CSJ r- CO NT ^1 \ . ^ '.' f. ^^5|StlStf^l|§®8vf?l|^jS,;:S5»5^ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1916, No. 29 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING BY A. C. MONAHAN fPEOALlST IN RURAL SCHOOL AI^^IiNlSTRATlOW AND KATHERINE M. COOK ASSISTANT IN RURAL EDUCATION. BUREAU OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFRCE 1917 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive,org/details/educationalsurveOOmonarich .•« -•• • - •• •••• .•' DEPARTMENT OF THE irfTER^OR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1916, No. 29 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING BY A. C. MONAHAN SPECIAUST IN RURAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND KATHERINE M. COOK ASSISTANT IN RURAL EDUCATION, BUREAU OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE 1917 EDUCATION DEFT. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 cp:nts per copy CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal 5 Letter to the commissioner 7 I. A sketch of the history of education in Wyoming 11 Early history 11 Present system 21 II. Education in the State 27 Buildings and equipment 29 Enrollment and attendance 39 Teaching corps 43 Instruction 53 Supervision 60 III. Revenue for the support of schools 66 Inequalities of the present system of taxation 69 IV. Movements in other States as outlined in recommendations for Wyoming. 83 V. Recommendations 96 VI. Appendix : statistical comparisons 105 3 iviie40616 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, August 28, 1916. Sir: At the request of the code committee appointed by the governor of the State of Wyoming in compHance with an act of the legislature of that State creating the committee for the purpose of studying the school system of the State and recommending new leg- islation, I detailed A. C. Monahan, speciaHst in agricultural educa- tion and rural school administration, and Katherine M. Cook, assist- ant in rural education in this bureau, to make a careful study of the laws of the State pertaining to education, the administration of the State school system and certain phases of the work of the schools, and to make such recommendations for the improvement of the schools through legislation and otherwise as the facts revealed by this study might seem to justify. This they have done, and the report submitted to the code committee has been approved by me. For the use of the people of the State of Wyoming and for the use of students of education throughout the country I recommend that this report, a copy of which I am transmitting herewith, be pub- lished as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education. Respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, Commissioner. The Secretary of the Interior. 5 LETTER TO THE COMMISSIONER. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, WasUngton, May 26, 1916, Sm: There are submitted herewith the results of a survey and study of the pubUc-school system of Wyoming, with recommenda- tions concerning the legislation needed for its improvement. This work was imdertaken at your orders as a result of a request for assistance from the State of Wyoming. The thirteenth general assembly of the State, meeting in 1915, acting on the suggestion of prominent educators of the State under the leadership of the State superintendent of public instruction, enacted a law which provided for the formation of a school code committee to make a thorough investigation into the needs of the public schools of Wyoming and the laws under which they are organized and operated; to make a comparative study of such other public schools as may be advisable; and to report to the fourteenth Legislature of the State of Wyoming recommending a revised code of school laws. In compliance with this act, the governor of the State appointed the following men and women to constitute the Wyoming school code committee: Miss Edith K. O. Clark, State superintendent of public instruction, Cheyenne, chairman; Miss Jennie McGuffey, county superintendent of schools. Park County, Cody; Mr. John T. Hawkes, principal of the Sheridan High School, Sheridan; Dean J. O. Creager, of the College of Education, State University, Laramie; and Mr. J. J. Underwood, ranchman. Underwood. The undersigned were designated as representatives from the Bureau of Education to assist in an investigation and to make a report with recommenda- tions for transmittal to the committee. The first meeting of the school code committee was called at Laramie in July of 1915; all members but one were present. A representative of the Bureau of Education attended this meeting. After careful discussion of vari- ous plans and procedure, a general survey of educational conditions in the State was decided upon and tentative plans were laid for col- lecting material for such a survey. Method and scope of the survey. — ^The school code committee held a second conference in Cheyenne early in November of the same year. All members and both representatives of the bureau were present. 7 8 LETTER TO THE COMMISSIONER. Plans for the conduct of a careful survey of education in the State were presented and approved, as follows : (a) A thorough investigation of grounds, buildings, water supply, etc., conducted through personal investigation and collection of in- formation through questionnaires; (h) A careful inquiry into the education and professional quali- fications, living conditions, and salaries of teachers, conducted in the same manner; (c) An intensive study of instruction offered in three counties selected as typical of general conditions made by personal investiga- tion by members of the committee and representatives of the bureau; (d) An investigation into qualifications and work of the coimty superintendents ; (e) A study of financial support. State, coimty, and local; (/) General information concerning high-school and city-school systems. The point of view which the investigators kept constantly in mind in these inquiries was that of general measurement of the system as a State system in terms of service to the State. In addition to the questionnaires, letters were sent through the county superintendents to several himdred prominent people in the State, setting forth the general purpose of the survey and asking for cooperation and sug- gestions. In April, 1916, another meeting of the committee was held in Cheyenne. Reports showed that the plans formulated at preceding meetings were being successfully carried out. The general plans pursued had been discussed at the meeting of the State Teachers' Association at Thermopolis and progress was being made along all lines previously agreed upon. It was decided to ask that the gov- ernor appoint an auxiliary committee of 15 prominent citizens to act in conjimction with the school code committee; and that a general education conference be held in July at the University of Wyoming, to be called and presided over by the governor of the State, the pur- pose of which should be to discuss the recommendations submitted by the committee, to disseminate information concerning them, and to arouse public interest in better school conditions for Wyoming. The survey from the beginning has had in view the single purpose of the educational welfare of the children of the State. There has been a spirit of cooperation, disinterested labor, and personal sacri- fice on the part of members of the committee and others who have given of their time and service. Assisting in the survey, in addition to the members of the committee, were Miss Henrietta Kolshom, Laramie; Supt. Ira Fee, of Cheyenne; Dr. J. E. Butterworth, of the University of Wyoming; and Supt. Joseph Burch, of Kemmerer. In addition, many county and city superintendents, teachers, and school LETTEE TO THE COMMISSIONER. 9 officers responded to requests for information, and assisted in other ways; Dr. Harrison C. Dale, of the university, wrote the historical statement utilized in this report. The material collected by the committee and other workers was turned over to the Bureau of Education. The accompanying report is made on the basis of these, of supplementary studies on Wyoming and education in Wyoming from all available sources, and on per- sonal observations of instruction, supervision, and general educational conditions. Respectfully submitted. Katherine M. Cook, Assistant in Rural Education. A. C. MONAHAN, Specialist in Rural School Administration. The Commissioner of Education. AN EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. I. A SKETCH OF THE HISTOKY OF EDUCATION IN WYOMING. EARLY HISTORY.* The educational history of Wyoming dates from the creation of the Territory, July 25, 1868. When the first census was taken, in 1860, there were three groups of permanent settlements, two of some 100 or 150 each near Fort Bridger and Fort Laramie, and a few isolated ranches along the valley of the North Platte in what are now Platte and Goshen Counties. The total population of the Territory in 1860, including the wandering prospectors and trappers who occa- sionally pushed into the northern and western portions, numbered probably not more than 400. Within the next decade, however, because of the penetration of this region by the Union Pacific Rail- road, the population increased rapidly. The following table shows the population of Wyoming at various dates: 1860 2 400 1870 9, 118 1875 2 14 951 1880 20, 789 1885 2 31^ 391 1890 60, 705 1900 92, 531 1905 101, 816 1910 3 145^ 9g5 1915 '^ 141, 705 Provision for the regulation and maintenance of education was made in the first session of the Territorial assembly and approved Decem- ber 10, 1869. According to provisions of the act the Territorial auditor was ex officio superintendent of public instruction, and his stipend for this service was $500. His duties as defined by the statutes were almost identically those of the present superintendent as outlined in the statutes now in force except that the apportion- ment was made on aggregate attendance instead of on the census basis. 1 Digest from an article written by Harrison C. Dale, of the faculty of the State University. 2 Estimated. 8 The 1910 figures are from the Federal census, while the 1915 figures are from the State census, which was taken by the county assessors. It is estimated that the 1915 figures are incomplete by about 9,000. 11 12 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. A f urtlaer act -of thJb assembly created the office of county superin- tendent of schools, though no direct provision was made for the man- ner of election. The county tax for the maintenance of schools was fixed at not more than 2 mills on the dollar, and the county superin- tendents were required to report annually to the State superintendent. Should they fail to do so, they were to forfeit the sum of $100. It does not appear that this provision was ever enforced or even noticed, for year after year the State superintendent of public instruction in his annual report bemoaned the laxity of the coiuity superintendents. The blame, no doubt, rested quite as much on the district clerks as upon the county superintendents, for the former were by law required to furnish annually a report of the affairs in their respective districts containing practically the same information which district clerks are now required to include in their reports to the county superin- tendent. Failine to make this report was punishable by a fine of $25. There is no record, however, that such a penalty was ever imposed. A result of this carelessness is the absence of anything like ade- quate school statistics for many sections of the State. This accounts for many of the omissions and inadequacies of this history. The board of district directors was empowered to determine the site of schoolhouses, the expenditures for the erection or rent of the same, and the curriculum to be followed in the lower schools. In the matter of secondary and high school education the determination of the last-mentioned feature was left to the county superintendent, acting in conjunction with the district board. Provision was also made that, when there were 1 5 or more colored children within a specified district, the board might, with the approval of the county superintendent, provide a separate school. Appar- ently, however, no such segregated schools have ever been estab- lished, Negroes being admitted to the schools with whites. The district treasurer was to keep two distinct funds, one called the 'Heachers' fund," comprising all moneys for school purposes, save only local taxes collected in the district, which comprised the ^'schoolhouse^' fund. The education act of 1869 remained in force two years, when a few minor changes were made. The State auditor was relieved of his ex officio duties as State superintendent of public instruction; the office was abolished for the time, the county superintendents reporting annually to the governor. In the legislative session of 1873 the whole matter of education was reviewed and altered. The acts are of singular importance, being the true foundation of subsequent legislation and of the system now in force. The act of 1869 was in most respects repealed and provisions relative to the duties of the various school officers replaced SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN WYOMING. 13 by more explicit regulations. The State librarian (an office created two years previously) was made ex officio State superintendent of public instruction. The first report on public instruction was made in 1871 by Dr. J. H. Ha5rford, of Laramie, the Territorial auditor for the preceding bien- nium. Dr. Hayford reported good schools in Albany aijd Laramie Counties, fair schools in Uinta and Carbon Counties, but in Sweet- water County neither superintendent nor schools. The report em- bodied two summaries for Carbon and Uinta Counties, prepared by the respective county superintendents, Messrs. R. W. Baxter and R. H. Carter. There were only five counties at that time. Statistics of schools in Carbon and Uinta Counties in 1870. Counties. School- houses. Teachers. Pupils. Male. Female. Carbon 1 1 2 2 1 2 74 Uinta 115 At this date (1870) Wyoming had only 9,118 inhabitants— 8,726 whites, 183 colored, 66 Indians (outside the reservations), and 143 Chinese. According to the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1873, the population was scattered along the Union Pacific Railroad for over 500 miles, with a school wherever enough children were congregated. The provision for support was liberal; it came entirely from taxation, the school lands not yet having come into market. The fiYQ counties had county superintendents. Lar- amie city and Cheyenne had graded schools of three departments each, to which high schools were later to be added. Schools in other districts, though small, were efficiently managed. Beginning with the year 1883, statistical information becomes available. The following figures are taken from the manuscript reports of the superintendents of public instruction preserved in the State archives at Cheyenne : Table 1. — Data on Wyoming schools. 1883 1885 1889 Number of schoolhouses 39 83 3,352 1,675 1,677 89 19 70 $2.87 77 132 4,405 2,252 2,153 148 32 116 1 $4. 14 138 Number of schools taught 230 Number of pupils: Total 7,052 3,492 3,560 259 Male.... Female Number of teachers: Total Male 58 Female 201 Cost per pupil per month $2 78 1 For explanation of these cost figures see History of Education in Wyoming, by Dale, published by State department of education. 14 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. The character of the school buildings in this period may be gathered from the following hst, incomplete and compiled from a variety of sources: Log building with a dirt room; upper room of a railroad section house; rented building; spare room of a ranch; vacant office of a mining company; blacksmith's shop; basement of the town hall; sheep wagon. On July 10, 1890, Wyoming was admitted to the Union. The con- stitution and the first session of the State legislature virtually accepted the system of education in vogue during Territorial days. From this point the modern history of education in Wyoming maybe said to date. The following table shows the growth of schoolhouse construction, number of teachers, and number of pupils since 1875, by five-year periods : Table 2. — Schoolhouses and teachers in Wyoming. Year. School- houses. Number of teachers. PupUs. Male. Female. Total. 1875 7 31 40 58 112 89 107 141 223 16 39 150 201 362 481 690 968 1,411 23 70 190 259 474 570 797 1,109 1,634 1,222 1880 2,097 4,988 1885 77 198 305 372 503 640 952 1890 .... 7,875 11,253 14,512 18, 82:^ 24,477 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 ... . . 30,818 Although the legislature in 1873 and in 1888 made efforts to estab- hsh uniform textbook adoptions, such regulations were not successfully carried out. The provision for free textbooks was adopted in 1 90 1 , and physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the use of alcohol and narcotics, were made compulsory subjects in 1885. In 1910 the study of humane treatment of animals was added and boards were required to purchase Coutant's History of Wyoming and CarroU's The Sahhath as an American War Day. Certification. — In the education act of 1 873 the county superintend- ent of schools was authorized — to examine persons, and if in his opinion such persons were qualified to teach in public schools, to give a certificate, authorizing him or her to teach a public school in his county for one year. Whenever practicable, the examination of teachers shall be competitive, and the certificate shall be graded according to the qualifications of the applicant. A law of 1876 empowered the Territorial superintendent of public instruction to grant honorary certificates of qualification to teachers of proper learning and ability and to regulate the grade of county certificates. These '^ honorary certificates" were granted primarily on the basis of continuous years of service. Forty were given between SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN WYOMING. 15 1883 and 1887. At tlie same time the county superintendents were empowered to grant certificates for two-year periods. During the next 10 years little change was made in the matter of certification. In 1897-98 the State superintendent of public instruction recom- mended that graduates of the university, especially those having taken normal training, receive certificates without further examina- tion. This change was made soon after. State hoard of examiners. — In 1899 the State board of examiners was created. Their duty was to prepare uniform examination ques- tions and to serve as a court of appeal from the decisions of the county superintendents. During the first year, under the presidency of Prof. C. B. Ridgaway, of the university, 16 sets of questions were prepared for the use of the county superintendents. The board also examined 33 applicants for certificates, recommended 16, and declined to recommend 17. Many of the applicants who were not favorably recommended were unable to comply with the requirement of ability to teach aU of the subjects usually taught in high schools of the State. Under this system many third-grade certificates (vahd for one year), and a fair number of second-grade certificates (valid for three years) , were issued. Practically no first-grade certificates were issued. In 1899 provision was made for issuing three grades of certificates and a professional or State certificate, the latter to be granted by the board of examiners. Examinations for the other three grades of certificates were still conducted by the county superintendents in subjects prescribed by law. In 1907 the board was empowered to examine aU candidates for certificates in the State. Examinations were conducted at stated intervals and the recipients of certificates were allowed to teach in any county of the State. In 1909 the subjects for examination in the three classes were more specifically fixed by law. Teachers' institutes. — The education act of 1873 required the Terri- torial superintendent of public instruction to conduct annually a teachers' institute lasting not less than 4 nor more than 10 days. Its chief function was the selection of textbooks. In 1883 an appropriation of $1,500 was made to pay the traveling expenses of teachers attending institutes. Four years later the attendance of teachers was required by law; they were, however, to receive com- pensation for transportation. Provision was further made for the payment by the counties of expenses incidental to the holding of institutes, including the compensation of lecturers. The legislature of 1913 authorized the holding of joint institutes by two or more counties. The outcome of this was the act of 1915 providing for State institutes. These were to be maintained in part by nominal fees required of all teachers in the State. The State superintendent's biennial report for 1907-8 noted the tendency to make the county 16 ^ EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. institutes a mere series of lectures. This has since been generally overcome by close attention at all meetings to the specific needs and problems of the teachers and the schools. High schools. — The laws of the Territorial assembly provided for high schools, buildings, courses of study, etc., all to be determined by the county superintendent and board of directors. An enact- ment of the State legislature in 1905 provided for the creation of special high-school districts and the location of union district high- schools at specified places. In 1915 the people were empowered to lay a tax not exceeding 2 mills on the dollar for the payment of teachers' salaries and contingent expenses in such high schools and a total tax not exceeding 10 mills on the dollar in case of the con- struction of a building, provided such high schools maintained a four- year course qualifying for admission to the university. The first high school established was at Cheyenne in 1875. This was followed by one at Buffalo, 1881; Newcastle, 1889; RawHns, soon after; Lander, 1890; and Sheridan in 1893. Kindergartens. — Kindergarten instruction began in private schools. In 1886 Mrs. F. D. M. Bratten established the Magic City Kinder- garten in Cheyenne, charging a tuition fee of $4 a month. At the end of the first year she had 10 pupils. Subsequently other private kindergartens were opened in a number of communities in the State. In 1895, however, the legislature empowered the trustees of all school districts to establish free kindergartens for children between the ages of 4 and 6. Such schools were to be maintained out of the special school fund, and only graduates of approved kindergarten training schools were to be employed as teachers. In 1903 the State department reported 182 children attending kindergartens. Private education. — In the beginning private schools exceeded in importance public schools. The census of 1870, for example, enumerated 4 public schools with 4 teachers (2 men and 2 women), while it listed 5 day and boarding schools with 11 teachers (5 men and 6 women). The pubHc schools were attended by 175 pupils; the private schools by 130. The former had an inconie of $2,876, derived from taxation and pubhc funds, while the latter had an income of $5,500, derived from tuition fees and other sources. The greater amount of income in addition to the relatively large number of teachers and small number of pupils probably indicates a higher quality of educational service on the part of the private schools. With improvement in the standard of public education, the pri- vate schools became for a period less significant. One of the few to survive for a time was the Wyoming Institute, a Baptist school at Laramie, of which Rev. D. J. Pierce, A, M., was the first and only principal. It closed in 1873. l1|!|||Uk SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN WYOMING. 17 The educational traditions of Laramie, however, were maintained by St. Mary's School, a Eoman Catholic institution, organized as far back as 1870, but not apparently making much headway till after a decade. By the year 1881 it had 4 teachers (women) and 73 pupils. In 1885 it was moved to Cheyenne. In 1890 there were 8 teachers and 60 pupils; in 1910, 13 teachers and 170 pupils; in 1915-16, 14 teachers and 210 pupils. Another private institution was the Wyoming CoUegiate Institute, at Big Horn, a Congregational school started in 1894-95 with 2 men and 1 woman teacher and an enrollment of 34 boys and 22 girls. The previous year, however, 1893, Sheridan Public High School had been started. The Wyoming Collegiate Institute decHned and was soon closed. In 1905 the Cheyenne Business College in Cheyenne was opened and, in the same year. Big Horn CoUege, in Basin. The latter enterprise was financed by a number of prominent citizens of Big Horn. Its scope included commerce, music, and academic subjects. In 1909 Jireh College was founded at Jireh, Niobrara County, under the auspices of the Christian Church. This institution offers courses in secondary subjects and some instruction of college grade. The following table shows the enroUment in the private schools of the State since 1903: Year. Pupils. 