BIOLOGY UBRARY G B IRD-L IFE. LONDON : EDWARD NEWMAN, PRINTER, DEVONSHIRE STREET, I3I3HOPSGATE. M . N Haiuuirt mat BIRD-LIFE IN AN AFRICAN FOREST X - S I't.'-*- BIRD-LIFE BEING A HISTORY OF THE BIRD, ITS STRUCTURE, AND HABITS TOGETHER WITH SKETCHES OF FIFTY DIFFEEENT SPECIES. BY DE. A. E. BREHM. lftitb twin the (dertmtn BY H. M. LABOUCHEKE, F.Z.S., AND W. JESSE, C.M.Z.S., ZOOLOGIST TO THE ABYSSINIAN EXPEDITION. ILLUSTEATED WITH TEN COLOURED PLATES, BY J. G. KEULEMANS. LONDON: JOHN VAN VOOEST, PATEENOSTEE EOW. MDCCCLXXIV. . B/OLOGY R G TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER AND INSTRUCTOR CHEISTIAN LUDWIG BKEHM, AN HONOURABLE MAN NATURALIST AND PRIEST. BORN THIS 24TH OF JANUARY, 1787; DIED THE 23RD OF JUNE, 1864. 387143 CONTENTS. LIST OF PLATES .... TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION EXTRACT FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION INTRODUCTION. A Glance at tlie Past PART I. PHYSICAL LIFE. CHAPTER I. The Body ,, II. The Movements . III. The Voice ,, IV. Development ,, V. From the Cradle to the Grave TAGE xi xiii xv xvii xix 1 19 37 62 79 PART II. SPIRITUAL LIFE. CHAPTER I. Character ..... 95 H. Reason . ... . . .114 ,, III. Disposition . . . . .153 PART III. HOME AND FUNCTIONS. CHAPTER I. General Distribution . . . .165 ,, II. Characteristic Birds of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia . . .179 ,, III. Functions ..... 210 IV. Adaptation of Structure to Habits . . 225 ,, V. The Importance of Birds in the Economy of Nature ..... 243 Vlll CONTENTS. PART IV. DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL LIFE. PAGE CHAPTER I. Every-day Life ..... 255 ,, II. Courtship and Marriage .... 269 III. Nest Building ..... 299 IV. Breeding ...... 321 ,, V. Breeding Colonies .... 337 VI. Migration ..... 367 ,, VII. Life in Foreign Lands .... 408 PART V. MAN AND THE BIKD. CHAPTER I. Birds and Poetry . . . .425 ,, II. Birds and their Friends .... 446 ,, III. The Cage -bird and the Bird-fancier . . 457 ,, IV. Sportsmen and Birds .... 469 V. Bird-catching ..... 480 VI. The Naturalist and the Bird 495 PART VI. SKETCHES FEOM NATURE. CHAPTER I. The Cinerous Vulture . . . . t 509 II. The Bearded Vulture . . . .517 ,, III. The Golden Eagle . . . .530 IV. The Honey Buzzard . . . .542 V. The Greenland Falcon . . . .547 ,, VI. The Sparrow Hawk . . . .558 VII.' The Eagle Owl 565 VIII. The Nightjar, or Fern Owl . . .574 IX. The Chimney Swallow . . . .583 X. The Cuckoo 592 CONTENTS. IX PART VII. SKETCHES FROM NATUKE. (Continued.) PAGE CHAPTER I. The Kingfisher ..... 605 II. The Great Black Woodpecker . . .611 HI. The Hoopoe . . . . . 621 IV. The Bohemian Waxwing . . . .627 V. The Great Gray Shrike .... 632 VI. The Parrot Crossbill .... 637 VII. The House Sparrow . . . .645 VIII. The Chaffinch 652 IX. The Yellow-hammer . . . .659 X. The Wood Lark ..... 663 XI. The Yellow Wagtail . . . .669 XII. The Nightingale ..... 674 XIII. The Blackcap ..... 680 XIV. The Melodious Willow Warbler . . .684 XV. The Dusky Chat ..... 688 XVI. The Common Wren . . . .695 PART VIII. SKETCHES FROM NATURE. (Continued.) CHAPTER I. The Dipper, or Water Ouzel . . . 701 II. The Blackbird . . . . .708 III. The Starling ..... 712 IV. The Eaven ..... 718 V. The Bearded Titmouse . . . .735 VI. The Wood Pigeon . . . .742 VII. The Sand Grouse . . . .747 VIII. The Hazel Grouse . . . .754 IX. The Great Bustard . . . .759 X. The Golden Plover ... 770 XI. The White Stork .... 779 X CONTENTS. PART IX. SKETCHES FEOM NATUEE. (Concluded.) PAGE CHAPTER I. The Great White Heron .... 793 ,, II. The Woodcock ..... 799 III. The Buff and Eeeve . . . .805 IV. The Blackwinged Stilt . . . .813 ,, V. The Moorhen . . . . .818 ,, VI. The Flamingo ..... 826 VII. The Wild Swan, or Hooper . . .833 VIII. The Eider Duck ..... 841 IX. The Gull 851 X. The Albatross ..... 859 XI. The Stormy Petrel . . . .866 XII. The Great Crested Grebe . . .876 XIII. The Great Auk 883 INDEX . . . . . . . . 889 ERRATA ...... 899 LIST OF PLATES* BlED-LIFE IN AN AFRICAN FOREST NOCTURNAL SONG . BIRDS MOBBING AN OWL . A SUMMER MORNING FEEDING THE HUNGRY STORKS SETTLING FOR THE NIGHT . SWANS . AN EAGLE'S EYRIE WINTER TIME WATER-FOWL ON A DUTCH LAKE . BIRDS ON THE SEA- SHORE . Frontispiece. . To face page 1 93 163 253 337 423 507 603 699 791 PEEFACE TO THE TRANSLATION. IN bringing this work before the English public we have been actuated by the wish that it may fall into the hands of the general reader, and prove an indirect means of strengthening the now growing love of Nature and her ways in this country. It is by a true appreciation of the wonders of Nature that the mind becomes expanded, the perceptions quickened, and the heart refined and softened. A more intimate knowledge of the beauties of Creation inevitably conduces to delicacy of ideas and tenderness of feeling. If lovely flowers be seen in a cottage window, rest assured that beneath that roof there exists a gentler and more kindly life than under the next, where not a green leaf is to be seen. Where bees are kept, or pet birds are to be found, there is sure to be seen a glimpse, and a bright one, too, of the tender and more loveable side of our nature. One, if not the greatest, enemy to cruelty and brutality is knowledge; hence let us offer every inducement in our power to its acquirement in connection with the beauties by which we are surrounded. Though this work is of little or no value to the scientific reader, and is, doubtless, open to a certain amount of adverse criticism, still, taken as a whole, the main proportion of information contained therein is correct ; while the various anecdotes and the minute detail of observation are, at the same time, useful and entertaining. As Translators, we beg to apologise for the unusually voluminous Errata in connection with the early numbers of the work, as well as XIV PREFACE TO THE TRANSLATION. for the length of time that has elapsed between the issue of the first number and the concluding one. We cannot close our Preface without gratefully acknowledging the assistance rendered us by our kind friends Messrs. Sharpe and Dresser ; Professor E. 0. Cunningham, of Queen's College, Belfast ; Dr. Otto Finsch, of Bremen ; Mr. John E. Eldridge ; and others in connection with the Translation of this work. Asking the indulgence of the public for our many shortcomings, we leave Dr. A. E. BKEHM'S interesting book to work its own way amongst English readers. And subscribe ourselves, the reader's obedient servants, WILLIAM JESSE. H. M. LABOUCHERE. London ; December, 1874. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. I HAVE honestly striven to remedy the defects and correct the errors of this pet child of my pen, without, however, depriving it of the original form to which I moulded it. Every effort of human thought and reflection has its time, and with it a certain justification. Such, indeed, may also be accorded to ' BIRD-LIFE ; ' not only because it is a favourite of mine, but because I am indebted to it for the acquisition of many friends. And if, on the other hand, it has raised the ire of some, do not let the blame be cast upon the Author, but rather on the irritated individuals themselves, who coveted their neighbour's child, inasmuch as they read a book not intended for their perusal. Those for whom I wrote have understood me; and these lines are written to thank them. I beg their further goodwill by inviting them openly to expose all errors or deficiencies that still remain; for it is only by a true and conscientiously critical examination of the work that I, and possibly further Editions, can profit. THE AUTHOR. Berlin; Easter, 1867. EXTEACT FROM PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. I WISHED to act as an interpreter to those who, from year's end to year's end, are forced to live among the whirl of cities, or, buried in their solitary chambers, remain strangers to our Common Mother Nature. I would fain beg those whose lives are passed amid wood- land hamlets, on the mountain side, in the forest, and by the strand, to take me for their companion in their home-rambles by flood and field, and exchange thoughts with me. I wish to implant in the bosom of those who have not yet awakened to the love of our Common Mother, one grain of that love, and be happy in the thought that that seed may germinate in the heart, flower, and perhaps bear fruit. Lastly, I would offer, metaphorically, the hand of brotherhood to my fellow-thinkers and workers, and all who grasp it shall decide whether I have been a welcome companion or not. My book shall be entertaining as well as instructive, one such as is suited to our times. Let the reader look upon it only as a small cabin, or shieling, built in the rough, regardless of style, rule, or plummet, whose only recommendation is the object for which it is intended. The architect wished this cabin to be as simple, true, and artless, as he could make it, and has built it in the wilderness, on the slope of a hill among the mountains, sheltered from above by the woods, looking down on verdant scenery below, with a bright peep of the sparkling blue sea between the hills. In the interior hang rough sketches of desert and primeval forest- scenes ; pendant, near by, cages with their warbling inmates ; the builder's gun, nets, gins, and springes are not wanting ; for the host is an old bird-fancier. On hospitality intent, he opens wide the portal, and invites all to enter, all, aye ! everyone, grandmasters, masters, pupils of Science ; C XY111 EXTRACT FROM PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. not excepting those still inexperienced in bird-lore. He pleads, though, first of all, that his cabin shall not be measured by the rule of the learned, or that they should enter expecting to discover anything new : they will perceive at a distance that his house is only constructed with the cast-off stone from the great building, and that there are only few pieces which he has himself collected together. For this very reason, however, he trusts his guests will find them- selves at ease ; and thus he respectfully opens his door. Dropping all metaphor, the Author of this book asks the forbear- ance also of the unlearned, with respect to the design, construction, and carrying out, of the details of the work. He has striven with the utmost honesty of purpose ; has taken the results of Science as the groundwork of the whole ; and has used these with the utmost conscientiousness : at the same time, he trusts that he has not encroached too much upon the realms of Science. Confined only by time and space, for where he would have willingly gone into greater detail his knowledge has often been insufficient, he therefore hopes for kind indulgence at the hands of all his readers. I have written this book from a genuine love of Nature; and would entreat my friends to remember my oft- expressed feeling against the reckless destruction of birds, a feeling which, in their behalf, I would fain strengthen in others, by a detailed exposition of the instincts and habits of birds. Here, then, is my book; may it win more and more friends for my darling pets ! THE AUTHOR. INTRODUCTION. A GLANCE AT THE PAST. " Und nocli Niemand hat's erkundet, Wie die grosse Mutter scliafft; Unerforschlich 1st das Wirken, Unergriiudlich ist die Kraft." SCHILLEE. UNDEKLYING the childlike simplicity of the Mosaic account of the " Creation," there is a dim intimation of what must actually have taken place. "Days" must indeed have passed ere our earth was ready to receive its most beautiful creatures; the " Firmament" must have expanded from the " waters;" Light must have rent the veil of Darkness ; there must have been tre^s and plants ; long before Birds those light children of the air took up their abode on our planet. All that is told us is true : what we simply have to do is, to understand that truth, to interpret that story. Science has, in our time, succeeded in giving us this explanation. The different strata of the earth have become pages of a book, which are read by the learned with intelligent delight. Short, indeed, is the distance which history carries us through the past, in comparison with that guidance we owe to the geologist. We know, with some degree of certainty, at what epoch the different forms of life first saw light on the planet which we inhabit, and thereby can determine the period when Birds, with which we shall be exclusively occupied, first showed themselves on earth. I deem it not unnecessary, briefly to introduce to the notice of my readers, the result of the researches of our savants concerning the origin of terrestrial life. At the outset of creation, when the gases XX INTEODUCTION. which filled space, gradually condensing, attached themselves to our planet, the elements combined, and the globe, during its first igneous period, changed, there appeared, at a temperature of not less than 60 E., the lowest forms of plants, and together with them probably the lowest animalcules, the two so similar in structure and appearance that the most careful observation and the deepest scientific research, which they require even to this day, have not been able definitely to determine their respective lines of demarcation. Convulsions of the upper portion of the earth's crust, conditions of life suddenly ceasing, and the consequent necessarily natural and simultaneous extinction of living creatures, ended this first organic creation : not so the traces; thereby, as it were, confirming from the very outset the everlasting law, that nothing in creation is perishable. Upon this, so to speak, more or less general Death, follows a new Life, after the first wreck a new creation. Subsequent convulsions, strewing the earth with corpses, leave their mark ; but still again a new world arises from the field of Death. After each Death a nobler Life, for with each resurrection the earth received a more highly developed form, though some of the earlier creations returned, or still survived. The periods between each of these convulsions we call the days of creation, their length none can determine ; neither can any assignable division of time during the earth's creation as yet be allotted with certainty. Birds had also their periods of death and resurrection. The earth preserves to us their remains in proof thereof. Gigantic Birds lived in hoary antiquity; they have now disappeared, and are forgotten. In the Eoc and the Griffon, through dark dreamy myths, the last breath of their existence reaches us like an echo. But these vanishing spectres of the past are reawakened through a poetic medium, and are taken up again in hopeful tones, in the legend of the Phoenix, that mysterious emblem of the resurrection, which teaches that everything subject to the power of death must rise again. If we measure the age of the earth by its strata we find that Birds made their appearance at a very late period ; only inferior animals are to be found in the strata next the primary rock. Creatures of a superior organisation would not have been able to exist there, for, at the time of the first plant-world, carbonic acid so pervaded the atmosphere that these creatures, at all events, with the exception of INTRODUCTION. XXI tlie aquatic species, would have been poisoned by it ; they could only appear after the atmosphere had been purified by plants absorbing the carbon and giving off oxygen. At the earliest assignable period of creation the vegetable kingdom showed the greatest uniformity, while, on the contrary, the animal world showed some variety. In the grauwacke we already find flower-like, radiate, soft-bodied, and crab-like creatures, and, rarely, fish, which, as aquatic animals, may possibly have been the first representatives of the vertebrates. In the coal measures the above classes subdivide themselves into genera and species. The first terrestrial vertebrate animal, a lizard, is found in the Zechstein, or magnesian limestone, group of Permian (Upper Palaeozoic age). From this new forms are continually appear- ing, until we find on the Upper Jura the bone remains of birds and mammals ; even the feathers and eggs of these early forms of birds have come down to us. The Cannstadt calcareous-tufa has stored up for us the most exquisitely preserved eggs and feathers of primaeval birds. In the Island of Madagascar giant specimens of petrified eggs have been dug up, belonging to birds of which we can scarcely form any idea. Although we have now, in a certain degree, determined the period at which birds first existed, we have, notwithstanding all our expe- rience, not obtained any satisfactory explanation of the words : "Let there be and it was so." Creation, as much as Life itself, yet remains a mystery. Still it need not appear to us more wonderful than the origin of an animal existing at this moment, of whose development we have evidence before our eyes at the present day. We may well call the one "natural," and the other "wonderful," "For all the workings of Nature are wonderful, and all her wonders natural." Many have essayed to explain this text. Some argue the origin of birds to have arisen from primaeval eggs, inasmuch as they would fain interpret the secrets of the past by what is obvious in the present. They have comprehended the wonder not one whit better than those who would see a full-fledged and perfect bird arise from the early slime, like the Grecian Aphrodite from the foam ! The first of these would do away with the perfect plant, and confine themselves simply to the germ, as though it were less wonderful than the tree which springs from it ! We must, however, quietly admit that this war of words leads to the brink of a gulf which we are at present utterly unable to span. XX11 INTRODUCTION. Chemistry and Physiology, with ceaseless energy, try hard to bridge over this gulf; but, as yet, they have been unable to fin^. foundation or foothold for a single pillar of their structure. Analysis makes giant strides : slower, with anxious delays, retracing its steps, and, again pushing forwards, follows the science of the doctrine of life. The first understands well how to analyse and separate the elements from their various combinations, but fails to discover the magic spell which should compel the scattered atoms to reunite in a life- awakening bond : it vanquishes the bond itself, but is defeated by each of its component parts ; and natural philosophy, though called to their assistance, can afford no help. This great triple alliance proves and watches each expression and working of life ; and, though hoarding its hard- won treasures, yet cannot purchase the explanation. Life is being : the " How ? " will ever remain inexplicable, We can safely state, then, that we still remain ignorant of the causes of the creation. Nevertheless, it is certainly not useless to learn the scheme which speculative human intellect has built up, in order to explain, if not that creative energy, at least, the course of the creation. A few words from our gifted Eeichenbach would not be amiss here : " A cursory glance at the development of organisms, in our time, will probably convince us that in the early stages of creation she had her fixed laws, which, through the course of ages, have ever been practised, and which she has founded on none other than an appropriate basis ; and that before the appearance of plants and animals she certainly first created their germs ; so, too, before the appearance of birds she first made their eggs. " Just as Oology is the mother of Ornithology, so must we also remember that in the generative principle, which guides all true contemplation of Nature, the lower ever precedes the higher; and thus we are far from wishing to assume the probability of such prototypes as the Eagles, Parrots, and Peacocks, being the precursors in bird creation, but are much more inclined to hold the opinion that the first weak essays of bird nature were half bird, half fish-like forms, similar to the Penguin, subsequent to the former creation of fish and amphibious animals. Inasmuch as in all classes and orders the imperfect takes precedence in an all-wise economy, pioneering the road for the perfect, so it might happen that these Penguins occupied at this period slightly elevated coasts : and thus, when in these days we find remains of bones only in the most recent strata of INTRODUCTION. XX111 guano, it might have been that at that time the decomposition of the remains, through the corrosive nature of the excreta, is the reason why fossil bird-hones are so rarely discovered. " These primitive Penguins were followed, then, in the further course of the fletz period, by gigantic swamp birds, which have written with their feet, on the geological records of Nature, indelible evidences of their existence; while their bones, together with those of their earlier predecessors, have disappeared. The indelible foot-marks found on the primary strata of the Trias group remind us of mighty Jabirus and gregarious Storks. "The more extensive development of vegetation rendered the existence of tree-birds a possibility, and a primaeval type of Wood- pecker, Thrush, Crow, and Fish Hawk were created, so as, in a certain degree, to produce a primitive legitimate balance amongst the worms, insects, and fish. When, during the tertiary period, vegetation continued to expand, and, reaching a higher state of organization, divided itself into endless types, Waterhens, Kails, Partridges, Wood Grouse, as well as a mighty family of Ostriches, appeared on the most recent raft-like floating masses of the earth's crust, and completed the forms of the primitive progenitors of the bird- world; on the other hand, in contradistinction to the Penguins, these later forms, losing then* powers of flight, were annihilated by the Deluge. "We have now, however, seen these primitive types of birds develope themselves in a manner that may be compared to the different progressive ages of an individual: for the Penguin, by reason of its fin-shaped rudimentary wings, remained in the grade of the imperfectly-fledged nest-bird, so to speak; the Herons and Storks, moulting almost the whole year round, resembled the fledgling; while the Woodpecker, Thrush, Crow, and Fish Hawk, acquired maturity; thus predicting a perfecting of the powers of flight, amongst birds frequenting trees and the regions of the air. At last we approach the diluvial epoch : we find aquatic birds represented by Waterhens, Eails, and gallinaceous birds, confined in their means of locomotion to the earth's surface ; also immense running birds, like the Ostriches ; all seem to lose the gift of flight; thus, as it were, becoming aged, turning into the 'lean and slippered pantaloon,' so to speak, of the bird-world, a poor reflection, in fact, of the power of the bird in mid-air, such as is possessed by the Eagle; thus, appearing to us as a passing link in XXIV INTRODUCTION. the direction of the mammals, especially when their anatomy is taken into consideration. "If we look back upon these primitive forms crealed at the commencement, probably only in isolated species, we have the option of electing whether we choose to accept Kaup's theory, that they arose partly through a transmutation from the Amphibia, and then developed themselves into higher forms, or that, which seems to us more probable, each originally sprang from the individual generation of primaeval eggs, and that the later and nearer-related intermediate forms resulted possibly from the union of certain primaeval pairs, while other individuals continued the type ; so probably, in accordance with all experiences of Geognosy, the multiplication of forms only took place by slow degrees, and that thousands on thousands of years elapsed before creation reached the sub-species which now crowd our books.'" It now remains to be asked whether the creative power still continues to work in our time, or has ceased to do so ? Every year species of animals new to us are discovered by naturalists, and are classed, without further ceremony, as belonging to the same date with those already known ; the same would be assumed, even, were a totally unknown bird suddenly discovered in a country supposed to be thoroughly explored. We are utterly unable to say anything certain on this question. The disciples of the old school argue that the creation of animals ceased after man was created, and they would rather contend that the intermediary forms are the result of the blending of others, although this theory is, and I believe rightly, denied by many. So many questions arise, in these sort of dis- cussions, that it will be well for us wholly to disregard them. We, on the other hand, should do better by saying a word or two about those birds which are gradually becoming extinct in our own time. Among this class of birds many have disappeared within the records of history, not leaving even a trace behind. We have the concurring evidence of more than one reliable author that so late as the last century several extraordinary birds, which then existed in the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Eodriguez, have now disappeared. The best known among these is the celebrated Dodo, of which Captain Castleton (1613) gives the following account: " There are a great many birds to be found there, both great and small : swarms of Doves and Pigeons, great Parrots, &c. ; lastly, a big bird, very fat, and such INTKODUCTION. XXV a bad flyer as to be unable to rise from the ground. It is white, and exceedingly tame, though, for the matter of that, all the other birds are so, because they are not disturbed or frightened by being shot at. Ten men can catch as many birds in one hour as would suffice to feed forty for a whole day." Five years later the celebrated Dutch navigator, Bontekoe, visited these islands, and also saw a few Dodos : " They had no wings, and yet could scarcely walk, as they were so fat that their bellies touched the ground." We have continued information about this bird up to 1730, " the same time in which the talented Bernardin de St. Pierre laid the scene of his beautiful Idyll, Paul and Virginia,' in our island." Even in 1763 a British seaman spoke in such a manner about the island of Bourbon that one might be led to believe that this species was then still in existence. At length, forty years later, a naturalist visited the island, but did not find a single living specimen of this remarkable bird surviving ; the very name, even, had long since passed away from the memory of the inhabitants. The Dodo had ceased to exist. These islands have, of late years, become the theatre of a great amount of investigation after these extinct birds. The result leads to the conviction that these do not belong in any degree whatever solely to the one family of which the Dodo was the representative, but that, on the contrary, there are species to be found among them which it is impossible to class with the Dodo. Thus we have arrived at the certain knowledge that a bird of gigantic stature (quite as large as the African Ostrich) at one time existed there ; as did also another species, often spoken of as the " Oiseau bleu," which was a gigantic Gallinule, in no way allied to the Dodo. We have received sufficiently detailed descriptions of both these species from eye- witnesses, so that we have no need to doubt that they once existed. The gradual disappearance of some birds is even now taking place before our very eyes : the Manu-mea (Didunculus striyirostris) a native of the Samoan Island, of Upola, and nearly allied to the Pigeons is fast disappearing; the harmless Pigeon of Tahiti (Phlegoenas erythroptera) will, before long, cease to exist ; a large night Parrot (Striyops liabroptilus) belonging to Stewart's Island, near New Zealand is so persecuted by collectors, and hunted by native dogs, that it will soon be numbered amongst the animals that have passed away; the "hoary and unwieldy Nestors (Nestor liypopolius and d XXVI INTRODUCTION. productus) among the Parrots, also mourn, in New Zealand and Phillip's Island, the decadence of their expiring race." The Apteryx, or Kiwi-kiwi, will also soon share the same fate as the Dodo. It is now a matter of doubt whether the "wingless" Auk (Alca impennis) of which I will speak again later still lives among the storm-beaten islands and headlands of the Arctic Ocean; for since the last bloody onslaught of a ship's company thirty years ago against these poor birds, so helpless ashore, we have not been able to obtain the slightest evidence as to whether any are still in existence or not. The most magnificent of all European birds of prey, the Ii&mmexgei&r(Gh/paetoa barbatus), of the Swiss Alps, becomes rarer and rarer every day ; and, owing to the unceasing persecution of relentless man, there remains but little prospect of its existence extending over many years. The same may be said of many birds that still continue to adorn our woods, meadows, and waters. The oft-heard plaint that many birds are disappearing is no mere empty phrase: " It is man that strives most ruthlessly to break the links of life, and who seeks to disturb the balance which Nature, pure from the first, so beautifully adjusted." The poet's words are indeed full of truth : " Die Welt ist vollkommen uberall, Wo der Mensch nicht hinkommt init seiner Qual." " The world is perfect everywhere, When still unblemished by man's ruthless hand." PAET I. PHYSICAL LIFE. J.GJ\eulemansJith NOCTURNAL SONG BIRD-LIFE. PART I. PHYSICAL LIFE. CHAPTEK I. THE BODY. " Birds, the free tenants of land, air and ocean, Their forms all symmetry, their motions grace ; In plumage delicate and beautiful, Thick without burden, close as fishes' scales, Or loose as full-blown poppies to the breeze." MONTGOMEEY. A MERE external survey of the bird at once determines its rank as a being of a high class. That it holds only the second place amongst living creatures is true. Nor is this too much to say when one considers that man alone, with the exception of some few other mammals, surpasses it in powers of intelligence ; while its bodily structure forms a most harmonious whole. At the same time, it is scarcely right to speak of the bird as more highly gifted and better equipped than most mammals ; for, taken strictly, each animal is in keeping with the interior economy and external circumstances which make it what it is. With this object, too, every being is always adapted in the most efficient manner to serve the purposes of its existence, and each and all fulfil the ends demanded by their lives. We can only look upon the origin of an animal as the product of a certain combination of active powers not yet A BIRD-LIFE. discovered, but to be sought for in the external conditions of life. We will not, then, regard any one part of creation as more wonderful than another, but always remember that the endless diversity in the conditions of life has necessarily produced a corresponding variety in the vast number of animal forms. It is with this limitation of meaning that the expression, "the bird is a masterpiece, a marvel of creation," is to be understood. Birds have much in common with mammals ; and it is certain that some striking resemblances between indi- viduals of both classes cannot be denied. Every impartial observer must recognise in the Eagle the image of the lion, or rather its true representative in the bird- world ; in the Owl we see the cat; the Kaven resembles the dog; the Vulture, the hyaena; the Hawk, the fox; the Parrot, the monkey ; the Crossbill, the squirrel ; the Wren, the mouse; the Butcher-bird, the weasel; the Bustard, the stag or antelope; the Ostrich, the camel ; the Cassowary, the llama ; the Dipper, the water- rat ; the Duck, the duck-billed platypus ; the Diver, the otter; the Auk, the seal; and so on. In spite of all these resemblances, which, after all, only apply to the external aspect,* the bird is always and essentially distinct from mammals. I do not intend to enter upon a minute description of the bird's body, though I cannot leave this subject with- out some exposition, if I would make myself clearly understood by those of my readers who have never had an opportunity of studying it with the scalpel and * It would appear to us that the author, in using the words " external aspect," has not given the true explanation of the resemblance existing between the above- mentioned birds and mammals, as in some cases the "external aspect" is widely different, while the real resemblance lies in similarity of habits and character. W. J, THE BODY. 3 magnifying glass in their hand. Whoever would become familiar with the life of any animal must study the animal itself. Thus it is that we seek to make ourselves acquainted with the creature of which we are now treat- ing, and to describe the gifts and properties with which nature has endowed it, so as to enable it to provide for its