THE RURAL SCHOOL 
 
 ITS METHODS AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 HORACE M. CULTER 
 
 PROFESSOR OF RURAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 
 
 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 EMPORIA, KANSAS 
 
 AND 
 
 JULIA M. STONE 
 
 TEACHER, MODEL RURAL SCHOOL 
 
 WESTERN KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 HAYS, KANSAS 
 
 SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 "^ ^'^\'=\
 
 Copyright, 1913, by 
 SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY
 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The present treatise on school methods and manage- 
 ment is intended for teachers in the elementary country 
 schools and for those in normal and high schools who 
 expect to go into the rural schools to teach. The writer 
 has studiously avoided all suggestions especially applica- 
 ble to the management of city schools, and has pur- 
 posely confined himself to such plans and methods as will 
 be suited to the country school. While consolidation is 
 an important movement, and many more weak districts 
 should be united, yet in many parts of the United States 
 the time is far distant when the one-room country school 
 will, or should, be discontinued. A one-room school in 
 the rural districts, taught by a competent teacher, is still 
 a good place for a boy or girl to get the elements of an 
 education. 
 
 The United States Commissioner of Education re- 
 ports that in the school year 1907-1908 there were five and 
 one half million school children and one hundred thirty- 
 four thousand teachers in cities of four thousand or 
 more population; in the outside districts, there were 
 eleven million children and three hundred sixty-one thou- 
 sand teachers. In the state of Kansas there are two and 
 one third times as many children in the one- and two- 
 room schools and nearly five times as many teachers, 
 as there are in the cities and towns maintaining graded 
 systems of schools. From the above it seems safe to 
 conclude that in the United States there are twice as 
 
 V
 
 vi Preface 
 
 many teachers in the rural schools and nearly twice as 
 many children. But, up to the present time, the em- 
 phasis has been placed upon city school management 
 and city supervision, and many of the suggestions offered 
 do not fit rural conditions at all. It is the country teacher, 
 especially, who needs instruction in management. The 
 one-room rural school with the six to nine grades and 
 twenty to twenty-five or more classes, is a much more 
 complex institution to manage than is the one room of a 
 city system. And if it were not, the city teacher is placed 
 at a much greater advantage than the country teacher, 
 for if assistance is needed, the city teacher may call 
 to her aid the principal of the building, or he may 
 consult the superintendent. On the other hand, the 
 country teacher must be at the same time teacher, prin- 
 cipal and superintendent. When in need, she may on 
 Saturday drive ten or twenty miles and interview the 
 county superintendent; or, if in dire distress, at the risk 
 of her reputation as a teacher, she may ask that the 
 superintendent come to her school and assist in settling 
 some difficulty. 
 
 But an awakening interest in rural schools is evident 
 on every hand, and many are coming to believe not only 
 that there should be better supervision in the rural dis- 
 trict, but also that the boy and the girl of the country 
 should have as good school privileges as the boy and the 
 girl of the city. The environment of the country school 
 is better, the health and vigor of the young people of 
 the rural district make them more receptive of educational 
 advantages; there is less to distract from the school 
 and its interests; yet many of the schools of the country 
 are far behind the schools of the city. The truth of this 
 statement is proved by the fact that many farmers move 
 to town every year that they may send their children
 
 Preface vii 
 
 to school. Again, six months of school in the country- 
 are not the equivalent of nine months in the city, and 
 this is about the proportion of educational advantages 
 offered in many of our states. In order that the country 
 child may have as good school privileges as the city 
 child, the country must have better schoolhouses and 
 equipment; better supervision and more of it; longer 
 terms of school; courses of study in harmony with rural 
 conditions; and better teachers who have been trained 
 for rural school work. 
 
 Besides school management, the rural teacher needs 
 to know better methods, especially in primary subjects. 
 Realizing this deficiency, a few chapters in primary 
 methods, by Miss Stone, have been added, which are 
 adapted to the work of country schools. 
 
 Out of an experience of many years as a teacher in 
 rural, village and county high schools, and as a teacher 
 of teachers, have the pages of this book been written; 
 and it is offered to the public with the hope that it may 
 add its mite to the improvement of rural schools. 
 
 A SUGGESTION 
 
 While this book is intended primarily for elementary 
 teachers, a more advanced study of the subjects con- 
 tained in Part One may be had by supplementing the 
 study of the book with the use of the reference bibliog- 
 raphy which follows each chapter. Such a course, well 
 done, will give advanced students quite a comprehen- 
 sive view of Rural School Management. 
 
 Horace M. Culter.
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 In treating so many subjects as are contained in this 
 book, it is not to be supposed that any one or two per- 
 sons can be authority on all. As the reader peruses these 
 pages, he \vill observe that many persons have contrib- 
 uted to the contents of this book. To these the authors 
 express their grateful appreciation. 
 
 But special acknowledgment is due Joseph H. Hill, 
 president of the Kansas State Normal School, for his 
 hearty encouragement throughout the preparation of 
 this volume; to Professor R. H. Ritchie, head of the 
 Speech Arts Department of the Kansas State Normal 
 School, for his careful work in correcting the manu- 
 script; to Professor Frank A. Beach, director of music 
 of the Kansas State Normal School, for writing the 
 chapter on Music; to Professor W. G. Lewis, formerly 
 professor of physics, for the chapter on Nature Study; 
 to Mrs. Emily K. Hoelcel, for many helpful suggestions 
 and for her work in criticising the chapters on Methods; 
 to Mr. C. J. Brown of Louisiana, for valuable sugges- 
 tions; and to Willis H. Kerr, of the Kansas Normal 
 School library; to the Smith Heating Company and to 
 the Waterman-Waterbury Heating Company for illus- 
 trative material; to the authors of "Farm Life Readers" 
 for four illustrations from those books; and to many 
 others who have so kindly made suggestions and con- 
 tributed material for the various chapters of the book. 
 They are deserving of a share of credit for whatever 
 merit this volume may have and for whatever success 
 may attend it. 
 
 viii
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Part I 
 RURAL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 FAGB 
 
 I. The Rural School a Laggard 1 
 
 II. School Site and Grounds 5 
 
 Choosing the Site — The School Grounds — A 
 School Plant. 
 