1903 260 , 1905 259 1910 350 1914 262 TJie university. — Since 1878 the governor and commissioner of edu- cation had expressed the behef that the Territory needed a university and a normal school. On the 6th of September of 1887 a Territorial university was opened, and four years later provision was made for adequate normal instruction. In 1892 the university undertook to grant the degree of B. D. (Bachelor of Didactics) on completion of the normal course of two years beyond the grammar grades and the degree of L. I. (Licentiate of Instruction) on the completion of an additional year of graduate work. Prof. Henry Merz was the first principal of the normal school. The university proper opened with a faculty of seven, including the president, ex-Gov. Hoyt. The first department organized was the college of liberal arts, the acknowledged nucleus of all university departments. A preparatory department was immediately added and preparations were made for aU. the schools essential to a State university. The two departments immediately organized thereafter were a school of mines and a school of agriculture, although the 57460°— 17 2 18 EDUCATION-AL SUEVEY OF WYOMING. catalogue of 1890-91 announced also a department of law and a school of commerce. The coUege of agriculture was reorganized in 1891 and the division of mining the next year. When Wyoming was admitted to the Union the constitutional convention made provision for the university. The first State legis- lature, which convened in Cheyenne, November 12, 1890, also passed an act to estabUsh the Wyoming agricultural college, its location to be fixed by vote of the people, and created and named a board of five trustees to control this institution. At the same time, however, the legislature authorized the University of Wyoming at Laramie to accept the Federal appropriations for the support of agricultural colleges until such time as the agricultural coUege of Wyoming should be located and estabhshed. Thus an agricultural college was created at Laramie. In 1892 the question of the location of the agricultural college of Wyoming was submitted to the people, and by a plurahty vote Lander was selected. No legislative enactment in conformity with this vote ensued, however, and accordingly the agricultural coUege remained at Laramie. In 1905 the legislature definitely fixed it at that place, repeahng the act of 1891 and ignoring the popular vote of 1892. Thereupon the trustees of the ''Agricultural College of Wyoming" brought suit against the treasurer of the State of Wyoming to prevent the - execution of this act. The case was idtimately appealed to the Federal Supreme Court, which decided, May 13, 1907, that the popular vote of 1892 was purely advisory and that the agricultural college should remain at Laramie in conformity with the legislative act of 1905. In 1891 the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station was estabhshed at Laramie and substations were located at Lander, Saratoga, Sheridan, Simdance, and Wheatland. The substations were abohshed in 1897, in accordance with a ruhng of the Federal Department of Agriculture. The catalogue of 1891-92 announced provision for university extension whereby the whole State might share in the benefits of the institution, instead of those only who were so fortmiate as to attend it in residence. Steps in this direction had already been taken by President Hoyt. Local extension ''centers" were organized at Cheyenne with 65 members and at Laramie with 45 members and the Wyoming University extension association was formed. The follow- ing year another "center" was added at Rock Springs, with 14 members. The same year, also, a beginning of instruction by correspondence was made. By 1893-94 the matter of preparation for the imiversity was being more adequately handled by local high schools and a fist of such accredited schools was compiled whose graduates might enter the university without further examination. The fist, at this date, com- SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN WYOMING. 19 prised Cheyenne, Evanston, Lander, Laramie, Rawlins, Rock Springs, and Sheridan. In 1896-97 the college of agriculture was reorganized with a one- year course, a two-year course, and a four-year course. The last led to a degree and was supplemented by a graduate department in agriculture. The following table shows the enrollment in all the departments of the university by five-year periods from 1890 to 1916 : Year. Enrollment. 1890 82 1895 110 1900 187 1905 221 1910 315 1916 ^573 Finance. — The act of March, 1886, creating the university provided for its maintenance by a tax of one-fourth of 1 mill on all taxable property in the Territory. The first State legislature in 1891 under- took to offset the support granted by the agricultural college of the university under the land grant act of 1862, the Morrill Act and Hatch Act — ^whose terms were now compHed with — by reducing the State appropriations from one-fourth to one-eighth of a miU. This remained the source of State support until 1905, when the rate was raised by the legislature to three-eighths of a miU and by the legislature of 1909 to one-half of a miU (but hmited to $33,000 annually). In 1911 the amount was Hmited to $85,000. The legislature of 1913 fixed the tax at three-eighths of a miU, but without Hmitation. In 1915 an additional permanent building tax of one-eighth of a mill was voted. In addition to the income from Federal acts already noted, the agricultural college of the imiversity and the agricultural experi- ment station have received appropriations from the Adams Act of 1906, the Nelson Act of 1907, and the Smith-Lever Act of 1915. By an act of the Wyoming Legislature in 1915, the university is to receive one-fourth of the income of 200,000 acres of Federal land granted to the State for '^charitable, educational, penal, and reforma- tory institutions." Buildings. — The first building erected was the liberal arts building, costing over $85,000, for which site and campus were in part donated by the city of Laramie and in part purchased from the Union Pacific Railroad. Since then the mechanical engineering building, HaU of Science, gymnasium and armory, heating plant, Woman's HaU, normal school building, and buildings for the agricultural college and experiment station have been erected at a total cost of $222,000. The grounds have been added to also by purchase and donation from 1 Includes enrollment in all departments, including the summer school. See p. 25. 20 EDUCATIONAL SUKVEY OF WYOMING. the Union Pacific Railroad and by the addition of the old peniten- tiary plant. Miscellaneous. — Soon after the organization of the Territory some attempt was made to provide vocational education for the Indians. In 1870 the Protestant Episcopal Church maintained among the Sho- shones an Indian school with 10 pupils. A few years later the school dwindled to 6 and in the year 1874 was abandoned. In 1878 a day 1870-7/ 1879-80 1899-1900 1909-1910 1912-13 1914 21400 21000 ^^ — 20000 / 19000 / 18000 17000 16000 / 15000 / / / 14000 / 13000 / 12000 / / IIOOO / 10000 1 9000 / 8000 / / 7000 / / / 6000 / 5000 / / 4000 / 3000 / 2000 / 1000 ' 500 2,50 Fig. 1.— Increase in average daily attendance, Wyoming schools, 1870-1914. school was established. More recently the task of educating the Indians has been undertaken seriously both by the churches and by the Federal Government. The Territorial assembly in 1886 appropriated $8,000 to defray the expense of establishing a school for the blind and deaf for two years, not to be opened until there were 12 applicants for admission. The commission created imder the act purchased a block of land and SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OP EDUCATION IN WYOMING. 21 a building in Cheyenne for this purpose, but the school has never been opened. An act of the legislature in 1907 created the Wyoming Home of the Feeble-Minded and Epileptic, subsequently called the Wyoming School for Defectives, at Lander. The attendance in June, 1912, was 3, but by the end of the year it had increased to 22. On Janu- ary 1, 1916, there were 36 males and 22 females at the institution. The Wyoming Industrial Institute was established at Worland in 1913 and opened in 1915. One of the purposes of the Wyonaing University Extension Asso- ciation, established 1891, was the organization of a State teachers' association. A step in this direction was taken by the publication for a time of the Wyoming School Journal, edited by Prof. Henry Merz, of the university. Meetings of the State teachers' association were held in Laramie, 1891; Cheyenne, 1892; Rawlins, 1893; Rock Springs, 1894; Evanston, 1895; and Laramie, 1897. The associa- tion, however, was already moribund and within five years succumbed. The State superintendent of public instruction in 1902 reported Wyoming as the only State without a teachers' association. Two years later (1904) a new State teachers' association was organized at a meeting of State educators in Casper. The association was formed in September, and in December appeared the first numbers of the new Wyoming School Journal, which is a monthly publication. The State teachers' association has met annually since its reorganization in 1904. THE PRESENT SYSTEM. The present school system of the State of Wyoming may be out- lined briefly as follows : There is a State department of education composed of a State superintendent of public instruction elected every four years by popular vote, assisted by a deputy State superintendent, and an office force of three clerks appointed by the State superintendent. The State superintendent is ex officio a member of the board of trustees of the State university, of the State board of charities and reforms, and of the State land board. From one-third to one-half the time of the State superintendent, deputy, and office force is required to perform the duties of these boards. There is no State board of education. State superintendent. — The powers and duties conferred by law upon the State superintendent are as follows: He shall collect and file all papers, reports, and public documents transmitted to him by the school officers in the several counties each year, and keep a record of all matters pertaining to the business of his office. Upon these 22 ' EDUCATIOKAL SURVEY OF WYOMIKG. matters he shall report biennially to the governor. He shall apportion State school funds to the counties in the manner prescribed by law, prepare the State course of study, appoint the State board of exam- iners, and issue certificates on their reconmaendation, file and publish price lists of textbooks of publishers complying with the requirements of the law which make them eligible to do business in the State, and make such other rules and regulations as may be necessary to carry the law into effect according to its spirit and intent. In addition, he shall have ''general supervision of all the district schools of the State and see that the school system is put into uniform operation as early as practicable." No means of putting this system into operation is provided, and the law is therefore a dead letter. No State superin- tendent has ever made any serious attempt to assume actual super- vision of the school system. The powers and duties are general and indefinite and give the State superintendent little authority in the educational development of the State. The present superintendent has been very active during her term of office in getting in touch with the schools in all parts of the State through personal visits and various forms of communication. County superintendent — Supervision of all schools, except those in cities employing special superintendents, is in the hands of the county superintendents, who are elected for two-year terms by popular vote. In order to be eligible for election, candidates must have first-class teachers' certificates. These are issued to persons who pass exam- inations in elementary school subjects and the following: Elementary algebra, English and American literature, elementary psychology, physical geography, and two other subjects selected from a list of those ordinarily taught in high-school courses. One year of teaching experience is required. Salaries of superintendents in the State range from $500 to $900 per year; the average is $710. Of the 21 superin- tendents, 18 are women. The powers and duties of the county superintendents as conferred upon them by law are not such as to make them important factors in the schools. The county superin- tendent is required to collect school statistics and report to the State superintendent; to distribute reports and circulars from the State department; to apportion the county funds to the various school districts as prescribed by law; to serve with the county civil com- missioners as a district boundary board to fix or change boundaries, consolidate or divide districts, and form new districts ; to hold teachers' institutes of from four to eight days in length each year; to visit each school once a year; and to have general supervision over the schools of the county. The latter provision in practice means very little. In addition, the superintendent is legally empowered to recommend for dismissal all teachers who are incompetent. Boards are not SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN WYOMING. 23 required to comply with the recommendation, and the power is rarely used. The district — The State is divided into 365 school districts, con- taining 1,150 schools, taught by 1,533 teachers. Seven of these districts are city districts having a population of 2,500 or over, em- ploying superintendents who devote their whole time to supervision. Many of the rural districts are large and employ a number of teachers ; one district in Laramie County, for example, contains 27 schools, all of which are one-teacher rural schools. Each district is under the administration of a local board of three persons elected for three years, the term of one of whom expires each year. In districts of 1,000 population or over the board may be increased to six. The directors have practically unlimited power to maintain the kind of schools they wish in their district with but little interference from higher author- ity. They are legally required to employ teachers certified by the State superintendent, to follow the course of study, and to maintain a minimum term of 120 days. No special provision is made to enforce these laws, however, and in many instances they are not complied with. There are no county boards of education. Attendance in school is compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 14 during the entire time the school is in session. Dis- tricts with 2,500 population may appoint special truant officers; in other districts tlie county sheriff, deputies, and constables are assigned the duty of enforcing the compulsory attendance law. They may investigate cases of absence from school on their own knowledge or on the complaint of any resident or teacher in the county. The term varies in length throughout the State from 40 days to 220 days, the average being 163 days. Support. — Schools are supported by funds from three sources — the State, the county, and the district. The State fund for 1915 amounted to approximately $334,110; the county funds to approximately $438,509; and the district funds to approximately $547,606. The annual State school fund is composed of the income from the sale and rent of State school lands and interest on State permanent school funds. By constitutional provision this fund is distributed to the counties in the State on the basis of the total number of children from 6 to 21 years old. The fund is reapportioned in the counties by the county superintendents to the various districts on the same basis. The State fund is increasing rapidly, and in 1915 amounted to $8.39 per capita of school population 6 to 21 years. The county fund is composed of a $2 poll tax imposed on all persons 21 to 50 years of age, fines and forfeitures, and a tax on all taxable property in the county levied annually by the county commissioners ''in an amount sufficient to raise $300 for each teacher, but not to 24 EDUCATIONAL SUKVEY OF WYOMING. exceed 3 mills/' THe county tax, with the exception of the poll tax, is distributed to the districts on the basis of the number of teachers employed; the polls are returned to the districts m which raised. Local funds are levied only on vote of the taxpayers of the school districts, the maximum levy being 8 J mills. Some districts raise no local funds, maintaining such schools as are possible entirely from the money received from the State and county. The local tax when voted by taxpayers is collected by the county treasurer and paid over to the treasurer of the local district. Each board may audit its treasurer's account, or a district may vote an audit. There is no other way to secure an audit. Bonds for building purposes may be issued upon a majority vote of the taxpayers of the district, but the amount must not exceed 2 per cent of the valuation of the taxable property of the district. Certification. — Certificates are issued by the State superintendent upon the recommendation of the State board of examiners. This board is composed of three persons engaged in school work in the State, ap- pointed by the State superintendent. They formulate questions, exam- ine and correct papers, and pass on credentials of such applicants as are legally entitled to certificates because of graduation from preparatory institutions of specified standing. The examinations are held in the different counties and are under the supervision of the county super- intendents. Temporary certificates may be issued by the State superintendent, but are legally valid only until the first regular examination held after they are issued. In practice, many teachers are employed who hold only temporary certificates. Salaries of teachers vary throughout the State from $42 to $145 per month; the average is $82 for men, $58 for women. High schools. — High schools may be established in any district in the State or in special ' 'high-school districts," composed of ''any number of present organized and constituted districts." Such high schools are administered by special boards of trustees, each composed of six persons elected by the voters of the high-school district. They are supported by local taxes on all taxable property in the high-school district, the amount of which taxation is determined by the board of trustees. A limit of 2 mills for teachers' salaries and contingent expenses is fixed by law. High schools receive a per capita appor- tionment from the State funds and $300 per teacher from the county funds. There are 26 schools in the State of secondary grade, giving four-year courses, and 22 giving from one to three year courses. Higher education. — The State university is located at Laramie, Albany County, and includes among its departments the liberal arts college, the State college of agriculture, the college of engineering, the college of education, and the State normal school. The summary SKETCH OF THE HISTOEY OF EDUCATION IN" WYOMING. 25 of registration for tlie year 1915-16, as reported in the university catalogue issued April, 1916, is given below: STUDENTS IN RESIDENCE. In graduate standing 14 Seniors 23 Juniors 40 Sophomores 58 Freshmen 77 Special 58 270 University high school 43 Music (not taking other subjects) 25 Short course 11 Summer school of 1915 270 349 619 Less names counted more than once 46 573 EXTENSION. Correspondence study department „ 155 Extension center students (Cheyenne) : English (Shakespeare) 10 Pedagogical principles 13 Mechanical drawing 20 Shop arithmetic 24 67 Less names counted more than once 3 Total 46 Teacher training. — The State maintains but one institution for the professional training of teachers — the normal school and college of education of the State university. In practice this is an integral part of the university. The normal school pupils take all work except professional courses with the freshman and sophomore students of other departments of the university. Fifty students residing within the State were registered in the department of education in June, 1916. They were from the following counties: Albany County, 22; Big Horn, 4; Laramie, 4; Converse, 3; Crook, 3; Lincohi, 3; Niobrara, 2; Platte, 2; Sheridan 2; Weston, Sweetwater, Park, Hot Springs, and Fremont, each 1 ; total 50. There were 7 students from other States. These 57 are included in the enrollment of 270 given above. 26 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. Table 3. — Data relative to Wyoming public schools, 1914-15. Counties. Area (square miles). Total popu- lation 6 to 21. Districts. School buildings. Teachers em- ployed. Children enrolled. Total expendi- ture. Cost per pupil per month. Albany Big Horn... Campbell.. . Carbon Converse Crook Fremont Goshen Hot Springs. Johnson Laramie Lincoln Natrona Niobrara Park Platte Sheridan Sweetwater. Uinta Washakie... Weston 4,436 3,185 4,774 8,016 4,176 2,871 12, 198 2,225 2,018 4,158 2,704 8,974 5,356 2,612 5,248 2,117 2,522 10,522 2,074 2,265 3,054 2,049 2,401 576 2,093 945 1,778 1,839 1,336 675 1,011 4,147 4,321 1,197 1,045 1,477 1,581 4,101 2,867 1,866 523 1,328 133 74 38 80 44 116 87 84 35 44 174 129 54 48 57 112 119 66 59 26 54 1,452 1,819 436 1,641 663 1,368 1,501 1,008 569 692 3,005 3,431 1,178 733 1,247 1,462 3,035 2,359 1,683 463 1.098 $86, 152 68,495 21,481 71,457 29,915 45,959 60,238 37,938 23,371 33, 894 156,025 122,502 92,712 31,317 52,245 88,224 138,090 74, 101 87, 694 16,705 44.262 $8.02 5.67 4.12 6.52 6.61 7.64 5.92 4.92 6.52 6.85 9.49 5.59 9.43 4.46 12.37 14.48 5.76 6.46 6.91 9.00 13.00 Total 197,914 39, 156 365 1,633 30,816 ,382,777 1 Includes Yellowstone Park, 3,054 square miles. II. EDUCATION IN THE STATE. Education in the State will be treated as a matter affecting the State as a whole. It is not the function of the legislature to consider the efficiency of individual schools, but to provide ma- chinery which will make it possible that such educational advantages as the State desires to furnish to its children shall be available to every boy and girl in the State. Clearly some communities will always be more law-abiding and more progressive than others, de- pending on individual ideals and community initiative. But clearly also the State must furnish legal machinery such that every com- munity will have the possibility of being as orderly and law-abiding as the most progressive. It must also assume certain responsibili- ties that tend toward forcing the most unprogressive to reach definite minimum standards for law and order set up by the State govern- ment as necessary for the preservation of life and property. The State has a similar responsibility in providing for the education of its children. It should provide a minimum standard for all counties and should then initiate such steps as are necessary to enforce this provision. It should also encourage progress and stimulate such local effort as the intelligence and progressive spirit of different communities warrant. The constitution of Wyoming asserts that the 'legislature shall pro- vide for a complete and uniform system of public education, and shall make such provision by taxation or otherwise as to create and main- tain a thorough and efficient system of pubHc schools adequate to the proper instruction of all the youth of the State." That this may be complied with, the State must from time to time revise and adjust existing provisions according to changing conditions and growing needs. Such an adjustment necessitates a careful study of the educational situation in order that the provisions made may be exactly suited to educational needs. The study of the status of education in the State which follows is made in compliance with an act of the legislature previously explained, and represents, therefore, an effort on the part of the State of its own school system to make the kind of study indicated. Tlie inquiry as made is not a criticism; it is merely a study of the system of education in the State as a whole. Its purpose is to set forth facts as they are, in order that such recom- mendations as are made may be based on actual needs and conditions and not on opinion or theory. 27 28 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMIKO. The efficiency of a school system may be judged by the results it achieves and by the way in which certain well-defined and estab- lished principles or standards in administration and management are adhered to. There must be included in any inquiry concerning it the various factors which make up the complete whole and which influence directly or indirectly the results obtained. These factors will be treated under the following heads : Buildings and equipment, enrollment and attendance, teaching corps, instruction, supervision, revenue and support. School records and reports. — ^The statistics used in this report to the school code conmaittee have been obtained through question- naires sent to the various school officers, through personal visits and interviews, and from the reports of the State superintendents, county superintendents, coimty treasurers, the State examiner, the United States census, and annual reports of the Commissioner of Education. Practically all data necessary for a careful investigation into school attendance should be contained in the records of the State and county education departments and should be available always. Other in- formation of any nature concerning schools should be procurable from school officers on the request of the State department or other legally constituted authority, such for example as the Wyoming school code committee. While the investigators felt justified in ex- pecting to obtain all necessary information in the manner thus described, unfortimately it has been impossible to do so. Of the 1,600 teachers to whom questionnaires were sent for information relative to their education, training, and experience, about two- thirds replied. Replies were received from 59 per cent of the 1,000 questionnaires sent out regarding buildings, while only 20 per cent of the school directors replied to the questionnaire concerning school expenditures. Of 21 county superintendents, 16 replied to one questionnaire sent out by the Bureau of Education for the school code conunittee. To another questionnaire sent to county superin- tendents directly from the State department in November only one reply was received up to April 1, when all data were expected in the Bureau of Education. In this latter case, as in the case of replies from school directors, the data obtained must be omitted, since the repHes were too few to be representative. One county superintendent in the State failed to return to the State department any of the infor- mation requested regarding buildings and teaching qualifications. This county has, therefore, of necessity been omitted from the tables concerning these particular items. This indicates a serious condition. The State superintendent should have authority to demand necessary reports on school con- ditions and power to withhold State fimds if they are not received. Otherwise it follows that only the best qualified school officers will EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 29 reply, since they are most apt to be prompted by courtesy to do so. Reports most needed, namely, those from officers least qualified and from districts in which the school situation is particularly bad, will usually be missing, and conditions most needing investigation thereby escape it. The first requisite in an organized system, either State or county, is the authority to demand all necessary information con- cerning schools. Refusal on the part of any school officer to comply with such legal demand should be followed by forfeiture of an adequate bond or of the position held by the officer refusing. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT. The problem of economic, convenient, and sanitary housing of schools in Wyoming is imique and difficult. The population is sparse and scattered, and schools must be relatively numerous, far apart, and small in membership in many cases for some years to come. In addition, the school population is shifting. Complaints in regard to bad housing, inconvenient location, and lack of necessary equip- ment have been received in large numbers by the school code com- mittee. From these and from the investigation it seems apparent that the important matters of location, buildings, and equipment — closely related to the physical, moral, and esthetic welfare of school children — ^have hardly received the serious consideration which their importance justifies. All children should have an opportunity for an education at public expense in schoolhouses reasonably accessible to their homes and in buildings which insure at least convenience, comfort, and healthful conditions. One need not travel far in Wyoming to find school- houses of the best and of the worst possible types. The greatest need seems to be that the State or county should adopt some settled and economical policy of schoolhouse construction which will provide measures of general improvement for present conditions and certain minimum standards for the future. Distribution. — Schoolhouses should be so located that at least an ele- mentary school may be within walking or riding distance (probably not to exceed 6 miles) of every child of school age. County superin- tendents and others report that there are now many children living so far from any schoolhouse that they are deprived of opportunity for education. Letters in the hands of the school code committee show that in some cases children as old as 14 years have attended school a few months oiHy. One report cites the case of a school- house which is located on one side of the river (where the majority of the voters reside), while practically all the children of school age in the district live on the other side. When it is necessary to cross the river by bridge, many children must walk from 3 to 6 miles to reach the schoolhouse. On the other hand, city superintendents 30 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. complain that many unnecessary country schools are maintained on account of the present system of distributing county money in pro- portion to the number of teachers and that some famihes are sup- plied with what practically amounts to a private governess and maid at pubhc expense. Plainly, some of the schools now existing should be abandoned and others established where there are none. Sanitary requirements. — It is evident that a satisfactory system of schools will provide comfortable and sanitary housing and such equipment as good work necessitates. Appropriateness to the pur- pose for which intended, convenience, and beauty are other important considerations. The schoolhouse and grounds should represent all that the intelligence, good taste, and financial ability of the com- mimity warrant. Recent investigations of the health of rural children and the comparisons made of health conditions in rural and city districts have aroused throughout the country a new interest in rural school buildings and equipment and their relation to the health of children. Results show that country children are not as healthy and have more physical defects than children of the cities, even including the children of the slums. The accompanying graph indicates a few of the conditions revealed by these investiga- tions : Defective teeth. Enlarged tonsils . Eye defects. Ear defects. Spinal curvature. Mental defects. •49.9 per cent. ■16.4 per cent. -30 per cent. ■8.8 per cent. -21.5 per cent. - - -5.1 per cent. ——4.8 per cent. - 1 per cent. ^^3.5 per cent. -1.3 per cent. —0.8 per cent. -0.2 per cent. Rural City According to a pamphlet recently distributed by the Bureau of Education: Healthful and attractive rural schools are absolutely essential to the physical, mental, social, economic, and moral well-being of the nation as a whole. Country school children should have as sanitary and attractive schools and as intelligent and effective health care as school children in the cities. EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 31 This pamphlet proposes the following minimum health require- ments for rural schools : The one-teacher country school should contain in addition to the classroom: (a) A small entrance hall, not less than 6 by 8 feet. (6) A small retiring room, not less than 8 by 10 feet, to be used as an emergency room in case of illness or accident, for a teacher's conference room, for school library, and for health inspection, a feature now being added to the work of the rural school. (c) A small room, not less than 8 by 10 feet, for a workshop, for instruction in cooking, and for the preparation of refreshments when the school is used, as it should be, for social purposes. Classroom should not be less than 30 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 12 feet high. This will provide space enough for a maximum of 30 pupils. VENTILATION AND HEATING. The schoolroom should always receive fresh air coming directly from out of doors in one of the following arrangements: (a) Through wide open windows in mild weather. (6) Through window board ventilators under all other conditions, except when, with furnace or jacketed stove, special and adequate inlets and exits for air are pro- vided. Heating. — ^Unless furnace or some other basement system of heating is installed, at least a properly jacketed stove is required. (No unjacketed stove should be tolerated in any school.) The jacketed stove should have a direct fresh-air inlet about 12 inches square, opening through the wall of the schoolhouse into the jacket against the middle or hottest part of the. stove. The exit for foul air should be through an opening at least 16 inches square on the wall near the floor on the same side of the room as the stove is located. A fireplace with flue adjoining the stove chimney makes a good exit for bad air.^ Temperature. — Every school should have a thermometer, and the temperature in cold weather should be kept between 66° and 68° F. LIGHTING. The schoolroom should receive an abundance of light, sufficient for darkest days, with all parts of the room adequately illuminated. The area of glass in windows should be from one-fifth to one-fourth of the floor area. The best arrangement, according to present ideas, is to have the light come only from the left side of the pupils and from the long wall of the classroom. Windows may be allowed on rear as well as on the left side, but the sills of windows in the rear of the room should be not less than 7 feet above the floor. High windows not less than 7 feet from the floor may be permitted on the right side if thoroughly shaded as an aid to cross ventilation, but not for lighting. There should be no trees or shrubbery near the schoolhouse which will interfere with the lighting and natural ventilation of the classroom. The school building should so face that the schoolroom will receive the direct sunlight at some time during the day. The main windows of the schoolroom should not face either directly north or south. East or west facing is desirable. Shades should be provided at tops and bottoms of windows with translucent shades at top, so that Light may be properly controlled on bright days. 1 The following arrangement for ventilating flue is required in one Western State: A circular sheet steel smoke flue, passing up in center of ventilating shaft (foul air exit) 20 inches square in the clear. 32 EDUCATIOITAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. Schoolroom colors. — The best colors for the schoolroom in relation to lighting are: Ceiling. — White or light cream. Walls. — Light gray or light green. Blackboards. — Black, but not glossy. CLEANLINESS. The schoolhouse and surroundings should be kept as clean as a good housekeeper keeps her home, (a) No dry sweeping or dry dusting should be allowed. (6) Floors and furniture should be cleaned with damp sweepers and oily cloths, (c) Scrubbing, sunning, and airing are better than any form of fumigation. DRINKING WATER. Drinking water should be available for every pupil at any time of day which does not interfere with the school i)rogram. Every rural school should have a sanitary drinking fountain located just inside or outside the schoolhouse entrance. Drinking water should come from a safe source. Its purity should be certified by an examination by the State board of health or by some other equally reliable authority. A common drinking cup is always dangerous and should never be tolerated. Individual drinking cups are theoretically and in some conditions all right, but practical experience has proved that in schools individual cups, to be used more than once, are unsatisfactory and unhygienic. Therefore, they are not to be advocated nor approved for any school. Sufficient pressure for running water for drinking fountain or other uses in the rural school may always be provided from any source without excessive expense by a storage tank or by pressure tank with force pump; WATER FOR WASHING. Children in all schools should have facihties for washing hands available at least: (a) Always after the use of the toilet. (6) Always before eating. (c) Frequently after playing outdoors, writing on blackboard, or doing other forms of handwork connected with the school. Individual clean towels should always be used. Paper towels are the cheapest and most practicable. The common towel is as dangerous to health as the common drinking cup. FURNITURE. School seats and desks should be hygienic in type and adjusted at least twice a, year to the size and needs of growing children. Seats and desks should be individual, separate, adjustable, clean. Books and other materials of instruction should not only be sanitary, but at- tractive enough to stimulate a wholesome response from the pupils. TOILETS AND PRIVIES. Toilets and privies should be sanitary in location, construction, and in main- tenance. (a) If water carriage system for sewage is available, separate toilets for boys and girls should be located in the schoolhouse, with separate entrances on different sides or corners of the school building. ^^^^1^1 .^H I BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN, 1916, NO. 29 PLATE 5, DISTRICT NO. 5, HOT SPRINGS COUNTY. il EMERSON SCHOOL, DISTRICT NO. 17, FREMONT COUNTY. EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 33 (6) If there is no water carriage system, separate privies should be located at least 50 feet in the different directions from the schoolhouse, with the entrances well screened. (c) The privy should be rainproof, well ventilated, and one of the following types: 1. Dry-earth closet. 2. Septic-tank container. 3. With a water-tight vault or box. All containers of excreta should be water-tight, thoroughly screened against insects, and easily cleaned at frequent intervals. No cesspool should be used unless it is water-tight and easily emptied and cleaned. All excreta should be either burned, buried, treated by subsoil drainage, reduced by septic -tank treatment, or properly distributed on tilled land as fertilizer. All schoolhouses and privies should be thoroughly and effectively screened against flies and mosquitoes. Schoolhouses and outhouses should be absolutely free from all defacing and obscene marks. Buildings should be kept in good repair and with whole windows. The tables which follow this section give a general idea of how Wyoming lives up to these minimum requirements in rural com- munities. The statistics include all school buildings, rural and urban, and therefore show a higher average than if rural schools alone were included. Table 4, which gives detailed data by counties, shows that many buildings are in bad condition inside and out. The exact percentage of districts having such buildings varies from 8 per cent of those reporting in one county to 66 per cent in another. A few excerpts from reports received by the code committee will show that these defects are often very serious ones: 1. Outside finish, mud; inside finish, mud; ventilation, door only, 2. Papered with newspapers; floors, poor. 3. Floor, rough; no paint, not ceiled overhead. 4. Inside finish, poor; large cracks in floor; plaster off the ceiling. 5. Cracked walls, uneven floor, ill-fitting windows. 6. Stove smokes, ventilated by cracks and broken window glass. 7. Building 25 years old, log, in wretched repair, stucco falling out, an abandoned cabin. 8. Cracks in walls, stuffed with rags. 9. Poor outside and inside; finished in rough logs and ventilated by cracks; no shades no ventilation, no outbuildings. 10. Schoolhouse in pasture, no fence, stock use house as windbreak. Heating and lighting. — Over 73 per cent of the schools reporting are heated by ordinary stoves, about 10 per cent with jacketed stoves, and the others by furnace or steam. Steam-heated buildings and those provided with ventilating systems are confined to towns and cities. Windows are the only means of ventilating in 78 per cent of all the school buildings. At least three counties report all of their schools ventilated by windows only. This means that foul air is breathed by the children the greater part of the day, unless the teacher is trained in schoolroom ventilation and is unusually 57460°— 17 3 34 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. careful. Jacketed stoves with ventilating attachments in country schools mean reasonable comfort for the children, while rooms heated by unjacketed stoves are almost sure to be uncomfortably warm for those near the stove, and cold for those in the remote corners of the room. In the counties reporting, the number of buildings heated mth jacketed stoves varies from to 15 per cent of the total. Relatively few of the rural schools in the State are properly lighted. The country schoolhouses are usually of the box-car variety with windows on both sides or on three sides. Insufficient or cross lighting is reported in 61 per cent of the schools of the State. Equipment. — ^The reports received indicate that the majority of rural schools in the State have little equipment. Every school should not only be supplied with cloakrooms, worlo-ooms, adjustable desks, and the like, but with a liberal number of books for reference and supplementary reading, globes, maps, dictionaries, etc. These need not be expensive, but they should be carefully selected by those familiar with school work. Money should not be spent on useless material. One county reports only 10 per cent of schools supphed with books other than the basic texts, and 40 per cent of the schools in the State as a whole report similarly. Sites and grounds. — The question of convenience of access is so im- portant in deciding the location of schoolhouses that appropriateness in other respects must sometimes be lost sight of. The schoolhouse should be located in as healthful a place as exists in the community. The yard should always be weU drained. In a few instances school grounds are reported as constantly flooded with waste water from irri- gation. Very few reports indicate that any consideration what- ever was given to drainage and soil in the selection of the school site. The reports show that very little attention is given to beautifying the school groimds in the rural districts and that there are practically no yards suitable or equipped for play except in cities and consolidated schools. The feeling is aU too common in rural communities that country children have little need of play — that their out-of-door life and the healthful conditions which usually pre- vail in the country compensate for the lack of recreation. This is, of course, a mistaken view. Playground room and simple equipment are not luxuries, but necessities. Water supply. — ^The water supply is a serious problem from the point of view of health and cleanliness. The table appended shows four counties in which none of the schools reporting have water on the school grounds ; relatively few of the schools in the State (23 per cent) have water on the school grounds. In many cases the reports show that the teacher or children carry water for drinking long dis- tances, often in open pails left uncovered throughout the day. Drink- EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 36 ing water for children is so intimately related to their health that it deserves special attention. Lack of water, polluted water supply, insanitary arrangements for keeping water and for drinking it are fruitful sources of disease. There should be sanitary foun- tains on the school grounds where possible ; but individual drinking cups, if kept clean and free from dust and germs, or paper cups — which are not costly — are also sanitary and satisfactory if the water is kept in covered jars. Some counties report no sanitary fountains or individual drinking cups in use. In the State as a whole about 9 per cent of the schools use sanitary fountains and 41 per cent indi- vidual drinking cups. Apparently little care is taken to see that the cups are kept clean and the water is rarely kept in covered receptacles. Not only should drinking water be available at all times, but water for washing and individual towels should also be furnished, and water for keeping the schoolhouse scrubbed and cleaned in order that it may be as sanitary and as wholesome as the best home in the community. Children should be taught hygiene and sanitation through example as well as precept. The difficulty of a satisfactory solution of this problem is fully realized. Wells can not always be provided on the school grounds, nor water piped there. Some arrangement for carrying it in large quantities and for properly storing it will be necessary in many cases. The important thing is that the matter of water supply be considered in the selection of a school site, and that some sanitary and adequate provision be made in the future before schoolhouses are definitely located. A competent administrative authority should have power to inspect and condemn sites and grounds as well as buildings when insanitary conditions prevail w^hich can not be remedied. Outbuildings. — The necessity of such supervisory control is still more apparent from an examination of reports concerning toilets. Some districts provide no toilets at all; in others one toilet is used by boys and girls and teacher. In many cases where two are sup- plied, they are, according to one local investigator, ''dens of filth and neglect; they are not scrubbed, and pits are not cleaned or disin- fected. Often the pits are full to overfiow^ing, and often there are no doors." Over 50 per cent of the total number reporting from the State were reported as poor or in need of repairs; 4 per cent of the schools reported definitely that they had no outbuildings ; and 28 per cent have but one. It need scarcely be added that such a condition needs immediate attention and is ample evidence of the need of an inspecting and supervisory control of buildings and grounds. To summarize : It is very important that means be provided to insure adequate and sanitary buildings located on accessible and healthful sites where pure water can be had. Buildings, grounds, 36 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING and outbuildings should be inspected and supervised by competent authorities and existing conditions remedied without unnecessary delay. Report of school building survey. Total number of school buildings In State Total number of building reports received Number of school buildings built after 1900 and reported new . Number built before 1900 and reported old Number not reporting on this item . Material in buildings: Brick or stone Log or sod Frame Number not reporting on this item . Inside finish of buildings: Good Poor Number not reporting on this item . Outside finish of buildings: Good Poor Number not reporting on this item Lighting: Side or rear lighting (good) Insufficient or cross lighting (unsatisfactory) . Number not reporting on this item Heating: Steam or furnace Unjacketed stove. Jacketed stove . Both a jacketed and an unjacketed stove. Number not reporting on this item Ventilation: Windows only means supplied Special provision Number not reporting on this item Kind of desks: Single . Double Double and single reported No desks furnished Number not reporting on this item . Adjustable Stationary Number not reporting on this item . Buildings equipped with: Charts . None Dictionaries None Supplementary books. None Shades . None Pictures None Sanitary fountains Individual cups — No provision Number not reporting on this item . Buildings employing janitor: Janitor employed Teacher acts as janitor Number not reporting on this Item Buildings reporting: Assembly rooms G vmnasmms Work rooms Rest or cloak rooms Fence: Yards with fence No fence Irrigation: Irrigated Dry or not reporting on this Item Trees: Trees No trees . Number. 952 557 383 80 94 63 141 331 22 316 171 70 314 146 97 143 342 72 44 406 59 25 23 438 79 40 365 109 58 7 18 223 257 77 302 255 188 232 325 199 358 214 343 50 253 30 125 183 364 54 503 71 480 *In this and the following items, percentages are based on the number reporting, which is of the whole. per cent EDUCATfON IN THE STATE. Report of school building survey — Continued a? Per cent. Playground equipment: Number havmg equipment Number not reporting anv equipment Toilets: One only Two...' None Number not reporting on this item Condition of toilets: Good Poor or in need of repairs '.. Number not reporting on this item Free from obscene markings Connected with sewers ^ Water source: Well Water piped Carried from home, springs, or river by pupils Number not reporting on this item Outbuilding report from one county. Schools reported 51 One outhouse only 14 Two 20 None 4 No report received 13 Condition of repair: Good 17 Poor 16 Not given 18 Free from markings 32 Not free from markings 4 No report 15 38 EDUCATIONAL SUKVEY OF WYOMING. ^ s Si ? I I 1 1 1 1 •spimoi^ no ja)Bj^ -poo3 aonipooo •aaox -Aiaodoo •|U3nidinba ^cfj saajx -psaoa^ -sdno iBnpjAipui TXTB^UnOJ AJtmutJg -uioaciW)i3 •mooz^joj^ "tanisBnuLiQ Aiqraassy •paqsminj jojjmif ■saxn^oid •sdpeqg •pd^Bjooap sn^^ *p3ilddns sofoog •XrenotpKj *paqsnLinj sjjuaio •pio 'aiqnop s^saa •psptA -oid siream ou 'uoij^ipira^^ •pa^a^oef }ou 'aAO^g -paja^^ 'aAO^S urea^g §11 « -SapqSgssojo 'loo j [joapis'pooo -jood apis^no •jood apjsni -pooM. JO sSinp[Tna -pes JO So\ JO sSmpiras -aoo^ JO :^opq jo sSmpxTna •jnaa jCiaAp^iai sSmprma •3in^odaj jaqumx iXO«=c;os«c3C3sr«0'9'OOi N D* e* c« o « D« re • t^aceOX.C««OC503:MOX»CnSt^ t^aceox.Cj S oc«CJC:;cc«ox3C3isc:: ^^5^^-^ro n 1 cc 00 r* -< t^ c* •♦ acco«ooc.'*t 'S ■♦ tCN « row — ■* "O So-* — OOCONOONCsasOOCOOeO-* )OOOoc«oot*oe«oooooco^ coooecoecoocsoe400-<«a«-«*«»o ;ococ — o«axo«sQC»c«o X»^»;i«c«Ocor^M»-*xo!OX-*S OSC'-'r — — s:cr^»sxxxoo!C«o»a ■ oroe>»;s-*r« — — e>»x»s ™j^^ — gg38S?§S{^g5SS5SS^gi2S3 g5?§SgS?8r:gs2S55SSS »OC'*-«'C NC CCt=:XCX-*0-*«l r-x.-wxxt^cscrt-c:t^cst^c25x?io «22§?§2Sg2§S§§;:§2§§ X ■* r^ ro X X I lOcoot^oooe^oxoooo— a xoooo— »o -SnSS lll|i^|iii|i|ji|li| ^^.