UC-NRLF $B ET7 D3M ^\ x-> i\ D ROMAN RY m m. John Sv/ett ^:-iii V. -:.KJf-- HANDBOOK OF GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY BY GEORGES CASTEGNIER, B.S., B.L. >?^< NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1896, bt AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. UDBK. OF GB. AND ROM. HIST. VV. P. I ^ ^. •^-c^ DS7 PKEFACE. The purpose of this Handbook of Greek and Eoman History is to facilitate the work of the student, and, through a system of condensation, to make the facts of history clear to his mind. It is not offered as a substitute for the excellent text-books of Greek and Eoman history now in use, but as an accessory and a work of reference. It is also intended to be used as an aid in reviewing the subjects already studied in the larger works, and will be found useful for students preparing for the college examinations who wish to refresh their minds in regard to the salient persons and facts of ancient history. The author desires his colleagues to point out any serious errors or omissions which may detract from the value of this work. 54! 600 ' • • • HANDBOOK OF GREEK HISTORY o^^c Abd^ra. An ancient city of Thrace, at the mouth of the Nestus, founded by the lonians after the defeat inflicted upon them by Cyrus (544 b.c). Abydos. A city of Asia, on the Hellespont, opposite Sestos, where the Spartan fleet commanded by Mindarus was defeated by the Athenians under Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus (411 b.c). Acanthus. A city on the neck of the peninsula of Mount Athos. Its inhabitants were rewarded by Xerxes for preparing a canal for the passage of his troops. The Acanthians joined the Peloponnesian alliance against the Athenians (423 b.c). Acarnania. A province of northwestern Greece, the scene of some of the victories of the Athenian general Demosthenes over the Peloponnesians, led by Eurylochus. Acarnania was forced to submit to Sparta under Agesilaus (391 b.c). Achaean League. A union of the principal states of Pelopon- nesus (281-146 B.C.), formed for the purpose of freeing them- selves from the Macedonian yoke. The chief promoters of the movement were Aratus and Philopoemen. Achseus. Son of Xuthus and progenitor of the Achaeans. Achaia. A district of Peloponnesus, south of the Corinthian Gulf. Achelous. The largest river of northwestern Greece. It divided Aetolia from Acarnania. A'cragas. See Agrigentum. 1 2 GREEK HISTORY Acr6polis. The citadel, built on the highest part of a city ; ^particularly tlie -citadel of Athens, destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes (480 b.,c.). ; ,/A'ctej /TJie eastern peninsula of Chalcidice. Xerxes opened a canal through the isthmus when he invaded Greece. -ffigina. An island in the Saronic Gulf, between Attica and Argolis. Aegina, its chief city, was the commercial rival of Athens and became its political enemy, because the Aegine- tans offered to help Darius. The Athenians asked aid of Sparta (see Cleomenes). Under Pericles, Aegina fell into the hands of the Athenians (456 b.c). It was liberated by Lysan- der (404 b.c). .ffigosp6tami. A barren and uninhabited beach of Thrace, where Conon, commanding the Athenian fleet, was completely defeated by the Spartan general Lysander (405 b.c). -Si'schines. An Athenian orator and rival of Demosthenes; he was sent with the latter and Philocrates as ambassador to Philip of Macedonia (347 b.c). .ffi'schylus (525-4:56 b.c). A famous Greek tragic poet, who distinguished himself at Marathon and Salamis. Mt6li&. A province of central Greece, north of the Corin- thian Gulf. ^t61ian League. A league established about 280 b.c, com- posed of mountainous tribes of Aetolia. It never attained the importance of the Achaean League, with which it engaged in conflict. Agesandridas. A Spartan admiral, who defeated the Athe- nians at Eretria (411 b.c). Agesilaus. King of Sparta, brother and successor of Agis, whose son, Leoty chides, was barred from the throne (399 b.c). He conducted successful campaigns in Asia against the satrap Tissaphernes ; defeated the Athenians and Thebans at Coronea (394 B.C.) ; invaded the Theban territory, but without results (378-377 B.C.); fought Epaminondas at the very walls of Sparta (370 B.C.) and again repulsed him in 362 b.c He died in Libya, aged 84, while retiirning from an expedition in Egypt (361 b.c). GREEK HISTORY 3 Agesipolis. Son and successor of Pausanias, King of Sparta. A'gis II. King of Sparta. He conducted an unlucky cam- paign against Argos, and practically won the battle of Man- tinea (418 B.C.), in which the Athenians and Mantineans sided with Argos. (Do not confound this battle of Mantinea with that of 362 B.C., in which Epaminondas was killed.) Agis besieged Athens with Lysander, subdued her, and ended the Peloponne- sian War (404 b.c). He died in 399 b.c. A'gis III. King of Sparta, defeated by Philip of Macedon (338 B.C.). He died in 330 b.c, after having failed in some unimportant campaigns against Alexander. A'gora. The assembly of common freemen. It took part in no debate and did not vote, but was called upon to listen to matters discussed by the king and his chiefs. This body be- came later the powerful popular assembly. Agrigtoum (Acragas). A city of southern Sicily, modern Girgenti ; governed by the tyrant Phalaris (560-540 b.c.) ; sacked by the Carthaginians (406 b.c); recovered by Diony- sius I., Tyrant of Syracuse (391 b.c) ; captured by the Romans at the beginning of the Punic Wars (264 b.c). Alcibiades. Son of Clinias. He came of an ancient and wealthy family and was very popular with the masses. He became prominent as commander of the fleet with Nicias and Lamachus against Sicily (415 b.c). As he was on the point of starting, his enemies accused him before the Ecclesia of the mutilation of the statues of the god Hermes, and also of pro- faning the Eleusinian Mysteries. He denied the charges, but a trial was refused, as his enemies preferred to accuse him during his absence. The expedition started; Alcibiades was soon recalled for trial, but escaped and joined the Spartans against Athens. After the Sicilian War, he fell into disgrace with King Agis II., to whose court' he had retired, left Sparta- and went to the court of the satrap Tissaphernes. There he used his influence to prevent Tissaphernes from, helping Sparta, but also advised him not to help Athens and to let her fight with Sparta, thus isolating the allies of the two cities, whom 4 GREEK HISTORY Tissaphernes could easily conquer. Alcibiades' friends, led by Peisander of Samos, Thrasybulus, and Thrasyllus, obtained his recall; he returned after four years, was pardoned, and en- trusted with command. He won the battle of Cyzicus, 410 B.C., against Mindarus and the Peloponnesians. He was once more given command of the Athenian fleet, but left it to Antio- chus. During his absence, Antiochus lost the battle of Notium (407 B.C.). Alcibiades was held responsible for the disaster and banished ; he was murdered, 404 b.c. Alcmaednidae. A noble family at Athens, a member of which, the archon Megacles, betraying his promise, put to death the followers of Cylon, 632 b.c. Exiled by Peisistratus, they re- built the temple at Delphi, and succeeded in having the Spar- tans drive Hippias from Athens, thus being rehabilitated. Alexander I., ruler of Macedonia, was friendly to the Greeks during their war against Xerxes. He was sent by Mardonius to induce the Athenians to abandon the Grecian League against Xerxes, but in spite of very advantageous terms, his proposi- tion was refused (479 b.c). Alexander III., the Great, son of Philip of Macedon (356- 323 B.C.). He ascended the throne at twenty, completed his father's conquests in Thrace, carried his arms beyond the Danube, and subdued the Illyrians. The rumor of his death being spread, the Thebans revolted and asked aid of Athens. Demosthenes advocated war, but Athens was cautious. Alex- ander was not dead ; he marched on Thebes, took it by storm, razed the walls, and sold the inhabitants as slaves. The tem- ple and the house of the poet Pindar were spared (335 b.c). This was a warning to the rest of Greece. Athens sent am- bassadors, and Alexander treated with them, as he did not wish any enemies in Greece while engaged in his Asiatic campaign. Alexander's aim was the invasion of Persia against Darius III. In 334 B.C. he crossed the Hellespont and entered Asia with a large army, leaving his general, Antipater, with troops to look after affairs in Greece. In the first engagement, at the river Granicus, the Persians were defeated. The cities south of the GREEK HISTORY 6 Hellespont surrendered to Alexander. The conqueror passed through Asia Minor, overcoming every obstacle, and reached Gordium. Darius III. collected an enormous army at Babylon, encountered his antagonist at the pass of Issus, was defeated, and fled (333 b.c). His mother Sisygambis, his wife, and chil- dren were made prisoners. Alexander treated them with all the honor due to their rank. After Issus, Alexander proceeded to Damascus, where he found Darius' treasures. The unfortunate monarch tried peace negotiations with Alexander, but they failed, and the war was renewed. Alexander besieged, took, and destroyed Tyre. Darius tried again, but in vain, to secure terms of peace. Alexander marched through Palestine, re- ceiving the homage of all cities but Gaza. Batis, its governor, resisted, but was finally overpowered and killed. Egypt was conquered without resistance, and Alexandria was founded. After two years Alexander resumed his war against Darius, met him near Arbela, at a spot known as Gangamela, and routed his army. Babylon and Susa were taken; Persepolis was destroyed. Alexander pursued Darius as far as Ecbatana, where the latter took refuge on land beyond the Oxus. His followers, disgusted at his cowardice, imprisoned him and pro- claimed his cousin Bessus king of the East. As Alexander was approaching, Bessus killed Darius. Bessus was after- wards executed (330 e.g.). Alexander undertook an expedi- tion in India, and died at Babylon in June, 323 b.c. Alexander of Pherae. Son-in-law of Jason of Pherae. His administration gave rise to a rebellion and brought war with Thebes. Pelopidas, the Theban general, was imprisoned, but Epaminondas was given the command of the army. He de- feated Alexander and released Pelopidas (368 b.c). Four years later the war was renewed. Pelopidas was killed, but Alexander was deprived of all his possessions except Pherae, and shortly afterwards he was murdered (364 b.c). Alexandria. A city of Egypt founded by Alexander the Great in 332 b.c Alpheus. A river of Arcadia, flowing into the Ionian Sea. 6 GREEK HISTORY Ambrdcia. A town in the southern part of Epirus. It joined the Aetolians against Athens, but was badly defeated by the Athenian general Demosthenes (426 b.c). Philip of Macedon established a garrison in Ambracia after the congress of Corinth (338 b.c). At his death the inhabitants expelled the garrison and revolted, but were subdued by Alexander (336 b.c). Amph^a. A fortress on the Messenian side, taken by the Spartans in the First Messenian War, about 743 b.c Amphicty6nic Council. The so-called Amphictyonies, or leagues of neighbors, were associations of cities or tribes for the celebration of religious ceremonies and the protection of some temple. Chief of these was the Delphic Amphictyony, which had in charge the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Mem- bers of the leagues took an oath not to destroy any Amphic- tyonic town, nor to cut it off from a water supply in time of war. Amphipolis. A colony of Athens on the river Strymon in southern Thrace. It was taken by Brasidas and the Pelopon- nesians in 423 b.c The next year Cleon led the Athenians in order to take back Amphipolis, but they were repulsed. Brasidas and Cleon were killed. Amphipolis was taken by Philip of Macedon, through treachery, in 357 b.c Antalcidas, Peace of, so called after a celebrated Spartan. It was signed in 387 b.c between Persia and Sparta, thus ending the Corinthian War. A'ntioch. A famous city of northern Syria on the Orontes. Antiochus. He was left in command of the Athenian fleet by Alcibiades, and lost the battle of Notium against the Spartans led by Lysander, 407 b.c Antipater. A general of Alexander the Great, left in com- mand of an army in Greece, while Alexander marched to the conquest of Persia. Apulia. The Spartan assembly of freemen, thirty years old or over, who met once a month to debate upon subjects passed by the Gerousia, such as war, dethroning of kings, etc. The voting was done by acclamation. GREEK HISTORY 7 Aratus. See Achaean League. Arbela. A city of Asia Minor, near which, at a spot called Gangamela (the house of the camel), Alexander the Great defeated Darius III. in 331 b.c. Arcadia. A province in the central part of Peloponnesus. The Arcadians aided the Messenians against Sparta during the Second Messenian War, but their king, Aristocrates, de- serted his allies and caused their defeat (650 b.c). The Arca- dians joined the Pisatans, seized Olympia, and celebrated the games in spite of Sparta. They were finally defeated and sub- jugated. Archidamus. King of Sparta. He was opposed to the Pelo- ponnesian War, but, yielding to the wish of the people, he took command of the army. He invaded Attica and ravaged it (431 B.C.). He made a second invasion the next year during the plague, and laid siege, without success, to Plataea, an ally of Athens. A'rchon. A member of a board of nine officers who gov- erned Athens. The chief archon was called Eponymus; the second, King Archon; the third, Polemarch; the remaining six were called Thesmothetae. The ex-archons formed the Areopagus. Aredpagus. The Council of Athens, composed of ex-archons. It derived its name from the Hill of Ares (Areos Pagos), where it met. It was reformed by Solon in 504 b.c. The Areopagus lost its importance with the ascendency of the democratic party just before Pericles became leader at Athens (460 b.c), retain- ing only jurisdiction over cases of homicide. Argimisae. A cluster of small islands off the coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, south of Lesbos, where Conon, commanding the Athenian fleet, defeated the Peloponnesians led by Callicra- tidas, who lost his life in the engagement (406 b.c). A'rgos. The chief city of Argolis, in eastern Peloponnesus. One of its early kings was Pheidon, who is said to have been the first to coin copper and silver in Greece. Yielding to the persuasion of the Corinthians, the Argives became the leaders 8 GREEK HISTORY of the league against Sparta during the Peloponnesian War. The Spartans led by Agis invaded Argolis, but the king let slip the opportunity of annihilating his enemy, and granted an armistice. The Athenians, led by Alcibiades, joined the League. King Agis, learning that the League threatened Tegea in Arcadia, hastened to Mantinea and there inflicted a fearful defeat upon the Argives and their allies (418 b.c). Argos played a part in the Corinthian War, joining Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, aided by the troops and ships of Persia, against Sparta. Aristagoras. A tyrant of Miletus, who incited the Greek cities of Ionia to revolt against the Persian dominion. He implored aid from Cleomenes of Sparta, but was refused ; he then applied successfully to Athens. The Athenians, joined by the Eretrians and Euboeans, marched upon Sardis in Lydia (Asia Minor) and burned the city. The Athenians, however, deserted the cause of Aristagoras, and the rebellion was ended by the satrap Artaphernes, who won the naval battle of Lade (Miletus). Aristagoras escaped to Thrace, where he was killed in 498 B.C. Aristeides (Aristides). He was the son of Lysimachus. Being of a middle class family, his position was wholly due to his own ability. He was rigidly just, honorable, and cool-headed. This last quality was not in accordance with the Athenian character, a well-known trait of which was to act on the impulse of the moment. Aristeides was ostracized for advo- cating a quiet and conservative policy toward Sparta, as op- posed to Themistocles. When Xerxes compelled the Athe- nians to evacuate their city, he returned under an amnesty issued to all exiles. Aristeides distinguished himself at Salamis, Plataea, and Byzantium. He was the promoter of the Confederacy of Delos, of which he became president. He supplanted Pausanias as commander of the joint fleet of Athens and Sparta. His political enemy was Themistocles, whose cupidity he exposed. He died, regretted and honored, in 468 B.C. GREEK HISTORY 9 Aristeus. A Corinthian general who lost a battle at Potidaea against the Athenians led by Callias, the latter being killed (430 B.C.). Arist6crates. The king and leader of the Arcadians in the Second Messenian War against Sparta. He abandoned his allies, the Messenians, on the field of battle, and thus caused their defeat. He was stoned to death by his subjects (650 B.C.). 1. Aristodemus. A Messenian leader in the First Messenian War. In vain he offered his daughter as a sacrifice to secure the protection of the gods and to assure victory. After hold- ing out for twelve years at Mount Ithome, war and famine caused the Messenians to succumb, and Aristodemus slew him- self in despair (723 b.c). 2. Aristodemus. The Spartan coward who kept himself aloof from the battle of Therm.opylae (480 b.c), and thus escaped the fate of Leonidas and his comrades. Being an object of loathing to every one, he voluntarily lost his life at Plataea. Aristogeiton. See Harmodius. Aristomenes. Leader of the Messenians in the Second Mes- senian War. He was defeated at the fortress of Ira and died at Ehodes. (See Ceadas.) Aristophanes (450-385 b.c). The foremost writer of Greek comedy. He pictured everyday life in his works, — the Clouds, the Knights, the Birds, and the Wasjjs. A'ristotle. A disciple of Plato (384-322 b.c). One of the greatest Greek philosophers, whose writings on rhetoric, logic, poetry, ethics, and politics have been studied for cen- turies. Artabazus. A general of Xerxes. He protected the retreat of the troops at the Hellespont, and then proceeded to Chalci- dice to punish the cities of Olynthus and Potidaea for their revolt against Persian authority. Olynthus was taken and the inhabitants slain, but an unusual rise of the sea compelled Artabazus to resume his march to Thessaly in order to join Mardonius. After the defeat of Plataea (479 b.c), where he 10 GREEK HISTORY treacherously left the battlefield, he returned to Thrace and thence to Asia. 1. Artaphlrnes. Satrap of Lydia and brother of Darius I. He conducted an expedition against the Greek islands. He plotted against Aristagoras of Miletus, who had organized a campaign against Naxos in order to win that island for Darius I., and thus gain the Persian favor. Artaphernes managed to have Megabates, a Persian noble, made second in command to Aristagoras. These two men disagreed, and Megabates secretly sent word to Naxos of the contemplated attack. When Arista- goras arrived he found the inhabitants well prepared, and so could do nothing. The private interests of Artaphernes and Aristagoras brought about a revolt in Ionia and in many parts of Greece against the Persian dominion. Aristagoras obtained a fleet from Athens and Eretria, and attacked Sardis, the resi- dence of Artaphernes. The Greeks drove Artaphernes into the citadel and burnt the town. To avenge the destruction of Sardis, Artaphernes assembled all his forces for an attack upon Miletus. He took the city after a siege, burnt it, and reduced the inhabitants to slavery. Several other towns also submitted. 2. Artaphernes, the younger son of the above, was a satrap of Darius I., and lost the battle of Marathon (490 b.c). Artax^rxes I. The son and successor of Xerxes. Themis- tocles took refuge at his court during his ostracism. Arta- xerxes treated with the Athenians, who had sent Callias as ambassador (465-425 b.c). Artaxirxes II. The son and successor of Darius II. (404 e.g.). His younger brother Cyrus, a pretender to the throne, revolted and asked his Spartan friends for troops to march against him. The two armies met at Cunaxa, not far from Babylon. Cyrus was defeated and killed (401 b.c). It was after this battle that the famous Ketreat of the Ten Thousand took place. (See Xenophon.) Artaxerxes signed the treaty of Antalcidas with Greece (387 b.c) which ended the Corinthian War. His reign ended in 359 B.C. GREEK HISTORY 11 Artemisium. A tract of country on the north coast of Euboea. Here the Athenian fleet retreated before Xerxes in 480 b.c. As6pus. A river of Boeotia. (See Plataea.) Athens. The principal city of Attica. It was first called Cecropia from its founder Cecrops. After the fall of royalty and the establishment of the archons, came the legislation of Solon, 594 ; the tyranny of Peisistratus, 560 ; the expulsion of Hippias, 510 ; wars with the Medes, 492-449. Athens rose to the first rank among Greek cities under the administration of Pericles, 461-429. The Peloponnesian War, 431-404, ended with the submission of Athens to the Lacedaemonians, thus ceding the supremacy to Sparta. Athens regained some influ- ence during the Spartan and Theban conflict (378-362), but could not supersede Sparta. In spite of all the efforts of Demosthenes, Athens had to submit to Philip of Macedon in 338. After the death of Alexander, Athens' periods of pros- perity and adversity were at an end, and the city submitted to the Romans with the rest of Greece in 146. Athens tried to shake off the Roman yoke at the time of the Mithradatic wars. It was taken and destroyed by Sulla in 87 b.c. A'thos, Mount. A promontory at the extremity of the penin- sula of Acte, where the Persian fleet under Mardonius was destroyed (492 b.c). A'ttalus. A general of Philip of Macedon, whose niece, Cleopatra, the monarch married. He was murdered by order of Alexander (336 b.c). A'ttica. A province of the eastern part of Greece. Athens was the capital. Babylon. A city of Asia Minor on the Euphrates, taken from King Narbonadius by Cyrus the Great in 529 b.c At the accession of Darius I. Babylon tried to free itself, but Darius confirmed his power and founded the Persian Empire. Babylon was taken from Darius III. by Alexander the Great, who died there (323 b.c). 