 III. The House 13 
 
 The Need of Better School Buildings — Three 
 Types of Houses — Equipment. 
 
 IV. School Hygiene and Sanitation .... 28 
 
 Precautions against Germs ^ Correcting Physical 
 Defects — Lighting and Seating — Ventilation. 
 
 V. The Teacher — His Qualifications .... 45 
 Physical Equipment — Mental Equipment — 
 Attention to Business Details. 
 
 VI. The Teacher — His Personality .... 56 
 The Development of a Strong Personality. 
 
 VII. The First Day 63 
 
 Preparation for the First Day — Methods of 
 Procedure for the First Day. 
 
 VIII. The Daily Program 71 
 
 The Study Prograjn — Arrangement of Classes. 
 
 IX. The Recitation 81 
 
 Purposes of the Recitation — Mechanics of the 
 Recitation. 
 
 X. The Recitation (confimied) .93 
 
 Devices of the* Recitation — Methods of the Reci- 
 tation — Induction and Deduction. 
 
 XI. Teaching Pupils How to Study .... 101 
 Stages in the Art of Study — Hints on Stud}-mg. 
 
 XII. Play and Playgrounds 112 
 
 The Function of Play — How the School Should 
 Provide for Play. 
 
 is
 
 X Contents 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XIII. The Library and Its Uses 125 
 
 Acquiring a Library — What to Buy — Using 
 the Library — Suggested Plan of Organiza- 
 tion for Small School Library — A Working 
 Library for Country Schools. 
 
 XIV. School Government 143 
 
 Aids to School Government — The Infliction 
 of Punishments — Corporal Punishment as 
 Viewed by the Courts — Placing Pupils on 
 their Honor — The Psychology of Motor Ac- 
 tivities — The Use of Incentives. 
 
 XV. School Ethics 159 
 
 The Need of Ethical Teaching — Methods of 
 Ethical Teaching. 
 
 XVI. Agriculture in Rural Schools .... 169 
 Overcoming Obstacles • — Outline of Work for 
 a Rural School — A Lesson Plan — School 
 Gardens — Contests and Clubs — The View 
 Point of the Country. 
 
 XVII. Duties of the Teacher 184 
 
 To the District — To Pupils — To the County 
 Superintendent — To the Neighborhood — 
 To Self. 
 
 XVIII. The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher . . 200 
 The Lesser Opport.imities — The Great Oppor- 
 tunities — What Has been Accomplished by 
 Teachers in Country Schools. 
 
 XIX. Consolidation 222 
 
 Changed Conditions — Origin of the District 
 Unit — Evils of the District System — The 
 Larger Unit — Reports in Regard to Consoli- 
 dation in Several States — Standardization of 
 ^ the Schools — Requirements for a Standard 
 
 School. 
 
 Part n 
 
 RURAL SCHOOL METHODS 
 
 I. Primary Reading . 245 
 
 Importance of Reading — Kinds of Reading — 
 Methods of Teaching Reading. 
 
 II. Primary Reading (continued) 254 
 
 The Combined Method — Practical Suggestions. 
 
 HI. Language Work 266 
 
 Elementary Grammar — Language Proper.
 
 Contents xi 
 
 CHAFTEB PAGB 
 
 IV. Busy Work, What and How 282 
 
 Busy Work for Younger Pupils — Busy Work 
 for Older Pupils. 
 
 V. Numbers 295 
 
 The Nuraber Idea — Objects of Number Teach- 
 ing, 
 
 ; VI. Learning to Write 310 
 
 ^ Teacliing the Beginners — Materials — Dis- 
 
 cussion of Methods. 
 
 VII. Drawing 319 
 
 How to Begin — Perspective — Scene Drawing 
 — Suggestive Drawings for the Different 
 Months — • Paper-cutting and Design. 
 
 VIII. Music .337 
 
 Importance — Equipment — Teaching in 
 Groups — Appreciation of Music. 
 
 IX. Physical Science 349 
 
 Interest of the Subject — Lesson I: Why Hot 
 Air Goes Up the Chimney — Lesson II: 
 Physiology — Lesson III: Air Pressure — 
 Subjects for other Lessons — The Fairy Chil- 
 dren of the Ocean. 
 
 X. Geography 360 
 
 Suggestions for Oral or Primary Geography — 
 Map Study — The Text Reinforced — Ad- 
 vanced Geography.
 
 PART I 
 RURAL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
 
 The Rural School 
 
 Chapter I 
 THE RURAL SCHOOL A LAGGARD 
 
 Some writers and lecturers are inclined to picture the 
 rural school of to-day in a decadent and dilapidated con- 
 dition. They would lead us to believe that the country 
 school, of our forefathers was a much better school than 
 the country school of the present time. Although there 
 are a few respects in which the schools of three or four 
 decades ago were better than the schools of the present, 
 the truth seems to be not that they were, necessarilj'^, 
 better schools, but that they were more nearly on a par 
 with the conditions of country life. 
 
 In many respects, the twentieth-century rural school 
 is far in advance of the schools of the nineteenth century. 
 The houses are better, and better equipped; the teachers, 
 though younger, are better educated; the curriculum is 
 richer and more nearly adapted to the needs of child life; 
 the school term is longer and the advantages of school are 
 more nearly within reach of every child. There remain 
 comparatively few of the old log or sod schoolhouses of 
 pioneer days. Modern furniture has replaced the uncom- 
 fortable and unhygienic furniture made by our fore- 
 fathers. The painted blackboard has given place to a 
 good composition blackboard or to real slate. There are 
 
 1
 
 > 
 
 2 The Rural School 
 
 more maps, charts and illustrative material than were 
 in use in the old school. 
 
 The true basis of complaint is not that the rural school 
 has not improved, hut that it has not kept and is not keep- 
 ing, step with the onward progress of our civilization. It 
 is a laggard in the race with its sister, the city school. 
 
