UC-NRLF ^r''^\?w«Kf^n^ :iS^^!^m5SSJ^^SS«S8S8SSiS^^ lilWiHWii-iliii )1V B M 7bS 7m i j i— ii m ii mi iii i M i ii iijiM k^jM^^MM-^^L^-l^vv^'l^^S§:<^^t^i.^j^^.^v^y^.^^.^^^^ y UXAUAJtLO Wl THE PROPERTY OF fiakiiiiiBi Meal CoUme If tie Paeijic. MEMCAL tSCMOOL ~) Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/anatomicalstudieOObenerich ANATOMICAL STUDIES Brains of Criminals A Contribution to Anthropology, Medicine, Jurisprudence, and Psychology BY MORIZ BENEDIKT Professob at Vienna 0^ ^^t ) j^^ f^^Kj^^^ ^Ju$-rt, TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY E. P. FOWLER, M.D. NEW YORK Dbfaktmbnt of Translation New York Medico-Chirurgical Society new YORK Wm. Wood & Company, Publishers 37 Great Jones Street I88I K HV6C5 9 IB8I DEDICATION. TO THE Central Director of the Royal Croatian Prison, EMILE TAUFFER; and to the Prison Surgeons, Dr. BETTELHEIM (Leopoldstadt, Hungary), Dr. BADIK (Illava, Hungary), Dr. ROHACEK (Lepoglava, Croatia), This Work is Dedicated. t35Be DEDICATION. The dedication of this work seems due to you, as it was through your disinterested and self-sacrificing assistance that I was enabled to furnish the foundation stones towards a Nat- ural History of Crime. That Hungary, my native land, and Transleithania in general, should especially have furnished me most material assistance was certainly not an accidental occurrence, but one which might reasonably have been expected. There it has been an immemorial custom to hold fast to one's convictions and to give them unreserved expression, even though exposed to the danger of a temporary extreme defeat. It is true that my desire to obtain material for my studies was responded to in a most friendly manner by the Supreme Court of Vienna, and by His Excellency the Minister of Jus- tice, Dr. Glaser ; the latter indeed is too eminent a scholar to undervalue the importance which must attach to these studies, even though the results might be negative. The monstrous counter-agitation infused throughout the educated classes by the Vienna Academic circles, rendered it virtually impossible, however, for me to profit by the kindness of the Chief Department. This was of course a serious obstacle, for in Cisleithania alone I could have chosen my material from a single race. First of all, I must here express my warmest thanks to (V) VI DEDICATION. Professor Betz, of Kiew, who was at the same time a spur, a guide, and a support to me. It was only the greatest confi- dence in his authority and special knowledge in this branch that encouraged me to continue my studies in spite of the great distrust which they encountered, and to conquer the subjective fear of hopelessly wandering around a source of error ; a fear which must necessarily possess every one who stands isolated with his facts. The lion's share of the labor, though, has fallen to the hon- ored investigator who bestowed every possible attention upon the outline-drawings, and superintended the technical execu- tion of the plates. I must also return my most profound thanks to His Excel- lency Baron Anton von Hye. He is a scholar of the good old Austrian school, who, surrounded by the influences of the mighty German philosophy, has never lost, amongst masses of detail, the higher philosophical standpoint. As general inspector of prisons he has certainly become acquainted with the Criminal World ; and in regard to Criminal Psychology, is one of the most competent investigators of the present time. Besides this, in prison affairs Hye has always borne the flag of humanity, and humanity has ever been the forerunner and prophet of true science. Amidst the malicious agitation against me and my studies, I was openly supported by Hye, and the success which attended my demonstration in Paris, will doubtless be to him a satisfaction that he was among the first to discriminate men- tal and moral chaff from wheat. I here also give thanks to Willhelm Pacha, student of medi- cine, who, with great pains, aided me in my labors. Vienna, Summer of 1878. PREFACE, That man thinks, feels, desires, and acts according to the anatomical construction and physiological development of his brain, was even in olden times {Erasistrates) a conviction — or yet more precisely — it was a dogma among reflective natural philosophers. The meager development of cerebral-anatomy and physi- ology prevented a universal dissemination of this proposition, and therefore for centuries it remained latent in the conscious- ness of the learned classes. The advance of general science, the founding of craniology by Blumenbach, the interest which Gall was able to arouse by his philosophical idealism and pioneering in anatomical studies of the brain — not even yet sufficiently valued — gave a new impulse. However greatly Gall erred in detail, the impetus he gave was very powerful, and the antitheses directed against his theses were no less productive than the theses themselves. Since then the study of the cranium and the brain has made immense strides, and scholars of all countries have helped it on, either by direct or indirect psychological investigations. I need only refer to Leuret, Gratiolet, and Broca, in France ; Huschke, Virchow, and Bischoff, in Germany ; Owen, Huxley and his school, in England, and Lombroso in Italy. In spite of all contradiction in details and in special cases, the proposition of Erasistrates has received continually increas- ing support through the increasing knowledge of the brain and its bony cask, and every new conquest of science has been, and will continue to be, cast into that balance of the scale. (vii) VIU PREFACE. In this connection it is quite proper to ascertain whether that remarkable class of mankind, which represents the real essentials of Criminality, does not furnish data which testify in favor of the proposition mentioned. An inability to restrain themselves from the repetition of a crime ^ notwithstanding a f nil appreciation of the superior power of the law {society), and a lack of the scfititnent of wrong, though with a clear perception of it, constitute the two principal psychological characteristics of that class to which belongs more than one-half of condemned criminals. A consideration of no less importance is the fact that the same defect of moral sensibility and will may remain concealed by superior mental organization, and greater dexterity in crimi- nal contrivance ; or it may be obscured through complications with mental disorder. The accompanying contribution upon the cerebral constitu- tion of criminals exhibits mainly, deficiency — deficient gyrus development — and a consequent excess of fissures, which obviously are fundamental defects. These defects are evident throughout the entire extent of the brain, and a priori this was to be expected, as otherwise the inclination to faulty action would have found compensation through other brain factors. Crime is in no way analogous to monomania ; it results from the psychical organization as a unit, and its particular form of expression is determined by social circumstances. It is probable that the details of this cerebral condition, either isolated or in combination, will often be found in epilep- tics and in the insane, as well also as in members of enceph- alopathic families ; the entire class will be correctly appre- ciated only in time to come. Moreover, certain conditions have but a formal signification. We do not know the physiologico-psychological value of single facts. That a defective, atypically-constructed brain, cannot func- tion normally is so evident as to leave no ground for discus- sion. That which we absolutely do not know is, why such a brain acts in one certain way and not in other ways, and why PREFACE. IX it acts in just this manner under certain psychological conditions. Another important point should be kept in view ; each case should be judged of from the standpoint of race-type, and its special deviation from such type. Unfortunately, to the present, there is a lack of material for a comparative cerebro- anatomical study of races. I hope that this publication may be a grain in the great sowing, of which the harv^est shall be a true knowledge of the nature of man, and that thesis and antithesis may conduct to a lasting foundation. From the history of Science, however, every one may derive this consolation : that no true thought and no true demonstra- tion ever perishes, no matter how lightly they may be appre- ciated by contemporaneous views and feeling, or how far incomplete knowledge and defective individual talent for investigation may lead astray. ^ I have tried to make these studies accessible to those not conversant with anatomy. For such, a study of the Introduc- tion and of sections i, 2, and 5 of the Recapitulation, will suffice. 1 In reply to a question which I put to an intelligent bank-note counterfeiter, whether he would repeat the crime, he said : " Whenever I may die, I will to you my skull and brain^ The question of the psychology of crime seems to me to have been no more correctly answered by either Philosopher or Criminalist. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Whatever time and labor the Translator has given to place Professor Benedikt's work before the English-reading public is regarded by him in no other light than that of a gratuitous contribution towards establishing a scientific basis for the prevention of crime. That of course must come through a true understanding and a proper management of those bom with such physical defects as entail an unusual inclination to commit crime. The corollaries or suggestions which naturally result from Professor Benedikt's investigations lead to this end, and indi- cate the direction for a more rational, humane, and at the same time a more radical and secure disposition of overt criminals. The fullest provision for public safety will be found insep- arable from that course which affords also the greatest possi- bilities for regeneration and restored usefulness to those in whom the depraved tendency has become developed into actual habit. Both the polity and policy of all governments have hitherto been strangely superficial and incongruous ; the degree of criminality has been measured by the more or less accidental magnitude of the gross results of the criminal acts, and the public has been guaranteed temporary security only when {xi> Xll - TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. criminal deeds have — often by the merest chance — resulted in personal or public injury and disaster. Thus the heaviest legal penalties are often meted to those who are the least vicious, and vice versa. Besides this, the entire system of past penal legislation is calculated, with the most unerring certainty, to intensify the degradation which it finds already existing with crimi- nals, and after the government has gravely administered a legal retaliation (not correction) the subject of it is let loose upon the world, robbed of the possibility of self-respect, an irretrievable outcast, and an hundred-fold more brutish and dangerous than he was before. That this little work may help towards bringing the more lowly organized mass of the human race up to the higher estate of noble manhood, and thus to render all classes more secure in person, property, and life ; and most of all, to fit these unfortunates for the Infinite Life, is the earnest and sole desire of the Translator. In Professor Benedikt's original works the brains of the criminals are represented by photographs. These have been reproduced by the photo-engraving process, and the Trans- lator takes this opportunity to thank his very kind and skillful friend, M. Lorini, for giving them special personal attention. They will be found nearly, if not quite, as perfect as the original photographs, and much more plainly lettered ; besides, they will not fade and become useless, as is already the case to a great degree with the photographs, though only three years issued. 38 West Fortieth Street, New York, 1880. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction, ••..... 1. Normal Type of Cerebral Structure, • 2. Demarcation of the Occipital Lobe, 3. Cerebrum-Covering of the Cerebellum, 4. Of Confluent- Fissure Type, .... Observations I — XXII, . • • . . Recapitulation : 1. Statistics of Fissure-Communications, . • • 2. Statistics of Proportions of Cerebrum to Cerebellum, 3. External Orbital-Fissure in Man, 4. Anthropological Law Respecting Criminals* Brains, . 5. The Application of Kant's Antinomian Doctrine to this Law, 6. Law of Development of Radiating Fissures, . 7. Concerning the Identity of the Primate and Mammal-Brain, 8. Relation of Cerebral Conditions to Conditions of the Skull, 9. Measurements of Brain, ..... 10. Concerning Methods of Criminalistic-Psychology, 17 17 23 26 31 33—138 139 152 153 157 158 163 ^73 182 183 184 EXPLANATION OF LETTERS AND FIGURES ON THE PLATES AND WOOD CUTS. F.— Frontal Lobes, F. i, F. 2, F. 3,— ist, 2d, 3d, Gyri Frontales. 4>. — Upper, Secondary Gyrus of the Gyrus Frontales Superior in Man, and the Anterior Portion of the Upper Primary-Gyrus in Animals. A. — Anterior Gyrus Centralis. B. — Posterior Gyrus Centralis. P. — Parietal Lobe : P. i, P. 2, — ist and 2d Lobuli Parietales. P. 2'. — Lobulus Tuberis. O. — Occipital Lobe. T.