12 GREEK HISTORY Bactria. A province of Asia Minor conquered by Alex- ander. Batis. Governor of Gaza, a city of Palestine. He refused to surrender to Alexander, and was defeated in the battle which followed (332 e.g.). Bema. At first the Ecclesia met on a hill near the Acropo- lis, thought to be the same as the Pnyx Hill of to-day. This spot was called the Bema. Bessus. Cousin of Darius TIL and satrap of Bactria. He tried to become king of the East after the escape of Darius to Ecbatana, but his attempt was unsuccessful. Learning that Bessus and his followers had killed Darius, Alexander avenged the death of his former enemy and caused Bessus to be exe- cuted (329 B.C.). Boeotia. A Greek province north of Attica. It was con- que^-ed by the Athenians (456 b.c.) ; revolted in 447 b.c. ; was subjugated by Xerxes; joined Sparta in the Peloponnesian War; was invaded by Philip of Macedon (338 b.c). Boiile. An assembly of 401 members, organized by Draco, which took over from the Areopagus the political duties, and prepared measures to be put before the Ecclesia. It may be compared to the Roman Senate. As reformed by Solon, it con- sisted of 400 members, and after its reorganization by Cleis- thenes, of 500. Brasidas. A Spartan general of the Peloponnesian War; killed at Amphipolis in Thrace (422 b.c). His death was a great loss to the Spartans. Byzantium. Modern Constantinople ; an important Persian fortress of Thrace, founded about 658 b.c by the Megarians. It was taken by Pausanius in 478 b.c, but on account of his treachery the fleet refused to obey him, and the command passed to Aristides and Cimon. . Byzantium acknowledged Alexander's rule. It revolted against Athens at the time of Pericles, but was subdued. Having again revolted, it was cap- tured by Alcibiades (408 b.c). It was attacked by Philip of Macedon, who was repulsed by Phocion (339 b.c). GREEK HISTORY 13 Cadmeia (Cadmea). The citadel of Thebes; its name was derived from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It was taken by Phoebidas, the Spartan, through the treachery of the Theban Leontiades (382 e.g.), but was recovered three years later through the concentrated efforts of the Thebans, the Athenians, and their allies. Callias was sent by Pericles to negotiate the Thirty Years' Peace between Athens and Sparta (445 e.g.). Callicratidas. A Spartan admiral. He succeeded Lysander, whose term of office had expired. He was defeated and drowned at the battle of Arginusae against Conon and the Athenians (406 e.g.). Callimachus. See Marathon. Cambyses. A Persian monarch (529-521 e.g.), son and suc- cessor of Cyrus the Great. He conquered Egypt. He had secretly murdered his brother Bardes, or Smerdis, but an im- poster called Gomates, passing himself off as Bardes, caused a widespread rebellion in his own favor, and Cambyses com- mitted suicide. Ceadas. A pit at Sparta into which prisoners were thrown. It is related that Aristomenes, the Messenian leader in the Second Messenian War, was precipitated into it, but escaped uninjured through a subterranean opening in the rock. Cecrops. An Egyptian, the mythical founder of Athens. Chabrias. An Athenian general who defeated the Spartan fleet at Naxos (376 e.g.). He was killed at the naval attack upon Chios during the Social War (375 e.g.). Chaeron^a. A city of Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon van- quished the Thebans and Athenians during the Third Sacred War in 338 e.g. There fell to a man the famous Sacred Band of Thebans. Chares. An Athenian general in the -Social War. He played a small part at the siege of Byzantium and commanded with Lysicles at the battle of Chaeronea. HAND. GK. & ROM. HIST. — 2 14 GREEK HISTORY Chios. An island of the Aegean Sea, near the Asiatic coast, conquered by Cyrus. It joined the Peloponnesian Alliance against Athens, but was reconquered after the battle of Ere- tria (411 b.c). Cimon. Son of Miltiades. He paid his father's fine and dis- tinguished himself at the siege of Byzantium with Aristeides (478 B.C.). He helped the latter form the Confederation of Delos, becoming prominent in politics after the death of Aris- teides. He was in favor of keeping Athens on good terms with Sparta. Cimon's policy was to rid Greece of the Persians ; he liberated the Greek cities of Lycia and Pamphylia from the Persians ; captured Eion at the mouth of the Strymon on the Thracian shore, and won the battle of the River Eury- medon (466 b.c). His admiration for Sparta led him to obtain from the Athenians the sending of an army to help the Spartans in their troubles with Messenia and Laconia. This plan encountered great opposition; the army met with reverses and returned, leaving the Spartans dissatisfied. This gave Pericles and Ephialtes, the leaders of the anti- Spartan party, new weapons. The result was that Cimon was ostracized (461 b.c). Four years later a war broke out between the Phocians and Boeotians. The Spartans helped the Boeotians. On their return they marched through Megara and encountered the Athenians. Cimon tried to join the ranks as a private, but was refused ; he then adjured his partisans to do their duty and prove that they were no traitors. The battle fought at Tanagra was lost by the Athenians (457 b.c). Cimon was pardoned and recalled. He died in an expedition against Artaxerxes at Citium (Cyprus), 449 b.c City-State. The primitive city-state of Greece was made up of a number of communities, each comprising a group of fami- lies, closely bound together. These were united into large groups known as Phratries or brotherhoods. Above the Phra- tries were the Tribes, and above the latter the City or Polls, which had its common altar-hearth, called the Prytaneum, on which the sacred fire was kept constantly burning. GREEK HISTORY 15 Clearchus. Commander of Spartan troops who helped Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Artaxerxes. He was massa- cred on his return after the defeat of Cunaxa (401 b.c). Clelsthenes (Clisthenes). Son of Megacles. He caused the fall of the tyrant Hippias at Athens (511 b.c). He became the head of the democratic party of that city ; his rival was Isago- ras, who asked aid of Cleomenes, king of Sparta, to support his party and expel Cleisthenes. Cleomenes took Athens, Isagoras dissolved the senate, replaced it by a body of 300 oligarchs, and exiled a large number of democratic families, including Cleis- thenes (508 B.C.). This order of things lasted only a short time ; Cleisthenes was recalled and affairs reestablished as in the past. Cleisthenes made great constitutional reforms. (See Boule, Ecclesia, Ostracism.) Cleitus (Clitus). A Macedonian officer who saved Alexan- der's life at the battle of the Granicus. He was killed by Alexander at a feast for being too outspoken (329 b.c). Cle6mbrotus. King of Sparta. He lost the battle of Leuctra against the Thebans led by Epaminondas, and was killed in the conflict (371 b.c). Cle6menes. King of Sparta. He aided Isagoras in expelling his political enemy, Cleisthenes. Joined by the Boeotians and the Chalcidians, Cleomenes invaded Attica, but he was aban- doned by his allies when his plot to establish a tyranny, with Isagoras at the head, was discovered. He retreated to Sparta (508 B.C.). He defeated the Argives who had tried to extend their supremacy; overthrew his colleague Demaratus, who sided with the Aeginetans who had submitted to Darius, and replaced him by Leoty chides; then he subjugated Aegina. Finally he fell into disgrace, went to Arcadia, and formed an anti-Spartan league. The Ephors recalled him, as they feared his success. A few months after his return he was found dead (490 B.C.). Cleon. A coarse demagogue of Athens, who rose to notoriety through the influence of the populace, whom he encouraged to cast aside principle and be guided by self-interest alone. He 16 GREEK HISTORY accused Pericles of peculation, and caused an atrocious reso- lution to be passed authorizing the wholesale murder of all the Mitylenaeans, whose city had surrendered to Paches, the Athenian general. Fortunately the resolution was not carried out, being strongly opposed by Diodotus, the chiefs alone being executed. Cleon was unfavorable to the peace with Sparta (425 B.C.) and together with Demosthenes defeated the Spartans at Pylos and Sphacteria. He was killed at Amphipolis (422 b.c). Cleruchies. Allotments of conquered territory; e.g. when the Athenians took Calchis in Euboea (508 b.c), they divided the estates of the rich families and gave them to poor citizens of Athens. Cnidus. A city on the coast of Caria, where the Spartan fleet, commanded by Peisander, was defeated by the Athenians and allies led by Conon and assisted by the satrap Pharnabazus (394 B.C.) during the Corinthian War. C6non. An Athenian general. He was blockaded in Mytilene by Callicratidas, the Spartan commander. This precipitated the battle of Arginusae, which the Athenians won, and Conon was released (406 b.c). After his defeat by Lysander at Aegospotami, he fled with eight vessels and took service with Enagoras, king of Salamis, in Cyprus (405 b.c). In 394 b.c he won the battle of Cnidus against the Spartans led by Peisander. On this occasion, Conon had been entrusted with part of the fleet by Pharnabazus, satrap of Persia, who com- manded fifty vessels himself. Conon, by the. aid of Pharna- bazus' seamen and money, rebuilt the fortifications of the Piraeus, and the Long Walls (391 b.c). Through Spartan intrigue in Persia, Conon was thrown into prison (390 b.c). Corcyra. An island off the coast of Epirus, with a town of the same name. The Corcyraeans, desiring to free themselves from the yoke of Corinth, went to war with the latter under Cypselus and Periander. In 435 b.c the town of Epidamnus (or Dyrrachium) on the Illyrian shore, being troubled with a civil war, asked aid of the Corcyraeans, who refused ; Epidam- nus then sent ambassadors to Corinth and obtained assistance. GREEK HISTORY 17 This brought Corinth and Corcyra into active war. The Cor- cyraeans defeated their opponents at Actium, and Epidamnus surrendered. The Corinthians aroused their allies, and the Corcyraeans asked and obtained the alliance of Athens. A fleet was furnished, but took no active part in the battle of Tybota, where the Corcyraeans were defeated. In 427 B.C. strife broke out in Corcyra between the party favoring peace with Corinth and the one which advocated a continuance of hostilities. These civil troubles were often renewed. In 373 B.C. Sparta tried in vain to take Corcyra. Corinth. A city of Greece north of Argolis, on the gulf and isthmus of the same name. There was held the congress of the Greek provinces (with the exception of Argos and Thebes) for mutual action against the invasion of Xerxes. Corinth became an ally of Sparta in order to bring about the Pelopon- nesian War. After many fluctuations of war and peace with Sparta and Athens, Corinth finally submitted to Philip of Macedon after the battle of Chaeronea. In 338 B.C. a congress met at Corinth under the presidency of Philip, the outcome of which was the formation of Greece into a great federal state under Macedonian rule. Corinthian War. This war was brought about by the emissa- ries of Artaxerxes, who, in order to vanquish the Spartans, formed a coalition of the chief states of Greece against Lace- demon (see Cnidus). It ended with the Peace of Antalcidas, 381 B.C. Coronea. A city near Lake Copais in Boeotia, where the Athenians under Tolmides were defeated by the Boeotians (447 B.C.). Here also the Spartans under Agesilaus defeated the Thebans and their allies (394 b.c). Crimisus. A river of southern Sicily. Timoleon, the Corin- thian, after freeing the Syracusans from the tyranny of Dyoni- sius, defeated the Carthaginians on its borders in 340 B.C. Critias. A pupil of Socrates, and one of the thirty tyrants of Athens. He died in the civil conflict against Thrasybulus, in 403 B.C. (See Thirty Tyrants.) 18 GREEK HISTORY Crdesus. A king of Lydia, defeated by Cyrus the Great, and made prisoner at the siege of Sardis, 546 e.g. It is said that he was burnt at the stake. Crypteia. A sort of detective force having special charge of the Helots. Cunaxa. A city on the left bank of the Euphrates near Baby- lon, where Artaxerxes defeated and killed Cyrus in 401 b.c. Cyaxares. The founder of the Empire of the Medes after the fall of Nineveh. Cylon. He conspired to become tyrant of Athens, and seized the Acropolis, but was defeated and escaped. His followers were put to death by order of the Archon Megacles (612 b.c). Cypselus. Eather of Periander and tyrant of Corinth (655- 625 B.C.). Cyprus. A large island in the Mediterranean Sea, between Asia Minor and Syria. It first belonged to tlie Phoenicians, then to the Egyptians, and was afterwards conquered by Cam- by ses. The inhabitants joined the Ionian rebellion led by Aristagoras. They were liberated from the Persian yoke by the united Peloponnesian fleet led by Pausanias (about 477 b.c). Cyrus the Great (549-529 b.c). King of Elam (north of the Persian Gulf) ; he subdued Media and made Susa the capital of his kingdom. He then vanquished Croesus, king of Lydia, and, it is said, had him burnt at the stake (546 b.c). He took Babylon in 538 b.c He died during an expedition which he undertook against the Massagetae, a tribe which dwelt in south Siberia. His son Cambyses succeeded him. Cyrus (the younger), brother of Artaxerxes II. He revolted against him, procured Spartan aid, and marched on Babylon. At Cunaxa he met Artaxerxes, by whom he was defeated and slain (401 b.c). This disaster was followed by the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, led by Xenophon, the Athenian historian and general. Cyzicus. A town of Mysia on the Propontis (Sea of Mar- mora), where Alcibiades and the Athenians won a great vic- tory over Mindarus and the Peloponnesian army (410 b.c). GREEK HISTORY 19 Damocles. A courtier of Dionysius of Syracuse, known through the famous story of the sword. Darius I. King of Persia (521-486 b.c), son of Hystaspes. He possessed himself of the Persian throne after the death of Cambyses, divided his kingdom into twenty satrapies, and ex- tended its boundaries to India. He then turned his attention to the west, gained possession of the island of Samos, crossed the Bosporus, and conducted a campaign against the Scythians, receiving homage from the Greek towns of the coast. He took into his friendship Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus, and compelled him to reside at Susa. His general, Megabazus, completed the conquest of Thrace, and secured the submission of Macedonia. Aristagoras, ruler at Miletus, persuaded Darius to form an expedition against Naxos. (See Artaphernes.) Darius' great aim was to destroy Athens and Athenian power, but he died when about to enter on a third expedition against Greece (487 B.C.), leaving his son Xerxes as his successor. Darius II. Son of Artaxerxes I., king of Persia (425- 404 B.C.). Darius III. Last king of Persia (336-330 b.c.) ; overthrown by Alexander the Great; murdered by Bessus. (See Alex- ander.) Datis. A Mede. He commanded the Persian army with Artaphernes, and was defeated at Marathon. D^carchies. Oligarchic governments of ten person^ imposed by Sparta upon the cities freed from Athens. Decel6an War. The third period of the Peloponnesian War, so called from the town Decelea, a stronghold of Attica, which the Spartans took during this part of their struggle with Athens. Dllium. A city on the Boeotian shore close to the boundary of Boeotia and Attica. It was seized and fortified by the Athenians, led by Hippocrates, who utilized the walls of a temple of Apollo in the construction of the fortifications. The 20 GREEK HISTORY Boeotians resorted to arms to avenge this sacrilege, the Athe- nians were defeated, and their general was killed (424 b.c). Dllos, Confederacy of. The Athenians, lonians, Aeolians, and Chalcidians formed an offensive and defensive alliance, especially against the Persians. The funds were kept at Delos. Aristeides was one of the j^romoters of this confed- eracy. (See Aristeides.) After the battle of the Eurymedon and other victories of Cimon, the Persian dominion in Greece was over, and, its object being accomplished, the Confederacy of Delos seemed to have no reason for existing. Naxos was the first to withdraw. Athens objected to the secession, blockaded the port, and captured the fleet. Thasos revolted next, and was at first victorious, but was Anally subdued by Cimon (463 B.C.). Afterwards the funds were kept in the Acropolis of Athens. Delphi (modern Castri). A city of Phocis, on the south- western slope of Mount Parnassus, the seat of the famous temple of Apollo. The Delphian oracle played an important part in the political and social affairs of the Greeks. Demaratus. King of Sparta with Cleomenes (510-491 b.c). The two kings were constantly at variance, and the unscrupu- lous Cleomenes finally secured the deposition of his rival by bribing the oracle. Demaratus fled to the court of Darius I., and later to that of Xerxes, in whose host he was present with the Persians at Thermopylae (480 b.c). 1. Dem6sthenes. An Athenian general. He conducted an unsuccessful campaign against the Aetolians in order to force them to enter into the Athenian alliance, but was victorious in Acarnania at Ambracia, where he defeated the Peloponnesian troops (426 b.c). He undertook an expedition in Sicily with Eurjanedon, his colleague. During a storm they took refuge at Pylos (Messenia) and fortified themselves. Eurymedon started for Sicily and left Demosthenes in possession of Pylos. The Spartan fleet, commanded by Brasidas, failed to dislodge the Athenians, and the Spartans attacked Sphacteria, an island south of Pylos; but Eurymedon came back with reenforce- GREEK HISTORY 21 ments, the Athenians were victorious, and the Spartans were blockaded on Sphacteria (425 b.c). At the time of the Sicilian expedition, Demosthenes was sent to aid Nicias against Grylip- pus of Corinth and the Syracusans. He was at first success- ful, bat soon met with reverses and was defeated. Nicias tried to hold out some time, but the two generals were obliged to retreat in disorder, and both were captured and put to death by the Syracusans (413 b.c). 2. Demosthenes (385-322 b.c). The celebrated Athenian ora- tor. He advocated war against Philip of Macedon, in a series of speeches (the famous Philippics) filled with denunciation. He induced the Thebans not to let Philip pass through Boeotia, but to take up arms against him. He followed, in vain, the same policy against Alexander and against Antipater. (See Lamian War.) Dicasteries. See Heliaea. Diodotus. See Cleon. Diogenes (414-323 b.c). The head of the Cynic philoso- phers. He lived, it is said, in a tub. Dion. Tyrant of Syracuse. He overthrew Dionysius II. and was himself murdered by the Athenian Callippus (353 b.c). The people had thought that Dion would give them a demo- cratic form of government, but they were bitterly deceived. Dionysius I. (431-367 b.c). Tyrant of Syracuse. He rose from a low position to one of importance and became tyrant in 406 B.C. He conducted a successful war with Carthage. Dionysius II. Son and successor of Dionysius I. He was overthrown by his brother-in-law Dion (357 b.c), and retired to Ortygia, a small island in the harbor of Syracuse. He recov- ered his throne in 346, but was obliged to surrender to Timoleon of Corinth. He retired to Corinth, where he died forgotten. Doriscus. A plain on the Thracian coast, where Xerxes reviewed his troops before invading Greece. Draco. An archon of Athens who made laws of such severity that it was said they were written in blood. He organized the Council of Pour Hundred and One. 22 GREEK HISTORY Drepana. A city on the western coast of Sicily, which, as well as Lilybaeum, was ■unsuccessfully besieged by Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. E Ecbatana. See Alexander the Great. Eccllsia. A body of Athenian citizens, convoked for politi- cal purposes at regular intervals not less than ten times a year ; they could also be called in extra sessions. This assem- bly decided questions of war, peace, and alliances. Eg6sta. A city on the western coast of Sicily. Becoming involved in dispute with the neighboring city of Selinus, which was aided by the Syracusans, the Egestaeans asked the aid of Athens. After long hesitation and preparation the Athenians complied with the request. (See Alcibiades, Nicias, Sicilian War.) After the destruction of the Athenian fleet before Syracuse, the Egestaeans implored aid from the Carthagini- ans, who, led by Hannibal, a grandson of Hamilcar, stormed and took Selinus (409 b.c). Eion. See Cimon. Eleusinia. The festival of the Eleusinia, or celebration of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the highest religious festival of the Greeks, was observed every fifth year at Eleusis in Attica. It was claimed that Alcibiades profaned the mysteries, thus bring- ing ill-luck on the Athenians during the Peloponnesian War. En6motarcli. A sergeant in the Spartan army, in command of twenty-five men. Epamin6nda8. A Theban general, the bosom friend of Pelop- idas. He was poor, of a thoughtful disposition, always ready to do his duty, never allowing self-interest to guide him in his actions. Thebes and Sparta being involved in war over a dis- pute as to a treaty, Cleombrotus and the Spartans invaded Boeotia, and the first battle took place at Leuctra (371 b.c). Epaminondas and the Thebans were victorious. The news spread all over Greece. Epaminondas invaded the Pelopon- nesus, attacked the Achaians, and advanced through Laconia GREEK HISTORY 23 to the gates of Sparta, against Agesilaus, but without result. He founded Messene on the slope of Mount Ithome, entered Thessaly, and marched against Alexander of Pherae to release Pelopidas, who had been imprisoned while passing through Alexander's territory on a mission. In another invasion of the Peloponnesus (362 b.c), Sparta was saved by the treachery of a Theban deserter who warned King Agesilaus. Epami- nondas won the battle of Mantinea against the Spartans and Mantineans, but died on the battlefield (362 B.C.). E'phesus. A city of Asia Minor, an Ionian colony on the coast of the Mediterranean, southeast of Smyrna. There was the beautiful temple of Artemis, partly burnt by Herostratus (356 B.C.) on the night of Alexander's birth. It was partly rebuilt, was plundered by Nero and by the Goths, and was finally razed by the order of Constantine the Great. Ephialtes. The betrayer of the Spartans at Thermopylae. E'phors. Five magistrates of Sparta. The office was created during the Messenian War. They had executive power over the king and senate, and replaced the monarch when he was at war. Epidamnus. See Corcyra. Eponymus. Name given to the first Archon. Erectheum. The temple at Athens which contained the sa- cred wooden image of Athene and the living snake which sym- bolized the presence of the goddess. Eretria. A city on the coast of Euboea. The Eretrians joined the rebellion of Aristagoras and incurred the enmity of Darius, who besieged and took the city. He burnt it, and the inhabitants were made slaves (490 b.c). It was there (411 b.c.) that the Spartan fleet led by Agesandridas defeated the Athen- ians, who thus lost Euboea. Euboea. A large island on the coast of Boeotia and Attica. It revolted from Athens (446 b.c), but was subdued by Pericles. During the Peloponnesian War the allied fleet made a descent upon Euboea and destroyed an Athenian squadron. All the Euboean cities revolted, and Athens lost the island (411 b.c). 24 GREEK HISTORY Eupatrids. The nobles of Athens. Euripides. A celebrated Greek tragic poet, born at Salamis, 480 B.C. ; died 406 b.c. Eur6tas. A river of Laconia which ran through Sparta. Eurybiades. Commander of the confederate fleet at Euboea and at Salamis. (See Themistocles.) 1. Eurymedon. A river of Pamphylia, where Cimon and the Athenians won a naval and land battle against the Persians (466 B.C.). 2. Eurymedon. An Athenian general who led with Sopho- cles an expedition to Sicily while Demosthenes held Pylos (425 B.C.), returned and helped Demosthenes win the battle of Sphacteria. He was condemned to pay a fine for his unsuc- cessful campaign in Sicily, and was killed at Syracuse in 413 B.C. (See 1. Demosthenes.) F Five Hundred. A council at Athens established by Cleisthenes. (See Boule.) Four Hundred. After the failure of the expedition led by De- mosthenes and Nicias against Syracuse, civil trouble began at Athens (413 b.c). It was caused by Alcibiades, who desired to return to Athens and obtain political power. He sent dele- gates to Samos and Athens, promising the aid of Tissaphernes, and funds to fight the Peloponnesian allies, provided the democracy was overthrown and oligarchy established. With such ofTers he won the army, and although the uprising at Samos was suppressed, at Athens Peisander succeeded in establishing the government of the Four Hundred, and Alci- biades was recalled. Their administration was regarded with suspicion by the Athenians and their downfall was precipi- tated by the loss of Euboea. Four Hundred and One. A council organized by Draco, chosen by lot from among the citizens. It was reorganized by Solon. (See Areopagus and Boule.) GREEK HISTORY 25 Gauls. The Gauls invaded Greece in 279 b.c, crossing the Balkans and forcing the pass of Thermopylae ; they attempted to pillage the temple of Delphi, but were unsuccessful, and were shortly after driven from the peninsula. Gaza. A city of Palestine whose governor, Batis, refused to do homage to Alexander. (See Batis.) Gelo. Tyrant of Syracuse in 484 b.c. He defeated the Car- thaginians near Himera (490 b.c). One of the conditions of the peace was that the Carthaginians should abandon human sacrifices. Gelo received an embassy from Sparta and Athens to obtain troops from him in order to repulse the invasion of Xerxes. The envoys were not successful, as Gelo's conditions could not be accepted. Gerontes. Members of the Gerousia. Geroiisia. The senate of Sparta, composed of thirty elders, one for each tribe, organized by Lycurgus. The kings were ex-officio members ; the others were elected for life and aided the king in public affairs. G6rdium. The old capital of Phrygia, the scene of the well- known story of the Gordian Knot, where Alexander was joined by Parmenio, leading the main body of his army on his march through Asia Minor. W Granicus. A river ten miles inland from the Propontis, near Teleia, where Alexander defeated Darius III. (334 b.c). Gylippus. A Corinthian commander who helpea the Syra- cusans against the Athenians, defeated them, captured?the two commanders, Nicias and Demosthenes, and had them executed (413 B.C). Haliartus. A town of Boeotia, destroyed by Xerxes in 480 B.C. The Spartan general Lysander lost his life here in a battle against the Thebans and their allies (395 b.c), as King Pausanias failed to bring reenforcements. 26 GREEK HISTORY Harm6dius. At his death, Peisistratus left the government of Athens to his sons Hippias and Hipparchus (527 b.c), who ruled peacefully and harmoniously. Hipparchus became in- volved in an affair of honor concerning a noble family. Har- modius conceived the plan of murdering the two brothers and organized a conspiracy with his friend Aristogeiton and others ; the time chosen was during the festival of the Panathenaea. Owing to an error, Hipparchus was killed before Hippias had arrived. The officers slew Harmodius instantly. Aristogeiton was tortured and put to death. Hippias began a tyrannical government, making away with all those who showed discon- tent. This led to an uprising, and after a long resistance Hippias was defeated. He surrendered, left the city, and retired to Sigeum (511 b.c). In 506 b.c. we find him at Sparta ready to accept the Spartans' help to restore his tyranny at Athens; but the scheme failed, and Hippias went back to Sigeum. Another attempt was made; this time Hippias counted upon Darius, king of Persia, to help him recover his lost government. But Darius was defeated at Marathon, and Hippias, who had led him against the Athenians, gave up all hopes of ever reestablishing his tyranny. Heliaea. A judicial body composed of six thousand citizens, six hundred from each tribe. One thousand were held in reserve, and the remainder divided into ten dicasteries of five hundred each. The dicasteries tried all cases between citizens, and transacted a large part of the law business of the Empire. Their decision was final. Hellespont. A strait which separates Europe from Asia. Xerxes crossed it at the time of his invasion of Greece (480 B.C.). Helots. The name given to the peoples conquered by Sparta. They were made serfs, their land was confiscated and given to the Spartans. They could be put to death without trial, and had no political rights. Their masters formed them into regi- ments in time of war. They revolted, and struggled for ten years at Mount Ithome, but were finally subdued in 455 b.c. GREEK HISTORY 27 They were allowed to go on condition that they were never to return to the Peloponnesus. The Athenians gave them the town of Naupactus on the Aetolian coast as an outpost for Athens on the Gulf of Corinth. Hermae. See Alcibiades. Hermocrates. A Syracusan commander during the Sicilian War. Herodotus (484-425 B.C.). A celebrated historian, born at Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor. Hesiod. A didactic Greek poet who lived in Boeotia about the ninth century B.C. His work entitled Works and Days served as a model to Vergil in the composition of his Georgics. Himera. A city of Sicily. (See Gelo.) Hipparchus. See Harmodius. Hippias. See Harmodius. Hippocrates. An Athenian general, commander at the siege of Delium. Histiseus. Tyrant of Miletus. He saved Darius and his army from destruction at the Danube bridge during this monarch's campaign against the Scythians. Histiaeus per- suaded the lonians not to destroy the bridge. He was badly rewarded, as Darius, suspecting his loyalty, took him to Susa under the pretext of not wishing to be separated from such a friend. H6mer. The reputed author of two Greek poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, Iliad. See Homer. I6nians. The lonians established colonies in Asia Minor and sided with Darius at the passage of the Danube. This was done at the instigation of Histiaeus (513 b.c). Incited by Aristagoras, they revolted against Persia and were subdued after the siege of Miletus. The satrap Artaphernes reestab- lished order. (See Lade.) In 479 b.c, the lonians shook off the Persian yoke after the victory of the Greeks at Mycale. 