 While city school boards have been willing to expend 
 large sums of money for good locations for buildings, in 
 some instances paying fabulous prices for land and even 
 going to the roofs for garden space and play room, the 
 rural school has been expecting some one to donate land 
 for a site, and has been willing to go to an unfavorable 
 location in order that forty or fifty dollars might be saved 
 to the district. The city schools have planted flowers 
 and trees, have made lawns and watered them, and have 
 hired janitors for the whole year in order that these might 
 be properly safeguarded. On the other hand, to a great 
 extent rural communities have considered these things 
 all right for the city, but have not even given them a 
 thought as being a part of the country school equipment. 
 
 While the cities have been, and are still, putting thou- 
 sands of dollars into beautiful school buildings, equipped 
 with every modern convenience, sanitary and comfort- 
 able to the highest degree; the country has thought itself 
 well equipped if it had a structure of the " Box Car " 
 type. Little or no thought has been given to lighting and 
 heating according to modern methods. Although the 
 city has been using single desks in its buildings for years, 
 and is trying adjustable chairs and desks of latest pat- 
 tern, the rural schools seem to think that the double desk 
 is the only one manufactured. The city has invested much 
 thought and no little expense in the architectural beauty 
 of the buildings; the country seems to think that if the 
 building is painted, sufficient money has been expended.
 
 The Rural School a Laggard 3 
 
 While the city has been spending money freely in order 
 to install sanitary closets, the country has just passed 
 the stage of two-closets-in-one-building style, and has 
 just reached the place where every school ground has two 
 outhouses, one for each sex. No city plans a building 
 without providing for a system of ventilation. Often a 
 large part of the expense is for heating and ventilation, — 
 some even washing the air before forcing it into the 
 schoolrooms. Yet, up to the present time, the friendly 
 cracks have furnished inlets for most of the fresh air in 
 country school buildings. 
 
 While the cities are demanding well educated and thor- 
 oughly trained teachers, often not accepting a teacher 
 until he has proved himself by two or three years' ex- 
 perience; the country has been giving these teachers 
 opportunities to make their initial trials in its schools, 
 and, if they are successful, it has allowed them to go into 
 the city, simply because the city would pay more than 
 the country was willing to pay. This has resulted in 
 giving the city the advantage of the experienced teacher 
 and, as a rule, the teacher of strong personality. 
 
 While the cities are spending millions for playgrounds 
 and their equipment, the country has done almost noth- 
 ing along this line. The cities are buying land in the 
 heart of the most populous districts, establishing play 
 centers there and furnishing superintendents and direct- 
 ors of play. Up to the present time most people have 
 thought that play has but one beneficial result, — that 
 of furnishing exercise to the individual, and that the 
 country boy and girl get plenty of exercise in their work, 
 and therefore need no play. " The country is dominated 
 hy work." It has lost, in large measure, the play spirit 
 and has too often substituted evil and vice; until no longer 
 is tne country a safe moral retreat for boys and girls,
 
 4 The Rural School 
 
 While the cities, under great disadvantages, have been 
 teaching natux-e, the country has done little, though sur- 
 rounded on every hand by nature's handiwork. While 
 all city schools, worthy the name, have libraries more or 
 less well equipped, many schools of the country have no 
 semblance of one, not even a dictionary. While the cities 
 long ago realized the importance of consolidation and 
 concentration of forces, in order that expert supervision 
 might be employed, the country is just beginning to 
 realize that the consolidated school is a desirable type for 
 rural communities. 
 
 But there is a brighter day coming for rural education. 
 School men everywhere are thinking, talking, and plan- 
 ning for the rural school. It is beginning to be realized 
 that there are advantages to be derived from life in the 
 country which cannot be duplicated by city life; that the 
 country school, though a laggard, has some good features 
 which, if utilized, make for good citizenship and noble 
 manhood. No well informed person can deny that the 
 product of these country schools has resulted, in many 
 instances, in the highest type of American manhood and 
 womanhood. All that seems to be needed, in order to 
 bring the country school to a degree of efficiency commen- 
 surate with its opportunities, is an awakened sentiment 
 on the part of country people which will demand for the 
 rural schools of this country, (1) a better and more effi- 
 cient organization, (2) closer and more effective supervis- 
 ion, and (3) more competent and better trained teachers. 
 
 As stated in the preface, it is not within the province 
 of this book to treat all these subjects; but rather to 
 limit the discussion to methods and management, adapted 
 to rural conditions, so that the young teacher who goes 
 into the country may be forewarned and forearmed.
 
 Chapter II 
 
 SCHOOL SITE AND GROUNDS 
 
 CHOOSING THE SITE 
 
 Selfish Motives. — Where the schoolhouse shall be 
 located has been the source of numerous contentions, 
 which, in many cases, have lasted for years. Ofttimes 
 these contentions have set neighbor against neighbor, 
 and have resulted in great detriment to the school inter- 
 ests, because they have been fostered by selfish motives 
 and have not been based on broad economic and hygienic 
 principles. In the selection of the present sites for school- 
 houses, one idea seems to have prevailed, and that idea 
 has been to get the schoolhouse as near to " my farm " as 
 possible. Apparently, no thought has been taken with 
 regard to the suitableness of the soil, slope of the ground, 
 or its elevation or depression. 
 
 The Idea of Centrality. — Although the house should 
 be located near the center of the district, there are other 
 considerations. This principle of centrality is not so 
 binding that, in order to place the house in the center of 
 a district, it be located in a pine woods or in the middle 
 of a pasture, where the children will be in danger of being 
 maimed by the cattle, and where it can be reached only 
 by leaving the public highway; or that it be set on top 
 of a hill where nothing except a few rocks have been able 
 to remain, the thought being, no doubt, that since noth- 
 
 5
 
 6 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 ing else will grow there, surely the tree of knowledge will; 
 or finally, that it be situated in a low, marshy place where 
 the mud will be a source of annoyance and inconvenience 
 for a large part of the year. 
 
