UC-NRLF 
 
 $C 31 ^IM 
 
THE RELATIUN BET?/EEN FANUA.L DEXTERITY 
 AI'JD JtffiNTALIxY UF TfiE BLIi^D 
 
 By 
 
 Herbert bobbins Chapman 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of 
 
 ;.<ister of Arts 
 in 
 
 Education 
 in the 
 GRADm'i'E DIVISION 
 of the 
 ITwIVERSITY OF CALIiDHKiA 
 
 toy 1922 
 
 Approved. Al X ', B.C .^.'.t.V. iiF^C. 7 .^ :>; k^/f^f /. H 1 5/. Kl^ACti 
 
 Instructor in charge 
 
 Deposited in the University Library 
 
 Date Librarian. 
 
EDUC; BfPT, 
 
 EDUC 
 
 UCATtON DEFT. 
 
THE RELATIQ8 BSIVBU MANU/vL DEXTER X1Y iVD XBHTALIT; 
 
 or THE BLIND. 
 
 Before presenting the data assembled leading to the in- 
 a»dlate results for whioh this paper is being written let lis bring 
 together a number of personal experiences and than lM>k into e 
 BOdMr of oontributing el«nents knoving that through these the 
 findings may be even more pr<»iounoed. 
 
 After n»king lareparation for teaohir^ normal children in 
 the public schools and finally after an experience in teaching, the 
 writer to his stirprise was asked to take charge of a department for 
 the blind in the State School fear the Deaf and the Blind at Colorado 
 Springs, Colorado. There at onoe arose as though frcnt his sub- 
 oonsoious mind two ^cperiences, one of which had a tendency to 
 oause him to look upon the position with disfavor w lie the other 
 •ftused him to look upon it with ^var. 
 
 During his early b<>yhood dcys he was aocustomed to frequent 
 "Sheffield Center", the political end social center of the township 
 in northern Ohio, ivhere he was bom, for the purpose of attending 
 Church and Sundsy School and other gatherings largely of a social 
 aature. There lived across the road from the country church • 
 blind boy eenewhat older than himself who attended during the school 
 year the Cbio State School for the Blind. This boy would walk back 
 and fwrth in front of his parents' prwnises with his hand resting 
 
tm the fence as a guide. He seemed to stir one*s very soul vith 
 ftbjeot pity for ther« s««ned to a» a« a boy no rrexme of approach 
 to him on aooount of his blindness. He vae of suoh a retiring md 
 helpless nature that he did not attempt to break trrmr into th« 
 ■ports of the beys in the neighborhood* Even his parents seemed 
 to believe that he should remain within the confines of their small 
 prwdses. Had this been the only exp«>ienoe of the writer he would 
 havo declined the offer but it hiqppened that during his college 
 dirye he had a blind olassmat* vhose parents believed that he might 
 find his way into society and the world through an education. He 
 had bacn tattght to be independent and forttinately for him through 
 the influem>e of his father he had f<a> his roonmate one of the 
 brightest students of his class. Surr<Hinded with tirtiatever embossed 
 books he could oaomand he naturally iw« forced to get hi« studies 
 largely through the reading by his classmates and others. He had 
 no " blindistna" . He entered with enthusiamn into a real class spirit. 
 He enjoyed the social gatherings and there «««m0d to be none of the 
 usual "making allonanoes" because he waa blind. No wonder that 
 after takix^ a eourse in law and a oourse In a theologicwl seminary 
 he became a successful pulpit orator. The writer therefore, had 
 before him ejcperiences of two perscms who rejaresent these extrones, 
 the one who was tiniid and viiio vas not encouraged to beccxne indepen- 
 dent while the other foimd life in its fulness. Ho wonder tliat the 
 
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mritwr Rocepted the position i^en he sair that he might be the neans 
 of striking the shackles of blindness ff c%i nary a boy end manjr a 
 girl who loight be from tioe to tine enrolled as pupils in that 
 state sohool* 
 
 The i^obleas arising dtxring those first months were appal- 
 lin^t Thore was no well defined or sour^ psychology and sociology 
 of the blind. There were plenty of observations. There was the 
 ohi^d who oould not leoehis shoes, button his clothes, wash his 
 face or comb his hair. Thore mis the child whose mother sent with 
 hia his old psfwter plate and spoon and knifs that he might oontixme 
 playing with theta. at sohool as he had at heme* There was the child 
 who swi^ed his head to ani fro* There was the child with just a 
 little sight in one eye and x^hose only object seined to be to 
 stiaiLlete the little sight he had by moving his hand back and fcrth 
 in front of the ^e. Thwe was the <^ld who oould scarcely staid 
 alone to say nothing about walking alone, all of which was due to 
 the fact that the partita wtu'e afr; id that the child might be injtired 
 if encouraged to become independent. Tliere mis an older girl who 
 wfts too tindd to talk abonrs a whisper and there was her opposite 
 who was an inveterate loud tallnr* There was a boy who according to 
 the parents was a bom musician. There was an older boy who was 
 literally steeped in profanity* There were pupils who had some 
 
 - 3 - 
 
sight but had been told that they nmst not use it. There vere 
 others with partial sight who were told to us© it. There were 
 pupils whose eyes needed examining while there were others upon 
 whose eyes operations ought to be performed. 
 