existence. The bird is essentially a creature of the air, in the full meaning of the word : the wide expanse of aether is its home ; in this it lives, makes it a servant, and yet, on the other hand, is governed by it. The respiration of an animal, as is well known, serves principally to main- tain the temperature of the body. In the bird it has an accessory use : it enables it to fly and helps to support it. The air inhaled, in its passage through the lungs not only enters into chemical combination with the blood, but also distributes itself between and among the bowels through a number of sacs and cells almost all over the body. Most of the marrowless and the more cellular bones* also contain air. The lungs do not, as in mam- mals, hang free in a closed cavity of the chest, but lie flat, adhering in spongy masses to the inner surface of the back; with these the above-mentioned sacs and cells stand in either direct or indirect communication, as do also the empty spaces in the bones and the cellular tissue. The Pelican is furnished with a regular air-sac or pillow under the breast, and almost * The African Hornbills (Bucerotida) afford some of the most curious examples of the distribution of air in and about the bodies of birds. Among these we find the skin almost totally detached from the flesh, being only connected with it by a number of fine filaments, especially along the sides under the wings. So light do these birds appear on the wing that they seem at times scarcely able thoroughly to control their movements ; and their appearance, when perched on the top of a tree, suggests the idea of a child's balloon attached to a stick. W. J. BIBB-LIFE. every bone in the body is filled with air ; while in other birds there are only one or two bones thus hollow. This faculty of distributing the air inhaled throughout the body has been called in German " Pneumaticitat " (that is to say, the power of inflating with air) ; it is peculiar to this class of birds. Its use is easily discernible ; the air thus dispersed through its frame is warmed by the body and expands, so as to make it more buoyant, and, at the same time, facilitate respiration under the most varied pressures of atmosphere : thus it assists flight. A second absolutely indispensable appendage of the bird is its feathers : these (as the proverb has long told us) make the bird what it is; a bird. The feather combines in itself all the following necessary qualities : lightness, compactness, with slight heat-conducting power, durability, elasticity and beauty. It is one of the marvels of creation, like the eye ; either of which only yields its secrets to the closest scrutiny. He who examines a feather under the microscope sees before him a master- piece of mechanism. The feather is a product of the outer skin or epidermis, quite as much as the hair of a mammal or the scales of a lizard ; but it differs vastly from both. It consists, as all know, of the quill, the shaft, and two webs or fringes : these webs are precisely the portions which demand the most careful observation, inasmuch as but few persons are aware of their com- ponent parts. Each web, even of the smallest feather, shows a twofold repetition of the original form of the feather in its innumerable separate parts. It consists of other webs : these are attached to shafts, and bear a second row of webs, or rather filaments ; and, lastly, these are bordered with cilia. THE BODY. 5 The web is closely attached to the upper edge of the horny convex surface of the flexible shaft, and occupies from a fourth to a fifth part of its side. Their filaments are threadlike in form and almost cylindrical; in the quill-feathers, however, the laminae are trapezoidal in transverse section, more deep than broad, and wider at the top than below. These are placed at an angle of about forty degrees to the shaft, inclining lengthways towards its extremity, with their flat sides next each other. The webs of the latter are in turn composed of two fringes of filaments, and are attached to their shafts in the same way as the former to the principal shaft ; still each of those laminae, turning towards the body of the bird, is invariably covered by the outer web of the next ray. By means of the hair-like processes, which are attached to the above filaments, being hooked and cohering toge- ther, the most intimate union of each part of the filament is effected ; so skilfully are they contrived and so closely do they cohere together as to be impermeable to wet and impenetrable by the air. It requires, indeed, some degree of force to break up the uniformly compact arrangement of their component parts. The laminae or filaments of the other feathers, as well as all down, hang more loosely, and are placed further apart; thus they are lighter and more elastic. In this case the cilia do not cohere; their function being simply to sustain the warmth generated in the body, such cohesion is not needed. Individual feathers exhibit great differences in form, though always in harmony with their colouring. A green feather is differently constructed from a red one, and the formation of a red feather differs from that of a black or 6 BIBD-LIFE. grey. Under the microscope we can detect, even in one and the same feather, several distinct modes of construc- tion, each agreeing with a certain shade of colour. From this it follows that the beauty of a feather depends less upon colouring matter than upon the disposition of the rays of light in reference to the construction of the feather itself. No matter how singular the structure of a feather may be, it is always absolutely necessary to the existence of the bird. It gives flight, maintains the proper tem- perature of the blood, lends softness to the form and beauty to the colouring. The feather makes the bird a bird, as much as the hand makes a man a man. The possession of feathers and the power of inflation are the two most essential endowments of the bird's body, and they belong to it alone. But there are still other characteristics distinguishing the body of a bird from those of other animals, which we have now to consider. The framework of the thorax is remarkable for extreme firmness and immobility. These properties are both due to a remarkable elongation of the sternum or breast-bone, and the close connection of the dorsal vertebrae with the sternum as well as with one another. This bone shields the whole chest, like a breast- plate, and covers a part of the abdomen as well. It is attached without any cartilage to the sternal ribs. Along the centre of the thorax runs a strong keel, absent in the Struthionidce, to which are attached the pectoral muscles. The ribs are provided with peculiar processes, which link them together. The vertebral column is as flexible at its extremities as it is rigid in the centre ; the vertebrae them- selves vary considerably in number. In mammals, gene- rally speaking, the length of the neck is determined by the THE BODY. 7 length of its vertebrae, which are apportioned by a certain fixed number ; but with birds the number of vertebrae increases in proportion to the length of the neck. Hence they may vary in number from nine up to as many as twenty-four. The number of the remaining vertebrae is very uncertain. The dorsal vertebrae number from six to ten, seldom more than a quarter of the whole. The sacral vertebrae (in many cases almost completely united) are always more in number, reaching from twelve to twenty. The caudal vertebrae are exceedingly supple, and number from five to nine. Of these the last or hindmost is more or less perfectly developed in proportion to the resistance which the tail has to overcome, or to the development of the feathers in the same. In the frame- work of the shoulder the merrythought, or furculum, is noteworthy. It is firmly connected with the humerus and caracoid, and is composed of the two clavicles blended into a single bone, but is not always affixed to the sternum. The wing consists of an upper arm-bone, which is very strong and hollow, and two lower arm -bones of nearly equal length ; the wrist, or carpus, is composed of one or two bones, and the palm, or metacarpus, of two or three. Attached to these are one, two or three fingers, which are, however, enclosed together under one common skin. The pelvis (except in the Ostrich) is open beneath. The leg is composed of the femur, tibia, and fibula, the knee-pan, or patella, the tarso, metatarsus, and the phalanges, or bones of the toes ; the latter number from two to four, of which two invariably, and in most cases three, though very rarely all four, are turned to the front. Sometimes one toe is so jointed that it can turn either backwards or forwards. The bones of the skull unite 8 BIKD-LIFE. together early, and rapidly become hollow, ready for the reception of air. The jaws or mandibles are both more or less moveable. They are without teeth, covered by a horny sheath, and are composed of a number of separate bones. The principal muscles are those which move the wing. In birds of prey the great pectoral muscles are very strong and massive. In the case of birds which do not fly, such as the Ostrich, these muscles, as well as the sternum, are very imperfectly developed, while those of the thighs, usually slight in most birds, are extremely powerful. Besides these, the muscles of the lower limbs merit notice on account of their gradual transmutation into the tendons which serve to move the feet and toes. It is also worthy of remark that certain of the tendons passing direct from the muscles of the thigh serve to bend both the knee and the toes, by which means the bird is able to sleep with bended knees, and thus, without conscious effort, firmly grasp a branch. The muscles of the tail are also very powerful, being used to elevate, depress, twist and turn that appendage. The muscles of mastication are more firmly constructed, the cutaneous muscles more effective than those of mammals. Very remarkable are the muscles which act on the skin of the wing, one of which extends between the body and the upper arm, and the other between the upper arm and the fore arm. The muscles of the abdomen are very insignificant, owing to the great extension of the sternum, while the diaphragm merits scarcely the name of a partition between the cavities of the breast and belly. All the muscles are capable of immense exertion. The digestive organs are very heterogeneous, varying much with the food of the different species. The mouth THE BODY. 9 or beak is unprovided with teeth, but the mandibles are, as we have before observed, covered with a horny sheath, the edges of which are sometimes sharp, sometimes blunt, and in some cases notched or serrated, in others smooth, and are either hard or soft according to the species. In flesh-, fish- and grain-eating birds this sheath is excessively hard, while among the insectivorous it is soft, and is especially so with those which extract insects from mud; in the latter case the bill often acts as a feeler. The tongue varies as much in its formation as the beak. In those birds which swallow large quantities of food at a time, like the Pelican and Stork, it is small and cartila- ginous ; with those feeding on fruit it serves as a taster, being large and fleshy, as in the Parrots; in the Sun- and Humming-birds it is provided with brush-like extremity, and can be projected like that of the Woodpecker. The gape is often surrounded with papillae and spines, and is sometimes of a large size ; certain glands secrete the saliva. The gullet in some birds is of a uniform width throughout, and but slightly elastic; in others just the reverse. In the Lammergeir it is furnished with folds inside, so as to facilitate its extension. In others, again, namely, diurnal Eaptores and granivorous birds, it is distinguished by a single or double pouch or bag of a round form, which we call "crop:" in this pouch all food is, in a certain degree, prepared for digestion by maceration and decomposition. During the breeding season the internal lining of the crop of some birds secretes a certain milky or cheese-like substance, which serves as the first nutriment of their young, as among Pigeons. When there exists a true crop the lower portion of the gullet is generally 10 BIRD-LIFE. somewhat contracted, and then widens again gradually till it reaches the fore stomach (pro ventriculus), which with birds that have no crop is scarcely enlarged at all. This is sometimes called the glandular stomach, on account of its being abundantly supplied with juices secreted from the glands imbedded in its walls; following this, lower down it reaches the second stomach or gizzard, where it abruptly terminates. These various modifications occur according to the nature of the food. In the carnivorous birds the gullet is large and of a fine texture ; among granivorous birds it is, on the contrary, small, and is surrounded by two strong muscles and sinews, which allow the distended coatings of the stomach to rub against one another like mill-stones. The intestinal canal is divided into the small and great intestines, and is comparatively short. Liver, gall-bladder, spleen, pancreas and kidneys are to be found in almost all birds ; the secretions from the latter discharge themselves into the rectum, where the urine mingles with the excrement, which is then evacuated. Among the secreting organs there still remains a gland worthy of notice, which secretes an oleaginous fluid, used for the purpose of greasing the feathers. This gland is situated above the caudal vertebrae, and has several canals, through which the fluid is passed by repeated pressure from the beak. According to the different construction of the digestive organs we are enabled at once to determine the class of food, and, indirectly, the ways and means of digestion, as well as the time required for its com- pletion. It may generally be asserted with truth, that a bird can digest quicker and more easily than any other THE BODY. 11 animal,* and that for this reason, also, they can eat more than other creatures. This harmonises with the active circulation of the blood, and their extreme liveliness of movement. Many birds feed the live-long day, as song- birds, whose daily amount of food exceeds twice or three times the weight of their own bodies. It is a fortunate thing for us that we are not blessed with such appetites, else we should require from two to four hundredweight of food per diem ! On the other hand, however, it is fortunate that our little fruit-, flower- and plant-protectors should be so voracious. Carnivorous birds do not feed in the same proportion; luckily for creation their daily ration barely exceeds one-sixth of their own weight. Some, like the Vultures, devour, it is true, an enormous quantity at a time ; but they can also fast for days after. According to its nature the food descends at once, either direct into the stomach or, first, into the crop, there to macerate and otherwise undergo preparation. The crop is, if possible, always full, and standing out prominently from among the feathers of the neck ; this swollen sack presents no very elegant appearance. Other birds, for example, the Cranes and the green Woodpecker are, during the breeding season, obliged to use the oesophagus itself as a crop, inasmuch as they fill the same to the top with food. Carnivorous birds, which kill and devour living animals, drink but little or nothing after the meal; all carrion-feeders, however, and many reptile-eating birds, on the contrary, drink a considerable quantity of water. Granivorous birds do the same, so as to macerate the food in their crops. The digestion of * With fish digestion is quite as rapid ; if not more so. I have often caught jack and perch with small fish sticking in the gullet, the upper portion being fresh, and the lower in process of digestion. W. J. 12 BIRD -LIFE. birds of prey is so powerful that they can even rapidly digest old bones, as do the Vultures. Birds feeding on seeds require other means of digestion beyond those afforded by the chemical working of the crop and the juices of the stomach ; these are supplied by purely mechanical means, which bruise the grain by the help of sand and small stones which they swallow ; all such birds whose food contains in itself the means of grinding, do not do so ; as, for example, those feeding on shell- fish or snails. Indigestible materials, such as hair, feathers, scales, &c., are thrown up by flesh- and insect- eating birds (Owls, Goatsuckers, &c.) in dry round or oblong pellets, called " castings." Immediately the crop is empty the bird begins to feed again, and, indeed, sometimes, though it is quite full at the time, the creature will still continue to feed, should it come across some- thing more to its taste than what it has already enjoyed. After a long fast it is astonishing the amount that a bird will devour ; though it is not a question of a surfeit, still, after an unusual feast, its precautions for personal safety are sometimes forgotten during the after-dinner sleep : birds of prey have been caught napping, more than once, with the hand, while enjoying their " forty winks." Many flesh-feeders, like the Marabou Stork (Leptoptilus), are so greedy as to, though mortally wounded, hastily devour anything thrown to them. Others, again, will starve rather than touch even their natural food when offered them in captivity or under adverse circumstances. Birds, as well as all other animals, become fat or lean, according to the quantity and quality of the food they obtain: emaciation, however, does not take place so rapidly as one would imagine, for many birds are able to do without food for days, and even weeks, together. The THE BODY. 13 anatomist, Nitzsch, tried the cruel experiment of starving a Swift to death : the poor creature did not die until six weeks had expired.* The arterial and veinous systems in birds are not materially different from those of the Mammalia; the heart in the former is composed of two ventricles and two auricles, as with the latter ; the arteries and veins themselves are also similar to those of the Mammalia, the pulsations of the heart, however, are more rapid than in mammals of similar size : this is owing to birds being exposed to more rapid changes of atmospheric pressure. Most singular are the respiratory organs, to whose wonderful distribution I have before alluded. It now remains to us to examine more closely the construction of the windpipe. This is not remarkable alone for its length ; but, in birds gifted with voice, for the possession of a second larynx. First, low down in the chest we come to the division of the bronchia (this, in the case of the Humming-birds alone, takes place in the centre of the throat) ; in addition there exists in some birds, usually Gallinaceae, marsh- and water-birds, and especially among the males, a most curious detail: the trachea makes a variety of bends and twists, both inside and outside the cavity of the chest, even in the sternum itself. In the Crane, for example, it passes down into * This anecdote is scarcely credible, when we reflect on the insectivorous nature of the nutriment of this bird : to strengthen this observation I may mention that Dr. Otto Finsch, of Bremen, told me that he remembered seeing Swifts affected in a very different manner by the want of their natural food; he stated that on one occasion, in Silesia, some days after the arrival of these birds, an unusually heavy fall of snow so thoroughly cleared off all the insects that in three or four days Swifts were to be found dead on the ground through starvation, though, in this case, it must be confessed the unusual change of temperature may have accelerated death. W.J. 14 BIRD-LIFE. the cellular keel of the breast-bone, runs along its entire length, returns again to the place where it first entered, and mounting upwards then first passes over to the lungs. In the wild Swan (C. musicus) it takes only one turn through the sternum ; while in the mute Swan (C. olor) nothing of the sort occurs. In the Guineafowl it passes into a bony enlargement at the junction of the clavicles. In the Capercaillie, several Pheasants and a Duck it takes a turn under the outer skin. These modifications agree, all, more or less, with the trumpet-like voices of these birds. The two larynges are not less worthy of notice. The upper one of these two, which is moved by three muscles, is a simple expansion of the windpipe, with a lateral fissure of the glottis ; the lower, or second, is quite differently formed ; it is, without doubt, the true organ of the voice, and is generally situate directly above the point where the two bronchiaB divide; in some few cases, however, derived from the bronchiae themselves. According to the nature and method of the attachments of its membranes to the peculiarly modified firmer portions of the windpipe, they are fitted to become thrown into undulation, so as to move the column of air in contact with the larnyx in a vibrating manner. Frequently the windpipe is peculiarly developed in the neighbourhood of the lower larnyx ; its rings lie in closer apposition, and become expanded to form the so-called " drum," an ossified, irregular, bladder- shaped enlargement of the tube. In the " drum" we distinguish various bands, folds of membrane, and cartilaginous rings, all serving to the perfecting of the beautiful organs of sound. This has not inaptly been compared to a wind-instrument, wherein the lower larynx represents the mouthpiece, and the upper one the lower THE BODY. 15 end of the instrument. The strength and flexibility of the tones depend entirely on the fulness of development of the organs of the voice. The organs of reproduction lie hidden in the interior of the body. The ovaries are originally produced in pairs ; but the one on the right side soon wastes away, and that on the left only becomes fully developed : it lies close to the left kidney, and is composed of two membranous plates, in whose folds numerous eggs will be found developed in the form of small bladders. From the ovary a duct passes to the rectum. The genital organs of the male are similarly situated. The organs of the senses, to which we finally turn our attention, much as they, in general, resemble those of the mammalia, are subject to many partial and very considerable differences. The most important are those which relate to touch or feeling. It is only among a very few families of birds that the beak ever serves as an organ of touch ; with others the tongue, and possibly the feet also serve the same purpose : these, however, are the only members of a bird's body which can commu- nicate such outward sensations to its understanding Against this assertion we may notice that all birds appear to possess a very delicate perception of exterior action. Every bird feels the abstraction of the smallest feather, the slightest touch even ; and it is highly probable that its prescience of changes in the weather is attributable to its extremely delicate susceptibility to atmospheric influences, as it feels heat and cold most easily, although able to bear both extremely well. The sense of taste seems to be developed in only few families. By far the greatest number of birds possess a tongue very much stunted in its development, which is 16 BIBD-LIFE. really not used for taste at all ; the palate also is hard, and apparently devoid of sensation, yet, in spite of this it cannot be denied that all birds are, in some degree, possessed of the sense of taste. The sense of smell, however, stands incomparably higher than those of feeling and taste; in no way, however, so much so as has been imagined. No one bird is capable of detecting an odour at so great a distance as a scenting mammal can. It has been thought that Vultures could discover a carcase many miles off by their powers of smell. I have, however, after long and careful observation convinced myself of the fallacy of the idea. The outer nostrils consist of simple holes placed on either side of the top ridge of the upper mandible, and are devoid of all muscular action. They are of different forms. With the Corvidse they are covered and protected by a ring of stiff bristles or hairs ; while in the Petrel they are of a lengthened tubular construction. In some birds they are oval, in others they take the form of a cleft or slit; some are covered with a lid, others are perfectly open ; most are separated by a partition from one another ; others, the reverse. A single instance is to be found where they are situate quite at the end of the bill; and this is the Kiwi (Apteryx) of Australia, a nocturnal feeding-bird. They are connected by a common duct with the internal nostril, where lie the organs of scent: three thin, bony, or cartilaginous laminae, often wound round one another ; these are covered with a thin shining membrane, and afford room for the expansion of the extremity of the olfactory nerve. The sense of hearing is excellent, though the external ear is wanting. The mechanism of this apparatus resembles that of the crocodile. It is only among very THE BODY. 17 few, as, for instance, the owls, that the external ear is in some way replaced by large folds of skin, which are surrounded by curious stiff feathers. In other birds the orifice of the ear is covered by feathers of a very loose texture, which do not deaden the sound. The drum of the ear lies flat, and is only connected with the small column by the otia or ear-bones. These correspond to the stapes in the Mammalia, and possess a longer stalk or shank, which closes the little opening leading to the vestibule of the labyrinth. The cochlea of the ear is similar to that of mammals. When one takes into consideration the extraordinary development of the bird's voice, it is not astonishing to find the sense of hearing in such perfection. All night-birds of prey take notice of the slightest sound. The eye, however, will always remain the most perfect of all the organs of the senses : from the beauty of the colouring, its brilliancy, its size in comparison with the skull and brain, and its third eyelid or nictitating mem- brane ; as well as from the faculty of an inward spontaneous movement) ivhereby the bird can become long- or short-sighted at pleasure. The eyes are usually placed very much on the sides of the head. Some naturalists have thought necessary to gainsay the bird's capability of commanding a larger field of sight than that immediately in front of the eye : anyone, however, who has observed, knows that a bird can see as well in front as at the side. The nictitating membrane is an almost transparent and highly elastic connecting skin, which can be drawn over the globe of the eye, and serves to mitigate the glare of the sun's rays,* is almost continually in motion. For the modification of the focus they possess an apparatus consisting of * Possibly, also, for the removal of dust on the face of the lens. W. J. D 18 BIRD-LIFE. moveable bony plates formed into a ring, which can be compressed together ; this again presses forcibly on the globe of the eye. By means of this arrangement the latter can be rendered more or less convex ; convexity giving long-sightedness, while flatness produces a sharp short- sight. From behind, the so-called "pecten" works with the same object, inasmuch as when injected with blood it swells, thus pressing the glass-like ball together, while, when it empties itself, the ball expands again, by which means the crystal lens moves backwards and forwards. Probably the various colouring of the iris, passing from silver-white on through yellow, grey, light blue and various shades of the darker colours, has little to do with the greater or less sharp-sightedness of birds, in most of which this gift is extremely powerful. A bird of prey can see a small object of the same colour as the ground on which it lies at a distance of a thousand feet : a Vulture will detect and distinguish a carcase from a height that is quite beyond our powers of sight, though the human eye is so large in comparison. Sight is the most valuable gift of the bird : it can exist without the remaining senses ; but without sight it must perish. CHAPTEK II. THE MOVEMENTS. " Einige klimmen Ueber die Hohen, Andere schwiramen Ueber die Seen, Andere sckweben, Alle zum Leben !" Faust. THE main foundation of all existence and being is movement : this is, in general, the evidence of life. Worlds roll on through boundless space and live ; the original substances of all things circulate one among the other, when about to attain the visible and tangible ; the germinating seed expands and moves itself, as it changes into the plant ; as long as life continues, the sap cease- lessly rises and falls. Movement is life, and life is the power of self-motion. In space everything moves under a law of necessity, and the living creature, alone, does so of its own free will, truly a God-like gift. This power of volition exalts it above other creatures, just as man in virtue of his intellectual motion, which has reached the highest step rises far above the brute. The idea that an animal is perfect in proportion to the freedom and completeness of its movements naturally presents itself, and, indeed, appears, within certain limits, well founded. 20 BIRD-LIFE. To include man in the list of animals which we would select for comparison, is not our intention, although we might readily do so ; for, by the power of his genius, he creates for himself the wings that he lacks, and through his intelligence spans the mighty ocean. We may, most assuredly, assert of animals, that the existence of each one is more perfect, active and life-like, in pro- portion to the ratio in which its movements partake, in a more or less degree, of the attributes above-mentioned. In this respect bounteous Nature appears to have emptied her cornucopia among the birds as a class. The Bird is, of all creatures, the most versatile in its move- ments ; it runs, climbs, swims, dives and flies. Here we find combined in one creature almost every possible variety of motion ; and, though all these various kinds are not to be found in a single species, still they belong to birds as a class, and the individual even is generally possessed of several, or, at all events, one of these in the highest perfection. Coupled with external motion a still higher organisation of movement is to be found in the interior of the body. In no other class of animals do we find so active a change of matter, or blood so warm, as among birds. The one is a necessary consequence of the other ; it is the greater power of respiration which gives the bird all its vigour and liveliness. All birds are not endowed with the same perfection of motion, but exhibit many gradations of power in this respect. What a difference there is between the rapid stride of the Ostrich, and the ail-but totally helpless movement of the Swift, on land ! There are quick runners, as the Bustard and the Plover ; nimble ones, as the Sandpiper and the Lark; slashing trotters, like the Cassowary and the Emu ; quick jumpers, as the Magpie THE MOVEMENTS. 