 The schoolhouse ought to be located near a public road, 
 in a place accessible to all in the district. The soil ought 
 to be the richest the district affords, such, at least, as will 
 produce grass, flowers and trees. This will preclude the 
 
 THERE SHOULD BE A PLOT FOR A SCHOOL GARDEN 
 
 hilltop where there is no soil. It should not be in low 
 swampy ground, but in a place well drained. The people 
 should realize that as they are establishing a plant in 
 which to grow boys and girls, everything ought to be of 
 the highest quality available. 
 
 Size. — The regulation size of the school ground in one 
 western prairie state is one acre. Provided that the 
 school is small and th(Te are no large boys and girls that 
 need room for their various games, and provided that no 
 attention is to be paid to experimental agriculture or
 
 School Site and Grounds 7 
 
 school gardening, this is large enough. If the pupils are 
 to play " ante-over," " black man " and " tag," this plot 
 will do. But if there are to be flowers, trees, a place for 
 the little ones to play, and a playground for the older 
 ones, an acre is not enough. If there is to be a plot for a 
 school garden, a piece of land for experimental agriculture, 
 and room for stables for the horses of those who drive to 
 school, an acre is not nearly enough. 
 
 For a good-sized district school, there ought to be from 
 an acre and one half to two acres; for a consolidated 
 school or a very large district school, especially where 
 agriculture and school gardening are to be taught, there 
 should be not less than three acres. This will give room 
 for the house, playgrounds for the little folks, temiis 
 court, baseball diamond, stables and sheds, plots for 
 agriculture and gardens. 
 
 THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 
 
 Plan of School Grounds. — Where feasible, the house 
 should be situated at a crossroad. It will then be more 
 accessible to patrons of the district, and a corner makes a 
 better location for the grounds. The house should be 
 placed near one corner of the lot, leaving a small L-shaped 
 place between the house and the sides of the lot for trees, 
 grass and flowers. A four-foot walk should lead from the 
 road to the main entrance. This may be made by using 
 two-by-fours for the edges, and filling in between with 
 coal cinders and salt. This will in time pack into quite 
 a hard surface, and is much better than no walk. The 
 cost of such a walk is insignificant. Of course, cement or 
 brick is the better material. 
 
 If the water-closets are to be separate from the build- 
 ing, a walk should lead to each from its side of the house.
 
 8 The Rural School 
 
 The closets should face in the same direction as the 
 house. In front of each and extending back on the sides 
 next to the house, there should be latticework completely- 
 screening the doors from the road and the house. Morn- 
 ing-glories, or some other vine, may be planted to run 
 over this latticework. Good screens may be made by 
 using common boards in place of the latticework. These 
 should be capped by a two-by-four and a strip of mould- 
 ing, and the whole should be well painted. Vines here 
 and at a window or over the coal house will add much to 
 the looks of the yard. The well should be located at one 
 side and convenient to the front door. The stables and 
 sheds should be at the back of the lot. 
 
 Trees. — A school ground will not be complete without 
 shrubs and trees. Why are there not more trees around 
 schoolhouses? Simply because no one has been interested 
 in having them planted. Who must make the start? 
 The teacher will have to be the prime mover in the enter- 
 prise. Let the teacher call to his assistance the boys and 
 girls of the school. Getting them interested in plant- 
 ing a tree is worth as much or more than the planted tree. 
 Old men like to plant trees, young men do not seem to 
 have time, or think that it will be too long before the 
 tree will mature. The old men and the young people of 
 the school can be interested in observing Arbor Day. In 
 his book " Among Country Schools," Supt. O. J. Kern 
 has this to say about observing Arbor Day: " Let us ob- 
 serve Arbor Day in every school with appropriate songs 
 and exercises; but let us not forget to plant when planting 
 needs to be done. For schools whose premises are tree- 
 less the proper thing to do would be to dig rather than 
 sing, if only one could be done in a day. What is the 
 use of singing about trees and ending with that, when 
 planting and caring for trees is needed?
 
 School Site and Grounds 
 
 9 
 
 " No, Arbor Day has not been observed m the proper 
 spirit, when some afternoon a Httle boy recites, ' What 
 Do We Plant When We Plant the Tree,' a class of girls 
 sing, ' The Brave Old Oak,' and then all go to work on 
 
 THE UMBRELLA TREE 
 A good shade tree of the South 
 
 the arithmetic lesson, leaving the ground as desolate as 
 it was before." 
 
 The kind of trees to be planted will be suggested by 
 the trees that grow in the neighboring forests and are 
 cultivated for shade in the dooryards of the neighborhood. 
 In many parts of the middle west, the problem is not so
 
 10 The Rural School 
 
 much what to plant, as how to get the trees to live after 
 they are planted. Of course where there is not rain dur- 
 ing the summer months, and scarcely any during the 
 winter, trees will not grow without irrigation. In the 
 semi-arid districts there are three ways of growing trees: 
 first, by watering them; second, by cultivating the 
 ground, keeping down all the weeds and keeping the sur- 
 face of the ground loose and mellow; third, by mulching 
 with a heavy coat of straw or hay, or something that will 
 conserve the moisture that falls. The first of these plans 
 could be used for a few trees by having a windmill to 
 pump the water; then, if the ground were so arranged 
 that a ditch would lead the water from one tree to an- 
 other, with a very little care the trees could be watered 
 throughout the summer. The second way is hardly prac- 
 tical in the ordinary district, but the third could be easily 
 carried out. One mulching a year would be sufficient. 
 
 The hardiest tree for the western plains is the honey 
 locust. It will live through more drought, and will sur- 
 vive with less care than any other that has been tried. 
 The catalpa also survives well under adverse conditions. 
 
 In planting trees, the playgrounds should be preserved. 
 They should be planted around the outside of the grounds, 
 in the corners, and about the outbuildings. Nature plants 
 her trees in clumps, and Nature knows how to make them 
 look well. 
 