— Temporal Lobe : T. i, T. 2, T. 3,--ist, 2d, and 3d Gyri Temporales. Cbl. — Cerebellum. Q. — Praecuneus (Lobus Quadratus.) Cu. — Cuneus (Lobus Triangularis.) Fs. — Gyrus Fusiformis (Gy. Occ. Temp. Lat., 4th Temp. Gyr.) Lg. — Gyrus Lingualis (Gyr. Occ. Temp. Me., 5th Tern. Gyr.) H. — Gyrus Hippocampi. U.' — Gyrus Uncinatus (Hook-convolution.) Gf. — Gyrus Fornicatus (Gyrus Corporis Callosi.) Ob. — Orbital Gyrus, or Basilar Part of the Gyrus Frontalis Medius. Of.— Olfactory Lobe. CC. — Corpus Callosum. S. — Fissura Sylvii. S'. — Fissura Sylvii, Posterior Ramus of. S". — Fissura Sylvii, Anterior Ramus of. f. I, f. 2, f. 3, — 1st, 2d, and 3d Sulci Frontales. sei'vation xii, killed tlie liusband of liis priest's concubine, at tlie priest's insti- gation. Tlie object 'vras a small recompense* The occipital lobes do not cover the cerebellum on either side, especially upon the left. RIGHT HEMISPHERE (SEE TABLE XI, FIG. I-III). The s, ce7itralis (c. fig. i) connects with f, Sylvii (S). The central gyri (^ A. B.) are very poorly developed. As the anterior and posterior rami (S'' and S') of the fissura Sylvii meet at an acute angle, there really exists no horizontal por- tion of the/ Sylvii, The third frontal sulcus (f. 3) rises with the anterior ascending branch of the /. Sylvii from the angle made by this and the posterior branch (S). Parallel with the third frontal sulcus (f. 3) runs a long ver- tical branch of the first frontal sulcus (f. i) as the upper, but separate branch of z, prcecentralis. The anterior part of the M. of the inferior frontal gyrus (F. 3) is extremely stunted. T\iQ gyrus frontalis mediiis (F. 2) is very well developed ; a deep fissure at g indicates the separation of the gyrus frontalis superior (F. i). The interparietalis (ip) connects with the perpendicular and horizontal occipital fissures (po and ho). It communi- cates besides, by fissures, shallow in places, (at 2, Fig. II) with the s. temporalis superior (t. i) and at 3 (Fig. I) is only (92) OBSERVATION XI. 93 slightly separated from the centralis (c). (Jn the original German edition the outline sketch represents the connection too distinctly). At 4 (Fig. I) the s. temporalis superior (t. i) communicates with the posterior ascending ramus of the /. Sylvii (S') and also at 2, as before stated, with the interparietalis (ip) and at op (Fig. II) forms a complete operculnm. The parieto-occipitalis (po) connects directly with the hori- zontalis (ho) and thereby indirectly with the s. temporalis superior (t. I, Fig. II). On the medial surface (Fig. Ill) the parieto-occipitalis (po) unites with the calloso-marginalis (cm) by way of the s, cruciatus of th.Q prcBctmens (Q) and with the scissura hippo- campi (h). In this wise the gyrus fornicatus is to a great ex- tent separated from the prcecnnens. The gyri lingualis (Lg) and fusiformis (Fs) mount very abruptly from the basilar surface with no expressed collateralis (cl). The perpendicular diameter of the occiput extraordina- rily diminished. The occipital basil lobe has no medial sur- face. A transverse fissure separates the gyrus uncinatus from thQ gyms ftisiformis (U and Fs). The s. occipitalis inferior (g) and Wernicke's jissura fusi- formis (t. 3) scarcely indicated, on the other hand Wernicke's fissure (k) is well developed. The gyrus ucinatus (U) is extremely dwarfed and indeed represents only a blending of the three temporal gyri. Its entire sagittal length is 4.2 Cm. It does not rise above the anterior basilar lobe. The orbital lobe (Ob) is developed to an unusually marked extent, and is separated from the frontal lobe of the external upper surface by a long fissure that comes as a third anterior branch from the /. Sylvii, indicated at S'' 2 (Figs. I and III) C similarity to animals). This fissure represents the under and middle part of the external orbital fissure : the anterior portion is indistinct. 94 OBSERVATION XI. Antero-posterior chord, 15.0 Hemispheric arch, . • . . 19.0 Anterior curve, . . . . 9.5 Middle curve, , , 45 Posterior curve, . • . • 5.0 LEFT HEMISPHERE. The s. centralis (c) communicates with the third frontal sul- cus (f. 3) which is developed into a full prcecentralis . The anterior part of the gyrus frontalis inferior (F. 3) poorly de- veloped. The s, frontalis superior (i, i) communicates with the s. f medius (f. 2). The interparietalis (ip) is not clearly separated from the ramus posterior fissures Sylvii (S'). A broad star-shaped fossa, with introverted annectant gyrus (operculum parieto- temporal?) prevents the union of the temporal gyrus with the Lobulus tuberis (Gyrus angularis ?). The parieto-occipitalis (po) on the upper surface is quite indistinctly separated from the horizontalis (ho) and the interparietalis (ip). The border between the middle and posterior basilar lobes is indistinct and the posterior lobe is poorly developed. The two are completely separated by means of fissures. The calloso-marginalis (cm) not distinctly connected with the fissures of t\iQ prcecuneus (Q). At the base of the prcectme- us there exists a fissure which separates it in almost its entire extent from the gyrus fornicatus (Gf). The orbital lobe has a medium development, the posterior part without fissures. Two little fissures which separate the third and second fron- tal gyri (F. s, F. 2) from the base, but which do not communi- cate the/. Sylviiy represent the external orbital fissure. OBSERVATION XI. 95 SKULL— CONTENTS ? Horizontal circumference, , Ear circumference, Greatest length, .... Antero-posterior and horizont. circum.. Greatest breadth. Frontal curve, Parietal curve, Occipital curve. Facial hight, . Frontal hight, Nasal hight, . Ear and base of nose radius, Ear occiput radius. Occipital shortening, . There was found in the left lambodial suture a cunoid bone, 5 cm. long by 3.5 cm. broad. A medium macrocephalic skull, moderate occipital shorten- ing and moderate shortening of the parietal curve. 54-5 32.8 18.7 82.9 15.5 14.2! 12.8! 12.8 II.O 6.1 5.0 12.2 lO.O 1.2 96 OBSERVATION XII. OBSERVATION XII. Mia, Michael— Murderer. (Roumanian.) OBSERVATION XII. 97 III. A. — Gyrus Centralis Anterior. B. — Gyrus Centralis Posterior. Cu. — Cuneus. CC. — Corpus Callosum, F. I. — Gyrus Frontalis Superior. F. 2. — Gyrus Frontalis Medius. F. 3. — Gyrus Frontalis Inferior. Fs.— Gyrus Fusiformis. Gf. — Gyrus Fornicatus. H. — Gyrus Hippocampi. Lg. — Gyrus Lingualis. P. I. — Lobulus Parietalis Superior. P. 2. — Lobulus Parietalis Inferior. P. 2'. — Gyrus Angularis (Lobulus Tu- beris-Benedikt). Q. — Lobulus Quadratus (Praecuneus). S. — Fissura Sylvii. S'. — Fissura Sylvii, Posterior Ramus. S". — Fissura Sylvii, Anterior Ramus. T. I. — Gyrus Temporalis Superior. T. 2. — Gyrus Temporalis Medius. T. 3. — Gyrus Temporalis Inferior. U. — Gyrus Uncinatus. O. — Occiput. c. — Sulcus Centralis. CC. — Fissura Calcarina. cl. — Sulcus Collateralis. cm. — Sulcus Calloso-Marginalis. f. I. — Sulcus Frontalis Superior. f. 2. — Sulcus Frontalis Inferior. f. 3. — Sulcus Frontalis Perpendicularis. h. — Scissura Hippocampi. ho. — Fissura Horizontalis. ip. — Sulcus Interparietalis. po. — Fissura Parieto-Occipitalis. s. cruc. — Sulcus Cruciatus. 1. 1. — Sulcus Temporalis Superior. t. 2. — Sulcus Temporalis Inferior, « ^ 6.5 104 OBSERVATION XIII. SKULL.— CONTENTS 1610I Cem! Horizontal circumference, , 53-5 Ear circumference, .... 33.0 Greatest length, 18.2 Antero-posterior and transverse circum., 84.6 Greatest breadth, 15.4 Greatest height, 12.8 Frontal curve, 133 Parietal curve, 13.4 Occipital curve, 11.5 H eighth of face (Facial height), . 11.6 H eighth of forehead (Frontal height), . 6.6 Heighth of nose (Nasal height), . 5.2 Ear and base of nose radius, II. Ear point of nose radius r., . 1 II. I 1., . Ear occiput radius, 10.7 II. 2 Occipital shortening, 0.2 Lamboidal sutures partially obliterated, especially at their confluence : the same case with the middle part of the squamous sutures of both sides. Moderately macrocephalic skull with slight asymetry of the facial base. OBSERVATION XIV. SCHGNKER, Matlilas, aet. S8, German vagabond and confirmed tliief. Careless to an extreme degree, quick witted, ardent temperament. The position of the cerebellum upon the arrival of the preparation, was peculiar. It was inclined forward. That this corresponded to a very peculiar position in life is evinced by the fact that the middle basilar lobe (U and H) on both sides were very nearly continuous with the occipital lobes (Lg and Fs), so that there was no cerebellar cavern to the hemispheres. On the skull the posterior part of thQ foramum magnum departs from the more normal horizontal position to a rather vertical one, and the posterior cerebral fossa is more vertical than horizontal. LEFT HEMISPHERE. The s. centralis (c) communicates with the f, Sylvii (S) and anteriorly there is a communication of which we shall speak further on. The middle third of the gyrus centralis anterior (A) and the lower third of the gyrus centralis posterior (B) are well developed. The other parts are dwarfed. The frontal lobe (F) is 'quite peculiar in its formation. The upper two-thirds of the s. centralis (c) is accompanied by 2l praecentralis which is made up from a combination of the vertical branches of the upper frontal sulcus (f. i) and the secondary fissures Qf). These radial fissures are in no way connected with the sagittal. The upper vertical branch, how- ever, sends a sagittal twig backwards, which, on the surface anterior to the s. centralis is not separated. (los) I06 OBSERVATION XIV. Back of this praecentralis runs another one, less parallel, and composed of the third frontal sulcus (f. 3) and of a second radial branch of the superior frontal sulcus (f. i). Between the two praecejitrales there exists, towards the medial border, a third radial fissure which is in connection with a long sagittal fissure. This last mentioned radial fissure together with its sagittal branch belongs to the system of secondary fissures (There extends forward, moreover, from the second de- scribed praecentralis still another fissure, which, in its turn, sends upwards a radial branch that communicates with the secondary frontal fissure ( occipitalis (po), the upper temporal sulcus (t. i), and through that with the / Sylvii (S). The upper temporal sulcus (t. i) communicates with the f. Sylvii^ the interparietalis (ip), and also by very shallow fissures with the occipital fissure. Wernicke's fissure (k) also communicates with the occip- ital fissure. The s. occipital, inferior well developed and in connection with upper temporal sulcus (t. i). ADDENDA OBSERVATION XX. 129 Fisstira fusifonnis poorly developed, and in connection with upper temporal sulcus (t. i). Gyri lingualis and fusi- formis extremely dwarfed and also the middle basilar lobe. ^S". collateralis extends closely to the scissura hippocampi (h) and communicates with Xh^fissura fusiformis, Fissura calcarina (cc) separate from the paneto-occipitalis (po) ; cunetis very strongly developed. The parieto-occipitalis (po) communicates with the horizon- talis (ho) and the interparietalis (ip) and through these with the upper temporal sulcus (t. i) and Wernicke's fissure (k). The calloso-marginalis (cm) isolated. The same is true of the s. aniciatiis of the praecuneus, the lowest sagittal fissure of which makes an extensive separation between the praecuneus and the gyrus fornicatus. Both hemispheres are extraordinarily long and low. Antero-posterior chord, . . . . 17.2 Hemispheric arch, 22.0 Anterior curve, . . , , 12.6 Middle curve, 3.4 Posterior curve, .... 6.0 This brain also belongs to the type of " confluent fissures," and the separation of the parieto-occipitalis (po) from the fissura calcarina (cc) on the right, is to be considered as especially atypical (see Obs. V.) The cranium belonging to the brain was evidently in a high degree dolichocephalic. OBSERVATION XXL KRISTIC, Joso, aet. 86 ; Croatian. Firgt punisliment for tlieft. Intelleeta- ally ratlier capable, uneducated, rough, frivolous, drunkard. In prison, obedient. Cerebellum poorly covered on the left and extremely un- covered on the right ; middle portion uncovered. Right side of cerebellum extended much further back than the left. LEFT HEMISPHERE. 