28 GREEK HISTORY India. See Darius and Alexander. I'ndus. See Alexander. Iphicrates. An Athenian general during the Corinthian War against Sparta (391 e.g.). He relieved Corcyra in a siege by the Spartans (373-372 e.g.). The Ecclesia gave him the com- mand of the fleet after the alliance between Athens and Sparta against Thebes (370 e.g.). He fell into disgrace during the Social War (355 e.g.). Isagoras. See Cleomenes. I'ssus. A town near the Eiver Pinarus, where Alexander defeated Darius III. (333 e.g.). Ithome, Mount. The strongest citadel of the Messenians. Here Aristodemus fought against the Spartans (668 e.g.). In 464 E.G., the revolted Helots entrenched themselves on Ithome, and held the Spartans in check for ten years. On its slope Epaminondas founded Messene in 370 e.g. J Jason, of Pherae. Ruler of Thessaly. He promised to help the Thebans at Leuctra, but failed to do so. He declared his intention of going to Delphi to offer sacrifices for the unity of Thessaly, but as he had determined to go there with an army, the states of central Greece were much alarmed. He was murdered before accomplishing his plan (370 e.g.). Lacedaemon. The ancient name for the plain in which Sparta was situated. The name is sometimes used to designate the whole of Laconia. Lac6nia. A province of southern Greece, the principal city of which was Sparta. During the Peloponnesian War its shores were ravaged by the Athenians. At the time of the ascen- dency of Thebes, Epaminondas invaded Laconia (362 e.g.). Lade. An island opposite Miletus (Ionia) where the con- federate Lesbians, Samians, and Chians, led by a certain Diony- GREEK HISTORY 29 sius, were defeated by Artaphernes, satrap of Darius, 494 b.c. (See Artaphernes and Aristagoras.) Lamachus. The colleague of Alcibiades and Nicias in the Sicilian expedition (415 b.c). Lamian War. After the death of Alexander several of the Grecian states, prompted by Demosthenes, rose against the Macedonian general Antipater. They were repulsed at Lamia in Thessaly. Demosthenes took refuge in a temple near Troezen. Being pursued, he poisoned himself (322 b.c). Leonidas. Commander of the Spartans at the pass of Ther- mopylae; betrayed by Ephialtes, and defeated by Xerxes, 480 B.C. Leontiades. A Theban who admitted into the Cadmeia the Spartan general Phoebidas and his troops (382 b.c). Leontiades took advantage of the panic to overthrow his political rivals and place himself at the head of the government, but soon after he was slain (379 b.c). (See Pelopidas.) Leontini. A Greek colony near Syracuse. It was aided by the Athenians during their difficulties with Syracuse at the time of the Peloponnesian War. According to Thucydides the inhabitants were finally expelled from their territory by the Syracusans. Leotychides. King of Sparta. He succeeded Demaratus as colleague of Cleomenes. He won the naval battle of Mycalae against the Persians (479 b.c). Leiictra. A town of Boeotia where Epaminondas, Pelopidas, and the Sacred Band (300 chosen hoplites) won a decisive vic- tory over the Spartans and King Cleombrotus (371 b.c). Lilybaeum. See Drepana. Long Walls. The walls connecting Athens with the Piraeus, forming a fortified gallery (458 b.c). They were torn down by the Peloponnesian confederates at the end of the Pelopon- nesian War (404 b.c), and rebuilt under Conon (393 b.c). Lycomedes. See Tearless Battle. Lyciirgus. A Spartan legislator who lived about 800 b.c He has been considered by some authors as mythical, but the HAND. GK. & ROM. HIST. — 3 30 GREEK HISTORY Rhetra or code of laws of Sparta is attributed to him. This legislation aimed at making Lacedaemon a military country always on war footing. The lands had been divided in equal parts, the owners were forbidden to increase or diminish their real estate, the gold and silver coins were replaced by iron coins, the meals, which were very frugal, were eaten in com- mon at prescribed hours. Military and athletic exercises were compulsory. The government was entrusted to two kings, who presided in the Senate, performed the religious ceremonies, made laws, and commanded the armies. The Senate had twenty-eight members ; it chose the officials, regulated taxes, and passed or rejected the laws. Lydia. A district in the western part of Asia Minor, gov- erned by Croesus. It was subjugated by Cyrus. Lysander. A Spartan general. He secured the financial help of Cyrus, brother of Artaxerxes, defeated the Athenians at Notium (407 b.c), and won the battle of Aegospotami against Conon (405 b.c). He took Athens, and destroyed the Long Walls ; his power excited uneasiness at Sparta, and he was kept without public employment for a time. He was killed at Haliartus (385 b.c). Lysimachus. One of Alexander's best generals. After the conqueror's death he was given Thrace for his share of terri- tory ; added Bithynia to his possessions ; undertook a cam- paign against Seleucus and was killed at Cyropedion (282 b.c). M ' Maced6nia. A kingdom north of ancient Greece. It sub- mitted to Darius about 513 b.c It became very important under the government of Philip II. Magnesia. A city of Asia Minor. Its government was entrusted to Themistocles while he was at the court of Artaxerxes. Magna Grsecia. Southern Italy and Sicily, so called fiom the numerous Greek settlements. They were nearly all con- quered by Dionysius. GREEK HISTORY 31 Mantin^a. A town of Arcadia. In 418 b.c, Agis II., king of Sparta, practically won a battle at this place against the Athenians and their allies. (See Agis II.) Here Epaminon- das, leading the Thebans, won a great victory over the Spartans and Mantineans, but lost his life (362 b.c). Marathon. A village of Attica near Mount Pentelicus and on the bay of the same name. In 490 b.c, Miltiades and Cal- limachus, leading the Athenians, and aided by the Plataeans, defeated the army of Darius I. led by Artaphernes the younger. Mard6nius. A general of Xerxes. He was sent against Athens in 492 b.c, but his fleet was destroyed by a storm off Mount Atlios. After the battle of Salamis (480) he was left with 300,000 men to complete the conquest of Greece. He met the Greeks, commanded by Pausanias and Aristeides, at Plataea in Boeotia, where his army was defeated and he was killed (479 b.c). Maus61us. King of Caria, whose tomb, the famous Mauso- leum of Halicarnassus, was one of the Seven Wonders of the World (352 B.C.). Medes. A body of Aryan tribes related to the Persians. Their empire, founded by Cyaxares, was conquered by Cyrus, king of Elam. The Persian Empire so founded was generally called Median by the Greeks. Megabazus. A general of Darius whom the latter left in charge of part of the troops after crossing the Danube. Megalopolis. An important city of Arcadia, founded, by Epaminondas (370 b.c). His object was to have a stronghold against Sparta. Megara. The capital of Megaris, between Athens and Cor- inth. It was invaded in a war with Athens for the possession of Salamis (see Myronides) ; Sparta arbitrated in favor of Athens (see Solon). Megara was lost to Athens under Pericles, and joined the Spartans. Megarians were excluded from all Attic ports and markets. Megaris. A small Grecian state east of the Isthmus of Cor- inth. It was invaded by Mardonius, the general of Xerxes. 32 GREEK HISTORY M^los. One of the Cyclades islands, ravaged by Nicias and the Athenians during the Peloponnesian War. After the peace of Nicias the island was again attacked and fell a victim to the greed of the Athenians (416 b.c). After the fall of Athens, the Melians were restored to the old homes (404 b.c). Messene. The Messenians, who, for a long time, had strug- gled to free themselves from the Laconian yoke, were finally enabled to obtain their liberty through the aid of Epaminon- das, who built the city and citadel of Messene on the slopes of Mount Ithome ; after 300 years, Messenia was at last separated from Sparta (370 b.c). Mess^nian Wars. Messenia was a region west of Laconia. Its population was composed of Dorians, Achaians, etc. The first war lasted from 743 to 723 b.c The Spartans crossed Mount Taygetus, seized the fortress of Amphea, and ravaged the country. The Messenians assembled all their forces at Mount Ithome, the strongest citadel, but in spite of the sac- rifice of Aristodemus (see Aristodemus) the citadel fell. The Messenians became Perioeci. (See Perioeci.) The second war was caused by a revolt of the Messenians under Aristomenes against the Spartans (about 660 b.c). They had for allies the Arcadians led by Aristocrates and the Argives under Pheidon. Aristocrates abandoned his allies. Pheidon was killed in battle, and although the Spartans sustained a few defeats, they finally overpowered Aristomenes, who escaped to Rhodes, where he died. The Messenians were made Helots (645 B.C.). The third war in 464 b.c is known as .the uprising of the Helots. (See Helots.) Mid^a. See Tearless Battle. Miletus. An ancient city of Asia Minor, the most cele- brated of the Ionian colonies. It was situated on the west- ern coast of Caria. (See Artaphernes, Aristagoras.) At the instigation of Alcibiades, Miletus revolted against Athens (412 B.C.). Miltiades. An Athenian general, who won the battle of Mara- thon against Artaphernes the younger, satrap of Darius of Per- GREEK HISTORY 33 sia (490 B.C.). Miltiades prevented the return of the tyrant Hippias, as he discovered the signals made by his accomplices in Athens. The next year, wishing to avenge a private grudge on the island of Paros, Miltiades obtained a large fleet, but was defeated. He was disgraced, tried before the Heliaea, and fined 50 talents. He died from the effects of an accidental wound (489 b.c). His son Cimon paid his fine. Mindarus. The Spartan general of the Peloponnesian fleet, defeated at Abydos by the Athenians in 411 b.c, and at Cyzi- cus by the Athenians under Alcibiades in 410 b.c. Mycale. A promontory not far from Miletus, where the Spar- tan king, Leotychides, and the Athenian general, Xanthippus, defeated the army and navy of Xerxes (479 b.c). Myronides. An Athenian general. He fought two success- ful battles at Megara, against the Corinthians (458 b.c), and conquered Boeotia (456 b.c). Mytilene. The ancient capital of Lesbos. It was conquered by the Persians under Cyrus, and revolted against Darius at the time of the Ionian insurrection. (See Aristagoras.) It was com- pelled to furnish ships to Darius and Xerxes against Greece. After Plataea and Mycale, Lesbos was again free and became an ally of Athens, but finding itself oppressed, turned to the Spartan cause at the opening of the Peloponnesian War, but was soon conquered again, and the capital, Mytilene, razed to the ground. (See Cleon.) After the battle of Aegospotami, Lesbos returned to Sparta, and finally fell under the dominion of Alexander. Naxos. One of the Cyclades. It attempted to secede from the Delian league (Confederacy of Delos), but the Athenians under Chabrias defeated the Naxians, who paid an increased tribute (466 b.c). Nearchus. An admiral of Alexander the Great, was charged with the exploration of the Persian Gulf, as Alexander wished to open a sea route between India and Babylon. 34 GREEK HISTORY Nicias. The political enemy of Cleon at Athens. He con- cluded the peace which bears his name, thus ending the first Peloponnesian War. He was sent with Demosthenes against Gylippus at Syracuse, and was defeated and put to death (413 B.C.). N6tium. Opposite Ephesus in Asia Minor. There, in 407 B.C., Antiochus, the Athenian admiral, whom Alcibiades had entrusted with the fleet, was completely defeated and slain by the Spartans under Lysander. Odyssey. See Homer. Olympia. A city of Peloponnesus on the banks of the Alpheus, where the Greeks celebrated the games in honor of Olympian Zeus, the national deity. Olympias. Mother of Alexander the Great, whom Philip repudiated in order to marry Cleopatra, the niece of his gen- eral. Attains. Olympus. The highest mountain of Greece, situated in Thessaly. Olynthian Confederacy. This was a union of Macedonian and Grecian towns in Chalcidice. Two cities. Acanthus and Apollonia, refused to join, and advised Sparta of the state of things. The Spartans dispatched a fleet to the Chalcidian shore, and the league was broken up (379 b.c). Artabazus, general of Xerxes, destroyed Olynthus, the principal city of that region, because it had cast off its allegiance to the Per- sians. Philip of Macedon conquered it with the entire Chal- cidian Confederacy (348 b.c). Onomarchus. Leader of the Phocians. (See Sacred War.) He fought against Philip of Macedon and was defeated and killed at Pagasae on the Magnesian Peninsula (352 b.c). Ortygia. See Dionysius II. Os'tracism. A form of banishment established by Cleis- thenes. If any political crisis arose, the people were assem- GREEK HISTORY 35 bled and could declare by their vote that the presence of any individual in Athens was prejudicial to the state. If 6000 votes were cast against any one, he went into exile for ten years. P Pagasae. A town of Thessaly, on the coast of Magnesia. (See Onomarchus.) Pamphylia. See Cimon. Panathenaea. An annual festival in honor of Athena. In a more splendid form, established by Peisistratus, it was cele- brated every fourth year, and called the Great Panathenaea, while the older festival was still kept up under the name of Less Panathenaea. Parmenio. A favorite general of Alexander, who distin- guished himself at Issus and at Arbela. His son Philotas was a man of outspoken disposition, and became obnoxious to Alexander, who accused him of conspiring against him. He was tortured, and though innocent confessed his guilt as con- spirator, implicating his father, who was also blameless. They were both executed. Parnassus. The most central peak in Greece. In one of its recesses lay the site of the oracle of Delphi. Parnes. A mountain near Athens. Paros. An island in the Aegean. (See Miltiades.) Parthenon. The largest and most beautiful of the temples of the Acropolis, built at the time of Pericles. 1. Pausanias. Eegent of Sparta. With the Athenians he won the battle of Plataea against the army of Xerxes led by Mar- donius and Artabazus. In 479 b.c. he marched against Thebes. The next year he offered Xerxes to subdue all Greece if he gave him the means and his daughter in marriage. Xerxes consented, but Pausanias' plans were discovered and he was recalled by the Ephors. The fleet refused to be commanded by him and placed itself at the disposition of Aristeides and CimoU; the Athenian leaders. Pausanias was deprived of his 36 GREEK HISTORY power and summoned to appear for trial, but was acquitted, although no command was ever entrusted to him. He went to Xerxes' court, intrigued there, and was summoned to a second trial, but no accuser appeared against him. Pausanias con- tinued his intrigues until he was detected through a message he had sent to the satrap Artabazus. He took refuge in the temple of Athena ; the Ephors ordered the doors to be closed and left him to die from hunger (469 B.C.). 2. Pausanias. King of Sparta (408-394 b.c). He put an end to the oligarchy which reigned at Athens during the admin- istration of the thirty tyrants. Pausanias was the cause of Lysander's defeat and death at Haliartus (395 b.c), as he arrived too late with his reenforcements. He was impeached on his return and fled from trial. 3. Pausanias. The murderer of Philip of Macedon. Peirseus (Piraeus). The port of Athens, which replaced the older harbor of Phalerum. Its long walls were destroyed by Lysander and rebuilt by Conon. Peisander (Pisander). An Athenian politician. He was sent at the head of a commission to interview Alcibiades at the court of the satrap Tissaphernes, and obtain the latter's support against Sparta. The mission failed (411 b.c). Pisander established the government of the 400. (See Four Hundred.) Was exiled and took refuge at Sparta. Peisistratus (Pisistratus). During Solon's absence his con- stitution dissatisfied many Athenians ; Peisistratus placed him- self at the head of the party of the " Upland " and declared himself tyrant of Athens. He was a moderate and able ruler. The "Shore" and the "Plain" led by Megacles and Lycurgus dethroned Peisistratus, but the two leaders disa- greeing, Megacles reinstated Peisistratus and governed with him. They disagreed, however, and for the second time Peisis- tratus was deposed and expelled. He retired to Thrace, gath- ered an army and marched against Athens. He defeated his opponents at Marathon (535 b.c), and was tyrant once more. He conducted carefully home and foreign affairs ; kept Solon's GREEK HISTORY 37 laws ; protected literary men ; and died 527 B.C., leaving two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. Pelasgians. One of the first tribes of Greece. Pelopidas. A rich Theban of noble family, the friend of Epaminondas. He freed Thebes from the Polemarchs and killed Leontiades. He commanded the sacred band at Leuctra. He conquered Thessaly; was imprisoned by Alexander of Pherae, and released by Epaminondas. In 368 b.c, he was killed in an expedition against the same Alexander. Peloponnesian War. Properly a breaking of the thirty years' truce arranged by Pericles and Callias between Athens and Sparta. It is practically a long conflict (431-404 B.C.) between Sparta and its allies and Athens and its adherents. The prin- cipal generals who figured in it on the Athenian side are Pericles, Demosthenes (general), Eurymedon, Nicias, Conon, Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, and Thrasyllus. On the Spartan side were Brasidas, Archidamus, Lysander, Callicratidas, Gylippus. The principal battles were fought at Plataea (427 b.c.) ; Pylos (425 B.C.) ; Amphipolis (422 b.c.) ; Mantinea (418 B.C.) ; Si- cilian expedition ended (413 b.c.) ; Eretria (411 b.c.) ; Cyzicus (410 B.C.) ; Notium (407 B.C.) ; Arginusae (406 b.c.) ; Aegos- potami (405 b.c). This long conflict ended with the downfall of Athens and brought about the supremacy of Sparta. Perdiccas. King of Macedon. He sided with the Potidaeans against Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Brasidas, the Spartan general, helped him against his enemies to the disadvantage of Sparta. Perdiccas was succeeded by his brother Philip (359 b.c). Periander. A celebrated tyrant of Corinth. 1. Pericles. The greatest statesman of Athens. His chief rival was Cimon. After the ostracism of the latter, Pericles became sole ruler of Athens. He allowed Cimon to return after Tanagra. He made the thirty years' truce with Sparta ; remodeled the dicasteries ; increased the colonies ; strengthened the navy; rebuilt the temples; built the Parthenon and Pro- pylaea, and adorned Athens with public buildings. He was 38 GREEK HISTORY also distinguished as a general. He recovered Euboea (445), subdued the revolted Samians (440), and was prominent in the Peloponnesian War, which he had advocated. He fell into temporary disfavor at the beginning of the war, but was soon restored. He died during the plague at Athens (429 B.C.). 2. Pericles. Son of the statesman Pericles. He was exe- cuted after the battle of Arginusae for having failed to rescue some Athenian vessels caught in a gale. Thrasyllus and Aris- tocrates shared his fate (406 B.C.). Perioeci. The conquered inhabitants who dwelt around the community of Sparta. They paid tribute and furnished troops. Pers^polis. A great city of Persia, capital of the empire. It was taken and burned by Alexander the Great in 330 b.c. Persian Empire. See Croesus, Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius. Phalerum. The old port of Athens, replaced by the Piraeus. Pharnabazus. Satrap of northern Asia Minor. He helped the Lacedaemonians against the Athenians in the battles on the Hellespont. He was expelled from his lands by King Agesilaus of Sparta. He joined Conon's fleet and defeated Pisander, brother-in-law of King Agesilaus, and the Spartans at Cnidus (394 b.c). Pheidias (Phidias). The most famous Greek sculptor, born at Athens about 488 b.c. He was placed in charge of the works of art with which Pericles beautified Athens. His most famous works are the sculptures of the Parthenon, the gold and silver statue of Athene, and the celebrated colossal statue of Zeus at Olympia. Pheidon. An early king of Argos. He is said to have inaugurated the coining of money and the establishment of weights and measures. He helped the Messenians against the Spartans in the Second Messenian War (660 b.c). Philip II. of Macedon (382-336 b.c). Third son of Amyntas. He was brought up at Thebes, where he had been taken as a hostage by Pelopidas, and where he gained the idea of the famous Macedonian Phalanx. He was not the real heir to the GREEK HISTORY 89 throne, but acted at first as regent for the orphan son of Per- diccas, his second brother. He managed to set aside the prince, and began to reign himself in 359 b.c. He reformed the army. He seized in succession Amphipolis, Pydna, and Olynthus; conquered the Thracian tribes, gained possession of gold mines at Mount Pangaeus, and built Philippi. He took part in the Sacred War; was repulsed during his cam- paign in Thessaly by the Phocians under Onomarchus ; but a few months later, in 352 B.C., Philip defeated and slew Ono- marchus at Pagasae and became master of the situation in Thessaly. He marched against the Hellenic cities of Pro- pontis and Byzantium, but was several times defeated, and Phocion compelled him to abandon Byzantium (339 b.c). The Athenians and Thebans joined together to oppose Philip's invasion of Greece, but were conquered in the famous battle of Chaeronea (338), and all Greece was subjugated to Philip's authority. In 338 b.c. he convened the Congress of Corinth. (See Corinth.) Philip divorced Olympias and married Cleopa- tra. He was murdered by Pausanias during a festival at the marriage of his daughter (336 b.c). Philippics. See 2. Demosthenes. Philomelas. A Phocian leader in the Sacred War. Philopoemen. See Achaean League. Philotas. See Parmenio. Ph6cion. An Athenian statesman who opposed Demosthenes in regard to the war with Philip. He forced Philip to aban- don the siege of Byzantium (339 b.c). Phdebidas. See Cadmeia. Plain. There were three local divisions, or factions, in Attica, known as the Plain, the Shore, and the Upland. The Plain denoted the rich landowners who occupied the fertile plains of Attica ; the Shore, the commercial or middle class ; the Upland, the poorest class, the shepherds of the hills. Plataea. An ancient city of Boeotia on the Asopus. It left the Boeotian League on account of trouble with Thebes, and placed itself under the protection of Athens (519 b.c). The 40 GREEK HISTORY Plataeans fought with the Athenians at Marathon against the Persians (490 b.c). The town resisted the invasion of Xerxes- in Boeotia, and was destroyed by the Persian army. At Plataea was fought the great battle between Xerxes' army, led by Mardonius and Artabazus, and the Spartans and Athenians led by Pausanias and Aristeides. Mardonius was defeated and killed, and the independence of Greece was secured (479 b.c). Plataea was attacked by the Spartans at the instigation of the Thebans at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, and was taken after a siege of two years in 428 b.c. It was razed to the ground, but was rebuilt after the Peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.). It was destroyed the third time by the Thebans in 374 B.C., and its inhabitants were exiled. Pldto. A celebrated Greek philosopher, disciple of Socrates (427-347 B.C.). P61emarch. The military leader of the Athenian forces. This name was given to the third archon. P6rus. An Indian monarch defeated by Alexander. Potidaea. An important town of Chalcidice, founded by Corinth. (See Artabazus.) It had become a member of the Athenian League, but revolted from Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Its forces and the allied Pelopon- nesians were defeated near the city in 432 b.c. (See Perdiccas and Aristeus.) It surrendered to Athens under Pericles, and was finally captured by Philip of Macedon (358 b.c), who gave the city to the Olynthians. Propylaea. The entrance halls of the citadel of Athens, built by Pericles. Pt6lemy. A general of Alexander the Great, to whom Egypt was given at the division of Alexander's Empire. His descend- ants ruled in Egypt for nearly three centuries. Pydna. A city of Macedonia, originally a Greek colony on the Thermaic Gulf, taken by Philip II. (358 b.c). ' Pylos. See Demosthenes and Eurymedon. Pythagoras. A Greek philosopher, born at Samos about 582 B.c GREEK HISTORY 41 Rhetra. The laws and institutions of Lycurgus of Sparta. Rhodes. An island southwest of Asia Minor, settled by Dorians. Its chief city, Rhodes, sustained a siege in 305 b.c, but was not taken. Rhodes was the ally of Rome in her wars against Philip V. and Antiochus. Her importance vanished when the Romans made Delos the commercial port of the Aegean. Roxana. Daughter of a Bactrian nobleman. One of the wives of Alexander the Great. Sacred Band. See Chaeronea. Sacred War. The first war took place about 595 b.c. The Phocians molested the pilgrims to the shrine of Apollo. Solon was instrumental in the suppression of this religious outrage. The second began in 356 e.g. with a quarrel between Thebes and Phocis, who had long been secret enemies. The Thebans accused the Phocians of sacrilege in having plowed land sacred to Apollo. The Amphyctionic Council condemned the Phocians to pay a fine, and, in case of refusal, their lands were to be seized. The Phocians knew that