21 and Thrush; light-hopping birds, like the Finch and Eedbreast; solemn stalkers, as the Heron and Stork; heavy walkers, like the Eaven and the Goose ; slovenly ones, like the Grebes and Divers; sedate waddlers, as the Pelican and the Duck ; and helpless sliders, as the Auk and Guillemot. We have similar variations among the climbers : our forest carpenter, the Woodpecker, mounts the most slippery stems by a series of springs ; the Nuthatch comes down head-first in a similar manner; the spider-hunting Wallcreeper does as his name implies ; the Treecreeper is a master-hand at gymnastics, and walks with the greatest comfort on the under side of a horizontal branch ; while the monkey-like Parrot is obliged to use his beak to help his claws ; the Titmouse seeks to mimic every possible method of climbing ; the Wryneck cannot manage to do more than ascend limbs of trees which are off the perpendicular; while the Hoopoe can scarce clamber up a slanting earth-bank. Among the water-birds some are much more privileged than others : the Penguin, almost fish-like in its habits, chooses for its abode places where wind and water rage most fiercely; the Cormorant and the Darter (Plotus) live more in, than on, the water ; the Auk, or Sea-parrot, dives to a depth of over a hundred feet to the bottom of the sea ; Gulls and Terns are, like the Pelican, restricted to the surface of the water ; the large Divers ride boisterously away over waves, upon which the Gulls are lightly tossed and cradled, and which the Swan, the beauteous model of the ship, cleaves so gracefully. Thus, some rule the depths ; while others only move on the surface. Lastly, flight, the grandest, the most charming of all movements, is so diverse that a practised eye is able to recognise this or that 22 BIRD-LIFE. bird by it alone : at times a majestic soaring ; at others a rushing, swift as an arrow from a bow ; a cradling, swinging, fluttering motion ; an easy gliding ; an onward- hastening ; a journeying quick as thought ; now a sort of walking flight, quiet and easy; at one moment the waves of the ^Ethersea rush from beneath the bird, while at others one hears not a sound, not even the slightest rustle ; at times the stroke of the wings is powerful, at others not the slightest movement is per- ceptible ; oftentimes this wondrous gift raises the bird to an elevation undreamt of by human beings, at one moment it nears the plain, at another the ocean, the waves of which lave the wing with their foam as they pass. The inward spirit may be roused by quite a different set of circumstances, so as to kindle the full power necessary to produce its outward movements, to awaken love's passion, which remains the same in every clime, and to vivify a new existence, without which this inward spirit would become lost or dissipated. There does not exist an animal possessed of such varied powers of motion as the bird. How are these movements brought about ? We move of our own free will, and yet are completely unconscious how this takes place, for our movements are such every- day occurrences that we rarely take the trouble to reflect upon the ways and means. Few people imagine, even, that every step we take, brings into action a number of muscles of the leg and foot; many never reflect that with each step different laws and forces are brought into play. For this reason it is pos- sibly not unadvisable that we should, in some degree, examine each of the principal movements of the bird somewhat in detail. Those of man can be studied in works published on that subject. THE MOVEMENTS. 23 Birds, with the exception of the Auks and Guille- mots, do not walk on the sole of the foot as we do, but, like most mammals, on the toes ; were this not the case they would not be able to walk so smoothly. How- ever unfavourably their legs may appear to be placed with reference to the body, all disadvantages arising therefrom are obviated by the length of the metatarsus. Now, this is so constructed as to be able to form such an angle with the lower part of the thigh as to throw the centre of gravity of the body between the extended toes of each foot, so that the leg of a bird appears as though it had been bent or broken ; this bend is most prevalent among short-legged birds. The ankle is sometimes more or less distant from the toes, and the legs higher or lower accordingly. A bird, however, carries its body in a more or less upright position; and its thighs, which form the least mobile portion of the legs, are placed more or less horizontally. From these there result a series of different styles of walking, concerning which the following particulars may be mentioned. All birds carrying their bodies in either a very perpendicular or in an extremely horizontal position are bad walkers ; consequently all those which carry themselves in a position equally removed from these two extremes walk well. Long-legged birds are good walkers, though they move along with measured step ; while the short-legged walk badly, or more gene- rally hop. All true runners have comparatively long legs on the average, and carry the tarsus perpendicu- larly, and the ankle but slightly bent. The principal action takes place in the knees and ankles; and with running-birds is so rapid that the eye is not able to distinguish the individual steps, owing to the outline of the legs becoming confused one with the other by their 24 BIBD-LIFE. rapid movement. When moving quickly all birds throw the body very much forward. At each step the bird raises the thigh and tarsus, both up and forwards, it then stretches out the leg, touching the earth about the midst of this stretching motion. With their advance the body is next raised, and, through this movement being per- formed with a jerk, is thrown forward, by which means the hinder portion of the foot leaves the ground, which latter remains, for a moment only, in contact with the points of the toes. The result of this is, that with every foot-print of a bird on soft ground we find an exact impression of the ends of the to.es. Now, should the bird's carriage be very erect, its gait is rendered more difficult by reason of the leg bending less at the knee and the ankle , when stepping out, and thus being more extended while in motion ; if the carriage be nearly horizontal the whole body is thrown over towards the side opposite the leg which is stepping forward. Birds standing erect, like the Divers, must do so with their legs far apart, if they would keep their bodies properly balanced. Hopping-birds move whilst bending both knees and ankles, and slightly raising the wings, then suddenly drawing in and stretching out the legs ; thus springing both upwards and forwards. Birds that hop on the ground stand erect ; while those which hop on trees hold themselves horizontally, with their legs much bent. When a bird wants to run faster than usual it makes use of the wings as accessories to the legs, and in such cases its action consists of a series of springing steps, like those of the Ostrich running apace, or a sort of half running, half flying pace, like a harried barn-door Fowl. Some birds run along on the surface of the water, but this must, at least, in the case of very long-toed birds, be THE MOVEMENTS. 25 covered with layers of duckweed, or some other aquatic plant, so as to give the resistance necessary, while crossing so light a bridge in their wanderings. Others, not handy with their feet on land, move in a similar manner, seeking to keep their foothold or establish their equilibrium with the assistance of their wings; as, for example, the Guillemot, when forced to make its way across a space of level ground. The pace of the most rapid runners among birds is about equal to that of the fleetest mammal. Climbing requires the use of one, and, according to cir- cumstances, even of two members of the body more than walking, the beak and tail; though the feet must always do the principal portion of the work. This is effected in a variety of ways in accordance with the formation of the body and the functions of the bird ; it may be, with or without the assistance of the beak and tail-feathers. All Woodpeckers climb by means of a series of springs or jumps, but only in ascending, inasmuch as they hang on to the side of a tree by their claws, pressing the tail, which is furnished with strong elastic feathers, against the tree. Before they first make the spring, which is always very short, the tail is so pressed against the tree that it becomes much bent in the middle; they then advance by a hop with the feet, the elastic pressure of the tail assisting the operation. Treecreepers climb in the same manner, although, from their ability to cling-on to the lower side of a limb, they are able to run both up and down. The Nuthatch does the same, simply by means of its remarkably long feet, which are furnished with large hooked claws. The Wallcreeper (Tichodroma murarid) ascends, in a similar manner, old over-hanging walls and rocks, but has to assist itself with E 26 BIRD-LIFE. a stroke of the wings at each spring. The Parrot climbs like his cousin, the monkey, inasmuch as he grasps branch after branch first with the fore-hand, in his case represented by the beak, and then seizing hold with the feet draws the body forward. Lastly, the Tomtit flies from one twig to another, actively grasping these in every conceivable manner with its claws. In swimming and diving the bird again uses the tail and wings to assist its legs, according to circumstances. The simplest mode of swimming, however, is confined to a movement on the surface of the water : that bird which, on account of its frame and plumage, is comparatively the lightest, is, in the abstract, excellently adapted for swim- ming. Dead birds, as well as living ones, float on the surface of the water. All land birds have, however, a great fear of water, which is only overcome on occasions of imminent danger ; such as, for example, that of a Pigeon, hard pressed by a Hawk, dashing into a pond or river to escape the robber. The feathers of the land-bird are not in the least fitted for swimming ; and of this it seems to be well aware : hence the anxiety of a motherly old Hen, which has just hatched a brood of Ducklings ; in them the voice of Nature is more powerful than educa- tion. It is far otherwise with true swimming-birds ; their feathers, in all the variations they present to us, are always so adapted as to make a sojourn on the water both safe and pleasant. Comparing a swimming-bird with a boat, we may consider the legs as oars and the tail as a rudder. A bird, like a boat, floats on the water without the slightest exertion ; it need not stir a limb, which a quadruped is, of necessity, obliged to do. Each stroke of the feet has no other purpose than the locomotion of the body, and is in no wise connected with the floating power THE MOVEMENTS. 27 of the latter. The art of rowing is most thoroughly understood by swimming-birds. First, the foot, the toes of which are spread out at the side, is drawn toge- ther, so that the middle toe presents itself in advance of the remaining two or three; at the same time the leg is moved upwards and forwards. With the backward pressure the foot again partially expands, or, when webbed, as fully as this will permit of. While the bird is swimming quietly and steadily the motion of the feet is alternate ; when, however, going very fast, their action is simultaneous, which then gives with each stroke of the feet a corresponding forward motion. Should a bird rise up on end, as Ducks often do, to shake the water from their wings, or, in the same position, to attract the attention of its companions by calling out, then a move- ment of the tail is brought into play, so as to preserve the equilibrium of the body. To effect this the legs are moved from the front to the back, and the tail from back to front, one against the other ; by this means the water lying between the feet and tail is pressed downwards, and the bird is raised by the shock of the resistance. With respect to the rapidity with which a bird can swim on the surface of the water, we have seen a great crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus) keep pace with a steamer. To dive beneath the surface every swimming-bird has to give with its full force a stroke simultaneously with both feet. With many true divers this stroke is so powerful as to throw the bird forward over the surface of the water before it disappears head-first in the flood ; with others this spring, clear of the water, does not take place. Pre- viously to diving the plumage is first laid as close to the body as possible, so as to lessen its circumference; when again rising to the surface the feathers are, on the 28 BIED-LIFE. contrary, shaken loose, and the bird ascends without the rowing motion ; while diving and swimming under water the bird elongates itself as much as possible ; many use only their feet for the forward motion, though others use the wings also. The Cormorant, Eiderduck and Diver use the combined method to enable them to reach the surface more rapidly. Flying Divers live almost, without exception, on the sea, and are capable of diving to an immense depth below the surface ; they use their wings as fish do their fins. It is wonderful to see our Moorhen (Stagnicola) swim and dive, although it appears scarcely fitted at all for the purpose. With some birds the tail is used as a rudder, and in that case it is always long, stiff and elastic ; though we cannot determine the assistance it affords in diving, inasmuch as the true fishing-birds, the Penguin and Great Auk, possess scarcely any tail at all ; on this account, indeed, we find their feet and wings singularly developed. The depth to which Divers can descend, and the length of time they can stay under water, varies very much. Among northern birds the Eiderduck dives the deepest, and remains longest under water. From a knowledge of its food, which consists of small, soft-bodied molluscs and crab-like animals living on the bottom of the sea, we have been able to determine both, and have found that the depth is 200 ells (about 400 feet). Usually the Eiderduck remains from four to five minutes submerged, as does also the northern Diver (C. glacialis) on rare occasions ; sometimes, however, it is said to stop under as long as nine minutes; after that, however, it seems very exhausted. All the birds keep under as long as they can hold their breath ; in which case, should they become entangled during their return to the surface, THE MOVEMENTS. 29 they expire almost instantaneously. In former times the Icelanders used to catch the Eiderduck by means of nets spread under the surface of the water, which they baited ; the birds, becoming entangled on rising, were soon suffocated. Quasi Divers dive when closely pursued, but return sooner to the surface and swim off half submerged, inas- much as they lie flat on the water, and using their wings, somewhat extended, as oars, advance with rapid rushes. Birds furnished with superabundant plumage are incapable of diving ; and they almost prove this by never attempting to do so even when in the greatest danger : as the Swan, Gull, Albatross, Phalarope and others ; especially young birds. The Pelican finds him- self similarly situated, by reason of the air-cells in the epidermis. Some birds dive by letting themselves fall from a considerable height into the water: as the Osprey, Booby, Kingfishers, several Terns and others ; but this class of diving is altogether different from the above. Swooping Divers are, while swimming on the surface of the water, unable to submerge themselves, and can only do so through the momentum given .by a fall. They precipitate themselves into the water without using any of their limbs, quickly rising up from it again by means of a few flaps of the wings, and without the help of their feet. With the Booby the force of the swoop is so great that, according to Faber, it not unfrequently dashes its head to pieces against submerged rocks. Lastly, others run under water from shallow spots, and remain quietly walking about on the bottom, like our pretty Dipper (Cinclus), which will at times fly through the wildest waterfall. 30 BIRD-LIFE. Flight, the most important of all the bird's move- ments, can here be discussed only in general terms. The feathers of the wing are laid like the tiles on a roof, one overlapping the other; they are arched, and give a convex form to the upper surface of the wing. By raising the pinion the air is allowed to pass between the feathers, while in its descent they offer an insuperable resistance. This partially explains the fact, that a bird always either rises with each stroke of the wing, or keeps at the same level, and is never in the least depressed by it. The forward movement is attributable to the fact, that all strokes of the pinion do not fall in a perpendicular direction, but slope obliquely downwards from the front towards the back. By this means the wing is so canted as not to present its surface horizontally to the air on rising, but rather to cut through with its edge ; more- over, the pressure of the pinion downwards is quite equal to four times that of the upward stroke : this is proved by a simple examination of the respective muscles. The tail serves as a rudder, and is bent somewhat in an upward direction while the bird is rising, and in a downward one in its descent ; in turning it takes a slanting position. When soaring or circling, the tail alone directs the course of flight, while the position of the apparently motionless wings determines the greater or less rapidity of the same. The relative rapidity and the nature of the flight is in perfect harmony with the formation of the wing and the construction of the feathers. All birds possessing long, narrow, sharp- pointed wings and close smooth plumage are rapid flyers in a straight line, though unable to diverge from their course with the same quickness as birds with shorter and rounder wings. With the faster flyers the wings over- THE MOVEMENTS. 31 lap the tail ; while with those which can turn quickly the tail generally exceeds the wings in length. Good flyers often have the tail forked, although the contrary some- times occurs when the tail has long centre feathers. Large, broad, rounded wings are well adapted for rising, and for long and easy soaring at great elevations ; but they render descent difficult. Those birds, however, which carry long pointed wings can rush with them half expanded from a considerable height. Short round wings render flight more difficult, and make it necessary to use very rapid and strong strokes. The greater or less amount of noise made in flying is caused partially by the hardness or softness of the pinion-feathers, and partly from the relative rapidity or slowness of the strokes of the wings. Quick flyers move with a rushing whistling sound ; slower flyers silently : the former motion is found with short-winged, and the latter with broad- winged birds. To enable a bird to fly with great velocity it requires a head wind, or the reverse of what is desirable for a ship ; it always prefers to fly against the wind, and soon becomes tired when flying for a long time with the wind.* The reason may be sought for in this circumstance, that the opposing breeze fills the under side of the arched * This statement seems contradictory -when we remember the immense velocity at which " driven" Grouse or Partridges fly. Any sportsman, who has shot driven birds, will feel but little disposed to accept this assertion, the more so that, as a rule, driven birds almost always travel down wind. Another occasion, where the difference of velocity is easily observable, is while sitting watching rock birds, Guillemots and Puffins, when flying to and fro ? their breeding-place ; the moment the bird turns down wind increased velocity is immediately perceptible. A third case also presents itself to us: Sniped generally arrive in the Essex marshes with a north-easterly or easterly wind, and yet they come from the North of Europe to us ; perhaps the early and severe frosts of Norway compel these birds to fly down wind on their trip to England. Lastly, how could the fragile warblers beat to windward ? W. J. 32 BIBD-LIFE. wing, and thus lifts the bird; while, with a fair wind the wings are pressed down. This explains to us how birds can continue to circle at a high level without moving the wings or even ascending higher. The act of starting to fly, which is mostly preceded by one or two springs, can only take place, by many birds, with the head to windward. The velocity of flight is a question which has as yet received but little attention ; though we know that it is the fastest of all animal movements. It is estimated that a salmon will run 86,000 feet in the space of one hour: if it were to continue swimming at this rate it would circumnavigate the globe in a few weeks.* These suppositions are merely based on a calculation of probability, and not on actual observation ; so it is pos- sible that this statement is somewhat exaggerated. Even were the sum thus given correct, this scale of rapidity is still far behind that of flight. An express train runs at the rate of seven f German miles per hour ; and a distance of ten has been attained in a like time : this, however, is only an average rate of flight for a bird. The pace of the Crow exceeds that of ordinary trains, although this bird does not belong to the class of rapid flyers ; and with every effort the locomotive lags far behind the domestic Pigeon. Carrier Pigeons have been known to traverse a distance of fifty- six German miles in five hours and forty -four minutes; and flights of thirty-five German miles have been covered in less than three hours. This represents a rate of 280,000 feet per hour, which surpasses the speed of the salmon in the proportion of three and a half * From Hartwig's Leben des Meeres,' 4 Aufl. S. 174. Dr. Brelim. t It may be well to observe that this moderate rate of travelling is confined to foreign lines. W. J, THE MOVEMENTS. 33 to one.* The Pigeon again is, in the velocity of its flight, far behind the Falcon, and still more so in comparison with the Swift (Cypselus). The larger varieties of the former will strike the fleetest Pigeon, unless it is able to obtain shelter, and during the chase, cover great distances with inconceivable rapidity. Montagu calcu- lates the speed of our Peregrine Falcon (F. peregrinus) to be at the rate of 800,000 feet an hour. I, myself, have often observed with what extraordinary rapidity the Ger Falcon dashes down from a height, so that this large bird appeared like a shadow, reminding me of an arrow in the air, or a shell from a howitzer. This rapidity of movement is, probably, surpassed by no other bird; though the direct flight of the Ger Falcon is certainly not the most rapid we can find. The true Swifts here carry off the palm : these are in reality " clippers" of the air, the only place, however, where they are at home ; on the earth they are strangers. It is only when roosting or breeding that they approach it, and then only the higher cliffs and walls, to the sides of which they can cling with their sharp claws, and into whose rifts and clefts they can crawl. On the level * Eogers describes the Pigeon's flight in the following lines : " Led by what chart, transports the timid Dove The wreaths of conquest, or the vows of love ? Say, through the clouds what compass points her flight ? Monarchs have gazed, and nations blessed the sight. Pile rocks on rocks, bid woods and mountains rise, Eclipse her native shades, her native skies : 'Tis vain ! thro' Ether's pathless wilds she goes And lights at last where all her cares repose. Sweet bird ! thy truth shall Harlem's walls attest, And unborn ages consecrate thy nest." During the siege of Paris every one has experienced how useful these birds can be made. If. M. L. F 34 BIRD-LIFE. ground they can scarcely walk at all, and can only rise again by means of a jerking movement of their long elastic wings. So much the more active and nimble are they, however, in the air. It is in the air that they pass their real life, with its cares and crosses. In from three to five days they fly from Germany to the interior of Africa, as I have gathered from frequent observations ; and at the close of autumn make pleasure trips to Southern Europe. In their way they are not less wonderful than the Frigate bird (Trachypetes Aquila), so often beheld with admiration by poets and naturalists, and which represents and characterises the mighty ocean, as the Swifts do the less majestic mainland. This bird the sailor sees in the lower degrees of latitude, two hundred German miles from any island, safely and proudly soaring above the surging waves, which, it is alleged, are never chosen by it as a resting-place for the night : it must, therefore, before sun-down have flown such a distance to reach its roosting-place as to us would represent a long journey. Its great power of motion allows it to forget distance and to laugh at the storm ; it could, if it would, encompass the earth, not in weeks, but in days ! Truly wonderful is the endurance shown by the bird in motion. It would seem as though its muscles were of steel, and unsusceptible of fatigue. Most birds, as their migration proves, are capable of continuing their flight for days together without any perceptible pause, and, what is equally remarkable, without fatigue. Soaring birds, such as Vultures, Eagles, many Falcons, Swallows, Gulls and Terns play about in the air for hours at a time, with no other object, as it seems, but their pleasure. Many are compelled to fly over great distances in order THE MOVEMENTS. 35 to find their food; others never rest,* such as the Frigate bird and the Swallow ; yet they are always as fresh and joyous in the evening as they were in the morning. There are, indeed, those less privileged that are unable to do this, and in untoward circumstances they become so dead-beat as to lose all further use of their pinions. All birds that shun the presence of man or predatory animals lose their self-control, and allow themselves to be taken by the hand. In storms migratory birds often seek ships for shelter and rest ; migrating Quails reach the sea-shore from the opposite coast quite powerless; and the red-legged Partridge (Perdix rubra), as I have been again and again assured by a Spanish sportsman, can be taken in pursuit, if it has previously been flushed several times together in rapid succession, and especially during the hot summer months, f Swimming birds and birds that run, if they are continuously hunted by several persons, may at length be overcome by fatigue : but this kind of sport requires much time. The Ostrich (Struthio camelis) shows this, for it can only be outstripped by several relays of riders mounted on steeds fleet as the wind in pursuit along the desert, because it always has its eye upon the motions of a single pursuer ; for while one huntsman follows the bird in all its motions, the rest cut off all the angles of the chase. As a general rule, the endurance of all birds is remarkably great. The * A rather broad assertion. W. J. \ What Dr. Brehm states here, with regard to the red-legged Partridge being taken by the hand, has been known to occur in the hunting-field in this country ; and I have heard it stated by several people in Essex, that in the southern district of the country, parties of eight or ten persons are not unfrequently made up, at which these birds are regularly ridden down on horseback, and as many as several brace taken in the course of the day's sport: heavy land and wet weather are, however, indispensable for this amusement, the birds being unable to run, by reason of their feet becoming clogged with the soil. W. J. 36 BIRD-LIFE. Vulture flies; the Grebe dives; the Duck swims; the Woodpecker climbs and taps; the Hen runs about the livelong day, and, after a few hours sleep, is recruited for the next morning. The whole life of a bird is one unbroken movement ; the more it moves the happier it is ; only sick or tired birds are quiet and still ; the healthy live their true life only when they have scope to move themselves, in accordance with their heart's desire. CHAPTER III. THE VOICE. " Tis always morning somewhere : and above The awakening continents, from shore to shore, Somewhere the birds are singing evermore." LONGFELLOW. THE voice is still motion; but no longer entirely a corporeal one. By it the spirit moves, through the agency of the body, as a machine. The spirit creates and poetises the measure; while the result is clothed by the body with tones, aye, words ! The bird so highly gifted, as an animal, is also endowed, as it were, above all other created beings with an intellectual voice. It understands how to sing ; and its song is speech ! Mammals give expression to their feelings through the instrumentality of sounds ; still these cannot be termed either song or speech ; and, with the exception of man, the bird alone can do so in tones agreeable and touching to the ear. The distinction to be drawn between the two is, that man envelopes thought in melody, and the bird feeling; and yet birds are possessed of thoughts and words ! To examine these gifts from a physical and physiolo- gical point of view would carry us too far. It suffices that we should seek to make ourselves understood, in our 38 BIRD-LIFE. explanation of the singular properties of the bird's voice. These properties consist of strength, fulness, roundness and elasticity ; qualities which are only accorded to man in a higher degree. Fulness and strength have their foundation, probably, in the extraordinary means of inflation, which belongs to the bird, coupled with the possession of two larynxes ; the first renders possible the excessively great, though quite inexplicable, expenditure of moving air ; and the latter gives strength to the tones, principally, perhaps, by means of the " drum," that singular cartilaginous cavity in the wind-pipe, which apparently can have no other meaning. The flexibility of the voice is owing to the extraordinary mobility of the larynx, whose lesser ligaments can produce an increasing- altitude of each tone through an augmentation of their vibrations. The richness and beauty of tone give meaning to the bird's voice. There are, indeed, many birds which seldom utter other than shrill and shrieking tones; these, however, are comparatively few, and are, at all events, not very protracted. Absolutely dumb birds are unknown. The greater number possess voices so rich and so varied in tone that to them a language bordering on conversation could, in a broad sense, be possible. Birds not only speak to, but even amuse, each other. They have a number of words or sounds denoting different sensations, impressions and ideas ; and these sounds are so marked and so expressive as to be understood, not only amongst the same species, but convey a meaning even to man himself. Every observer understands the language of a bird he is acquainted with; for he soon gets to learn the varied tones of tenderness, love, joy, desire, health and satisfaction, and how to THE VOICE. 39 distinguish them from sounds expressive of aversion, hate, sadness, suffering, restlessness and discomfort. Some of these sounds have, under the names of decoy and warning tones, received well known designations, by reason of their being the most common. But besides these, many other words in the language of birds might be pointed out ; for tones expressive of the same meaning are always very much alike in different species. An instinctive perception of the meaning of these sounds generally gives an expert the correct interpretation, the more so that the sound of the words (an expression I will use) are based upon the same conditions as the language of man. The sharp short cry of a bird invariably betokens fright; while a long - continued repetition of a cry denotes pleasure ; but a slight abrupt sound is always a note of warning ; whereas the same tone, if sustained for any length of time or reiterated, undoubtedly expresses satisfiaction. The notes denoting tenderness and love are quite as melting as, and often much more so than, with man, and are expressive of greater self-devotion. The cry of pain is a low sound within the bird's throat. Contempt and hatred find their expression amongst birds in different sounds, even with those birds in whose well-toned song not a single discord is to be detected. The Nightingale shrieks abominably when in a passion or wishing to express her hate. We need scarcely wonder, then, that the observer can very soon learn to understand birds hitherto unknown to him, although he can hardly explain how he does so. To what extent birds can understand a language, common to all, one can see plainly in places favourable to gregarious assemblages of different species. Here the cleverest and the shyest of those present very soon take 40 BIRD-LIFE. the lead of the community. The warning cry of the Godwit (Limosa) is sure to alarm a whole flock of waders of every description along the shore. The same expression from the throat of a Book scares a flight of Starlings. The Pheasant pays attention to the warning cry of the Eobin. By the borders of the African lakes I learnt, from my inmost heart, to detest the spur-winged Plover (Hoplopterus spinosa), for the reason that it always acted as sentry to all the marsh- and water-birds in the neighbourhood : these, ever difficult of approach, it never failed to inform of my presence in the clearest manner possible. All his protegees can interpret his call ; should he be only quarrelling with those of his own species, the other wild-fowl would remain perfectly unconcerned, yet the moment his warning cry was heard they took wing. In a similar manner many birds make themselves understood by others not of their own class, with whom they have little or no resemblance ; yes, they will even act as monitors to creatures belonging quite to other divisions of the animal kingdom. The crocodile does not disregard the call of the Ziczac, or black-headed Plover (Hyas &gyptiacus), his " watchman," as the natives call it. This faculty of speech is common to both sexes, though not in the same degree. In the bird-world the male is the talkative, and the female the silent, member of the family ; it is only the reverse in cases where the female almost entirely undertakes the bringing up of the young : but in this case the mother requires also a more extended vocabulary. The domestic Hen has a much richer language than the Cock, and even adds thereto other quite peculiar sounds words when she has a brood. Generally, however, the voice of the male is THE VOICE. 