-z-zziiifcxxii^'^ EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 39 ENROLLMENT AND ATTENDANCE. The data on enrollment and attendance liei-ein submitted are gathered principally from reports of the county superintendents to the State superintendent. Unfortunately these reports are very incomplete, and do not contain many of the most important items concernmg attendance. To illustrate: Nearly 85 per cent of the schools of Wyoming are one-teacher schools. In some cases many of them are included in one district; one district in Laramie County has 27. The county superintendents' reports give only averages by districts. Averages do not show the actual conditions, for in single districts there are schools in session a short term only, with teachers paid low salaries and the attendance very small, while there are others exactly opposite in each of these particulars. The average shows conditions somewhere between the two, or something which does not exist at all. A feature of the superintendent's report should be the presentation of such discrepancies. Data were not obtainable in the time at our disposal to show with any accuracy how many small, short-term schools having poorly paid teachers there are in the State, or in how many schools the percentage of attendance is very low. Reliable data relative to the percentage of enrollment could not be obtamed in spite of the importance of such information. An efficient school system enrolls all children of actual school age (ap- proximately 6 to 18 ^ 3^ears of age, if high schools are maintained), and holds them in school until they have finished both elementary and high schools. However effective may be the instruction furnished, unless the childi*en are enrolled and attend school regularly the result is unsatisfactory. The "census" as given in the county superintendents' reports is the number of all children 6 to 21 years of age. No figm*es are available to shov/ the number of children of actual school age, generally 6 to 18 ^ years. Percentage of enrollment should be computed on the basis of the number of actual school age and the actual enrollment. The figures given for actual enrollment in the county superintendents' reports are evidently not reliable. This is due to the lack of system in keeping records on the part of the school district trustees, from whom the county superintendents collect the data. According to the county superintendents' reports for the year 1915, 78 per cent of the census children (6 to 21 years) were en- rolled in school. This means an enrollment equal to the total number of children of actual school age (6 to 18^ y^ars), which is, of course, not probable. The United States Census of 1910 reported 35,770 childi'en from 6 to 21 years of age in Wyoming, with 64 per cent enrolled in school. This is probably more nearly correct. The esti- mate made by the bureau is given in the appendix. 'Inclusive. 40 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. Other important data not available in State, county, or district records (except in a few districts) are these: Percentage of eni'ollment in average daily attendance; number of eighth-grade graduates; census of children of high-school age and percentage of these children enrolled in high school; census of children of high-school ago in districts where high schools are not available; number of children of elementary school age not attending full term taught in the district as specified by the compulsory attendance law; and age-grade data. All of these items should be available for each school and for each district, and averages by counties should bo made only when needed for special purposes. The last item — age-giade data— doubtless needs a little explanation. Experience proves that over-age shortens school life. Especially is this tiue when children are two years or more over- age; children three years over-age rarely attend school beyond the sixth grade. Information concerning age grade of children enrolled in school is, therefore, valuable in checking up the efficiency of the school system. As soon as a more centralized county system is organized and a reasonable degree of uniformity of grading is assured, the forms filed in the office of the county superintendent should con- tain information concerning the number of children in every grade, with their ages, lists of promotions by grades, and information as detailed as possible concerning children who leave school at the close of the compulsory school period. The following table shows the census, the total enrollmant, the high- school enrollment, and the number between 7 and 14* years of age not enrolled in any school: Table 5. — Census and enrollment , 1914-15. Counties. Census (6-21). Enroll- ment. Per cap- ita cost per month (aver- age). 2 Attend- ini? high school. Number between 7 and 14 years of acie not attending school. Albany Big Horn... Campbell . . . Carbon Converse Crook Fremont Goshen Hot Springs . Johnson Laramie Lincoln Natrona Niobrara Park Platte Sheridan Sweetwater . Unita Washake — Weston Total. 2,049 2,401 576 2,093 945 1,778 1,839 1,336 675 1,011 4,147 4,321 1,197 1,045 1,477 1,581 4,101 2,867 1,866 523 1,328 1,452 1,819 436 1,641 663 1,358 1,501 984 569 692 3,005 3,431 1, 176 733 1,247 1,462 3,035 2,343 1,683 436 $8.02 5.67 4.12 6. .52 6.61 7.64 5.92 4.92 6.52 6.85 9.49 5.59 9.43 4.46 12.37 14.48 5.76 6.46 6.91 9.00 13.00 180 146 28 148 89 51 161 52 45 76 366 294 131 45 157 133 343 260 89 47 72 122 CO 9 11 4 58 119 50 17 17 65 93 23 51 41 7 5 10 29 13 5 1 Inclusive. 2 Based on enrollment. EDUCATION FN THE STATE. 41 These figures are taken from the county superintendents^ reports and show that 809 children between 7 and 14 years of age are not enrolled in any school. This is probably a low estimate, since, as explained above, the United States census report for 1910 shows a much larger nimaber than the State superintendent's report, and the present method of estimating information for school purposes leaves room for errors and omissions. In Albany County 10 per cent of the census children between the ages of 7 and 14 years are not enrolled in school. This may be due to laxity on the part of the attendance officer, or it may be due to the fact that some children five so far from school that they are unable to attend. Though there are no available data to show what percentage of actual school population is enrolled in school and how regularly those enrolled attend school, it is, however, possible to obtain from the county superintendents' reports the average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled and the maximum and minimum terms by districts. In a few rural districts schools are maintained but two months, in others three, four, or five months, and a six months' term seems to be relatively prevalent. Practically all cities and towns maintain schools nine and one-half months. Nine months (180 school days) should be the minimum term in any district. The variation indicates that gross injustice is suffered by some children, since they have a possibility of only a few months of school per year. It also shows the inequality of opportunity offered under the existing system of school management, A similar irregularity and consequent injustice is shown in the average number of days attended. Even in a county in which the minimum length of term is six months, or 120 days, the average number of days actually attended by each child enrolled is but 89. Schools in this county are evidently not holding pupils in school during the full term, even when the term is a short one, and, conse- quently, it is evident that the attendance law is not being enforced. The school term should be increased throughout the State to 180 days, and schools should be so respected in the various communities and should so appeal to the interests of the children that aU those enrolled would attend regularly, except when kept away because of ifiness or other unavoidable reasons. Regularity of attendance influences the cost of schooling. Data available do not show the cost per pupil on attendance basis, which really represents the actual cost. The per capita cost on enrollment basis, which now varies according to the table from a minimimi of $4.12 per month in Campbell County to a maximum of $14.50 in Platte County, is much lower than if computed on an attendance basis. If attendance were better for each district, the actual cost per 42 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. district would be no greater than now, the per capita cost smaller, and the educational results far more satisfactory. Summary. — ^The reports of all school oificers to the county super- intendents and State superintendent should he revised to include important items of information now omitted. A follow-up system should be in force, so that these reports may be filed with the proper authorities at specified times. The present laxity in the enforcement of the compulsory-attendance law should be remedied and better attendance encouraged by State and county.^ Secondary schools. — The percentage of pupils enrolled (based on total census children of high-school age), the average daily attend- ance, the number of teachers, the branches taught, and other impor- tant data regarding high schools could not be obtained. Except for the item of total enrollment, no available reports give separate data for high schools either in regard to census and attendance or number and qualifications of teachers. Although two different attempts were made by the State superintendent to obtain information from 47 reported high schools (State superintendent's annual report) in the State, only 17 replied — a number not large enough to be represen- tative of the State as a whole. From information obtainable from the State department, State university, and the United States Bureau of Education, there are 26 high schools giving a four-year course and 21 others giving some high-school work from one to three years. The enrollment in all but a few of these is very small and the num- ber of teachers small. In some cases four-y^^ar high schools are con- ducted by one teacher. In a few cases rural teachers are attempting to teach some high-school work in connection with their regular elementary classes. Taking time for this is unjust to the elementary pupils and the work is probably of little value to those taking sec- ondary subjects. If it were possible to ascertain the number of children of high- school age not enrolled in any high school, indications are that it would be very large. The city of Cheyenne, with a total enroll- ment of 1,909 (county superintendent's report, 1915), enrolls 288 pupils in the high school. This is 15 per cent of the total district enrollment. The State at large, with a total enrollment of 30,816, enrolls 2,912 in high schools, onh^ 9 per cent of the total enrollment. This estimate includes the cities of Chej^onne, Sheridan, Laramie, and others, where high-school enrollment is relatively large. The indications are, therefore, that a very small percentage, probably not more than 5 or 6 per cent of the total enrollment in rural com- mimities, is in high schools. Estimating from figures in the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1911, there were in Wyoming, A,i For detailed suggestions, see p. 91. EDUCATTOK IN THE STATE. 43 in 1910, 10,951 pupils of high-school ago (14-18^). The increase in total school census for 1915 over 1910 is about 9 per cent. Using this as a basis of estimate, there were in Wyoming the present year 11,937 children of high-school age; 2,912 of these are enrolled in high schools, leaving a remainder of 8,925 children of high-school age not enrolled in high schools. While this, of course, is only an estimate, it is approximately correct. So far as can be ascertained, vocational subjects in the Wyoming high schools receive little attention. Here and there attention is given to fitting boys and girls for a place in industrial life and an effort made to give some kind of vocational guidance, but no systematic State-wide effort is being made either to encourage a greater number of high schools or to assist in bringing those which now exist nearer to the industrial mterests of the people. More high schools are needed, and they should be located in such a way as to serve the largest possible number of children. The courses of study need revision, particularly with respect to vocational training. High schools should file separate reports with the State and county super- intendents. The State department of education should be equipped to have general supervision over the high schools and to give them advice and assistance. TEACHING CORPS. The most important consideration in the efficiency of any school is the teacher. If she is well qualified for her work, trained, ex- perienced, and capable, many handicaps can be overcome. This is especially true in the rural schools. As the teacher, so is the school. Few, if any, interfere with her sway. She makes the course of study, outlines the program, selects the books, often without restraint or advice, and is the organizer and general administrative officer of the classroom. These responsibilities demand ability of a high order and such academic and professional training as give preparation propor- tional to the importance of the work pursued. It occasionally hap- pens that teachers are ^^born;" that is, one of unusual native ability becomes a successful teacher through experience rather than through special preparation. Probably, however, the percentage of born teachers is as small as the percentage of born doctors, lawyers, or ministers. There is now general agreement among educators and laymen that the best assurance of good teaching consists in adequate preparation on the part of the teacher. The training of the teacher is usually thought of as made up of two elements — general or' academic education and special or profes- sional training. In addition, a study of the qualifications of the 1 Inclusive. 44 EDITOATIONAI. BURVKV OF WYOMING. teaching force should consider such professional activities, graduate study, summer-school attendance, educational reading, etc., as show a progressive attitude and a professional spirit. Experience is another important factor. In order that the teaching body may be a homogeneous group with certain standard qualifications, most States have some system of certification by which the teachers are classified according to educational qualifications, generally measured by (1) examination or (2) evidence of graduation from schools of specified class and standard. The teaching force of Wyoming has therefore been considered (1) as to certification, (2) as to general education, (3) as to professional training and experience, and (4) as to professional spirit as evidenced in the manner above suggested. Certification. — The State of Wyoming recognizes eight different kinds of teaching certificates, obtainable either on examination or on satisfactory evidence of graduation from approved schools. Legally the holders of higher-grade certificates have no advantage in appoint- ment or salary over holders of lower-grade certificates. Briefly, the qualifications represented by both forms are as follows: Table 6. — Requirements for teaching certificates. Class of certificates. Requirements by examination. Requirements by credentials. (1) Third-grade certiflcate (valid one year, not re- newable). (2) Second-grade certificate (valid two years; renew- able for two years by reading-circle work). (3) First-grade certiflcate (valid four years, renew- able for four years by reading-circle work). (4) Professional second-class (valid for life). (5) Professional first-class (vaUd for life). (6) Diploma certificate. (7) Special certificates (8) Temporary certificates. The common branches, including no high- school subjects, but including agriculture, Wyoming and United States civics, and ob- taining an average of 70 per cent; no subject lower than 50. . Rhetoric and composition, and the theory and practice of teaching, in addition to ex- aminations required for third-class certifi- cates. Algebra, English, and American literatui'e, elementary j^sychology. physical geography, and two additional high-school subjects, in addition to examinations required for sec- ond-class certiflcate. School management, pedagogy, methods, and history of education, the subjects required for a first-class certificate, and two addi- tional high-school subjects. Issued to holders of professional second-class certificates on passing additional examina- tions in advanced psychology and school supervision, after three years' successful teaching experience. Graduation from a four-year high school. Graduation from a four-year high school, with 18 weeks' additional work at a stand- ard normal school. Graduation from a four-year high school and an addi- tional full year at a stand- ard normal school. Graduation from a regular two-year normal school, with one year's experience in teaching. Graduation from the college of liberal arts of the State university or institution of the same standing, pro- vided one-fifth of thecourse piu-sucd was in education, and two years' successful experience in teaching. Issued to graduates of the State normal school or the State university and held while gaining experience required for the above professional certifi- cates. Issued to primary, kindergarten, and special technical teachers upon creden- tials or examinations. Issued to persons engaged to teach, but hold no certificate in force, but who have at some time held a teaching certificate. Requests must be indorsed by county superintenden ts and show " good and sufficient reasons." They are good legally only until next regular examination. It is evident that the two requirements for the same certificate, one by examination and one by presentation of satisfactory evidence of graduation from specified schools, are not equivalent. For instance, the lowest certificate (the third-grade certificate) requires EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 45 graduation from a four-year high school, if obtained by credentials, but it may be obtained on examination by a person with no high- school education. The first-grade certificate requires graduation from a one-year standard normal school on credentials, but it may be obtained on examination by high-school graduates who have studied outside of school certain professional works on education. In fact, a study of the education of the individual teachers now holding first- grade certificates shows many with no education beyond high school, and a large number with even less general education. As stated in a previous section, all kinds of certificates are issued by the State superintendent of pubhc instruction on the recommenda- tion of the State board of examiners, which consists of three members appointed by the State superintendent of pubhc instruction from among high-school principals, city and county superintendents of the State, and the faculty of the State university. This sort of board was undoubtedly satisfactory when the number of teachers in the State was much fewer than at present. Now, however, that the work is more arduous, it is difficult to find education officers who can give enough time to the work to assure promptness in correcting exam- inations, passing upon credentials of education, and issuing certifi- cates. Many complaints have been received because teachers are required to wait a seemingly unreasonable time for their certificates. Greater satisfaction would undoubtedly result if the board were abolished and a division of certification, with a permanent chief, created in the State department of education. The following table shows the kind of certificates held by all teachers in the State at the end of the school year 1914-15, as taken from the records of the county superintendents, and those hold by 1,077 teachers at work in the fall of 1915 as reported to the State depart- ment on the special inquiry for information for this report. It is interestmg to note that while there were 10 per cent of the teachers without regular certificates in October of the year 1915, there were only 2 per cent the preceding spring. It indicates that a large number of teachers holding no certificates are employed each faU in the expectation that there will be no difficulty in securing certificates later. Certificates of teachers in 1914-15. Kinds of certificates. Spring of Fall of 1915. 1916. Per cent. Per cent. 6.4 7.4 16.8 20.2 16.5 13.4 44.6 32.5 10.4 11.2 2.6 1.7 .0 3.7 2.3 3.0 .0 6.9 First professional certificates Second professional certificates First-grade certificates Second-grade certificates Third-grade certificates Diploma certificates Special certificates Temporary certificates Those not reporting any grade of certificate 46 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. The figures for the fall of 1915 show that more than haK of the teachers of the State reporting hold either second or third grade certificates or none at all and 10 per cent hold temporary certificates or none. The first-grade certificate, held by 13 per cent of the teachers, is not a high grade of certificate, especially when obtained by examination. None of these three grades of certificate when obtained on examination necessarily represents any professional training worth while. Nearly 60 per cent of the total nmnber of certificates issued during 18 months preceding June, 1916, were issued on examination. Data showing the exact number of each grade issued in this way are not available. However, of the 40 per cent issued on credentials, a large number were given on high- school diplomas and represent no professional training. Only 29 per cent of the total number of teachers now in the State (diploma and first and second professional certificates) hold certifi- cates representing worthy attempts toward preparing for their chosen profession, and this 29 per cent in reality should be reduced by the consideration that a large portion of them were obtained by ex- amination. It is obvious that the professional status is low. It can be raised by legislation requiring of all teachers after a certain date, say 1922, a definite amount of professional training as a prerequisite for any type of certificate. This plan is being adopted in other States, and seems to be necessary, if trained teachers are to be secured. Another point relating to certificates is noteworthy in these figures. Three per cent of the total number of teachers included in this report (1,077) hold temporary certificates, and 7 per cent held, at the time the questionnaires were sent out in October, none at all. Taking this as a basis of computation, it would appear that about 50 teachers in the State hold temporary certificates and more than 100 none at all. That is, approximately 150 teachers (or 10 per cent of the total) were teaching in the month of October holding no legal papers authorizing them to draw their salaries. The blame for this condition must be distributed among three classes of people, namely, the teachers themselves, those who employ them, and the State board of examiners. To remedy this, it should be illegal, as it is now in many States, for any teacher or any employmg board or officer to enter into a teaching contract until the teacher holds a certificate. A very interesting fact imcovered by this investigation is the sur- prising variation among counties as to the grades of certificates held by teachers. The county reporting the highest percentage of life certificates is Natrona, the percentage bemg 41.8. The one showing the lowest percentage (Campbell) reports no teachers hold- ing life certificates. Thus we have a variation in the number of life EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 47 certificatos ranging from in one county to 41 .8 per cent in unother. Likewise the variation in third-grade certificates (the lowest class of certificate) runs from in Washakie to 25 per cent in Campbell. Similarly the average number of years of professional training varies from two-tenths of a year in Campbell to 1.9 years in Hot Springs County. No teachers holding degrees are reported in Big Horn, Crook, Niobrara, and Hot Springs, while Laramie County, containing the city of Cheyenne, excels on this point. Variation in grades of certificates among counties. Per cent. Largest percentage of life certificates, Natrona County 41. 8 Smallest percentage of life certificates, Campbell County 0. Largest percentage of third -grade certificates, Campbell County 25. Smallest percentage of third -grade certificates, Washakie County 0. What is the cause of this rather striking variation ? Professional schools for teachers as at present conducted do not prepare for rural-school work ; hence trained teachers gravitate to the city. But the matter must also be traced largely to those who select teachers. In the four or five largest tow^ns or cities in Wyoming the power to select teachers is usually given to the city superintendent. In small towns and rural schools the boards still perform this fimction. The table shows, for example, that the county in which Casper is sit- uated, and m which there are few small town and rural schools, has a high percentage of life certificates. Sheridan County (con- taining the city of Sheridan) reports 1 10 teachers, 42 of whom hold life certificates and only 10 of whom hold third-grade certificates. Laramie Coimty (containing Cheyenne) shows 46 life certificates out of a total of 123 certificates and only 7 third-grade certificates. The conclusion is inevitable that wherever the power of selecting teachers is left to the proper supervisory officer, instead of to school boards, much better teachers will be found. This is but natural. In many States comity boards of education and county superintendents must approve aU teachers appointed before the district receives any portion of the county funds. General education. — Ability to teach can be judged better from the applicant's education and training than from the grade of cer- tificate held. Too many elements of chance enter into the examina- tion method of judging qualifications, and too piuch encouragement is given by such a system for cramming subject matter at the expense of time which could be spent better in preparation for work in the schoolroom. An attempt was made to obtain information giving the exact education, both general and professional, of every teacher in the State; however, only 66 per cent replied, and in many cases the returns on normal and college training were so indefinite that it is 48 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. impossible to say whether the work reported was done in standard normal school or college courses or in preparatory department courses. The following table gives the number of the 1,077 reporting who had elementary education only, partial secondary education, and complete secondary education. Many of those with complete secondary school work went to normal school or college ; 495 reported that they had attended such institutions, more than the number reporting attendance at high schools; many of these did not report whether or not they had any secondary school work. In such cases their so-called college work was in fact secondary work. Many nor- mal schools in the United States and many institutions known r.s colleges require little or no high-school work for entrance. General education, elementary and secondary . Total number of teachers in State Total number of teachers reporting Teachers having elementary education only Havmg some secondary, averaging in amount 2.2 years Having some secondary, amount not reported Full 4-year secondary (including those who have additional college training) . Total. Number. 