 At the Tery beginning the field presented many highly per- 
 plexing problans but the years have come and gone and let us now 
 oall the roll of the graduates and others who were taught to beooM 
 Independent: The one who was the "bom musician" is now th« 
 Superintendent of the Oregon Etaployment Institution for the Blind 
 At Portland » while his wife, also a gradiiate, has had an unusual 
 career in teaching adult blind women in the manual arts. %e is 
 a successful teaoher of musio in New York City* Two have musio 
 studios in the oity of t^nver* One keeps the Pianos of the publie 
 sohools of Denver in tune and earns sane m<mey on the side <m 
 aooount of being a talented violinist. Five ere making taore than 
 a living in an Adult Torkshop in the City of Denver. One has made 
 an enviable record as a piano tuner at Sheridan Wyoming. One is 
 the wife at a ne^diew of President IcoKinlsy who. also blind, is a 
 lawyer in Los Angeles. Ods has (^rge of a church organ and teaohes 
 BBisio in the publlo day sohool class for the blind in LO0 Angeles. 
 One is a successful piano tuner in the City of Berkeley and a 
 teaoher of brooci niaking at the California Sohool for the Blind* 
 
 - 4 - 
 
One ia th« h©*d piano tuner for F.hennan and Clagr in the City of 
 Seattle. One has a contralto voice &nd gires imiaio lesstms, 
 llTfcng in the City of Ffflpt Collins, Colorado. One married a 
 mining engineer and lived at Russell Ouloh, Colcredo. One oon^ 
 tlnues to have a number of musio pupils at Raton, HMr ltezl«o* 
 One is a piano tuner at Ventura, California. One Is a graduate 
 of the Dtoiversity of Oregai and has become a writer of note. One 
 completed a lav course at Valparaiso* Indiana, and is no« praot icing 
 lav at DurangOy Colorado. All are making a living and many are 
 doing much better. Had all of the recent forces for betterment in 
 education been in oper tlon vho kn<ws but that muoh rnxxce might 
 have been aoooaplished. 
 
 HMBy a child through kindergarten activities was rescued 
 from certain "mannerism" viiioh at first seemed hopeless. House- 
 mothers and supervisors to say nothing abotrt faithful teachers 
 were ever alert to direct and to correct. The jdiysical eduoatioR 
 department believed that one of its most important functions waa 
 that of stressing certain cwrrective exercises. Parents were en- 
 couraged to teaoh their little blind ehildren independenoe throug^i 
 assisting about the work of the home. It was soon discovered that 
 the percentage of talented musio pupils was no greater am<mg blind 
 children than "seeing" chSlflren. It soon beonme the policy of the 
 
 « 6 - 
 
sohool to give each child a thorough examination by the school 
 phyaioian^ upcm entering. In other wcarda the individual was em- 
 phasized and not the group. The spirit of the times leads us to 
 believe that «• are now entering upon an age of vonderful achieve- 
 swnis for the blind. 
 
 When Dr. Saauel P. Hays and other psyohologists have 
 fonmilated their psychologioal investigations and the physiologi- 
 cal end the sooiological data are clearly set f(»rth a ne« and 
 brighter era ought to arise for those #10 are eduoating the blind. 
 
 At present it must be renaBflDered that Dr. Hayes is an 
 unusually oauftious investigator. No one is more conscious than he 
 of the complexity of the problseui tmdertaken and of the varied 
 limitstions tmd the possibilities of err<»r. Be si^s that "preoau- 
 ticns have been omltiplied and the results presented as suggestive 
 rather than final, as raising r^thwr than solving the problems in- 
 volved in the education of the blind. The testing work is still 
 in the experimental stage » subject to wmstant revision and im- 
 provament. Criticians vill be most weloccie. Sooe p^ohologists 
 already dream of a day \ihesi the old-falnhioned methods of Mitimating 
 ability vill be oonpletely superseded ly standard tests, when we 
 
 Tl Samuel P. Hayes,. ni.D.» Mentl and Educational Survey in Seven 
 Schools fear the Blind. Report "of the 25th Biennial Ccmvention of 
 the /joerioan Association of the Instructors of the Blind, Pp. 16. 
 
 - 6 - 
 
shall have monthly or yearly records of mental growth from the 
 •arly grades up to the university « whioh vill give as true a picture 
 of the individual as we can now ohtain through curves of increase 
 in height and weight in the physioal development; when transfer 
 from school to school, entranoeto college, and ultimately the attain^ 
 ment of advanced degrees may be regulated by measuring instruments 
 vhieh stand as high in general favor as the yardstick or the B'air- 
 banks scales* The marked success of psychological testing in in- 
 dustry sinoe the war pro^eay well for the future of educational 
 ■fMUturen^nt. T;e should perhaps be content for the immediate present 
 if through cordial cooperation we can establish emthods for measuring 
 the ment lity and school att^lzuoents of the blind whi^ will give 
 valuable and fairly reliable supplementary evidence in discriminating 
 between the fit and the unfit, and show teachers of the blind how 
 their imtiring efforts may bring an even larger and more oreditable 
 harvest.* 
 
 Wo doubt not but that in the midst of the complexities of 
 the past there have been logical deductions and at times the appll- 
 oaticms have been scientific, but why should schools for the blind 
 exist whose motives are not scientific even up to the present day 
 light? 
 
 One edtraator very wisely reviews the situation from the 
 
 - 7 - 
 
standpoint of the sohools for the blind . "The residwitiel sohools 
 oould not afford to ignore ary means of imjarovemient and consequently 
 hwre most reoently oalled in the aid of peyohologioal research and 
 of applied* educational psychology. Ihe large number of feeble 
 ■inded and backward blind children had always offered serious prob- 
 Isms to educators and it vas largely inthe hope of determining sosoe 
 Bethod of dealing v>ith these that the aid of psyoholof,i8ts, vith the 
 oodifled Minet->Siia(« mentalil^ tests « wm first oalled in* Anteoe- 
 dent to this movement, the "psyohology of the blind" had meant 
 ohiefly nyths and mysteries. It is too early to state ^st what the 
 psychologists oan do for the sohools; but this wxuAi is already ap- 
 parent, that the grading on a fairly accurate scientific basis ao> 
 eording to mentality and moral fitness, correlated with a oarefttl 
 {^ysioal rating, vill serve as the best possible basis for segregating 
 according to aptitudes. This in turn ought to lead to a reorganiza- 
 tion of educational practice, with a fairer chance fcnr each "eduoand" 
 to get that ooturse of training conswiant with his own highest good 
 and that of society**. 
 