41 more flexible than that of the female ; it is, also, usually of a higher compass than hers. Birds of different species often prattle together in the most winning manner. The chatter of a Magpie is manifestly much more like a gabble than a song, even though the male has the louder say. There are, however, many birds which can converse much more fully. The male and female grass Parakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus) chirp together and caress each other in the prettiest way imaginable. With the Wryneck (Yunx torquilld) the two sexes answer one another regularly. In some species male and female often join their song in one cadence. While roaming the primaeval forests of the interior of Africa, I have heard with astonishment the full rich- sounding thrill of the red-breasted Shrike (Lanius erythrogaster), one of the most gorgeous birds of the Upper Nile ; but on each occasion it was accompanied by a disagreeable rattling noise, such as we are accustomed to hear from our Golden Oriole. It was only quite by accident that I learnt that these flute-like tones were whistled by the male only, while the female, with her rattle, kept up a regular accompaniment, artistically and in good time, like a well-trained musician. Of the truth of this observation I have often satisfied myself ; for I have sometimes shot the male of a pair first, after which I have only heard the rattle; and, again, I have shot the female first, and then have heard the whistle only. We find the same combination occurring between the two sexes of a cousin of the above (Telephonus cethiopicus), a Shrike inhabiting Abyssinia ; the female completes the strophe of the male, the two together forming a beautiful flute-like sound. The domestic Goose, with the well-known "gik," "gak," G 42 BIRD-LIFE. attests this fact; for the Gander calls "gik," while the Goose cries " gak." What has just gone before affords us sufficient proof that the bird, above all other animals, has the most perfectly-developed voice ; though we but first realise its value when we subject its richest product song to an analysis. This heavenly gift has, unfortunately, not been awarded to all birds alike ; Nature, ever just in her dispensations, has principally accorded it to the smaller and most modestly-adorned among the land- birds. Others have received greater stature and more gorgeous plumage. We are, however, acquainted with some songsters from among the middle-sized and bright-coloured birds, but they are rare exceptions. The same justice is shown in another manner, namely, the north is the true home of the singing bird. In the south, no doubt, rich colours and loud notes are to be found in abundance ; many screaming, but only a very few singing, birds. We, on the other hand, are more fortunate, who may call the king of songsters our own : we can speak of wood and forest with ecstacy, other than that of the southerner ; for our song birds, indeed, form the chief poetical element in the picture ; to them we owe one of the principal attractions of forest life. Nevertheless, we ought not, perhaps, to say that our north alone is blessed with these pets of creation; for in all the remaining quarters of the globe fine songsters are to be found. Nature, ever generous with her gifts, seems only to have acted with injustice in one respect : the female sex, among birds, is deficient in song. Despite the pretty and pensive ideas of tender-hearted poetesses, who permit, among other things, feathered mothers to sing charming lullabys to their chicks, we must yield to truth, THE VOICE. 43 and insist upon the fact that the males alone are gifted with the power of song, the females never. The poor creatures try, it is true, sometimes to sing a bar or two, yet it never amounts to a song, and always remains a bungle. The wee hen-bird, though her little bosom may be bursting with poetic love-thoughts, can only impart them to her lover and the world, in simple, but tender, tones. It is of the male bird only, that we can say he composes poetry ; for it is thought alone, out-spoken in song, which can be called poetry, although the assiduous labours of the female to build the home and rear the callow brood may appear to many more poetical than the slight contribution of song to the work. Just as much as the female is surpassed in bodily beauty by the male, as little can she rival him in the gift of poetry ; and this is a clear indication of the elevation man occupies in comparison with birds ; for with him, from time immemorial up to the present day, the female sex has, as all know, always been called "the fair or fairer/' and is in no way inferior to the male sex in powers of com- position, as the treasures of modern poetry can testify. The gift of song varies greatly in different birds. Each species has its characteristic tones and definite compass of voice ; each blends the individual notes in a peculiar manner into strophes, and the strophes, again, into the whole melodies. From this arises natural song, which may, however, be rendered very differently, according to the talent of the performer. Some species sing their own melodies, and those alone; others, combine therewith many strophes belonging to others; moreover, in the first case, the song always differs in different localities. An expert will immediately recognise any singing-bird from its note, without seeing the creature itself, with as 44 BIRD -LIFE. much ease and certainty as he can distinguish by their sounds different musical instruments one from the other. It is as difficult to confound the song of a warbler with the note of a finch, as it would be to mistake the flute -like tones of a Blackbird for the twitter of a Swallow. A safe guide for such discrimination is found in the relative volume, roundness and strength of the tones. Many birds of different species have a very similar song, except that the position of the accent and the union of certain strophes afford an easy clue to the difference. The Chaffinch and the great Tit both utter the sounds "fink, fink;" but the accent and ring is so different in the two species that the practised ear can at once decide which of them is calling. In the same way an adept discriminates the note (hoid) of a Eedstart from that of the Willow Wren (S. Trochilus) ; he can readily determine by ear what bird is crying "tak, tak," although it is common to them all, whether Blackbird, Thrush, Blackcap, lesser Whitethroat or Sedge Warbler, and so on. Songsters are also distinguished by the compass of their voice ; while the leaders among singing birds, such as the Philomel Nightingale (S. philomela) and the common Nightingale, have a compass of several octaves, the Whitethroat and the Lark can command only four full tones, but both know how to combine and blend them in so incomparable a strain that one can listen to them for hours together with ever-increasing delight. Many birds are entirely without the gift of song: thus, the brown-headed Timalia pileata, of India, only sings the five notes, c, D, E, r, G, in the diatonic scale, several times in succession in full purity, and without introducing half or quarter tones; it is all they can do to reach a THE VOICE. 45 sixth tone (Horsfield). Birds acquire, by training, a much greater compass of voice in comparison with what they at first possessed. I have heard a Bullfinch piping the German song, "Von hohen Olymp herab ward uns die freude," a song having a compass of ten whole tones, with an accuracy perfectly exquisite. We may determine the nature and value of a bird's song according to the richness of its tones and strophes, and also the manner of their combination into melody. When we find single strophes distinctly composed by the bird, executed in a sharp and definite manner, they may be considered as forming a composition, inasmuch as it is a distinct motivo.* On the other hand, when the notes are continually changing, and never form a distinct strophe, it is called a song ; the mere number of tones and strophes has no bearing on the question. The single strophe of our Chaffinch is as much a composition as the Nightingale's, with twenty to twenty- five in it ; on the contrary, the Warbler's simple song, and the Lark's rich one, are equally songs ; for the strophes of the former are clearly and distinctly rounded off, while those of the latter are obscure and vaguely intermingled. Now, the fuller and purer the tones, and the richer in strophes the whole melody, the higher is the rank of the songster : this rank depends principally upon the presence or absence of disagreeable tones. The Nightingale, Skylark, and Wood- lark (A. arborea), the Greater Whitethroat (S. cinerea), and the Garden Warbler (S. hortensis), when they sing use none but pleasant and melodious notes ; whereas the Melodious Warbler (S. Hippolais), although it sings * The German word " Schlag," in centra-distinction to " Gesang" (song), has no real equivalent in English ; and thus the translators have heen obliged to express the author's meaning somewhat at length. W. J. 46 BIED-LIFE. exquisitely, introduces many a jarring note into its strophes ; it is by this very defect that the Blackbird and the Thrush mar the harmony of their wondrous wood- song. There is not a single songster which utters each separate strophe always in the same order in succession, but invariably weaves them together in an ever-varying sequence ; and it is exactly on this account that a bird's natural song is so far superior to any air it may have learnt by rote ; and hence the bird's power of rendering in its song the heart's impulse of the moment, though the outline of the song is the result of previous composition, appears to us so marvellous. The bird meditates upon and rehearses its composition long before it is perfect ; at first it practises single tones gently, and then more forcibly. When vying with another songster of its own species it essays to interweave into its own song the most exquisite parts of its rival's composition. After a long season of continued silence, the bird first tries its throat in secret, and endeavours to reproduce the old notes, if possible, with still greater fulness than ever. Many a Philomel Nightingale requires a month's rehearsal to perfect a composition, and at the outset utters the strophes in so low and confused a manner, that they may be called mere songs rather than compositions. The finest songsters, after the yearly break, are not able to reproduce every strophe in their composition without regular study and practice. All singing birds are instructed in their art by the elder males. Nature contributes, likewise, her share of instruction ; thus are explained those frequent variations in the song of the same species in different localities. The melody of the gloomy pine forest is of a different character to that of the leafy coppice ; the mountains are THE VOICE. 47 richer in tone and poetry than the plains ; the south has other sounds than the north. All this may have its influence on the songs of birds. The great Sedge Warbler (Calamoherpe turdoides) sings Nature's songs in a most unmistakable manner. In its melody we recognise the rustling of the reeds, the murmur of the waves, and even the croaking of the frog, which latter it probably regards as its first instructor. The songs of many other birds are influenced in a similar manner. The elder of their own species, however, remain their real singing masters. Young birds, when captured, only learn to sing correctly when placed early under tuition ; if this is neglected they always turn out bunglers. Good masters generally produce good scholars ; still these latter are easily spoiled by contact with bad performers. The old proverb, "Evil communication corrupts good man- ners," holds good with singing birds to its fullest extent; the best of them allow themselves to be beguiled into imitating the bungles of inferior performers, instead of leading these to better their style. Two or more singing birds excite competitive singing on all sides; but not unfrequently one vanquishes the other so thoroughly, that the latter dares only to sing in an undertone, while the other announces his victorious jubilee in a peal of song. The song of a bird is an undoubted test of its being in good health and spirits. One and the same bird will sing at one time loudly and ardently, and at another softly and sadly : it either rejoices or laments in its song ; when courting its mate, the beauteous melody rings with all the ardent fire and joyousness which pervades its whole being; except at this time a bird is generally incapable of singing, or if it attempts to do so is able at the most to bungle. 48 BIRD-LIFE. Some birds not only take strophes from the songs of their own species, but borrow from strangers, and even pick up extraneous sounds and noises. The best known among these is our mocking-bird, the Melodious Warbler (Hippolais) which, however, only imitates singing birds. The blue-throated Warbler (Cyanecula Wolfii) intermingles with its own some notes and strophes of the songs of the Nightingale, Whitethroat, Keed and other Warblers, as well as Finches, &c., besides which, however, it has many harsh and disagreeable tones. The red-tailed blue-throated Warbler (C. suecica), which breeds in Lapland, is there called the "Hundred-tongued," owing to its great imitative capacity. The Jay (Glandarius europceus) is not so fastidious, he thinks the shrill ecream of the Hawk so beautiful that he tries to imitate it ; he mimics the Crow and the Magpie, aye, even the call of the Capercallie in the breeding-season, in his love of mimicry. Our old friend, the Starling, goes even farther, inasmuch as he often introduces some nonsense or another in his song : this, at any time, is little else than sociable chatter, without much sense or meaning, though full of mirth and jollity ; sooner or later, however, he is sure to make a variety of whimsical additions to his repertoire. First, the comical fellow will try and whistle back the beautiful and rich-toned call of the Golden Oriole ; then take up the cry of the Kestrel, the Wryneck (Yunx) ; perhaps, also, catches that of the Kook or Jackdaw, until he has learnt almost every bird-call within hearing. All that he has already accomplished does not suffice ; he tries to imitate other sounds and noises : lastly, he learns not only to mimic with the greatest exactitude the calls of all sorts of animals, but the creaking of doors, weather-cocks, carts, the clappers THE VOICE. 49 of a mill, the sound of a saw at work, and many others which he may hear in the neighbourhood. Parrots sometimes become unbearable from this same desire and capability : they mew like cats, bark like dogs, cough like human beings, squeak like sucking-pigs, cackle like geese, and perform solos on a penny whistle, after the manner of noisy boys, producing such hideous dissonance that they at last become nuisances to the most indifferent person. On the other hand, it is all the more amusing to hear them utter words and sentences : of these I will give examples further on. The most perfect " artiste" in this way appears to be the American Mocking-bird (Mimus polyglottus). It is such a highly-gifted creature that Audubon considers it worthy of the title, " The Queen of Songsters." "It is neither the soft tone of the flute," says this inspired naturalist, "nor the note of any other instrument, which strikes the ear while listening to its song ; it is the rich ringing voice of Nature herself: the full round tone of this song, its different inflections and gradations, its compass and the brilliancy of its execution are unequalled. There exists, probably, no bird on earth possessed of so many gifts, in regard of vocal capacity, as this Queen of melody, schooled by Nature herself. Europeans have asserted that the song of the Nightingale equals that of the Mocking-bird. I have heard both, and cannot hesitate to acknowledge that some single notes of the former are as beautiful as those produced by the latter ; but to compare the Nightingale's complete musical production, as a composition, with the finished gift of the Mocking-bird is, in my opinion, absurd." Connoisseurs of the capabilities of European singing birds are of an opinion quite different from that of Audubon ; H 50 BIRD-LIFE. at the same time they acknowledge to its full extent the peculiar gift of the Mocking-bird mimicry. All observers, without exception, relate the most extraordinary stories of this bird. The voice of the Mocking-bird is, according to the statement of that reliable naturalist, Wilson, capable of every change. It can produce every imaginable sound, from the clear soft notes of the Thrush to the wild scream of the Vulture. The Mocking-bird follows with the greatest fidelity the measure and tone of the songster whose lay he has stolen, but generally excels it in power of expression and sweetness of execution. In its native woods no other bird can vie with it : its songs are various without limit. The listener might often fancy that he hears a number of birds singing, which had agreed to do so in company. This one songster will deceive the hunter, and even birds themselves : his repertoire is derived from the locality that he inhabits ; in the open forest he imitates the birds around him, in the neighbourhood of men he interweaves with his song all those sounds which are heard in the farmyard. In captivity this bird loses but little either of its capabilities or perseverance. "It is impossible," as Wilson says, "to listen to it without interest." It whistles the dog " Caesar" jumps up, wags his tail and runs to his master ; it will squeak like a frightened Chicken, when the old Hen immediately rushes out with ruffled feathers and hanging wings, clucking all over the place after her brood, which she imagines to have been attacked and would fain shelter : the barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, creaking of a passing cart ; these all follow one another with the greatest fidelity and quickness. A song once learnt, no matter how long ago, is repeated correctly and with- out instruction. The lays of the Canary-bird and the THE VOICE. 51 Cardinal are so admirably rendered, even improved, that these, ashamed of their inferiority, become silent ; while the Mocking-bird, pleased with his victory, continues singing with renewed vigour. " These endless changes, however, utterly mar the bird's natural song. The rendering of the splendid melody of the Wood Thrush is suddenly interrupted by the imitation of a Cock crowing ; the song of the Blue- bird is interwoven with the twittering of the Swallow or the cackling of Hens ; and the simple strain of the Migratory Thrush is jumbled up with the woeful call of the Whip-poor- Will." Thus, we find that while imitations of the songs of other birds, and airs taught by rote, have their disadvan- tages, the natural and spontaneous melody of a bird preserves its full value. For this reason the Philomel Nightingale (Ph. major) and the Nightingale ever remain the kings, or rather the king and queen, of our band of feathered songsters : they stand unrivalled, neither surpassing the other. The Nightingale possesses ardour, with the most melting notes ; and its cousin, strength and fulness of tone. The warbled composition of the latter is a majestic " Andante," while that of the Nightingale is an exquisite ''Allegro;" one vieing with the other in richness of notes and strophes. They form the poles of one and the same entity : the Philomel Nightingale represents manly power in song ; the Nightingale, female grace. They are rightly entitled king and queen, so to speak; he, the king, and she, his queen, though both songsters be of the same sex. They fill every heart with their heavenly strains. Careful observation proves that they warble both in major and minor keys : soft and sad, lively and joyous, earnest and tender, loud and low ; 52 BIRD-LIFE. these evoke, by wood and streamlet, the fairy spells of night and evening, with the weird beauty of their melody. The whole remaining train of our home songsters are the liege subjects of the august pair. In accordance with the general opinion of connoisseurs they rank in the following order : next, the Garden Warbler ; then, the Sedge Warbler, the Blackcap, Whitethroat, Barred Warbler (S. nisoria), Woodlark, Skylark, and the Melo- dious Warbler ; after these come the wood songsters, the Song Thrush, Blackbird, Golden Oriole, Kobin, Hedgesparrow ; and lastly, the Blue-throated Warbler (S. suecica), Chaffinch, Linnet, Goldfinch, Siskin, Cross- bill and others. This order of precedence is altered, more or less, in accordance with the individual taste of the fancier. In addition to the above-mentioned sorts, which are almost all equally to be found in Southern Europe, we find there the Blue and Kock Thrushes, White-tailed Wheatear (Saxicola leucura), and Calandre Lark (Alaudra Kalandra), all which are held in high estimation. Owing to our still very limited knowledge of the life and habits of non-European birds, we need not be surprised if most foreign singing birds are yet unknown to us. It scarcely admits of a doubt that besides the Mocking-bird there exist still other exquisite songsters to be discovered. Observing travellers have remarked some, which they praise in a high degree. "Amid the outspread wilderness," says Waterton, ' usually upon a dead branch of some ancient Mora tree, far out of gun-shot, the Bell-bird (Chasmorynchus carunculatus) is to be seen. No sound or song of any one of the winged inhabitants of the forest, not even the clearly-enunciated THE VOICE. 53 call of the Goat-sucker (Whip-poor- Will), is productive of so much astonishment to the hearer as the tones of the Bell-bird. Like many others of the feathered tribe he greets both morn and even with his song ; and yet, when the ardent sun's rays lull all nature into stillness, his cheerful tones ring through the silent forest. One hears the notes, and then there is a minute's pause ; again, the bell-like sound ; then another interval of silence ; a third time this takes place, when, after a pause of six or eight minutes, the song bursts out afresh. Acteon would turn from the wildest chase ; Marie cease her evening hymn, Aye ! Orpheus, himself, would forego his lute to hear this bird so full, so fresh, and so romantic is the ring of his melodious song." " No song," says Schomburck, "no note of any single one of the feathered denizens of the forest has ever caused me such astonishment as the clear tones of the Bell-bird. That the birds of Guiana have the gift of speech, I had already discovered with my first steps in this extraordinary portion of the globe ; but such tones, until then, it had never been my lot to hear." There is a similar songster, the best, perhaps, in the forests of South America, the Cayenne Wren (Cypho- rhinus cantans), allied to our Wren (Troglodytes): it is often heard, but rarely seen. Poppig writes thus of it : " Listening, one remains, at the same time, rooted to the spot, as its notes, which can only be compared to the sound of a small glass-bell, continuously modulated, with simply the strictest regard to the intervals, are blended into one regular melody, which falls lightly and slowly on the ear from the topmost branches of the trees. There is something so indescribably soft, one may say ethereal, in this bell-music, the charm of which is enhanced by 54 BIRD-LIFE. the desert stillness of the broad forest, and the invisibility of the excessively small singer. On no consideration could one kill the little songster when discovered. In Lima it is spoken of as one of the most remarkable inhabitants of the Eastern forests ; and the oldest authorities on these regions make mention of it with admiration." The woods and plains of Australasia are not entirely destitute of sweet sounds, for among the numerous noisy screamers of these regions a few excellent songsters are to be found ; the Poe or Tu'i (Prosthemadera circinata), said to inhabit New Zealand, is one of these. Eochelas gives the following account of this bird : " Among the singing birds of the Island there was one which distinguished itself from all others, as much by the harmony as the charm of its soft song, which really appeared to us not to be compared with that of any other bird. It has been brought several times to Port Jackson, where it excited great admiration : the settlers have named it the ' Organ-bird/ I believe it to be exclusively an inhabitant of New Zealand, a charming denizen of the romantic desert tracts of that Island. It is difficult to say too much of this wonderful bird, when it is asserted that no songster of our European woods can compete with it. I consider the song of the Nightingale, much as I love it, to be far surpassed by the strains of this bird, and must confess never in my life to have listened to a bird so rich and enchanting in its tones." Upon the capabilities of Australia, in this respect, I need not enter into details : it is sufficient that I assure my readers that we have heard much in favour of her songsters ; but at the same time I must remark that in this singular quarter of the globe there are some which, TH;E VOICE. 55 taken in the true sense of the word, do not sing at all ! Some of the Parrots in New Holland warble very prettily, much better, indeed, than many birds possessed of the full development necessary for this accomplishment. The serenade, with which the elegant little Grass Parakeet entertains his spouse, resembles a low murmuring con- versation rather than a song. The most curious of all songsters is the Lyre-bird (Menura superba), not only actually a singer, but a mocker, a fact recently dis- covered.* Africa does not appear to be entirely deficient in woodland vocalists ; but, as far as my experience went, I only met with one thoroughly good songster in the plain- coloured Bulbul (Sycnonotus Arsinoe), which is to be found south of Upper Egypt, in almost every cluster of scrub or palms : it delivers the few strophes of its song with much variety and fire, indeed, not unlike our Song-thrush (T. Musicus), though the song of the latter far surpasses it. I must not omit to state, however, that in my last journey to Abyssinia I met with another excellent songster, the Bed-fronted Warbler (Dyemoeca rufifrons) : he warbles his fresh rippling lay with much perse- verance and energy ; in these qualities he much surpasses his fellow-performers. Gordon is enchanted with the song of a cousin of the above, the Fantee Warbler (Melocichla mentalis), an inhabitant of Western Africa. The " splendid" melody of this bird reminded him more than anything of the woods and copses of his English home and their bright minstrels. "If," says he, "at * According to Mr. Gould, our best authority on the birds of Australia, M. Superba produces "a loud liquid call," as also "a low sparkling note," quite different from the above. He makes no mention of the Lyre-bird as either a songster or a mimic. W. J. 56 BIRD-LIFE. sunset, during the rainy season, one takes the narrow footpath leading through luxuriant jungle, in the neigh- bourhood of Cape-coast Castle, one is charmed on all sides by the melodious and oft-repeated flute-like song of this bird." Thompson, also, mentions the Oriole Babbler (Hypergerus atriceps) as being possessed of notes agreeable as they are varied. "At times," he says, " one can almost hear him catching up the burden of some native melody." Among the African Thrushes, Chats and Fly-catchers, some very good performers are to be met with ; and a few passable ones among the Finches (Amadina) and Widow-birds (Vidua). That all the gorgeous birds of Africa do not belong to the long list of screamers, is proved by the Angola Pitta (Pitta Ango- lensis), of the West Coast, which is held in such high estimation by the natives, that they seek to honour any aspirant to poetical fame by bestowing its name (Pulih) upon him. The pretty Sun-birds (Nectarinea), which are often held to represent the Humming-birds, also go to prove this, while the latter only give utterance to shrill stridulous notes. Like our Starling some members of the (Lam- protornis) family also sing ; and one species, which I have named the Kock Starling (Pilorhinus albirostris), surpasses it. We are told that several South African Drongo- shrikes possess powers of mimicry in a high degree. South Africa, in general, appears to be well provided with good songsters. The song birds of Asia are probably not in the least inferior to those of Europe ; indeed, in the northern part, there are many species common to both regions ; but there are others, also, which can only be looked upon as occasional visitors to our quarter of the globe. Among the latter there is a Nightingale (Calliope camtschatcensis) THE VOICE. 57 which is celebrated for its singing powers, and is often caught and caged, especially in China. Kittlitz tells us that its song is full in tone, but intermingled with an indistinct twittering melody. Radde says that it cannot, in any way, be compared with our Nightingale : " It does not possess that low gurgling rattle, followed by the deep powerful whistle of our bird ; and thus cannot be confounded with it : it is a low plaintive strain which is wafted on the ear." This bird sings not only in the day-time, but, also, with greater energy during the bright, still mid-night hour, so peculiar to its native land, filling the desert- swamp with life and song. The forests of the Himalayas afford shelter to numberless songsters, among which there are many fully equal to our own ; some of the Thrushes which inhabit this district are said to be splendid singers. The " Schamak" (Kittacincla macroura) may be considered the king of Indian songsters ; it is a fine performer, belonging to the family of the Stonechats (Saxicola). This bird is dispersed over a large portion of Southern Asia, and is often kept in confinement. The natives listen to its song with ecstacy, and even Europeans speak of it with admiration. Among the assemblage of woodland minstrels, so numerous in Southern Asia, we must not be astonished to find some highly-gifted members. Notes and observa- tions on the lives of these birds are, however, still wanting. India is, also, not without her representatives of the mocking fraternity, who make free with the songs of their neighbours. The Drongos can almost vie with the American Mocking-birds ; besides which there are several Bulbuls (Pycnonotus), and others, masters of the art of mimicry. Among those birds which do not sing there are many i 58 BIRD -LIFE. whose voices are, more or less, singular, not to say unearthly. All nocturnal birds distinguish themselves in this manner from the diurnal birds : their voices always bear the impress of night ; they are melancholy, gloomy, horrible and forbidding. Owls on account of their often really horrible screeching, groaning and miauling have become objects of fear and dread. The more inoffensive night-birds, also, make doleful and repugnant noises. The Scissor-billed Tern (Rhynchops), nocturnal in its habits, wails in the most doleful manner; the Goat- suckers, which for the greater part, generally purr their even song, not much unlike a cat in a happy frame of mind, occasionally give utterance to the most disagreeable tones ; and even in the words so clearly spoken by an American species there is expressed something uncom- fortable : the call " Whip-poor- Will" is certainly a summons of a dismal kind ! There are, however, among diurnal birds, some whose cries are equally disagreeable, especially in the regions within the tropics. Two species, living in Europe, have acquired a certain celebrity on account of their call. One is the Bittern (Eotaurus stellaris), whose call very much resembles the bellowing of a bull ; this singular sound is produced by burying its beak almost entirely in the water while calling. The other is the celebrated Sinister Jay (Perisoreus infaustus), an inhabitant of the far North of our quarter of the globe. According to con- current statements, the cry of this bird closely resembles the wail of a human being hurrying to destruction, thus sounding, in the highest degree, unearthly. In Africa I have also remarked something very similar in the call of an Ibis (Ibis Hagedasch) : should this bird be in a calling humour, the listener would imagine he could distinguish THE VOICE. 