, and observed their feasts; while Mohammedans have relaxed somewhat the strictness of their observances, and manifested an inclination to conform, as far as possible, to their Hindu neighbours. Some five centuries ago, the Borahs, a people who once occupied the kingdom of Guzerat, were converted en masse to Islamism. The Arab traders to the coasts of Malabar have always been exceedingly earnest in their endeavr- ours to convert the natives, in which they have THE SIKHS OF INDIA. been greatly aided by the facility with which they have been allowed to purchase the children of the poorer classes, to educate them in the principles of their faith, and also by the frequency with which the inhabitants of those districts lose caste. This badge of the Hindu faith is often forfeited by the people mixing with those of other countries, and when it is lost they easily become Moslems. It has been maintained that the native inhabi- tants of India are absolutely unchangeable in their sacred, domestic, and political institutions, and, at first sight, there would appear to be much to war. rant such an opinion; but the history of many of them, and especially of the Sikhs, who inhabit the provinces of the Panjab, between the rivers Jumna and Indus, may be alleged as proofs to the con- trary. Still, in the religion of the Sikhs, Moham- medan fable and Hindu absurdity are mixed; its founder wishing to unite both these prevalent sys- tems in one. He had been educated in a part of the country where these two religions appeared to touch each other, if not commingle, and he was no stranger to the violent animosity existing between their respective professors ; he sought, therefore, to blend the jarring elements of both in peaceful union. The Hindu was required to abandon his idols, and to worship the one Supreme Deity whom his religion acknowledged; while the Mohammedan 283 284 MOHAMMEDANISM IN CHINA. was to abstain from such practices (especially the killing of cows) as were offensive to the supersti. tion of the Hindus. This plan so far prevailed, that, without acknowledging the Prophet, the Sikhs be- came more Mohammedans than Hindus ; and though the institutions of Brahma are not admitted among them, they insult and persecute true Moslems more fiercely and cruelly than any other people. They compel them to eat that which is forbidden by their law; animals which they account unclean are fre- quently thrown into their places of public assembly, and they are prohibited from proclaiming the hour of prayer to the faithful. China is one of those countries to which Mo. hammedanism was carried by the hordes of Tar- tary. From the scrupulous jealousy with which this vast empire is guarded from observation, it is difficult to say to what extent the Mohammedan faith, or, indeed, any other, prevails among its num. berless inhabitants; but, beyond question, it is tol. erated. The irruption of the Saracens into China under Walid can scarcely be termed a conquest. Sub. sequently, the successors of Zenghis Khan seated themselves on the throne of Pekin, and opened the country to an intercourse with all nations. The commercial Arabs had visited the ports and cities in the south of China; and, now that access to the MOHAMMEDANISM N PERSIA. 2 apital was unrestrained, multitudes of them re- paired thither. They acquired the language, and adopted the dress and manners of the people, to whom also they rendered valuable aid in adjusting their chronology, and making the necessary calcu- lations for their calendar. Intercourse with the Chinese made the Mohammedans desirous of effect- ing their conversion, the means adopted for which were both wise and humane. Deserted children were taken under their protection, and educated in Islamism; while in other ways they sought to com- mend themselves to confidence, and their religion to respect, by alleviating the wretchedness induced by a cruel superstition. The Mohammedans of China seem to partake of the mild and quiet char- acter of the inhabitants generally, and are there. fore tolerated; though there have been some ex- ceptions to this encomium. About sixty years ago they were instrumental in promoting an un- successful rebellion, and the Emperor Kien Long, after suppressing it, ordered one hundred thousand of them to be put to death. Persia, from an early period, has been almost entirely a Mohammedan country. On its conquest )y the Saracens, the religion of Zoroaster, which lad till then prevailed, was nearly abolished. those who persevered in retaining it were obliged o flee to the mountains or to the western parts 285 286 MOHAMMEDANISM IN AFRICA. of India, where their old forms of worship still lin. ger. In the disputes which ensued on the death of Mohanmmed concerning the caliphate, the Persians espoused the cause of Ali, the Prophet's son-in-law, and to his memory they are still attached. "May this arrow go to the heart of Omar," is a frequent