1,633 1,077 70 273 297 437 1,077 Per cent. 6.5 25.3 27.6 40.6 100.0 Professional training and experience. — Fifty-four per cent of the total number of teachers report no professional training of any kind. This shows a lower percentage of professionally trained teachers than exists in many other States. Those reporting professional training did not in aU cases designate the amount. They reported, however, attendance in courses which included professional education in nor- mal schools and colleges as given below. It must be clearly under- stood that the institutions attended were not institutions necessarily requiring any high-school education for entrance; they include all kinds, from those that require none to those that require the full four-year high-school course. Professional training. Training. Number. Per cent. One year (normal or college) 153 162 58 122 582 14 Two years 15 Four years or more : 11 Reporting none or not reporting - 54 Total 1,077 99 From these figures it is a fair inference that at least half of the teachers of the State have not completed a high-school course, and many have gone into teaching directly from the eighth grade. If reports had been obtained from all teachers, the percentage with less BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN, 1916, NO. 29 PLATE 6. LONE STAR SCHOOL," DISTRICT NO. 1, SHERIDAN COUNTY. DIFFICULTY GRAMMAR SCHOOL, DISTRICT NO. 32. BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN. 1916, NO. 29 PLATE 7. GRAMMAR SCHOOL, BASIN, WYO. HIGH SCHOOL. GUERNSEY. WYO. EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 49 than a full high-school education and the percentage with elementary education only would probably be greater. Experience in collect- ing information from teachers in other States, particularly that relat- ing to their education and training, shows that a larger percentage of those with poor training fail to reply than of those with good training. A remedy for this condition in the general education of teachers is to make a four-year high-school course a prerequisite for examina- tion for all grades of certificate and for entrance to all teacher-train- ing courses. While this arrangement might seem to be inexpedient, because of the difficulty of obtaining teachers with higher standards than those at present employed, other States which have by legisla- tion established such a standard as described above find that the supply rises to the demand in a few years. While experience does not compensate for lack of professional training, it is evident that, other things being equal, a teacher with- out experience is not so well quahfied as a teacher who has had suc- cessful experience. If the experience is obtained in a well-organized city system under expert supervision, it is of greater value than if obtained in rural districts without this advantage. However, expe- rience without supervision is a factor in the efficiency of the teacher. The complete data on experience compiled from the rephes to the questionnaires are somewhat unrehable, a few teachers having mis- interpreted the question. According to it, of the 1,077 teachers, nearly 200 were teaching their first year. The remainder report experience varying from 1 year to 40 years, the average of those so reporting being 5 years. When extremes are so great, it is obvious that an average means httle. Statistics are given concerning the teachers in one county which are far more accurate and are probably typical of conditions in the majority of counties in the State. This table shows that more than half the teachers have had no previous experience and that only a very small percentage, about 9, have had three years' experience or more. Three years may well be consid- ered as the smallest possible amount of time necessary before one may be classed as following teaching as a serious life business. Experience of the teachers of one county in Wyoming. Experience. Number. Percent. Number of teachers in Laramie County. . Number teaching first year Number teaching second year Number teaching third year Number teaching fourth year , Number teaching fifth year Number teaching sixth year Number teaching seventh year Number teaching more than seven years . 123 67 27 20 3 2 1 2 1 54.4 21.9 16.3 2.4 1.6 .9 1.6 57460°— 17 i 50 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. Progressiveness aiid professional spint. — The table at the close of this section shows data concerning summer school and correspond- ence courses and professional reading. Such items measure some- what the teachers' ability to progress and to retain a professional attitude toward her work. The majority of the teachers in Wyoming do not attend summer schools; only 6 per cent of those replying report attendance at one or more. The actual total number is undoubtedly somewhat greater. About 6 per cent of the total number reporting had taken some correspondence work; 16 per cent had read no professional books, 35 per cent had read three such books, and 32 per cent had read fewer than three books; only 8.G per cent of the teachers report that they read professional maga- zines. It can not be concluded that this lack of professional spirit is confined to immature and untrained teachers. Teachers who hold normal-school diplomas often look upon them with a satisfied sense of finality — in fact, the problem of training teachers is probably matched by the equally great one of keeping them in training. Perhaps the^only remedy for this is professional supervision. This is treated in a later chapter. In addition, renewal of certificates should probably depend on evidence of professional progress, as shown by the completion of reading-circle work, success grades given by the supervising officer, or by some similar requirement. The following table is a summary of the data relative to the 1,077 teachers reporting on the various items discussed in the preceding pages: EDUCATION IN THE STATE. 51 •9MVa JO SJt!8X f 3uit{Ot38Jj •JB8X pjtm 3mtio^8^L •JB9X puoaas SinqoBaj^ •j'BaX ^sjtj SurqaBex ■ OTft^rHOOSlOtNlO S?^2SI5£5'^?5^S?5S2;?3|S o> T-i 00 1» ■* o 00 o Tf rH CO !>• e>i o> t^ >o 00 CD »o >o i a> i oo 000-H(N-(N»0 >»0»-t?0«OC<»0»OOOcOC005'^OCO»OOJOeOl^ CO»OOJO« •semzBSBui ^Buoissajojd 3utpBaj jaqratifj; O00i-Hr-o«ccooo»oco« •S2iooq 8 (N lo (N -"i" <£> ^ lo 00 a>(N e^ 00 1-( CO o o 00 ri Tt< oj i oo i o •S3iooq 2 JO X •3Iooq o^ Or-tCOt^t^-^C<»-^OSCOl0 05 0«3i-leOCOC<»^Ha> •sasjnoo aouapuodsajjoo t^OIMOOC<«i-HOC0O«>i-<^Oi-i.-He<5OOT-( ^^ , I -siooqos J9uimns ^ g.S bi) papuat^T? SuiA^q J8qnmjs[ 2.2 2. S sxedJi ^ o; X spoqas ^buijou •^ '"^^ I JO 9381103 upeoiTBpirajvV" •0. •ssBp puooag •ssBp ^sjr^ ooc^-^cvicoi-ioiMcoosooOt-iioe^Ttioocoot^ •|BU0lSS8J0jd pU008S "IBuoissajojd ^sji J • e^ lO co « t* « CO T-lOO CO •<»< • eo •^ t^ to CO CO CO •sSmpnnq J8qoB8;-x ui 3urqoB9'j jaquitiK r-(C0O00OC0(M>«O(N00t^t^ »H (N (N r-< COt-t^»C«OcOcO »0 CO CO>OCOCO«3iOt^cOiOiO '^%10 lC0«CO •gX-^xei '^!jTinoo ui sjaqoBaj jaqran^ i-'fOOO'^COOi-^'O'^'^OJ-^OOt^iMOiCOOSCOTti it^C0 00Ttooo50i-iNco-«i.2- ,1!l O Jj o OpOO 0S!0 '^OS 1- 'i gg g S CD O t^ «0 'O lO •3 . ® S § C3 ® 9 >^^ ''3® IS CO coE-ico ^ ^ ® © "go C<) 8 i i CO 'C'^ leo 00 CO Num- ber of teach- ers. ^ ^J CO t^ OOrH •o •*eo ^ »o CO Num- ber of eighth- grade gradu- ates (1915). ^ s eg (N wco ■■* OI-4 ^ 00 -* oo Amt. spent school child. 00 5§ 2 S §2 coco 00 S8 A'alu- ation school child. Si" o" §1 JCCO" oo" oo'co" •-T (N" Aver- daily at- tend- ance. T)1 s g § s ss £ ££ £ i§ £ ^ro w'H| i CO i m S£ e W^op £ 2 e £^ ki4 2 CO g So?3 1 S^ g S 05 ESS cial levy neces- to raise $200 per teach- er em- b 00 '^ o o4 "3 C5»H O) •<»< ^ o CO»C eo«> Teach- ers actu- ally em- ^ - CO l^ 00 iH lO .^eo w »o »c C-.-h? <-> Sft&C-too . U i^|^^"l^©^| g^-2a£^.S3afl ©COiJ ® s£ > o o ^-i © 2 2^ S ® ® t» S J^f- IH © i^ CO 03 ii4!||tii <=> o o o g 2 M W CO i^Xi n 03 c3 o3 S »3 »3 i.'^.a >>>-->> >>g.S W .X! tL (L ;; A i v ofl.SSgs^fla if 76 EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF WYOMING. However, special-tax burdens are much fiu-ther from being equita- ble. The table shows also that the average special district tax varies from 1.4 mills in Natrona (a county with a high per capita valuation as noticed above) to 4.3 mills in Hot Springs County. The facts are that some districts which have large valuation need a very small levy for reasonably good schools, and other districts with small valuations must levy a high rate in order to provide even meagerly for the children. The small levy or the lack of any levy at all may also be due to the fact that the community is too indifferent to the necessity of education to care properly for the expense of good school faciUties. The following shows the percentage of districts which make no special levy for each of 18 counties of the State from which data were obtained Per cent. Albany 60 Lincoln ^50 Washakie 37^ Crook 36 Converse 33J Johnson 31 Per cent. Weston 25 Sheridan 25 Park 20 Carbon 14| Big Horn ]2i Niobrara 9tV Per cent. Laramie Fremont Campbell Unita Hot Springs Natrona Table 16 is a detailed study of one county showing special district levies, the amount received from special levy and polls, the amount from county general tax, and the amount from the State. Fifty per cent of the districts in this coimty levy no special tax, but depend upon the State and county for the entire support of their schools (excepting the small amount from polls). Reference to Table 16 will verify in part the statement of one investigator that these schools usually have poorly qualified teachers, with low salaries, short terms, poor build- ings and equipment. So indifferent are some of these districts that data on enrollment and attendance are not available in the office of the county superintendent. In contrast to these, district No. 20 levies a tax of 7 mills, employs five teachers, enrolls 75 per cent of its census children, pays $70 to $80 to its teachers, and has a six or nine months' term; This district pays 52 per cent of its total school expenditure by local tax and receives approximately 24 per cent from the coimty and the same from the State. The following shows the percentages of total expenditure for schools coming from local, county, and State sources in Lincoln County : REVENUE FOR THE SUPPORT OF SCHOOLS. Table 17. — Per cent of taxes from various sources in Liincoln County. 77 Districts. Local. County. State. No. 1.. 44 29 27 • 2.. 39 31 31 3.. 12 34 54 5.. 14 43 43 6.. 10 70 20 7.. 10 58 32 8.. 54 29 17 9.. 9 64 26 10.. 8 70 21 19.. 20 39 41 20.. 61 24 24 21.. 45 27 28 22.. 13 44 43 23.. 26 35 38 District 1, with a special levy of 3 J mills, pays 44 per cent of the total expenditure through special levy and receives approximately 28 per cent each from the county and State. Districts Nos. 19, 21, and 23, with the same special levy of 3 J mills, pay from local sources, respectively, 20 per cent, 45 per cent, and 26 per cent of the total expenditure. The county and the State each contribute approxi- mately one-half of the remaining 80 per cent, 65 per cent, and 74 per cent, respectively. These districts, though paying the same tax levy, raise thereby very different amounts (see Table 16), spend different amounts of money per teacher, and have different tax-levying wealth per child. For example, district 21 has more than twice the wealth per child that district 23 has. The wealth per teacher em- ployed varies as greatly in these districts as shown in Table 18. Table 18. — Valuation per teacher and child in Lincoln County. Amount received Valuation Valuation from State Districts. per per school divided by teacher. child. the number of teachers employed. No. 1.... $108,916 $3,225 $284 2.... 181,693 4,761 319 3.... 95, 759 1,587 506 400,693 10,236 328 6.... 155, 188 15,419 91 7.... 180,674 6,691 176 8.... 180,135 8,263 182 9.... 150,040 8,256 132 10.... 73,401 6,291 98 19.... 36,833 1,007 296 20.... 96,039 2,632 319 21.... 118,966 2,974 333 22.... 82,794 2,207 314 23.... 39,562 '964 344 The difference in valuation per school child for the different dis- tricts in the county is shown also in the table referred to. This in itself is not always a fair method of judging the ability of a district to maintain necessary schools. As previously stated, one teacher 78 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. is needed for a school of 5 as well as for one of 25 children, and he should be as well qualified and therefore receive as much salary. The wealth per teacher is a fairer basis of judgment than the wealth per child. The table shows that the two valuations do not always correspond. In the county studied the wealth per teacher varies from $36,833 in No. 19 to $400,693 in No. 5. This difference m valuation indicates how much more in proportion .to wealth some communities must pay for education than others. The table shows also the amount received from the State divided by number of teachers employed. The county fund is now distributed on this basis. It is fair also to consider what the different districts in the county contribute to the county funds and the relation of this contribution to the amount they receive in return from the county. Table 19 makes such a comparison. Table 19. — Arrwunts received from and paid to the county general fund by districts in one county.^ Districts. Received from county. Paid to county. Paid more or less than received. No. 1... $8,951.04 $8,364.75 $586. 29 less. 2... 3,516.48 5, 107. 15 1, 590. 67 more. 3... 1,918.08 1,470.87 447.211ess. 5... 2,327.76 7,180.43 4, 852. 67 more. 6... 2,557.44 3, 178. 19 620. 75 more. 7... 319.68 462.53 142. 85 more. 8... 1,598.40 1,305.94 292. 46 less. 9... 1,287.72 1,331.61 43. 89 more. 10... 959.04 563.72 396. 32 less. 19... 11,828.16 3,960.31 7,967. 85 less. 20... 1,598.40 1,229.30 369. 10 less. 21... 959.04 913.66 45. 38 less. 22... 639.36 424.91 214. 45 less. 23... 639.36 202. 5« 436. 80 less. 1 No allowance made for loss from uncollected taxes or for cost of collection. It is not advocated that these should be equal, as the purpose of county aid is not to equalize total amounts, but to equalize tax burdens and educational opportunities. In a general way the county tax in this county is fairly distributed; that is, those districts which received from the county more than they paid are usually the dis- tricts with the heaviest burdens and high levies, while those con- tributing more than they received have small local levies or relatively small local expenditures. More specifically stated, of districts Nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, and 9, which pay more than they receive, No. 2 has a special levy of only IJ mills and the others none. Of those which receive more than they pay, Nos. 1, 8, 19, 20, 21, and 23 have a special levy of 3 mills or more. If State aid and local tax were equalized as well as county tax, in this county at least, school taxation would be reasonably fair to all districts. That the State fund does not tend to equalize the expense of teaching is shown in Table 17. As will REVENUE FOR THE SUPPORT OF SCHOOLS. 79 be seen from that table, the amount per teacher varies in this county from $91i in district 6 to $506 in district 3; that is, the State helps one district to the extent of contributing $§1 a year to the salary of each teacher employed, and helps the other district to the extent of contributing $506 each year for each teacher employed. In addition to the discrepancy aheady mentioned, the amount spent in the education of each child varies from $15 in district 3 to $50 in district 8 (see Table 16). Unless the money is very well managed in one case and very badly managed in another, the children in district 8 will receive three times as much in educational value as those in district 3. The amount spent per teacher (see Table 16) varies from $341.50 in district 10 to $1,317 in district 20. Is the teaching in district 20 worth fom* times as much as that in district 10? What of the children in the 50 per cent of the districts from which enrollment and attendance statistics were not obtainable from the county superintendent, and the investigator says '^ probably not from the districts themselves " ? Of the total school expenditure of the county studied, 24.8 per cent comes from special district tax, 42.4 from the county, and 32.8 from the State. The figures given show that the district unit for taxation and administration tends to make very unequal burdens of taxation and very unequal educational opportunities for children. This is not true in Wyoming alone; it has been found almost universally true in States organized on this basis. Not only is this not an equitable basis among rural districts themselves, but it usually causes a wide discrepancy in the kind and amount of education furnished to rural and city children. An investigation recently made of school taxation in Colorado shows that rm-al districts pay about half as much in local taxation as city districts. For every dollar of special taxes spent on a child in the city 54 cents is spent on a child in the country — this in spite of the fact that the wealth per capita is greater in rural districts throughout the State than in city districts. Indi- cations from data obtainable are that Wyoming conditions are similar. Table 20 shows special levy, school census, and other data for 16 districts in the State which maintain high schools. The special tax rate in these districts varies from 2.7 to 10.5 mills, averaging about 5 mills. This should be contrasted with the levies in the county studied (Table 16), in which the highest rate is 7 mills and in which 50 per cent of the districts have no special levy whatever. Generally speaking, cities pay higher school tax, better salaries, have better buildings and equipment, and spend more per child on education than rural districts. Rural districts in the State are not doing their share in levying special taxes. The 16 districts referred to above enroll 32 per cent of all the children in school in the State, and they raise 41 per cent of all money raised in the State by special tax levies. 80 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING, This is not because country districts are less able to afford taxation than city districts. Although detailed data for the whole State are not available, Table 21 shbws valuation, school census, and per capita wealth for the three largest cities in the State and corresponding figures for the other districts in the counties in which they are located, after deducting census and valuation of cities from the county totals. Not only is the w-ealth per school child greater in each case in the county than in the city, but the combined valuation is such that rural districts could afford to provide not only elementary education, but high-school education as well, without increasing the tax rate above the average city rate (this estimate is made on a basis of a 5-mill levy, and presupposes some assistance from the State and county on the per capita teacher basis). While the conditions shown in this table may not hold in exactly the same way throughout the State, it illustrates the fact that a change in present methods of taxation is necessary if an equitable adjustment is to be accomplished and adequate educational facilities, including high schools, are to be furnished to childi-en in the rural districts. Table 20. — School census, valimtion, and special taxes in school districts in which cities with high schools are located.^ Cities. Counties. School census. Amount Tax prop- raised by erty special valuation. 'Shr $10,260,138 $10.31 7,732,150 17.01 5,477,339 21,79 3,267,481 11.28 4,313,674 14.80 3,505,217 13.78 3,924,991 25.08 871,638 19.64 1,526,436 13.60 479,886 9.19 1,482,527 25.79 1,201,894 15.09 401,687 7.62 1,305,581 14.85 1,319,957 34.08 1,147,095 24.29 Special district tax. in mills. Cheyenne Sheridan Laramie Kemmerer... Newcastle... Evanston Rawlins Powell Lander Lovell Cody Lusk Cowley Basin GiUette Thermopolis. Laramie Sheridan Albany Lincoln Weston Uinta Carbon Park Fremont Big Horn. .. Park Niobrara Big Horn... do Campbell. .. Hot Springs. 2,718 2,272 1,371 1,013 1,013 890 532 498 453 444 345 318 316 273 . 252 241 2.73 5.00 5.45 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.40 10.50 4.10 8.50 6.00 4.00 6.00 3.10 6.50 5.10 1 Incomplete information prevented the giving of all. The average amount raised by special tax in the cities of the State is $17.35 per child. The average special tax rate is 4.95 mills. Table 21. — Valuation and census for the given cities. Valuation. School census. Per capita wealth. 1 Laramie County (Cheyenne city excluded) Cheyenne (city of) Albany County (Laramie city excluded) Laramie (city of) Sheridan County (Sheridan city excluded) Sheridan (city oO State as a whole (16 cities excluded) Sixteen cities mamtaining high schools * On the basis of school population $13,177,566 10,260,138 9,205,924 5,477,339 11,438,792 7,732,150 163,292,519 48,217,691 1,429 2,718 678 1,371 1,829 2,272 26,635 12,949 $9,221 3,513 13,578 3,994 6,254 3,403 6,137 3,723 EEVENUE FOR THE SUPPORT OF SCHOOLS. 81 It is true that while an apportionment on per capita basis works a hardship on the rural districts, apportionment on a per teacher basis is a hardship on the cities. It is for this reason that a con- sideration of number of teachers, plus aggregate daily attendance, is usually fairer to all concerned. However, the country usually contributes to the taxable wealth of cities in such a way that the cities can ajfford to make some recompense. For example, most of the cities in Wyoming would not be favored with railroad terminals and shops, sugar-beet factories, and other taxable corporation prop- erty were it not for the industry of the people in the surroimding rural districts. Therefore, the country districts may justly par- take of some of the benefits coming from a tax on these corpora- tion properties. Moreover, under the existing system, the injustice done cities through the county method of distribution is largely compensated by the State method of distribution. Let us take, for example, the actual situation in the three largest cities of the State, Cheyenne, Sheridan, and Laramie. According to the report of the board of trustees of the city of Cheyenne, the city received from the county general tax $18,000 and paid into the county fund $31,000, an excess of about $13,000 in favor of the rural districts. Cheyenne received from the State $22,800, the remainder of the county $12,000, an excess over the rural districts of about $10,800 in favor of the city. While these funds do not exactly balance in amount, it should be remembered that the city of Cheyenne, employing 40 teachers for its elementary schools, receives from the State an amount equal to approximately $570 ^ for each elemen- tary teacher employed, in addition to $300 from the county fund, while the rural schools in Laramie County, employing 104 teachers in elementary schools, receive only $115 from the State for each teacher, in addition to $300 from the county. Since the true expense of maintaining schools is based on the number of teachers necessary rather than on the number of children attending, the cities really receive from the State and county combined more aid in proportion to their needs than rural districts.^ The city of Laramie receives from the State $11,500, an amount equal to approximately $575 for each of 20 teachers employed in the elementary schools and the junior high school, in addition to $300 per teacher from the county fund. The rural schools receive ^rom the State only $5,695 for 52 teachers in elementary schools, or about $109 per teacher, in addition to $300 from the county. The city of Laramie pays into the county fund about $11,000 and re- ceives therefrom about $9,000. Here again this excess of $2,000 1 If high-school teachers, special supervisors, and the city superintendent are Included, the amount received would be $428 for each. High schools are omitted in the calculation because the country districts have no high schools. 