59 the screams of a child in the act of being tortured to death in the most fiendish manner. Sometimes one hears loud shrieks of pain, followed by a low sigh ; at others, stifled groans, a wail dying away in the distance, and then, again, the most heart-rending screams. America possesses several inveterate screechers. In the northern portion of that continent the Pinnated Grouse (Tetrao cupido) howls, as for a wager, against the wolves of the prairies; in the South the "Toropisju" of the Peruvians, one of the Umbrella-birds (Cephalopterus ornatus) brays like a trumpeter, from which it gets its name; the red "Tunqui" will grunt like a porker; the screaming of the "Arara," or Macaw, is perfectly deaf- ening. In addition to these we have now the feathered inhabitants of the virgin forest, which mostly call in loud tones, and are to be looked upon as the real awakeners of life in the woods. It is a curious fact, that all impetuous and thievish birds have remarkably loud and repulsive voices. Birds of prey, Herons, Ravens, and gallinaceous birds gene- rally, emit shrill disagreeable notes. So that the true character of the bird is unmistakably detected by the sound of its voice. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. According to Le Vaillant a species, the chanting Goshawk (Melierax musicus), allied to our Sparrow Hawk (F. Nisus), gives utterance to a somewhat singular but melodious little song ; the Warrior Eagle (Spizaetos bellicosus), of Central Africa, greets his friends and acquaintances with notes the reverse of harsh or dis- agreeable. It does not appear to us merely the result of accident that many singing and screaming birds show great peculiarity in the colouring of the feathers under the 60 BIRD-LIFE. throat ; and this idea is in no way incompatible with other physiological experiences. Up to the present time sufficient observation has not been brought to bear on the subject, so as to establish it as a law, though we find it confirmed in many of the singing birds known to us.* No attempt to represent the voice of a bird on any instrument has, as yet, been successful. Certain call- and decoy-notes, perhaps even strophes of a song, can be imitated with some degree of success after much practice. Some authors have endeavoured to reproduce the song of the Nightingale and Philomel Nightingale, by means of words and syllables, but they have entirely failed to make more than a burlesque of it. The following is a specimen of such an attempt to represent the composition of the Thrush, though it is, after all, but a feeble imitation : " Quis quis arat ? Quis quis arat? Vir arat, vir arat. Ipo ! prope, tpo, prope, Corpusculum in gutture meo, Corpusculum in gutture meo, Quomodo hoc ex illo eraoliendum est. Quoraodo hoc ex illo emoliendum est ? Consiliis, consiliis, consiliis 1 Quo vero consilio ? Quo vero consilio ? Tir - - - ri - - - 11 - - - itt." Only that person will be able to convey even a semi- correct representation to the uninitiated, of a bird's song, * In conjunction with most ornithologists we cannot, in the remotest degree, concur with the theory set forth in this sentence, first originated by Dr. Ludwig Brehm (' Naumannia,' 1855, p. 54) ; on the contrary, there is more to be said against than in favour of the above idea. Hausmann (' Journal of Ornithology,' 1855, p. 348) lays before us the most conclusive arguments in contradiction of the same, to which Dr. L. Brehm ('Journal of Ornithology,' 1856, p. 250) was only able to reply in defence of his theory by counter-arguments, manifestly weaker than those advanced by his opponent. Dr. 0. Finsch Bremen. THE VOICE. 61 who is himself not only an expert in bird's song, but also a composer, and the inventor of some new instrument, upon which he can, with some degree of exactness, reproduce the flute-like tones and other peculiarities of the notes, as well as the different gradations in crescendo and diminuendo, together with the varied strength of the song in technically correct succession. And, after all, even such an imitation as this would be as much inferior to the original as the best vox humana organ-stop falls short of representing the human voice. It is only in the mouth of a singer that the human voice rises to a ringing soul-inspiring song ; the bird's heart must compose, and the bird's mouth must sing the bird's song, if it is to be what it is, in very truth, a living and life-stirring reality. CHAPTEE IV. DEVELOPEMENT. " Meanwhile the tepid caves, and fens, and shores Their brood as numerous hatch, from the egg that soon Bursting with kindly rapture forth disclosed Their callow young ; hut feather'd soon and fledged They summ'd their pens ; and soaring the air sublime, With clang despised the ground, under a cloud In prospect." MILTON. VISIBLE in the egg before us, but still not understood, lies the mystery of being. All the creatures of the earth originate from the same source ; all living things spring from the same germ the egg. Thousands take an egg carelessly in the hand, and as many break the same with indifference so as to make use of the contents ; these very persons are the last to reflect that when they break an egg they destroy a wonderful structure. A marvellous work indeed ! unequalled in its simple beauty of form, whose contents none can replace : the cradle of incipient being, as well as of newly awakened life, a shelter for the formation, clothing, and nutrition of a future creature its preparation for the world ! Out of no other space can such greatness issue as from the egg ; in no other space can such wonders be sheltered, live, and reach maturity, as in this small, insignificant, and, for that reason, but rarely valued structure for distributing and maintaining nature. We may cheerfully waive the consideration of the DEVELOPEMENT. 63 various germs from which the living creature is evolved ; for the small egg (rendered visible only when magnified a thousand times) of the microscopic Infusoria is quite as wonderful as the egg of the Ostrich, which is almost as large as a man's head ; and this, in turn, is not a whit more wonderful than the tiny globule enclosed within the secret sanctuary of the mother, from which springs " man in God's image." The seed of the plant and the egg are one and the same thing, as regards the therein-contained marvel of life, which we see and grasp, though we are not in a position to understand it. As for the rest, all organic germs resemble one another, for they are all more or less similar in form. The germs which at present occupy our especial atten- tion appear, it is true, to differ much in size, form and colour, but are in the main, however, alike. The size of a bird's egg is generally proportionate to the circum- ference of the body of the mother, and weighs about one-tenth of her own weight. Lammergeirs, Eagles and Cuckoos lay very small eggs ; those of the Petrels, Auks and Guillemots are very large.* It is only in isolated cases that eggs differ much in shape from the common Hen's egg, and then only in being either more spherical or approaching more the form of a pear. With regard to the colouring there is, on the whole, little to say. The eggs of birds breeding in holes are generally white ; those of birds breeding on the ground, earth- or grass-coloured ; birds building in trees, spotted; while those of bright- plumaged birds are often shiny white. It is immaterial at the present moment which bird's egg we should select for cursory examination, with the * We suppose Dr. Brehm gives these examples as exceptions to the general rule. ir. J. 64 BIRD-LIFE. view of investigating its structure ; so we will avail our- selves of the one easiest obtained and best known, that of the domestic fowl. Let us try, first of all, however, to explain clearly its origin. As is well known, the vivification of a germ is caused by the most intimate connexion of the two sexes, this germ having remained for a long time previous in a normal condition. After this vivification has taken place, one of the almost countless little globules contained in the ovary separates itself from among the rest, and gradually grows to the size of the future yolk. In the meantime it has absorbed from the blood all those mate- rials which form the yolk, or has itself become the yolk of the future egg. The yolk having arrived at its full growth, the membrane, in which it is enveloped and by which it has hitherto remained attached to the ovary, breaks away and forms at once the covering of the spherical body, which is composed principally of casein, sulphur, iron, lime, and fatty matter. It now falls into the oviduct, the coats of which exude the white, or albuminous portion of the egg; and winds slowly through the same. At the same time the white secreted (a compound of fat, grape-sugar, common salt, phosphoric acid and earths) next attaches itself closely to the revolving sphere; and thus arise the so-called "chalazae" between which, at the point of separation of the yolk from the ovary, the germ lies. In the lower portion of the oviduct other deposits are secreted, differing in character from those in the upper portion, which form two leather-like membranes lying closely one over the other, excepting at the blunt end of the egg, where they are separated by an air-cell; over these, again, is deposited the last secretion of the duct, a chalky DEVELOPEMENT. 65 layer, which forms the outer shell. Thus we find an egg to consist of the following parts : a firm calcareous shell, perforated with innumerable pores ; two membranes ; the albumen, deposited in three different layers, combined and overlying each other, and connected in two places with the yolk; the membrane enclosing the yolk; the germ; and, lastly, the yolk itself, having a cavity in its centre com- municating with the former by a tube or duct. The apparently insignificant germ -spot is the most important of all the individual portions of the whole ; in it lies the dormant Life, awaiting only the magic warmth destined to arouse it. Scarce larger than a grain of millet, and yet all the remaining component parts of the egg are, so to speak, absorbed in it. All the ingredients which chemistry discovers to us in an egg are employed by this germ in the construction of the body ; there is neither deficiency nor superfluity. Yet in it we cannot find the slightest clue which would lead to an explanation of the riddle of Life. The fresh-laid egg is, to all appearance, dead though only apparently so for, in reality, it lives. Each component part leads, as it were, a passive life, holding, however, constant commu- nication with the outer world. If action, consisting of interchange of matter, is intercepted by the application of a coating of wax, oil, or varnish, &c., the faculty of life is lost. An egg is possessed of caloric of its own, and can preserve it against exterior influences. It takes one hour and three-quarters to freeze a living egg at a tem- perature of 8 R, while one deprived of its vitality only requires one hour and a quarter. By further modification of material the egg shows loss of weight, the absorp- tion of matter being less than the amount given off, thus a Hen's egg, while undergoing the process of incubation, E 66 BIRD-LIFE. loses about one grain per diem, or three drachms six grains in all.* How would it fare with creation without light and warmth, those twin sisters, separate and yet blended in one ? They send forth their rays all over the whole world, even in the darkest nook, and create, fashion, charm, and vivify without ceasing. All the compo- nent parts of the egg, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, which indeed are, almost without exception, to be obtained from the primary elements of plant and animal life, by analysis, are dead without this divine power, to which we stand indebted, who can say to what extent ! In the quickening of the egg it is not a question of that heaven-born warmth, which we can only think of in connection with light, but that emanating from the breast of the mother, which replaces the sun's rays ; and this heat can even be supplied through the agency of a simple machine. A uniform temperature of thirty degrees of Keaumur (equal to that of our blood), kept up for days together, is all that is required to hatch the egg of a bird. The naturalists of the present day have, with the assist- ance of the " incubator," been enabled to make a great number of observations, from which they have gathered much valuable information on the subject. I will now give to my readers, in the shortest possible space, the result of their experiments with the egg of the domestic Fowl. A few hours after the operation of incubation has commenced, that is to say, soon after the egg has become thoroughly warmed through, the first breath of awakened life is to be perceived in the germ spot. In a perfectly fresh egg, with the aid of a powerful microscope, we * According to Czermak, DEVELOPEMENT. 67 discover that this germ is a disc composed of two laminae or layers, one lying over the other, the whole acting as a cover to the orifice of the tube leading to the cavity in the centre of the yolk. These laminae show themselves to be composite structures, consisting of two cohesive masses of very minute globules. After a short period of incubation one may perceive that these globules have become more numerous, owing to subdivision, and taking the form of cells or bladders, filled with fluid, become one with the floating germ. This is the first evidence of the working of life in an egg. Some hours later the cells show an increase in number as well as in size, and the lower layer of the disc of the germ becomes divided into two parts, forming two other laminae. At the fifteenth or sixteenth hour of incubation a fine streak of irregular thickness arises from the centre of the upper layer of the disc, taking a direction parallel to the shorter axis of the egg : this is the origin of the vertebral column. The germ-disc has, during this time, thickened and expanded, and its two upper laminae have become blended, taking the same direction as the above-mentioned streak, and therefrom proceed to the so-called proto-vertebrae. In the course of the next six or eight hours the edges along the sides of the streak, becoming raised, approach each other, and, uniting after contact, now form a hollow tube. At the same time there appears on either side of the same small cubes or dice ; these form later the vertebrae. The upper ones among these are soon distinguishable by a bladder-like enlarge- ment which proceeds from them : this is transformed into the skull. The separate layers of the germ-disc have become extended, the upper one spreading over the superior surface of the yolk, the middle one exactly DO BIRD-LIFE. underneath, and the lower in the tube leading to the cavity in the yolk's centre. On the edge of the centre leaf a few minute blood-vessels are to be detected by the aid of a powerful microscope, and the tube, forming the duct for the spinal marrow, has become bent. All these structures, resulting from the first day's incubation, bear no resemblance whatever to the bird into which they will become ultimately developed. On the second day the genesis of creation proceeds with extraordinary rapidity ; the spinal tube closes more completely; the embryo vertebrae increase in number; the bladder-like protuberance at the superior extremity of the spinal tube emerges more distinctly, and shows itself to be formed of four small hillocks. The foremost pair of these receive the addition of another protuberance on either side, which appears in the form of a small bladder, and a little later, somewhat further back, two more similar structures appear : these form the germs of the ears and eyes. The formation of the breast and stomach is also commenced, inasmuch as the upper layer of the germ-spot, by its extension, forms a bag, which latter encloses the whole of the yolk. These upper laminae sepa- rate at a short distance from the middle, and thus allow a small sac-like space to arise, from which spring, almost immediately, two tubes. These meet the vascular net- work, which has been formed in the meantime, and unite with it, thus forming the groundwork of the heart and its two principal entrances. As soon as the blood corpuscules, engendered in the separate cells, enter into these passages, the circulation of the blood is effected, and our little creature now possesses a head and a heart. The continuous structure and developement of the separate parts proceed on all sides alike, with the greatest DEVELOPEMENT. 69 rapidity ; the germ- spot extends itself more and more over the yolk, at the same time becoming more susceptible of developement. The third day is fraught with no less importance for the young life. The cardiac tube begins slowly to expand and contract ; it throws off the blood already collected in it, and takes it up again. At the further extremity of the four hillocks, lying across and in front of them, a tube is formed, which pushes itself outwards from the inside, and subsequently forms the mouth. The blood-vessels increase in number almost visibly. On one of the principal veins of the heart new forms also appear, and their lobes, with numerous ramifications : the deposits for the liver and the portal system of veins, which are so important. Small inturgescences arise above the heart with still smaller knobs ; these form the commencements of lungs and windpipe ; singular folds among these form the future intestinal canal. The principal advance in the third day's growth, however, is the division of the skin of the germ on either side of the place where it is alive. Their lower portions now become two flakes, which grow together, so as to enclose the breast and stomach ; the upper parts, on the contrary, form the first mantle, in which the little bird is enveloped until almost the very hour of its egress from the shell, or the first cradle, in which the little being, already become somewhat substantial, remains sheltered, until fully prepared for its entrance into the exterior world. At the time of its adjustment in this cradle it moves for the first time, turning itself, with the side of its head to the right. Through this the heart takes its proper position. In the course of the two next days the following may be observed, even by the less initiated. The division 70 BIBD-LIFE. caused by the growing together of the two flakes, or laminae, of the skin of the germ goes on further; the upper laminae close themselves completely on the fifth day into that envelope, to which I gave the name of cradle. The vertebrae become lengthened in such a manner that the head and tail portions almost touch, through the curved position they occupy; the eyes exceed in development almost all the remaining parts. The processes of the legs and wings, which on the third day of incubation were only visible as slight ridges, and on the fourth as projecting leaves to the plate of the stomach, became on the fifth day rather prominent stumps. At the close of the last-named day what still remains of the egg has become essentially changed in appearance : the albumen, or white, has considerably decreased, and the yolk, on the contrary, increased; the latter has acquired more substance, while the former has become more fluid in its consistency. Now commences quite a new stage of the exist- ence of our creature. With the sixth day appears a hitherto dispensable, but now highly important organ, which in the meantime does the duty of the lungs, the allantois. This appears already, the second day the egg has become vivified, in the form of a small globule situate at the hinder part of the germinating chick : this increases on the third day but slowly ; from the sixth, however, its progress is very rapid. Whereas, in the meantime, the breast and belly have closed up, except where the umbilical opening is connected by a tube with the yolk, there remains no other means of communication open for it : consequently it is connected with the body by one of the tubes which pass through the navel, and is not brought into closer contact with the yolk or nutrition DEVELOPEMENT. 71 bag. After the sixth day the allantois grows with in- credible rapidity until it has reached the inner wall of the egg ; here it applies itself, and now brings about the chemical exchanges between the in- and outside. The veins leading from the heart into it branch out into so-called capillary vessels, which do not prevent the giving off of the carbon and absorption of fresh oxygen in the blood circulating through them. All interchange takes place perfectly and easily, notwithstanding the apparent obstacles arising from that peculiar organic action of the membranes, percolation or exudation (endosmosis and exomosis), which, though proven without doubt, still remain but indifferently explained. In this manner the chicken begins to breathe in the egg, and thereby introduces into the body the action of animal heat. Through this it becomes strengthened and is enabled to dispense for some time with warmth from outside : thus it is already in some way independent. From this time on, till the bird creeps out of the shell, the further course of development is really only the enlargement of those parts of the body which have been planned during the previous days. The protuberance at the fore end of the head (sinciput) divides and lengthens, but can only be recognised as the beak by the tenth day ; the legs and wings, which before were exactly alike, stretch and extend themselves, taking, almost at the same time with the beak, their individual formation; the lungs grow uninterruptedly until the last day of incubation, by which time they have arrived at their perfect state. After the fifteenth day the feathers, in the case of the domestic Fowl, begin to sprout from the skin ; with other birds, at the corresponding date, some streaks of down at least. By about the twentieth day, in 72 BIRD-LIFE. the case of the common Fowl, the organs of the senses have reached their full developement ; with other birds, nearly so. On this day the Chicken begins to breathe through the mouth, and, in proportion as the lungs increase their action, the allantois dries up. As the end of the period of incubation approaches, the yolk becomes wholly consumed and absorbed into the body. Our young citizen of the world, awakening to full life, now gradually breaks through the shell of the egg with the assistance of his beak, which is furnished with horny excrescence at the tip, expressly intended for this purpose, inhaling lustily deep draughts of the outer air : he stretches and extends himself, works away afresh, and bursts at last the shackling envelope to reach the light of day. At this instant we may say he is born again ; for it is only from this date that he really makes his first entrance into life. Though the egress from the shell is fraught with importance to all birds, nevertheless, its consequence differs considerably in respect to individual species. But few birds arrive at that state of self-dependence, while in the egg, which will allow of their wandering alone and unaided, in the path suited for them, immediately after leaving the shell, under the guidance or tutelage of the parent couple or mother ; by far the generality make their debut into the world in a very helpless condition. For a long time they require from the parents the tenderest devotion and most self-sacrificing care : they still have to go through another stage of developement, previously to finding themselves in a fit condition to range the wide world. It affords particular pleasure to the observer to follow Nature, governed and ruled, in all her wonderful ways; to watch the practical manner in which every DEVELOPEMENT. 73 single one of her children is prepared for life. I cannot refrain from giving some information on the subject of the further developement of the young bird, in which I shall be chiefly aided by the observations of my father. Precisely those birds which, on reaching maturity, are endowed with the greatest strength, motion, and self- dependence, are those which show in their youth scarce a trace of these very gifts. The Royal Eagle at its birth, that is to say at the moment when it first sees the light, is the most helpless creature under the sun, sharing, we may observe, a similar fate with the lord of creation! Indeed, it first escapes from the shell covered with a rather close dress of white down ; this is soon thoroughly dried by the warmth of the mother's breast : it cannot, however, even stand upright, and must for many a long day cower for shelter, from the storms of the outer world, under the mother's caressing pinions. Flesh, the only nourishment beneficial, in its case would be quite useless for the purpose, if the mother did not raise it from her crop in a half-digested state. It is only after commencing to grow that the young bird and its brothers and sisters require more food than their father can procure ; the mother, also, must recommence her raids, and thus leave her children alone in the eyrie. The hatching of the noble brood takes place in the early season of the year : very stormy weather is then prevalent, when the loving queen finds it necessary to leave her hopeful youngsters for the purpose of seeking food. The eyrie is not in the least calculated to render the warmth of the mother's breast dispensable : it is cold and draughty, in comparison with the warmly and carefully-built nests of other birds. Cold, snow, wind and rain, unwelcome guests, force their companionship upon the callow brood cowering in 74 BIRD-LIFE. the house, a stack of sticks, on yonder crag. Be sure, however, they are not forsaken ! Nature, the ever-loving mother of all being, has taken them under her care. Before even the young Eaglets have lost any of their ugly awkward appearance, rendered only the more disagreeable by the prominent crop, their feathers begin to sprout, especially those on the upper side, owing to its being more exposed to the weather. The pinions, or wing-feathers, appear first ; next, those on the back ; and later, those on either side of the breast. The whole of the upper portion of the body is almost entirely fledged before the young robbers have learnt to sit up, while the under part scarcely shows any sign of feathers. Still our bird is incapable, as yet, of any independence of movement. Days and weeks pass away before it is able even to crawl about the nest; and it is only shortly before leaving it altogether that the Eaglet tries its wings, as it were, by flapping them up and down. Long after leaving the eyrie they require the care of the parent birds. All other birds which arrive, so to speak, at maturity in the open nest, are equally tardy in their developement up to that point. The contrary takes place in the case of all Gallinaceous birds, as well as Waders and Waterfowl. Every one is acquainted with the history of the first four- and- twenty hours' life of the domestic Fowl. Scarcely has the Chick escaped from the shell, and its downy dress become dried, than it gives evidence of self-confidence and activity, such as would lead one to believe that it had already been hatched a month or more. It nimbly follows the mother about, listens to her call, and acts as though it were fully aware how such a youngster should conduct himself; and, lastly, picking up, without further cere- mony, such food as it discovers and recognises as fit for DEVELOPEMENT. 75 use. The wing-feathers which, with the domestic Fowl, only require a partial developement, begin to grow from the first day, and soon reach a sufficient size to enable the little creature to flap them with nearly the same facility as its mother. In the interim, breast, belly and back become fully fledged, though the first feathers only serve for a short period ; for these, the wing-feathers included, are renewed more than once, before the birds have reached their full size ; and it is not until autumn that the whole plumage may be said to be complete. While the young bird of prey still squats helplessly in the nest, the brood of Chicks have long since dispensed with the tutelary lessons of the old Hen, and become quite inde- pendent. It seems as though Dame Nature taking pity on the young of most Gallinaceous birds, so early left by their parents to shift for themselves comes to their assistance, and takes most of their cares upon herself from their very first entrance into the world. The young of the various Coursers, Plovers and other shore birds become developed with similar rapidity. Like those of the domestic Fowl, they emerge from the shell clothed with parti-coloured down, and, leaving the nest the moment they are hatched, seek their food under the tutelage of the parent birds. They are most effectually hidden from their enemies by the resemblance the colouring of their dress bears to that of the ground ; the art of secreting themselves they understand to a nicety, so that, having left the nest, they can fearlessly face the dangers of their future existence. The young of most aquatic birds are similarly favoured, and some even possess gifts in their youth which are lost on reaching maturity. They run infinitely better than their parents, and dive an accomplishment which the 76 BIRD-LIFE. old birds are incapable of, that is to say, in the case of many species of Ducks and Geese. Others, like the Divers, Mergansers and Goosanders, are able to swim and dive as well as the parent bird the first day of their birth, or at least as soon as their downy coats have become dry. The contrary occurs, however, in some cases, where the veritable rulers of the ocean depths are in their infancy anything but active in their own element. One gift, flight, only reaches perfection with maturity ; the single exception to the rule is the family of the Gallinaceae. No other bird, not even the most favoured in this respect, is able to use its wings for the purposes of locomotion before arriving at its full growth. Truly this condition is attained with comparatively uncommon rapidity. A large Falcon will require about seven weeks for the purpose ; an Eagle scarcely four months ; a Swan twelve weeks, at the outside ; an Ostrich not more than eight months, though, as a rule, old birds are larger than the young. I have said that young birds of prey, especially those which, when grown up, are the handsomest and possess the noblest bearing, are awkward and ugly in the extreme while in the nest. There are other birds, how- ever, whose young present a still droller, more comical, and sometimes more disagreeable appearance than even these. The young Ostrich resembles a hedgehog much more than a bird, its feathers all partaking of the character of stiff pointed spines, sticking straight out on all sides, like those of that animal. Young Herons are simply hideous to look at, and can scarcely be recognised as the beginning of what they are ultimately to become. Young Kingfishers have a dress which suggests the idea of a DEVELOPEMENT. 