expression among them in drawing a bow; and not long since, when Mr. Malcolm, during his tray. els in Persia, was praising Omar, the antagonist of Ali, as the greatest of the caliphs, a Persian, overcome by the justice of his observations, yet still adhering to his rooted prejudices, replied, "This is all very true, but he was a dog after all." here Mohammedanism exists in a less rigorous form than in Turkey. Its ceremonies are observed by those who are little disposed to practice its moral code : they say their prayers at the appointed season, and make a show of devotion to prevent their being suspected of irreligion; but the people generally are little concerned about the pilgrimage to Mecca, and other matters on which, in the Ko. ran, much stress is laid. They choose rather to resort to the tomb of Ali, and to that of his son Hosein, whose name is reverenced among them with a feeling approaching to adoration. In Africa, Mohammedanism has very widely pre. vailed. Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, all the northern parts of this continent, acknowledge its sway. -VMOHAMMEDANISM IN AFRICA. From Arabia and Egypt it spread west and south nearly to the great rivers. It is the established religion of Morocco ; and in Western Barbary and several kingdoms of the interior the Arabic lan. guage is spoken, the Koran believed, and the Proph. et almost worshipped. The Senegal, up to the small Moorish state of Gedumah, is the line of di. vision between the Mohammedans and the Negroes: from thence the line passes eastward of north, through Nigritia and Nubia to the Nile. As yet, however, it is but indistinctly marked, it being doubtful whether Timbuctoo is a Mohammedan or Negro town. The courts of Bornou and Cassina are Mohammedan, but a majority of their subjects are pagans. Islamism in these vast territories is in an exceedingly degenerate state when compared with either its first development in the Arabian desert, or with what now obtains in Turkey. It is said that but little more than its exclusive per. secuting spirit remains: the Oriental lustrations are almost unknown, Mohammedan temperance is neg. lected, and the great doctrine of the unity of God is confounded with, or supplanted by, the polythe. ism of the native inhabitants. The Mussulman is more depraved than the pagan; so that, while tray- ellers frequently mention the hospitality they re. ceived from the latter, by the former they were constantly insulted and annoyed on account of 287 288 MOHAM IMEDANISM IN ARABIA. their religion. In no quarter of the world does the faith of the Prophet wear so frightful an as- pect as in Africa. The region from which Mohammedanism first sprung has not remained in all respects faithful to the precepts of the Prophet. In Mecca and Medi. na, indeed, his name and system are held in the profoundest veneration; and no wonder, since both these cities are mainly supported by the supersti- tious observances enjoined in the Koran; but the Bedouins are as licentious in their religion as in heir policy and habits. On the Turkish frontiers they keep up an appearance of respect for the name of the Prophet and his doctrines ; but, in an- swer to all reproaches for their unfaithfulness, they say in words worthy a better taught and more civ- ilized race, "The religion of Mohammed could never have been intended for us. We have no water in the desert. How, then, can we make the prescribed ablutions ? We have no money. How, then, can we give alms ? The fast of Ramadan is a useless command to persons who fast all the year round ; and, if God be everywhere, why should we go to Mecca to adore him ?" From the southernmost part of Hindustan, Mo. hammedanism made its way to the Malayan penin. sula; to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Manillas, and the Celebes: Goram, one of the Spice Islands, is SOOFFEES AND WAHABEES. its eastern boundary. In the interior of these isl. ands it prevails less than on the shores. To these remote regions islamism has been carried more by the commercial than the military enter. prise of its votaries. What is its present condition there, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, accurately to ascertain. In Java it was the established reli. gion; but, when the Dutch settled that island early in the seventeenth century, many of the natives were converted. Little respect is paid by the Ja- vans of the present day either to their ancient paganism, or to Mohammedanism which took its place; though some of the forms of the latter are still in force, and its institutions are said to be gain- ing ground. The reader of Mohammedan history will meet with the terms Sooffee and Wahabee, as designa- ting certain divisions of the disciples of the religion of the Prophet. It will not, therefore, be inappro- priate to close with a brief account of these re. spective sects. Sooffee is a term originating in Persia, meaning enthusiasts or