5". centralis (c) in communication with the f. Sylvii by a shallow fissure which penetrates through the lower part of the gyrus centralis superior (B). There is also a very shallow communication with the radial branch of the upper frontal sulcus. The lower part of the posterior central gyrus is divided by a fissure which has free connection with the / Sylvii and a shallow one with interparietalis (ip) ; it, how- ever, does not extend to the s. centralis (c). The third frontal sulcus communicates with the ramus anterior fissitrae Sylvii (S") but not with the inferior frontal sulcus (f. 2). The praecentralis is composed of three parts, the lower one of which (f. 3) communicates with the short radial branch of the upper frontal sulcus, whilst the upper parts pertain to the secondary fissure ( with the s, centralis. The upper frontal gyrus lies chiefly upon the medial surface and is separated in its entire extent from the gyrus fornicatus by a well-defined upper calloso-marginalis (cm). (134) ADDENDA — OBSERVATION XXII. 1 35 The s. frontalis inferior (f. 2) also communicates with the fossa Sylvii, The unusually deep external orbital fissure which here separates the middle and lower frontal gyri from the orbital lobe is of especial interest. It does not stand really in direct connection with the fossa Sylvii ; but as the middle basilar lobe in this case extends far in front of the anterior end of the lower frontal gyrus, it results that the posterior end of this orbital fissure is covered by the temporal gyri. The lobus olfactorius has an uncommonly strong develop- ment. The gyrus orbitalis points partly outwards instead of down- wards. The inierparietalis (ip) communicates, as before said, with the /. Sylvii. It is in communication with the honzontalis (ho) and the perpejtdicularis (po) and also with the posterior ramus of the /. Sylvii and with the s, temporalis superior (t. i). The upper temporal sulcus (t. i) has several communica- tions with the /. Sylvii and also as before said, with the inierparietalis and through this with the occipital fissures. Wernicke's fissure (k) connects with both the interparietalis and upper temporalis (t. i) and can be traced to the lower border of the external surface. It intersects a transverse fissure which must be regarded as the s, occipitalis inferior and through that communicates with the middle temporalis (t. 2) and further up with the first temporalis (t. i). The perpendicularis (po) as mentioned, communicates with the interparietalis^ the horizontalisy the upper temporalis and Wernicke's fissure. It is clearly separated from the scissura hippocampi and also from the fissures of Xh^ praecuneus. The gyrus lingualis lies mostly on the medial surface. The posterior part of the dwarfed middle basilar lobe affords, the connection between the two gyri of the occipital basilar lobe, whilst the anterior part of the dwarfed middle basilar- lobe connects with the temporal lobe. The fissura fusiformis is composed of two separate parts,, the anterior one of which separates the temporal from, tha 136 ADDENDA — OBSERVATION XXII. middle basilar lobe. The posterior one separates the gyrus fusiformis from the temporal lobe, and communicates with the temporal sulci, Wernicke's fissure and the s. occipitalis inferior. The deepest situated part of the brain is the occipital basilar lobe. The middle as well as the anterior basilar lobes are placed higher ; as seen from beneath, the posterior part of the brain stands higher than the middle and anterior. The calloso'inargijialis is greatly branched. It sends several deep radial branches towards the medial border and com- municates with the fissure of the praecuneus. The latter, isolated externally and posteriorly, sends several shallow branches to the fissure between the gyrus fornicatus and the corpu^s callosuin. The gyrus fornicatus is extremely short, more circular than oval, rolled over the spherical triangle of the thalamus opticus, Antero-posterior chord, . . , . i5-5! Hemispheric arch. Anterior curve, Middle curve, , Posterior curve, Greatest height, . 24.3! 14.3 57 4.3 8.9 RIGHT HEMISPHERE. The s. centralis (c) communicates with the /. Sylvii by a fissure which passes through the lower part of the posterior central gyrus and which, towards its terminus, is very shallow. It also communicates with the upper frontal sulcus (f. i). There exists a praecentralis which extends from the fossa Sylvii quite into the medial border and its upper part only stands in communication with a sagittal fissure. Besides this, there is a second praecentralis ^ the lower part of which is in connnection with the middle frontal sulcus (f. 2). Its upper part communicates with no sagittal fissure, and repre- sents a separated radial fissure from the upper frontal sulcus (f. I). Upper frontal sulcus extremely undeveloped, whilst the secondary fissure (gn) extends far forwards from the s. centralis. The lower and middle frontal gyri much dwarfed. The ADDENDA OBSERVATION XXII. 1 37 anterior part of the frontal lobe on this side rises almost vertically, whilst, although steep on the other (left) side, still it runs somewhat pointedly forwards. There is a third sylvian incision but very shallow. The middle and anterior parts of the external orbital fissure unite with each other and are well developed. The orbital lobe lies at the base, but is extraordinarily dwarfed, whilst the olfactory lobe lies partly on the medial surface and is very largely developed. The interparietalis (ip) consists of ist, a fissure rising from the /. Sylvii, running quite parallel with the s. centralis and having no connection with its sagittal part : 2d, the sagittal part communicates with the horizontalis (ho) ; upper temporal sulcus (t. i) ; also with the fissure system of Vhq praeameus and through this with the calloso-marginalis (c). The s, tempoj^alis superior (t. i) is in two parts, the upper one of which, as before stated, communicates with the inter- parietalis (ip) and in this way with the horizontalis (ho). The lower part is much dwarfed. Wernicke's fissure is well developed. The parieto-occipitalis (po) is indistinctly separated from the horizontalis (ho) and blends indistinctly with the scissura hippocampi. Gyrus lingualis thick and short ; and entire occipital basilar lobe cut up into islands. The s. collateralis communicates anteriorly with the fissura fusiformis. The collateralis (cl) continues across the posterior border of the brain to the anterior and external surface and extends nearly to the posterior branch of the fissura fusifonnis^ con- nects with the middle temporal sulcus (t. 2). The middle and lower temporal gyri (T. 2, T. 3) well de- veloped, but that part of the middle basilar lobe which connects with the two gyri of the occipital basilar lobe is in its temporal part dwarfed. The gyrus fusiformis is, by a transverse fissure, com- pletely separated from the middle basilar lobe. The calloso-marginalis (cm) in its anterior portion sends a branch to the external surface (analogous to the fissura 138 ADDENDA— -OBSERVATION XXII. cruciata of Leuref) and through the fissure system of the praecuneus extends nearly to the scissura hippocampi. The fissure system of the praecuneus communicates with the fissure between the corpus callosum and the gyrus fomi- catus. The Cunet's is not towards the medial surface but towards the posterior. The occipital extremity points entirely down- wards and outwards. Antero-posterior chord, .... 14.9 ! Hemispheric arch, 24.8 ! Anterior curve, . , , , 13.3 Middle curve, ..... 5.4 Posterior curve, , , . . 6.1 Greatest height, 9.9 I conclude with perhaps the most atypic brain of those we have hitherto examined. The cranium was evidently a towar- skull. Upon comparing the last three brains, it is to be seen that the measurements of the base chord and the hemispheric curve, even with all their defects, are yet very instructive. The brain of Obs. XXI. shows the average proportion of 1 : 1.37, and evidently most nearly corresponds to the normal proportions of the south Slavic brains. The brain of Obs. XX. exhibits the average proportion of 1 : 1.27. This brain was flat and long. The third brain (Obs. XXII) was in a high degree hypso- cephalic and the average proportion of the base-chord to the hemispheric curve is i : 1.6 1 1 RECAPITULATION I. (EPILEGOMENA). I. First, let us consider, statistically, the connections of typical fissures. I. That of the parieto-occipitalis (po) with the horizon' talis (ho) and sulcus interparietalis (ip). Upon 38 hemispheres: It is complete — On the right, . , . 12 times. On the left, ... 9 " Total Incomplete fthat is by shallow fissures) ;_ On the right, . . On the left, Total, Connection absent : On the right, On the left, . . ... 21 3 times. 3 " 4 times. 7 " II Total, Therefore, in the 38 cerebral hemispheres, the parieto- occipitalis (po) unites with the horizontalis (ho) 27 times. Ten times it was on both sides : 5 times it was on the right side, and twice on the left. There remain eleven cerebral hemispheres without this connection, but there are only two cases where it is absent in both sides. In three of the eleven hemispheres the separation is poor. (139) I40 RECAPITULATION I. Of 19 brains, therefore, there are only two in which the communication is lacking upon both sides. II. On account of its analogy with the ^^ ape-fissure,^' it is interesting to study the connections of the united parieto- occiPiTALis (po) and horizontalis (ho). (a) WITH WERNICKE'S FISSURE (K), It is complete on the right, . It is complete on the left, Incomplete on the right. " left, Total, 3 times. I " I " I " In six of the cerebral hemispheres there is a communication completely analagous to the '^ape-fissured It exists on both sides in only one brain. In one brain the data on this point are lacking. (b) The united perpendicularis (po) and horizontalis (ho) blend with the first or second temporal sulci (t. i and t. 2) (and indeed to a certain degree indirectly so through the sulcus interparietalis (ip) : Complete on the right, .... 7 times. Complete on the left, . ... 6 " Incomplete on the right, ... 2 " Incomplete on the left, ... i " Concerning two hemispheres no statement. In twenty-five hemispheres there are sixteen connections between the united perpendicularis (po) and horizontalis (ho), and the temporal sulci. Four times in six, the connection occurs as under (/3) united with that described under (a). Thus there is a connection in 18 hemispheres. The blending of the perpendicularis (po) and horizontalis (ho) predispose to a union of these with Wernicke's fissure or with the temporal sulci. III. The horizontalis (ho) may, however, be separate from the perpendicularis (po) but united to Wernicke's fissure or to the temporal sulci, which can hardly be considered as coming within the normal type. RECAPITULATION I. I4I We will now consider eleven hemispheres, in which there is no union of the two occipital fissures (po and ho). Of these, one is excluded on account of injury to the preparation. Of the remaining ten there can be shown a complete direct or indirect connection in 2 cases. Incomplete in 4 " Total, ...... 6 " If we combine the results given under 2 and 3, it will be found that in 35 cerebral hemispheres the horizontalis (ho) communicates with either Wernicke's fissure or the temporal sulci, not less than 24 times. IV. In the next place the relation of the sulcus centralis to the surrounding fissures is interesting. We will first consider : (a) the connection of the sulcus centralis with the fissura Sylvii (S). Of 38 cerebral hemispheres this union is Complete on the right, . . • . 9 times. Complete on the left, . • . • 9 " Total, 18 " Incomplete (by shallow fissures) on the right, 2 " Incomplete " on the left, 4 " Total, 6 " Thus, of thirty-eight (38) cerebral hemispheres, there are 24 in which the sulcus centralis is not separate from the fissura Sylvii! This does not include the indirect communications by means of the frontal and interparietal sulci. This connection occurs on both sides in 9 cases out of 19, and on one side alone in six cases ; there being no con- nection in four only of the 19 brains. (/3) The sulcus centralis communicated with the frontal sulci. 142 RECAPITULATION I. 4 times 7 II 2 O 2 I. With the third frontal sulcus (f. 3) : Completely on the right, . Completely on the left, , Total, . Incompletely on the right, Incompletely on the left, . Total, . 13 times in 38 hemispheres. In nine brains the communication was absent on both sides, in seven, upon one side. Communication occurred on both sides only in three cases. II. The sulcus centralis (c) communicated with the sulcus fro7italis sttperior (f. i}. Completely on the right, . Completely on the left, . Total, . Incompletely on the right, Incompletely on the left. Total. I times. 8 a 9 n I u n I (f The sulcus centralis in no instance communicated with the sulcus frontalis superior on both sides. Of the 19 brains there are only three (6 hemispheres) in which there is no communication on either side between the stdcjis centralis and a frontal sulcus (Kuss, Szinka, Proketz). Only in four brains was the sulcus centralis connected with the upper frontal sulcus (f.i) and not with the third frontal sulcus (f. 3). In six brains it was connected with both the upper and the third frontal sulci, and this was in all cases only on one side. Of the three brains in which there was no communication between the sulcus centralis and the frontal fissures, there were two in which the sulcus centralis on both sides connected with the fissura Sylvii (Szinka, Kuss). RECAPITULATION I. 143 (y) There was communication betweeen the s. centralis and s, interparietalis. Complete on the right, .... 2 times. Complete on the left, Total, . Incomplete on the right, Incomplete on the left, Total, 4 *« In only one brain is the connection on both sides, so that the communication exists in ten brains. Amongst these is the brain of Proketz. Of the 19 brains there is not a single one in which the sulcus centralis has not, at least on one side, a connection with some other fissures. Altogether there are 58 connections, of which 35 are on the left and 23 upon the right side. In five of the brains there were connections only upon one side, and this in each case was upon the left side ; in three of the five there existed only one connection in each. In only one instance did the connections on the right outnumber those on the left side. V. We will now examine the communications of the fissura Sylvii. (a) With the sulcus centralis (see above) the connection exists 24 times, to wit : Completely on the right, .... 