 v. Dr. Richard S. J^reRch, Assisiant I^ofessta* of Educaticm of the 
 University of California, a thesis of Itaroh 23, 1919, "The Education 
 of the Blind; A Critical and Historical Survey with Special Reference 
 to the United States of i^er ioaa** 
 
 - 8 - 
 
"studies in tli0 psychology of blindness, like the studies 
 of pathological and abnormal cases in general oan offer no sure 
 ground for normal {orooedure; but this study has throim some light 
 on obscure points in the psychology of the senses and <m the vhole 
 question of ctenttl imagery. V.ith the greater perfection of instru- 
 ments and method « much more is to be hoped for. No greet flood of 
 light -will be oast by these researches on the nonnal psychic life; 
 but doubtless mmy reluable findings -will be made that may be of 
 more or less direct use in the education of the blind; and a few 
 may cast soDe not entirely irorthless Sidelights on general psyoho- 
 logy." 
 
 At the very beginning the writer was aware that the pl^^ 
 sioal nature of the blind child must be emphasized. It was not 
 uncarsnon at the Colorado school to see blind boys and blind girls 
 spending parts of afternoons and Saturdays skating in the winter 
 ttsta on Prospect Lake and Monument Creek. It is interesting to 
 know from the wcards of Drt v.. li, Illingworth that Sir Francis Camp- 
 bell as a mtisioal instructor at the Perkins Institution far th« 
 Blind in Boston, then in the charge of Dr. How* was enthusiastic 
 for athletics. "He carried out his theory of physical ex«roi»# 
 ooijointly with music lessens* taking his pupils daily to swim in 
 T! \Y. U. Illingworth, History of the Educetlwi of the Blli^, Pp. 102. 
 
 . 9 - 
 
the open sea, and teaching th^n to skate in the vlnter"* With our 
 modem gymnasiums, svrisBning pools and skating rinks the jitysioal 
 nature of otir pupils ought to be at least normal and then, too, 
 Uirough these buildings and applianoos the idios^craales of inaiqr 
 a "blind ohild ought to bo not only ourbed but oured. 
 
 There are so many contributing factors to our subject. 
 The Relation Between llanual Dexterity to Mentality of the Blind, 
 that ve venture to suggest that one of ^e movt valuable Initial 
 steps is the kindergart«n« On aooount of a laok of funds and ap- 
 propriate buildings the writer was unable to put the kindergarten 
 to a test until he became otmneoted with the Department for the 
 Blind of the California School *or the DMif and the Blind. After 
 securing an experienced and well trained kindergarten teacher it 
 beoeme evident at once that the beginners were ocnnmioing to "find 
 ^MMwelves". ¥;ithout going into detail as to the excellent results 
 let tts cite one illustration tliat of socializing or dramatising 
 "Little Red Riding Hood". 
 
 AJUa - To play the story of Little Red Riding Hood fear the develop- 
 HKini of self-expressicm, spontaneity and originality* 
 Class- line blind kindergarten children of the Califtamla Sohool for 
 tlie Deaf and the Blind. 
 
 Seated out on the front lawn under the trees, the teacher told 
 the kindergarten olass of blind children the story of Little Red 
 Hiding Hood. (That bein^ the story chosen by the children). 
 
 On their own initiative the children chose as their stage 
 leader a little girl b the name of Jean Van Ness who proceeded at 
 
 - 10 - 
 
onoe to select the oast of characters. It vub interesting to note 
 that she tried out several children for ttie part of "wolf" before 
 assigning it to a partioul?r child. 
 
 Jean - "Luoy, you would make a husky wood-outter ! Dwrothy 
 must be Little Red Riding Hood! Little Ruth few grandmother I Jxidy, 
 talk like the wolf I Ko, that won't do; Anna yow tr?, no; noj 
 a«rtrude - fine , Gertrude, you be wolf. Judy may be mother •" 
 
 Jean «" "" liow then Judy Wwre is yotir house?" 
 
 Ju^ - "This tree and here's the garden in front where the 
 old-faUiioned flowers arc growii^." 
 
 Jean - "All right, Gertrude, if you are the wolf you inust find 
 your forest and get behind a tree. Little grandma, find your house 
 and go to bod* Itow th^i, begin*" 
 
 liother - "Do you think you are old Plough to go through the 
 forest and oarry this nice basket of jam and butter and sugar 
 oookles to grandma? She is ill." 
 
 R.R.Hood - "All right, I can carry it, h\xt you must put on aay 
 oape and hood." 
 
 Hother - "Kom do not talk to anyone on the way. Po not pi ok 
 flomnrs or play in the woods and be oareful right now or you will 
 •tap in the water." 
 
 Stage Leader - "Kow you come over here Drarothy and play in 
 the woods* Get readj'-, Gertrude, to eame fran behind the tree." 
 
 ?iolf - "Good morning I " 
 
 E.K.Hood - "Good morning I" 
 
 Wolf - "Hob are you? fthere are you going?" 
 
 R.K.Hood - "To visit iry grandmother who is 111 and I sa 
 carrying a basket of goodies to her." 
 
 Vioif - "iShere does your grandmother live?" 
 
 R.R.Hood - "On the other side of this wood." 
 
 Fiolf - "I must hurry now. Good bye I" (Wolf knocks can a 
 tree which represents grandmother's house.) 
 
 Grandmother - "who is there?" 
 
 Wolf - (sque8l<y voioe) "Little Red Hiding Hood, and I*ve 
 brought you a basket of good things to eat." 
 
 6ran<feiother - "l^t the basket onthe table and come over to my 
 bed." (she is curled up on the lawn.) 
 
 (V;olf pounces on her.) 
 
 Wolf - "Kow then, hide behinj ttiia bush, beoause C ate you 
 up!" (Little Bed Riding Hood knocks at the tree.) 
 
 fiolf - Affile is there?" 
 