the Delphians were their accusers. Led by Philomelus they seized Delphi and the temple. This brought war Avith Thebes and Thessaly, but the Phocians, having the rich treasures of Delphi, were able to secure mercenary troops. Thus began the Second Sacred War, merely a war of jealousy between Phocis and the Thebans allied to the Thessalians. Philomelus was killed, but his suc- cessor, Onomarchus, was very successful. The enemies of Phocis implored the aid of Philip of Macedon. Onomarchus defeated him twice at Pherae ; but a little later Philip defeated and killed Onomarchus at Pagasae, thus becoming master of Thessaly (352 e.g.). This alarmed the Greek states which did not belong to the Theban alliance, and they opposed and re- pulsed Philip at Thermopylae (352 e.g.). The Second Sacred 42 GREEK HISTORY War continued until 346 b.c, and ended with the submission of Phocis to Philip. The third ended at Chaeronea (338 b.c). Salamis. An island of the Aegean Sea opposite Athens, taken by the Megarians (610 b.c). The island was later re- gained by Athenians led by Solon. Salamis was the scene of the defeat of Xerxes' fleet (480 b.c). Samos. An island on the western coast of Asia Minor, set- tled by lonians, at one time governed by the tyrant Polycrates. It was ravaged by the army of Darius about 513 b.c It re- volted against Athens (440 b.c), but was subdued by Pericles. The Athenians granted independence to Samos on account of its loyalty at the time of the Conspiracy of the Four Hundred (411 B.C.). Sardis. See Croesus, Aristagoras, Artaphernes. Scythians. An Asiatic people, inhabitants of the steppes of southern Russia. They were defeated by Darius in 513 b.c Sedition Law. See Solon. Seleiicidae. A dynasty of kings who reigned over Asia Minor and Syria. The founder was Seleucus Nicator, its prin- cipal members being the branch of Antiochus (312-65 b.c). This empire became a Roman province under Pompey. Selinus. See Sicilian War. Shore. See Plain. Sicilian War (415-413 b.c). A dispute having arisen be- tween the towns of Selinus and Segesta in Sicily, the Selinu- tians sought help from Syracuse, and the Segestans asked and received aid from Athens, who knew that the Spartans would help Syracuse. A fleet was fitted out and commanded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus. Nicias was not in favor of the war, but his arguments were of no avail. Just before the fleet left, the mutilation of the Hermae was discovered, and Alcibiades was accused of the outrage, and also of having pro- faned the Eleusinian Mysteries. However, Alcibiades was allowed 'to sail with the fleet. His plan was to attack quickly, but Nicias opposed this. Meanwhile the enemies of Alci- biades at Athens pressed the charges against him, and he was GREEK HISTORY 43 recalled, but escaped to Sparta, and there turned his ability against Athens. Nicias and Lamachus being left alone, ordered the attack as they chose, and began the siege of Syracuse with success. But the Syracusans received aid from the Corin- thians, who sent Gylippus with a fleet. Disasters commenced for the Athenians. Demosthenes was sent from Athens to assist them ; but in spite of their desperate valor, they were defeated and made prisoners. Demosthenes and Nicias were executed by order of Gylippus (413 e.g.). Sicily. An island south of Italy. As early as 734 e.g. the Greeks established colonies there, — Syracuse, Agrigentum, Naxos, etc. (See Sicilian War, Dionysius I. and II., and Gelo.) Smerdis. See Cambyses. Social War. The allies of Athens, such as Ehodes, Chios, and Byzantium, became dissatisfied with her dominion, and revolted when Philip of Macedon invaded the country. Athens had to give her attention to her revolted allies, and could not take active part in repulsing Philip. So the Athenians were compelled to accept the terms of their allies, and declared them free (357-355 e.g.). S6crates. The celebrated Athenian philosopher. After the battle of Arginusae (406 e.g.) he protested, without effect, against the condemnation of the generals, among whom was Pericles, the son of the great Pericles. He was accused of not believing in the Athenian gods and was condemned to die by poison (399 e.g.). S61on. The famous orator and lawgiver of Athens. He led the Athenians in the struggle for the possession of Salamis, and brought about the arbitration of Sparta, thus ending the Megarian War. He was elected Archon in 594 e.g. ; gave Athens a new constitution, principally for the relief of poor debtors ; changed the coinage of Athens, making it interchange- able with that of her neighbors ; divided the people into four classes for political purposes ; organized the Boule, the Eccle- sia, and made the Sedition Law, depriving of citizenship a man who refused to vote. He traveled to Cyprus, Egypt, and Asia 44 GREEK HISTORY Minor. He gradually disappeared from public life with the rise of Pisistratus, and died in 558 b.c. 1. S6phocles. An Athenian general of the Peloponnesian War. (See Eurymedon.) 2. S6phocles. A celebrated Greek tragic poet (498-405 b.c). Sphacteria. An island in the bay of Pylos, opposite the Messenian coast, where the Spartans were blockaded after the surrender of Pylos. (See 1. Demosthenes and 2. Eury- medon.) Sparta. The principal city of Laconia, the rival of Athens, whose power she destroyed during the Peloponnesian War. In her turn she lost her dominion through the repeated efforts of the Thebans and Epaminondas. Strymon. A river of Thrace northeast of Chalcidice, bridged by Xerxes at the beginning of his invasion. Siisa. A city of Persia, made the capital of the empire of Darius ; taken by Alexander (330 b.c). Sybota. An island on the coast of Epirus. Corcyra became involved in a quarrel with her mother city, Corinth, and asked aid of the Athenians, who sent a fleet to their assistance.^ In the indecisive battle of Sybota (432 b.c) the Corinthians were compelled to withdraw. This conflict was one of the causes of the Peloponnesian War. Syracuse. A city of Sicily. (See Gelo, Dionysius, Sicilian War.) Tanfigra. A city of Boeotia on the Asopus, where the Spar- tans defeated the Athenians commanded by Pericles (457 b.c). Taygetus. A mountain range running north and south in Laconia, the highest peak having an altitude of 8000 feet. Tearless Battle. A battle at Midea in Argolis between the Spartans and Arcadians, led by Lycomedes. The Spartans, who were commanded by Archidamus, son of Agesilaus, de- feated the Arcadians. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, helped the Spartans with a body of Celts. As the Spartans did not GREEK HISTORY 45 lose a man, the name of Tearless Battle was given to the fight (368 B.C.). Tegea. An important Arcadian town on the border of La- conia, subdued by Sparta in 560 b.c. The Tegeans fought at Plataea Avith the Spartans and Athenians against Mardonius (479 B.C.). Ten Thousand. See Xenophon. Thales. The founder of the Milesian or Ionic school of philosophers (624-548 b.c). Thebes. Founded by Cadmus in the center of Boeotia, the seat of the legendary War of the Seven. Being jealous of Athens, Thebes refused to join the confederation against Xerxes. After the battle of Plataea (479 b.c.) Pausanias marched against Thebes to punish the Medizing party (the party in favor of the Persians or Medes). He had the leaders removed to Corinth and executed (478 b.c). Phoebidas took the city (382 b.c). It was liberated by Epaminondas and Pelo- pidas. Thebes was destroyed by Alexander (336 b.c). Themistocles. An Athenian, son of Neocles. He had more genius than his contemporary Aristeides, but he did not have his virtue. He was remarkable for his quickness of intellect, worked for the advantage of his country and his own also, but he had no abnegation like the just Aristeides. Politics were a business for him. He obtained the archonship (493 b.c) and fortified the Piraeus, the Athenian harbor. He enlarged and reformed the navy; brought about the Congress of Corinth (481 B.C.) in order to take action against the Persian invasion; commanded in Thessaly during the invasion of Xerxes. At the approach of Xerxes, Themistocles advocated the evacuation of Athens. He held secret communication with Xerxes, pressing him to attack the confederate fleet commanded by Eurybiades, and hastened the conflict at Salamis which proved so disas- trous to Xerxes. He was sent as ambassador to Sparta, and delayed negotiations long enough to allow the Athenians to rebuild and fortify their walls. His power declined, and his political enemies had him ostracized. He retired to Argos, HAND. GK. & ROM. HIST. — 4 46 GREEK HISTORY met Pausanias, but never took part in any intrigue. After the latter's death, when the Ephors seized his papers, they found some of Themistocles' correspondence. There was nothing to implicate him, but he, was called up for trial. He escaped to the court of Artaxerxes. He was made tyrant of Magnesia, and died in 460 b.c. Therm6pylaB. A narrow pass in Thessaly, where Leonidas and 300 Spartans were betrayed by Ephialtes, and killed by the army of Xerxes (480 b.c). In 352 b.c. Philip of Macedon was repulsed at the same place by the Greek confederates. Thirty Tyrants. When Athens opened her gates to Lysan- der, one of the conditions was that she must allow the return of her exiles. On their return the democracy was overthrown and an oligarchical government of thirty persons was set up under the leadership of Critias. This administration was des- potic and gave dissatisfaction. The democratic party and the exiles, led by Thrasybulus, wanted to abolish the Tyrants. Cri- tias was killed in a battle at the Piraeus, the oligarchs were driven out, and the democracy was restored (403 b.c). Thirty Years' Peace. A truce between Sparta and Athens brought about by Pericles and Callias in 445 b.c This rup- ture practically caused the Peloponnesian War. Thrasybulus. See Alcibiades and the Thirty Tyrants. Thrasyllus. See Alcibiades. Thucydides. Son of Melesias, and a relative of Cimon. He opposed the policy of Pericles, and was ostracized (443 b.c). Thucydides. A celebrated Greek historian (471-400 b.c). Tim61eon. A Corinthian. He led a Corinthian expedition against Dionysius II. and liberated Syracuse. He gained a great victory over the Carthaginians at the River Crimisus, thus saving Sicily from Carthaginian dominion for the time being (340 b.c). Timoleon fixed his residence at Syracuse and lived peacefully, although blind, until 336 b.c He deserved the surname of Liberator. Tissaphlrnes. A Persian satrap. He entered into negotia- tions with Sparta to help her in her wars against Athens ; but GREEK HISTORY 47 Alcibiades caused the failure of the plans and tried to make Tissaphernes turn his goodwill toward Athens. Alcibiades hoped, through this, to be recalled to Athens from his exile, but was not successful. Tissaphernes pursued the Greeks dur- ing the retreat of the Ten Thousand after Cunaxa. He sub- dued the Greek towns of the Ionian and Aeolian coast. This caused war with Sparta, and a defeat of the satrap Pharnaba- zus brought Tissaphernes to terms. He was beheaded by order of Artaxerxes for his unsuccessful campaigns against Agesilaus (395 b.c). Tyrant. The meaning was not one who ruled harshly, but one who had supreme power. The age of the tyrants lasted from 650 to 500 b.c, properly speaking, but there were many tyrants during the Peloponnesian War. Nearly all were over- thrown before the Persian invasion. Tyre. A city of Phoenicia, on an island. It was taken by Alexander after a long siege (332 b.c). U Upland. See Plain. X Xanthippus. An Athenian general, who, with Leotychides, won the battle of Mycale against Xerxes (479 b.c). Xinophon. An Athenian general who conducted the retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks after the battle of Cunaxa (401 B.C.). Xerxes. Son and successor of Darius I. (486-465 b.c). He bridged the Hellespont, invaded Greece, defeated Leonidas at Thermopylae and the Greek fleet at Artemisium (480 b.c). He invaded Boeotia, marched into Attica, and took Athens (480 B.C.). Defeated at Salamis, Xerxes returned to Asia. His general, Mardonius, reentered Attica. Xerxes came back, and he and Mardonius lost the battle of Plataea against Pausanias (479 b.c). Xerxes^ power in Greece ended in that year, as he was defeated at Mycale by Leotychides and Xanthippus. HANDBOOK OP ROMAN HISTORY oXKc Achffian League. A league of nearly all the people of the Peloponnesus, who joined the Romans against Philip Y. (See Macedonian Wars.) After the battle of Pydna and the conver- sion of Macedonia into a Roman province, a war broke out between the Romans and the Achaean cities, on account of an insult offered to Roman ambassadors (146 e.g.). Corinth was destroyed, the states and cities of Greece were compelled to pay a yearly tribute, and were placed under the administra- tion of the governor of Macedonia. Achaia. A Greek province situated between the Corinthian Gulf and the mountains of northern Arcadia. Its inhabitants formed the Achaean League. In the time of Augustus, Greece was separated from Macedonia and organized as an independ- ent province under the name of Achaia. A'ctium. A city, promontory, and bay on the western coast of Greece, the scene of the naval battle between Octavian and Mark Antony (31 e.g.). Adrianople. A city of central Thrace, where Licinius de- feated Maximin (311 a.d.), and where the emperor Valens was defeated and killed during his campaign against the Goths and Visigoths (378 a.d.). iE'duans. A tribe of Gaul who occupied Burgundy. They became allies of Caesar in his campaign against the Helvetians (58 B.C.). During the revolt of Vercingetorix the Aeduans supported the Arvernians against Caesar. 49 50 ROMAN HISTORY -Agates. Islands west of Sicily, where the Roman fleet com- manded by Gains Lutatins Catulus defeated the Carthaginians and Syracusans (241 b.c). (See First Punic War.) ^gidius (Count). Military governor of Gaul under Majo- rian. He resided at the capital, Paris. He was one of the last who struggled against the Germanic nations. 1. .ffimilius Paiilus, Lucius. Consul; colleague of Varro. He was killed at the battle of Cannae (216 b.c). 2. .ffimilius Paiilus, Lucius. Son of 1. Aemilius Paulus and father of Scipio Aemilianus. He defeated Perseus at the battle of Pydna (168 b.c). M 'quians. A nation whose territory was situated in the moun- tainous region east of Rome. They were bitter enemies of the Romans. They occupied Mount Algidus and commanded the Latin "Way, but were defeated by Cincinnatus. They regained the pass in 458 b.c, but were obliged to surrender Mount Algidus to the dictator Postumius. Together with the Vol- scians and Etruscans they assailed Rome after the invasion of the Gauls, and were finally repulsed by Camillus (386 b.c). Aetius. A general and statesman under emperor Valenti- nian III. He occupied an important post in Italy. He was jealous of Boniface, governor of the Roman province of Africa and favorite of Placidia, the mother of the emperor, and led him to mistrust Placidia. Pearing the empress, Boniface sum- moned Gaiseric and the Vandals from Spain, promising them land in Africa (429 a.d.). He soon discct^ered his error, and tried to repulse Gaiseric, but was unsuccessful, and the Van- dals remained in Africa. Aetius killed Boniface in a conflict, and for nearly twenty years managed the affairs of the empire, repulsing the invasions of the Burgundians, Franks, and Alamannians. The Huns under command of Attila crossed the Rhine, entered Gaul, and were defeated at the Battle of the Peoples by Aetius, with the help of Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, who was killed during the fight (452 a.d.). Attila came again the same year, this time crossing the Julian Alps, but retired at the request of Leo, Bishop of Rome. The ene- ROMAN HISTORY ' 51 mies of Aetius held him responsible for the invasions of Attila, and induced Valentinian to have him assassinated (454 a.d.). -flEt61ian League. The Aetolians were a nation of northern Greece, allies of Rome in the war against Philip V. The league, freed from Macedonian rule and having acquired large territory, became dissatisfied and joined Antiochus against Rome. A'frica. The territory occupied by Carthage. It became, after the destruction of that city, a Roman province, with Utica as its capital. Gains Gracchus founded there a colony called Junonia. (See Caesar, Boniface, Vandals.) A'ger Romanus. The original territory of Rome ; at the end of the Social War it extended over the whole of Italy. Agrarian Laws. See Sp. Cassius, G. Flaminius, T. Gracchus, and C. Gracchus. A'gri Decumates. The emperor Domitian constructed a number of forts from the Rhine to the Danube, thus lessen- ing the territory of the Germans. The lands thus acquired became a Roman province under the name of Agri Decumates (Tithe Lands). Agricola, Gneeus Julius. A Roman general sent by Domitian to complete the conquest of Britain (77 a.d.). He governed the subdued people successfully, but inspired Domitian with jealousy, and was recalled. Agrigentum. A seaport of southern Sicily, captured by the Romans at the beginning of the Punic Wars. Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius. A statesman of the reign of Augustus, who, to show him his esteem, gave him his daughter Julia in marriage. 1. Agrippina. Granddaughter of Augustus, wife of Germ ani- ens, and mother of Caligula and 2. Agrippina. She died in 33 A.D. 2. Agrippina. Daughter of Germ aniens and 1. Agrippina. She poisoned her husband Claudius to assure the throne to Nero, her son by a previous marriage. She was put to death by order of Nero in 59 a.d. 62 ROMAN HISTORY A'hriman. See Mazdeism. Alamannians. Barbarians occupying territory between the Rhine and the Danube. They advanced beyond Domitian's fortified posts (see Agri Decumates), were defeated by Cara- calla (213 a.d.), but later on succeeded in taking possession of the upper Rhine. The Franks joined them, crossed the fron- tier, and entered modern Alsace. The emperor Julian de- feated them at Strassburg (357 a.d.). They advanced again with the Burgundians and Franks, and were repulsed by Aetius (443 a.d.). They took an active part at the Battle of the Peoples (451 a.d.). During the last years of the empire, towards 480 a.d., the Alamannians settled east of Gaul and the Franks north of Gaul. Alans. Barbarians of Hunnic origin, who joined the Van- dals, crossed the Rhine, and invaded Gaul in 406 a.d., during the reign of Honorius. A'laric. King of the Visigoths. He invaded Greece, then Italy. He was defeated by Stilicho, at Polenta in 402 a.d., and at Verona in 403 a.d. He captured Rome by famine in 408 A.D., and again sacked the city in 409-410 a.d. He died in southern Italy and was buried in the bed of the Busento River (410 A.D.). He left the command to Athaulf, his brother-in-law. Alba L6nga (the Long White City). The principal city of the Latin Confederacy; conquered by Rome under Tullus Hosti- lius (666 B.C.). Al^sia (modern Alise). A city of modern Burgundy, where Caesar defeated and made prisoner Vercingetorix, the Arver- nian chief (52 b.c). Alexandria. A city at the mouth of the Nile, founded by Alexander the Great. Caesar landed at Alexandria when he was pursuing Pompey. Algidus, Mount. See .Siquians and Aulus Postumius. Allia. A river eleven miles from Rome. There the Gauls defeated the Romans in 380 b.c. Alps. Mountains of northern Italy. The Maritime Alps separate Italy from Gaul and Germany ; the Julian Alps lead ROMAN HISTORY 63 to the valley of the Danube through an easy pass, repeatedly used in wars. Ambarvalia. A procession for the blessing of the fields, which took place in May. A'ncus Marcius. The patrician king who succeeded Tul- lus Hostilius (641-617 B.C.). He extended the Roman con- quests to the north of the Tiber and founded the seaport of Ostia. Antiochus. King of Syria. He was the ally of Philip V. of Macedon, but abandoned him before the battle of Cynoscepha- lae. (See Macedonian Wars.) Antoninus Pius. The fourth of the good emperors and first of the Antonines (138-161 a.d.). His reign was peaceful and without incident. Ant6nius, Marcus (Mark Antony). Tribune at the begin- ning of the Civil War (49 B.C.) and consul with Julius Caesar (44 B.C.). He was spared, as well as Lepidus, by the murder- ers of Caesar. After the latter's death, Antony became very powerful, and was a member of the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus. He defeated the tribune Cassius at Philippi (42 B.C.), then governed the East and joined Cleopa- tra. He married Octavia, sister of Octavian, but divorced her and returned to Cleopatra. The Romans were exasperated at his conduct ; Octavian marched against him and defeated him at Actium (31 b.c). Antony killed himself and Cleopatra also committed suicide. A'pennines. A mountain range starting from the Maritime Alps and extending the length of the Italian peninsula and continuing into Sicily. A'ppian Way. The first military road from Rome to Capua. Built by Appius Claudius. Many parts of it are still in good preservation. Apulia. A part of southern Italy, through which flows the Aufidus. (See Hannibal.) A 'quae Sextiae (modern Aix). A city of southern Gaul, where Marius routed the Teutons (102 b.c). (See Cimbri.) 54 ROMAN HISTORY Aquil^ia. A city of northeastern Italy, on the Adriatic, attacked by the Marcomanni during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, who kept them in check. They were the first tribe of those Germans who later on caused the destruction of the Roman Empire. Aquileia was destroyed by Attila in 452 A.D. Aquitania. One of the three divisions of Gaul made by Caesar : Belgica in the north ; Lugdunensis in the center ; Aquitania in the southwest. The divisions were known as Tres Oalliae. Aransio (modern Orange). A city of southern Gaul, on the Rhone, where the Romans sustained a crushing defeat by the Cimbri and Teutons (105 B.C.). Arcadius (395-408 a.d.). Son of Theodosius, emperor of the East with Rufinus. His reign was not important. Archimedes. A great mathematician who defended Syra- cuse, but was himself killed during the pillage of the city by the Romans. (See Punic Wars.) Ariovistus. A German king who crossed the Rhine and entered Gaul, but was defeated by Caesar (58 b.c). A'rius (280-336 a.d.). A learned ecclesiastic of Alexandria, the head of one of the two parties at the Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.). Arminius (Hermann). See Teutoburg Forest. A'rnus (modern Arno). A river of northern Etruria, flowing into the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian Sea. The seat of some of the conflicts bet\^een Hannibal and the Romans in the Second Punic War. Arpinum. A city of Latium, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero. Arvlrnians. See Vercingetorix and Caesar. A'sculum. A city of TJmbria, near the Adriatic coast, where Pyrrhus defeated the Romans (279 b.c). Asiatic War. The Aetolians, dissatisfied with their share of the treaty after the Macedonian Wars, joined Antiochus, king of Syria, against the Rhodians and Eumenes, king of ROMAN HISTORY 55 Pergamus. The Rhodians and Eumenes were the allies of the Romans, who naturally espoused their cause. The Romans were helped by Philip V. of Macedon, by Prusias, king of Bithynia, and by the Achaeans. Antiochus and his allies were first defeated at Thermopylae (191 b.c), and then at Magnesia (190 b.c). Notwithstanding the fact that Antio- chus was guided by the advice of Hannibal, the Romans, led by Lucius Scipio Asiaticus, brother of the victor of Zama, won great laurels at Magnesia. Peace was signed, the dominions of Eumenes were enlarged, and Rhodes gained valuable terri- tory. Athanasius (296-373 a.d.). A celebrated ecclesiastic of Alex- andria, the head of one of the two parties at the Council of Nicaea (325 a.d.). A'thaulf (Atawulf). Brother-in-law of Alaric, whom he suc- ceeded as king of the Visigoths. His policy was to be at peace with the Romans 3 therefore he treated with Honorius at Ravenna, took the Visigoths back to Gaul, and settled there just at the time of the overthrow of Constantine the Usurper (412 a.d.). Athaulf was in love with Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius. This princess was a prisoner of the Goths. Honorius forbade the marriage, as he had destined his sister for Constantius, the officer who had overthrown the usurper Constantine; but the lovers married in disregard of the em- peror's order. Constantius soon obliged Athaulf to leave Gaul and go to Spain, where he was murdered at Barcelona (415 A.D.). Constantius then married Placidia. A'ttalus II. The last king of Pergamus. He bequeathed his territory, western Asia Minor, to the Romans. A'ttila. See Huns. Aiifidus. A river of southern Italy, emptying into the Adria- tic Sea. On its border is the town of Cannae, where Hannibal annihilated the Roman army commanded by Varro (216 b.c). Aiigurs. A body of priests who interpreted the auspices. Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus). Grand- nephew of Julius Caesar, who adopted him and made him his 56 ROMAN HISTORY heir. He formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus. They defeated Brutus and Cassius, two of the mur- derers of Caesar, at Philippi, and thus confirmed the power of the Triumvirate. Octavian marched against Antony and Cleopatra, and defeated his colleague at Actium (31 b.c). (See Antonius.) Octavian annexed Egypt to the empire, and returned to Rome, and celebrated a triumph. In 27 b.c. the name of triumvir was given up, as Antony was dead and Lepidus had retired from the political field. The senate con- ferred upon Octavian the title of Augustus Imperator. Thus commenced the empire. He annexed the territory on the lower Danube, calling it Moesia; then he occupied Raetia and Noricum, the lands north of Italy as far as the Danube. His stepsons, Tiberius and Drusus, had charge of this cam- paign. The Roman dominion was extended from the Rhine to the Elbe. The Germans revolting, Lucius Varus was sent against them, but was defeated at the Teutoburg Forest. This disaster caused bitter grief to Augustus, who died in 14 a.d. His reign, called the Golden Age, was made illustrious by Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Propertius, Livy, Nepos, and Maecenas, the protector of literary men. Aur^lian. Emperor, 270-275 a.d. Although by birth a peas- ant, Aurelian was a man of ability. He succeeded Claudius Gothicus, who reigned two years and died of the plague. In the west the Tyrants had formed an empire, comprising Gaul, Britain, and part of Spain, at this time occupied by Tetricus. Aurelian saw the impossibility of keeping Trajan's conquests on the other side of the Danube, and he abandoned them to the Goths. The Alamannians invaded the valley of the Po, but Aurelian defeated them. He was forced to march against Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, for breaking the alliance with Rome, in extending her boundaries to Egypt and part of Asia Minor. Aurelian defeated and took her prisoner, and destroyed Palmyra (273 a.d.). He undertook to restore order in the west, and defeated Tetricus ; but he died before com- pleting his task. ROMAN HISTORY 67 Aur^lius, Marcus. Emperor, 161-180 a.d. He was the adopted son of Antonius Pius, whom he succeeded. The plague, brought back by the army returning from a campaign against the Parthians, broke out. The blame for this pest was attributed to the Christians, and a terrific persecution took place (177 a.d.). The greater part of the reign of Aure- lius was employed in keeping in check the Marcomanni and other small tribes. His death was sudden, and occurred at Vindabona (Vienna). Auspices. A system of divination performed by noting the flight and cries of birds. The auspices were taken by the augurs, whose interpretation of the signs determined the con- templated course of action. A'ventine. A high hill added to Rome's territory under Tar- quinius. The hill was assigned to the plebeians (see Terenti- lian Laws and Quinctius Kaeso). On it was built a temple of Diana, and a temple of Juno was erected on it after the cam- paign against the Veiians. B Barca. See Hamilcar. Battle of the Peoples (452 a.d.). The scene of this battle seems to have been south of Chalons, near Mery-sur-Seine, in the Department of Aube (France). In this battle Aetius, aided by Theodoric, gained the victory over Attila and the Huns. B^lgica. See Aquitania. Beneventum. A city of southern Italy, northeast of Naples. Here the Romans, led by M. Curius Dentatus, gained a victory over Pyrrhus (275 B.C.). Bithynia. A province in the north of Asia Minor, which became an ally of Rome under King Prusias during the Asiatic War, and was made a Roman province. To it was added the greater part of Mithradates' dominions after his defeat by Pompey. Nicomedia, its chief city, was the capital of the Eastern Empire under Diocletian. B6niface. See Aetius. 58 ROMAN HISTORY Britain. Britain was visited by Julius Caesar in 54 b.c. It was conquered and became a Roman province under Clau- dius in 43 A.D. The country fell under the government of Tetricus at the time of the Thirty Tyrants. If was reorgan- ized under Diocletian, and ruled by the usurper Constantine (408 A.D.). The Roman troops were gradually withdrawn, and the Britons, left alone, were attacked by the Scots. They implored the help of the Saxons. This marks the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon race (450 a.d.). Britannicus. Son of Claudius and Messalina. He should have reigned after the death of Claudius, but Agrippina, second wife of Claudius, persuaded him to give the throne to Nero, her son by a first marriage. Britannicus was poisoned by order of Nero. 1. Brutus, D^cimus Junius. One of the conspirators against Caesar. After Caesar's death, he assumed command in Cisal- pine Gaul, but was vanquished by Antony. 2. Brutus, Lucius Junius. A Roman patrician, who brought about the expulsion of the Tarquins and was the first consul under the Republic. 3. Bnitus, Marcus Junius. One of Caesar's murderers. After the murder he joined Cassius and fought against Antony and Octavian at Philippi. He was defeated, and killed himself (42 B.C.). Burgiindians. A barbarian people whose territory was along the Oder. They advanced on the Rhine during the reign of Honorius, and made the city of Worms their capital. Like the Alamannians and Franks, they advanced further west (443 A.D.), and were defeated by Aetius. Burrhus. Praetorian praefect under Nero; supplanted by Tigellinus. Busento. A river of southern Italy, where Alaric was buried. Byzantium. A Greek colony between the Golden Horn and the Propontis (Sea of Marmora). Constantine the Great made it the new capital of the Roman Empire, and called it Con- stantinople (328 A.D.). ROMAN HISTORY 69 Csere. An Etruscan city near Tarquinii on the western coast of Italy, where the tomb of the Tarquins was discovered. Caere was added to the Roman territory in 353 b.c. Cffisar, Gaius Julius. A young patrician suspected of having taken part in the conspiracy of Catiline. He formed the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus, and he was elected consul in 59 b.c. As proconsul he received the government of three provinces : Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum, and Transal- pine Gaul. He assisted Clodius in effecting the banishment of Cicero. In 55 b.c. the senate prolonged his command in Gaul for five years, and gave Pompey the command of Spain, and Crassus that of Syria. Caesar was victorious in his campaigns against the Helvetians (58 b.c.) and the Germans commanded by Ariovistus. He made an expedition to Britain in 54 B.C., but with no important results. In 52 b.c he had to face a formidable insurrection of the Gauls under Vercingetorix. He defeated them at the siege of Alesia and completed the conquest of Gaul. Caesar wished to become consul for the year 48. The law required candidates to be present in person, and he could not do so unless he gave up his proconsulship. The law had several times been suspended, and in Caesar's case the triumvirs had agreed to allow him to offer himself for the office without leaving his command. But Pompey was jealous of Caesar's successes, and failed to procure for Caesar the legal privilege, but took the leadership of his opponents. Caesar crossed the Rubicon (49 b.c.) and compelled Pompey to take to flight. He escaped to Thessa- lonica, accompanied by many senators, and there established a rival government. Caesar brought Spain under his authority, captured the important city of Massilia, was made dictator, and then consul in 48 b.c He regulated the finances and gave special attention to the treatment of debtors. He marched against Pompey, and was defeated at Dyrrachium, but won a decisive victory at Pharsalus in Thessaly (48 b.c). Pompey 60 ROMAN HISTORY fled to Egypt, Caesar followed him ; when he arrived at Alex- andria he found that his antagonist had been beheaded by order of Ptolemy. Caesar replaced Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt, which Ptolemy had usurped (48 b.c). Pharnaces, king of Pontus in Asia Minor, and son of Mithradates, opposed Caesar, but was quickly defeated (47 b.c). The famous words, Veni, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered), used by Caesar, picture his quick campaign against Pharnaces. Caesar was made dictator a second time ; he quelled a mutiny of the troops with remarkable ability and marched against Metellus Scipio, who led the troops of his political opponents, and defeated him at Thapsus (46 e.g.). He returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph. He was made dictator a third time. The party of Pompey, or the republican party, was dissolved ; his sons, Gnaeus and Sextus, established an independent government in Spain, but Caesar defeated them at Munda (45 B.C.). He received the title of Imperator, thus establish- ing a sort of constitutional monarchy, and ending the Republic (44 B.C.). Such a power engendered jealousy and dissatisfac- tion. A conspiracy was formed to murder Caesar and establish a republic ; he was assassinated on March 15th, 44 b.c. (See Second Civil War.) Caligula (Gaius). Emperor, 37^1 a.d. Son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and successor of Tiberius. His accession to the throne was welcomed, but the joy was of short duration. He was a whimsical, tyrannical, and bloodthirsty monarch. He was assassinated by an officer of the Praetorian Guard in 41 A.D. With him ended the list of Julian Caesars. Calpiirnius Piso. An officer of Germanicus who is suspected of having poisoned him. Camillus, Marcus Furius. The Roman dictator who captured the Etruscan city of Veii (396 b.c). To him are due the with- drawal of the Gauls after their capture of Rome (390 b.c), the reform in military tactics, and the subjugation of the neighbor- ing enemies of Rome, the Yeians, the Volscians, the Aequians, and the Etruscans. ROMAN HISTORY 61 Campania. A district of southwestern Italy, connected with Rome by the valley of the Liris. Campus Martius. A plain lying between the Capitoline Hill and the Tiber, and thus originally outside the walls. It was used as a parade ground and place of military reviews. Later, elections were held there. Cannae. A city of Apulia, on the border of the River Aufi- dus, where Hannibal destroyed the Roman army led by Varro (216 B.C.). Canuleian Law. See Twelve Tables. Capitol. The chief temple of Jupiter in Rome, built on the Capitoline Hill during the reign of the Tarquins. Capitoline. One of the seven hills and the citadel of Rome. Capreae (modern Capri). An island in the Gulf of Naples, where the emperor Tiberius passed the last years of his life. Capua. A city of ancient Campania, near the Tuscan coast, taken by the Romans during the First Samnite War, and occu- pied by Hannibal after his victory at Cannae. Caracalla (Antoninus). Emperor, 211-217 a.d. Septimius Severus was succeeded by his sons Geta and Caracalla. One year after, Caracalla murdered Geta and reigned alone. He was an able soldier, but his character was cruel and revenge- ful. He gave the citizenship to all the inhabitants of the Roman provinces in 212, and defeated the Alamannians in 213 A.D. He was murdered by Macrinus, commander of the Praetorian Guard. The gigantic baths erected by him are among the most striking monuments of Rome. Carrhae. A city of Parthia, near which the triumvir Cras- sus was defeated during his campaign against Orodes (55 b.c). Carthage. An important city on the north coast of Africa, and the greatest rival of Rome. Its ruins are near the modern city of Tunis. Carthage made a treaty with Rome in 343 b.c, very advantageous to the Latin cities. The Carthaginians were for a long time at war with Rome under Hamilcar, Has- drubal, and Hannibal. The city was finally destroyed, after a HAND. GK. & ROM. «18T. — 5 62 ROMAN HISTORY siege of three years, by the Roman general Scipio Aemilia- nus (146 B.C.). 1. Cassius, Spurius. Roman consul. The treaties made by him brought about the Triple Alliance (486 b.c), with the Latin Confederacy (a dozen independent cities) and the Hernican Confederacy, for protection against the Sabines, Volscians, and Aequians. Cassius was suspected of aiming to make himself king, and was put to death by the people (485 B.C.). He was a promoter of the Agrarian Laws, by which he advocated the idea of distributing the public lands (lands taken during wars) among the plebeians. 2. Cassius, Quintus. Tribune with Mark Antony. 3. Cassius Longinus, Gaius. One of the murderers of Julius Caesar. He became governor of Syria during the first part of Antony's administration. He killed himself on the battlefield of Philippi (42 b.c). Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina). A young patrician who conspired against the senate (63 b.c). The plot was discov- ered by Cicero, the insurgent army was defeated in Etruria, and Catiline was killed. 1. Cato, Marcus Porcius (Cato the Censor, 232-147 b.c). For many years Cato was the leading politician of Rome. He was a man of great integrity and ability, and a stern opponent of the Greek influence. He composed a number of works, among them a treatise on agriculture and the Origiyies, a treatise on Roman history. During his censorship he erected a court- house called the Basilica Porcia, between the senate house and the Capitoline. He was an uncompromising advocate of the destruction of Carthage. 2. Cato, Marcus Porcius. One of the leaders of the republi- can party in Africa. He held Utica while his associate Metel- lus Scipio commanded the army in the field. They were finally defeated by Caesar at Thapsus (46 b.c), and Cato on hearing the news killed himself. Catullus, Quintus Valerius. One of the greatest Latin lyric poets, born 87 b.c ROMAN HISTORY 63 1. Catulus, Gaius Lutatius. The consul who commanded the Roman fleet in the battle of the Aegates (241 B.C.). 2. Catulus, Gaius Lutatius. Consul with Marius, with whom he cut to pieces the Cimbri at the Raudian Fields, near Ver- cellae, in the valley of the Po (101 B.C.). (See Marius.) Caudine Forks. A narrow pass in the Apennines, near Capua, on the Tuscan seacoast, where the Roman army was captured during the Second Samnite War (321 b.c). Censorship. The office of censor. This magistrate was elected for five years. His duties were to classify the citi- zens according to their property, as a guide for the polls, the taxes, and the military service. The work took one year and a half, when the censor performed an act of purification called lustrum. The office remained vacant for the rest of the term. Centuries. Servius Tullius reformed the military service, and imposed it upon all land owners, patricians and plebeians, who were divided into five classes, and each class into a num- ber of centuries, with two equal groups, — the juniores, below forty-six years old, and the seniores, men who were above the age of active service. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. The most celebrated of Roman ora- tors, born near Arpinum in 106 b.c. After spending two years at Athens, in order to perfect his eloquence, he was made quaestor in Sicily (75 b.c) and won many lawsuits. He held the consulship in 63 b.c ; and the same year discovered and suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline. For this great deed, Cicero received the title of Father of his Country. During the First Triumvirate, the demagogue Publius Clodius, an enemy of Cicero, used his influence to carry a law which banished any person who had put to death a Roman citizen without trial. Clodius and his partisans accused Cicero of having executed those involved in Catiline's conspiracy without a regular trial, and Cicero was banished in 58 b.c He retired to Thessalonica and afterwards to Dyrrachium. About sixteen months after- wards he was recalled. During the Second Civil War he became 64 ROMAN HISTORY a partisan of Pompey, but after the battle of Pharsalus, in which he took no part, he retired from the political field. When Caesar was murdered, Cicero declared himself opposed to Antony ; he attacked him in his " Philippics " (not to be confounded with Demosthenes' Philippics) and tendered a friendly hand to the young Octavian ; but when the Second Triumvirate was formed, Antony used all his power against Cicero, and had him killed at Formiae, in southern Latium, in 43 B.C. Cimbri. German hordes who defeated the Romans at Aran- sio (105 B.C.). The Cimbri and Teutons invaded Transalpine Gaul. The Cimbri were routed by Marius and Catulus at the Raudian Fields, near Vercellae (101 b.c). The Teutons were defeated at Aquae Sextiae by Marius (102 b.c). Ciminian Forest. A mountain range of Etruria, north of Veii, where the consul Quintus Fabius defeated the Etruscans (310 B.C.). Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius. A venerable Roman, father of Kaeso Quinctius, for whom he w^as compelled to forfeit an enormous bail. This impoverished Cincinnatus, and he was obliged to retire to a little farm. Shortly after, in 458 b.c, he was made dictator in order to quell the troubles caused by the Terentilian laws. Cineas. See Pyrrhus. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius. See Marius. Cisalpine Gaul (Gaul this side of the Alps). The territory embraced in the valley of the Po, from which the Gauls expelled the Etrurians. Caesar gave to its inhabitants the rights of citizenship. (See Transalpine Gaul.) 1. Civil War. It was caused by the Sulpician laws (88 b.c), proposed by P. Sulpicius Rufus, removing the command from Sulla and giving it to Marius. Sulla marched upon Rome and was victorious. Marius escaped. This was followed by the First and Second Mithradatic wars, conducted by Sulla (88 B.C.). During his absence Cinna revolted and called Marius back, and they massacred many of their opponents. Marius ROMAN HISTORY 65 was named consul for the seventh time, but he died soon after (86 B.C.). Sulla returned, and was joined by Metellus Pius, Marcus Crassus, and Pompey. The former partisans of Marius, led by his son, continued the Civil War, and Sulla defeated them at the Colline Gate. Then Sulla started his pro- scriptions, by means of which he made way with his political enemies. 2. Civil War. This war is, in fact, the contest between Pompey and Caesar. The former had married Julia, Caesar's daughter, but she died, and enmity sprang up between the two men. At the time when Caesar was establishing the domina- tion of Rome in Gaul (52 B.C.), Pompey, finding himself alone on account of the death of Crassus, tried to attain the ascend- ency. The revolt caused by the death of Clodius, a notorious politician, was quelled by Pompey, who, although illegally, had been re-elected consul. This placed him in alliance with the senatorial party, who understood very well that Caesar was their natural enemy, and relied upon Pompey, whose command in Spain was continued for five years (50 b.c). Caesar desired the consulship for the next year. The law required the candidate to appear in person. As Caesar would have been obliged to give up his proconsular command to present himself, the triumvirs had agreed on previous occa- sions that he could offer himself as candidate without leaving his province. On this occasion Pompey asserted that such a privilege was illegal. In 49 b.c. the senate ordered Caesar to give up his command; he declared himself the champion of the constitution, put his army in motion, and crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, taken by surprise, without an army, took refuge in Thessalonica, where he established the seat of a new government. Caesar obtained the consulship and the dictatorship, and then turned his attention to Pompey. He finally defeated him at Pharsalus. Pompey escaped to Egypt, and was beheaded (48 b.c). (See Julius Caesar.) 1. Claudius. Emperor, 41-54 a.d. Claudius was a brother of Oermanicus, and was proclaimed emperor after the death 66 ROMAN HISTORY of Caligula. His character was weak, but his reign was bene- ficial to the country. He built a new harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, repaired the aqueducts, and conquered the southern part of England. Unfortunately, he was led "by two wicked women, — his first wife, Messalina, and his niece, Agrippina, whom he married after Messalina's death. Claudius died, poisoned by Agrippina, who wanted the throne for Nero, her son by a previous marriage. 2. Claudius, A'ppius. A member of the Decemvirate (450 B.C.). By his tyranny he caused the downfall of the decemvirs. 3. Claudius, A'ppius (Caecus). Censor, 310 b.c. Under his administration the Appian Aqueduct was constructed, and the Appian Way, a military road from Rome to Capua, was opened. 4. Claiidius G6thicus. The first lllyrian emperor (268-270 A.D.), succeeded by Aurelian ; his reign was unimportant. He died of the plague. 5. Claudius, Publius. Roman consul, defeated by the Cartha- ginians at the naval battle of Drepana, in the First Punic War (243 b.c). 6. Claiidius Niro, Gaius. A Roman consul who won the vic- tory at the Metaurus, where Hasdrubal was killed (207 b.c). Cleopatra. Queen of Egypt, restored to her throne by Julius Caesar (47 b.c), who would undoubtedly have married her had the senate sanctioned the passage of a law permitting it. When Mark Antony received the government of the East, he joined Cleopatra. She killed herself shortly after the defeat of Antony at Actium (31 b.c). Clients. Serfs of the gens ; free, but without legal or polit- ical rights. Each client was represented by a patrician head of a family, called his patron. Cloaca Maxima. The great sewer of Rome, constructed under the Tarquins. Clovis. See Franks. Cliisium. The chief city of Etruria. Its king, Porsena, attacked Rome for the purpose of establishing the Tarquins ROMAN HISTORY 67 on the throne, and was at first victorious, but was defeated at Lake Kegillus. Coelian Hill. One of the hills of Eome, upon which Tullus Hostilius settled the conquered inhabitants of Alba Longa. C611ine Gate. See Sulla. Colosseum. The immense amphitheater of Rome, begun under Vespasian, finished by Titus, and dedicated in 80 a.d. Comitia Centuriata. An assembly composed of all citizens, patricians and plebeians, for voting upon questions of public interest. Comitia Curiata. An assembly composed of the citizens bear- ing arms, who voted by curies. Each curia voted by itself, and the majority of the curies decided the question. Comitia Tribiita. An assembly composed of patricians, who elected the consuls. Comitium. An inclosed space near the Forum, used for public assemblies. Commercium. The right given to plebeians to hold property. C6mmodus. Emperor, 180-193 a.d. He succeeded his father Marcus Aurelius. He was entirely unfit to reign and was finally murdered. C6nstans. Son of Constantine the Great. He had a share in the government after his father's death, but died within a few years (350 a.d.). 1. Constantine the Great. He was proclaimed emperor on the death of his father Constantius Chlorus (306 a.d.), but was opposed by Maximian and Maxentius. The former was put to death by Constantine in 310 a.d., Maxentius was defeated at the battle of the Mulvian Bridge, and Constantine became sole emperor of the West. Licinius, who married Constan- tine's sister, governed the East. War broke out between them, Licinius was defeated and killed in his prison, and Constantine remained sole emperor (323 a.d.). He adopted Christianity as the state religion and took the title of Pontifex Maximus. In 325 A.D. he presided at the Council of Nicaea. Shortly after, he put his own son Crispus to death, prompted to do so, 68 ROMAN HISTORY it is supposed, by Fausta, his second wife, who wanted to be sure of the throne for her two sons. Constantine divided the empire into four praefectures : Gaul, Italy, Illyricum, and the East; these were governed by praetorian praefects, directly under the command of the emperor. Constantine transferred the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which he named Con- stantinople (328 A.D.). He died in 337 a.d., leaving his empire to his three sons, Constans, Constantine, and Constantius^ joining with them in the government their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, who were soon murdered. 2. C6nstantine. Son of Constantine the Great. 3. C6nstantine the Usurper. A common soldier, made em- peror by the troops of Britain, who were dissatisfied with Honorius (407 a.d.). For four years he ruled Britain and Gaul, and induced the Vandals to pass into Spain. He was overthrown by Constantius, when Athaulf settled in Gaul (312 A.D.). 1. Constantius Chlorus. Western Caesar under Diocletian, whom he succeeded ; father of Constantine the Great. 2. Constantius. Emperor, 337-360 a.d. Son of Constantine the Great. He reigned alone after the death of his two brothers and the murder of his two cousins. He divided the government with Julian, who was the real ruler. 3. Constantius. A favorite officer of Honorius, who overthrew Constantine the Usurper (412 a.d.). He married Placidia, sister of Honorius, after having been the instrument of her first hus- band's death. (See Athaulf.) Constantine was the father of Valentinian III. C6nsul. The chief magistrate of Rome. He was elected for one year and had the power of a king, subject to the right of appeal to the people in criminal cases. During his term of office the consul wore the purple robe and used the curule chair; he was preceded by the lictors with their axes and bundles of rods (fasces). Coniibium. The right given to the plebeians to intermarry with the patricians. ROMAN HISTORY 69 C6rinth. A city of Greece on the gulf of the same name. Flamininus, the victor of Cynoscephalae, convened at Corinth a congress of the Greek states and declared Greece free from Macedonian rule. (See Achaean League.) Corinth was de- stroyed by order of the Roman senate in 146 B.C. Cornelius. The gentile name of Cinna, Sulla, and the Scipios. Crassus, Marcus Licinius. A wealthy Roman, who acquired his fortune by buying the confiscated property of the victims of Sulla's proscriptions. He subdued the insurrection of Spartacus. He was elected consul with Pompey (70 b.c), and with the latter overthrew the principal part of Sulla's consti- tution. In 60 B.C., at the time of the First Triumvirate, Crassus received the government of Syria. He was killed near Carrhae, in Parthia, during the revolution led by Orodes (55 B.C.). Crispus. See 1. Constantino. Ciiria. The name given to the municipal senate in the last years of the empire. It was composed of rich citizens called curiales. Ciirius Dentatus, Manius. The Roman consul who ended the war with the Samnites (290 B.C.), and subdued the Sabines. During his censorship, the second Roman aqueduct was built. He also won the battle of Beneventum against Pyrrhus (275 B.C.). Cynosc^phalae. A range of hills in Thessaly, where Flami- ninus won a victory over Philip V. of Macedon (197 B.C.). Dacia. The territory north of the Danube. It became a Roman province under Trajan ; was abandoned to the Goths by Aurelian; and was occupied by the Ostrogoths after the death of Attila. Danube. See Augustus, Aurelian, and Visigoths. Dec6mvirate. A commission of ten patricians, called decern- viri, elected for one year to codify the laws of Rome on the model of those of Athens. The work not being completed the 70 ROMAN HISTORY first year, a second decern virate was formed, three members being plebeians. Their work was known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables. The decemvirs had control of the govern- ment, and when the year was over they refused to resign their office. They were compelled to abdicate and were put to death (451-448 b.c). 