57460°— 17 6 82 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. paid to the county is more than balanced by the excess received from the State ($5,808). The city of Sheridan receives from the county fund $13,500 and pays into the same fund $6,495. The country districts therefore, through county tax as well as the State through apportionment, are helping the district of Sheridan to maintain its schools. (These figures are only approximately correct, because actual statistics were not available. Those given are obtained by multiplying valua- tion by tax levy in mills in the one case and multiplying census by $8.39 — the State per capita apportionment — in the other. They do not allow for uncollected taxes and the expense of collection. They are, however, nearly correct, the proportions are right, and the conclusions are practically true.) One important consideration in the whole question of the sup- port of education is the method of bookkeeping in the various school units. Each board at present elects one of its members treasurer. He keeps the board's accounts in his own way, although a special clerk's and treasurer's record book is recommended by the State super- intendent. Each board may audit its treasurer's accounts if it sees fit to do so, or the district may vote an audit. No other agency has power, however, to examine the records of the treasurer. As a mat- ter of fact, very few accounts are ever audited and information con- cerning them is difiicult to obtain. It was obtained for this report in relatively few cases. Instances similar to the following are re- ported as common by the county superintendents. One district in re- porting to the county superintendent shows a balance on hand at the beguming of the fiscal year, May 1, 1915, of more than $500 less than the balance on hand at the close of the preceding year as given in the preceding annual report. On one report from a large district the balance on hand at the close of the year was approximately $5,000 less than the difference between the expenditures and the receipts for the year including balance brought over from preceding year. An inquiry was sent to the clerks of 359 boards asking for definite information of their accounting systems and of the general conduct of the business side of their work. The answers received were in nearly all cases vague, indicating very clearly the decided need of more businesslike methods of handling school funds and accurate^ methods of bookkeeping. It is recommended in another section that all school f imds be left in the county treasury, credited to the various districts, and paid out by the treasurer on warrants signed by two members of any board. The coimty treasurer thus acts as a banker for the funds, and his accounts with the individual districts necessarily show the expenditures of the districts and the purposes for which made. r\^. MOVEMENTS IN OTHER STATES AS OUTLINED IN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WYOMING.* State administration. — In Wyoming, as in older States, there is a growing feeling that the State must assmne more and better super- vision over the pubUc schools, so that the State school funds shall be expended in the best possible way. This does not mean that the State should attempt to administer the entire school system in all of its details from a central office. There is always a tendency toward a mechanical system in school affairs when a central office has a large amount of detail administrative work to handle. County manage- ment and a certain amount of local district management are desir- able for this and other reasons of even more importance. However, there should be enough control from the State to assure that each local unit provides satisfactory education for its children and expends the State funds wisely. As the population of a State increases, with the resulting growth in the school system, and as the work of education becomes more and more complex, the need of well-organized State leadership be- comes greater. A State should estabUsh a general educational poHcy and provide means for carrying it out consistently. To do this the leadership must be continuous. Older States than Wyoming have provided continuous leadership by creating a nonpoUtical, con- tinuing State board of education and a State department of educa- tion under the immediate management of a professionally qualified State superintendent of education selected by the board. In 37 of the 48 States of the Union there are such boards with functions relative to the pubUc schools. In 15 of the States the State super- intendents of pubhc instruction are appointed officers, not affiUated with pohtics nor with political parties. ' The composition of the State boards of education varies greatly in different States. In eight States the boards are made up ex officio of State officers, usually including the governor, the super- intendent of pubhc instruction, and one or more other State officers. Such boards have shown themselves to be of relatively little value. In 10 other States the boards are composed of ex officio members and members appointed at discretion by the governor. In several States the boards are made up ex officio of persons engaged in education. Neither plan gives a wholly satisfactory board. The drift is toward 1 This section was prepared and included at the request of members of the State School Code Com- mittee.— A. C. M. 83 84 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. the board appointed by the governor and composed of broad-minded men and women of affairs who may or may not be engaged in edu- cational work, but who are particularly adapted to the position in personaUty and experience. The recent change to State boards of this type in Vermont and California is an indication of the trend. Appointment of the board by the governor has a twofold merit: (1) It recognizes the executive head of the State as responsible to the people for the efficiency of every department of public serv- ice; it tends to make the board responsible to the pubUc. (2) It centers responsibiUty where it can be definitely located, as can not be done where the board is elected by the legislature or by the people. The size of the board, the term of office, and mode of retiring are all important factors. The board should be large enough so that a death or resignation occurring at the time of the expiration of the term of any of its members would not change the majority of the board; and the term of office should be long enough, with not over one-fifth expiring any year, so that the board may be continuous. A board of seven or eight members, holding office from six to nine years, with one term expiring each year or two terms each biennium, fulfills these conditions. Such a board would guaran- tee that degree of continuity in service without which no business can be successfully administered, and it could not be changed to satisfy the caprice of any individual or to meet the political needs of any State administration. A larger board means additional ex- pense to the State, additional difficulty in determining poUcies, and difficulty in securing a quorum to do ordinary routine business. The best boards are those whose members serve without pay except for necessary expenses incurred in conducting the business of the board. The preference in the various States seems to be for a State board with duties and powers which make it responsible for the efficiency of the whole State elementary and secondary systems. The duties and powers actually given vary all the way from almost no control to almost complete control of the pubUc schools. The consensus of opinion in the United States seems to be that the board should have definite functions concerning the regular pubHc schools of elementary and secondary grade, advisory control of all special schools of elementary or secondary grade, such as schools for the education of delinquents or of the blind and deaf, and of special State vocational schools; also control of the preparation and certifi- cation of teachers for the pubHc schools. Otherwise its poUcies in regard to school management can be carried out only with difficulty. Between the State board of education and the State superin- tendent there need be no clash. The functions of the board, apart from appointing the superintendent, and therefore approving or MOVEMENTS IN OTHER STATES. 85 disapproving his acts, should be largely legislative and advisory. When it has determined upon a general policy or a particular action to be put into immediate operation, the execution should be left to the superintendent as executive officer. Such assistants as may be necessary to enable the superintendent to carry out his work should be selected by him, final appointment resting in the board. The board in reaUty passes upon his use of the selective power to obtain the right kind of persons rather than upon the persons themselves. This power of the board prevents a new superintendent from appointing a new set of assistants if those already employed are doing satisfactory work. The State department of education, to be effective, must com- mand the respect of local school officers and teachers and it must have legal authority to require that legislation relative to education be observed." To secure these conditions there must be a chief State school officer of high standing in educational work retained in office as long as satisfactory services are rendered; an officer who, with his assistants, by visiting all parts of the State and coming into contact with school authorities and schools, will know at first-hand the use made of State funds and the kind of educational opportunities offered. The size of the State departments in the various States measured in terms of the number of employees varies from 2 in Delaware — a commissioner of education and a stenographer — to nearly 400 in New York — a commissioner, 3 assistant commissioners, 20 chiefs of division, 17 field inspectors, and over 300 clerks, all housed in a special State education building. Wyoming stands next to Delaware in the size of its department, with a State superintendent, one deputy, and three clerks, at least one-half of the time of the office force being required for the work of the State board of charities and reforms and the land board. The size of the departments in a few other States with systems not highly centralized is given below: Alabama employs a superintendent, a deputy superintendent, a chief examiner for certification of teachers, four field agents, and seven clerks. California employs a superintendent, a deputy, a statistician, a conmaissioner of secondary schools, a commissioner of elementary schools, a commissioner of industrial schools, and eight clerks. Indiana employs a superintendent, an assistant superintendent, a deputy superintendent, four field agents, head of a manuscript depart- ment, and five clerks. Massachusetts employs a commissioner of education, 2 deputy commissioners, 8 field agents, and 12 clerks. Minnesota employs a superintendent, two assistant superintend- ents, a director of the teachers' employment bureau, six field agents, 86 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF' WYOMING. and several office clerks. The six field agents are an inspector of high schools, an inspector of graded schools, a supervisor of teacher- training schools, a commissioner of rural schools, a commissioner of school buildings, and a conunissioner of school libraries. The cost of maintaining the Wyoming State department is also less than any other except Delaware. The State superintendent is paid $3,000 a year, which is the same salary as paid to 16 other State superintendents. In 23 States larger salaries are paid, 2 pay- ing $10,000 a year. The salaries in 8 are less than those in Wyoming. None, however, pays its deputy superintendent so little. Nonpolitical officers. — To give the office the standing that it should have, so that it may be regarded as the leading authority on school affairs in the State, it must be made nonpolitical, with its head no longer identified with party politics. So long as the people look upon it as a political office, they will not turn to it for advice in educational matters. In 15 States the chief school officer is now appouited; imdoubtedly in many others a change would have been made before this time if a constitutional amendment were not re- quired to make the change. In the States where the State super- iQtendents are appouited, they may be selected from the country at large, in most instances paid whatever salary is necessary to get the best person obtainable, and retained in service as long as the work is effective. Of the 23 States payuig greater salaries than Wyoming, the State superintendents are appouited in. 12. In several of the States with appointive State superintendents the selection and appointment is made by the governor. Tliere are several objections to this method, and two States — Tennessee and Maryland — ^have since 1914 abandoned it and vested the appoint- ment in the State board. If the State board is to be made respon- sible for the State's educational business, it would seem that it ought to have the selection of its own executive officer, particularly as when the appointment is by the governor there is a tendency to make the office a political one and to subject it to the fluctuations of party and factional politics. The length of service of the State superintendent iq Wyoming and in a few States where appointive officers are found is given below. Wyoming has not, of course, had as many changes as many other States where the State superintendent is elected for a two-year term instead of a four-year term. Since 1890, when Wyoming became a State, there have been nine superintendents, including the present officer, who began service in 1915. Six of these served one term of four years each, one served two terms or eight years, two served two years each. Of the following six States in which the State superintendents are appointed, terms have been as follows : Pennsylvania has had one superintendent contipuously since 1893. MOVEMENTS IN OTHER STATES. 87 Vermont liad three superintendents from 1892 to July 1, 1916; the third served 16 years. Maryland has had its present superintendent since 1900. Massachusetts had four superintendents or commissioners between 1890 and 1916, the first serving 4 years, the second 10, the third 5, and the fourth 7 years. New Jersey has had three since 1892; the first served 4 years, the second 15 years, the third since his appointment in 1911. What has been said in regard to making the ofiice of the State superintendent appointive applies equally as well to the oflB.ce of county superintendent. This is quite generally appreciated, and considerable activity is evident in all parts of the United States to bring this condition about. In 23 States the rural superintendents are now appointed, in the other 25 they are still elected. The rural superintendents of New England are township or union district officers and are appointed, except in Vermont, by the 'Hown school committees" for whom they work. In Vermont they are selected and appointed by the State board of education. In New York the rural superintendents are appointed by a board composed of two persons elected from each township in the supervisory district; in Virginia, by the State board of education. Rural supervision in Nevada is under five deputy State superintendents appointed by the State board of education. The county superintendents of Dela- ware are appointed by the governor; those of New Jersey by the State commissioner of education; those of Alabama, Indiana, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, Utah, and part of those in Georgia by the county boards of education; those of Tennessee by the county court; and those of Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Indiana by a county meeting of school officers representing the townships in the county. The consensus of opinion seems to be very strongly in favor of the appointment by a county board of education representing the people of the county. The superintendent should be selected from within or without the county for special fitness and retained as long as the services rendered are satisfactory. A study of the rural superintend- ents and the length of the terms of service and their education, train- ing, and experience, recently made in the Bureau of Education, shows that the term of service in the States in which they are appointed is much longer than in the States in which they are elected, and that men and women with more general education and teaching experience are selected than when the superintendents are elected by popular vote. For instance, among the appointed county superintendents, 36 per cent are serving their first term, 29 per cent their second term, and 35 per cent their third or more than the third term. Among the elected superintendents 52 per cent are serving their first term, 28 per cent their second term, and 19 per cent their third term. This 88 ' EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. omits the rural superintendents of New England, many of whom have served many years, the district superintendents of New York, and also the coimty superintendents of Ohio, who on account of the change in the State school code are all serving their first term. As to education, approximately 83 per cent of the superintendents in New England have had four years of college education, requiring four years of high school for entrance, and an additional 1 2 per cent have had at least two years of college work. All have had at least a complete high-school course, only 3 per cent having no college work. In New York State 32 per cent have had complete college education and an additional 50 per cent have had from one to three years of college. Among the county superintendents appointed in various ways 1.7 per cent have had elementary education only, while among those elected by the people for four-year terms 9.1 per cent have had elementary education only, and those elected for two-year terms 6.6 per cent. Among the appointed superintendents 44 per cent have had full standard college education and 32 per cent from one to three years of college work; among those elected for four years 12 per cent are college graduates and 38 per cent have had from one to three years; among those elected for two-year terms 17 per cent are col- lege graduates and 33 per cent have had from one to three years of college work. Supervision. — Throughout the United States there is a growing feeUng that the county superintendent of schools should be a man or woman of training and experience and should be assisted by a competent corps of supervisors. Many States are now making pro- vision for these supervisors. In the New England States the supervisory district is always smaU, being composed of from one to five townships, employing as a rule 40 to 50 teachers. In New York the average supervisory dis- trict is one-fourth of the county, or approximately 200 square miles of territory. In several States, such as Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and others, counties with more than a fixed number of teachers are required to employ assistant superintendents. In Ohio, West Vir- ginia, and Oregon counties are divided into supervisory districts, and special supervisors as assistants to the county superintendents are employed in each district. This is a mandatory law in Ohio, the 88 county superintendents being assisted by approximately 500 district superintendents. In West Virginia it is a permissive law, but has proved so successful that practically one-half of the teachers in the State are teaching in districts supervised by district superintendents under the general oversight of the county superintendent. The supervisory system of Oregon is, all things being considered, probably better suited for Wyoming than the others mentioned. MOVEMENTS IK OTHEK STATES. 89 Oregon in 1911 passed an act providing for compulsory supervision. It required the county superintendent in every county with 60 or more school districts to appoint a county board of education, to be composed of four persons and the county superintendent. The major- ity of rural districts in Oregon contain but one school. This board was required to divide the county into supervisory districts, each to contain from 20 to 50 school districts (practically 20 to 50 teachers), and to appoint a district supervisor for each district so created. The district supervisors are required to devote their entire time to super- vision for at least 10 months in each year. They are county officers, responsible to the counties through the county superintendents, and are paid by the county. The county superintendent of schools may be supervisor of one of these districts. If a similar plan be adopted in Wyoming, there seems to be no reason why the county superin- tendent could not receive special pay for his services as supervisor of one of the supervisory districts until such time as a constitutional amendment can be adopted making possible more adequate salaries than are now fixed by the constitution. Wyoming would require approximately 40 supervisors; the minimima salary should be $1,000, half of which should be paid by the State. The State would then be in a position to see that proper persons are appointed and to control their work sufficiently to assure satisfactory service. The district superintendents of Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont, Con- necticut, and New York receive part or all of their salaries from the State; the county superintendents of New Jersey are paid by the State ; those of Tennessee and Ohio receive part of their salary from the State; the assistant superintendents of Pennsylvania are paid from State funds. This indicates the trend. In West Virginia many of the district superintendents who happen to be quaUfied for the work have been made organizers of boys' and girls' agricultural and canning clubs, devoting part of their time to the work, particularly during the summer months, and are paid for this by the State agricultural college. The result has been very satisfactory, in that it has made the club work a definite part of the regular school work, so that full advantage may be taken of it in the work of the school. Organization for local administration. — ^Three distinct rural school imits of organization are found in the United States — the district, the township, and the county. In addition, there are several instances of mixed systems, in which the responsibihty for management is divided between the district and the township, the district and the county, or the township and the county. There is also some variety in the details of the township systems and much variety in those of the county systems. 90 EDUCATIONAL SUEVEY OF WYOMING. The district system was adopted in practically all States in tlie early days of settlement and was probably the only system possible when the population was grouped in a comparatively few settlements scattered over a large section of country. With the increase of pop- ulation it is passing away, being replaced by the township or the county system. Indiana, in 1852, was probably the first State to give it up. Long before the abolishing of the district system in States which have adopted the township or county system, and in States which still have the district system, its weaknesses became apparent to those seeing the product of the system from the standpoint of the State, and State laws have been passed taking away from the local districts many of the powers and privileges formerly left with them. The requirement that none but State certified teachers be employed, that approved textbooks be purchased, that a State course of study be used, that certain sanitary measures be taken, are a few instances of this. The township system prevails in New England and in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and parts of Michigan, North Dakota, and Iowa. It is particularly satisfactory in the States where the town- ship is the principal unit for civil government, and not so satisfactory in others. For Wyoming and practically all of the West it would not be satisfactory for school administration. Either the county or semicounty system, where the responsibihty for the management is divided between the county or township and district, is found in 18 States. Maryland adopted the county system in 1865, the other States since that time. In the straight county system, such as Utah, Tennessee, etc., the schools of the county, except those in independent cities, are under the management of a single board and are supported by State and county funds expended by the board for schools in different parts of the county according to their needs. In other words, the schools of the county are handled by a single board in exactly the same way as are the schools of any large city system. The superiatendent is appouited by the board and is its executive officer. As a rule, local trustees are appointed by the board or elected by the patrons of each school to act as cus- todians of the building and to represent the people before the county board. Under the system, the location of the schools is determined by the county board; usually, however, the territory in the county is divided by the board into school districts as a matter of convenience, so that children may know which school to attend, and in some cases the local districts are allowed to levy and collect a local tax to be used in supplementing the county funds in maintaining a better school than would be possible otherwise. MOVEMENTS IN OTHER STATES. 91 Wyoming, however, is probably not yet ready to adopt a county system, on account of the size of the present counties and the sparse population. A semicounty system would probably be more effective. It would seem advisable to provide in each county by election a con - tinning county board of education and give to this board the manage- ment of those functions of education which can be best managed by the larger unit, leaving to the local communities all other functions. In this, Wyoming would be following the example of other States, not only those definitely known as county-unit States, but many others, for there are county educational boards of various kinds in 30 States. These include boards for supervisory purposes, for the examination of teachers, for the selection of textbooks, for the con- trol of special schools, high schools, etc. Support of schools, — The best way to raise and distribute funds for the support of pubHo education is by no means definitely decided, and space can not be taken here for an extended discussion of the subject. In no two States is there uniformity. All States contribute some State fimds to public elementary and secondary education, the amount varying from less than 1 per cent of the total cost of the schools in Massachusetts to 55 per cent of the total expenditure for all school purposes in Alabama. The Massachusetts State funds are used only for special purposes, such as the payment of the salaries of rural superintendents, the support of vocational schools, and for assistance to the poorer towns, which have less than a fixed valuation and are raising by local tax a specified amount. In Alabama all but a small amount of the State funds are distributed to the counties in proportion to the school population and are expended in the counties by the county boards in such a way as to assure as nearly as possible equal educational opportunities in all parts of the county. One- third of the counties depend entirely for the support of the schools on the money received from the State, the other third raise money by county taxation to supplement the State fimd. Be- tween thesa two extremes are all sorts of variations. For the local support various States rely upon the county, town- ship, or district as the unit of taxation — in many cases on two dis- tinct units. In 24 States the local tax is from the county and local district; in 10 States from the township; in the others from the district only. The amount being raised on the county basis is con- stantly increasing; for instance, the New Mexico Legislature in 1915 placed practically the entire burden of support on the county rather than the local district. 