 R.R.Hood - "Your grandchild, and I've brought you a basket 
 of good things. ik>\l tlm I Cookies witli sugnr." 
 
 Wolf - "Lift the bobbin and the latoh will fly up." 
 
 (Little Red Hidii^ Hood - enters.) 
 
 - 11 - 
 

WoXf - "put your basket on the table and com« over to the bed." 
 
 R.R.Hood - "Grandmother, what great eyee you haYe." 
 
 Tiolf *- "/Jl the better to see you, my deer," 
 
 E.R.Rood - "But grendiaother , what great eare you have." 
 
 Yiolf - "Better to beer ulth, my dear." 
 
 R. R.Hood - "But graninother, what great teeth you have J" 
 
 vroljf - "Better to eat you with" (jujsps up arid grabs her.) 
 
 (Woodcutter runs in and thra«rs the mdf down) 
 
 Woodo^itter - "Kow you are desd, Kr« Xolf, lie still J Cobm 
 
 hone little Red Riding Rood. Grancfctother, jt«np up - come out of 
 
 that wolf, beoouse I hsve caved you. l.-.;t's all go h<me and eat 
 
 the things <nit of the basket. ?.^I but it was luoky I harpend 
 
 along and heard you scream." 
 
 Itother - "Little Red Riding Hood, I guess this will be a 
 
 l«ss(m to you, not to pl^ when you arc sent on errands." 
 
 Stage Leader - "THicrel we jtist finished the play in time. It 
 
 is lots of fur; mcy we play anotlier storv tcmorrow, Kiss Vivian?" 
 
 (The kindergarten teaoher.) 
 
 It became more and more pronounced that the children who 
 were active or who were encouraged to really do things were the ones 
 who forged to the firmit. It w&s fimnd that those who had a mastery 
 over their hands made better Geometry pupils than those who had not 
 "fotmd tbeBselvea" through wood-^ork or other industries. Ho wonder 
 that teachers of the blind are enthusiastic for Vooatitmal education. 
 "After the first attempts at literary eduoati<»i of the blind by 
 Valentine linv^ and others, the attention of those in dh&r^9 of in- 
 stitutions fcff those deprived of sight appears to have been mainly 
 e<mo(mtreted on instruction in handicrafts or trades whloh might 
 provide a means of livelihood to those with sufficient ability and 
 perMTVeranoe to learn then." 
 1. W, H. Illingworth, History of the Education of the Blind, Pp. 58-54. 
 
 - 12 - 
 
A Canadian p8yohol(^,ist by the name of Profesa«r Fraser In 
 ocm junction with his brother Sir Frederick Fraser, the blind Super- 
 intendent of the Halifax, Ncotr Scotia, School, verified through many 
 tost a the findings of Dr. Griaabaoh, Flresident of the G^tvmn Aaao- 
 oiation of School I^giene, who haa made a series of testa in order 
 to oompare the streixgth of the sense of touoh in seeing and blind 
 pars<»i8 of the same age, and also ocmpared the touoh ixoparessiona 
 made upon the third, fourth, and fifth fingers of the blind with 
 those of the first fingers. For these experinonts he used a pair 
 of ocHapassea with delicate ro\inded points, and much to his own sur- 
 mise he found that the impressions made by the two points of th* 
 oomrass oould be distinguished inthe seocnnd, third and fourth fingera 
 of the blind at a shorter distance than the two points oould be 
 realized by the forefinger. In othar words if the oonpaaaca were 
 a line apart their points would in^ess thoimelves upon the for- 
 finser of a blind person as one point, whereos the im^essltxx taade 
 upon the second, third and fourth fingers would be these of two 
 points. 
 
 Maxy hundreds of experiments as to the ooDJjHurative delloa<^ 
 
 of touoh in peraons with and without sight were oondueted. The 
 
 Tl C. F. Fraser, K, B., LL.D., "Psychology of the Blind". Report 
 of Twenty-third Biennial Convention of the American i^ssociaticm of 
 Instruotcars of the Blind. (1916). Pp. 78. 
 
 - IS - 
 
•Mises of hearing and {m«ll were also tested. Slnoe a number of 
 these findings bear upon the problem before ua let us sum them up 
 a« briefly eis possible: 
 
 1* In the faculty of distinguishing irajressions pro- 
 duoed by touoh there is in general no essential differance as 
 regards the time free from labor betve«i thft blind and seeing. 
 Staall differaiKjes speuk in favca: oi' the seeing. 
 
 A 2. In [srsons blind from birth the aoutenesa of the s«ris« 
 of touoh is soB^e«hat less thanin seeing persons. In a few oases 
 the rest of the sensoriiai also suffers in persons bliiid froci birth. 
 
 8. The blind h&Te a less aoute sense of touoh in the 
 tip ends of the forefingers than the seeing; and in the blind there 
 is a difference between the t??o forefingers as regards the faculty 
 of receiving imjare jsions. 
 
 4. The blind need, especially as regards the hands, a 
 strtxiger impression 't^xa.n the seeing if a distinct inpression of 
 touoh is to be produced. 
 
 5. In the faculty of locating ^e direction of sound 
 there is no difference between the blind and the seeing. 
 
 6. The ability to locate the direction of a sound varies 
 in the blind as much as in the seeing and in both is to a very 
 great degree shaped by the individuality of each person. 
 
 - 14 - 
 
7« Aa a gonered rule the direction c^ a sound la deterodned 
 by the blind and seeing more aoourately by hearing with both ears 
 than only vith one ear. 
 
 Bf there la no differanoe between the blind and seeing as 
 reg^ds the distance at which & sound ama be heard and located. 
 