1. D6cius. Emperor, 249-251 a.d. He persecuted the Chris- tians and was killed in battle against the Goths. 2. Dicius Mus, Piiblius. A Roman consul who sacrificed his life in order to assure the victory of his troops at Sentinum, in the Third Samnite War (295 B.C.). Delators. These informers were specially active under the emperor Tiberius, and the delatio became a way of pursuing private enmities. The system was at its height under Domi- tian. Dentatus. See Curius. Dictator. A patrician magistrate, appointed for six months by the consul in case of public danger. Didius Julianus. A senator who offered to buy the throne left vacant by the murder of Pertinax, promising to renew the licentiousness of the reign of Commodus. He was condemned to death by the senate when Septimius Severus was recognized as emperor (193 a.d.). Diocletian. Emperor, 284-305 a.d. The impracticability of governing alone the extensive empire composed of mixed nationalities was very apparent, and Diocletian divided the administration with a colleague called " Augustus," reserving for himself the East, with his capital at Nicomedia, and giving his associate Maximian the West, with his capital at Milan. After a time each " Augustus " had an associate called *' Caesar," who succeeded him. Diocletian reorganized the army and removed the military command from the governors of the provinces, giving it to officers. Under his administra- tion the land tax, heretofore paid only by the Italian provinces, but not by Italy proper, was enforced on all. Under Diocle- tian a persecution of the Christians, ordered by him, took ROMAN HISTORY 71 place (303 a.d.). He abdicated witli Maximinian in 305 a.d., leaving the empire in the hands of Galerius in the East, and Constantius Chlorus in the West. Domitian. Emperor, 81-96 a.d. The sixth Flavian emperor, and brother of Titus, whom he succeeded. His character was cruel and tyrannical. He renewed the delations of Tiberius. (See Delators.) He regulated the question of the German frontier by building fortified posts. Drepana. A city on the western coast of Sicily, where the Romans lost a naval battle against the Carthaginians in the First Punic War (249 B.C.). 1. Dnisus. Stepson of Augustus. By his campaigns on the Danube he contributed to the extension of the Roman dominions in that section, organizing it as the provinces of Raetia and Noricum. He died in 9 b.c. while engaged in extending the empire east of the Rhine. 2. Dnisus. Son of Tiberius, murdered by order of Sejanus. 3. Dnisus, Marcus Livius. See Italian Question. Duilius, Gaius. The Roman commander in the battle of Mylae (260 e.g.). He was rewarded for his victory by the erection of a column in his honor, adorned with the beaks of captured vessels (coliimria rostrata). Dyrrachium. A city on the coast of Illyricum, where Caesar sustained a defeat from the hands of Pompey's adherents just before Pharsalus. £ East Goths. See Goths. Egypt. Under the rule of the Ptolemies, Egypt was an ally of Rome. It became a Roman province under Augustus, after the battle of Actium and the death of Cleopatra. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, attempted to include it in her dominions, but was defeated by Aurelian. Elagabalus. Emperor, 218-222 a.d. A cousin of Caracalla, and priest of the sun-god Elagabalus in Syria. His mother called him Antoninus and passed him for a son of Caracalla. 72 ROMAN HISTORY He defeated Macrinus, killed him, and was recognized as emperor. He was one of the most corrupt and vicious of the Roman emperors, and was murdered after a reign of four years. E'nnius, Quintus. A distinguished poet who lived about 220 B.C., the author of satires, dramas, and epic poems. E'rcte. A mountain near Panormos in northern Sicily, where the Romans were defeated by Hamilcar (247 e.g.). E'squiline. The highest of the hills of Rome. Etruria (modern Tuscany). The territory between the Arno and the Tiber, in northwestern Italy. From it came the dynasty of the Tarquins, the last kings of Rome. Its chief towns were Clusium, Veii, and Yolsinii, all bitter enemies of Rome. Their power declined with the growth of Rome and especially after the capture of Veii. (See Clusium, Regillus, Veii, Camillus, Ciminian Forest, Third Samnite War, Sentinum.) Etruria was invaded by Hannibal in 217 b.c. Eud6xia. Widow of Yalentinian III. She refused the hand of Maximus, her husband's murderer, called Gaiseric to aid her, and thus caused the sack of Rome (455 a.d.). Eiimenes. King of Pergamus. He helped the Romans in the Asiatic War (190 b.c). In the Macedonian campaign he remained neutral. Euphrates. A river of Asia Minor, the frontier of Mithra- dates' empire. Eiiric. King of the Visigoths, after Ricimer. He enlarged his territory over the region between the Rhone and the Loire, then took from Odovacar the lands between the Rhone and the Alps. His capital was at Aries. On the other side of the Pyrenees he conquered nearly all Spain (475-480 a.d.). F Fabian Gens. An important patrician gens, numbering about three hundred, who undertook, with their own resources, a war against Veii, about 478 B.C. ROMAN HISTORY 73 1. Fabius Maximus, Quintus. The Roman consul who defeated the Etruscans at the Ciminian Forest (310 b.c), and the Sam- nites at Sentinum (295 e.g.). 2. Fabius Maximus, Quintus. A Roman dictator, grandson of 1. Fabius, surnamed Cunctator (the Delayer), as he always avoided pitched battles with Hannibal, but harassed him with his system of ambuscades and short engagements (217 e.g.). Fabricius, Gaius. A statesman and diplomatist, a contem- porary of Curius Dentatus. He distinguished himself in the wars against Pyrrhus. Fasces The bundle of rods carried by the lictor. Faiista. Wife of Constantine the G-reat. Fetiales. Heralds who performed the ceremonies connected with the declaration of war. Fidenae. An Etruscan town, the outpost of Yeii, on the left bank of the Tiber, captured by the Romans in 426 e.g. Flamininus, Titus Quinctius. The consul who won the battle of Cynoscephalae against Philip V. of Macedon. Flaminius, Gaius. A tribune who put into effect an Agrarian Law by which the lands of the Gauls were distributed among Roman citizens. He was killed at the battle of Lake Trasi- menus (217 e.g.). FoBderati. Allies of Rome, who were given lands within the boundaries of the empire, but were recognized as independent nations, under certain treaty provisions. Forum. The market place in the valley between the Pala- tine and Quirinal Hills. In it the praetors held court until Cato urged the building of the Basilica Porcia (184 e.g.). In time the Forum ceased to be a market place, and became the center of the commercial and social life of Rome. The Rostra, or speaker's stand, was moved from the Comitium to the Forum. Franks. An association of Germanic tribes who made their appearance at about the same time as the Alamannians (220-240 A.D.) and settled on the lower Rhine. During the reign of Gallienus, they crossed Gaul and entered Spain. 74 ROMAN HISTORY They joined the Alamannians and were defeated by Julius at Strassburg (357 a.d.). They settled in the west of the empire. At the Battle of the Peoples, the Eipuarian Franks (from the Ehine) joined Attila, but the Salian Franks (from the Nether- lands) sided with the Romans. The power of the Franks was finally established under Clovis (481 a.d.), who ended the Roman power in Gaul by the overthrow of Syagrius, son of Aegidius. Furius. See Camillus. Gabii. A city belonging to the Volscian territory on the Tuscan Sea, added to the Ager Romanus under Tarquinius. Gaiseric or Genseric (428-477 a.d.). King of the Vandals, summoned from Spain into Africa by Boniface. lie was then summoned to Rome by Eudoxia, and took and plundered the city. He was defeated in a naval battle off the coast of Corsica by Ricimer, and held in check by Majorian, the suc- cessor of Maximus. Gaiseric became master of the western part of the Mediterranean and the islands of northern Africa. After his death (477 a.d.) his empire lost its importance. Gaius. The official title of the emperor Caligula. (See Caligula.) Galba. Governor of Spain under Nero. He proclaimed himself emperor on account of Nero's neglect of the empire, and especially the insurrection of Vindex in Gaul. Galba succeeded Nero in 6S a.d., but was soon murdered by the praetorians. Galerius. Diocletian's successor in the East (305-306 a.d.). Gallienus. Emperor, 260-268 a.d. He succeeded his father, the emperor Valerian, at a critical period. His empire was attacked on all sides, by the Germans, Franks, Persians, and Goths. Gallienus formed an alliance with Odenatus, king of Palmyra, who defended the frontier against Sapor of Persia. Odonatus was murdered (237 a.d.), and his widow, Zenobia, succeeded him. Gallienus was murdered in 268 a.d. ROMAN HISTORY 75 Gauls. An intruding nation of Celtic race, crossed the Alps during the fourth century e.g., took possession of the valley of the Po, and expelled the Etruscans. Their territory was called Cisalpine Gaul. In 390 b.c. they attacked Clusium, an ally of Rome, defeated the Romans at the battle of the Allia, and captured Rome. They helped the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Samnites in their wars against the Romans, They were finally subdued by Caesar (52-50 b.c). (See Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul.) Gens. The name given to family groups, or clans. Each clan was composed of several families under the authority of the paterfamilias, who was invested with full power over his wife and children. The members were called patricians. Germanicus. The adopted son of the emperor Tiberius. His father was Drusus, the general of Augustus. He married Agrippina, the granddaughter of Augustus, became governor of Gaul and Germany, and was given the government of the East. He died suddenly. Piso, his first officer, was suspected of having poisoned him (19 a.d.). Germans. German tribes, the Cimbri and Teutons, invaded Italy, and were at first victorious, but they were repulsed by Marius and Catulus at Aquae Sextiae and at the Raudian Fields, near Yercellae. An unsuccessful insurrection of Mar- comani, or German frontiersmen, took place in 180 a.d. Under Gallienus they traversed Gaul, crossed the Pyrenees, and entered Spain, pillaging the country. Aurelian built walls or advanced forts to keep them in check. Julian defeated them at Strassburg (357 a.d.). " Germans " is a general term for Franks, Alamannians, Vandals, Goths, and Visigoths. They succeeded in settling all over the empire. (See Alaric, Athaulf, Gaiseric, Rhadagais, and Stilicho.) Geta. Emperor, 211-212 a.d. Brother of Caracalla, who reigned with him, but was murdered by him after one year. Goths. Hordes of barbarians who invaded Dacia under Aurelian. They may be divided into two branches : Ostro- goths or East Goths, and Visigoths or West Goths. Forced by 76 ROMAN HISTORY the Huns to leave their province, they asked the Romans for shelter, and Valens gave them the Balkan peninsula. The treachery of the Roman praefects caused a revolt of the Goths, who defeated and killed Valens at Adrianople (378 a.d.). Theodosius pacified them ; he gave the Visigoths Dacia, south of the Danube ; Phrygia in Asia Minor was assigned to the Ostrogoths. They were considered allies or foederati. In 395 A.D., Alaric was king of the Visigoths ; he invaded Greece and gradually made his way into Italy, where he was defeated at Pollentia and Verona by Stilicho. Athaulf, brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded him ; he treated with Honorius, brought back the Goths to Gaul, but was forced to go to Spain by order of Constantius (first officer of Honorius), and was mur- dered shortly afterward. (See Athaulf.) Wallia, his brother, brought the Visigoths back to Gaul; they became foederati^ were given land in the south of Gaul, and soon extended their dominion into Spain. 1. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius. Tribune of the Plebs (187 B.C.). While tribune, he defended the Scipios against their assailants, and afterwards married Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus. He became praetor, governor of Spain, consul, and censor. 2. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempr6nius. Son of 1. Gracchus and Cornelia. Gracchus served in the army and showed great courage at the siege of Numantia in Spain. Upon his return to Rome he wished to revive the Licinian Laws, which were no longer enforced, and thus relieve the poor classes. He slightly altered the laws, and, as tribune, forced the passage of the bill. This exasperated the patricians, and he was killed (133 B.C.). 3. Gracchus, Gaius. Brother of 2. Gracchus. His aim was to overthrow the nobility and reform the senate. He also attempted to enforce his brother's laws, and amplified them. As the public lands in Italy were almost all occupied, he offered to establish colonies in the provinces, and founded one on the ruins of Carthage, called Junonia. At the next election for ROMAN HISTORY 77 tribune he was defeated. The next year Gracchus and his followers were attacked and defeated by the consul Lucius Opimius on the Aventine, and Gracchus was killed (121 b.c). Gratian. Emperor, 375-383 a.d. Son of Yalentinian I., emperor of the West. He was a good prince and an orthodox Christian. In 376 a.d. he promulgated a law forbidding all heretic sects to exercise their religion. Gratian was the first Roman emperor who laid aside the title of Pontifex Maximus. He was murdered, and was succeeded by Theodosius. Great Mother. Cybele, the mother of the gods, was brought from Phrygia to Rome, as prescribed by the Sibylline Books, to save Italy from Hannibal's invasion. Hadrian. Emperor, 117-138 a.d., successor of Trajan. Hadrian concentrated his efforts on strengthening the Roman power, and on its internal development. He built a line of fortifications from the Tyne to the Solway, near the modern frontier of England and Scotland. Hamilcar Barca. A celebrated Carthaginian general in the Punic Wars, and father of Hannibal. Hamilcar defeated the Romans at Mount Ercte near Panormos, Sicily, and died during his campaign in Spain (228 b.c). Hannibal. Son of Hamilcar Barca. He defeated the Romans commanded by the consuls Publius Scipio and Sempronius at Placentia in the valley of the Po, at the river Ticinus, and at the Trebia, in 218 b.c. Hannibal invaded Etruria (217 b.c), and defeated Flaminius at Lake Trasimenus, and the consul Varro at Cannae (216 b.c). After the latter victory he retired with his army to Capua. Hannibal was now at the height of his glory. The city of Tarentum was won over by the Cartha- ginians through treachery (213 b.c). Through Hannibal's policy the Romans were drawn into the First Macedonian War against Philip V. The Romans regained Syracuse, which had embraced the Carthaginian cause, after the death of King HAND. GK. & ROM. HIST. 6 78 ROMAN HISTORY Hiero, and recaptured Capua and Tarentum. Hasdrubal, Han- nibal's brother, was defeated and killed in the battle of the Metaurus against the Eoman consuls Gains Nero and Marcus Livius (207 b.c). Hannibal himself was finally defeated at Zama by Scipio Africanus (202 b.c). Hannibal returned home, attended to the financial affairs of Carthage, and, fearing that he might be taken by the Romans, retired to Syria, where he staid at the court of Antiochus until the defeat of his host by the Romans at Magnesia. Then he took refuge at the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. He poisoned himself to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans (183 b.c). Hasdrubal. Brother of Hannibal. He fought the Romans in Spain and was defeated by Publius Scipio, son of the consul who was wounded at the river Ticinus. Hasdrubal crossed the Pyrenees to help Hannibal in Italy. He was defeated and killed in the battle of the Metaurus (207 b.c). Helvetians. The inhabitants of Helvetia, modern Switzer- land, whom Caesar defeated in 58 b.c, thus hindering them from settling in southwestern Gaul. Heraclea. A city on the Gulf of Tarentum, the site of the first victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans (280 b.c). Herculaneum. A city of southern Italy, destroyed, with Pompeii, by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 a.d. Among the victims was Pliny the Elder, the naturalist. The ruins were found in 1755. Herd6nius, A'ppius. A Sabine nobleman who, with a band of followers, took possession of the citadel of Rome (460 b.c). This act was occasioned by the dissatisfaction caused by the Terentilian Laws. Herdonius perished with his party. Hiero. King of Syracuse, and ally of Rome at the time of the revolt of the Mamertines. He died in 215 b.c ; his successor sided with the Carthaginians. (See Mamertines, Hannibal.) Hon6res. The right given the plebeians to hold magistracies. (See Licinian Laws.) Hon6rius. Son of Theodosius and emperor of the West (395- 423 A.D.). During his reign great barbarian invasions took ROMAN HISTORY 79 place. Alaric, leading the Visigoths of the Danube, invaded Greece. Rufinus was hostile to Stilicho, the minister of Honorius, and advised Alaric to march into Italy, where Stilicho defeated him at Pollentia and Verona (402-403 a.d.), and compelled him to leave Italy. The Vandal invasion of Gaul was caused by the dissatisfaction of the army of Britain, who chose as emperor Constantine the Usurper, and he received the government of Britain and Gaul. He induced the Vandals to go to Spain and Portugal. The enemies of Stilicho prevailed upon Honorius to have him beheaded in 408 at Ravenna. In 408 A.D. Alaric again invaded Italy, and appeared at the gates of Rome and captured it by famine. The next year Alaric again took the city and pillaged it (409-410 a.d.). Constantine was overthrown by Constantius, who married Honorius' sister Placidia. (See Athaulf.) Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus). A famous Latin poet of the Augustan age (64-7 b.c). Hortensian Laws. The dictator Quintus Hortensius proposed these laws, giving the plebeian assembly the power to pass laws valid for all citizens. This was a step toward relieving the condition of the peasants, who suffered greatly from prolonged wars. Huns. Barbarians of the Tartar race who invaded the Goths' dominions in 376 a.d. (see Goths), and forced them to ask shelter on Roman territory. Valens assigned to them a part of the Balkan peninsula. The governors of that province were dishonest, the supplies promised were not given, and the Goths revolted and killed Valens at Adrianople. The Huns, led by Attila, reappeared in large numbers about 444 a.d. ; they crossed the Rhine, entered Gaul as far as the Loire, and attacked Orleans; but Aetius and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, forced them to retreat, and they were completely defeated at the Battle of the Peoples (451 a.d.). The Huns returned the next year by way of the Julian Alps, invaded Italy, and destroyed Aquileia. Attila established his residence at Milan, and died there in 453 a.d. 80 ROMAN HISTORY Iberians. A people of ancient Spain. They joined the Carthaginian armies. They occupied Aquitania or southern Gaul and were the ancestors of the Basques. Illyricum (modern lUyria). The region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Rome made war on its pirates. During the Macedonian Wars it was made a Roman province. Caesar governed it together with Cisalpine Gaul. Italian Question. The Italian allies claimed the right of citizenship, but were refused, and an insurrection ensued. The tribune Drusus and the orator Crassus supported the cause of the Italians, but Crassus died suddenly and Drusus was assassi- nated. The insurrection went on. The Italian allies, wishing to found a new capital instead of Rome, selected Corfinium in the center of the peninsula; this was the beginning of the Social War. Of course, the Roman armies, led by Metellus Pius and other experienced chiefs, were too well drilled for the Confederacy, which was defeated after a struggle of two years. What should have been done at the beginning was done at the end. The Julian law, proposed by the consul Lucius Caesar, gave citizenship to all who had remained loyal (90 B.C.), and the Papirian law gave the same privi- lege to those who promised allegiance. The emperor Cara- calla granted the right demanded in 212 a.d. Janiculum. A hill belonging to Rome's territory and a protection against Etruscan invasions. It was joined to Rome by the Sublician Bridge. Jerusalem. Jerusalem was conquered by Pompey in 64 b.c, and was destroyed by Titus in 70 a.d. The Jews revolted again during the reign of Hadrian (132 a.d.), and a Roman colony called Aelia Capitolina was established on the ruins of Jerusalem. ROMAN HISTORY 81 J6vian. Emperor, 363-364 a.d., successor of Julian. His reign of one year was uneventful. Jugiirtha. King of Numidia, grandson of Masinissa. Jugur- tha obtained the throne by murdering his cousins. The Romans wished to punish him and war was declared in 112 B.C. For three years nothing was done on account of corruption among the Roman chiefs, but in 109 b.c. the com- mand was given to Quintus Caecilius Metellus, and some progress was made. A young officer of Metellus, Gains Marius, was made consul and received the command instead of Metellus (107 B.C.). The next year Jugurtha was made prisoner by Sulla, an officer of Marius' army, and was taken to Rome and executed. Julian. Emperor, 360-363 a.d. He was the cousin of Con- stantius II., who chose him for his "Caesar." He was able and energetic, and restored order in the Western provinces which he governed. He repulsed an invasion of the Alaman- nians and defeated them at Strassburg (357 a.d.). He is known as Julian the Apostate because he reestablished pagan- ism. He ordered no persecution, but simply did all he could to discourage the Christian religion among his subjects. He undertook a campaign against Sapor II. of Persia, crossed the Euphrates, opened a canal to the Tigris, and routed Sapor's army (363 a.d.). Julian was killed on the return, and Jovian, his first officer, succeeded him. Julian Law. This law gave the citizenship to the Italian allies who remained loyal during the Social War. (See Italian Question.) Julius Caesar. See Caesar. Junonia. A city founded by C. Gracchus on the ruins of Carthage (122 b.c). It became a Roman colony. Jus auxilia. The power given to the tribunes to protect debtors and citizens against the undue severity of the consul or the quaestor. Jus exili. The right given to the Latin colonies to coin money and give shelter to Roman exiles. 82 ROMAN HISTORY Jus imaginum. An act which allowed a consul to place in his house waxen masks of his ancestors as tokens of nobility. Juvenal. A Roman satirist of the Silver Age, or reign of Trajan. Latin Colonies. Military posts, such as the posts on the Volscian frontier, established by the allied powers for protec- tion. A Roman who took up his residence in a colony lost his Roman citizenship. Latin Confederacy. See Latium. Latin War. See Latium. Latins. One of two principal races of Italy occupying the territory south of the Tiber. Rome was a Latin city. Latium. The plain south of Tiber, between the Apennines and the sea, now known as Campagna. It became the strong- hold of the Latin Confederacy, and its chief city. Alba Longa, was taken by Rome. Between the First and Second Samnite Wars, the Confederacy became jealous of Rome and rebelled. This uprising is known as the Latin War. It ended with the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the enlargement of Rome's territory in 338 b.c. Lipidus, Marcus -ffimilius. Caesar's master of the horse (second in command to the dictator). He was a member of the Second Triumvirate, but being incompetent he gradually disappeared from the political scene. Licinian Laws. They were enacted by the tribune Gains Licinius Stolo (367 b.c.) to protect the plebeians, and were formulated as follows : 1st. One of the two consuls must be a plebeian. 2d. The board of magistrates having charge of the Sibylline Books must be composed of patricians and plebeians. 3d. The interest paid by debtors was to be deducted from the principal, the balance to be paid in three years. 4th. It gave the plebeians the use of the public lands, but they were not allowed to occupy more than 250 acres. ROMAN HISTORY 83 5tli. The public pasture was restricted to 100 heads of large cattle, and 500 heads of small cattle, such as sheep. 6th. A limited number of slaves was allowed in the work- ing of large estates, but the rest of the labor was to be done by free artisans. Licinius. A Dacian peasant, proclaimed governor of the West by the emperor Galerius in 307 a.d. He became emperor of the East with Maximin, while Constantine governed the West (311 A.D.). Maximin was defeated by Licinius at Adrianople and died in 313 a.d. Licinius murdered the fami- lies of all his opponents and became sole emperor of the East. He married Constantine's sister. A war with Constantine fol- lowed, which was ended by a treaty of peace ; but in a second war Licinius fell into the hands of his brother-in-law, who had him strangled in prison (314 a.d.). Licinius Crassus. See Crassus. Licinius Lucullus. See LucuUus. Lictor. A Eoman officer who preceded the consul. His badge of office was the fasces. Lilybseum. A Carthaginian town of western Sicily. It was attacked by the Romans during the First Punic War (249 B.C.). Livy (Titus Livius). A Latin historian of the Augustan age (59 B.C.