92 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. The present practice in the distribution of the principal part of the State funds to the counties or townships or local communities is as follows: 32 on the basis of school population. 1 on the basis of valuation of taxable property. 5 on the basis of attendance of pupils. 3 on the basis of number of teachers. 2 on the basis of attendance and number of teachers. 1 on the basis of inverse ratio of property valuation. 2 on the basis of number of teachers and school population. 1 on the basis of number of schools and school population. 1 on the basis of attendance and property valuation. County funds are distributed to local districts in many different ways similar to those stated above. In the States with the straight county system the county funds are expended by the county boards of education according to the needs of the individual schools, so that there will be furnished as nearly as possible equal educational oppor- tunities in all parts of the county. Township funds are in practically all cases expended in the same way. Special purposes for which State aid is given, either in specified amounts for the fulfillment of definite requirements set by legislation or in varying amounts for special needs at the discretion of the State board of education, are of considerable number, among them being the following: (1) Maintenance of school to increase the length of term or the teacher's salary. (2) Teachers' salaries when qualified teachers are employed. (3) Minimum salary in poor district. (4) School libraries. (5) Erecting schoolhouses. (6) Free textbooks. (7) Salaries of county and other rural superintendents. (8) Vocational education. (9) Aiding schools for deaf, bUnd, and crippled children. (10) Evening schools. (11) Medical inspection. , (12) General improvement of rural schools. (13) Consolidated rural schools. (14) Transportation of children. (15) Teachers' institutes. Several plans of distributing State funds will illustrate the problem. The State school fund of Tennessee is 33 J per cent of the gross receipts of the State for all purposes. This education fund is divided as fol- lows: Sixty-one per cent is apportioned to the counties on the basis of school population 6 to 21 years of age. Ten per cent is set aside, apportioned by the State board to counties which levy for public school purposes a tax of not less than 40 cents on each $100 of taxable property and a poll tax of $2 per poll to pay MOVEMENTS IN OTHER STATES. 93 half the salary of the county superintendents up to a certain mini- mum/ one-half the salary of supervisors employed as assistants to county superintendents, and to assist the establishment of consoli- dated schools and transportation of pupils. Any surplus is distrib- uted in the discretion of the State board among the counties according to their educational needs. Six per cent constitutes a high-school fund distributed to the public county high schools in proportion to ,the amount of money received by each from local sources. One per cent is used to encourage the maintenance of libraries in public schools under general rules and regulations of the State board. Thirteen per cent is used for the support of the four State normal schools. Seven per cent for the support of the State university. Two per cent for the support of the Tennessee Polytechnic Institute. California pays from the State funds to each county and city $250 for each teacher on the basis of 1 teacher to every 35 children in average daily attendance. The remainder of the fund is distributed according to the average daily attendance. This money and the county funds are then distributed to each district in an amount equal to $550 for each teacher employed. Missouri apportions $50 of the State fund to the districts for each teacher employed, the rest on the basis of the actual number of days' attendance of all pupils, that is, the aggregate attendance. These illustrations are sufficient to show how State funds are dis- tributed in other States to help equaUze the burden of education. If the Wyoming State funds were distributed on the basis suggested in the recommendations (see p. 101), each district would receive $100 for each teacher employed and $166,066 would be distributed in proportion to the aggregate daily attendance. Resources and school support in the various States. Number of Total value Value of Number of men 21 of taxable property adults for years and States. property, for each each 100 over for in millions child 5-18 children each 100 of dollars years old 5-18 years children (1912). (1913). old (1910). 5-18 years old (1910). United States.. 175,425 $7,337 107 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 1,030 613 5,900 6,300 9,500 241 120 252 123 Vermont 797 237 119 Massachusetts 5,753 7,300. 246 116 Rhode Island 893 2,164 6,600 7,900 231 231 111 Connecticut 115 New York 21,913 9,900 239 117 5,362 14, 137 8,100 6,900 222 110 Pennsylvania 208 105 1 All counties may participate in this one item. 94 EDUCATIONAL SUEVEY OF WYOMING. Resources and school support in the variovs States — Continued. Number of Total value Value of Number of men 21 States. of taxable property for each adults for each 100 years and over for in millions child 5-18 children each 100 of dollars years old 5-18 years children (1912). (1913). old (1910). 5-18 years old (1910). North Central Division: , Ohio ^ 8,552 4,951 14,596 5,169 4,282 5,267 7,437 5,548 $7,300 7,200 10,000 7,100 6,400 8,900 12,700 6,300 227 113 106 108 109 93 99 98 98 Indiana 211 Illinois. . ... 213 214 183 185 Michigan : Minnesota. ...... Missouri -... 195 North Dakota 2,038 1,331 10,900 7,500 166 175 93 96 South Dakota Nebraska.... 3,605 4,394 10,700 9,400 182 95 98 190 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 294 5,700 5,700 3,400 5,800 2,200 2,500 2,600 4,300 16,369 215 107 94 74 2,002 2,175 2,180 1,745 1 301 196 Virginia 153 West Virginia 161 84 North Carolina 133 63 58 66 87 South Carolina . 124 Georgia 2^299 1,015 767 137 165 Florida District of Columbia 144 South Central Division: Kentucky 2,152 1,834 2,050 1,306 2,057 6,552 1,758 4,321 3,100 2,700 2,900 2,100 3,800 5,000 3,400 7,300 160 79 152 74 138 67 Mississippi. 160 65 144 70 Texas 142 72 139 70 Oklahoma 145 78 Western Division: Montana 1,113 12,300 261 165 345 10,200 11,100 269 179 C olorado 2,286 231 125 502 4,700 8,600 162 88 Arizona 487 213 129 Utah 735 6,300 160 85 Nevada 441 28,400 269 180 Idaho • 591 5,900 10,400 11,100 190 113 Washington 3,055 1,843 255 151 Oregon 253 148 California 8,023 15,500 301 169 Teaching corps. — ^The amount of general education and professional training required for teaching is being raised rapidly throughout the coxmtry as more and more trained persons become available. Very few cities in the United States employ teachers who have not had the equivalent of a standard high-school course and two years of normal-school work. Those with less training have found employ- ment in country schools. In order to force the employment of better qualified teachers in rural districts, State laws have been passed in several States prohibiting the employment of persons with less than a specified amount of general and professional education after certain dates. Ohio, for instance, in 1913, enacted the follow- ing law: Unless said applicant is a graduate of a college or university of approved educa- tional standing, shall possess an amount of professional training consisting of classroom MOVEMENTS IN OTHER STATES. 95 instruction in a recognized institution for the training of teachers, not less than the following: After January 1, 1916, such applicant shall possess not less than 6 weeks of such instruction; after January 1, 1917, not less than 12 weeks of such instruction; after January 1, 1918, not less than 18 weeks of such instruction; after January 1, 1919, not less than 24 weeks of such instruction; after January 1, 1920, not less than 30 weeks of such instruction; after January 1, 1921, not less than one year of such class- room instruction in a recognized school for the training of teachers. The result was an exceedingly large attendance in the six-week summer schools in the summer of 1913 and succeeding summers. It may be noted that the law is such that teachers already in service may meet the requirements by attending summer schools annually if at the time of the enactment of the law they possessed less than the required amount of professional training. Several other States have passed similar laws with practically the same result. Wyoming should pass such a law; it would make it necessary to estabhsh several sununer schools in various parts of the State. These schools should be under the management of the State board of education, and for their support money now used for county institutes might be used, attendance at siunmer school being substituted for the institutes. States having continuing boards of education with permanent administrative officers find that certification is far more satisfactory when controlled by the board than when subject to the changes and revisions which legislative control makes necessary. These States award certificates on a basis of education and professional training more often than on success in examination. In connection with the certification departments, employment bureaus are maintained at relatively slight expense. A State employment bureau is a saving to teachers, who now pay a percentage of their annual salary to a private bureau, and it enables school authorities to get impartial accounts of a teacher's efficiency. This plan is in success- ful operation in several States, notably Massachusetts and Minnesota. V. RECOMMENDATIONS.^ As a result of the study of the school system of Wyoming the followmg recommendations are offered : /. Provision for a State Board of Education as the responsible liead of the educational system, the executive officer of the hoard to he the State superintendent of puhlic instruction. The board should be composed of men and women of affairs, scholarship, business ability, and broadmindedness, but not neces- sarily engaged in education; they should be appointed from various parts of the State by the governor with the approval of the senate, or elected by the people at large. A satisfactory number of members is seven, the term of office eight years, not more than two terms expiring each biennium. In this way a continuity of service and freedom from political interference may be secured. The members should serve without pay (or receive a small per diem), but should be paid their actual traveling and other expenses in attending board meetings. Four fixed meetings should be held each year and pro- vision made for special meetings on the call of the governor, the State superintendent, or a majority of the members. The powers and duties of the State board of education should be clearly defined by law and should include the following: 1. To advise the State superintendent of public instruction in the duties conferred upon him by constitution or law. 2. To have general charge of the educational interests of the State,^ determining educational policies, particularly in organization and administration and concerning the general scope of the public-school system. 3. To appoint a State superintendent of public instruction (as soon as a constitutional amendment permitting can be obtained), and upon the recommendation of the State superintendent to appoint all assistants and employees of the State department of education; to fix the salaries and terms of office of the State superintendent and all assistants; to approve the appointment of all district super- visors in the coimties as recommended below, who may be paid in whole or in part from State funds. 1 The Wyoming school code committee met in Cheyenne on July 8, 9, and 10, 1916, and adopted the report of the bureau as its report and the recommendations of the bureau as its recommendations, with certain exceptions, all of which are noted above and in the following pages as footnotes.— A. 0. M. 2 Without reference to the State University, which is not included in this survey, 96 RECOMMENDATIONS. 97 4. To advise the regents of the university relative to the content and administration of the course of study in the State normal school at the State imiversity, and to have complete administrative control of all other State teacher-training schools that may be established by the State. 5. To have general oversight of vocational or other special schools or departments of schools receiving State aid or Federal or other financial aid given through the State, whether estabhshed by the State or established by local authorities and imder immediate local control. 6. To control and manage State institutions for the care and education of orphans, the deaf or blind, feeble-minded, or other special classes that may be established, and to exercise general oversight of any similar institutions established by local communities and under immediate local control if they receive State aid. 7. To apportion the State school funds to the counties and to enforce State laws and regulations by withholding from any county the pro rata share of any school district maintaining a school violating such regulations. 8. To approve the charters of all higher education institutions that may be established in the State and to determine standards on which degrees may be conferred, always under the provision of statute law. 9. To exercise the functions, powers, and duties now conferred upon the State board of examiners; transferring the work to the State department of education and providing assistants, upon the recommendation of the State superintendent, to correct and grade examination papers and to recommend certification. 10. To maintain a State teachers' employment bureau in connection with the certification division of the State department of education to assist local authorities in securing teachers. 11. To approve the courses of study prepared for the schools of the State by the State superintendent, and the lists of textbooks that may be used as basic texts in public schools. II. Reorganization of the State Department ofPuUic Instruction. The department should be strengthened (1 ) by having the functions, powers, and duties of the State superintendent of public instruction clearly defined by legislative enactment; (2) by relieving the State superintendent from service as secretary of the State board of charities and reforms so that practically his entire time may be given to the school system; (3) by making the position appointive instead of elective (see p. 83); (4) by adding to the department at least two eflB-cient field agents to act as inspectors of secondary schools, voca- tional schools, and special schools receiving State aid, and as advisers 57460°— 17 7 98 EDUCATIOlSrAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. and assistants to the State superintendent in the performance of his duties; (5) by providing an annual State appropriation to be expended by the State board of education on the recommendations of the State superintendent for assisting in paying the salaries of district supervisors employed in the counties, and for assisting indus- trial and vocational education, and for similar purposes that may be authorized by law. The powers and duties conferred by law upon the State superintend- ent of public instruction should include the following: 1 . To supervise all educational work supported in whole or in part by the State (the State university excepted) and report thereon to the board and to the United States Commissioner of Education. 2. To visit different parts of the State to assist educational work and collect and diffuse information in school affairs. 3. To prepare, publish, and distribute matter for the promotion of public-school work. 4. To collect reports from coimty and city superintendents and from private institutions, and to prepare and publish a complete report biennially on the status of education in the State and an annual statistical report. 5. To prepare blank forms for use by county superintendents in collecting data from districts, forms for the use of county treasurers and district treasurers in keeping account of the school receipts and expenditures, registration blanks and card records for use in all schools in the State, forms to be used in calling school meetings; and all other forms necessary for the use of school officials. 6. To compile and pubhsh the school laws of the State. 7. To prepare courses of study for the public schools and to ap- prove courses of study in all special schools receiving State aid. 8. To examine and approve textbooks and to publish lists of books which may be used in the State as basic texts such lists having first been approved by the State board of education. 9. To enforce State laws and regulations by withholding from any county the pro rata share of any school district maintaining a school violating such regulations until the State board of education takes action. 10. To hold an annual State teachers' institute and an annual convention of county and of city superintendents, and to approve the program of all regular county institutes. 11. To prepare or have prepared examination questions for teachers' certificates; to issue aU teachers' certificates. 12. To prepare and pubhsh plans and specifications for school buildings. 13. To interpret school laws and to advise school officers and teachers on all matters relative to the conduct of the schools. EECOMMENDATIONS. 99 14. To perform such duties as may be prescribed by law and, as executive officer of the State board, to perform such duties as the board may direct. ///. Nonpolitical School Officers. The State superintendent of pubhc instruction and his assistants should be selected and appointed by the State board of education, and the county superintendents by county boards of education in a manner similar to the method of selection and appointment of city superintendents by city boards of education and of college presidents by college boards of trustees. These State and county education officers should be selected for their particular fitness for the positions to be filled, regardless of whether or not they are residents of the State, or of the county which they serve. Appointment should be for specified terms suffi- ciently long to insm*e the most effective service, the boards having power to remove from office for inefficiency or malfeasance. State and county officers so appointed would become the actual heads of the State and county systems, fi^t in responsibihty and opportunity, and able to count on long and definite terms of office by rendering good service. IV. Provision for Expert Supervision of Rural Schools. Each county with more than 40 teachers, not including those in supervised city systems, should be divided into supervisory districts containing approximately 30 teachers each,^ and a supervisor for each district appointed, whose entire time should be devoted to the supervision of the schools in his district.^ The salary for the super- visory work should be paid by the State and by the county in equal amounts. Minimum general education, professional education, and successful teaching experience should be required. The supervisors should be directly responsible to the county superintendent for their work, should be appointed on the recommendation of the county superintendent, and hold office while giving satisfactory service. The supervisory districts should be created and the supervisors appointed by a county board of education, and should remain in office until resigning or until removed by the board for cause. Each county superintendent, when eligible as far as general education, 'profes- sional education, and successful teaching experience is concerned, should serve as supervisor of one district in his county and should 1 The state school code committee recommend that the first sentence to this point should read: "Pro- vision for expert supervision of rural schools by dividing each county, exclusive of supervised city systems, into supervisory districts containing approximately 20 teachers each." It also recommends that provision should be made so that two counties may maintain a joint supervisory district. 2 It would be advisable to have these supervisors, when qualified for the work, serve also as boys' and girls' agricultural and canning club agents for the extension department of the State agricultural college. The summer months would be free to devote to the club work supervising the home projects. Whenever such arrangement is made, an equitable part of the total salary should be paid by the extension department. 100 EDUCATIONAL SUEVEY OF WYOMING. receive the extra pay for this work.^ This would increase the income of county superintendents, so that the position would be more desirable than at present. V, A County Board of Education. To divide the county into supervisory districts and appoint super- visors as recommended above, provision should be made in each coimty for a county board of education. The board should appoint the county superintendent also. (See p. 88.) The board should consist of five persons, not more than two of whom should be residents of incorporated cities with independent systems employing school superintendents. The members should be elected by popular vote for six-year terms, two of which would expire each biennium. Members should serve without pay, but should receive necessary expenses. The county board should have also the following additional func- tions, powers, and duties: 1. To advise the county superintendent in the duties conferred upon him by constitution or law. , 2. To exercise the functions, powers, and duties now conferred upon " the district boundary board,'' viz, full authority to determiae the number and the boundaries of local districts into which the county is divided. 3. To exercise the functions, powers, &nd duties now conferred upon the board of directors of the county li brary, so that the schools may be branch libraries, and the benefits of the Hbraries may be available both for the children and the adults living outside of the county seat.2 4. To fix the coimty school levy within statutory hmits and apportion the county school funds in whatever way may be pro- vided by law. A recommendation concerning the manner of appor- tionment is given below. 5. To approve the location and plans of all schools that receive any portion of the county funds for any purposes. 6. To purchase or direct the purchase of all textbooks and instruc- tional suppHes, such as maps and charts, upon the recommendation of the r^ounty superintendent and the district supervisors and in accordance with the regulations of the State board of education. 7. To assume full control and management of all high schools in the county except those in independent incorporated city systems employing superintendents. The high schools under the control of the county board should be supported entirely from county funds (plus the State apportionment). They should be free to residents of iThis is suggested as a temporary arrangement, to be in effect only until the constitutional limit to county superintendents' salaries is removed. 2 The School Code Committee do not adopt this recommendation. RECOMMEISTDATIOITS., ' 101 the county, and children attending who live itfo/e olian 5 miles tiomaiiy high school should receive from the county school funds an amount sufficient to pay in part for transportation for days actually attended or for board and lodging near the school, in the discretion of the board. High schools in incorporated districts employing superintendents should receive from county funds a per capita amount based on the aggregate daily attendance not greater than the per capita cost of maintenance on the same basis of the high schools of the county under the county board.^ 8. To approve the appointment and salaries of teachers employed in the county (except those in independent incorporated city districts under superintendents) who receive their salary in whole or in part from county funds, with full power to dismiss teachers for cause. 