77 yellow skin with a few thick, parti-coloured bristles glued on to it ; the young of the Eaven are not much hand- somer ; and newly-hatched Pigeons or Doves have hardly a trace of any covering at all, their shapeless bodies being but sparsely furnished with very thin down; in addition to this they are blind until they have attained the ninth day, and are extremely helpless. The young of most singing birds are also unable to see before nine days are over, and emerge from the shell almost totally naked. How trim and pretty, on the contrary, are all those which have to fight and struggle with the world immediately on their egress from the shell ! The young Chicken, no matter of what breed, is certainly a charming little creature ! No less pretty are very young Goslings, Ducklings, the young of the Grebes, Divers, Gulls, and others. Nature is, however, ever true and just in all her dealings. The last-named are exactly those which take comparatively a longer time to develope into the full-grown bird than those raw, ungainly creatures which keep the nest so long. Every bird first acquires to perfection that talent which is most useful to it in its own peculiar sphere. Gallinaceous birds are runners, and most aquatic birds swimmers the first day of their lives ; the members they most require for purposes of locomotion are perfect from the birth, whereas Flyers and Flying Divers are not able to make good use of their peculiar means of locomotion until they have practised the same in a suitable manner ; and this can only take place when they have nearly reached maturity. For the rest, those birds which are apparently the least favoured in the commence* ment ultimately show the greatest activity and address in the movements most essential to them. It is the 78 BIRD-LIFE. same with all nestlings. That bird which emerges from the shell with scarce any covering at all flies sooner than an aquatic bird of the same size : the Woodpecker learns to climb much sooner than to walk. With one and all developement remains the same, how- ever different its appearance, and each and every mode reaches the required goal by the shortest route. The childhood, so to speak, of the bird is short in comparison with its whole life -time. It vanishes with the first inde- pendent flight, when the bird enters upon another phase of its existence. CHAPTEE V. FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. " 'Twas wisdom, mercy, goodness, that ordain'd Life in such infinite profusion, Death So sure, so prompt, so multiform to those That never sinn'd, that know not guilt, that fear No wrath to come, and have no heaven to lose." MONTGOMERY. A LONG life of work and vicissitude is the lot of a bird, when once it has left the nest, the warm shelter of the mother's breast, and renounced for ever her tender love and care. We will cast a cursory glance at this life, as far at least as concerns the bodily growth and changes to which the creature is subject, without, however, at the present moment touching upon its pleasures and pains, loves, sorrows and battles : these vicissitudes will occupy our attention farther on. The bird's childhood, as we have already remarked, is very short ; its youth, however, is long, though, perhaps, not so in exact proportion to the age it ultimately attains. The actual growth is certainly soon completed ; and ere many weeks have passed since the bird's first entrance on the world's stage, it is fully prepared to cope with its storms, strivings and requirements, and thoroughly capable of taking care of itself. But to rival the perfection of the parent birds requires a very 80 BIRD -LIFE. long time, which is, perhaps, only reached by the few. With the larger birds, especially the Eagle tribe, many years must pass away ere the point is attained, when the young can be said to have reached maturity. A bird's age is determined with greater ease than that of any other animal, by help of the plumage. Perfect as it may appear in the newly and fully fledged bird, it is still in truth but the dress of childhood or of youth. This dress, however, can never vie with the plumage of the parent bird, though the tints and shades may seem to be identical ; still the careful observer will remark that beauty and the true burnished polish only occurs in full perfection with the mature bird. With many birds we have hitherto been unable to determine with any degree of certainty how many years they wear the dress of their youth. The nest or first plumage is soon cast aside, and with some species for instance, the Golden Oriole it is abandoned before the young quit the nest ; on the con- trary, the next dress lasts at least half a year with all birds, and in most cases passes through many inter- mediate stages ere it attains the full plumage of an old bird, and this again seems to get brighter and more beautiful with each succeeding year. Science dis- tinguishes the different colorations of the plumage with the greatest exactitude in order to determine with cer- tainty the age of well-known birds and to assist in making an approximate estimate of that of those less known to us. The plumage of many young birds bears no resem- blance whatever to that of the mature specimen ; others, again, are like that of the adult female, which, as we know, is often coloured and marked quite differently from the aged male; lastly, there are others, though FEOM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. 81 very few in number, whose sex may be determined, even in the nest-dress, inasmuch as the young male resembles the father, and the young female the mother. Long study of the feathered creation is necessary to enable one to determine correctly the age of each individual bird, and even then the very best naturalists are at times subject to be misled and deceived by young birds, describing them as new species : this often occurs when comparing the young of Eaptores and aquatic birds with adult specimens, especially among the Terns, Gulls, Gan- nets and Cormorants. With the latter, as also Vultures, Eagles and many Falcons, the form and proportions, and not the colours, form the basis upon which the un- initiated should seek to distinguish the species ; shape and construction are, however, more or less the common property of allied forms, and for this reason cannot always be relied on for the decided determination of a distinct species. The individual feathers of young birds, Vultures especially, are sometimes differently constructed to those of the mature specimen ; the decorative insignia are wanting for instance, tufts of feathers of a quite peculiar construction which grace the old birds, and thus it often happens that scarce a single characteristic is to be found common to both. It is only when a bird has donned his courting suit that he is not easily to be mistaken. All the changes of plumage to which the bird is subject are brought about by one of the most important recurrent events of the life of a bird, in conjunction with the casting of the feathers and changes of colouring : this action is termed " moulting," and differs very much in the effect which it has upon the entire plumage, and also as to the time within which such changes occur. M 82 BIKD-LIFE. The bird is vividly affected by it, sickening and even losing some of its powers for a time, the result being listlessness and low spirits, even to sadness. Its whole being becomes altogether changed, and if a songster it loses its song ; at first its appetite decreases, at the next stage it increases at the same ratio, but without giving a proportionate amount of strength : it sleeps little, owing to the unpleasant irritation of the skin produced by the casting of the old and the sprouting of the new feathers : the bird hides, or rather isolates, itself from its companions, and seems, in fact, quite a changed creature. Occasionally one leaves its habitat, either previously to or during the moult, seeking a district where better nourish- ment can be obtained with the least amount of exertion ; or perhaps in order to remain undisturbed during the period of its unavoidable indisposition. However unpleasant the process of moulting may be to the bird, it is of the greatest importance during its whole existence. The plumage, so worn by constant use, becomes at last utterly inefficient for the purposes for which it was originally intended : each separate feather loses its pristine form, and through the action of the sun, dust, wet and want of adequate nourishment, its colour also : this loss of colour takes place much sooner in the South than in the North. I have shot birds of prey in Africa whose feathers were but the remnants of what they had been; the original colours were not discernible, and the entire appearance of the bird was miserable in the extreme. Thus, under the circum- stances, the renewal of the means of movement and decoration become a decided necessity. It appears as though the feathers, greatly debilitated during the action of incubation, entirely lose all the FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. 83 material necessary to their nourishment by the end of this operation; the supply of this nourishment always having been limited, they are thus rendered totally useless. As soon as the last brood of the season has been reared the shedding of the feathers commences : with some birds this takes place with great rapidity, with others slowly. The fresh feathers are reproduced in like pro- portion. With birds that fly, moulting is very regular in its action, inasmuch as two corresponding feathers are simultaneously cast, and then reproduced under the same conditions ; take, for instance, the third quill-feather on either wing. Birds possessing extraordinary powers of flight, such as Eagles or Vultures, do not shed all the wing-feathers in one season, but only a few, and those generally in pairs, a second couple only dropping when the first feathers have almost arrived at their full growth. Many water-birds, on the contrary, however, take for example the Geese and Ducks, are totally incapable of flight during the moulting season, and therefore seek hiding-places wherein to undergo the process of moulting in safety. The wholesale way in which these birds change their plumage makes the time necessary for that opera- tion not more than a month, while in the case of the large birds of prey the moult extends over years before the whole plumage has become renewed. As a rule, birds of flight undergo fewer changes than marsh and water birds, many of which moult twice a year. Moulting commences earlier with the adult than with the younger birds, that is, those which have not yet left the nest ; for these last, if they do not moult actually in the nest, do so soon after leaving it, casting, however, generally, only the smaller feathers, the pinion and tail- feathers being shed at a later period. In cases where the 84 BIKD-LIFE. young bird acquires the full plumage of the old one at the first moult, it may be justly regarded as a complete adult bird, and in a condition to propagate its species. With the Raptores and aquatic birds, whose developement is not so rapid, we use the term birds of the first, second, third and fourth year, to distinguish them from the full-grown bird. Other changes take place, which are, more or less, intimately connected with the casting of the plumage; the beak, feet and iris being often subject to great alterations in colour. A muster of our best-known birds will show the great gaps incidental to some families and species during their progress to maturity. The larger Kaptores cast their downy covering in the nest, quitting the latter in their youthful dress, of which generally not one feather is cast before the year is over : the smaller species of this family only change the lesser body-feathers at the first moult. It has, as yet, not been determined with certainty what period of time elapses before Eagles and Vultures assume the final adult plumage. Faber knew of an instance in which a Sea Eagle taken from the nest had not, after a period of ten years, donned the white tail, the sign of its having reached maturity. I have seen a specimen of the King of the Vultures (Gyparchus Papa), whose adult plumage was only assumed after six years' captivity in Europe, added to which it is very possible that the bird had passed some years in freedom in America. All the nocturnal birds of prey leave the nest in a spotted dress of down, receiving, little by little, the adult plumage, and this, by the first autumn after which but little change takes place, save that the whole plumage increases in beauty with each succeeding year. The same may be said of most other birds, though, with many of them, a peculiar FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. 85 beautifying of the plumage takes place from other causes. They moult, however, only once a year ; and by the time they have reached their first autumn or spring, they resemble the adult birds. Among migratory birds many leave us in autumn in their youthful plumage, moulting, as do their parents, in foreign lands, and returning to us again in their wedding dress. This is, however, not the case with those birds which moult twice a year : to this class belong the Pipits (Anthus), the Wagtails (Motacilla), Gallinaceous birds, Ducks, Mer- gansers and others ; and, in some degree, also the Herons, the Kuffs, Cormorants, &c. These obtain their most beautiful feathers just before the breeding season, and lose them shortly after ; attaining their full colour generally only after two or three seasons. With Gallina- ceous birds, moulting, as we have before shown, takes place in a manner peculiar to themselves. The down of the first, or what we may call the down-dress, which is found on the ends of the feathers, is soon worn off; but these feathers, also, do not last long, but are, in a short time, replaced by others. Thus, a continuous changing of the feathers takes place without interruption, from the moment of hatching, until the wedding plumage is assumed. The Capercaillie (Tetrao Urogallus) changes its plumage five times, inclusive of the first downy covering, in the space of from four to six months. With others of the same family this change proceeds more rapidly, but takes place in a similar manner. Most of the Dentirostres, or tooth-billed birds, moult partially, for the first time, in the spring, and the second time completely in the autumn ; for it is only during this last change, as is the case with all birds subject to a double moult, that the pinion and quill tail-feathers are 86 BIRD-LIFE. renewed. For this reason, the Ptarmigan (Lagopus) has the aforesaid feathers (except the middle tail-feathers) always of the same colour, though, in other respects, the two dresses are quite different. The throwing off and the discoloration of the feathers may be, to a certain extent, regarded as the completion of the moult. With many birds the new feathers have at first white or gray edges : these, in the course of the winter, become worn away, and then reveal what they have hitherto hidden, viz. the often quite differently-coloured centre of the feathers. At the same time, however, the colours appear brighter, though from what cause we are, as yet, ignorant. This peculiar intensifying of colour has lately been the cause of much word warfare, some naturalists regarding it as the cause of changes in colour of plumage in certain birds only, whilst others hold a contrary opinion. In truth, it would appear as though this action or influence had till now been under-valued. It was thought unreasonable to suppose that a perfect feather could continue to draw nourishment from the body ; thus the occurrence of increased action could not be explained. For this reason, alone, it would seem that the argument is based upon wrong premises. If feathers, as it has been assumed, receive no further nourishment after having reached maturity, they surely would never receive a sudden increase of brilliancy in their colouring. It is indisputable that the colouring of a feather depends principally upon the actual construction of its individual parts, it can, therefore, not be supposed that the wearing out of this very conformation should be the sole cause of the future brilliancy of the feather ! It is evident that in this case there must be some other agency at work, and, this being so, the only thing we can suggest is, that a FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. 87 better nourishment takes place, and, consequently, a more active chemical interchange of material. That the feathers themselves actually do change colour, and that a bird can pass through the different stages of plumage, from youth to maturity, by the aid of this unexplained agency, is an undoubted fact : I have seen the Kedfooted Falcon go through these changes, finally assuming the adult dress, without casting a single feather, except those actually worn out ! In comparison with the moulting, the rubbing away of the feather and the heightened colouring of the plumage play a subordinate part ; the former is and must ever remain the principal cause of the visible and yearly renewal of the youthful beauty of the bird. These happy beings do not appear to be subject to the changes of old age. Instead of dying a lingering death, like other creatures, each new change of plumage gives it fresh life and beauty. Moulting is a sickly condition only so far as concerns appearances ; in truth, it is only a start on a new life, and in its absence the bird sickens and dies. It is for this reason that the lover of caged birds plucks out a feather or two from the tail or pinions, should moulting not commence at the proper season, and thus seeks to infuse new vitality into his little favourite. Thus we cannot but regard moulting, in every way, as a total regeneration. This is the origin of the wondrous tale of the Phoenix arising with renewed youth from its own ashes ; every bird somewhat resembles the fairy form in the legend, for the life of each and all is worthy of the poetry in which the story is enveloped, a poetry which influences our minds when engaged in studying and enquiring into the mysteries of bird-life. How delightful to embrace fresh youth and beauty with each ensuing 88 BIRD-LIFE. year to the very end of life ! Yet this is the boon which Nature grants to birds on each succeeding year ; and when death suddenly strikes its victim it can scarcely be called a terror, as there is no wearisome sickness, and no lingering on in misery and in pain. The majority of birds attain to a vigorous old age. The Eagle is especially celebrated for this : in the year 1719 one died at Vienna, after a captivity of 104 years, even though it had been denied the greatest earthly blessing liberty ! Similar cases of longevity are related of Parrots. Humboldt writes as follows: " Thus runs the tradition among the Guareka Indians, that the brave tribe of Aturer, pressed on all sides by the cannibal Carribes, took refuge among the crags and caves of the cataracts; a wild, sad retreat, where the oppressed race, and with them their language, passed away. In the most inaccessible part of the Eaudal, rocky caverns are to be found, where it is probable that the last remaining family of the ' Aturers ' has but lately died out; for in 'Maypures' there exists an old Parrot, whose language the natives cannot understand. The explanation they give is, that he speaks in the tongue of the ' Aturers/ This bird has been made the subject of a beautiful poem."* The age of other birds may possibly be estimated in similar proportion. The lesser may naturally be supposed not to live as long as the larger. It must, however, always be borne in mind, that all birds arrive at an age, equivalent, at least, to ten times that required to reach maturity. Possibly the little Warblers rarely exceed the age of ten years ; but they attain their full growth within the first year of their life. Where I formerly resided we had a Garden * ' Ansichten der Natur,' 3 Aufl. 284. FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. 89 Warbler which bred for many years running regularly in our garden ; it is so easily distinguishable by its song that we cannot mistake it for any other. Olaffen remembers a pair of Eider Ducks using the same nesting-place for twenty consecutive years.* Naumann mentions a Cuckoo, which he recognised from the peculiarity of its note, as frequenting the same locality every spring for thirty- two years. All these observations justify the supposi- tion that birds live to a comparatively old age. Canary birds often live twelve, and even fifteen, years. Some of the larger cage birds, and even the Nightingale, will live still longer in confinement. The death of most birds is as poetical as their life : they rarely die from sickness, owing to unlimited freedom, air and exercise. Birds are much troubled with intes- tinal worms and exterior parasites ; in their wild state, however, they are almost always healthy. When wounded their wounds heal exceptionably well and rapidly, and, in most cases, without impeding a single movement, though occasionally they must be somewhat restricted. We have often killed birds whose wing-bones had evidently, at some previous time, been shattered by a gun-shot, the broken parts having sometimes reunited side by side instead of in their proper places; the bird, nevertheless, flew with rapidity and strength. Sickness, on the contrary, generally ends fatally. At times even wild birds are seized by it. Numerous corpses of the same species are often found in their common roosting-places : this would lead to the sup- * Though this statement is undoubtedly given in good faith, still there is room to suppose the observer may have been mistaken as to the identity of the birds ; it is more likely that the site was too favourable a one to have been left unoccupied. W.J. N 90 BIKD-LIFE. position that some epidemic had been raging amongst them. Faber often saw Gannets lying dead in heaps on the coast of Iceland; and Guillemots floating along shore evidently dying. I, myself, in the neighbour- hood of Suez, came across a small grove of palm trees, the ground under which was strewed with the corpses of the common Eook (C. frugelius), the place looking like a veritable cemetery. Possibly, the principal cause of such diseases among birds, in their wild state, is improper or insufficient nourishment. The feathered inhabitants of the farmyard are also subject to diseases, apparently epidemic in their character. Peteny, the amateur bird-fancier, who died not long since, gives an example of the case in question. On the estate of Cziekata, in Hungary, a violent attack of vomiting and diarrhoea destroyed in the space of four days no less than 80 Pigeons, 12 Geese, 40 Ducks, 18 Turkeys, 3 Guinea- fowl, 270 Hens, 70 Capons ; in all 493 victims. Even the caged birds of the place, Quails, Larks, and other pets, did not escape the universal devastation; Hens died in the act of laying, Pigeons were found dead in their nests. The diseases most common among cage birds are as follows : apoplexy, roup, epilepsy, cramp, paralysis of the limbs, eruptions, hemorrhage, and blindness. The first symptoms of illness in a bird are silence and a desire to hide itself from view. Aquatic birds, which spend their whole lives on the water, make for the land as soon as illness attacks them, and ascending the beach with difficulty, lie down and die near the spot where they first saw light. Faber says it is a sure sign of sickness when the Eider Duck, Guillemot and Diver approach the shore, and even when driven back still seek to reach FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE. 91 it. The death of a singing bird has been touchingly described by Mrs. Hemans in the following lines : " Mournfully, sing mournfully! The royal rose is gone : Melt from the woods, my spirit ! melt In one deep farewell tone ! Not so ! swell forth triumphantly The full, rich, fervent strain ! Hence with young love and life I go, In the summer's joyous train. With sunshine, with sweet odour, With every precious thing, Upon the last warm southern breeze My soul its flight shall wing." Unfortunately this beautiful poem is as little true to nature as the lovely legend told in the song of the dying Swan. The sick bird has, alas, no song ! It is mute, closes its filmy eye, and ruffles its plumage ; puts its head under its wing, and departs this life after a few short struggles. I do not know that I can look upon such a demise, happily less frequent among the free tenants of the woods, as so poetical as the forms of death by which they usually suffer. I have often shot a bird whilst singing its blithest, and far from pitying have, on the contrary, envied it such a departure. To die suddenly amid a full out- burst of song, without any warning from whence the stroke comes, is a death that a poet might envy. Even the short struggle in the claws of the Eagle or Hawk no uncom- mon death for a bird appears more desirable than the gradual sinking and withering away, day by day and hour by hour, under the shadow of disease. The bird, however, which dies thus, is better off than man who expires on the field of battle. Its death is at the same time its burial : for this reason the bodies of 92 BIRD-LIFE. large birds are rarely found, and those of small ones scarcely ever. Even those which die from sickness rapidly disappear from their last resting-place ; a whole army of grave-diggers take the little corpse under their care, hundreds of different beetles and other insects devour it; the grass soon covers its remains, mosses enclose the bleached skeleton ; the feathers are scattered by the winds, the flesh has vanished, the bones are buried, and the leaves of the trees alone rustle and murmur long after the lovely being which lived, loved, and died under their gloomy shade has vanished from their midst. PAET II. SPIRITUAL LIFE. J.G.Keulem&ns Mi BIRDS MOBBING AN OW.L PART IL SPIRITUAL LIFE. CHAPTEK I. CHARACTER. " Greift nur hinein, ...... nicht Vielen ist's bekannt, Und wo ihr's packt, da ist's interessant." Faust. IT will always be a bold undertaking to pass judgment on the intellectual capabilities of a creature which is, to a certain extent, unknown to us, and with whose nature and habits we are but partially acquainted. Animals still remain strangers to us naturalists, however much we may seek to arrive at an intimate knowledge of their life-history ; and, if we would act faithfully towards them, each effort that we make to determine and to describe their intel- lectual life must avowedly be acknowledged to be a bold one. Nevertheless we consider ourselves, in some degree, competent to undertake the task, on the plea of our large and unprejudiced experience of, and intercourse with, the animal creation. We trust the friendly reader will criticise or excuse the following, in accordance with the foregoing remarks. The intellectual being of the bird, which we intend to be understood by the word " character," occupies a vastly extended field. Man himself, known as the most capri- cious and wayward of all creatures, can scarce show us a 96 BIKD-LIFE. greater diversity in the workings of his spirit. Taken strictly, no single trait of character is common to all birds ; there are the light-hearted ; the gay, the sad, the sociable, the unsociable, the trustful, the shy ; those open in their actions, and those who would hide them ; honest and thievish, generous and mean, the straightforward and the crafty, the gentle and the violent, peaceable and quarrelsome, and, in short, amiable and unamiable cha- racters. The general foundation of the intellectual being among these happy creatures is cheerfulness and glad- ness. Their whole life and existence demands and shows this ; the ease with which the body moves likewise im- parts intelligent activity and freshness ; mobility of the body and sadness of spirit cannot be looked upon as com- patible ; the light airy bird knows no care, no restraint, possesses all it requires, and can turn whither it will. Every day possibly has its special vexation, though each coming morning does not bring with it a load of care. The natural results of a life passed amid fresh air and light must be brightness and cheerfulness ; indeed, any other idea in connexion with the bird appears to us almost impossible. Nevertheless, there are some whose appear- ance betokens sadness rather than gladness, moroseness than cheerfulness, but these are few. Nocturnal birds, of all others, belong to this class, from whom glad light as well as spirit seem banished; added to which it is curious that night birds .are more sulky and morose in proportion as the creatures on which they prey stand higher or lower in the scale of nature. The beetle-eating Night Hawk or Goatsucker is a much more cheerful individual than the Barn Owl, and the Athenian Owl is a much merrier companion than the Eagle Owl (Strix bubo) ; the latter is embodied gloom; he seems to possess no CHAEACTER. 97 friends, is discontented ever, ill-hnmoured and sullen, and apparently always at variance with himself and the world at large ; his character is like his form nocturnal, in the gloomiest sense of the word. Other night birds are more melancholy still, as the Tawny Owl (Syrnium Aluco), the Scissor-billed Tern, and the Night Heron (Ardea nycticarax). All their movements are slow and measured, their voices either loudly plaintive or a hoarse screeching ; their spirits seem to stir as heavily as their bodies. There are, however, some diurnal birds which are stupid and sad in their character; almost all carrion-, lizard- and fish-eating birds are silent, serious and still. This demeanour on the part of the first -mentioned, sextons by profession, does not seem out of place ; but why the generality of snake-eating Eagles and fishing birds should assume the doleful it is difficult to say. Possibly the first do so through their continued inter- course with the ugliest creations of the earth, having become somewhat tinged with their hideous natures ; the others, like anglers, go to prove that fishing is indeed a stupid employment. The birds we have mentioned would appear, however, to be almost the only ones not blessed with happy dispositions. All others, on the contrary, seem scarcely able to express the intense happiness of their existence ; the inquisitive Starling continually seeking new movements and new sounds, as though he would thereby show the world his joyous frame of mind. Usually, though not always, birds of a bright disposi- tion are sociable, while, on the contrary, the serious and melancholy seek solitude. Most birds like to associate with others of their own species, either in flocks or in 98 BIRD-LIFE. families. Solitary birds, that is to say those that live in pairs and are of an unsociable disposition, are not com- mon. In our country the following shun the society of their fellows from a feeling of jealousy : Hawks (some), Falcons, Owls, Woodpeckers, Kingfishers, the Dipper, the Wren, the Nightingale, the Hedge Sparrow, the Wry- neck, Water Eails, Divers, and most Warblers ; these will not tolerate a second pair on their beat, and drive away even their own young, as soon as they are grown up. Others of our home birds as the Magpie, the Jay, Partridge, Longtailed Tit, Marsh Tit, Stonechat, Cross- bill, and Eared Grebe live in families so attached, that it is rarely one meets with a solitary specimen. In Africa I have always seen the following in flocks ; Colies (Colius), Plantain-eaters (Corythaix), and the Promerops (Irrisor). The generality of other birds congregate in large bands, especially when migrating. Many assemble toge- ther for the purpose of singing : as Starlings, Swallows, sociable Finches, Weaver-birds, &c. ; is it not pleasanter and easier to rejoice in company than alone ? It is true that at times jealousy puts in an unwelcome appearance, though it does not break up the general harmony. It is worthy of remark, that the strong rather than the weak associate together, and that even when unconstrained by the pressure of hunger ; yet the weak associate with the strong for greater safety : Jackdaws and Starlings asso- ciate with the Rook ; Nuthatches, Tomtits, Tree-creepers, and Goldcrests keep company with the Pied Woodpecker ; the smaller Waders place themselves under the care of their more powerful kinsmen ; Bean Geese, Brent Geese, and many Ducks under the leadership of the Wild Swan (Cijgnus musicus); Plovers choose the Curlew Sandpiper for their companion. These leaders enjoy the greatest CHARACTER. 99 respect, and may be felicitated on the unconditional obedience of their followers. A feeling of weakness links birds also with mammals and human beings : a hunted Redstart will seek safety among a herd of cows ; Pigeons and Sparrows will take refuge through the windows of human habitations, as though they knew that there they would receive shelter; even a Partridge, chased by a Hawk, has been known to throw itself at the feet of a ploughman to escape its deadly enemy. Did man but encourage the birds which seek his society, there is no doubt his company would be more diligently sought after. By nature these light-hearted creatures are not distrustful, though they may become so when their confidence is abused ; they are generally on familiar terms with other animals, and approach them without fear, and man also ; but, unfortunately, on nearer acquaintance with the latter they must often learn, to their cost, that danger lurks with too great intimacy ; and this makes them as shy as they were formerly fear- less. In uninhabited regions, like the Steppes or pri- maeval forest, and on desert islands, &c., the birds which inhabit them look upon the appearance of man certainly with astonishment, though not with fear. The Auks, Penguins, and Eider Ducks, which have their abode by thousands on the icebergs of the Polar seas, allowed themselves to be caught by the hand by those sailors who first landed on their domain. The Larks of the Desert used to run fearlessly into my tent. The same may be observed in all places, where birds are conscious that shelter will be afforded them. On the other side we see just as plainly how easily their trustful natures may become changed through rude experience. The Bohemian Waxwings, which in hard winters sometimes appear 100 BIRD-LIFE. among us, show from their behaviour that in their northern home they either never come in contact with man, or if they do they are treated with kindness ; and when they leave us it is with a far different opinion of the " lords of creation." Some birds appear distrustful and shy by nature : thus all long-legged birds are cautious ; they avoid contact with man even in uninhabited locali- ties, unless, like the common Stork, they have been bred in his neighbourhood, I may say under his very eye, and are conscious of his friendly feeling toward them. The European Black Stork, however, will have nothing what- ever to do with man, however much his white cousin may descant on the great advantages to be derived from the intimacy. The Marabou Stork, or " Adjutant" of the East, parades the streets of all Indian towns, while the closely allied African form is never to be seen in one. The Jabiru (Mycteria) is ever shy, even in the primeval forest; all large Herons are likewise distrustful of man's presence. Parrots, Lammergeirs, Eagles, and Falcons rarely allow us to approach them with impunity ; Pigeons and Partridges generally prefer positive safety to any uncertainty on that score, and thus take themselves off by times when man appears on the scene ; also most birds of solitary habits generally keep out of his way. Gregarious birds are usually peacefully disposed, while those which do not associate in large numbers are impa- tient and quarrelsome ; some, like Crows, Water Wagtails, Swallows, and Terns, are fond of teasing one another, and strangers into the bargain. Others, take for example the Greater Tit (Parus major*), are ever ready to quarrel and fight with all that come in their way, both big and little ; and for this very reason this bird goes by the name of " Guerrero" (Warrior) in Spain. All birds living in a CHARACTER. 