9 times. Completely on the left, . , Total, Incompletely on the right, Incompletely on the left, . Total. , 18 2 4 144 RECAPITULATION I. (/3) With the frontal sulci : Completely on the right, . Completely on the left, . Total, . Incompletely on the right. Incompletely on the left, . 9 times. Total, . In 25 of the 38 brains there existed a connection between the fissura Sylvii (its anterior ramus) and the frontal sulci. Connection is absent on both sides in only three brains (six hemispheres) ; in seven brains its exists on both sides. But in those instances where the direct communications failed, it was effected by a communication of the third frontal sulcus with the sulcus ce7itralis, and this last with the fissura Sylvii, These indirect communications were : On the right, I On the left, . • . . .1, so that in 27 of the 38 hemispheres the fissurae Sylvii could be entered from the third frontal sulcus. (y) A third communication. between the interparietalis and fissura Sylvii existed. Complete on the right, . . . . 12 times. Complete on the left. Total, . Incomplete on the right. Incomplete on the left, 10 22 4 2 Total, 6 In 28 of the 38 hemispheres then, there existed a direct connection between the interparietalis and fissura Sylviit (either posterior ramus or horizontal part). RECAPITULATION I. 145 Q) Communication between the fissura Sylvii and sulcus temporalis superior (t. i) existed Complete on the right, . , , , 10 times. Complete on the left, .... 8 Total, . Incomplete on the right, Incomplete on the left, 18 2 2 Total, 4 The fossa Sylviiy in the 38 cerebral hemispheres, was in direct communication with the sulcus temporalis superior (t. i) twenty-two times. The fossa Sylvii communicated extensively with the fissura orbitalis (ob). On the right, 7 times. On the left, 7 " Total, 14 " In six of these fourteen, the communication was upon both sides. This connection existed, therefore, only in eight brains. Four cerebral hemispheres could not be investigated ; so that in 34 hemispheres there were 14 connections between the fissura orbitalis and fossa Sylvii, In 38 cerebral hemispheres we have no less than 113 ! con- nections between the fissura Sylvii and the surrounding fis- sures, and with some of them, moreover, the communication is repeated. VI. The SULCUS temporalis superior (t. i) is in connec- tion with : (a) The fissura Sylvii (horizontal part and posterior ramus, see under 5, I), Completely, 18 times. Incompletely, . . , . , , 4 "• Total, 22 10 146 RECAPITULATION I. 10 times. 9 (< 19 (( 4 (< 2 (( 6 « With the sulcus interparietalis (ip) Completely on the right, . Completely on the left, . Total, . Incompletely on the right. Incompletely on the left, . Total, . The upper temporal sulcus (t. i) joined with the sulcus interparietalis (ip) in all 25 times. This connection was absent in 13 hemispheres, but in no single brain was it lacking upon both sides. In 7 brains it was present on both sides. In those hemispheres where these two sulci were not connected, connections between the temporal sulci and horizontalis (ho) were exceptional. The upper temporal sulcus (t. i) then, in 38 cerebral hemispheres, was connected completely 37 times with the fissura Sylvii (S and S'), and with the sulcus interparietalis y (ip,) in a shallow manner, ten times, in all 47 times. Besides this there exist connections with Wernicke's two fissures, which cannot be regarded as atypical, also with the fissura fusiformis and through it with the sulcus collateralis (cl). An extensive communication with the fissures of the base might be viewed as atypic. As belonging to the atypical connections of the sulcus temporalis superior (t. i) might be reckoned a connection with the horizontalis (ho) or the conjoined horizontalis (ho) and parieto-occipitalis (po). This connection exists (direct or indirect) : Complete on the right, .... 9 times. Complete on the left, Total, . Incomplete on the right, . Incomplete on the left, . Total, . 6 15 4 3 RECAPITULATION I. 147 Through injury to two of the hemispheres, the connection in them cannot be given. In 22 of the 36 hemispheres, the upper temporal sulcus extends into the upper occipital sulcus. With the fissures mentioned under a, /3, and y, the upper temporal fissure has 69 connections. VII. We will now consider the connections of the sulcus INTERPARIETALIS (ip). (a) With the sulcus centralis (c) (see above, under 4 y), Complete, 7 times. Incomplete, 4 " Total, II " (J3>) With the fissura Sylvii (see above under 5 7). Complete, 22 times. Incomplete, 6 " Total, 28 " (y) '^\i\\ sulcus temporalis superior (t. i). (See under 6/3). Complete, 19 times. Incomplete, 6 " Total, 25 '* A rare but certainly interesting connection is : (2) The interparietalis (ip) with the sulcus calloso-margin- alis (cm) or with the sulcus cruciatus of the praecuneus. This was found three times, twice on the right (Obs. II and X) and once on the left (Obs. IV). In 38 cerebral hemispheres then, we have 51 complete and 16 shallow, in all 67 connections of the i7iterparietalis. In no brain was there an absence of the connection on both sides ; in two of the brains there were, including both sides, no less than five communications. VIII. We will now observe the undoubtedly atypical connec- tion of the scissuRA HIPPOCAMPI (h, of Fig. II of the Introduc- tion). First : 148 RECAPITULATION I. (a) With the fissura parieto-occipitalis (po), The communication was Complete on the right, . . , , lo times. Complete on the left, .... 7 Total, 17 Incomplete on the right, . . . . i Incomplete on the left, .... i Total, 2 The connection of the scissura hippocampi (h) with the parieto-occipitalis (po) was complete 17 times and incomplete 2 times, in all, 19 times. This included 14 brains out of the 19. The commuications existed on both sides, however, in only five brains. (/3) The sulcus collateralis (cl) communicated with the scis- sura hippocampi (h). Complete on the right. 5 times. 4 " 9 " 2 " o " Complete on the left, Total, . Incomplete on the right. Incomplete on the left. Total, . It is thus seen that the sulcus collateralis communicates 1 1 times with the scissura hippocampi (h) and this almost with- out exception, in those cerebral hemispheres where there was also a communication with \}i\Q. parieto-occipitalis (po). (y) The sulcus calloso-marginalis (cm) communicated but once, directly, with the scissura hippocampi (h), (Obs. VII) though often communicating by way of the parieto-occipitalis (po). Between other fissures and the scissura hippocampi there were 31 (! !) connections. IX. A study of the fissure-system of the sulcus calloso- marginalis (cm) is highly important. As concerns the human brain, it is accepted as typical that RACAPITULATION I. I49 this sulcus should rise up from the frontal lobe and, with a posteriorly convex curve, find its way to the external surface back of the posterior central gyrus (B). It often sends an anteriorly convex fissure which defines the anterior border of the gyrus centralis anterior (A). More frequently, however, this last mentioned curve exists unconnected with the sulcus calloso-marginalis, and now and then is absent altogether. Still more frequently there is a second sulcus calloso-margin- alis (See Figs. Ill in Tables^ I, II, IV, VII, IX, X), in which case the anterior one extends further down towards the base of the medial frontal lobe, whilst the posterior one is unusually short in its front extremity. This last generally furnishes the curved fissure which defines the posterior limit of the paracen- tral lobe, whilst the first one exhibits a tendency to extend to the external surface as the anterior boundary of the paracentral lobe (See for example Fig. Ill, Tables I and IX) (a few further modifications exist in Zernoff). This fissure bounding the anterior limit of the paracentral lobe has its analogue, for example, in the bear, where its incision upon the surface forms the sulcus cruciatus of Leuret (See i. Fig. Ill of Recapitulation) and is separate from the sulcus calloso-marginalis (cm). It is regarded as typical that the sulcus calloso-marginalis should extend no further backwards. The simplest form of a continued extension of this sulcus is, that, after the curve which defines the posterior border of the paracentral lobe, the sulcus (cm) is prolonged posteriorly, furnishing a dividing line between the praecuneus (Q) and the gyrus fornicatus (Gf). (See Fig. Ill, PI. XII). A further combination is a union of this last-mentioned prolongation, directly with the parieto-occipitalis (po) or in- directly with it by the superimposed fissures of the praecuneus (see for example Figs III in Tables II & XI). It may also connect with the fissures of the praecu7ieus whilst these do not connect with the parieto-occipitalis (See Fig. Ill in Tables I, IV, VII, IX), or, the calloso-marginalis (cm) may be separate from the praecuneal fissures and these be in communication with the parieto-occipitalis (po). (See Fig. Ill in Tables V and VI). 150 RECAPITULATION I. These communications are of great interest on account of their relations to comparative anatomy. In beasts of prey, for example, the sulcus calloso-marginalis extends from behind forwards nearly and sometimes unites to the sulcus cruciatus of Leuret, or, with an anteriorly con- vexed curv(i, it extends almost, or entirely, to the upper medial border. Posteriorly this curve partially encircles the occipital end of the gyrus fomicatus (Gf) and this part of it represents the common stem of the fissurae parieto-occipitalis (po) and calcarina (cc) (in man). Whilst with the primates the typical fissura calloso- marginalis separates only the frontal and central portions of the hemisphere from the gyrus fomicatus^ we see that in our specimens the parietal and even the occipital portions are separated from \S\q, gyrus fomicatus by it.^ We will give a numerical representation of these simi- larities to animal anatomy, omitting the simple extension of the sulcus calloso-marginalis y by which the praecuneus is separated from the gyrus fomicatus (Gf) and also the direct communication with the scissura hippocampi (h). (a) Communication of sulcus calloso-marginalis with fissura parieto-occipitalis (po). Complete on right, 5 times. Complete on left, 3 " Total, . . .... 8 " Incomplete on right, .... i " Thus, in 33 hemispheres there were 9 complete connections. (In 5 of the hemispheres no observations were made). (/3) Communications of the calloso-marginalis exclusively with the praecuneal fissures. 1 A communication of the sulcus calloso-marginalis or even of the praecuneal fissures with the fossa between the gyrus fomicatus and corpus callosum (CC) is an exception (peculiarity) (See Fig. Ill, Tables I, "VII, XII). This connection is rarely observed except with the scissura hippocampi (h) itself. RECAPITULATION I. 151 Complete on the right, .... 2 times. Complete on the left, . . • . 5 " Total, . Incomplete on the left, , Thus there are eight communications between the sulcus calloso-margmalis and the praecuneal fissures. (y) Communication of the parieto-occipitalis (po) with the anteriorly isolated fissures of the praecuneusy Complete on the right, .... 3 times. Complete on the left, .... 3 " Total, Incomplete on the right, .... i Incomplete on the left, .... i Total, Thus there were also eight communications between the parieto-occipitalis and praecuneal fissure. X. The communications of the sulcus collateralis (cl) are also certainly important as concerns comparative anatomy. The fissure which divides the gyrus uncinatus (U) from the hippocampus (H) will be omitted, for, as it is a branch of the sulcus collateralisy it is perhaps typical. It is interesting, however, that in one instance this fissure connected with the sulcus temporalis superior (t. i). (See Obs. X). We will first consider then (a) the communication between the s. collateralis (cl) and the sulci temporales (t. I, t. 2, t. 3). It was extensive on the right, . , , 3 times " " " " " left, . • • 2 " Total, . . . • • • 5 " It was shallow on the left, ... 2 " In all, the collateralis communicated seven times with the temporal sulci. 152 RECAPITULATION I. (,^) It communicated with parietooccipitalis (po) or the f, calcarina ; Extensively on the right, .... 3 times. " " " left, .... 3 " Total, .... It was shallow on the right, Total, ...... 3 " (y) On each side there were two full communications with the sulcus occipitalis inferior (g), four in all. As we must exclude from consideration Obs. XVIII on account of incomplete examination, we have then 20 com- munications in 36 cerebral hemispheres. Amongst them were six brains with bilateral communications, and in two hemi- spheres there were double communications. There were 18 hemispheres (12 brains) which exhibited this connection. (t) See under 8 /3). There are to be added eleven com- munications between the sulcus collateralis and scissura hippo- campi (h), three of which, however, are effected indirectly- through the parieto-occipitalis, so that this only increases by eight the number of the collateralis connections. In 36 cerebral hemispheres then there were 28 communi- cations. X. The following were the conditions respecting the cover- ing OF THE CEREBELLUM BY THE OCCIPITAL LOBES. With one brain (Obs. XVIII) there was no accompanying state- ment. With two of the brains (Obs. XIII and XIV), the cerebellum, on account of the flatness of the occipital basilar lobes, was strongly dipped downwards. In the sixteen remaining brains the covering was : Extensive, 4 Barely sufficient, ..... 