9o To provide adequate clerical assistants to county superintend- ents. VL Independent Supervision of City Districts. It should be provided that incorporated city districts employing superintendents devoting half or more than haK of their time to supervision may, on the approval of the State board of education, be independent of the authority of the county board and of the county superintendent in so far as the administration of the schools is concerned. They should be required to make to the county superintendent such reports as may be required by the coimty board and the State department of education; also before receiving any portion of the State or coimty funds to submit to the county board satisfactory evidence that schools have been maintained the minimum required term and taught by teachers holding certificates issued by the State department, and that aU other regulations of the State have been complied with. VII. A More Equitable Distribution of tJie Burden of the Support of Education. Provision should be made for a constitutional amendment so that the State school funds may be distributed to the counties, one-half in proportion to the number of teachers employed and one-half on the aggregate daily attendance,^ and reapportioned in the county as the legislature may determine from time to time as conditions change. Apportionment of the State funds by the coimties to the districts 1 The school code committee recommend this paragraph to read as follows: "7. To assume full control and management of all high schools in the county except those in independent incorporated city systems employ- ing superintendents. The high schools under the control of the coimty board should be supported by a county high-school tax assessed on all taxable property in the county except that included in independent incorporated city districts supporting high schools. The covmty high-school tax may be used in the dis- cretion of the board for paying tuition of pupils attending high schools in independent districts or in adj acent counties. The county high schools should be free of tuition to residents of the county." 2 The State school code committee insert here the words "double amount being given for high-school teachers and attendance." 102 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. 6n tie same ba§is suggested would be advisable until conditions change materially. A continuing State fund should be provided by appropriation or by millage tax which, together with the income from the permanent school funds and school lands, would constitute an annual school fund equal in amount to approximately one-third of the total cost of maintenance of schools, and distributed as above. Before distribu- tion a portion should be reserved for the employment of assistants in the State department of education, the partial payment of the salaries of supervisors employed in the counties, and for special aid to assist in the support of vocational agricultural schools and courses, domestic science schools and courses, trade schools, and other insti- tutions. A larger part of the support of schools should come from State and county and a smaller part from local districts. This may be accom- phshed by increasing the county school tax to an amount equal to $500 ^ multiplied by the number of teachers. This should be appor- tioned by the county board to the various districts in propor- tion to the number of approved teachers employed. In determining the number of teachers to be used as a basis of distribution, only those should be counted whose appointment and salary have been approved by the county board and who are teaching in schools which the board has specifically authorized to be held and which have maintained the prescribed minimum term, with such minimum attendance as the board may prescribe; further, no district should receive from county funds (State apportionment not included) a sum more than twice as great as the amount raised by local district tax, unless the local tax is the maximum allowed by law. Before distribution the amount required for high-school purposes and a portion sufficient to pay the expenses of the county board of educa- tion and the salary and traveling expenses of the district supervisors should be set aside. Local districts should continue to tax themselves as at present, the amount to be collected by the county treasurer and held in the coimty treasury to the credit of the district. The county treasurer should be custodian of all school funds, whether county or local, holding such funds to the credit of the individual districts and paying warrants drawn upon them only when signed by two members of the local board. His accounts of receipts and disbursements of all school funds should be audited by the coimty board or its agent. 1 The State school code committee recommend an amount equal to $400 multiplied by the number of elementary teachers; also that the words "the amount required for high-school purposes and" be omitted. Both of these changes result from the changed suggestion in regard to the support of high schools. (Seep. 101.) RECOMMENDATIONS. 103 VIII. Requirements for a Higher Standard of General and Profes- sional Education for Teachers. The legislature should fix an early date after which no teacher should be engaged who has not an education equivalent to gradua- tion from a four-year high school and a minimum of professional work in some approved school. The requirement for the professional preparation should be increased, so that on and after the 1st of Sep- tember, 1922, it will include graduation from a two-year course in a standard normal school whose entrance requirements presuppose four years of standard high-school work or its equivalent. The county institute should be replaced by a two-day teachers' conference with the county superintendent and supervisors, the money now appropriated for institutes being used for the support of summer schools with sessions four to six weeks in length and under the control of, and at such places as may be determined by, the State board of education.^ IX. Provision for Professional Training for Teachers. Provision should be made for securing a larger proportion of pro- fessionally trained persons to teach in the public schools. At present the State university is the only institution in the State which gives such professional training. It may be possible that the univer- sity can make such adjustments as will enable it fully to meet the demands. The need must be met either through the university itself or by establishing additional normal schools to be conveniently located in different parts of the State and under the management and direction of the State board of education. X. Reorganization of the Plan of Certification of Teachers. Provision should be made for transferring to the State board of education the administration of the certification of teachers. A division of the department of education should be created as a Teachers' Employment and Certification Bureau. The division should be under the immediate charge of a chief appointed by the State board on the recommendation of the State superintendent. It should have on file a register of available teachers with qualifications, etc., and be ready to recommend teachers for vacancies upon request. It should hold teachers' examinations for certificates or examine cre- dentials relative to their education, training, and experience, and recommend candidates to the State superintendent for certification. The rules and regulations relative to certification requirements, the kinds of certificates to be issued, and the requirements for each cer- 1 The State school code committee recommend this paragraph to read as follows: "The county institutes should be replaced by a two-day rural teachers' conference with the county superintendent and super- visors. Provision should also be made for summer schools under the control of and at such places as may be determined by the State board of education." 104 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. tificate should be left entirely to the State board of education, acting upon recommendation of the State superintendent. XI. Provision for Vocational Education. Vocational courses in agriculture, household science, and the more usual trades for both boys and girls should be estabhshed in special departments in selected high schools in the State. This work should be imder the direct supervision of the State department of education and should receive annually from the State department special State financial aid, as experience in other States has shown that satisfac- tory vocational work wiU not be established otherwise, and to be sat- isfactory must be properly supervised. XII. Control of S 'pedal State Institutions hy the State Board. ITie State School for the BHnd and Deaf, at Cheyenne; the Wyom- ing School for Defectives, at Lander; and the Wyoming Industrial Institute, at Worland, should be under the complete administrative control and management of the State board of education. APPENDIX.— STATISTICAL COMPARISON. Per cent of school population (5 to 18 years of age) enrolled^ 1913-14. United States— 74 per cent. North Atlantic Division: Rhode Island— 63 per cent. New Hampshire — 65 per cent. New Y ork — 68 per cent. Pennsy lvania— 68 per cent. Massachusetts— 72 per cent. New Jersey — 74 per cent. Connec ticut— 77 per cent. Vermo nt— 77 per cent Maine — 88 per cent. North Central Division: Wiscon sin— 66 per cent. Illinois — 71 per cent. South Dakota— 71 per cent. Ohio— 75 per cent ^ Minnes ota— 76 per cent. North Dakota— 77 per cent. Michiga n— 78 per cent. Indiana— 79 per cent. Missour i— 80 per cent. Kansas— 83 per cent. Nebras ka— 85 per cent. Iowa— 87 per cent. South Atlantic Division: Virgini a— 66 per cent. Delawa re— 69 per cent. Georgia — 69 per cent. Maryla nd- 70 per cent. South C arolina^-73 per cent. Florida — 76 per cent. West Virginia— 78 per cent. North Carolina— 79 per cent. District of Columbiar— 80 per cent. South Central Division: Louisiana— 51 per cent. Texas— 62 per cent. AIaba mar-66 per cent. Kentuc ky— 77 per cent. —80 per cent. Oklaho ma— 80 per cent. Arkansas— 84 per cent. Tennes see— 88 per cent. Western Division: New M exico— 60 per cent. Nevada — 72 per cent. Arizon a— 77 per cent. Washin gton— 77 per cent. Oregon — 78 per cent. Utah— 80 per cent. Idaho— 82 per cent. Colorado— 84 per cent. WYOMI NG-84 per cent. Montan a— 87 per cent. CaliforD ia— 90 per cent. ^^ 106 EDUCATIONAL SUKVEY OF WYOMING. Number attending daily for each 100 pupils enrolled, 1913-14. United States— 74. North Atlantic Division: New Je rsey— 77. Maine — 78. Vermont— 79. Rhode Island— 79. Connecticut— 79. New Hampshire— 79. Pennsylvania— 80 . New York— 81. Massachusetts — 85. North Central Division: North Dakota— 69. Missouri— 73. Wisconsin— 74. Iowa— 74. Nebraska— 75. South Dakota^76. Michigan— 77. Minnesota— 78. Kansas— 79. Indiana — 80. Ohio— 81. Illinois— 87. South Atlantic Division: Delaware— 63. Georgia— 65; Maryla nd— 65. Virginia^-66. South Carolina— 66. North Carolinar-68. West V irginia^70. Florida^71. District of Columbia— 82. South Central Division: Kentuc ky— 55. Mississ ippi— 61. Alabama— 62. Oklahomar-65. Texas— 67. Louisiana— 69. Western Division: Colorad o— 67. Arizona — 68. Nevada— 73. New Mexico— 74. Montana^74. Idaho— 75. Washington— 76. Califomia^-78. WYOMING-82. Utah— 82. Oregon— 92. APPENDIX. 107 Average number of days attended by every child 5 to 18 years of age, 1913-14. 3tates— 87, United States— 87. North Atlantic Division: New Hampshire— 88. Pennsylvania- Rhode Island— 96. New Jersev— 104. New York- 104. Vermont— 106. Massachusetts— 1 1 1 . Connecticut— 1 13 . Maine— 116. North Central Division: Wisconsin— 81. North Dakota— 86. South Dakota— 88. Minnesota— 95. Missouri— 95. Indiana— 99. Illinois— 99. Ohio— 103. Michigan — 104. Nebraska— 108. Iowa— 115. South Atlantic Division: South C arolina— 50. Virgini a — 59. Georgia— 63. North Carolina— 65. Florida— 66. Delaware— 74. West V irginia- 74. Maryland— 81. District of Columbia— 115. South Central Division: Louisia na— 46. Alabam a — 51. Texas— 55. Kentucky— 60. Oklahoma— 70. Arkansas— 73. Tennessee— 77. Western Division: New M exico— 61. Arizona — 81. Nevada — 85. Idaho-93. Colorado— 96. WYOMING— 96. Washington— 103. Montana — 105. Utah— 107. Oregon— 111. Califomia— 122. 108 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. J Number of pupils in high schools per 1,000 in elementary schools, 1913-14. United States— 76. North Atlantic Division: Pennsylvania— 71 . New Jersev — 80, Connecticut— 94. Rhode Island— 95. New York— 98. Maine— 112. Vermont— 113. Massachusetts— 131 . New Hampshire— 132. North Central Division: North Dakota— 63. Missouri— 66. South Dakota— 74. Illinois— 77. Michigan— 93. Wisconsin— 93. Minnesota— 94. Ohio— 94. Indiana— 101. Iowa— 102. Nebraska— 103. Kansas— 117. South Atlantic Division: South Carolina— 29. Florida — 33. WestV n-ginia- 35. North Carolina— 35. Georgia— 36. Maryla nd— 57. Vnrginia- 58. Delaware— 66. District of Columbia— 152. South Central Division: Mississi ppi— 25. Kentuc ky— 32. Alabama— 36. Louisiana— 36. Oklaho ma-41. Texas— 64. Western Division: New M exico— 37. Arizona— 60. WYOMING-67. Montana— 78. Idaho— 82. Nevada— 51. Colorado— 100. Utah— 118. Washin gton— 125. Oregon— 125. CaUfomia-134. APPENDIX. 109 Number of pupils in colleges per 1,000 in elementary schools, 1913-14. United States— 19. North Atlantic Division: New Je rsey — 10. Rhode Island— 18. Vermont— 20. Pennsylvania— 20. Connecticut— 21, Maine— 22. New H ampshire— 24. New York— 25. Massachusetts— 35 . North Central Division: North Dakota— 14. Missour i— 20. "Ohio— 21. Minnesota— 21. Iowa— 21. South Dakota —22. Michigan— 25. Kansas— 27. Indiana— 28. Nebraska- Ulinois— 30. Wisconsin — 30. South Atlantic Division: Delawa re — 4. Florida — 7. West V irginia— 9. North Carolina— 10. Georgia — 10. South Carolina— 11. Virginia— 15. Maryland— 22. District of Columbia — 103. South Central Division: Arkans as— 4. Di- 7. Alaba ma— 9. Oklahoma— 9. Kentuc ky— 11. Tennessee — 11, Louisia na— 12. Texas— 13. Western Division: New M exico — 5. WYOMI NG-6. Montan a— 9. Idaho — 11. Arizona— 14. Utah— 20 Colorado— 24. Washin gton— 25. Nevada — 2^. Oregon— 28. California— 35. Note.— It should be remembered in the interpretation of this data that such States as New York, Massa- chusetts, and California have many nonresident students enrolled in colleges within their borders. 110 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. Number of men 21 years arid over for each 100 children 5 to 18 years old (1910). United States— 107. North Atlantic Division: Pennsylvania— 105. New Je rsey— 110. Rhode Island— 111. Connecticut— 115. Massachusetts — 116. New York— 117. Vermont— 119. Maine— 120. New Hampshire— 123. North Central Division : North Dakota— 93. Wisconsin— 93. Nebraska— 95. South Dakota— 96. Iowa— 98j_ Missouri— Minnes ota— 99. Indiana— 106. Illinois— 108. Michig an— 109. Ohio— 113, South Atlantic Division: South Carolina— 58j North Carolina^-63. Georgia— 66. Virginia— 74. West V irgin^'a— 84. Florida^87. Maryland— 94. Delaware— 10*7. District of Columbia— 144. South Central Division: Mississi ppi— 65. Alabama— 67. Louisiana— 70. Arkansas— 70. Texas— 72. Tennessee— 74. Oklahoma— 78. Kentucky— 79. Western Division: Utah— 85^ New Mexico— 88. Idaho— 113. Colorado— 125. Arizona— 129. Oregon— 148, Washin gton— 151 . Montana— 165. California— 169. WYOMING— 179. Nevada— 180. APPENDIX. Ill Value of jaroperty for each child 5-18 years old {1913). United States— $7,337. North Atlantic Division: Maine— $5,900. New H ampshire— $6,300. Pennsylvania— $6 ,900. New Je rsey— 1:8,100. New ^ork— $9,900. North Central Division: Missouri— $6,300. Wisconsin— $6,400. Michiga n— $7,100. Indiana— $7,200. Ohio— $7,300. South Dakota— 7,500. Mumesota^$8,900. 400. Illinois— $10,000. Missouri— $10,700. North Dakota— $10,900. Iowa— $12,700. South Atlantic Division: North C arolina— $2,2 00. South C arolina— $2,5 00. Georgia — $2,600. Virginia— $3,400. Delaware— $5,700. Maryland— $5.700. "West Virginia— $5,800. South Central Division: Mississippi— $2,100. 700. Alabam a— $2,900. Kentuc ky— $3.100. Arkans as— $3,400. Louisia na— $3,800. Texas— $5,000. Oklahoma- $7,300. Western Division: New M exico— $4,700. Idaho-$5,900. Arizona— $8,600. WYOMING— $10,200. Washington— $10,400. Oregon— $11,100. Colorado— $11,100. Montana— $12,300. California— $15,500. Nevada^$28,40O. H2 EDUCATION-AL SURVEY OF WYOMIITG. Expenditure for school purposes per f 10,000 of estimated wealth, 1911-12, United States— $25.7. North Atlantic Division; ' New Y ork— $23.2. Rhode Island— $24 .8 Connec ticut— $27.2 Pennsy lvaniar-$27.5. New H ampshire— $28 Maine — $29.5. Vennonfr--$34.4. New Jerse Massac husetts— $35.7 North Central Division Iowa— $18.6. Illinois— $22.1. Nel)raskar-$23.1. Missouri— $25.2. North Dakota^$25.5. Wisconsin— $26.2. Minnesotar-$27.4. South Dakotar-$29.4. Michigan— 30.8. Indiana r— $31.7. Ohio— $32.4. South Atlantic Division: South Carolinar— $17.6. Maryland— $19. Delaware— $19.6. North Carolina— $20.9. Georgia^— $21.4. West Virginia^-$21.8. Florida; -$22.2. Virginiar-$23. District of Columbia^$25.5 South Central Division: Oklahoma— $16.6. Alabama— $17.4. Arkans as— $21. Texas— $21.1. Louisiana— $21.3. Tennessee— $28.8. Kentucky— $29.5. Western Division: Nevadar-$13.7. New Mexico— $21.7. Arizona— $26.3. Colorado— $27.3. WYOMING— $28.2. California— $28. Montana— $29.2. Oregon— $31.3. Washin gton— $32.7. Utah— $46.4. Idkho-$48.6. APPENDIX. 113 Average value of school property per child of school age^ 1913-14. United States— ?55. North Atlantic Division: Vermo nt— $55. Maine— $57. New H ampshire— $62. Pennsylvania— $62 . Rhode Island— $66. Connecticut— $82. New Je rsey— $85. New York— $100. Massachusetts— $109. North Central Division: Wiscon sin— $36. South Dakota— $52. Missouri— $55. Kansas— $57. North Dakota— $60. Michigan— $61. Iowa— $62. Nebraska— $66. Indiana— $71. Minnesota— $75. Ohio— $78. Illinois— $81. South Atlantic Division: North Carolin a— $12. South C arolina — $12. Georgia — $15. Virgini a- $19. Florida — $21. Maryland— $31. West V irginia— $33. Delaware— $62. District of Columbia— $151. South Central Division: )i— $5. Alaba ma— $13 . Kentuc ky— $19. Louisia na— $19. Tennes see— $21. Arkans as— $21. Texas— $23. Oklahoma— $34. Western Di^^sion: New M exico— $22. Arizona— $35. WYOMING-$60. Utah— $75. Idaho— $76. Colorado— $79. Montana^— $86. Oregon— $91. Nevada— $97. Washin gton— $101. California— $128. 57460°— 17 8 114 EDUCATIOITAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. ToUil expenditure per capita hosed on average daily attendance, 1913-14. United States— «39.04. Nortn Atlantic Division: Maine— S34.27. New H ampshire— ^37.06. Vermont— 138, Rhode Island— $42.08. Pennsylvania— $46.71 . Connecticut— $48.24. New York-$53.47. New Je rsey— ^{60.92. North Central Division: Missoiu-i— $33.97. 9.29. Michigan— $42.63. Wisconsin— $42.75. Iowar-$42.i niinois-«42.92. Indiana—$45.21. South Dakota^-$45.80. Nebraska— $47.14. Ohio-$48.S Minnesota— $52.08. North Dakota— $64.45. South Atlantic Division: South CaroIina^-$11 .65. North Carolfaiar-$12 .39. Georgiar -$13.70. Virgini a-$19.78. Florida-$21.88. West V irginia^-$25.96. Delaware— $27.04. Maryland— $34.46. District of Columbi*-$57.84. South Central Division: Mississippi— $9.30. Tennessee— $13.61. Arkans as— $14.60. Alabam a— $15.32. Kentuc ky— $22.90. Oklahoma— $24.46. Louisianar-$24j Texas— $25.: Western Division: New Mexico— $26.83. WYOMING-$48.08. Oregon — $48.46. Utah— $52.73. Idah(>-$55.06. Colorado— $55.49. Montanar-$64.54. .44. California— $70.98. Arizona— $71.39. Nevada— $77.14. APPENDIX. 115 Expenditure per capita hosed on average daily attendance: salaries only. United States— $22.76. North Atlantic Division: Maine — $19.43. Pennsy lvania — $21.19. Vermon t— $21.22. New H ampshire— $21.42. Connect icut— $24.87. Rhode Island— $25.37. Massachusetts— $29.58^ New Je rsey— $29. 91. New York— $35.97. North Central Division: Missouri— $21 .84. niinois— $23.63. Michiga n- $23.92. Ohio— $24.75. Indiana— $25.25. Kansas— $25.53. Wisconsin— $26.33. Iowa— $27.37. Nebraska— $27.1 Minnesota— $27.64. South Dakota-«28.23. North Dakota— $33.59. South Atlantic Division: North Carolina— $7.81. South C arolina— $8.38. Georgia -$10.36. Virgini a— $12.32. Florida — $12.99. West V irginia— $16.50. Delawa re— $18.40. Maryla a'd^20.41. District of Columbia— ^40. South Central Division: Mississi ppi— $7.2 0. Tenness ee— $9.36. Arkaais aa— $11.01. Alaba ma— $11.71. Kentuc ky— $13.56. Louisia na— $16.13. Oklaho ma— $16.32. Texas— $17.62. Western Division: New M exico— $16.57. Utah— $23.31. Arizona— $25.60. Montana— $25.87. Oregon— $29.55. Idaho— $29.i WYOMING— $31.20. Colorado— $34.51. Washin gton— $39.27. California— $43.57. Nevada— $48.79. 116 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WYOMING. Average annual salary of all teachers, 1913-14, United States-$525. North Atlantic Division : Maine— $399. Vermont— $405. New H ampshire — $418. Pennsylvania— $459. Connecticut— $599. Rhode Island— $702. Massachusetts— $729. New Je rsey— $851. New York— $941. North Central Division: North Dakota^$416. Ohio— $454. South Dakotar-$456. Minnesota— $469. Missouri— $500. Iowa— $508. Wisconsin— $517. Michigan— $519. Nebraska^-$525. Indiana-$594. Kansas-«622. Illinois— $690. South Atlantic Division: North Carolina— $243. South C arolinar-$273. Georgia — $306. Virglnia r-$307. Florida^-$327. West Vi rginia— $350. Delaware— $381. Maryland— $545. District of Columbia— $1,005. South Central Division: Arkansas— $317. Tennessee— $321. Alabama— $3«. Kentuc ky— $359. Louisiana— $418. Texas— $422. Oklahoma— $422. Western Division: WYOMI NG— $435. New Mexico— $437. Oregon— $523. Idaho— $586. Colorado— $593. Montana— $636. Utah— $656. Nevada— $738. Washin gton— $800. APPENDIX. 117 Length of term in days, 1913-14. United States— 159. North Atlantic Division: Maine— 168, New H ampshire— 172 Pennsylvania— 1 72. Vermont— 173. New Je rsey— 183. Massachusett s— 1 84 . Connecticut— 185. New York— 190. Rhode Island— 194. North Central Division: Indiana— 156. North Dakota— 159. Minnesota— 160. Illinois— 161. South Dakota— 163. Missouri— 163. Wisconsin— 168. Ohio-169. Nebraska— 170. Kansas— 172, South Atlantic Division: South Carolina— 104. North Carolina— 122. Florida— 123. Virginia— 136. West V irginia^— 137. Georgia— 140. Delaware— 170. District of Columbia— 174. Maryland— 178. South Central Division: Tennessee— 122. [—123. Alabama— 125. Arkansas— 130. Louisiana— 130. Texas— 132. Oklahoma— 136. Kentucky— 140. Western Division: New Mexico— 135. WYOMING-139. Idaha-152. Oregon— 155. Arizona— 156. Nevada— 160. Utah— 163. Montana— 163. Colorado— 171. California— 174. Washin gton— 177. INDEX. Act of 1869, 12-13. Administration, State, 83-88. Attendance, compulsory, 23; data, 39-43; statistics, various States, 106-108. Blind and deaf, school, 20-21; recommendations, 104. Boards of education, county, recommendations, 100-101. Carbon County, statistics of schools (1870), 13. Census and enrollment, 40. Certification of teachers. See Teachers, certification. Colleges, early history, 17. See also University of Wyoming. Compulsory attendance, 23. Constitution of Wyoming, provision for education, 27-28. Cook, Katherine M., letter to Commissioner, 7-9. County board of education, recommendations, 100-101. County superintendent of schools, creation of office, 12; powers and duties, 22-23; recommendations, 99; training, tenure, and salaries, 22, 61-65. Defectives, education, recommendations, 104. District directors, powers and duties, 12. District treasurer, powers and duties, 12. Elementary schools, number of pupils, various States, 108. Enrollment, data, 39-43. Expenditures, 70. Expenses, statistics, various States, 112, 114-116. Feeble-minded, education, 21. Funds, distribution in various States, 92-94. High schools, early history, 16; establishment, 24; enrollment, 42-43; number of pupils, various States, 108. Higher education, 24-25. History of education, 11-26. Hoyt, Governor, and University of Wyoming, 17. Indian education, 20. Industrial institute, recommendation, 104. Instruction, quality and methods, 53-60. Kindergarten, early history, 16. Letter to the Commissioner, 7-9. Monahan, A. C, letter to Commissioner, 7-9. Negroes, and separate schools, 12. Organization, local administration, 89-91. Population at various dates, 11; per cent, various States, 105. Private schools, early history, 16-17. Property, value, in various States, 111, 113. Public schools, statistics, 26. Pupils, statistics (1875-1915), 14. Recommendations, 96-117. Revenue, for support of schools, 66-82. Rural schools, supervision, 60-61; supervision, recommendations, 99-100. Salaries, county superintendents, 22, 64-65; teachers, various States, 115-116. 119 120 INDEX. School districts, 23. School funds, 23-24, 71; distribution, recommendations, 101-102. Schoolhouses, construction and equipment, 29-38; sanitary requirements, 30-33; sta- tistics (1875-1915), 14. School hygiene, 30-33. School officers, nonpolitical, 99. School sanitation. See School hygiene. School system, present, outline, 21-26. School term, statistics, various States, 117. State board of education, recommendations, 96-97. ; State board of examiners, powers and duties, 15. State department of public instruction, recommendations, 97-99. State superintendent of education, powers and duties, 21-22. Supervision, city districts, recommendations, 101; rural schools, 60-61; various States, 88-89. Supervision, rural schools, recommendations, 99-100. Taxation, inequality of present system, 69-S2. Teachers, certification, 14-15, 24, 44-47, 51-53; recommendations, 103-104. Teachers, methods of instruction, 53-60; statistics (1875-1915), 14. Teachers, training, 25, 43-44, 48-53; recommendations, 103. Teachers' associations, 21. Teachers' institutes, 15-16. Uinta County, statistics of schools (1870), 13. University of Wyoming, buildings, 19-20; early history, 17-20; enrollment (1890- 1916), 19; finances, 19; registration, 25. Vocational education, Indians, 20; recommendations, 104. Wyoming School Journal, establishment, 21. Wyoming schools, statistics (1883-1889), 13. o I 1 i i I Binder Gaylord Bros., Inc. Stockton, Calif. T. M. Reg. U.S. Pat. Off. r M3406ie THE UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY tIHR