 A School Site in the Timber. — In many parts of the 
 South and in other timbered districts, the question is 
 not so much one of planting trees and getting them to 
 grow, as it is a problem of clearing a place for the school- 
 house. Too often the clearing is just large enough for 
 the house, no room being provided for school garden and 
 playground; nor is any thought given to the attractive- 
 ness of the place. What an advantage these conditions
 
 School Site and Grounds 11 
 
 offer over those in the dry prairie districts where it is hard 
 to get trees to grow! A little forethought, leaving a tree 
 here and one there, digging and transplanting a few 
 native shrubs and vines, rounding out this corner and 
 covering that unsightly place, will produce a veritable 
 Garden of Eden in the midst of a forest of trees and fur- 
 nish a picture lesson for every home in the vicinity. 
 
 A SCHOOL PLANT 
 
 When the rural school comes into its own, when it fur- 
 nishes the education which the country needs, when 
 patrons and school officers realize the possibilities of the 
 school, there will be, not a schoolhouse, but a school 
 plant. This will consist of a plot of ground, a house, a 
 barn, a home for the teacher, and such other accessories 
 as the occupations of the community may demand. The 
 house will be fitted for the occupation of a modern school, 
 a place where the various lines of work needed under 
 present changed conditions can be performed. Manual 
 training, domestic science, basket-weaving, agriculture, 
 etc., besides the usual program of the school, will enter 
 into the consideration of the plans for the house and of 
 the selection of the grounds. The teacher's home will be 
 a neat modern cottage fitted for the use of the teacher 
 and his family. The barn or stable will be for the accom- 
 modation of the teacher, and those who ride or drive to 
 school. The plot of ground will consist of ten or more 
 acres which will be used for playgrounds, school gardens, 
 experimental agriculture, etc., and will make possible 
 work along lines which will be significant. A gasoline 
 engine, a pump, a dynamo and a pressure tank in the 
 basement of the schoolhouse will make possible sanitary 
 water-closets, and shower baths and electricity with all
 
 12 The Rural School 
 
 of its conveniences. With no extra expense, except for 
 piping and wiring, these conveniences may be carried to 
 the teacher's cottage. Somewhere on the grounds, either 
 in the basement of the schoolhouse or in the teacher's 
 kitchen, a motor could be installed which would run a 
 cream separator, a churn or a Babcock tester, a washing 
 machine, a sewing machine, a vacuum cleaner, or what- 
 ever other machinery might be desired. 
 
 Under these conditions instruction could be given in 
 the household arts, dairying, farm management, etc., by 
 the teacher, or in case of a consolidated school, by some 
 two or more of the teaching force. 
 
 In some instances there could be located on the school 
 site a cannery, a drying kiln, a shop of some kind, or 
 some other community interest. The school grounds 
 should also be the place where the young people may 
 gather for their games. Here should be the meeting 
 place of the literary society, the Sunday school, the 
 Farmers' Union, the Mothers' Club, etc. It should, in 
 fact, be the social center of the whole community. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Barry, Hygiene of the Schoolroom (chapter 1). 1904. 
 Silver, Burdett & Co. $1.50. 
 
 Brown, Ornamentation of School Grounds. This may 
 be obtained from the State Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, Baton Rouge, La. 
 
 Fairchild, School Buildings, School Grounds, and their 
 Improvement. This may be obtained from the State 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kansas. 
 
 Foght, American Rural School (chapter 9). 1910. 
 The Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Kern, Among Country Schools. 1906. Ginn & Co., 
 $1.50.
 
 Chapter III 
 
 THE HOUSE 
 
 THE NEED OF BETTER SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 When Garfield said, " A pine log with the student on 
 one end and Dr. Hopkms on the other would be a liberal 
 education," he uttered it to emphasize the importance 
 of the teacher, but not to minimize the need of a proper 
 house in which the teacher may do his work. 
 
 Silent Forces. — There are certain silent and unseen 
 forces in nature which accomplish wonderful results. 
 A very little water in the crevice of a rock may, when it 
 freezes, loosen a huge boulder from its bed and send it 
 thundering doAvn into the valley below. The silent action 
 of the sun's rays breaks up the rivers of ice and lifts into 
 the air tons of moisture that later come dowTi in showers 
 and storms. So in the realm of culture there are certain 
 forces, which, though silent, are nevertheless powerful, 
 exerting influences and ennobling characters. In one of 
 his orations, Cicero says that he placed before him the 
 portraits of great men in order that by beholding their 
 likenesses his life might be influenced by their noble 
 examples and that he might grow more noble by looking 
 upon their faces. 
 
 Better Houses.— The beautiful has always been as- 
 sociated with the good, and the ugly with the bad. The 
 modern house should have a more pleasing architectural 
 appearance. The older types of houses were made with 
 
 13
 
 14 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 two objects in view, cheapness and usefulness. The 
 question of beauty did not enter into the consideration 
 of their construction. They served their day and pur- 
 pose and were more or less suited to the times, but con- 
 ditions have changed and people are building better 
 houses in which to live and better barns in which to 
 house their stock; they are buying better vehicles in 
 
 A SOD SCHOOLHOUSE OF WESTERN KANSAS 
 
 which to ride and are able to build better houses in 
 which to educate their children, — houses that are more 
 pleasing to the eye and that speak of the beautiful in 
 life and character. 
 
 If there were no other reasons why there should be 
 better schoolhouses than those given above, they ought 
 to be sufficient; but there are other reasons why the 
 buildings in almost every district should be better than 
 they are at the present time.
 
 The House 15 
 
 A BOX CAR SCHOOLHOUSE 
 
 Economy, — It is a matter of economy that the school- 
 house should be comfortable. In India the priest may 
 gather his pupils under the shade of a tree, for he has 
 not much to teach them and his school has not the vim 
 of an American school; but in this country of extremes 
 of heat and cold, such simplicity is not to be thought 
 of. In this land of the strenuous life, the house which 
 will accomplish the most in a given time is the one to 
 be considered. The log cabin with its puncheon floor 
 would do for the pioneers of this country, for it was the 
 best they could afford. The log cabin, as we have said 
 before, has served its day and age in the hills of the east 
 and in the mountain regions of the west, as the sod school- 
 house has on the plains of the middle west. The one 
 gave place to the " little red schoolhouse " if such there 
 has ever been, as the other has given place to the white 
 Box Car type. This might be called the age of the
 
 16 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 Box Car schoolhouse. It is a better house than the log 
 or the sod house, but perhaps we are entering the era of a 
 new and more scientific and hygienic type of school 
 building. 
 