 9* There is no relaticm between th» distance at VThioh 
 Bounds can be distinguished and the ability to locate th«n either 
 in iiM blind cv s&eing* 
 
 10. There is no differer.ee betvewD the blind and seeing 
 as regards the aeut«iess of the ^nae of estell. 
 
 11. The blind to a greater degree get tired by stanual 
 labor than the seeing of tlie same age* 
 
 12. The blind o£ the same age get tired quicker by itmnual 
 iMibor than by nttttal work. This Is not the case with the seeing of 
 the mse age* 
 
 13» There is no essential difiermioe in the degree 9$ tired- 
 ness by oental wcr^ between the blind and seeing of the saae age* 
 Slight differences speakin fevoar of the seeing. 
 
 The general public ere want to attribute to those who are 
 blind marvelous faculties of touch and hearing. In these respects 
 the blind are regwrded as abncraail ewJ everything that is done by 
 Umb Is oot.didered more or leas w<mderful. 
 
 - 15 - 
 
lb* psychology of the blind opeiia a wide field for expmri- 
 aent end ionrestig; tion. We trust that inthe future thie special 
 'branoh of p^chology will receive more attenticm than it has in the p« 
 past for it is bound to laake the training of the youthTul blind more 
 practioal and more suooessful* 
 
 Considerable progress has b««n aade in perfecting a oethod 
 by whioli the mentality of a blind child might be tested and recorded. 
 It wat neo«««ary, in tfajo first plsee« to eliminate, both from the 
 Binet-Simon Year Kcale and the Ywkes-Bridges Point Scale « all tests 
 whi<^ could not be adnilnistered to the blind subject . Such tests as 
 Binet's pictures, and the drawing of the square, could not be given 
 to blind subjects. It was then necessary to provide other tests, 
 suitable for the blind, which vould <»ill into play the saao mental 
 processes* In some cases parallels could be provided. F<^ example, 
 for Binet's "caaparison of two outline faces" - an "aesthetic choice", 
 was substituted the choice between the two tacttial imjo-essions made 
 by two fabrics held in the two hands, such as silk and serge* 
 
 Hid we the mental r tings of the blind pupils about to ba 
 introduced into our discussion, our findings would be clothed with 
 gre&ter definlt«jess. 
 
 Have we not speculated a^'>:ain and again as to what a stu^ 
 of the standings obtained by blind pupils would show concerning the 
 
 - X6 - 
 
relation betwa SKnaal dexterity and mentality? /Jter haring gone 
 into 6 nvsslber of the characteristics of the blind and after ezramining 
 the ooncltieione of a number of psyohologiste on the nenual and mental 
 aepects of the question and believing tliat such a stm^ would be 
 helpful and suggestive, we propose to Taring together the records of 
 a number of our owi pupils, oodsining there with authentic records t^ 
 blind pupils from other sohools. 
 
 Altogether the record of 520 pupils -mill be studied to ascer- 
 tain on the one hand what g;rade of work toey did in sut Jeots whioh 
 are ganerally believed to be an index to their mental ability, i.e. 
 the osual subjects of the sohool ourrloulura, and wi the other hand, 
 the quality of their work in th(»e subjects which ere indicative of 
 their ability with their hands, sudi a» wktellng Trlth oley, iirood work, 
 caning, weaving, broom making, and timing — the manuel occupations 
 of the boys; and the knitting, crocheting, hand and iseohine sewing of 
 the girla. 
 
 So many factors miter into such a stu^y that it is extremely 
 difficult to drew ejoy reliable oonoltisicms; this stu<^ will, there- 
 fore, have a maxixaum of presentation of facts and a minfcaum of draw- 
 ing of ooaolusions. 
 
 !•' Olia H. Burritt, "Annual Report of the Principal to the Bwird 
 of M&naf;ers". The Pennsylvania Institution For the Instruction of 
 the Blind, Overbrook, I1iiladelj;4iia. 82nd /Jinual Report, Pp. 11. 
 
 - 17 - 
 
Htm ftge at -vhioh sight was lost tmquestionably has a Tery 
 Important bearing upoi the facility with irhich the pupil uses his hands; 
 but prscisely wh a t baarlng it is extremely difficult to say. Does a 
 boy titio loses his sight say at twelve years of age have better or 
 poorer use of his hands than a bey ttf equal ability who has never 
 tnmit Qtadoubtedly he has a far better oonception of material things 
 and he raay hewe better use of his hands; but ere they bettor trainwdt 
 Can he do well with his hands more or fewer things than the boy totally 
 blind frcn birth or early oUildhood? 
 
 Another ixaportent factor that enters into the problem is th« 
 decree o£ blindness. In every school for the blind ars soim pupils 
 who have a little sight. These pupils who have the advantage In most 
 respects over those who are totally blind have an even greater advan- 
 tage in this matter of the use of bonds In rsmual work. Even in the 
 «eee of tv;o pupils who have the s&im amount of vision there v;ill be 
 considerable variation in Urn ouiunt of helpful use they get fr«n th« 
 aigjht they hscve. 
 
 A third factor is the ftge at which the pupil entered sohoolj 
 for both mind and muscle are ncare pliant in childhood tlian in youth 
 and in youth than in mature years. But there may be, sometimes is, a 
 very great difference inr the eapabilitlee of totelly blind pupils who 
 lost sight at the same 4^e and entered school at the same age* In one 
 
 - 18 - 
 
the pupil haa never been paroltted or encouraged to take aiqr 
 part in the activities of the home; In the other his parent a have heen 
 wise enough to see the value to their blind child of the fullest pos- 
 sible sharing in the dally routine. 
 
 there is little doubt that, other things being equal, the 
 second child has vastly superior ability along both nianual and In- 
 tellectual lines; bxit in so few oases ere all other things equal. 
 
 Into the correct ansvrer to this question of relative nanual 
 and mental ability enter also all those factors that xaake up the 
 individuality of the pupil which are further oanplicated in the ease 
 of blind pupils by the ph^fsiotl causes of blindness. 
 