3 Insufficient, 3 In great measure wanting, ... 6 I will here make a remark respecting the fissure which times. " I I RECAPITULATION I. 153 I have designated as the " external orbital fissured We shall see further on that this fissure is very much developed in the gyrocephalic mammalia, which rank beneath the primates. So far as I know, it is also very constant in apes. It is not distinct in the human brain, and my attention was directed to it by Obs. II (left hemisphere) and XI, (right hemisphere). Whilst the observations were in press, I again revised all the brain-specimens and discovered that this fissure was rarely absent. In most animals (see also Figs. I-III of Recapitulation) this fissure proceeds from the fossa Sylviiy or rather from the fissure which we have designated fissura basilaris lateralis (bit. in the figs, cited). In most mammalia the two anterior branches of the fossa Sylvii (S") are absent and therefore our external orbital fissure was mistaken for one of these branches. (For clear- ness upon this subject we are indebted to an important dissertation by Broca, to which we shall revert.) Where the two anterior branches of the fossa Sylvii (S") are developed, as in man, the external orbital fissure appears as a third branch, and when it continues to the anterior ex- tremity it separates the orbital lobe (Ob) from the lower and middle frontal gyri (F. 3, F. 2). The following conditions seem to express a type of the external orbital fissure. Under the lowest border of the M. of the frontal lobe there is a short (3d) incision from the fossa Sylvii constituting the posterior portion of the external orbital fissure. This portion is often entirely absent or is only indicated by a shallow indentation. At the middle part of the external orbital fissure there appears a seldom-failing fissure which is situated somewhat higher than the posterior part and, according to the position of the M. of the frontal lobe, runs more or less horizontally or diagonally (from below and behind in a direction upwards and forwards.) This middle portion of the external orbital fissure may com- municate with the posterior portion. Often, however, it has an independent communication with the fossa Sylvii^ in f54 RECAPITULATION I. which case the posterior portion appears as a fourth anterior branch of the fossa Sylvii. The anterior portion of the external orbital fissure separates the gyrus frontalis medius (F. 2) from the orbital fissure. It frequently communicates with the middle portion, and it is comparatively rare that these two portions united communi- cate, either directly or through the posterior portion, with the fossa Sylvii, The anterior and the middle portion often communicate with the sulcus frontalis inferior (f. 2). In conclusion I would call attention to the noteworthy fact that in Observation V (left hemisphere, p. 38), there is no connection between the parieto-occipitalis (po) and the fissura calcarina. (cl) {similar to the ape). RECAPITULATION 11, 155 II. The observations given and the deductions therefrom have perhaps determined two things with absolute certainty, to wit: I. THE NECESSITY OF ESTABLISHING A TYPE OF CON- FLUENT FISSURES ; 2d, THAT THE BRAINS OF CRIMINALS WHICH WE HAVE PRESENTED BELONG TO THIS "SECOND TYPE" (See Introduction, VI, page 14, etc.). For many of the descriptive details here given, such as are absent in all previous cerebral representations, we are in- debted to the special attention which I have bestowed upon these brain-specimens. This keen observation I owe to a casuistic principle heretofore too much neglected by cerebral- anatomists. In endeavoring to describe any given brain, great numbers of details are observed which are difficult to delineate. In some brains we encounter an exhibition such as in other brains, at least escapes observation. If now we revise these other brains in this respect, then this exhibition becomes here and there more or less plainly expressed, and it is soon learned that almost every detail has its significance, which in proportion to the strength of develop- ment takes a higher grade of form. An example of this is the manner in which the development of the external orbital fissure, in a few brains, lead me to the proof of its existence in all brains, and the great meaning which this fissure has for study of the comparative anatomy of the brain will be shown in a following section. The casuistic mode has given me altogether an incomparably better idea of the mammal brain than came from long years of study. 156 RECAPITULATION II. It may indeed be affirmed that architecturally there exists no fissure arrangement (idea) in the animal brain which has not been expressed in the human. In the descriptions of our brain-specimens, the deviations from the ordinary method have certainly resulted in but small degrees from increased acuteness of observation by reason of casuistic process. It hardly need be remarked that the conditions primarily observed upon the brains of criminals need not necessarily belong exclusively to them. These brains, besides being those of criminals, have the further peculiarity that they belong to the most diverse races and tribes (stems). Amongst them are Magyars, the most distantly related tribes of Sclavonians, Roumanian, one Ger- man, and one Gipsy. It might be possible to suppose that the type which we have deducted from these brains is exclusively a fact of comparative race-anatomy, as the normal types of most of these races and clans are unknown, and moreover, there exists no comparative race-anatomy of the brain. But that such is not the case, at least exclusively, seems evident from the fact that such an eminent judge of the brain as Betz, of Kieff, who has naturally made his studies chiefly upon Sclavonic brains, has acknowledged the atypy of my speci- mens, and in this manner he has performed an active part in the accomplishment of this work. Zernoff's^ work proves that many of the conditions may be more frequently found in the brains of the Sclavonians, — though not so frequently as in our brain-specimens, — than in those of the Germanic and Latin races. In these brains (of criminals) which were perhaps con- spicuously Sclavonic, it seemed especially noticeable that the sulcus interparietalis communicated very frequently with the fossa Sylvii, and the parieto-occipitalis (po) with the horizon- talis (ho) and the interparietalis (ip). (1) Zernoff's (of Moscow) work upon *' The Individual Types of the Convolution of Human Brains,^* appeared in the Russian language. No book is quite sealed to me with seven seals though it may be with some. Therefore, I must beg to be excused if I overlooked or wrongly read some points. RECAPITULATION II. 15/ Zernoff "seldom" observed a union of the frontal sulci with the fossa Sylvii. In his collection of one hundred brains, the siUciis centralis seems to have had connection in but one instance and then with the fissura Sylvii. He seems to have observed a connection with the scissura hippocampi (h) with the calloso-marginalis (cm), the parieto- occipitalis (po), and collatcralis (cl) and of this last with the occipitalis (po) ; the same also as regards a communication between the calloso-marginalis (cm) and the parieto-occipitalis (po). At all events, I hope that these very questions which I here present for debate, will serve as a spur to somewhat promote a knowledge of brain anatomy as it exists in European races ; and it especially devolves upon the Austrian, Hungarian, and Russian physicians, to complete this work. The authority of Betz and the work of Zernoff enable us to reject — as being insufficient at least — the idea that the specimens of criminals' brains which we have portrayed, rep- resents but a deviating type of a normal Sclavonian brain. The fact also that in the brains of five different races such great deviations from the normal type are found in common, forbids us, a priori^ to consider these brains as expressing no more than deviations incident to comparative race-anatomy. There remains nothing more, for the present at least, but to express the proposition : THE BRAINS OF CRIMINALS EXHIBIT A DEVIATION FROM THE NORMAL TYPE, AND CRIMINALS ARE TO BE VIEWED AS AN AN- THROPOLOGICAL VARIETY OF THEIR SPECIES, AT LEAST AMONGST THE CULTURED RACES. This proposition is calculated to create a veritable revo- lution in Ethics, psychology, jurisprudence, and criminalistics. For this very reason it should be handled with the greatest prudence ; it should not yet serve as a premise ; and for the present it should not leave the hands of expert anatomists. In matters of fact it must yet be repeatedly proven and that from many different points of view, until it can finally rank as an undoubted addition to human science. The variety of conditions which we may expect to meet in 158 RECAPITULATION II. the different races, will assign to this proposition a little halt- ing place in the history of Science, and worthless as well as valuable contributions will, for a time to come, give rise to oscillations of opinion. It is self-evident that the observations here collected are the result of an a priori conviction that the constitutional ("eigentliche") criminal is a burdened ("belastetes") indi- vidual; that he has the same relation to crime as his next blood kin, the epileptic, and his cousin the idiot, have to their encephalopathic condition (and its results. Tr.). Even in these this encumbrance does not signify actual disease, but a predisposition to it only. As I desire no conclusion of this question until it is an- atomically solved, I will not return to the grounds of a natural psychology which led to an a priori proposition. I shall equally abstain from offering to explain the facts of empirical criminal psychology and also those statistics which are calculated to support this proposition. In this direction I would, along with other citations, refer to two of my previous essays: ist, "psycho-physics of mor- ality AND RIGHT," Vienna, 1875. Pub. by Urban & Schwar- zenberg. 2d. "NATURAL HISTORY OF CRIME," Wiener jurisUsche Blat- ter, No. I to 3, 1876. These studies elicited a violent opposition. I do not mean the local one; that can be understood and judged of in a great degree, not from the intellectual standpoint but ex- clusively from an ethonopathic view. The various grounds of opposition afforded me much ma- terial for thought, and I will ask the question, was the violence of this opposition in any way justified .? I have no desire to recriminate, I only wish to assist towards a clear under- standing. Since Kant (1781) established his doctrine of antinomies the honest friends of truth know that there exists a quantity RECAPITULATION II. 159 of metaphysical theses and counter-theses which, no matter how contradictory, human reason must for the present look upon as equally defensible. To these propositions belong the doctrine of Freewill and that of Predestination (3. Antin- omic). We may have the conviction that freedom of mind is but the expression of wealth of mind, that all mental actions are expressions of fixed natural laws. In the same way also we may acknowledge an absolute psychical freedom. But the antinomies of Kant are the goal of knowledge, they cannot be its premises. In regard to antinomies, therefore, the ^ priori attitude of science is that of metaphysical neutrality. By his Criticism of Pure Reason, Kant freed humanity from the scourge of metaphysical intolerance ; yet, after a lapse of almost a century, humanity has not entered upon this inheritance. The past century has handed down to us the principle of religious toleration, which is already infused into the flesh and blood of all civilized states. I do not think to deceive myself when I take for granted that our century will soon succeed also to that other in- heritance ; metaphysical neutrality. But first, scholars must place themselves decidedly upon this ground, then will follow society, after that governments and finally legislation. There will still exist a period of renunciation, as on the one side of a line of antonomics (concealed power), there will be found position, decorations and titles, and on the other side either open or secret social persecution; and neutrality will be regarded as opposition. l60 RECAPITULATION III. III. In examining human brains that we have reason to look upon as of low grade, we at once discover "animal similari- ties." To the present point we have confined ourselves chiefly to proving the similarities with the ape-brain ("ape- similarities"). But a close comparative study of the human and mammalian brain led to the query whether there was an essential difference in the construction of the mammal brain as opposed to the human and ape brains. In two previous communications^ I have put this question as one to be negatived, and I refer to it more especially as nature has expressed hardly an idea in the mammal brain which is not, under certain circumstances, repeated in man. It can be comprehended that it is quite impossible to speak of a psychological similarity to beast of prey, apes, &c., when an architectural characteristic occurs in a human brain which is found to be typical in those animals. I have already given special emphasis (loc. cit.) to the fact that the difference in the structure of the frontal human brain, with its three primitive gyri, and the frontal brain of certain beasts of prey with four primitive gyri (e. g. the fox), is only a seeming one. In man the upper two frontal gyri blend together, and their separation is indicated only by the secondary sulcus cp. (Fig. I of Introduction.) In some human brains (see for example Maglenov, left, Obs. VI,) there is developed from this » See " Tyj^es of Beasts of Prey in the Human BrainP Centralblatt fiir die medic Wissensch. 