-19 A.D.). Lucania. A region of southern Italy between the Tuscan Sea and the Gulf of Tarentum. The Lucanians remained faithful to Rome during the Third Samnite War. Liiceres. One of the three original Roman tribes. (See Ramnes and Titles.) Lucretius Carus, Titus. One of the greatest Latin poets (about 99-55 e.g.). Lucullus, Lucius Licinius. A typical Roman nobleman, rich and luxurious. He was brave and skillful in war, but too arrogant to gain his soldiers' confidence. He commanded against Mithradates (74 b.c). Lutatius Catulus. See Catulus. 84 ROMAN HISTORY M Macedonian Wars. The First War (213 b.c.) was brief and without importance. It arose because Hannibal made a treaty with Philip V. of Macedon, and the Romans had to protect their rights. The Second War was simply a renewal of the first, as the Romans were anxious to extend their dominions in the East. Philip V. was the ally of Antiochus the Great of Syria, and the Achaeans and Aetolians sided with Rome. Before the conflict, Antiochus deserted Philip, who was defeated by Flamininus at Cynoscephalae (197 b.c). Greece was declared independent and free from Macedonian rule. Philip signed the peace. In 179 b.c. Philip died, leaving the throne to his son Perseus, who declared himself against Rome. The Rhodians, former allies of Rome, remained neutral. Eumenes, also a friend of the Romans, gave no support. Hostilities were renewed in the Third War (172 b.c). The Romans, led by Aemilius Paulus, defeated Perseus at Pydna, and took him prisoner (168 b.c). Macedon was divided into four provinces under Rome's protectorate. In 146 b.c it became a Roman province after an insurrection led by an impostor who passed himself for a son of Perseus. Macrinus. Commander of the praetorian guard, who mur- dered Caracalla (217 a.d.) and took the throne. He reigned less than one year, and was defeated and killed by Elagabalus, cousin of Caracalla. Maecenas, Gains Cilnius. A counselor of Augustus. He took no active part in politics, but protected arts and letters, and became the patron of Horace and Vergil. He died 9 a.d. Magna Graecia. The Greeks established colonies in the south and west of Italy as early as the eighth century b.c The colonies were rich and prosperous and the region was called Great Greece. The chief city was Tarentum. Magnesia. A city in western Asia Minor where the Romans, commanded by Lucius Scipio Asiaticus, defeated Antiochus in 190 B.C. (See Asiatic War.) KOMAN HISTORY 85 Maj6rian. One of the emperors of the West. He made a firm stand against the Vandals (457-461 a.d.). He was put to death through the influence of Count Ricimer. Aegidius was his military governor in Gaul. Mamertines. A body of Campanians forming a part of the mercenary troops of Hiero, king of Syracuse. They revolted in 271 B.C. and took the city of Messana, although the Syra- cusans and Carthaginians tried to protect it. The Mamertines asked help of Rome, which Rome granted, and thus brought about the Punic Wars. Hiero signed an alliance with Rome in 264 B.C. 1. Manlius, Marcus. A Roman who defended the capitol against the Gauls (390 B.C.). It is said that the soldiers guard- ing the capitol were awakened by the cackling of the sacred geese kept for the worship of Juno. 2. Manlius, Marcus. A leader of the rebel forces at the time of Catiline's conspiracy (63 b.c). Marcellus, Claudius. Leader of the Roman forces at the siege of Syracuse and captor of the city (212 b.c). Marcomani. Powerful tribes whose territory was Bohemia and Bavaria. They were allies of the Romans during the reign of Augustus, but under Marcus Aurelius they became hostile and advanced upon the Adriatic coast as far as Aquileia. Marcus Aurelius. See Aurelius. 1. Marius, Gaius. A peasant of Arpinum in Latium. He was an officer in the army of Metellus in the expedition against Jugurtha. He was made consul and given the com- mand instead of Metellus. The war ended with the defeat and imprisonment of Jugurtha. Marius defeated the German hordes, the Teutons, at Aquae Sextiae in 102 b.c. The next year, with his colleague, the consul Catulus, he defeated the Oimbri at the Raudian Pields near Yercellae. He reorganized the army. Marius was an uneducated man and was led by unscrupulous men like the tribune Saturninus and the praetor Glaucia; he was elected consul for the sixth time, and the three men attempted to control the government of Rome. 86 ROMAN HISTORY The nobility took arms and defeated the reformers at a battle in the Forum; Saturninus and Glancia were murdered, and Marius fell into disgrace. The Mithradatic war broke out, and the chief command was given to the consul Sulla. The attempt of Sulpicius and the popular party to give Marius the command brought about civil war. Sulla marched upon Rome and defeated his opponents. Marius escaped and took refuge in the marshes of Minturnae on the coast of Latium, south of Rome ; from there he went to the ruins of Carthage (88 b.c). In 87 B.C. a rupture took place between the two consuls, Octavius and Cinna, who were of opposite parties, and Cinna was defeated in a battle in the Forum. He rallied his forces, called Marius to his aid, and they entered Rome as victors. They then inaugurated a massacre which lasted five days, during which time the enemies of Marius perished in large numbers, among them Catulus, his old colleague of the Cimbric war. The next year (86 b.c.) Marius was made consul for the seventh time, and died shortly after. 2. Marius, Gaius. Son of the above. (See Sulla.) Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis). A brilliant Latin writer of epigram (40-102 a.d.). Masinissa. King of Numidia. He helped the Romans against the Carthaginians at Zama (202 b.c). He caused the Third Punic War by picking a quarrel with Carthage (152 b.c), and died three years after. Massilia (modern Marseilles). A Greek city of southern Gaul at the mouth of the Rhone. It was captured by Caesar in 49 B.C., but remained a free republic, nominally under the jurisdiction of Rome. Max^ntius. See Constantine. Maximian. Emperor of the West while Diocletian governed the East. He abdicated, but appeared in politics again and was murdered by Constantine (310 a.d.). 1. Maximin. Emperor, 235-238 a.d. He succeeded Alex- ander Severus, whom he had murdered. He killed himself in 238 A.D. ROMAN HISTORY 87 2. Maximin. Emperor of the East with Licinius (311 a.d.). He was defeated by Licinius at Adrianople in 313 a.d., and died the same year. Maximus. The murderer of Valentinian III., whom he suc- ceeded as emperor in 455 a.d. He wished to marry Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow; she refused, and summoned Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, who took and plundered Rome. Maxi- mus was deposed the following year and was succeeded by Majorian. Mazdeism. The religion of Zoroaster, the early faith of Persia. It recognized a continual contest in the government of the world between Ormuzd, the good god, and Ahriman, the wicked. Mediolanum (modern Milan). A city of northern Italy and capital of the Western Empire under Diocletian. When Ravenna was made the capital, Milan was chosen as the mili- tary center. Attila occupied it as his residence about one year after the Battle of the Peoples. Messalina. The first wife of the emperor Claudius, a wicked and dissolute woman. She was killed in 48 a.d. Messana. A city of northeastern Sicily, seized by the Mamertines (264 B.C.). Metaiirus. A river of southern Cisalpine Gaul, emptying into the Adriatic Sea. There the Roman consuls Nero and Livius defeated and killed Hasdrubal (206 b.c). 1. Metellus, Quintus Caecilius (Numidicus). See Jugurtha. 2. Metellus, Quintus Caecilius (Pius). Son of the above. He took part in the Social War, joined Sulla during the Civil War, and was sent against Sertorius. 3. Metellus, Quintus Caecilius (Scipio). Leader of the Repub- lican party with Cato ; defeated by Caesar at Thapsus (46 b.c). Mintiirnae. A town on the Tuscan Sea, south of Rome, where Marius took refuge. Mithradates VI. King of Pontus in Asia Minor. Desiring to take the Roman territory adjoining his kingdom, which had been left to the Romans by Attains III., king of Pergamus, 88 ROMAN HISTORY Mithradates put to death the Roman governor and massacred a large number of Romans. Rome declared war and gave the command to Sulla, who defeated Mithradates, and compelled him to give up his conquest and to pay an indemnity (88 B.C.). This ended the First Mithradatic War. Mithradates renewed hostilities with Murena, the successor of Sulla in the Roman province, but this campaign was without result, although it is called the Second Mithradatic War (83 e.g.). A treaty was signed, but Mithradates broke it in 74 e.g. and again threatened the Roman power in Asia. LucuUus was intrusted with the command, and gained several victories, but nothing decisive was done. In 67 e.g. Pompey marched against Mithradates and defeated him. The major part of his dominions became a Roman province. He was killed by his own son. Mucianus. A governor of Syria, who was sent by Vespasian to overthrow Vitellius, 66 a.d. Miicius Scsevola. See Scaevola. Mulvian Bridge. A bridge over the river Tiber where Con- stantine the Great defeated his rival Maxentius and had his body thrown into the river (312 a.d.). This victory allowed Constantine to become sole emperor of the West. Miimmius, Lucius. The destroyer of Corinth. Miinda. An ancient city of southern Spain, where, in 45 e.g., Julius Caesar defeated Gnaeus and Sextus, the sons of Pompey. Mus. See Decius Mus. Miitina (modern Modena). A city northwest of Rome where Decimus Brutus defeated Antony just before the formation of the Second Triumvirate (43 e.g.). Mylae. A city of northeastern Sicily, the scene of the first important battle of the First Punic War. The Romans, com- manded by Duilius, were victorious (260 e.g.). N 1. Nero. See Claudius. 2. N6ro Claudius, Tiberius. Second and last of the Claudian emperors (54-68 a.d.). He succeeded Claudius, although he ROMAN HISTORY 89 had no right to the throne, as Britannicus, son of Claudius and Messalina, was the rightful heir; but Agrippina, second wife of Claudius, forced him to recognize Nero, her son by a pre- vious marriage, as his successor. The first four years of his reign were fall of promise, as he was guided by the philosopher Seneca, and also by Burrhus, the praetorian praefect. But it was not long before his wickedness showed itself. He fell in love with Poppaea Sabina, neglected his wife Octavia and put her to death. Britannicus died by his order. Seneca was supplanted by Tigellinus, a freedman, and murdered; and Nero's own mother Agrippina was put to death. Under the influence of Tigellinus, Nero's vices developed wonderfully. He was believed to have caused the fire of Rome in 64 a.d., but he accused the Christians of being the incendiaries and commenced a persecution. Rome was rebuilt. In 68 a.d. an insurrection, led by Vindex, broke out in Gaul, and Galba, governor of Spain, proclaimed himself emperor. Verginius, governor of North Germany, supported the insurrection. The senate declared Nero to be an enemy of his country and con- demned him to death ; he escaped and took refuge in a f reed- man's house, but when he heard the soldiers he ordered the freedma^n to kill him (68 a.d.). Nerva. Emperor, 96-98 a.d. Nerva was chosen as successor to Domitian by the senate, of which he was a member. He selected Trajan to succeed him. Nicaea. A city of Asia Minor near Nicomedia, west of Bithynia, where the great council of Nicaea was held in 325 A.D. It was presided over by Constantine as Pontifex Maximus, to decide the following religious controversy : Was Christ of the same nature as the Father, or not ? Athanasius was for the affirmative and Arius for the negative. The emperor sided with the party of Athanasius, whose views thus became the orthodox doctrine of the church. Nicomedia. A city of Bithynia which Diocletian made the capital of the East, and there established his residence. It ceased to be the capital under Constantine. 90 ROMAN HISTORY Niima Pompilius. A man of Sabine origin who became king after Komulus. He has the reputation of having organized religious institutions. Numidia. A province of northern Africa (modern Algeria). Its king, Masinissa, helped the Romans at Zama (202 b.c). His grandson Jugurtha was made prisoner by Sulla and put to death, and Numidia became a Roman province. 1. Octavia. Sister of Octavian. She married Antony, who divorced her on account of his infatuation for Cleopatra. 2. Octavia. Wife of the emperor Nero, who had her put to death. Octavian. See Augustus. Odenatus. King of Palmyra. He was an ally of Rome against Sapor of Persia. He was assassinated and left the throne to his wife Zenobia (267 a.d.). (See Gallienus.) Od6vacar (Odoacer). Chief of the barbarian soldiers of Italy. He headed a revolt to secure a division of lands among the soldiery, overthrew Romulus Augustulus, and governed Italy under the authority of Zeno, the Eastern emperor. He be- came possessor of lands between the Rhone and the Loire, but was forced to abandon them to Euric, king of the Visigoths (480 A.D.). He was overthrown and murdered by Theodoric (493 A.D.). Optimates. The party of the nobility, formed during the administration of Gracchus, and opposed to the Populares, or party of the common people. O'rmuzd. See Mazdeism. Or6des. King of Parthia. He led the revolution which caused the death of his brother Mithradates III., thus securing the throne for himself. The triumvir Crassus interfered with Orodes and was defeated and killed at Carrhae. O'stia. An important seaport at the mouth of the Tiber founded by Ancus Marcius. The emperor Claudius con- ROMAN HISTORY 91 structed a new harbor, as the old one had become valueless on account of the accumulations of earth and sand. O'strogoths. See Goths. O'tho. A dissolute companion of Nero, made emperor by the praetorians after the assassination of Galba. The army of lower Germany revolted and proclaimed Vitellius, who attacked Otho at Placentia and defeated him. Otho slew himself. O'vid (Publius Ovidius Naso). A poet of the Golden Age, author of the Metamorphoses (42 B.0.-I8 a.d.). Padus (modern Po). A river of northeastern Italy, flowing in the basin between the Alps and the northern Apennines, and emptying into the Adriatic. Palatine. One of the hills of Rome, the site of the original city. Palmyra. A city of Arabia destroyed by Aurelian. (See Zenobia.) Paris (Lut^tia Parisi6rum). The chief town of the Parisii, on the Seine. It was the capital of the emperor Julian and of Aegidius and Syagrius. Parthia. The Parthian Empire in eastern Asia Minor was a part of the great empire of the Seleucidae. After the death of Antiochus, Mithradates the Great conquered as far west as the Euphrates, which separated Parthia from the Roman dominions. In 54 b.c. a revolution broke out in Parthia, and Mithradates III. was dethroned and murdered. His brother Orodes succeeded him. The triumvir Crassus, anxious to rival Caesar, started for the East with an army, but lost his life at the battle of Carrhae (53 b.c). Trajan invaded Parthia and conquered the part known as Mesopotamia, but Hadrian aban- doned it. In 226 A.D. the Parthian Empire was completely overturned and replaced by the Persian Empire. Pater Familias. See Gens. 92 ROMAN HISTORY Patricians. The patricians were the members of the first families of Rome at the time of the formation of the gentes. At first they had all the political power (see Comitia Centuriata). The opposite social party was that of the plebeians, the people of the conquered Latin towns. They had but few rights at first, but their condition was gradually modified by the Com- mercium, the Conubium, the Canuleian Law, and the Agrarian Laws. Paiilus. See .ffimilius. Pergamus. See Asiatic War and Attalus III. Perseus. Son of Philip V. of Macedon. He lost the battle of Pydna and was made prisoner by the Romans (168 b.c). Persius (Aiilus P^rsius Flaccus). A Latin satirist of the reign of Nero (34-62 a.d.). Pirtinax. Emperor for the first three months of 193 a.d. He was then murdered. Pharnaces. King of Pontus, and son of Mithradates. He opposed Caesar, but was defeated in 47 b.c. Pharsalus. A city of Thessaly where Caesar defeated Pompey in 48 b.c. Philip V. A powerful king of Macedonia (221 to 179 b.c), and son of Demetrius. He ruled over a large portion of Greece. In 213 b.c. he made a treaty with Hannibal, which caused the First Macedonian War. Philip was defeated by the Romans, led by Flamininus, at Cynoscephalae in 197 b.c. (See Macedonian and Asiatic Wars.) Philippi. A city of Macedonia where Octavian and Antony defeated Brutus and Crassus (42 b.c). Philo. See Publilius Philo. Picenum. A large territory on the Adriatic Sea, annexed by Rome after the battle of Sentinum (295 b.c). Piso. See Calpurnius. Placentia. A city of Cisalpine Gaul, on the Po. It was the base of Hannibal's operations in the Second Punic War. There Vitellius defeated Otho in 69 a.d. Placidia. Mother of Valentinian III. (See Athaulf.) ROMAN HISTORY 93 Plaiitus, Titus Maccius (254-184 B.C.). A Latin writer of comedy. Of his plays, twenty have been preserved. Plebeians. See Patricians. 1. Pliny the Elder (Gains Plinius Secundus Maior). A famous encyclopedic writer, and author of the monumental Historia Naturalis, in thirty-seven books. Pliny perished in the erup- tion of Vesuvius. 2. Pliny the Younger (Gains Plinius Caecilius Seciindus Minor). Nephew of Pliny the Elder, by whom he was adopted. His extant works are the Panegyricus (a eulogy on Trajan) and the ten books of his Epistles. Nothing is known as to the date or manner of his death. Po. See Padus. PoUtoia. A city of northwestern Italy, where Alaric was defeated by Stilicho (402 a.d.). Pompeii. See Herculaneum. 1. Pompeius Magnus, Gnaeus (Pompey the Great). Pompey was one of the followers of Sulla and was sent against Sertorius; on his return he met the remnants of the army of Spartacus, defeated them (71 b.c), and reaped the laurels which really belonged to Crassus (see Spartacus). Pompey was elected consul with Crassus in 70 b.c. ; they, with M. Pius, overthrew the principal parts of Sulla's constitution. Pompey was granted the power to act against the pirates of the Medi- terranean Sea. He was victorious and conquered Cilicia, southwest of Pontus, which became a Roman province, with the island of Cyprus (67 b.c). Then Pompey turned his attention to Mithradates VI. and forced him north of the Euxine, where he was killed by his own son. This ended the Third Mithradatic War (65 b.c). Pompey made Syria a Roman province, meeting with no resistance except at Jeru- salem, which he captured, and returned to Rome in 64 b.c He formed with Julius Caesar and Crassus the First Trium- virate. He became Caesar's enemy (see 2. Civil War) and escaped to Thessalonica, where he established a rival govern- ment. He was defeated at Pharsalus in 48 b.c and escaped HAND. GK. & ROM. HIST. — 7 94 ROMAN HISTORY to Egypt, where lie was beheaded by order of Ptolemy's ministers. His sons, Gnaeus and Sextus, were defeated by Caesar at Mimda (45 B.C.). 2. Pompeius, Sextus. Brother of Pompey the Great. He perished during the Second Triumvirate (35 e.g.). Pons Sublicius. A bridge over the Tiber, connecting Mount Janiculum with Rome. P6ntifex Maximus. The head of the Roman religion. The title was bestowed upon Caesar, was held by Constantine and his followers, and was relinquished by Gratian. P6ntius, Gaius. A Samnite general who captured the Romans at the Caudine Forks during the Second Samnite War (321 b.c). P6ntus. A state of northern Asia Minor on the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). One of its rulers was Mithradates VL, the famous enemy of the Romans, who was defeated by Pom- pey in 65 B.C. Populates. The party of the people, formed during the administration of Gracchus and opposed to the Optimates. P6rsena, Lars. See Clusium. Postumius, Aulus. One of the early dictators of Rome. He gained a signal victory over the Aequians and Volscians at Mount Algidus, and recovered this important position (431 B.C.). It is said of him that he had his own son put to death for disobeying orders on the battlefield. Prefects. Three magistrates created at the beginning of Octavian's reign. One had charge of the supplies of corn. The second was a municipal officer who had charge of the city. The third commanded the emperor's bodyguard, the praetorian cohort, and was called praetorian praefect. Praetor. The office of praetor was created by the Licinian Laws (367 b.c), when the administration of civil justice was transferred from the consul to the new magistrate, who must be a patrician. The number of praetors under Sulla's laws was increased to eight. Propertius, Stous Aurelius. An elegiac poet of the reign of Augustus. ROMAN HISTORY 95 Proscription. A system instituted by Sulla, under which lists of his enemies were posted each morning. Those whose names appeared on these lists might be put to death with impunity by any one, and their property was confiscated. About 5000 perished in Sulla's proscriptions. Priisias. See Hannibal. Pt61emies. A royal family who occupied the throne of Egypt. One of its members was overthrown by his sister, Cleopatra, during whose reign Pompey, pursued by Caesar, fled to Alexandria and was beheaded (47 B.C.). Publilian Laws. These were three laws the passage of which was procured by the plebeian dictator Quintus Publilius Philo (339 B.C.). The first increased the power of the plebeian assembly; the second removed from the patricians the right of declaring laws unconstitutional ; the third made it compul- sory that one of the two censors should be a plebeian. Publilius Philo. See Publilian Laws. Punic Wars. Three wars between the Eomans and the Car- thaginians. The First War (264-241 b.c.) was caused by the revolt of the Mamertines, the mercenary troops of King Hiero of Syracuse, who rebelled, seized the city of Messana, and se- cured the support of the Romans, in spite of the remonstrances of Syracuse and Carthage. This brought on the war. The Romans built a navy, and under Gains Duilius won the battle of Mylae (260 b.c). The consul, Marcus Atilius Regulus, carried the war into Africa, and was at first victorious, but was afterwards defeated and captured by the Carthaginians. The Romans were also defeated at Lilybaeum and at Mount Ercte by the Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca. They built a new navy and intrusted it to Catulus, who defeated the Cartha- ginians at the Aegates Islands (241 b.c), and thus ended the first war. The Second War was caused by the seizure of Sardinia and Corsica by Rome, while the Carthaginians were suppressing the mutiny of their troops. Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, attacked and took the city of Saguntum in Spain, an ally of 96 ROMAN HISTORY Rome (219 b.c). He entered Gaul by the Pyrenees, and crossed the Alps, making the tribes of Cisalpine Gaul his allies. The Roman army was defeated in the valley of the Po at Placentia and at the Ticinus, and its leader, the consul Publius Scipio, was seriously wounded ; his colleague, Sempro- nius, took the command and sustained a defeat at the Trebia. Hannibal deceived the consul Flaminius, crossed the Apennines, placed his army so as to separate Gains Flaminius from Rome, and defeated him at Lake Trasimenus (217 b.c). Flaminius perished in the fight. The next year the Romans suffered their greatest defeat at Cannae. The army commanded by the consul Varro was completely routed and nearly annihilated. Hannibal retired to Capua (214 b.c). In 212 b.c the Romans, led by Marcellus, reconquered Syracuse, which had gone back to the Carthaginians after King Hiero's death. It was during this siege that Archimedes perished. The next year Capua and Tarentum were retaken. Hasdrubal, brother of Han- nibal, was defeated in Spain by Publius Scipio, and the consul Nero defeated and killed him at the battle of the Metaurus (206 b.c). Scipio Africanus succeeded in subduing Spain, and aided by Masinissa, king of Numidia, finished the war by the complete routing of Hannibal's army at Zama (202 B.C.). The peace gave to Rome Spain and the islands. Carthage surrendered nearly all her war vessels and paid a heavy indemnity. Third War. Rome was still jealous of Carthage. Cato the Censor advocated its destruction. Masinissa, the ally of Rome, managed to have some difficulty with Carthage, and was suc- cessful in the war which resulted. The Romans seized upon this breach of the treaty of peace as a pretext for destroying their rival. The Carthaginians were willing to settle the mat- ter amicably, but the bad faith of the Romans forced them to fight. Scipio Aemilianus was intrusted with the siege of Car- thage. The city was taken, pillaged, and burned (146 b.c). Pydna. A city of Macedonia where Perseus was defeated by the Roman commander, Aemilius Paulus (168 b.c). ROMAN HISTORY 97 P^rrhus. King of Epirus. He supported the Greek colony of Tarentum in its war against Rome. He won, with great loss, the first battle at Heraclea (280 b.c.) ; then he sent his ambassador, Cineas, to treat with the Romans, who refused. The Italians joined Pyrrhus, and he gained a victory at Ascu- lum (279 B.C.). Pyrrhus left Italy to defend Syracuse against the Carthaginians. Upon his return to Italy, the Romans, led by Manius Curius Dentatus, routed his army at Beneventum (275 B.C.). He died three years later at Argos. Quaestor. At first this magistrate was attached to the person of the king as an assistant, then to that of the consul. After- wards he had charge of the treasury under the direction of the senate. 1. Quinctius. See Cincinnatus, Flamininus. 2. Quinctius, Keeso. Son of Cincinnatus. Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius (40- about 95 a.d.). The most celebrated Roman rhetorician. His great work, the Institutio Oratoria, is a treatise on the complete training of an orator. Quintilius. See Varus. Quirinal. One of the hills of Rome, originally a Latin settle- ment. Rsetia. A province between the Alps and the Danube, con- quered by Augustus. Ramnes. One of the three original tribes of Romans. (See Luceres and Titles.) Ravenna. An Etruscan town in northeastern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. It became the capital of the Western Empire under Honorius. There Stilicho was beheaded (408 a.d.). Regillus, Lake. A lake of the Sabine district, twenty miles east of Rome. Near its shores the Romans won a victory which ended the war with Porsena (496 b.c). 