 The actual outlay for one of these modern houses 
 will be more than for either of the other two, but in the 
 long run it will be more economical. It will be better 
 heated, better lighted, better ventilated and better 
 
 A BETTER HOUSE OF MODEKN TYPE 
 Containing a workroom, fuel room, modern lighting, heating and ventilation 
 
 equipped. Both teachers and pupils can do more work, 
 and work which will be more efficient, in it than in a 
 building of the old type; hence it will yield a better 
 income on the investment. 
 
 Hygienic Considerations. — As suggested above, the 
 modern house will be more hygienic. Schoolhouses, when 
 new, are very close and need constant ventilation; when 
 old, they are too open and are hard to keep warm. In a
 
 The House 17 
 
 new house, on account of faulty ventilation, colds or 
 other contagious diseases are likely to spread through 
 the whole school, while in an old house, the difficulty in 
 keeping the building warm results in more or less 
 sickness. 
 
 Heating and Ventilation. — The subject of heating 
 and ventilation will be discussed at greater length in a 
 later chapter on Hygiene and Sanitation. The school- 
 house should be heated by some system other than a 
 common stove set in the middle of the room. With 
 this latter method, invariably some will be too warm 
 and others too cold. There should be some method of 
 ventilation other than that obtained by opening the doors 
 and windows. Hon. C. P. Gary, State Superintendent 
 of Wisconsin, has suggested the following as a method 
 of ventilation. The chimney built from the ground up 
 is made extra large so that an eight-inch heavy iron 
 pipe may extend within the chimney from the point 
 where the stove pipe enters the flue up to and a little 
 above the top of the chimney. This iron pipe receives 
 the pipe from the stove and all the smoke and gases go 
 up through this and not through the flue proper. Near 
 the floor a register is put m the chimney, furnishing an 
 outlet for the foul air of the room. The inner pipe heats 
 the air in the flue and causes a draft in the flue proper. 
 If now the stove is set in one corner of the room near the 
 chimney, and surrounded with a good jacket into which 
 fresh air is admitted through a pipe from outside, a good 
 system of heating and ventilation will be provided for 
 the room. 
 
 It is quite essential that the flue be quite large, say 
 sixteen inches square; that the jacket entirely surround 
 the stove (a shield will not answer the purpose), and 
 that it contain a door that may be closed tightly; that
 
 18 The Rural School 
 
 the cool fresh air be so admitted that it wiU be heated 
 before it can fall to the floor; that all doors and windows, 
 and ceiling and floor of the room be tight so that the 
 warm fresh air will not escape and so that the cold air 
 will not enter the room before being heated. 
 
 Many schoolhouses could be heated by a furnace. A 
 basement will be required, but this provides a place for 
 fuel and other conveniences, such as a pump and a tank 
 for supplying water for toilet rooms, and under some 
 conditions a room for manual training or play. Of course 
 fresh air and an outlet for the impure air should be 
 provided with the furnace, just as with the stove and 
 jacket. 
 
 Light. — In the modern schoolhouse the light is not 
 admitted from both sides of the room as in the common 
 schoolhouse, but comes mostly from one side. If there 
 could be no break in the surface admitting light it would 
 be all the better. Some sunshine should enter the room, 
 but the north light is the best for general purposes and 
 should come from the left side. The walls should be 
 calcimined or painted with a paint giving a dull finish. 
 A glossy or varnished surface is hard on the eyes. 
 
 THREE TYPES OF HOUSES 
 
 The interest in modern schoolhouses has produced 
 three types. The first may be called the social type. 
 The special feature of this house is a platform tAvo or 
 three steps above the main floor, with two small rooms, 
 one on each side of the platform. When entertaimnents 
 are given the platform is used as a stage and the two 
 small rooms as dressing rooms. During the regular work 
 of the school, one of these rooms becomes the teacher's 
 room, the other, the library or a storeroom for maps,
 
 The House 
 
 19 
 
 THE NORTON COUNTY HOUSE 
 
 charts, etc. The second type is called the manual type. 
 In this there is a workroom separated from the main 
 room by a glass partition. In this room the teacher may 
 give lessons in manual training, domestic science, bas- 
 ketry, etc., and leave the pupils to finish their work at 
 odd times as convenience may dictate. Since the parti- 
 tion between the two rooms is of glass, the teacher may 
 be in either and still keep an eye on every pupil. The 
 third or comliined type unites in one house the essential 
 features of the two just mentioned. This style extends 
 the possibilities of the social features of the one and en- 
 larges the use of the workroom of the other. If this room 
 is well built, so as to guard against frost, and well lighted, 
 plants may be grown, seeds germinated, and other ex- 
 periments in agriculture conducted here. 
 
 The first of these types is well represented by a school-
 
 20 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 HAYS HOUSE 
 
 house that was built a few years ago in Norton County, 
 Kansas. The social feature of the Emporia plan given 
 on page 23 was borrowed from this house. This plan of 
 house emphasizes the idea of the school as a social center 
 of the community. 
 
 The second type is illustrated by a schoolhouse built 
 on the campus of Cornell University intended as a model 
 for rural school buildings in New York State. Another 
 of the same type is on the campus of the Branch Normal 
 School at Hays, Kansas. The distinctive feature of this 
 type is the room for manual work. The workroom is 
 separated from the main room by a glass partition, so that 
 pupils working in this room are in full view of the teacher. 
 It is fitted up with benches and tables for woodwork, 
 sewing, basketry, etc. See floor plan on opposite page. 
 
 The third type combining the features of the Norton 
 County house and the; Cornell structure is represented 
 by a floor plan worked out by pupils and teachers at 
 the Kansas State Normal School at Emporia.
 