101 state of polygamy, are over-bearing and quarrelsome in the highest degree ; they fight to the death, not only with their rivals in the tender passion, but also for the sake of getting the upper hand, in general ; and they show the most extraordinary courage and perseverance in these contests. Lenz gives us an example of this in the domestic Fowl: "In the month of May, 1839, I hap- pened to have a hen Turkey, which had just hatched-off a brood of twenty chicks, and, as soon as they were fit, placed mother and youngsters in the farmyard. Scarcely were they installed in their new abode when a young Cockerel, barely a year old, dashed at the Turkey, and a terrific battle ensued. As long as the two birds confined themselves to flying at one another, matters were pretty equal; when, however, it came to pecking, the tide of war turned decidedly in favour of the Turkey, who from its superior height, had the advantage of being able to strike directly downwards. At last it punished the Cock's head so severely that he could scarcely stir. I took him away, trusting he would have the good sense to leave the Turkey alone in future, and, placing him in a quiet corner, told one of my people to keep an eye on the bird; I then left. On returning, about two hours later, the person I had left in charge told me that he had at first forgotten the birds, and found them later in the yard together. It appeared that the Cockerel, leaving his comer, had again entered the yard and resumed the engagement, for he was found bleeding, and to all appearances dead, the Turkey, with bloody beak, giving him an occasional extra peck. 'I have laid him in the stable,' said my informant. Feel- ing excessively annoyed, as the Cockerel was an especial favourite of mine, I went to the stable, and, to my great p 102 BIRD-LIFE. delight, I found my poor bird still alive. Allowing him two days to recover, I again turned him down in the yard, feeling convinced that this time he would follow the old adage, ' Discretion, &c.,' and keep out of the way of the Turkey. You think so ? No ; without a moment's hesitation the Cockerel rushes recklessly at his old enemy, fighting with the energy of despair ; and, finally, with some assistance, and by my drawing its attention once or twice to myself, he succeeded in putting the Turkey to flight. This ended the struggle; and his adversary never afterwards questioned his right to the title of ' Cock of the walk.'" Our old friend the Game Cock is by no means the only bully among birds ; almost all are excessively jealous, and will fight among themselves with the greatest contempt for death. In the breeding-season the most harmless birds show an extraordinary amount of courage ; tiny songsters fly alike at man and beast ; birds of prey do the same, and indeed some of the larger species are at times very dangerous. Some birds are remarkable for their bold fearlessness. Near the place where I was born, a male Capercaillie, which is known to be one of the shyest of birds, used repeatedly to attack passers-by on their way to market, and no amount of chastisement seemed to cool his courage. He was several times caught and brought to the forester, till at last he fell into the hands of some unscrupulous person and vanished. Capercaillies have even been known to attack horses. A Marabou Stork which I had in my yard at Chartum put my tame lion (!) to flight with repeated strokes of its bill, having been frightened by a feigned attack on the part of the latter ; the Crane of Von Seyffertitz, of which I have more to say further on, used to guide and CHARACTER. 103 drive a herd of cattle, enforcing order with its bill. Ostriches, Bustards, Swans, Turkey Cocks, and Ganders, from their battles with other Fowls, secure for themselves the most unconditional obedience in the yard ; the larger species among a family obtain the command over the lesser, and it is curious with what humility and resig- nation these latter accept their yoke. There is a South-American bird which is called the King of the Vultures, simply because he lords it over all others of his tribe. "I found," says Eichard Schomburgk, "the striking fact confirmed, that the deepest respect was paid to the King of the Vultures (Gyparclius Papa) from the species Cathartes Aura and C. Iota, even if hundreds of these are assembled round a carcase, they immediately retire at his approach. Perched on the neighbouring trees, or, in lieu of these, sitting on the ground, they wait, greedy and envious, until their feudal lord has satisfied his hunger and has withdrawn from the repast. Scarcely has this taken place than they again rush with savage eager- ness on the carcase they had lately quitted, to satiate themselves with the remnants of the feast." Humboldt relates as an eye-witness: "I can state -as fact that the appearance of a King Vulture will put to flight a whole company of his more plebeian relatives : it is never a question of resistance." I proved to my satisfaction, after several observations, that the same condition of things exists in Africa between the Eared Vulture (Otogyps auricularis) and the smaller Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus), and often the same thing occurs among caged birds, when a quarrelsome individual may gratify his love of bullying to its full extent. Their greediness may be considered as the primary cause of this love of 104 BIBD-LIFE. power ; for greed may often be observed among birds as well as elsewhere. The domestic Pigeon, while eating, seeks to hide its food from others by surrounding it with its wings ; Vultures drive one another from the carcase by blows with their wings ; Sparrows squabble in the air over a passing beetle : Mergansers will chase a companion both above and under water for the sake of the fish it has just captured ; should one Sea-gull dash down to the water all the others in the neighbourhood put in an appearance, in hopes that their friend has discovered something good to eat. Birds so selfish and greedy in their disposition are quite put to shame by our friend the domestic Cock, who, possessed of a spirit of gallantry worthy of imitation, calls his various wives around him to partake of any tit-bit he may have discovered. We may also cite the Bee-eater (Merops), as being unusually peaceable, amiable, and unenvious. These charming little creatures will sit in pairs on some low projecting branch, calling to one another until some passing insect attracts their attention, when if one gives chase, the other leaves its more fortunate partner to enjoy the fruits of its exertions. The Drongo Shrikes (Dicrurus and Edolius) behave in a similar manner to one another, as do the Wood Swallows (Artamus). Swallows, indeed, scarce know what greediness is. There are many birds which one would hardly expect to be good-natured, but which nevertheless are so. We often see the same forbearance practised among them as the lion showed towards the dog confined in the same cage with it. My brother and I kept two Lammergeirs in confinement, which allowed a Jackdaw in the same cage with them to take the most extraordinary liberties : the impertinent rascal would, without the slightest ceremony, I CHARACTER. 105 drive his imposing companions from the drinking-trough when they would fain quench their thirst, and fearlessly help himself from pieces of meat literally within their claws. A specimen of Bonelli's Eagle (Aquila Bonellii), which we introduced into the cage, was immediately killed by them on attempting the same thing. On the Blue Nile I once saw, to my intense astonishment, a Black-headed Plover (Pluvianus cegyptius) quietly making his dinner from a fish in the claws of a Sea Eagle (Haliaetus vocifer), without that individual taking the slightest notice of his small, impudent, but agile guest, who he might have destroyed with a single blow of his beak. The largest African Vulture (Otogyps auricularis), many true Falcons, Little Owls, Swallows, Goatsuckers, Woodpeckers, and Long-tailed Tits, most of the Warblers, the Yellow Wagtail, Pigeons, Ducks, Petrels, and Pen- guins, are all good-natured birds; while, on the con- trary, the Griffon Vulture (V. fulvus), Bonelli's Eagle (A. BonelUi), Goshawks and Sparrow-hawks, Harriers, Owls, Shrikes, Ostriches, Bustards, Partridges, Herons, Swans, Geese, Cormorants, Darters, and Pelicans, are savage and impetuous. I have often kept specimens of V. fulvus in confinement, but have never succeeded in making friends with them, owing to the spiteful manner in which they would fly at the face of anybody who approached them, making violent attempts to get at them. Gos- hawks are like tigers, destroying more birds than they require for their sustenance, not even respecting family connexions. Shrikes will devour their own relations, if they can get the upper hand. Some birds appear to be specially blood-thirsty, even more so than usual when in confinement* A Goshawk will not only destroy a Falcon nearly its equal in 106 BIRD-LIFE. strength, but also Kites and Buzzards; besides which, it will kill and devour relations of all grades : the wife the husband, the daughter the father, the mother the son, or the reverse. I have known a Buzzard devour two Barn Owls, which it dragged through the bars of the cage, although it had already had enough to eat; my tame Parrots would kill other cage birds, even their own species ; Tomtits would peck out the brains of little birds, if they could only get at them. The most savage of all birds is the Harpy Eagle (Harpyia destructor), as its name implies ; its character, its form, and the expres- sion of its countenance are so exceptionably ferocious in appearance, that a human being involuntarily shudders at this bird's glance. " The inconsiderate visitors at the London Zoological Gardens," says Poppig, in his 'Natural History of the Animal Kingdom/ " appeared frightened at the glance of a full-grown Brazilian Harpy, and quite omitted the petty bullying with which they had treated the tiger : sitting upright and motionless as a pillar hewn from the solid rock, it scares the most daring by a single glance of that brilliant eye, rigid, menacing, and expressive of silent rage; it appeared incapable of fear, and to look upon everything and everybody around with sovereign contempt. A fearful spectacle, however, presented itself to the looker-on when this motionless aspect, disturbed by the appearance of the animal intended for its consumption, suddenly changed to the most violent movement : with irresistible fury the bird rushed on its prey; the final struggle, however, never lasted longer than a few seconds; the first blow of its talons, directed at the back of the head, instantly paralysed, and a second blow tearing the flanks and thus reaching the heart generally caused instantaneous death CHAKACTEII. 107 even to the largest cats. The beak was never used at these executions, and the rapidity and certainty of them, as well as the conviction that man himself could not with- stand such an attack, was productive of the greatest horror among the bystanders. This bird is very much feared by the natives of Brazil, who avoid any contest with it, and never hazard an attack, considering it too powerful for a single individual." Though this repre- sentation is decidedly exaggerated, it is, nevertheless, perfectly true that the Harpy is an excessively savage creature. One of these birds, kept in captivity at Kio de Janeiro, was observed to destroy any mammal which incautiously approached too near its cage; it killed another Harpy, and menaced people as well. Less terrible than the above, but still, comparatively, just as violent and bold, is the celebrated Tyrant Flycatcher (Tijrcumus intrepidus) : it inhabits Northern America, and attacks the largest Eagles without hesita- tion, following them with untiring pertinacity and angry screams ; it is at length left in possession of the field. The same thing occurs with its representative in the old world, the Drongo Shrikes of Southern Asia and Africa ; these also drive away any bird of prey which may approach their nest or roosting-place ; possibly this conduct is the result of the desire which small birds possess, in a remarkable degree, to tease and annoy all predatory animals. Eagles, Buzzards, Kites, and others of the less active birds of prey, are mobbed with loud cries by Water Wagtails and Swallows, while the more active (with the exception of the larger Falcons, who don't seem to understand the joke) are treated in the same manner by Crows, Jackdaws, and some even of the lesser Falcons, who boldly attack them on all sides. 108 BIRD-LIFE. Nocturnal birds of prey are, however, the most unfortu- nate ; when discovered in broad daylight by other birds they suffer severely at the hands of the noisy rabble. It is a perfect comedy to see the eagerness with which the little friends of day, worry and strike at the canting humbug, till the latter, worn out of patience, snaps and hisses at them ; big and little take part in the fray, and, at last, nothing remains for their nocturnal enemy but flight. It is very remarkable that the birds which are most subject to this treatment are those which carry on their depredations in a secret and spiteful man- ner, while those which feed on carrion, lizards, and fish, are left in peace ; this system of mobbing thus seems to bear the impress of revengeful retaliation. This is, pro- bably, the principal reason why the Cuckoo is so often chased by small birds : I doubt much if this insidious individual is mistaken by any of its tormentors for the Sparrow-hawk, for I have always observed that all birds recognize their enemies. The Cuckoo may consider pity as the motive which animates those birds that rear and bring it up until able to take care of itself; when, however, no longer an object of compassion, these little Warblers, menaced by the egg- destroyer, can no longer have any good feeling towards him ; on the contrary, they have a perfect right to detest him. It matters little whether Cuckoo or Sparrow-hawk be confounded one with the other, no injustice being done to either party they are both thorough-paced sneaking rascals, speaking portraits of an arrant sharper. The first destroys as many broods in the year as its female lays eggs, while the daily employment of the latter is to kill little birds in the most wholesale manner; its chase is no sample of skilful hawking, but rather low, CHAEACTER. 109 cowardly murder : he hides, like a footpad, behind bush and hedge, suddenly dashing out upon some small bird flying by, and, alas ! unconscious of its danger ; these are generally its prey. He lives in ambush, and his ways are knavish : his nest is placed in a low, thick-topped tree, and bushes and shrubs are his favourite haunts ; he prefers the advantage of a sudden and hidden attack to honourable open warfare. Other birds of prey which are possessed of short wings and long tails like him, even Bonelli's Eagle and the Harpy, are equally sneaking in their habits. The true Falcons are just the contrary in their character : in Germany they are called " noble Falcons," and well they merit the title, for they are noble and thorough-bred, in every sense of the words : gallant, honourable warfare is their delight: they inhabit high places, and live among the clouds, on the topmost branches of trees, rocky peaks, the towers and steeples of populous cities, all these places they select for their points of observation. I have seen them on St. Stephen's Tower in Vienna and on the Pyramid of Cheops ; on the crags and pinnacles of both North and South; on the withered tops of ancient fir trees, and high up on the summit of the giant Adansonia of Central Africa. They never hide, but show themselves openly; confident in their strength, and conscious of their speed of wing, they proclaim open feud with all other birds. Full of contempt they look down upon the common herd of thieves below them, and all noisy and importunate intruders they treat without ceremony to a blow of their talons. Falcons devour only what they kill themselves; booty without battle seems to them but a sorry gift. Every glance and motion betokens the nobility of their nature. Q 110 BIBD-LIFE. Few other birds care, like the above, to show them- selves openly. All those aware of their own weakness seek to hide themselves from the observation of the enemy. Some few are ever striving to secrete themselves, so timorous are they, and others are never to be found far from their place of refuge. Bad flyers, as, for example, the Rails and Crakes, are only to be seen occasionally ; and those species whose plumage resembles the colour of the ground we may soon recognize as timid creatures, which are always endeavouring to hide from the rest of the world. Large birds also conceal themselves when exposed to attack from those stronger than they are. The blustering Turkey Cock, when it really comes to fighting, shows himself to be only a miserable swaggerer; in his native forests his hectoring ways immediately vanish at the appearance of a bird of prey, when he instantly descends from the highest branches into the low scrub. I have, to my great amusement, discovered him to be an arrant coward, who, in his terror, magnifies every danger ten times over. The Golden Eagle (Aquila fulva) and Bonelli's Eagle commit great ravages among the poultry of the few country people inhabiting the sierras and barren plains of Spain: in those regions the Fowls have learnt to hold themselves in constant readiness for timely and precipitate flight as soon as they catch sight of these robbers. One day all of a sudden I saw a whole tribe of Turkeys rush, with great clamour, into one of the peasants' houses, followed by the Cocks and Hens in a state of unmitigated terror. I snatched up my gun to try and shoot the creature causing this commotion, naturally expecting to see an Eagle in the air. In vain I sought for the king of birds: an innocent little Kestrel was the CHARACTER. Ill individual who had put the whole tribe in such a state of perplexity ! Among the Eagles, Falcons, and other dominant species, these signs of fear are never seen. They like to show themselves, and on this account generally choose elevated positions on which to take their stand, these being at the same time well adapted for points of observation. Some of their subjects share the same taste ; Jackdaws and Starlings delight in the highest pinnacles of towers, where they may rest, chatter, or sing ; the Song Thrush chooses the topmost branches of a tree, whenever it wishes to pour forth its charming melody for our benefit; the Yellow-hammer, many Finches, the Warblers of Southern Europe, and others, do the same, for birds, like men, often forget their safety while under the influence of poetry! Song drives the Lark from its hiding-place in stubble or grass, to the bright blue heavens above ; and a love ditty will induce the shy Eing Dove to abandon the shelter of the bushy whitethorn. The conduct of other birds, again, would lead us to imagine that vanity was the motive which led them to show themselves more freely than circumstances should warrant. That birds are vain is amply proved by those species which are arrayed in the most gorgeous colours. One need only observe the Peacock, while paying his addresses to his wife, to see that it is not without reason that he is looked upon as the emblem of that attribute which is so highly developed in the fair sex: with speaking glances, full of self-complacency, he spreads his splendid plumage, and, with innate consciousness, ad- vances towards his spouse, as though to prove to her that his personal appearance is irresistible. All other 112 BIRD-LIFE. birds of fine plumage are just as vain as he. Modesty, as in accordance with our views, is with them quite out of the question ; they, one and all, rather seek to exhibit the charms Nature has so bountifully bestowed upon them to the best advantage. We may, however, willingly pardon this weakness, as it is conducive to a great virtue cleanliness. Birds are remarkable for this quality far beyond most other animals, especially mammals. The cat surpasses few birds in cleanliness ; even those who devour the most disgusting carrion with gusto, and stink horribly after their meal is ended, seek to free themselves from any portion of the same that may still remain hanging about their bodies. The Griffon ( V. fulvus) wallows so deep among the intestines of a carcase that its head and neck entirely vanish among the cavities of the body, and are withdrawn smothered in gore and filth ; after a short time, however, every trace of the obscene feast has been cleaned off, and also from the rest of the plumage. I only know one uncleanly bird, and that is the Marabou Stork, who withdraws from the banquet with his legs entirely incrusted with the traces of the same ; but manages, however, not to soil the under tail feathers, possibly destined to decorate some fair court beauty ; the remaining portions of its body are also kept unsoiled. The German expression, " Schmutz- fink" (dirty fellow!), is a standing insult to the whole bird-world, inasmuch as it is a cruel untruth. There is not a single bird known which delights in wallowing in filth as do the thick-skinned mammals, and some breeds of cattle ; better by far take the latter as prototypes of some people, and not our elegant cleanly feathered pets ! So long as they are in good health, slovenliness is a thing unheard of among them ; not only each feather, CHARACTER. 113 but its every ray being always kept in perfect order. Cleanliness and order are innate portions of a bird's nature. Young birds of prey always void their excre- ment clear of the nest, from the very first day they are hatched; and other birds try at least to do the same, by turning themselves towards the edge of the nest. It is true that the contrary takes place with the young of birds breeding in holes of trees or rocks ; but they are not to blame, as it is simply impossible for them to keep themselves clean ; the helpless young are unable to throw their excreta out of the hole, and the parent- birds are not capable, as some other species are, to do it for them, owing to the conformation of their beaks. The sense of order is a marked virtue among birds, and shows itself most prominently in their division of time. During the breeding- season the male and female relieve one another at fixed periods ; and similar regularity is shown in singing, sleeping, and working. CHAPTEE II. REASON. " They also know, And reason not contemptibly." MILTON. WE are usually accustomed to attribute every action assimilating to reasoning capacity, no matter of what description, which may present itself to our notice among " irrational beings," as the workings of instinct. Many deny the existence of reason altogether ; others acknow- ledge it, but at the same time assign to it limits ; all are agreed, however, on one point i. e. that the instinct of an animal is quite as remarkable in its way as reason in a human being. Our pride has raised up so impassable a barrier between the "Lord of the Creation" and "the brute beast" that all the courage Science can muster is requisite for her to attempt to overcome these prejudices. He, however, who attempts the feat, and who keenly inquires into the subject, will find that the intellectual capacities of animals are not so inferior to those of man as that individual's vanity would lead him to suppose. Unanswerable proofs of a highly developed intelligence, and a deep sense of feeling existing among animals cannot be denied, however much one may seek to place REASON. 115 these intellectual faculties to the credit, if we may so term it, of instinct. What do you call instinct ? What do you understand by that word ? Is it, as we believe, the inward working of an exterior power, such as we understand under the term " Providence," an order emanating from the same a revelation ? Does the brute act under the influence of such a power, without being able to render to itself an account of its own actions, without being conscious of the same ? * In the meanwhile, we may say that there is truly much which is problematical, or which remains unexplained; thus, for example, it cannot be denied that birds are much more weather-wise than we are, and that they are unquestionably good barometers. My father relates several instances in confirmation of this, which had come under his personal observation : " In the spring of 1816 an unusual number of Kingfishers established themselves along the high banks of the small brooks and streams of Thuringia ; in the course of the summer the rivers Elster, Saale, and Unstrut rose so high, by reason of the heavy rains, that all the nesting-places on their banks were submerged." Patzler relates a somewhat similar anecdote : " In the spring of 1852 all the Reed Warblers' nests I found were built higher from the ground than usual, while old nests of the previous year, which I had found in the same osier bed on the banks of * The translators have omitted some portion of the author's ideas upon the subject of reason in animals, as they are entirely of a controversial character, and not suitable for the general reader. To modify them were an injustice to the author, which it would be quite against the wishes of the translators to commit; at the same time any of their readers who may desire to learn the entire views of the author upon this subject can refer to the original work, page 96, second edition. H. M. L, W, J, 116 BIRD-LIFE. the Elbe, were placed at the usual elevation ; in the early days of June the river overflowed its banks, and the water in the osier beds rose so high, that all nests not built above the usual distance from the ground were under water. The foresight displayed by these little Warblers struck me as the more singular, for the reason, that during the breeding-season, and, indeed, during the whole summer of the preceding year, the water was so unusually low as to allow of those birds breeding in the osier-beds whose custom is to build their nests close to the ground, and whose young were that year reared in safety." In the spring of 1842 all the marsh and aquatic birds deserted a large swamp in the neighbourhood of Ahlsdorf. In the months of March and April there was a great deal of water in the fen, yet no waders, Buffs and Reeves, Spotted Crakes, Moorhens, Coots, or Black Terns remained to breed ; the birds either knew, or at least guessed, that the marsh would dry up before they could rear their young; and, so it came to pass, in the month of October, that my father put up a fox and a brace of hares in the place where generally thousands of Ducks were to be found. Naumann states that he saw a pair of Grey-lag Geese (Anser cinereus) which, with their young, abandoned a large breeding-pond, full of water, and moved to a smaller one ; the former dried up, while the latter remained well supplied with that element. In March, 1843, the Peewit (Vanellus cristatus) forsook the marshy meadows and borders of the low-lying ponds in our neighbourhood, and retired to the plateaus among the hills ; it was well they did so, for in the month of May, their breeding season, the low lands were under water, owing to the extraordinary heavy rainfall, whereas the higher levels were just moist enough to render them REASON. 117 appropriate breeding-places for these birds. The spring of 1865 made its appearance very suddenly, the winter holding on with exceptional severity up to almost the last moment; the interim between icy coldness and warm spring weather scarcely lasted a fortnight. I foretold the change, though neither the thermometer nor the baro- meter gave me reason to expect it, but the aquatic birds of the Hamburg Zoological Gardens did. They had passed the whole of this severe winter out of doors, and for this reason were getting rather mopy towards the end of the time. All of a sudden this behaviour changed; they paired off, and courtship began, in spite of ten degrees of cold ; I then knew that spring would soon arrive : sure enough it came, and when the first eggs were laid, ice and snow had vanished. It is difficult to give an explanation of these facts; that they should be the effect of chance is impossible ; the great number of individual cases goes to disprove such an explanation. The length of time between the changes is a sufficient negation of the idea that it is possible to attribute them to an extraordinary sensibility of atmospheric influence. Assuming that presentiment in a bird is purely an internal sensation of which it becomes conscious, it must seem incomprehensible to us how it can make arrangements months beforehand in anticipation of the dreaded change, for we can have no idea of so delicate a nervous organization in an animal. The mechanical knowledge of some animals, which is also ascribed by many to instinct, appears to me easier to be understood than their knowledge of the weather. We speak of the mechanical instinct of insects gene- rally with more astonishment than admiration, although the latter is not entirely wanting, and one raises this R 118 BIED-LIFE. instinct to the rank of the supernatural. " One bee builds its cell the same as another, and one silkworm spins its cocoon as its fellows," it is said, and with this we seek to explain the workings of instinct, whereas we ought first to ask the question whether the bee is capable, by reason of its form and the shape of its limbs, to do otherwise than carry pollen, and to use this in the manner we know it does ; or whether the silkworm is capable of spinning a structure different to that spun by its progenitors. It is not at all improbable that the answer which enquiry at present is not able to give would gainsay this. Birds of the same species all build their nests in a similar manner. " Every species," says Naumann, " has something peculiar in the material and formation of its nest, from which the bird never deviates, except through dire necessity, and then only in occasional instances." In general this assertion is correct : I do not care to cite this in favour of instinct more than I formerly have done, for it may be equally brought forward as a proof in favour of reason. How much the young bird learns from its parents it is difficult to say : that it does learn much, however, may well be assumed, for the old birds teach their young before our very eyes. Why, then, I ask, is the bird not capable of building its nest ? That the nest is built in such and such a manner, and no other, is partially explained by the formation of the beak ; that the older mothers build better nests than the younger ones has been proved by observation; that the latter as well as the former do not always rigidly adhere to the same materials is a well- known fact. Supported by my own experience, I believe it to be quite possible that the bird learns how to build its nest partly while still a nestling, and partly from REASON. 