1875, No. 52, and " The Occipital Lobes of Mammalia," in the same, 1876, No. 10. RECAPITULATION III. l6l secondary fissure a long and deep fissure which extends parallel with the superior frontal sulcus, and then the type of four primitive gyri is exhibited in the human brain.^ Fig. I represents (enlarged) a fox's brain. The lower three primitive gyri in the frontal part are designated as (F. 3, F. 2, F. i) and the dividing fissures as (f. 2, f. i). The upper one of the three parallel fissures is designated by q) and the gyrus which lies above it with 4>. A fissure (a) which unites with the fossa Sylviiy separates the frontal from the orbital lobe (Ob) which here comes to lie upon the outer surface. This fissure corresponds to the external orbital fissure in man, and in apes this is more developed than in man. As before mentioned (p. 154, &c.^ it is exceptional that this fissure is well developed in man, and it is found as an ex- tension of a third and lower branch from the fossa Sylviiy which penetrates into the foremost end of the anterior brain. We have (loc. cit.) also before directed particular attention to the fact that the fissure (b) of the fox's brain represented the fissura olfactoria (of) in man. It also happens in man that the middle gyrus (F. 2) and the lower part of the upper frontal gyrus (F. i) blend, the upper gyrus being divided by a deep fissure into two parts. In this case the upper frontal sulcus (f. i) is undeveloped and go takes its place. (See Obs. XIII.) We have here in the human, an instance of the blending of the two middle gyri (F. 2 and F. 3) of the typical four primitive gyri of beasts of prey, whilst the upper gyrus is, as it were, free. That which especially distinguishes the frontal brain of primates from the lower mammals is the absence in the latter of radiating fissures. In Fig. I, of Recapitulation (Fox), at first glance, at least, all radiating fissures of the frontal brain are absent, and more especially, ist, The radiating branch of the inferior frontal * M. Hanst found in four instances out of eleven cerebral autopsies of Voleurs recidivistes {^* veritable pili/rs de prison'*) four frontal convolutions instead of three. In these four cases the middle frontal convolution (F. 2) was the one doubled. M. OvioN did not find a single like-instance during the year 1879, among those who died at the Hospital Cochin, and they are rare, in hospitals, generally. (Tr.) II 1 62 RECAPITULATION III. sulcus (f. 2) which is the third frontal sulcus {£. 3) (per- pendicular). 2d. The radiating fissure of the superior frontal sulcus (f. i). 3d, That of the fissure gp. 4th, The sulcus centralis (c). We will first enquire how these radial fissures arise. FIG. I. Fox {enlarged)* F. I, F. 2, F. 3.= ist, 2d, and 3d frontal gyri. P. I, P. 2.= ist and 2d parietal gyri. T. I, T 2.= ist and 2d temporal gyri. S.= Fossa Sylvii. Ob.= Orbital lobe. Of., Of. = Olfactory lobe. O., 0.= Occipital lobe. P.=Parietal lobe. T.=Temporal lobe. Cu.=Cuneus. H.= Gyrus hippocampi. *.=Upper (4th) frontal gyrus. f. I, f. 2.= 1st and 2d frontal sulcL a. = External orbital fissure. b.= Sulcus olfactorius. c.= Sulcus centralis. ()p.=Upper (secondary) frontal sulcus. blt.=Fissura vasilaries lateralis. RECAPITULATION III. 163 If we study our brains of criminals it conducts us first of all to the knowledge of an important law. That is, where a sagittal fissure is interrupted, a radial fissure is formed, so that, for example, when the upper frontal sulcus is divided into several parts, at the posterior end of each piece a radiating fissure is formed (See especially Obs. XIV). These radial fissures may become separated from their sagittal stem, as is often to be seen in case of the third frontal sulcus (f. 3) and its sagittal stem, the lower frontal sulcus (f. 2). Here enters the question, whether the sidcits centralis has not originated in this manner, and by further development be- come a separated, radial branch of one or all of the frontal sagittal sulci } The facts observed in one criminal's brain are strongly affirmative, as we there find connections between it and all the sagittal frontal fissures (). As important as the first, especially, may be, it still would not lead any one to deduce from this condition a qualitative difference between the brains of primates and other mam- malia. The question is entirely undecided whether the gyri an- 1 The celebrated work of Betz ("anatomical proof of two brain centers," Centralblatty 1874, Nos. 37, 38) had already really decided the question in our favor as to the supposed position of a sulcus cejttralis, and it is also decided in the same manner through a more recent treatise by Bevan Lewis (" brain," Journal of Neurology, part I) on "the comparative structure of the cortex CEREBRI." l68 RECAPITULATION III, terior to the fossa Sylvii and posterior to the just-mentioned line limiting the frontal lobe, marked F. 2, F. 3, are to be considered as belonging to the temporal or parietal lobe. ^ That which has usually been assigned to the temporal and to the parietal lobes through topographical considerations, is indicated by the letters, P. i, P. 2, and T. i, T. 2. Let us now examine the base. In the anterior basilar lobe of mammalia it is particularly observable that the olfactory lobe is much more developed than in primates and especially than in man ; there the fissura Sylvii does not extend to the base but is represented by a much less marked ''deepening" (the real fossa Sylvii) and it is also to be seen that the orbital lobe is pushed to the external surface. The fissura olfactoria (b) in Figs. I, II, and III, is generally connected with the fissura Sylvii or another fissure (^fissura basilaris lateralis y bit. in the Fig.) with which we shall soon become acquainted. The fissura orbitalis (ob) is generally absent, though it is represented in the horse (Fig. II). The middle basilar lobe is generally undivided. (In the horse, however, for example, the division is indicated). See Fig. 11. The same as in man the basilar lobe, in the middle cranial fossa (^gyrus uncinatus (U) and gyrus Hippocampiy (H) middle basilar lobe) gives off a lobe which rests in the posterior cranial fossa as the occipital basilar lobe. This is the case with all mammalia (Fig. II). In man this basilar occipital lobe is divided into two parts by the sulcus collateralis (cl) as this massive development demands a highway for vasculariza- tion. In many animals this sulcus (cl) is absent, in others, as in the Cat and wild Boar, it is more or less plainly present (See for example, cl. in Fig. Ill, of the Bear's brain). This shows that the mammal also has its basilar occipital lobe and which in several species is even separated into the gyri lingualis and fusiformis. This portion of the mammal brain I have not taken at all into consideration (s. 1. c). Before I commence with the external surface of the occipital lobe of mammalia, I must consider a fissure which appears in most gyrocephalic mammalia and which I prefer to designate as the fissura RECAPITULATION III. 169 hasilaris lateralis (bit) (see Figs. I-III, Recapitulation). Fig. II exhibits this fissure in the Horse. It is seen to be connected with the fossa Sylvii (S). It sends, ist, anteriorly the branches (a) and (b) ; 2d, posteriorly, it first separates the external temporal surface (T) from the middle basilar lobe. This part of the fissura basilaris lateralis is indicated in Fig. II with (fs). The fissure then extends further back FIG. II. Horse. r.=Frontal lobe. 000.=Occipital lobe. P P. = Parietal lobe. T.= Temporal lobe. S.= Fossa Sylvii. Ob.= Orbital lobe. Of. = Olfactory bulb. Cu.=Cuneus. Lg.-f Fs.=Gyri lingualis and fusiformis. fs.= Sulcus fusiformis. blt.= Fissura basilaris lateralis. U+H.=Gyri uncinatus and hippocampi, a. = External orbital fissure. b.= Sulcus olfactoria. c.= Sulcus centralis. d.= Sulcus orbitalis. g.= Sulcus oc. 170 RECAPITULATION III. in order; 3d, to separate that part which I regard as the external surface of the occiput (O) from the occipital basilar lobe. In Fig. II this part is indicated by (g). In many animals the posterior portion of this fissure is bifurcated. (See Fig. Ill, fissure (cc).) This fissure also separates more or less completely: ist, with its occipital extremity, the external surface from the occipital basilar lobe; 2d, with its middle portion, the external surface from the middle basilar lobe, and 3d, the frontal lobe from the orbital. This fissure, in some sections torn apart, is represented in man ; the first-mentioned portion (posterior) is represented by Wernicke s fissiira occipitalis inferioj^ (g) (see Fig. I, Introduction) ; the second (middle) by Wernicke's fissura fnsiformiSy which generally corresponds to our fissura tempor- alis tertiiis (ibidem) and the anterior part by the external orbital fissure in man. In the brains of criminals which we have presented, the fissiira basilaris lateralis is very beautifully demonstrated. Through the union of the fissura occipitalis inferior and the fissiira fusiformis and the full development of both, they often furnish a good representation of the first and second portions (posterior and middle) of the fissura basilaris lateralis (see for example, Obs. XV). Ou-r specimens teach, moreover, that the upper frontal branch of this fissura basilaris lateralis sometimes appears complete in man (See for example Obs. IV, p. 34; Obs. X, p. 55; Obs. XI). It remains to be mentioned that the fissura basilaris lateralis does not necessarily join with the fossa Sylvii\ they are often separated by intervening gyri. I have spoken of this in a previous communication. We will now turn to the external surface of the occipital lobe. We can at least say that the portion which pertains to the basilar occipital lobe, that is, the posterior portion of the under surface and the posterior edge of the external surface and its contiguous parts, belong to the occipital lobe. RECAPITULATION III. I7I In primates we observe moreover the parietal lobe (P) directed posteriorly upon the substratum of the temporal lobe (T), located partially around the posterior extremity and ending on the inner surface at the praecuneus (Q), above the occipital basilar lobe. In other mammalia the brain is more elevated at the posterior extremity ; the parietal lobe bends down under. We have then every reason to look upon all that which is situated behind that portion of the parietal lobe which bends around the temporal lobe (T) as the occiput. The lowest point of this curved convolution I have termed Cuneus (Cu) (see Fig. I and III, Recapitulation). This, however, will scarcely be verified. If we speak of an occiput there must also be internal evidences of it ; and to these belong a central ganglion con- necting with the posterior part of the corim aimnonisy corre- sponding to the cornu ammonis posterior^ and to the calcar avis in primates. This I have found in all mammals of the most varied classes. Up to the ape it has a more or less oval form, is in bulb-like, concentric layers, composed of white and gray substance, and is undoubtedly a representative of the cornu ammonis posterior in primates. By this, the existence of an occiput, and that a very con- siderable one, too, is proven. The existence of a central vascular canal of the occiput — the posterior cornu — I have found in most of the animals examined. It is sometimes absent, as for example, in the Bear. There it is represented by deep fissures entering from the outside, for example (cc) and (a) in the Bear (see Fig. Ill, Recapitulation).' * I have already mentioned, in another place, (" anatomical introduction to BRAIN DISEASES," in my Neuropathology and electropathy), that the relative pre- ponderance of the cornu ammonis over the other central gangliaj and especially over the corpus striatum, is a prominent characteristic of the mammal as con- trasted with that of man ; and this statement was verified by Mihalkowic in his excellent work upon the " the development of the brain." t^Z RECAPITULATION III. The fissure indicated by (g) in Fig. II (Recapitulation I) have spoken of as corresponding, in the human brain, to IVernickes fissura occipitalis inferior ; and that indicated by (cc) Fig. Ill, as corresponding to the fissura calcarina. It is certain that the lowest part of this fissure corresponds to the inferior occipital fissure (g). In many animals (the Fox, for example) this fissure takes the place of the fissura calcarina in man. This is the fissure through which the posterior cornu is vascularized and in sections made successively from behind towards the front, it diminishes in ratio to