 The House 
 
 21 
 
 PLAN OF HAYS HOUSE 
 
 Emporia Plan. — This plan lends itself especially 
 to the work of a one-teacher school, where more or less 
 handwork is to be undertaken. Attention is called to 
 the two cloakrooms so arranged that pupils must come 
 into the schoolroom before entering them. This gives 
 the teacher better control of the rooms, and will prevent 
 inappropriate mingling of l^oys and girls, and will bring 
 them more completely under the watch and care of the 
 teacher. The entry is purposely small, serving princi- 
 pally as a storm door and as a place for overshoes and 
 rubbers. The inner door should swing both ways. The 
 platform serves the purpose of a stage; and by having
 
 22 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 EMPORIA HOUSE 
 
 doors leading from the boys' cloakroom and the library 
 and a curtain stretched in front, it will fulfil its purpose 
 very well. The library should be furnished with some 
 shelves for books and serve as a place for maps, charts, 
 globe, etc., and as a teachers' room. The workroom is 
 separated from the main room by folding doors, which 
 have the upper panels of glass. A pupil may thus work 
 at his task and still be under the eyes of the teacher. 
 Teachers will appreciate the fuel room on the same floor 
 with the heater and near to it, so that all dirt and ashes 
 may be swept back into this room. 
 
 While this plan is compact and lends itself admirably 
 to the oversight of one teacher, it also presents attrac- 
 tions as a social center. With the conveniences furnished 
 by this house, dramatization, which is occupying such 
 a prominent place in the curriculum of the city schools, 
 can be introduced into the country school. Think of it 
 as a place for a home talent play or for a Sunday school 
 or a meeting place for the Grange or Farmers' Union.
 
 The House 
 
 23 
 
 PLAN OF EMPORIA HOUSE 
 
 An anteroom could be provided for by enlarging the 
 entry and cutting a door from it into the girls' cloakroom. 
 The schoolhouse described above should be built in 
 almost any part of the United States for not over $1800, 
 but, if a district so desired and could afford to expend 
 $2500 or $3000, a basement could be put under the whole, 
 in which could be placed a furnace, fuel room, pump, 
 pressure tank, gasoline engine, dynamo, and a play room 
 for rainy days. Then, if the cloakrooms were enlarged a 
 little, modern sanitary toilet rooms could be introduced, 
 giving the country school the advantages of a modern 
 house the same as the city school. If farmers could 
 realize what these improvements would mean to their 
 girls and boys in pureness of thought and cleanliness 
 of character, many a rural schoolhouse would have them.
 
 24 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 COLO AIR DUCT- 
 WATEP TANK 
 ^OO.CAL 
 
 DRYING ROOM 
 
 GYMNASIUM l2>tXZ3 
 
 BASEMENT PLAN east side 
 THE KIRKSVILLE HOUSE 
 
 Earksville Plan. — The most complete and entirely- 
 modern schoolhouse m America, perhaps in the world, 
 is the one on the campus of the First District Normal 
 School at Kirksville, Missouri. President Kirk of this 
 school was early interested in better rural schoolhouses, 
 and built a small model on which he received a premium 
 at the World's Fair at St. Louis. A building after this 
 pattern was erected on the Normal campus. There are 
 toilet rooms in this house fitted with lavatory, shower 
 bath, and water-closet. The house is piped for water 
 and the pressure is furnished by means of a pump and 
 pressure tank in the basement. It is heated with a fur- 
 nace situated in the basement, through the jacket of
 
 The House 
 
 25 
 
 WEST SIDt 
 
 SMOKC FLUC 
 ,VE.NTILAT1N0 FLUE 
 
 rmt PLACE 
 
 SCHOOL ROOM 
 £2 X27H 
 
 FIRST FLOOR PLAN 
 THE KIRKSVILLE HOUSE 
 
 which air is forced by means of a fan. A double flue 
 extending from the basement floor receives the smoke 
 from the furnace on one side and the impure air from the 
 schoohoom on the other. In order to insure a sufficient 
 draft to ventilate the room, a fireplace has been built in 
 the ventilating shaft. The burning of a few papers in 
 this will give the air an upward movement, and the heat 
 from the other shaft will continue the flow. 
 
 Tliis house has electric lights, hot and cold water, gas, 
 fan ventilation, a playroom in the basement, domestic 
 science and manual training equipment, a drinking 
 fountain, a stereopticon, and a bed for use in case a child 
 is sick. All this and more was secured at a cost of less 
 than $3000. Study the plans shown.
 
 26 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 i SRViLlOHT 
 
 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 SINK 
 
 
 
 \\l// 
 
 ~l" 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ©e 
 ©e 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 CASOLINC 
 .^'^CAS STOVL 
 
 SANITARY 
 DRINKING*-' 
 FOUNTAIN 
 
 o. 
 
 ^WASH BOWL 
 
 NCHI 
 
 -'I 
 
 =1= 
 
 _48 X20" 
 SKY LIGHT 
 
 ATTIC PLAN "ST sioe 
 
 THE KIRKSVILLE HOUSE 
 
 Notice that all of these houses have porches, that the 
 light comes principally from one side, and that there is 
 some attempt at architectural beauty. Without excep- 
 tion, in the planning of these modern houses the Box 
 Car type has been discarded. 
 
 EQUIPMENT 
 
 There are certain accessories to a building which are 
 needed to make it complete. First, there should be two 
 cloakrooms, one for the boys and one for the girls, and, 
 where possible, each should open into a toilet room 
 equipped with lavatories and water-closet. There will 
 probably be less disturbance in these cloakrooms if they 
 open into the main room rather than into a general hall.
 
 The House 27 
 
 The room should be seated with single seats, the small 
 ones in a row on the side near the light, then the next 
 larger, grading up to the largest in a row on the opposite 
 side of the room. This plan of seating will not bring 
 together a low desk and a high seat, a combination which 
 is very uncomfortable and very unhygienic. There should 
 be a bookcase that can be locked, a closet for apparatus 
 such as maps, charts, globe, etc., and a cupboard for 
 material for the seat work. A good clock within the 
 building and a clear sounding bell on the outside in a 
 neat tower are more than conveniences. 
 
 With the advantages offered by one of these houses, 
 Mark Hopkins would have had a better opportunity to 
 teach Garfield than if they were compelled to sit on 
 opposite ends of a pine log. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Barry, Hygiene of Schoolroom (chapter 2). Silver, Bur- 
 dett & Co. $1.50. 
 