119 later observation of the work of older members of its species. Were instinct, as is generally assumed, the result of a special law which the animal is compelled to obey, then this instinct would not deceive the trustful creature as it so often does. Thus the blowfly, which deposits its eggs in tainted meat, upon which its offspring feed, sometimes condemns the latter to starvation by mis- taking the stinking plant, Stapelia, for carrion ; the higher animals, also, often commit mistakes, which likewise lead to their destruction. Birds of passage are frequently grossly deceived in the weather ; returning at the usual fixed period to their homes, they find instead of verdant spring a mantle of snow and ice. Many thus die of hunger; they cannot make up their minds to return whence they came, and, hoping against hope, they perish ! Every unprejudiced observation gives proof of the existence of reason among birds, and that, too, of no ordinary calibre. All birds possess the power of recognizing and esti- mating those circumstances which would lead to any alteration in their line of conduct. From this they betray a clear consciousness, and a decided independence of action or free-will, by which they know how to carry out what appears to them expedient. They soon learn to distinguish friends from foes, to choose suitable dwelling-places, to avoid dangers, to obtain food, and avail themselves, with deliberation and wonderful clever- ness, of existing conditions, without instinctive action being in any way concerned in the matter. According to the usual acceptation, instinct is purely a more or less compulsory action; reason is exactly the contrary, inasmuch 120 BIRD-LIFE. as it is not the working of blind impulse, but much more the art of bringing the results of past experiences to bear upon a question. Authentic observations have proved that the expe- riences made by birds are remembered by them many years afterwards. Our immortal Naumann relates the following example in his splendid work upon the ' Birds of Germany:' "For a long time I kept in my garden several wild Geese (Anser segetum) some of these, which I had wounded and been able to take alive, became so thoroughly re-established as to be able to fly with ease, so that I was obliged to cut the pinion-feathers after the yearly moult, to prevent their disappearance. To perform this operation it was necessary that they should be caught, and to effect this I used to drive them into a corner, where I enclosed them with a long piece of net : in their efforts to escape they became entangled, and were thus easily captured. This periodical battle was not much relished by the birds : indeed, after having been subjected to this treatment for several successive seasons, they never forgot it ; and on my appearance each year, with the net, got into a high state of alarm, and took refuge in the pond, thus effectually preventing my object. Their timidity became at last so great, that it was only necessary for me to take a string and, with the assistance of another person, pretend to encircle them, to cause the greatest terror in their ranks. Yet, nevertheless, they remained so tame, that I could call my favourite from among them and stroke it, thus sparing the bird the ordeal of the net for the future." This anecdote goes to prove the excellent memory of the feathered tribe, which, indeed, even the uninitiated have REASON. 121 opportunities of observing in our common birds of passage. The Stork, the Swallow, and the Starling conduct them- selves with such perspicuity on their arrival with us, that we can have no doubt that they return to their old habi- tations with perfect consciousness of the same, and greet old friends with pleasure. Tame birds give still stronger proofs of memory : they cherish the feelings of love and hate most heartily. I shall return to this subject at a future time ; but will, however, relate one curious fact on the authority of Lentz. This excellent enquirer possessed a Cock, which had quarrelled with one of the Hens in the yard, a perpetual state of feud existing between the parties ; matters became so bad at last, that the person in charge of the poultry was obliged to get rid of him : " I gave the Cock away to the watchman of the village/' says he, " in exchange for another one. Only two years and a half after, I had the misfortune to lose this bird, so I sent to the watchman and bought my old friend back again. No sooner replaced in his old quarters than, casting a glance of complacency on all around, he flaps his wings, and, after a good crow, greets his old compa- nions with the greatest pleasure ; when suddenly his attention is attracted to the particular Hen who was the direct cause of his previous dismissal from the court. His glance became at once serious ; darkened ; and, at last, menacing. The poor Hen looked timidly up. In short, after a few minutes, the old business began afresh, just as it used to be two years and a half ago ; and I was once more obliged to seize my quarrelsome friend, and send him into exile again." I could easily add to these anecdotes many other examples ; for the conduct of most birds is the result of experience remembered and utilised. The Peregrine 122 BIKD-LIFE. Falcon, so shy in its habits, often takes up her abode upon some high building in a populous town, because her experience teaches her that she can live there in peace and safety. The cautious Crow may be seen, during the winter, fearlessly walking in the streets of towns, and becoming almost domesticated; in the suburbs, however, the same boldness is not so noticeable; while outside the gates they remain as shy as in the summer-time. The self-same species of Vultures, which in Southern Europe are more difficult of access than all other birds, are to be seen walking about in the villages of North-eastern Africa in the most unconcerned manner possible. In Spain I only succeeded in procuring one single specimen of the Kestrel (Tinnuncu lus alaudarius), their excessive shyness rendering all attempts at approach on my part useless. At the same time this species, together with its cousin, the Lesser Kestrel (Tin- nunculus cenchris), breeds devoid of all fear in the towns of Malaga and Madrid, as well as in Athens, where they are very plentiful. In our towns the domestic Pigeon may be seen running before one in the streets, at the distance of only a few feet passing carts causing them to move only just as far as is necessary to avoid being run over. On the "Bruhl'schen" terrace, in Dresden, I have seen the King Dove, usually amongst the shyest of the shy, flying from tree to tree, and heard the rustling of their wings above the heads of the passers-by, as though they were in the remotest depths of the forest. To my great astonishment I was informed that they bred regu- larly among the trees of the much-frequented " Ostraallee." The Woodpeckers in the " Grossen Garten" amused themselves with their usual pursuits close to, and utterly regardless of, the numerous loungers; and the Golden REASON. 123 Oriole whistled cheerily on the trees, in close proximity to a band of music which was playing at the time. Those who have observed the above-mentioned birds in their natural state, and are acquainted with their shyness, are not a little astonished, not at their con- duct, but at their intelligence. What an astonishing amount of cleverness to have caused such a revolu- tion of their usual habits ! Each and all are aware exactly how far it is safe to go ; they learn with reason, by observation, and from experience, that in the before- mentioned and similar places they have naught to fear at the hand of their principal enemy man. Some, especially the common Sparrow, are thoroughly governed in their actions and habits by those of their entertainer man. They watch him with unwearied attention; so that even while on the most intimate terms with him, they take good care of their own safety. Their intelligence becomes wonderfully developed by their contact with him. All the good-will and friendship which they entertain for their supporter is only apparent ; they never trust him. An injury done to any individual of their species becomes traditional, and is never forgotten. Besides which, they always fear some fresh trick or deception, which renders them particularly distrustful of the simplest thing, and to regard it askance, until they have quite satisfied them- selves whether or no a trap is intended. No amount of scaring can keep them off where food is the question and crops are to be preserved from their depredations ; the scare -crow and clapper are alike inefficient for the purpose. It is, however, equally useless to set traps for them, as they are sure to keep clear of them. All their acts take place only after the most mature deliberation, and they readily allow other birds to discover whether it is 124 BIKD-LIFE. a question of safety or danger, previously to examining for themselves. They will freely pick up the crumbs I have strewed for them before my windows, so long as I remain working at my writing-table ; no sooner, however, do I turn even my face towards them than they are sure to decamp ! The town Sparrow is to be distin- guished from his village cousin in the same manner as the " street Arab" is from the village boy. Both are alike artful and ill-mannered; but to the first there is " nothing new under the sun." One must really be blind not to allow these creatures to be possessed of reason ! Even those birds which have less confidence in man unmistakably show similar powers. They distinguish with exceeding accuracy friends from foes, and learn from experience to know the effect and value of endeavours to injure them. Sportsmen are well aware that if they wish to get at birds difficult of approach it is useless to walk straight towards them, but act rather as if they would walk past them, taking care not to look at them, or they will instantly apprehend danger. Eavens, Magpies, Jackdaws, and Books, the shrewdest, perhaps, of the feathered tribe, distinguish with facility the sportsman from their friend the ploughman : they walk as carelessly after the plough of the latter, as they shun the gun of the former. Our peasants, for this very reason, assert that Books have the power of smelling powder in the gun, which certainly is a fallacy. The creatures, however, are cognizant of their enemy and his terrible weapon ; one can put a whole colony of Books to flight with a wooden imita- tion of a gun. From experience they are aware, however, that an unarmed man is not dangerous, while, on the con- trary, they are perfectly aware of the use of the suspicious- REASON. 125 looking machine carried on the shoulders of the gunner. Whoever would wish to be a successful sportsman in foreign countries ought to adopt the dress of the inhabitants, as ours do the guise of a woman carrying a basket on her back, when they would come within range of the Bustard. From this it is evident that birds are thoroughly capable of distinguishing ; they even learn to know a particularly dangerous individual. " In the year 1820," relates my father, "I possessed a live Eagle (Aquila fulva), which required no small amount of food for its support : this demand fell heavily upon the neigh- bouring Books, as they furnished the principal portion of his sustenance. In a very short time their powers of comprehension became highly developed ; and I had the honour of becoming personally known to every Eook in the vicinity. As soon as I was observed by any one of them, it immediately called out vociferously. Thus warned, its companions immediately placed a distance of 150 to 200 paces between us." I have often observed the same myself while shooting, but have never come across any bird who succeeded in frustrating my endeavours with such remarkable clever- ness as the African Marabou (Leptoptilus crumenifer) after our first hostile meeting. All other long-legged birds are shy ; he, however, estimates the danger, and then scoffs at the same. He is a thorough calculator : every move- ment, his gait, even his glance is deliberate and decided. I killed one in the Khartoum, in the slaughter-yard, among the many that frequented it, with a shot-gun, but never a second. After the death of their comrade they did not permit anyone to approach within 150 yards. I then resorted to my rifle, and dropped another at that distance : from this time forth I was ever unsuccessful. 126 BIRD-LIFE. After this new warning all the Marabous considered it necessary to keep at a distance of at least 300 paces from a white man. If I followed them, they did not take to flight, but, nevertheless, did not allow me to approach any nearer. When I walked quickly, they accelerated their pace ; when slowly, they did the same ; and if I remained stationary, they did not disturb themselves in the least. This chase afforded as much amusement to the bystanders as it did disappointment to the sportsman. In a state of exasperation we fired at distances of from 300 to 400 paces ; but this scarcely disturbed them, as they soon perceived the inefficacy of the shot. They equal the Vulture in greediness, perhaps, indeed, surpass them ; but they always take the precaution of placing sentinels in elevated positions, when their banquet, a carcase, 4a^s- in a valley or behind hills, which could render it possible for the epicurean company to be disturbed. Vultures never do this. Wishing to give another example, I will refer to our Bustards, which never alight in a place near which a foe can be concealed or a rifle-shot reach them. They are so conversant with the districts they frequent that they know how to avoid all dangerous places. Wild Geese fly to the lakes, in which they wish to alight, out of rifle- range, and then suddenly dash down to the centre of the glassy surface. Cranes, when alarmed on dark nights, circle around their roosting-place at a slight elevation; but on moonlight nights always keep out of shot. Like all other birds they do not like to change their roosting- place ; they never, however, return immediately, but send several spies out to determine first whether they can come back with safety. Eooks do the same. One may gather by the note of those Cranes which act as sentries REASON. 127 that they are old birds, and are doubtless despatched on that service on account of their greater experience and cleverness, though the younger ones may have already arrived at maturity. The inexperienced are instructed by the gray-beards of their species, and are thus made thoroughly acquainted with every possible danger, and indeed they are, as we will state farther on, compelled by force to take flight at the proper moment. Many birds show their intelligence by the manner in which they take wing, as well as during flight. Wood- peckers, on the approach of an enemy, immediately retire to the opposite side of the tree ; and thus, screening them- selves from view, climb to the topmost branch ere they take flight. Marsh and water-birds show the greatest acuteness in selecting an opportune moment for flight. When swimming on a pond or tank, and the sports- man shows himself from behind the dam, retiring again, so as to obtain a more favourable shot, they always avail themselves of the moment he disappears from their sight to fly the danger. One would imagine that the object of alarm once out of view they would remain quiet and unconcerned. Not so ; they reckon, and with justice, upon a reappearance of the enemy, and thus seek to make the best use of the intervening moments. Small birds thoroughly understand how to make use of every advantage available when chased by birds of prey. We were once enabled to observe how a Kedstart managed to escape from the claws of a Sparrow-hawk. The little bird had the good fortune to be in the neighbourhood of a thick elder-bush, but was so hard pressed by the Hawk that it had not time to take refuge in the bush itself, and so kept circling round between the extreme ends of the branches, which its persecutor could not do ; it thus won 128 BIBD-LIFE. several slight advantages, till at last it was able to take refuge in the thickest part of the tree. My father relates a wonderful anecdote showing the intelligence of the Great Crested Grehe : " In July, 1818, 1 was making a tour with my two friends, the ' Forster ' Bonde and Dr. Schilling, to the Friessnilzer Lake. A splendid specimen of a male Crested Grebe struck our attention. Bonde and I got into a punt which lay moored by the side of the lake, and Schilling posted himself on the shore, at a place where the water was very shallow ; we were obliged to do this, for it was in the days of flint guns, and by getting the bird in fleet water his possible escape by diving was rendered more difficult. By careful rowing we succeeded in driving the Grebe into the shallow water. The bird now appeared to be so thoroughly in our power that I already exclaimed, ' Now we have got you ! ' Our boat had approached him so close that escape, whether by diving or flying, seemed impossible he must fall either to us in the punt or to Schilling on the shore ; yet, in spite of all our calculations, he found means to escape, which we naturalists had never dreamt of : he allowed himself to drift close to the lower shore of the lake, where a large herd of cattle were grazing ; he then rose, but in such a manner as to fly straight towards the herd, so that we could not fire without hitting a cow, and these were feeding so close together that there was no space left between them. As long as the cattle served as cover the bird continued his flight close to them and low down, and thus in a short space was out of shot. No sooner, how- ever, had he reached the end of the herd than rising high in the air he made for the upper part of the sheet of water, where he disappeared among the reeds and rushes, which grew there in abundance. ' Bravo ! ' cried I, REASON. 129 6 that was clever ! ' and much as I should have liked to have had the bird for my collection, I was delighted to see the skill he had shown in escaping, where escape seemed to us impracticable." All birds soon learn to know their enemies. Books, Swallows and Water Wagtails, which are those most given to mobbing birds of prey, take very good care not to disturb any that are likely to prove dangerous, because either they or some one of their species has learnt from experience that such conduct is hazardous in the ex- treme. A Kestrel or Sparrow-hawk is certain to be mobbed and insulted, whereas a Hobby will be respected or feared. On the Lake of Mensaleh I saw Ducks sitting undisturbed in close proximity to the Fish Hawk (Pandion haliceetos'), while the appearace of a Sea Eagle (Haliceetos albicilla), or any large Falcon, occasioned the greatest alarm, and immediately put them to flight. How closely birds can discriminate, and how cor- rectly they can determine each individual enemy, and the precautions they take for their own safety may be well imagined from the following observations of the Freiherr V. Seyffertitz. An immense morass situated in the neighbourhood of that observer's residence .was at certain times of the year covered with thousands of Ducks, and these attracted numerous birds of prey of different species. One morning a Sea Eagle approached the marsh with lazy flight, doubtless with the intention of picking up one of the Ducks for breakfast. As soon as the latter had observed the enemy, they immediately took wing, flying hither and thither over the morass, well knowing that the sluggish bird was not able to strike a Duck on the wing : he chased them here, there and everywhere, but, after a quarter of an hour's useless pursuit, gave it up in despair 130 BIRD-LIFE. and retired from the scene. No sooner had he vanished from sight than the Ducks returned to the water, swam about, and sought their food as before. Soon after, a Peregrine Falcon made its appearance, a dangerous and active bird, which rarely strikes its quarry sitting, but can easily do so when on the wing. The Ducks were evidently well aware of this, and, instead of rising from the water, kept continually diving, so as to escape the talons of the enemy, and in this they were thoroughly successful. The Falcon flew close over them without attempting to strike, for its object was simply to force them to take wing : in this it was unsuccessful, and it also was obliged to abandon the field discomfited. On the same day, however, a Goshawk (Astur palwnbarius) came to the marsh : this bird being able to strike a bird whether sitting or on the wing with equal facility, is the most dangerous enemy Ducks have. Now there was evidently nothing more to be done : Seyffertitz knew of no means of escape, and sat anxiously watching the result. The fate of one of the Ducks appeared sealed. But even under these circum- stances the birds knew how to help themselves. As soon as they saw the Hawk they all got close together, and flapping with their wings produced such a shower of spray as to raise an opaque cloud between them and their pursuer. The Hawk, however, was not so easily to be baffled, and dashing along close over the water passed through the sheet of spray more than once, but not being able to see a bird it could not strike. As soon as the Ducks were convinced that the Goshawk had taken its departure they desisted from their manoeuvres and returned quietly to their usual occupations. Not a few birds manage to shield their young from danger by hiding them from view. All those species REASON. 131 whose dress assimilates the ground, rushes, sedge, leaves, &c., in colour, are well aware of the benefit to be derived from this resemblance of tints between their plumage and the surrounding cover, and use it to the best advantage on all occasions. Partridges, Ducks, many Waders, the Spotted Crake, Snipe and others, squat close to the ground or among the grass, reeds or other cover when an enemy appears : the Bittern and the Little Owl assume curious positions, which render them unrecognizable; the Hoopoe throws itself flat on the sand, expanding both wings and tail, on the approach of a bird of prey, and in this position resembles a coloured rag rather than a bird; the Wryneck does the same, turning and twisting its neck, however, in such a manner as to resemble a snake. The young of birds which breed on the ground are instructed in the art of hiding as soon as they are hatched, while the mother seeks to entice the enemy from the spot. Almost all Partridges and Waders, as well as many of the Warblers and others, show considerable cunning in deceiving their pursuers. At the approach of man or any four-footed enemy the mother flutters slowly away from the nest only a few yards in advance of her pursuer, trembling and falling on the ground as though she had a broken wing or was otherwise wounded; by this ruse the enemy is gradually drawn away from the nest ; and as soon as the faithful creature thinks that the brood is out of danger, she dashes up into the air, and vanishes with a cry of pleasure. In procuring their food many birds show a great amount of intelligence. I have already described the performances of such roving thieves as the Sparrow- hawk, and need not, therefore, again refer to their sneaking mode of catching their prey. There are, 132 BIKD-LIFE. however, others among the numerous feathered tribes which are very highly gifted. According to Faber, the old story of the Eaven getting at the flesh of crustaceous animals, by letting them fall from a height on to the rocks below, is certainly no fable. Spaniards assert that the Lammergeir, whose food principally consists of large bones, breaks them in the same manner ; whence they have given the bird the title of " Bone -smasher/' I myself have often observed this bird rise, time after time, from a rock, and descend again, as though it were occupied in taking something up in the air and letting it fall again; and this, to me, otherwise inexplicable pro- ceeding, strengthens my belief in the above assertion. Parasitical birds depend on the weakness or carelessness of other birds to take their prey. A Kite (Milvus parasi- ticm), common in the East, pesters Falcons, Eagles, and such like, with such bold importunity, that these throw them a portion of their booty. The Skuas persecute other Gulls to such an extent that they are forced to throw up the prey they have swallowed, which the former immediately pounce upon. Gannets and Terns do the same. These pirates readily distinguish those birds which they can plague with impunity from those which do not yield to their persecutions. When several different species are to be seen living together, and each has to look sharp after his food, one finds numberless opportunities of observing how they seek to over-reach one another. The Laughing Gulls, in the Hamburg Zoological Gardens, which are allowed their liberty, keep a regular watch over the diving Ducks, and often rob them of their booty as soon as they rise to the surface. They narrowly observe those that dive, awaiting the instant of their return to the surface, at which moment REASON. 133 if the Duck has succeeded in catching a fish, they imme- diately dash down and try to snatch it away : this they often succeed in doing, for the diving Ducks are in the habit always of swallowing their food above water ; and, in spite of repeated diving to gain time, they are gene- rally unsuccessful in their attempts to save their dinner. Coots are as active and quite as impudent as the Gulls. I have seen them snatch food out of the very beaks of the Swans, which the latter had just brought up from the bottom. These examples which I have quoted are by no means uncommon. Other instances have been observed which are still more remarkable. A friend of mine, a clergyman of undoubted veracity, told me the following charming anecdote of a tame Magpie. " This bird had its abode among the Hens and Chickens in the yard, though under rather disagreeable circumstances, owing to its being chased at meal-times by the Fowls, &c. In these squabbles the Magpie was generally attacked by two Hens at once, and, getting the worst of it, had to stand by and see his enemies feed, unable to partake of the feast himself. This state of things pro- duced a bitter feeling, which soon gave the spur to the natural talent for artfulness and slyness, so inherent in the Magpie, and led the bird to substitute roguery for the strength he did not possess. His tactics were these : he now began the quarrel himself while the Fowls were feeding ; these, angered at the interruption of their meal, immediately left their food to chastise the intruder, who, however, screaming and aggravating, kept hopping away just in front of the enraged enemy, till he had at last enticed them some distance from their food; then, suddenly taking wing, back flies Mr. Magpie, snaps up a fine piece of potato, which he bears off in triumph, and 184 BIKD-LIFE. hides up in his store-house under a barrel. This game is carried on until sufficient provision has been accumu- lated." The Goose, so often spoken of as stupid, sometimes gives proof of a character quite the reverse. A Gander had taken up his abode in a wheat-field ; at first the bird fed with the greatest nonchalance, until disco- vered and repeatedly driven out; after which he only sought the field and fed when no one was near. Did any person approach he immediately squatted close to the ground without uttering a sound, and even allowed the whole flock of village Geese to pass by without betraying himself. My father has immortalized the intelligence of a Carrion Crow in the following anecdote. "As genius distinguishes individuals among men, so cleverness raises some birds far above their fellows. I once met with a genius such as this in the person of a female Carrion Crow, which had built her nest in a small wood of tall firs and beech trees, standing about 200 yards distant from the manor of Oberrenthendorf, and some 800 from my dwelling. When this bird was hungry she showed a boldness and cleverness which astonished everybody, and caused universal consternation. If a flock of Geese and Goslings were not very carefully watched, down pounced the Crow, seized hold of any little Gosling which might have strayed some distance from the old birds, and, killing it with a few blows of the beak, picked it up, by the neck, in her bill, and away with it to her young at home ; young Ducks and Chickens shared the same fate. " One day a servant girl, who was walking in a garden, happened to lay down part of her breakfast a nice well- buttered piece of bread (she had just finished a piece of REASON. 135 the staff of life, minus the butter !) on the grass ; the girl had not gone many paces, when down swoops the Crow from a tremendous height, picks up the dainty slice, and flies away with the same to her nest, utterly regardless of the outcry made by the rightful owner. In those days the farming lads on the estate wore the short jackets, then the fashion in those parts, and always carried their breakfast with them in the pockets of that garment. When the sun was well up they used to lay their jackets aside on the bank at one end of the field, so as to enable them to plough with greater comfort. One fine morning, as soon as the men were far enough off, down comes our friend the Crow, pulls out one lad's breakfast and flies off with it. The despoiled one was well laughed at by his companions, who vowed that they would take very good care and not be robbed in a similar manner. The next day they laid their jackets with the pockets carefully covered up, and so folded as to lie quite undermost. This time the bird quietly allowed the ploughmen to get so far away that they could not see the bank, owing to the unevenness of the ground ; this done the Crow descended, turned the jackets upside down, and, after making a good feed, decamped with a nice supply for her family! After this the men were obliged to weight the clothes with heavy stones, so as to prevent the bird from continuing her depredations. " In the meantime the Crow had become aware of the benefits arising from inspection of the men's clothing; and from that time she examined every jacket she came across in either the yard or the out-buildings. When the shepherds happened to have any pieces of bread over from their breakfast, they used to put it in the pockets of an old stable-jacket, which hung at the open stable-door. 136 BIED-LIFE. The Crow would rummage out the pockets of this garment whenever she could approach it unseen, and was even known to fly right into the stable in search of booty. " This creature, universally detested, was, through her uncommon cleverness, an endless source of amusement to me, and, as may well be imagined, I was repeatedly asked to shoot her : to this request, however, I always turned a deaf ear. How could I have the heart to put an end to such an amusing companion ! I always used to think of the old proverb, unfortunately so little acted upon : ' Little rogues are hung, when great ones get off with impunity/ So I let her live in peace for ten long years." I am thoroughly convinced that many similar observa- tions are made, of which we hear nothing. We are, also, still too little acquainted with the mental life of birds to observe everything with sufficient care. Truly, indeed, must the bird " Wirken und streben, Und pflanzen und shaffen, Erlisten, erraffen, Wetten und wogen Das Gliick zu erjagen" to obtain its subsistence. Birds, like men, calculate and act in companies. I have often remarked Pelicans while fishing, and noticed that they dislike working alone, much preferring to do so in company. A large number of them unite together for a common purpose : they form an extensive half-circle across the entrance of shallow bays or creeks, and then swim slowly towards the shore, thus cutting off the retreat of all fish in the bay into deep water. In the Egyptian canals a flock of these birds would separate into two divisions, each alighting at either end of a certain length BEASON. 137 of canal, and then, swimming towards each other, drive the fish before them. Hobby Hawks (Falco subbuteo) will catch Swallows in company, which they could not do singly, the latter being too quick for them, so one of the pair flies above the enemy and the other below, in such a position as to intercept the Swallow when driven towards it. Eooks, according to Naumann's experience, the most destructive enemies of the cockchaffer, shake that destructive beetle from the boughs of trees, while others of their species devour the fallen prey: this must certainly be called systematic hunting ! We have known, however, other quite different proofs of reason in birds from the examples hitherto given. Long intercourse with the most gifted of these creatures, especially when in captivity, gives every observer the opportunity of witnessing in birds what to him has hitherto appeared incredible. It would take up too much space were I to relate everything bearing upon this subject which has come under my notice. I must, therefore, limit myself to some few striking examples. It is well known with what ease birds may be taught to pull up seed in a little bucket hung up in their cage. It is equally well known that Canaries may be trained to go through some portions of military exercise : they . will carry a small gun, fire it off, fall down and -la^. as / L