the greater develop- ment of the posterior cornu ammonis. A glance at Fig. Ill (Recapitulation) shows also that when the occiput turns inwards and rests on the occipital basilar lobe, and anteriorly against the praecuneus, as is the case with primates, the upper part of this fissure is then torn away from the lower, and to a certain degree assumes the office of the fisstira calcarina, that is, so far as being the separating fissure between the Cuneus and the occipital basilar lobe, and with its upper portion, which I have marked (po), it divides the praecuneus (Q) from the Cuneus as does the fissura occipitalis perpendicularis in man. Another instructive fissure is the one which I have desig- nated (q) (see Fig. Ill, Recapitulation). It forms, as does the common stem of the perpendicular occipital fissure and the calcarina in man, the dividing fissure between the occipital basilar lobe and the gyrus fortiicatuSy and communicates with the sulcus calloso-marginalis. We now comprehend the great importance of that condition in our brains of criminals, where the sulcus calloso-marginalis extends through the praecimeus and unites with the stem of the fissura occipitalis (po). This fissure (q) also sends an extension to the praecuneus (Q) as we have so often seen the parieto-occipitalis do in the specimens of criminals' brains, by which it may become united with the fissures of the praecuneus y or the branch may remain independent of them. In the Bear's brain the fissure (q) and the upper part RECAPITULATION III. I73 of the fissures cc and po, fulfil the same purpose that the united Y-formed calcarina and parieto-occipital do in man, and which two last, in the ape, are not yet united. On the other hand, we see that already in the Bear one of these fissures connects with the lower occipital fissure ; but in the bear these fissures (cc) and (q) form a nidus with the collateralis (cl) and this again makes plain the significance in the criminal-brain of the frequent union of the lower occipital, the collateralis^ the calcarina and the parieto-occipitalis, with each other, and of the latter with the calloso-marginalis (cm). Thus the study of our specimens makes the facts of com- parative anatomy distinct and these in return demonstrate the atypic character of our brain specimens which, by deduction, may be justly termed retrograded brains/ From these facts results the following important propo- sition: There exists no qualitative difference between the brains of mammalia and those of primates. NOTE. This proposition is the result of a comparison of numerous transverse sections which I have years ago made of the brains of the most widely differing animals, and of the most varied classes of mammalia ; and they have served me as a guide in studies of the external cerebral surface. I have a large collection of transverse sections of the occiput, from the maggot to the common bat. In them it can be seen that mammals without convolutions are not constructed on a different plan from the gyro-encephalic mammalia. The fissures have only a haemato-dynamic significance. That is, they prevent vessels with considerable arterial force frofh entering directly into the mass of the brain. Where the quantity which is to be received from the surface is small, i. e., not penetrating deeply, no fissures are required. Where, in the ascending animal scale, any part is more strongly developed, a new typical fissure appears. We will here once more emphasize the fact that a frequent connection of a typical fissure signifies no enriching of the fissure, but simply the absence of developed gyri. It may also be emphatically stated that fissures do not merely signify a separ- ation ; they are more significant of a focus for the entrance of nourishment, vascu- larization, a consideration which is of special importance in cerebral pathology. * Corresponding to the fact that the fissure through which the posterior cornu ammonis receives nourishment (is vascularized), is situated in many animals (the Fox for example) outside instead of inside, the occipital ganglion itself submits to an axial deviation outwardly, and the posterior cornu, when it exists, to an inward deviation ; as I have already mentioned in a previous communication (1. c). 1/4 RECAPITULATION III. I do not consider the representations which we have here given as containing all the proof in support of the proposition ; on the contrary, I am preparing to resume the subject, accompanied by co-workers, in order to make exhaustive researches and to investigate especially the differential histological characteristics of individual convolutions. Whilst this section was prepared for publication, I became acquainted with two important works by the celebrated French Naturalist, Paul Broca Q^ Anaiojnie comparSe des cir- convolutions cirebrales. Le grand lobe limbique et la sets sure limbique dans la sSrie des mammifhes!^ Revue d'anthro- pologie, 1878; and ^^ Etude sur le cerveau du Gorilley' ibid.). The first work, more especially, is a direct continuation of the labors of Leuret and Gratiolet, and is equal to them in value. By its clearness of presentation, its resultant tracing of an important anatomical truth, and its multiplicity of. material, it will occupy a place of first importance in the science of cerebral anatomy. Broca's results frequently contradict my representations. Notwithstanding this, I do not think it best to remodel this section of my work, but rather to communicate the results of my studies, as they appear to me, because many important statements of Broca have not sufficiently impressed me, and it is my opinion too that the greater the contrast in the results of different authors, derived from the same material, the easier in the midst of these variances will truth be discovered. I hope that we will be assisted to this ultimatum by Betz, who will shortly enter the discussion with a larger work. Broca's starting point is the " lobus Ihjtbicus' (encircling lobe). This term is applied to that formation found in many animals (the Otter, for example), which is a curved lobe made up from the combined lobus olfactorius, the middle basilar lobe of animals (^gyrus hippocampi) and the gyrus fornicatus. The external olfactory root connects with the gyrus hippocampi and the internal root with the gyrus fornicatus and in this manner the upper and lower portions of the curve meet each other anteriorly. This lobus limbicuSy as a starting point in comparative anatomy, is a real master stroke. RECAPITULATION III. 1 75 Of equal importance with the lobus limbicus is the fissure- system which separates it from the superimposed hemispheric mass (^^ Masse circonvolutionarie'). By the way, the scissura limbica hiferior of Broca, runs along the external border of the hemisphere and corresponds entirely to our fissiira basi- laris lateralis} The upper part of the scissura limbica represents the sulcus calloso-marginalisy but with this exception : that in primates this fissure generally separates only the anterior portion of the the gyrus fornicatus from the remainder of the hemisphere, whilst in other mammalia the curve is more or less complete, if not indeed entirely uninterrupted. In many mammalia (beasts of prey for example) that portion of the fissure which separates the parietal lobe from the parietal part of the gyrus fornicatus is further developed and extends with an anteriorly convex curve to the external surface where it constitutes the sulcus cruciatus of Leuret. Concerning the relation of the calloso-marginalis to the scissura cruciata of Leuret^ see pre- vious statements. In our specimens of criminals* brains, Broca's scissura limbica is frequently seen to be complete, in so far as it extends without interruption from the frontal part of the gyrus fornicatus to its posterior curve, or even communicates with the stem of the united parieto-occipitalis and fissura calcarina, and that, which is very important, sends upwards two curves which serve as borders for the paracentral lobe (Broca erroneously credits Meynert, instead of Betz, with the discovery of this lobe). If it is preferable, especially on account of the condition found in man, to denominate the lower part of the scissura limbica as the fissura basilaris lateralisy then the upper part would be better designated as the fissura calloso-marginalis. At the same time, the great value of Broca's expression * I prefer my designation because it is more generally applicable. We shall see that there is a great difference of opinion between Broca and myself as regards the representation of this fissure in primates, and which seems chiefly to arise from the reason that Broca was unacquainted with Wernicke's important work, ** Convolution-system of the human brain" (Arch, fiir Psychiat, 1876, vol. vi.) 176 RECAPITULATION III. consists in its description of the fundamental condition, and for that reason it ought to be retained. The upper and lower curve of Broca's scissura Ihnbica are posteriorly always separated from each other by a portion of gyrus which extends from the gyrus hippocampi to the posterior edge of the external hemispheric surface. Broca calls this bit of gyrus, ''plis de passage ritrolimbiquey It corresponds to that which I call simply basilar occipital lobe. Broca, as well as myself, found a fissure in this piece of gyrus which he considers as the fore runner of the fissura calcarina, while I take it as the analogue of the sulcus collateralisy which Broca does not take into consideration ; which is the correct view, the histology of surrounding cortical substance can alone decide. The upper curve of the scissura linibica is generally in- terrupted in its anterior part, and thereby an upper communi- cation is established between the gyrus fornicatus and the lobus frontalis. In the horse the upper curve is entirely com- plete and there exists only a slight interruption between the upper and lower curve of the scissura linibica^ through which the most anterior and lowest part of the gyrus forni- catus communicates with the lobus frontalis. The labors of Broca have imparted the highest interest to a branch of our fissura basilaris lateralis (bit) (or the under curve of the fissura limbica')^ which we have termed external orbital fissure (see (a) in Figs. I-III, Recapitulation) and which, by a stretch of gyrus, is often superficially separ- ated from the fissura basilaris lateralis. According to Broca, this branch corresponds in mammalia to the sulcus centralis (fissure of Rolando). This view of the celebrated French anatomist possesses a certain fascination ; nevertheless, it is decidedly incorrect. Broca's sulcus centralis lies before and below the center of Betz's pyramidal giant cells, whereas the veritable sulcus centralis must lie behind and somewhat in the midst of those centers. RECAPITULATION III. I77 There can be no doubt that this fissure represents an external orbital fissure.^ I most decidedly agree with Broca that the anterior branches of the fisstira basilaris lateralis have nothing to do with the anterior branches of the fossa Sylvii in man, and he justly characterizes the statements of Meynert as " confusion.** Before I consider what becomes of the fissiira limbica in primates, I will make an observation on the lobns temporalis and the middle basilar lobe. Broca really allows in the mammalia (excluding the pri- mates), only the lowest piece of the posterior part of the second super-sylvian convolution-arch as an indication of the temporal lobe as found in primates, whereas I, from purely external topographical reasons, claim for it, in mammalia, the entire lower posterior part of the lowest two super-sylvian convolution-arches. Present methods cannot decide which view is correct. Broca's idea respecting the gyrus uncinates is much more extraordinary, a view which he treats as self-evident, and so does not even distinctly formulate it. The French anatomist does not regard the middle basilar lobe in mammalia as analogous to the middle basilar lobe in primates ; he rather holds the gyrus hippocampi in man as the representative of the middle basilar lobe in non-primates, and the observation made by me that the gyrus uncinatus fre- quently represents only the turning loops of the temporal gyri, and the previous observation by Wernicke that the development of the gyrus uncinatus depends entirely upon the development of the temporal gyri, favor the French * I will here direct attention to an error which can easily find entrance in connection with the Sheep's brain and which has indeed found way into literature. I have before me an interesting Italian paper containing an account of the experiments at Siena in the physiological laboratory of Prof. Albertoni (Milan, published by Rechiedei, 1876). Albertoni communicates his important experi- ment upon non-aetherized dogs and cats, for a real epileptic center at the upper border of the fissura postcruciata. This little book contains also a treatise by Student Marcacci, upon the motor centers in sheep. He placed the centers all in front of \}cv^ fissura cruciata. But he overlooked the x^-sX fisstira cruciata, which is shallow and rises from the sulcus limbicusy and mistakes for it the deeper, well characterized sulcus centralis. 