mystics, or persons 'distinguished by. extraordinary sanctity. The object of the Sooffee is to attain a divine beatitude, which he dPscribes as consisting in absorption into the essence of De- ity. The soul, according to his doctrine, is an emanation from God, partaking of his nature; just 289 SOOFFEES OF PERSIA. as the rays of light are emanations from the sun, and of the same nature with the source from whence they are derived. The creature and the Creator are of one substance. No one can be. come a Sooffee without strictly conforming to the established religion, and practising every social vir. tue; and when, by this means, he has gained a habit of devotion, he may exchange what they style practical for spiritual worship, and abandon the observance of all religious forms and ceremonies. He at length becomes inspired, arrives at truth, drops his corporeal veil, and mixes again with that glorious essence from which he has been partially and for a time separated. The life of the Sooffees of Persia, though generally austere, is not rendered miserable, like that of the visionary devotees of Hinduism, by the practice of dreadful scverities, their most celebrated teachers have been famed for knowledge and devotion. The Persians are a poetic people, and the very genius of Sooffeeism is poetry. Its raptures are the raptures of inspi. ration; its hopes are those of a highly sensitive and excited imagination; its writers in the sweet. est strains celebrate the Divine love, which per. vades all nature: everything, from the very high. est to the lowest, seeking and tending towards union with Deity as its object of supreme desire. They inculcate forbearance, abstemiousness, and 290 SOOFFEEISM. universal benevolence. They are unqualified pre. destinarians. The emanating principle, or the soul, proceeding from God, can do nothing, they say, without his will, nor refuse to do anything which he i'stigates. Some of them, consequently, deny the existence of evil; and the doctrine of rewards and punishments is superseded by their idea of re-ab- sorption into the Divine essence. The free opinions of. this class of enthusiasts subvert the doctrines of Islamism, yet they pay an outward respect to them ; they unsettle the existing belief, without providing an intelligible substitute ; they admit the divine mis. sion of the Prophet, but explain away the dogmas he uttered and while they affect to yield him honour as a person raised up by God, to induce moral order in the world, they boast their own di. rect and familiar intercourse with Deity, and claim, on that account, unqualified obedience in all that relates to spiritual interests. The similarity of Sooffeeism to the ancient Py. thagorean and Platonic doctrines will occur to every one at all acquainted with the religion and philosophy of antiquity. It as closely resembles some of the distinguishing tenets of the Brahmini. cal faith. In fact, it seems as if designed, in con. junction with the refined theology of ancient, and the sublime visions of modern idolators, to teach us that, without Divine guidance, the loftiest human 291 292 WAHABEES, ABDOL WAHAB. conceptions on subjects connected with God and religion invariably err; the ignorant and the in. structed are equally wrong; " the world by wis. dom knows not God." The Wahabees are a modern sect of Mohamme- dan reformers,. whose efforts have considerably changed the aspect of the religion of the Prophet. Perhaps to them may be owing much of that rigid adherence to Mohammedan doctrine and practice which prevails in those parts where their influence has been felt. They are the followers of Abdol Wahab, who commenced his career in the region where, during the lifetime of the Prophet, Mosei- lama had threatened a considerable division among his followers. Wahab was an ambitious fanatic, who aimed, nevertheless, at reforming the national religion. He was aided by powerful princes of the province of Nejed; and, within a short time, the ten- ets he maintained spread throughout the peninsula. His fundamental principle, like that of Mohammed, was the unity of God. The Koran he regarded as divine, rejecting all the glosses which ignorance and infatuation had put upon it, and holding in utter con- tempt all the traditions and tales concerning its au. thor, which the devout of every generation had ea. gerly received. The reverence, approaching to ad- oration, which the Arabs were wont to pay to the name of Mohammed, all visits to his tomb, and all DOCTRINES OF TIE WAHABEES. 