98 ROMAN HISTORY R^gulus, Mdrcus Atilius. The Roman consul who took the Roman troops to Carthage during the First Punic War ; he was at first victorious, but afterwards he met with a defeat and was captured (250 b.c). Repetundae, Court of. This court was established by the Gracchi for the trial of provincial governors ; but it was de- ficient, inasmuch as the judges and governors were alike mem- bers of the Senate. The system was changed under Sulla, who gave judicial matters to the praetors. Rhadagaisus (Rhadagais). An Ostrogoth, who gathered an army of Germans and invaded Italy by the Alps and reached Florence, where Stilicho routed him (405 a.d.). Rhine. See Alamannians, Ariovistus, and Franks. Rhodes. A large island near the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. The Rhodians supported Rome against Antiochus in the Second Macedonian War. Rhodes became the chief mari- time power of the eastern Mediterranean. Ricimer. A Goth, grandson of Wallia, brother of Athaulf. He was invested with the power at Rome from about 460 to 472 A.D. It was he who placed Majorian on the throne, but had him murdered (461 a.d.). He fought Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, in a naval battle off the coast of Corsica, and held the barbarian invasion in check for some time. His death occurred in 472 a.d. Rome. Ancient Rome was situated on low hills on the left bank of the Tiber and about fifteen miles from its mouth. It was built in the neighborhood of 750 b.c. R6mulus. The mythical founder and first king of Rome. Romulus Augiistulus. The last of the emperors of the West- ern Empire after Ricimer's death (472 a.d.). During his reign an uprising of the barbarian troops of Italy, commanded by their king, Odovacar, took place. They wanted lands, and refused to live in camps. Romulus was removed, and Italy fell into the hands of Odovacar (477 a.d.). R6stra. The speaker's stand at Rome. It was thus named because when the port of Antium was converted into a mari- ROMAN HISTORY 99 time colony of Rome, its ships were destroyed and their beaks (rostra) were sent to Rome to ornament the speaker's stand situated between the Comitium and the Forum. Under Augus- tus it was moved near the upper end of the Forum. Rubicon. A small river in northeastern Italy emptying into the Adriatic Sea. Its crossing by Caesar began the Civil War (49 B.C.). Rufinus. Governor of the Eastern Empire with Arcadius, son of Theodosius. He induced Alaric, king of the Visigoths, to invade the Western Empire (see Stilicho). He was mur- dered in 395 A.D. S Sabines. A branch of the Umbro-Sabellians whose territory was between Latium and Umbria. They early became enemies of Rome. It is said that under Romulus they were invited by the Romans to the harvest festival, and that during the cele- bration the Romans seized the Sabine maidens and made them their wives. The Sabines aided the Aequians and the Vol- scians in their war against Rome. It was to repulse them that Cincinnatus was made dictator. Sacred Mount. See Secession of the Plebs. Sagiintum. A city on the eastern coast of Spain, taken by Hannibal at the beginning of the Second Punic War (219 B.C.). Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus). A celebrated Latin his- torian (83-35 B.C.). Samnites. A branch of the Umbro-Sabellians. They had three wars with the Romans. The first war ended with the fall of Capua, which became a Roman possession (343 e.g.). The second war ended with the capture of the Roman army at the Caudine Forks, and a great victory of the Samnites led by Pontius (321 B.C.). The third war was an uprising of the Samnites, Etruscans, and Umbrians, supported by the Gauls, against Rome. The Roman armies were led by Fabius Maximus and Decius Mus. The principal battle was fought at Sentinum in 295 b.c. Fabius defeated the Samnites j Decius 100 ROMAN HISTORY Mus battled against the Gauls and sacrificed his life to assure the victory. 1. Sapor. A son of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, by whom Valerian was captured. (See Parthia.) 2. Sapor II. King of Persia, defeated by Julian the Apos- tate (363 A.D.). Sassanidae. A Persian dynasty which began in 226 a.d. It succeeded the Arsacidae and reigned 426 years. Scaevola, Quintus Miicius. A celebrated jurist and lawyer, and a victim of the massacres at the Colline Gate (82 b.c). 1. Scipio Barbatus, Lucius Cornelius. One of the commanders in the Second Samnite War, the great-great-grandfather of the conqueror of Hannibal. 2. Scipio, Piiblius Cornelius. Father of Scipio Africanus. He was consul in 218 b.c, with Sempronius, with whom he was defeated by Hannibal in Cisalpine Gaul. 3. Scipio Africanus Major, Piiblius Cornelius. One of the greatest Romans. He was one of the few Roman officers who survived the battle of Cannae. At twenty-seven he was sent as proconsul to Spain, and in three years drove the Cartha- ginians entirely out of the country. In 205 b.c. he gained a brilliant and decisive victory over Hannibal at Zama. He died about 183 b.c. 4. Scipio Asiaticus, Lucius Cornelius. Brother of Scipio Africanus. He defeated Antiochus at Magnesia (190 b.c). 5. Scipio .^milianus Africanus, Piiblius Cornelius. The son of Aemilius Paulus, the victor of Pydna. He conducted the siege and destruction of Carthage (146 b.c), thus ending the third and last Punic war. Secession of the Plebs. The misery of the poor classes and the terrible condition of the debtors gave serious cause for complaint; the plebeians left the city and established them- selves on the Sacred Mount, a hill three miles from Rome, near the Arno, and refused to fight any longer for the patricians unless their claims were righted. A. compromise was effected in 494 B.c ROMAN HISTORY 101 Sejinus, Liicius JE'lius. The favorite miiiist«r' 6f , Tiberius; ; During the retirement of the monarch at 'Capri, Sejanus con- trolled the government. He desired the .throne iov 'iiimself , and to attain his aim he caused the murder of Drusus, son of Tiberius, and led the emperor to believe that Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, was plotting against his life. But Tiberius got knowledge of Sejanus' intentions and had him put to death (31 a.d.). Sempr6nius L6ngus, Tiberius. The Roman consul who op- posed Hannibal at the Trebia and was defeated (218 b.c). Seneca, Liicius Annseus. A Roman philosopher who became the tutor of the emperor Nero. He was murdered in 65 a.d. Sentinum. A town of Umbria near the Adriatic coast, where the Roman consuls Fabius and Decius Mus defeated the Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls in the Third Samnite War (295 B.C.). Sert6rius, Quintus. A governor of Spain, a member of the Marian party, and the leader of the Spanish insurrection. He was an able general and defeated all the commanders whom Sulla sent against him. At last he was assassinated by one of his officers, and Pompey put an end to the insurrection (72 B.C.). S^rvius TuUius. The fifth king of Rome. He enlarged Rome's territory and constructed the city walls, improved the condition of the plebeians, and regulated the military service. 1. Severus, Alexander. Emperor, 222-235 a.d. He succeeded Ms cousin Elagabalus. He was a virtuous prince, but his severity caused a mutiny of the troops, who murdered Ulpian, the praetorian praefect. Not long after, Severus was killed by Maxim during a campaign in Germany. Severus abolished the praetorian cohort, but retained the praetorian praefect as first minister. 2. Severus, Liicius Septimius. Emperor, 193-211 a.d. He was a commander of the Roman legions on the Danube, who proclaimed him emperor after the murder of Pertinax. He 102 ROMAN HISTORY ■was recogiii?.ed by the senate, and Julianus was put to death. Severus ctied in Bricain at Eboracum (York). -Sibylline jeooks*. Greek books containing prophecies bought by Tarquinius Superbus. These books were in the charge of fifteen magistrates who consulted them in times of danger or embarrassment. Sicily. A large island south of Italy. The principal city, Syracuse, was an ally of Rome under King Hiero, but his successor favored Carthage. In 212 b.c, during the Second Punic War, Marcellus captured Syracuse in spite of a gallant defense conducted by the celebrated mathematician Archime- des, who perished during the siege. It was taken with part of Sicily by Gaiseric (461 a.d.). Social War. See Italian Question. Spain. Anciently called Iberia, from the name of its first inhabitants, the Iberians. It was occupied by the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians, but surrendered to Rome after the victory of Zama (202 b.c). The Romans retained possession of Spain with great trouble, as they were constantly at war with the Gauls (see Sertorius). Caesar governed it until 60 b.c. It was ravaged by the Franks in 256 a.d. (see "Vandals), and finally occupied by the Visigoths in 480 a.d. (See Euric.) Spartacus. A Thracian, leader of the insurgent gladiators at Capua, defeated by Crassus (71 b.c). Stilicho. A Vandal, governor of the Western Empire under Honorius. He defeated Alaric at Pollentia and Verona (402- 403 A.D.). During his administration, the Vandals invaded and ravaged Gaul. This caused dissatisfaction with the gov- ernment, and the army of Britain elected an emperor of its choice, Constantine, the usurper, who soon had Britain and Gaul under his command. The Vandals moved to Spain and Portugal. Stilicho was unjustly accused of all the disorders and was beheaded at Ravenna, 408 a.d. St61o. See Licinius. Strassburg. A city of Alsace, where Julian defeated the Alamannians and Eranks (357 a.d.). ROMAN HISTORY 103 Siilla, Lticius Cornelius. A Roman officer who took Jugurtha prisoner. He was elected consul by the Optimates, and com- manded the Roman armies against King Mithradates YI. The Populares, led by Publius Sulpicius Rufus, were against Sulla, and Sulpicius proposed to give the command to Marius. This caused a rebellion; Sulla marched upon Rome and put his enemies to death, but Marius escaped. The Sulpician law was repealed. Sulla defeated Mithradates and made him pay an indemnity (88 b.c). Metellus Pius, Crassus, and Pompey, all young nobles, joined Sulla and overthrew the revolutionary party of Cinna, Carbo, and the son of Marius at the Colline Gate. Sulla stained his victories by his proscriptions and his order to break open the grave of Marius and to throw his ashes into the river. He was made perpetual dictator. He revised the constitution and reformed the government. He gave back to the senate the control of the assembly, abolished the office of censor, and increased the number of praetors from six to eight. The consuls were made civil officers with no military command, except in case of calamity, and the court of Repetundae was definitely established (see Repetundae). Sulla remained dictator three years ; he then retired, and died in 78 B.C. Sulpicius Riifus, Pdblius. A young leader of the popular party at the beginning of the Civil Wars. He proposed the Sulpician Laws, one clause of which legalized the removal of all senators who were deeply in debt. The measures were car- ried ; but his proposal of a new law, transferring the command from Sulla to Marius, brought about civil war. Syagrius. Son of Aegidius. His overthrow by Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, ended the Roman power in Gaul. Syracuse. See Sicily. Syria. A part of the vast empire of the Seleucidae, situated in Asia Minor. After the defeat of Antiochus at Magnesia, the empire, with the exception of Syria, was taken by Mithradates the Great. After the victory of Pompey over Mithradates (65 B.C.), Syria was made a Roman province. 104 ROMAN HISTORY Tdcitus, Gaius Cornelius. A Roman historian of the Silver Age (54-130 a.d.). Tarentum (modern Taranto). The principal Greek city of southern Italy, on the gulf of the same name. The Romans violated an existing treaty and appeared with a fleet near the harbor of Tarentum. In the ensuing war the Tarentines chose Pyrrhus as an ally. The war ended with the defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum (275 b.c). Tarentum and all the other Greek cities fell under the jurisdiction of Rome, and were obliged to supply troops in time of war. During the Punic Wars, Taren- tum was won over by the treachery of the Carthaginians, but was soon retaken, as well as Syracuse (215 b.c). 1. Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius. An Etruscan, the fifth king of Rome. During his reign the Roman territory was extended and important works were carried out, — the great sewers of Rome, the Circus Maximus, the Forum, and the Capitoline temple. He was murdered by the sons of Ancus Marcius, and succeeded by Servius Tullius. 2. Tarquinius Suplrbus, Liicius. The seventh and last king of Rome. He was banished in 510 b.c, and the Republic was established. Terence (Piiblius Terlntius A'fer). A celebrated comic poet, born at Carthage about 190 b.c Terentilian Laws or Rogations. The tribune Gaius Terentil- ius proposed that the laws should be codified ; until then they had not been written down, and the patricians had interpreted them as they chose, to the disadvantage of the plebeians. This proposition met with great opposition on the part of the patricians, and it was nearly ten years before the plan of codification was adopted. (See Decemvirate, Twelve Tables.) T^tricus. One of the Thirty Tyrants, defeated by Aurelian (275 A.D.). Teiitoburg Forest. A district midway between the Rhine and the Weser, where the Roman legions commanded by ROMAN HISTORY 105 Varus were annihilated by the Germans, led by Arminius (9 B.C.). Teutons. See Cimbri. Thapsus. A city of Africa, nearly opposite Sicily, where Julius Caesar defeated his political opponents led by Metellus Scipio in 46 b.c. There Cato the Censor killed himself after the defeat of the republican party. Theodoric. A grandson of Alaric who succeeded Wallia in 419 A.D. as king of the Visigoths. He aided Aetius against the Huns, and was killed at the Battle of the Peoples (451 a.d.). Theodosius. Emperor, 379-392 a.d. He succeeded Valens in 378, and governed the Eastern Empire. He became sole ruler after the death of the two emperors of the West, Gratian and Valentinian II. Theodosius was capable and honest. He kept his agreement with the Goths so strictly that he caused the massacre of several thousands of the inhabitants of Thes- salonica for having murdered some Gothic soldiers. The bishop of Milan compelled him to make amends for this act. Theodosius died in 395 a.d., leaving the government of the East to Arcadius and that of the West to Honorius. Thermopylae. A city of Thessaly where Antiochus was de- feated at the beginning of the Asiatic War (191 b.c). Thessalonica. A city on the coast of Macedonia where Pom- pey, pursued by Caesar, established a government intended to rival that of Rome. Theodosius made it the chief city of his administration. Thirty Tyrants. They were the governors of the western provinces of the Roman Empire who, from 260 to 275, revolted against Gallienus and Valerian, but were subdued by Aurelian. Tiber. The river on which Rome is built. Tiberius Claudius Nero. Emperor, 14-37 a.d., successor of Augustus. He had married Julia, daughter of Augustus and widow of Agrippa, an able general and statesman, but dis- agreed with her and divorced her. At first an able ruler, he became a gloomy and suspicious tyrant. He had recourse to the delators, and punished his opponents with cruelty. 106 ROMAN HISTORY Germanicus, his adopted son, was governor of Germany, and for three years he tried in vain to regain the territory lost by Varus at the Teutoburg Forest. The undertaking was aban- doned by order of Tiberius ; Germanicus was given the govern- ment of Parthia, but he disagreed with Piso, his first officer, and died suddenly. Agrippina, his wife, suspected foul play on the part of Piso, who probably acted on the order of Tiberius. Following the advice of his first minister, Sejanus, Tiberius retired to the island of Capri, leaving Sejanus at the head of the government; but discovering the schemes of his minister, he had him put to death in 31 a.d. (see Sejanus). Tiberius himself died in 37 a.d., leaving the throne to Gains Caligula, son of Germanicus. Tibiillus, A'lbius. Latin poet (44-18 B.C.). Ticinus. A river of Cisalpine Gaul, where Hannibal defeated the consul Publius Scipio in the Second Punic War (218 e.g.). Tigellinus. Emperor Nero's freedman and adviser. Titles. One of the three original Roman tribes. (See Luceres and Ramnes.) Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus. The fifth Flavian em- peror (19-81 A.D.). He succeeded his father, Vespasian, during whose reign he took and destroyed Jerusalem (70 a.d.). The great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, took place during his reign. Trajan (Marcus U'lpius Trajanus). Emperor, 89-117 a.d., successor of Nerva. He undertook a successful campaign against the Dacians, and founded the Roman province of Dacia. He also placed Arabia under his dominion, thus giving direct communication with Egypt and Syria. His reign brought the Roman Empire to its height, and was called the Silver Age. Transalpine Gaul (Gaul the other side of the Alps). It extended in southern Gaul from the Pyrenees to the Alps, but did not comprehend Massilia and its territory. It was invaded by the Cimbri and Teutons before their victory over the Romans at Aransio, governed by Caesar, invaded by the ROMAN HISTORY 107 Franks in 256 a.d., and ravaged by the Vandals in 406 a.d. It became the seat of the struggles of Aetius against the Burgundians, the Franks, and the Alamannians. The Visi- goths, led by Wallia, settled there. Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, overthrew Syagrius, who was the last representative of the Roman power in Gaul, in 464 a.d. (See Cisalpine Gaul.) Trasimenus. A lake of Etruria where Hannibal defeated the Roman general Flaminius (217 B.C.). Trebia. A river of Cisalpine Gaul where Hannibal defeated Sempronius Longus in 218 b.c. Tribune. An officer chosen from the plebeians to protect them against the injustice of the patricians. The power given to the tribune was called jus auxili. At first there were two tribunes, but this number was gradually increased to ten. They had the authority to call meetings of the plebeians (see Comitia Tributa, Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Curiata). They soon overstepped their power and during Sulla's ad- ministration they were deprived of their right to initiate legislation except with the authority of the senate. The trib- unes recovered their full power under Pompey, and finally lost it under Augustus. Triiimvirate. A political association of three men (triumvirs) formed for the purpose of governing Rome. The First Trium- virate came to power in 60 b.c, and was composed of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus. The members of the Second Triumvirate, created in 45 b.c, were Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. Tiillius. See Servius. Tiillus Hostilius. The patrician king of Rome who succeeded Numa Pompilius. He conquered Alba Longa {^Qi^ b.c) and made Rome the chief city of the Latin Confederacy. Twelve Tables. An arrangement and codification of the laws as proposed by the Terentilian rogations. The work was per- formed by the decemvirs. It was advantageous to the plebeians, as it regulated the rights of creditors and those of the pater familias. In addition to this, the Canuleian Law gave the plebeians the right of marrying patricians. (See Conubium.) 108 ROMAN HISTORY U'lpian. A praetorian praefect under Alexander Severus. U'mbrians. A people of the Umbro-Sabellians. Their terri- tory was on the northeastern coast of the Adriatic. TJ'mbro-Sabellians. One of the two principal races of Italy. The other was the Latin. U'tica. The Roman headquarters and military depot near Carthage. Valens. Emperor of the East, 364-378 a.d. He was the brother of Valentinian I., by whom he was made emperor. He was defeated and killed at Adrianople in a campaign against the Goths and Visigoths (378 a.d.). 1. Valentinian I. Emperor, 364-375 a.d., successor of Jovian. He was an able ruler, but too severe. He gave his brother Valens the government of the East. His reign was un- eventful. 2. Valentinian II. Emperor, 375-392 a.d. Son of Valen- tinian I. He was murdered at the age of twenty. 3. Valentinian III. Emperor, 423-455 a.d. Son of Con- stantius and Placidia. During his reign Gaiseric and the Vandals invaded Italy, and the Alamannians and the Franks crossed the Rhine. In 452 a.d. Attila and the Huns invaded Gaul and were defeated by Aetius, aided by Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, in the Battle of the Peoples. Attila invaded Italy. The Saxons occupied Britain 449 a.d. Valentinian was assassinated in 455 a.d. Valerian. Emperor, 253-260 a.d. He was captured by Sapor of Persia, and died in captivity. Vdndals. A tribe of eastern Germans. Constantine gave them a settlement in Pannonia on the borders of the Danube. They crossed the Rhine, entered Gaul, and ravaged it for three years (406 a.d.). Their king, Gaiseric, settled with them in Spain, and later was called to Africa (see Boniface and Eudoxia). ROMAN HISTORY 109 He plundered Rome and was defeated by Ricimer. The Van- dals became masters of the western Mediterranean and of northern Africa. Varro, Gaius Terentius. A Roman consul, defeated by Hannibal at Cannae (216 b.c). Varus, Lucius Quintilius. A Roman consul who lost the battle of the Teutoburg Forest against the Germans (9 a.d.). Veil. The principal city of southern Etruria, taken by Camillus (396 b.c). Vercellae. A city in the valley of the Po where Marius and Catulus defeated the Cimbri (101 b.c). Vercingetorix. An Arvernian chief who was defeated and captured by Caesar at Alesia, 52 b.c He was beheaded. Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro). A celebrated Latin poet of the Augustan age (70-19 b.c). Verginius. Governor of North Germany. He supported the insurrection of Vindex at the end of Nero's reign. Ver6na. A city of northeastern Italy, where Stilicho defeated Alaric (403 a.d.). Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus). The fourth Flavian emperor, 69-79 a.d. He was commander in the East, and fought in Syria against the Jews who had revolted to gain independence. He was supported by Mucianus and Verginius, the governor of Germany. Mucianus slew Vitellius, the occu- pant of the throne, and secured it for Vespasian. During his reign the Colosseum, or Flavian amphitheater, was built. His son Titus destroyed Jerusalem (70 a.d.). Via Latina (Latin Way). A highway running through the valley of the Liris from Naples to Rome. Viminal. One of the hills of Rome. Vindex. The chief of the insurrection in Gaul during Nero^s reign in 68 a.d. (See Verginius and Galba.) Visigoths. See Alaric, Goths. Vitellius. Commander of the army in Germany, by whom he was made emperor. He defeated Otho near Placentia and took the throne. In his turn he was overthrown and killed by HAND. GK. & ROM. HIST. — 8 110 ROMAN HISTORY Mucianus, the general of Vespasian, who secured the throne for the latter (69 a.d.). V61scians. Neighboring tribes of Rome. Together with their allies, the Aequians and Etruscans, they rebelled against Rome, but were defeated by Camillus (386 B.C.). W Wallia. Brother of Athaulf . He brought the Visigoths back to Gaul ; they became foederati and settled in southern Gaul. Wallia died in 419 a.d., leaving Theodoric, grandson of Alaric, as his successor. Zama. A city of North Africa, near Carthage, where Scipio Africanus routed the army of Hannibal (202 b.c). Zenobia. Queen of Palmyra, widow of Odenatus. She wished to extend her dominions to Egypt and Asia Minor. Aurelian defeated her and destroyed Palmyra. Zoroaster. See Mazdeism. Typography by J. S. Gushing & Co., Nokvvood, Mass. Mythology Guerber's Myths of Greece and Rome Cloth, i2mo, 428 pages. Illustrated .... $1.50 Guerber's Myths of Northern Lands Cloth, i2mo, 319 pages. Illustrated .... $1*50 Guerber's Legends of the Middle Ages Cloth, i2mo, 340 pages. Illustrated .... $1.50 By H. A. GuERBEK, Lecturer on Mythology. These companion volumes present a complete outline of Ancient and Mediaeval Mythology, narrated with special reference to Literature and Art. They are uniformly bound in cloth, and are richly illustrated with beautiful reproductions of masterpieces of ancient and modern painting and sculpture. While primarily designed as manuals for the use of classes in schools vi^here Mythology is made a regular subject of study and for collateral and supplementary reading in classes studying literature or criticism, they are equally well suited for private students and for home reading. For this purpose the myths are told in a clear and charming style and in a connected narrative without unnecessary digressions. To show the wonderful influence of these ancient myths in literature, numerous and appropriate quotations from the poetical writings of all ages, from Hesiod's " Works and Days " to Tennyson's " CEnone," have been in- cluded in the text in connection with the description of the different myths and legends. Maps, complete glossaries and indexes adapt the manuals for conven- ient use in schools, libraries or art galleries. Copies of the above books zvill be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of the price, by the Publishers: American Book Company New York • Cincinnati ♦ Chicago (37) ^mmmm General History Appletons' School History of the World By John D. QuACKENBOS, A.M. Cloth, i2mo. 492 pages, $1.22 A comprehensive history of the world from the earliest ages to the present time, written in a clear, concise and interesting style, and copi- ously illustrated with numerous maps and engravings. Barnes's Brief General History of the World By J. DoRj^AN Steele and Esther B. Steele. 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