12 178 RECAPITULATION III. naturalist's idea. Broca observed a fissure in the lower human races which separated the gyrus hippocampi from the gyrus uncinatus ; he assigned it to the temporal lobe and bestowed upon it no special name ; this fissure he takes as the representative of the middle part of his scissura livibica inferior. Our specimens have shown this fissure dividing the two gyri of our middle lobe to be very often present, but it is to be seen that it chiefly appears as an extension of the sulcus collateralis (cl) (see for example, Fig. Ill, Plate XII). I, on the contrary, regard Wernicke s fissura ftisiformis (t. 3^ which separates the gyrus uncinatus and in part, the gyrus fusiformis, from the external surface of the temporal lobe, as a remnant of the middle portion of Xh^ fissura lateralis basilarisy or fissura linibica inferior. In order to determine which view is correct, deciding data must be produced.* Broca betows no attention upon the posterior part of the fissura basilaris lateralis. I have already mentioned that I consider Wernicke s fissura occipitalis inferior (g) as the remnant of it, and the fact of the frequent blending of this with the fissura fusiformis is surely of importance. Again I specially repeat that I formulate these counter pro- positions so plainly, because I believe that the more distinctly variations of ideas are opposed to each other the more promptly truth will gain footing. Still more diverse are our views respecting the lobtis occipit- alis. Broca says that it is in those animals where the temporal lobe exists that the earliest representation of an occipital lobe is to be found (corresponding, by the way, to Cn of our Figs. I to III, Recapitulation.) But further on in his work he devotes no more attention to this statement made in the early part. Through a folding of the parietal lobe, from whence re- sults the fissjira parieto-occipitalis — the occipital lobe, in primates, — should be separated from the parietal lobe, the * The tendency which Wernicke's fissura fusiformis has to unite with the extension of the collateralis, which separates the gyri uncinatus and hippocampi, is certainly noteworthy. This fact is testimony in favor of Broca's idea. RECAPITULATION III. 1 79 occipital lobe comprising that part which lies behind the fissure. Where this fissure is absent there is, according to Broca, also an absence of the posterior cerebral "pole." I deem it more correct to claim for those animals in whose brains this fissure is absent, such parts as corre- spond topographically to the occipital lobe in primates ; — that is, the bent-under portion of the upper part of the parietal lobe at the posterior "pole". Illustrated by means of sections, I have, in a previous contribution, given my reason for the view I entertain, namely : the existence of an occipital central ganglion, and when the eminent French anatomist, to the solution of this point, has devoted a few brains to the knife, I have no doubt that he will at once be converted to my view (see Figs. I-III of Recapitulation). It is highly important to study the extent which Broca assigns to the parietal lobe. He so denominates the entire area of external hemisphere which lies above and back of the sidctis centralis (a) (in our Figs. I-III). He allows only a trace of the temporal and occipital lobes above the fisstira basilaris lateralis (bit. ibidem), whereas, our temporal lobe extends quite to this fissure. I have already called attention to the fact that a large piece of the anterior parietal lobe belonged to the frontal lobe. I have also designated in the figures the parts O and Cu, which belong to the occiput. To what extent that part which we have termed temporal lobe and the gyri designated T. i and T. 2 belongs to the parietal lobe, remains to be proven. That the greater portion of the anterior parts of the lower two super-sylvian gyri belong to the parietal lobe is certain ; and it may be that the fissures which, in the Fox and Bear, for example, is usually called the Sylvian fissure (see S in Fig. I and Fig. Ill, Recapitulation) is in fact only its posterior ascending branch (S' in Fig. I of Introduction). The ingenious successor to Leuret and Gratiolet will, in a measure, have to recede from his enthusiasm respecting the parietal lobe, while other anatomists will have to become more interested in it than they have hitherto been. l80 RECAPITULATION III. Broca is extraordinarily clear in his representations of the origin of the fissura Sylvii at the base and concerning its relations in animals. In general views his work is so rich, and detail so ingenious, that over and above its abundant explanations, every reader will derive real aesthetic enjoyment from it RECAPITULATION IV. l8l IV. It is an important question whether, from an atypic skull, we are able to determine an atypic brain. Let us consider the various sections of the longitudinal curve. In typic skulls and brains the bregma lies about 4.5 Cm (i 3-4 inch) anterior to the sulcus centralis (c) and the intersection of the sagittal and lamboidal sutures is at the upper terminus of the parieto-occipital fissure. The question is, does this relation remain the same in atypic skulls and brains } To the present, science can give no response. Let us suppose that the posterior fontanelle should always correspond with the superior end of the fissura-parieto-occipit- alls. In the specimens which we have presented, there is the abnormality — at least it occurs with unusual frequency — that the cerebellum is not covered by the occipital lobe. Let us see if we can discern this condition from the skull. It would be imagined a priori^ that with the abnormal brain (in this respect) the condition must be manifest by the curve extending from the posterior fontanelle to the prominentia occipitalis maxima (upper occipital curve). It must be observed, however, that the curve of the prominentia occipit- alis maxima is generally a circular one, and that there- fore for the purpose of measuring this curve (upper occipital curve) it affords somewhat of an arbitrary point which is more especially true in case of a flat occiput. Besides this, the l82 RECAPITULATION IV. prominentia occipitalis maxima does not of a certainty corre- spond to the intersection of the eminentia criiciatay which last also exercises a considerable influence in deciding the true extent of the occipital curve of the brain. Arranging the skulls according to the size of this curve, we have the following order : 2, Budimcie, . 2.0 3, Faczuna, . 3-1 4, Pantalic, 34 5, Sinka, 34 6, Petriczewicz, 37 7, Proketz, 44 8, Loksik, 4-5 9, Madardsz, . 5.1 10, Perndinacz, 5-5 II, Mia, . . 5.6 Let us exclude Beczar, in whom the cerebellum was entirely covered from the base of the occipital lobe down, and Bud- imcie, with whom the small measurement indicates micro- cephaly and which therefore cannot be ranked as a case of non-covering. Of the remaining nine, there are three without covering (Madarasz, Pantalic, Proketz), three barely covered (Pern- dinacz, Sinka, Loksik) and three plentifully so, (Faczuna, Mia, Petriczewicz). From the comparison in this collection, it is to be seen that NO conclusion can be drawn from the size of the "upper occipital curve" of the skull as regards the extent to which the cerebellum within is covered by the occipital lobe. The next question is, does an abnormal proportion of the cranial-parietal curve indicate an abnormal development of certain parts of the brain } The reply must at all events be ambiguous. Within the range of the cranial-parietal curve there is included a portion RECAPITULATION IV. 1 83 of the anterior lobes, then the central lobes, and lastly the parietal lobes. The question therefore is : in a contracted parietal curve of the skull, are the entire brain-parts just enumerated, dwarfed, or is it confined to single parts? and to what parts ? In this direction our Fifth observation is of interest. (SiNKA.) — In his case the non-development of the bony parietal curve is strongly marked. The man was a bank-note counterfeiter, and this class of criminals is noted for geniality and never for intellectual poverty. As we have every reason to locate intelligence in the frontal cerebral curve and to regard the gyrus centralis anterior and its anterior neigh- boring parts as the psychomotor centrum^ it might be expected, a priori^ that a connection would be found between the non- development of the bony parietal curve and an aplasia of the parietal lobes. A glance at the photographic plate V, shows in fact a highly dwarfed condition of the first parietal lobe, by an operculose formation, and this on both sides. The aplasia of the parietal lobe in the robber and thief, Proketz, is less pronounced (Observation XV). The incomplete development of the cranial -parietal curve in epileptics — and such is often the case — might be connected with aplasia of the gyrus centralis anterior. The verification of asymitries of the base of the skull and of the skull entire, seems also of importance. Still even from this there could, as yet, be no conclusions drawn respecting partial aplasias. For the present the skull and the brain must be studied as parallel lines much more than as lines exactly superimposed. I have selected certain measurements of the brain in order to establish at least relative references. The greatest longitudinal diameter ("L'') of each hemi- sphere, in proportion to the longitudinal arch-curve C' Hemi- 184 RECAPITULATION IV. spheric arch") may be of the greatest importance. First comes the measurement of the "anterior" (frontal) curve, from the apex of the frontal lobe to that point where the sulcus ce7ttralisy if extended, would cut the hemispheric arch ; the "middle" (parietal) curve extends from this point to the upper end (medial surface) of the fissiira parieto-occipitalis and the "posterior" (occipital) curve extends from this to the prurninentia occipitalis. These curves may afford good measure- ments to ascertain the relative development of various parts of the brain. In our observations they are of little value because they have been made on dried brains, and the shrinkage of the brains in toto as well as in different parts, varies greatly in the different subjects. The measurements, to have value, must be made upon either fresh brains or those slightly hardened. The first method might be difficult and the latter would require preparatory experience. In conclusion, I will offer a few remarks upon the hitherto- existing Criminalistic Method. The plan pursued has been the most injudicious possible. Crime is a psychological act of the criminal, and the criminal, therefore, is the first object for study. In regard to this, — the very chief object — the teacher, the accuser, the defender and the judge, all have to the present bestowed too little care. The most competent judges of criminals are empiric police- men, and above all thorough prison officers. Brief conversations with Director Tauffer, and the honor of a longer interview with the Ex-General-Inspector of Austrian prisons. Baron VON Hye, who, as a theorist and a practicalist has equal prominence and reputation, have taught me more concerning the state of the criminal world than would an entire library of books. In order to acquire and spread abroad sensible views, and before all, that it may be clearly ascertained whether and how criminals can be corrected, and how society can best be protected from the scourge of crime, it will be necessary for scientific criminalists to adopt the methods of naturalists. It will be especially requisite to have institutions for purposes of RECAPITULATION IV. 1 85 observation and teaching, and these must be established in capital cities where prisons and the higher executive depart- ments of justice are located, and above all they should be con- fided to educated and scientific investigators. For the future, judge, defender, and prosecutor, to be ac- quainted with the subject of their labors face to face will certainly be more to the purpose than to accept the multitude of false psychological theories which have been enunciated by teachers from far back, prehistoric times, and which are gener- ally taught even in the present day. If haply in one of these institutions some future professor — somewhat mocking Lombroso, — exclaims to his pupils: " The heads of criminals must not be too large or too small, not too broad or too narrow, not too high and not too low, what then should they be ?" The proper reply would at once echo back : ** Yes indeed, these heads may be too large or too small, too narrow or too broad, too high or two low ; they may be atypic." For atypy predisposes to mental disturbance, to epilepsy and to psycho-physical abnormalities of all sorts ; or it may be significant of cerebral disease. But for the crimin- alist it is necessary that his head should not be hollow, in order that he may be able to follow investigations originating from other sources than himself ; and in order that he may not be incited to slander other investigators because he himself is incapable of grasping principles, it is necessary that his head should not be evil. DATE DUE SLIP UNIVERSITY OF CAX.IFORNIA MEDICAL SCHOOL LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW 14 DAY JUN 21 1960 Irn 4.'29 1 HV6059 Betiedikt, ivU 155c6 B46f inatomioalj studies 1881 upon brainb of orlm - I nals... Txr erman by jl. P. Fowler. from the - A