293 regard to the tombs and relics of Arab saints, he de. nounced; and the costly ornaments with which a mistaken piety had enriched these sacred spots, he thought might be appropriated to ordinary purpo- ses. Wahab would not suffer the common oath of, by Mohammed, or by Ali, to be used among his fol. lowers, on the very rational ground that an oath is an appeal to a witness of our secret thoughts, and who can know these but God ? The title of Lord, generally given to the Prophet by his followers, Wa. hab rejected as impious. He was commonly men. tioned by this zealous reformer and his adherents by his simple name, without the addition of "our Lord, the Prophet of God." All who deviated in any degree from the plain sense of the Koran, ei- ther in belief or practice, were infidels in their es- teem; upon whom, therefore, according to its di- rections, war might be made. Thus was the mar- tial spirit of the early Saracens again called into ex- ercise ; and with the ardour that characterized the days of the immediate successors of the Prophet, they were prepared at once to assail the conscien- ces and the property of men not exactly of their own faith. At the call of their leader, they assembled first in the plain of Draaiya, some 400 miles east of Medi- na, armed and provided aleheir own expense for war. Bagdad and Mecca in vain attempted to sup. 294 MILITARY SUCCESS OF TIIE WAHABEES. press them ; the seraglio itself was filled with theii formidable war.cry; the sultan trembled on his throne; and the caravans from Syria suspended their usual journeys. The imperial city suffered 'rom their ravages in its usual supplies of coffee; and the terror of their name was widely spreading among devout Mohammedans of every country, for they had violated the shrines of saints, and levelled to the ground the chapels at Mecca, which devotion had consecrated to the memory of the Prophet and his family. At the commencement of the present century, however, Mecca was recovered from them by the Turkish arms, and the plague, with the small- pox, breaking out just at this time among the follow- ers of Wahab, probably saved the mighty fabric of Islamism. These reverses did not quench, howev- er, the ardour of the Wahabees. Their leader had been assassinated, but his son, already distinguish- ed for his prudence and valour, succeeded him in the command. Medina fell beneath his power, and from thence to the Persian Gulf he seemed likely to reign lord paramount. In 1805 he was able to impose a heavy tax on the caravan of pilgrims from Damascus to the Holy City, and declared that thenceforth it should consist of pilgrims alone, without the pride and pomp of a religious proces. sion. Soon afterward they again entered Mecca, and immediately threatened with destruction every INTOLERANCE OF THE WAHABEES. 295 sacred relic; but they did not put their threats into execution. Various conflicts between them and the orthodox Mohammedans have since ensued, the general result of which has been to break the mar. tial and fanatical spirit of the Wahabees, and to re- establish the power of the grand sultan in cities and districts where it had been placed in jeopardy. They are still, indeed, dreaded as plunderers, but no great national convulsion has resulted from their efforts. Some writers regret the suppression of this once powerful sect of Mohammedans, believing that, if continued, they would have been instrumental in overthrowing the Moslem faith, and making way for a purer religion; but for ourselves, we see lit- tle occasion for these regrets. The Wahabees must not be supposed more favourable to a pure faith than are those by whom they have been over. thrown. If they must be regarded as reformers, they only attempted to correct a few absurd arrd scandalous practices : the impious and abominable dogmas of the Koran they left untouched; or, if they touched them, it was only to enforce their ob- servance with greater rigour. Their creed was even more sanguinary and intolerant than that of the ancient Mohammedans, and probably the con tinuance of their power would have been nothing more than the continuance of injustice, cruelty. and RELIGION CI THE BIBLE. persecution. We do not look for the overthrow of Mohammedanism by such means. One system of error may sometimes destroy another, but the pure faith, which blesses a miserable world by directing men in the path of safety, knowledge, and happi. ness, will extend only as the sacred volume is dl'. fused, and as that holy influence from God accom- panies it by which the understanding is illumin- ted and the heart renewed. Fanaticism is no aux- iliary of the religion of the Bible; it neither pre- pares its way nor accelerates its progress. Vioe. lence and war are utterly rejected by this divine system, as alien from its spirit and character. "My kingdom," says its founder, " is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight; but now is my kingdom Bot from hence." THE END. 296 This book is a preservation facsimile produced for the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. It is made in compliance with copyright law and produced on acid-free archival 60# book weight paper which meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper). Preservation facsimile printing and binding by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2013