 The standings of tlie pupils in their various subjects have 
 hmen tfitered each ye^r on a unifcrm record card, vie have gone care- 
 fully ewer tlie records of 220 pupils nos in school isho have been in 
 attendance for at least one year end have ascertained their gradMi 
 In the regular school Glasses sad in music as indicative of their 
 aental ability; and in all subjects taught in the laanual training 
 d^ierti&mits as Indicative of their aanual eblli^. Our first study 
 taloes no account of the age at which sight was lost, the degree of 
 blindness, or the age at whioh the pupil entered school. It is s 
 camper ison between laanual and the mental abililq?- of the entire num- 
 ber of pupils studied — a ooraperiscax, not of one pupil with mother, 
 
 - 19 - 
 
"bTit of eech pupil's CRpabilltlea ftlong intelleottial etnd n«ix\Kil lines* 
 
 Ifhile the s^iool rooor<!s haye been the chief reliance in 
 this stu^ we hare Tseen to Bome extent aided ly a felr knowledge of 
 the individual pupil uhioh teachers acquire. The nunber of pupila 
 per teacher in our schools is relatively small , neoesserily so; foar 
 instruction in laary subjects must be largely individtoil. This «aabl«« 
 one to studj' the Interests and capabilities of the individual pupil 
 more thoroughly than Twuld be p<»8ible with larger mxmbers. The4re- 
 qoent readjustment of the work of the pupil due to vnrlous causes « 
 prominent among iriiioh are his health and a more thorough understanding 
 of his oapabilltles, forces us to give mach thought to the ebili'ty of 
 «u»h pupil in the several departments in which instruction is given. 
 Thus we all obtain eceptionally aooiorate ideas of the manual and 
 mental abilitiea of our pt^ils* 
 
 Our study then has been to ascertain: (1) Hov< many pupils 
 hare dime work o£ equal grade in both literary end mannal subjeote? 
 (2) How many have done better work in manital than in liter nry subjects? 
 And (5) Bow aensr iMive done better work in literary than in manual sub- 
 jects? 
 
 In order that we may have a laj^er number upon which to beae 
 observations we have made tlw» same study** of the oomparative 
 
 1. MlF; 1, Pp. 22. 
 2« TABLE 11, Pp. 28. 
 
 - 20 - 
 
\ 
 
 standings in manual and literary atxbjceta of 315 puplle dlooharpea 
 duriiu; the T»8t seven to tern years, eocoluding from the study all those 
 pux^lls dl8<diar^ed during this titee who reoained in school too short 
 ft ttoe to enable vm to form an aoouret* judgjaemt of their attainments, 
 i.e», lass than (ma year* 
 
 Assigning that the 536 p«^lls cho^n ao indicated above, whioh 
 is more than <me~fifth of the entire number who have attended sinee the 
 organization of the schools ftrom which tha pwpils ware ohosen, ara 
 fairly representative of the entire number. It appear* ftrom tha faota 
 shorn in TABLl!iS 1 - 111 that almost exactly two-thirds of all the 
 pupils that enter school do work of an equal grade In manual and 
 literary sub;Jeots, i.e* if a student does work of a hlph grti^e in 
 those olaasea whiohdem&nd Ictrge use of his hands; if he does poor 
 work in his manual subjects he does oorrespondirfty poor work in his 
 literary and muaioel subjects; and abotit two-fifteenths do bettor 
 work in literary than in manual subjects. 
 
 In ord«: to see i^at bearings upon the relative standings in 
 manual and literary subjacts the possession of a little useful sight 
 sewBS to have^ wa have separated a group of 188 pupils new? in school 
 into the "totally blind" snd "the partially blind", adopting as our 
 standard, not the stiot dafinition of the ooculist, whioh would 
 T, TABLfe lU, Pp* 24. _-.—- » 
 
 - 21 - % 
 
TABLE 1. 
 
 The records of the 220 present pupils studied show the 
 
 fell*«ing: 
 
 Comperison Between Standings in lianual and Literary Subjects of 
 220 iPresent Pupils Who Have Be«a In Sohool !]ot Less Than tee Year. 
 
 Girls Boys Total Percentage 
 Bo. pupils who have done 
 Work of satne grade in man- 
 ual and literary subjects. 75 70 145 6S«9 
 
 No* pupils who have done 
 
 better wtn-k in manual than 
 
 in literary subjects. l6 22 52 14.5 
 
 Ho. pupils who have done 
 
 better work in literary 
 
 than in manual subjects. 28 17 43 19.6 
 
 TOTALS 111 109 220 100. 
 
 - 22 - 
 
TABLE lU 
 
 Relative Standings in Uanual and Literary Subjeots of 515 Pupils 
 Diaoharged Dmring the Fast Ten Years. 
 
 Girls Boys Total Percentage 
 So. pupils who have done — — — 
 work of saaM grade in man- 
 ual and literary subjeots. 94 106 202 64.13 
 
 Bo. pupils vho have d<me 
 
 better vtxrk in manual than 
 
 in literary subjects. 42 33 75 23.8 
 
 Ho. pupils who have done 
 
 better work in litemry 
 
 than in manual subjects. 10 28 38 12.10 
 
 TOT/iL 148 169 515 100. 
 
 - 23 « 
 
fABLE 111. 
 
 By ooabining the group of 220 pupils who aro n<m in 
 
 school and the 315 «ho have left, «e have: 
 
 ^le Relative Standings in Manual and Literary Subjects of 
 535 Breseixt and Poroer Pupils. 
 
 girls Boys Total Pereentage 
 Bo* pupils who have done — — 
 
 work of same grado in man- 
 
 twl and literary subjects. 169 178 S49 64.86 
 
 Bo. pupils who have done 
 
 better work in manual than 
 
 In literary subjects. 62 K 107 20. 
 
 Bo. pupils who have done 
 
 better work in liter: ry 
 
 than in manual subjects. 36 46 81 15«14 
 
 TOTALS 257 278 535 100. 
 
 %. 
 
I^ftoe among th« partially blind thosewho have only peroeptlcm of 
 light, hut a claasiTioation that places among the totolly blind all 
 pupils who have less then caae-sixtieth of normal Tision* Thus olasei- 
 flod the partially blind include thosa trho seen to make some little 
 use of the modioum of sight they have for their vork in manual sub- 
 jects ~ sufficient use to give them some advantage, however slight, 
 over those who, for the purposes of this study, may be fairly oon- 
 •Idered totally blind* 
 
 The variations between the toally blind and the partially 
 blind show in T/iBLES Iv and V are about what we would expect. It 
 appears that, whereas approximately seven out of ten totally blind 
 pupils have done work of an equal grade alcmg manual and literary 
 lines, <mly a little more than one-half of the partially blind d» k 
 equally good work in both departments; that ohly about axe-twelfth/ 
 of the totally blind do better work in manual than in literary sub«* 
 jeots as ocmpared with three-t«iths of the partially blind* but on 
 the other hand that approximately one -fifth of the totally blind do 
 better work in literary and musical subjects than in manual, while 
 only one-seventh of the partially blind excel along literary and anal- 
 oal lines. 
 
 1. 0. il. Burritt. S^nd Annual Report, Penn. Inst, for Blind. Pp. 7-8. 
 
 2. T/iBLE IV, Pp. 26. 
 
 3. TABLE 1, Pp. 27. 
 
 - 25 - 
 
The Relet ive Standings in M&nuel and Literary Subjects of 
 146 Totally Blind Pupils Nov in Sehool. 
 
 Girls Boys Total POToentagg 
 
 Ho* pupils i»ho have dene — — — 
 work of same grade in laan- 
 
 aal and literary subjects. 69 47 106 72.6 
 
 No* pupils vho have done 
 
 better trork in manual than 
 
 in literary subjeots. 9 S 12 8»2 
 
 Ho* pupils iriio have done 
 
 bettor work in literary 
 
 than in manual subjeots. IS IS 28 19.2 
 
 tmm 81 65 146 100. 
 
 - 26 - 
 
TABLE V. 
 
 "Hhe RelatiTre Standings in Manual and Literary Subjects of 
 42 Partially Blind Pupils How in School. 
 
 Girls Boys Total Paroefetage 
 No* pupils who Benre done 
 vork of same grade in man- 
 ual and literary subjects. 13 10 23 54.8 
 
 Bo, pupils who have done 
 
 better wcark in manual than 
 
 in literary subjects. 3 10 13 50.9 
 
 Bo. pupils vrho have done 
 
 better work in literary 
 
 than in manual subjects. 6 __1^ ^ 14.3 
 
 TOTAL 21 21 42 100. 
 
 - 27 - 
 
Always seeking to know idiat bearing the age at #iioh sight 
 tma lost has upoa all our probl6mB« «e have selected 146 pupils triao 
 tti^ fairly be owisidered totally blind for the ptirposes of this stud^r 
 •• before explained, to ende&vor to asoertain what bearing the age 
 at vhioh sight was lost has upon relative ability along manual and 
 literary lines. It is the belief, based not upon any careful study 
 of the problOTJ but «nly upon scans observaticai of blind pupils, that 
 « child vho loses his sight at four or five years of age has some 
 ftdvsntage over a child who h&s never seen; that one vho has seen un- 
 til he is eighty nine (»: ten years of age has considerable advantage 
 over one Bho has seenfor four or five years only, and an enormwia 
 advantage over the diild irho has been blind from babyhood or early 
 cliildhood; and that the child vho loses his sight after ten years 
 cf age has so many advantages over one #10 has been blind freci in- 
 fenqr that the stterapt to teeoh them together, if successful, requires 
 a teacher of exceptional ability and resourcefulness. Indeed -we are 
 inclined to the opinicm that these boys and girls who lose their 
 sight after ten or twelve years of age should attend one of wr 
 special schools for a short tiiue only -> long enough for thsm to 
 acquire the ability to read and write a dot ty|w easily and to Bse 
 with facility the special apparatus needed by the blind — • and that 
 th^ should then be educated with those who see. 
 
 - 28 - 
 
We hove, therefore, separated theae 146 totally blln^ 
 pupils into three grotipa, composed rospeotively of those -who have 
 lost sight (1) under five years of age (2) betvemi five and ten 
 years of age and (3) at ten years of age or older. 
 
 S*om the above table it appears that nearly four-fifths of 
 the 146 pwpils under oonsidareticn lost sight under five years of 
 
 age, 94 of these 114 losing sight tmder one year of age. 
 
 2 
 Oie next three tables exhibit the relative standings in 
 
 mnifti&l and literary subjects of these 146 totally blind pupils 
 
 olassified aoocMrding to the age at vhioh sight -was lost. 
 
 Rie numbers dealt with here are probably too simII to war- 
 rant drawing any conclusions but it is doubtless of sorae signifi- 
 eenoe that the percentage of those i^ do better ^ork in manoal than 
 in literary lines rises froia 6.2 per cent of those who lost sight 
 under five years of age to over 15 per t^nt of those vho lost sight 
 Kt five years of age or older. 
 
 Within the ten year period under review twwity-eight ohildren 
 between fotnr and twelve years of age entiured the kinder gart«i or first 
 grade, not cme of m-xm possessed sufficient ability to advance to the 
 second grade and only six of whos were advanced to the main school 
 
 TT^fAgrrwr^r^o:   
 
 ?. Ti^LE VII, Pp. 31. 
 TABLE VIII, Pp. S2. 
 TABLE IX, Pp. 53. 
 
 - 29 - 
 
i|;« at iihiob Blindnaas Occurred of 146 Totally Blind Pupils. 
 
 Girls Boys Totql i-'ero«nt*ge 
 Lost sight xmder five 
 years of age. 61 53 114 78.1 
 
 l<08t Sight at five and 
 
 rmSMt ten years of age. 8 11 19 13* 
 
 Lost sight at ten years 
 of age or older* 
 
 JL 
 
 -1 
 
 IS 
 
 8.9 
 
 Totals 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 146 
 
 100. 
 
 - SO - 
 
TABLE VII. 
 
 EeXatlve Standings in Mamal and Literary Sijbjeots of 114 Totally 
 Blind inipils fho Lost Sight Und«p Five Years of Age. 
 
 Girls Borya Total PerogntaKe 
 No. pupils who hove done 
 vork of saioe grade in man- 
 ttal and literary subjoots. 44 39 83 T2,B 
 
 Vo» pupils vho h&TO done 
 
 bettor Tsark in manual than 
 
 literary 3t:ib^ecta. 2 ft T S*Z 
 
 Ho* pupils «hc have done 
 
 better work in literary 
 
 than manual subject s. 15 _J^ 24 21» 
 
 TOTALS 61 53 114 100. 
 
 - 51 - 
 
TABLE Vni 
 
 Relative Standings in U&mnl and Literary Subjeots of 19 Totally 
 Blind Pupils ?<lio Lost Sight at Five and Under T«i Years of Age. 
 
 glrla Boye Total Peroentage 
 Ho» pupils who have done ' ' 
 
 vork of same grade in mai>- 
 ual and literary subjeots. & 7 12 63.2 
 
 So* pupils who have done 
 
 better w<»rk la nanual than 
 
 in literary subjeots. 2 13 15.8 
 
 He* pupils who have done 
 
 It^ter «ork in literary 
 
 than in manual subjects. ^ _£ * 21. 
 
 TOTALS 8 U 19 100. 
 
 - 32 - 
 
tABiiF. IX 
 
 Relative Standings in Llar.ual and Litwary Subjects of 13 Totally 
 Blind Pupils Vho Lost Sight at Ten Years of Age or Older. 
 
 Girls Egys Total Peroentage 
 
 Bo* pupila who have done — — — "'" 
 work of same grade in nan- 
 
 WkL and literary subjeots. 4 7 11 M*6 
 
 Hoi pupils who have done 
 
 better work in mamial than 
 
 in litertiry subjects. 2 2 15,4 
 
 So. impils T)ho h' ve done 
 
 Iwtter work in literary 
 
 than in asanal subjects   ^ «£ ° 00, 
 
 TOTAL 4 13 100. 
 
 - 33 - 
 
for a trial in the first grade; the renalning tventytvo have b««i 
 
 discharged direct from the kindergarten after periods of trial 
 varying from two mMxths to foiur years. It is significant that« with 
 two or three possible expepticsis, these tw«ity-eight children vitio 
 were either backward and reriained for a sotaewhat longer trial, had 
 •xeeedingly poca: use of their hands* 
 
 Ml our evidence goes to show^ th«refore, that a large 
 «ajority of our pupils — approximately seven of every t«i ~ do 
 equally veil in annual subjoots and in the mare distlnotively nental 
 aubjecta of the literary and musical departments; and that where 
 notably inferior work is done alixig aariual lines ty a pupil of re- 
 cognized mental ability as shown by hi* w«rk in the class room and 
 in music, this is usually due to want of oj^cartunity rather than to 
 lack of ability. 
 
 - 34 - 
 
6IBLI0CSAFHT. 
 
 "A Teatfc Book of Experimental Pi^ohology", Part 1. 
 By Charles S. Bikers. 
 
 "Educational Psychology", Vol. Ill, "J^ntal Work and Fatigue", 
 and "Individual P if fere noes and Their Cause*". 
 By Edward L, Th<arndike. 
 
 "The Elements of Physlologioal Psychology", Part III; "The Nature 
 of the Mnd", Chap. 1, "General Relations of Body and Mind". 
 By Ladd and Voodworth. 
 
 "Psyohology of the Blind". By C. F. Fraser, K.B,, LL.B. 
 
 Fra;i the Twenty-Third Biennial Convention of the iimorioan 
 Association of the Instructors of the Blind. 1916. 
 
 Annual Reports of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction 
 of the Blinrl. 82nd Innual Report. 
 
 "A HsRial Strvey of the Ohio State School for the Blind". Ifeder the 
 authtwity of the (Saio Board of Administration. 
 ESy 'thooBM n* Haines, Ph.D., H.D. 
 
 "Hind", A Quarterly Review of Psyohology araJ Philoappliy, 
 Vol. VIII, October, 1899, Part IV. 
 
 Psychological Review, Vol. III. (1896)j Vol. IV. (1897). 
 
 "Teaohers College ContrlbutiMX to Education", Ho. 63. Kew Ywk: 
 Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 
 Aaagnos, I^ohaol - Tlie Education of the Blind in the United State* 
 of Anwrioa, its Prinolples, Developnent and Results. Two ad- 
 dresses. Boston, lillis Co., printers, 1904. 
 
 Burritt, 0. II. - Kew Opportunities for Blind Children before 
 
 entering School. Paper read before First International Congress 
 of Mothers on the Welfare of the Child. l iashington, Maroh, 1908. 
 
 Stratton, Geo. M« The Spatial Harmony of Touch and Vision. "Mind", 1899. 
 
 !.3aryland,Vv<Mrkshop for the Blind, Reports 1 & S, (1913) 
 
 - 55 - 
 
'^^m 
 
BIBHOGRAriir (Concluded) 
 
 Campbell, Chas. F. P, - The Outlook for the Blind. Vols. I to XI. 
 
 Illingwca'th, V,. II, - Histrt^ of the Eduoation of the Blind. 
 
 French, Richard b. - The I.ducation of the Blind. A Critical and 
 Historical Survey v/ith Special Itferenoe to the United States 
 of Maerioa. A 'Hiesia, tlarch 23, 1919. 
 
 - 36 - 
 
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