 Fairchild, School Buildings, School Grounds, and Their 
 Improvement. May be obtained from the State Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kansas. 
 
 Foght, American Rural School {chapters 7 and 8). The 
 Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 The One-Room Country Schools in Illinois. May be 
 obtained from the State Superintendent of Public In- 
 struction, Springfield, 111. 
 
 McKeever, Farm Boys and Girls (chapter 8). 1912. 
 The Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 National Education Association, Proceedings, 1907. 
 (415-420). 
 
 Wilson, Church in the Open Country (Better Houses, p. 
 107). 1911. Missionary Education Movement of U. S., 
 New York, 50c.
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST GERMS 
 
 Germ Theory. — The germ theory of disease has passed 
 the theory stage and has entered the realm of fact. It 
 is now known that many, and ahnost certain that most, 
 diseases are caused by microorganisms or germs. These 
 disease germs enter the body, take up their abode there, 
 and cause the host to become sick. 
 
 Consumption. — It is well known that consumption 
 is caused by a microscopic organism called tubercle bacillus, 
 which is breathed into the lungs. If the condition of the 
 lung is favorable to the growth of these germs, they take 
 up their abode there and begin to multiply. The process 
 of destroying the lung begins, and consumption develops. 
 
 This disease is not inherited, as was thought some 
 years ago, though some tendencies are, but comes from 
 bacilli that are breathed into the lungs. All sputum of 
 a consumptive contains these germs and they are thrown 
 off with this discharge, myriads in number with each 
 expectoration. They are probably not in the exhaled 
 breath. If this sputum is allowed to dry and liecome dust, 
 the germs then float in the air or cling to particles of dust 
 ready to be inhaled by some other person. Like corn and 
 wheat, these germs are not killed at once by becoming 
 dry. When they fall on fertile soil they multiply. 
 
 28
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 29 
 
 Typhoid Fever. — The germs of typhoid fever are of 
 a different kind. They attack the bowels of the human 
 being and give off a poison that is carried all over the 
 body in the blood. They pass off with the excreta and 
 are very tenacious of life. They are disseminated 
 through the food and drink. Flies carry them on their 
 feet from barnyards and outhouses and leave them on 
 the food of the table. Flyspecks likewise contain the 
 typhoid germs. The nurse, if she be cook also, may 
 contaminate the food of the household and thus spread 
 the disease through the whole family. Ordinary clean- 
 liness is not a safeguard in case of this disease. 
 
 Diseases of the Eye. — Sore eyes may be communicated 
 by means of the common towel. Also, children afflicted 
 with sore eyes are inclined to rub their eyes with their 
 hands. In this way germs may be left upon desks, books, 
 slates, doorknobs, stair banisters, etc. The teacher 
 must exercise constant care and watchfulness and in- 
 struct the parents through the children in sanitary pre- 
 cautions. 
 
 Preventing the Spread of Contagious Diseases. — It is 
 safe to exclude from school all children afflicted with any 
 contagious disease. This suspension should extend to 
 all members of the family. While it may seem a hard- 
 ship to keep well children out of school, nevertheless, the 
 whole community must be protected even at the expense 
 of one family. The germs of these diseases may be carried 
 in some way by well persons. The health officer should 
 be notified, and an order from him or some competent 
 physician should be received before admitting them 
 again to school. 
 
 Precaution Against Disease. — Our knowledge of germs 
 admonishes us to scrupulous cleanliness. No teacher 
 afflicted with tuberculosis should be shut up with pupils
 
 30 The Rural School 
 
 in a schoolroom. In homes of persons afflicted with 
 consumption all sputum should be burned. No persons 
 should spit upon the floor of public buildings or upon the 
 sidewalks. There are other germs that are contained in 
 the sputum besides those causing consumption. Many 
 diseases are disseminated by the common drinking cup, 
 by sputum on the sidewalks and floors, by the exchange 
 of pencils that have been wet in the mouth, by second- 
 hand books, by doorknobs, etc. 
 
 Removal of Dust. — Remember that disease germs 
 harbor in or are a part of the dust of all places inhabi- 
 ted by human beings. The watchword of the housewife 
 and all school officials should be, " Fight the dust." It 
 is not enough to raise a dust with a broom and feather 
 duster, but it should be removed from the room. The 
 feather duster has been tabooed; it simply scatters dust 
 to fall later in some other place. The housewife's " dust- 
 ing rag," moistened with'coal oil, is better than any 
 duster. After sweeping, all seats, tables, desks, and 
 every place where dust can settle should be gone over 
 with the dust rag and the dust gathered into it. The 
 rag should be burned, or thoroughly cleansed with boil- 
 ing water. 
 
 Precautions in regard to Slates and Pencils. — The use 
 of slates has almost become a thing of the past. If they 
 are used, a bottle of water should be kept near at hand, 
 and pupils should be required to use it for moistening 
 sponge or rag. They should not be allowed to wet the 
 slate or rag with saliva, for then both become harbors 
 for numerous disease germs. The New York Board of 
 Education in one of its rules requires that the pen and 
 pencil furnished to each pupil shall be used by that child 
 alone, until such time as it seems best to give it to another, 
 when it must be thoroughly fumigated and cleansed. A
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 31 
 
 y^y^^y^-^y^yyyy-yr- 
 
 ^y^ ^yy^y^y:^ 
 
 SANITARY DRINKING FOUNTAIN 
 (McCalve) 
 
 very unsanitary habit is that of putting the pencil into 
 the mouth. If the pencils are dipped into quinine or aloe 
 water, children can be broken of this habit. 
 
 Drinking Water. — Typhoid germs may pass down with 
 the water into the ground and get into a well or cistern. 
 In determining the position of the well, great care should 
 be taken that it shall not receive the drainage of outhouses
 
 32 The Rural School 
 
 or stables. The well should be thoroughly cleaned at 
 the beginning of each school year. At least, it should be 
 pumped out two or three times before any of the water is 
 used after the summer vacation. The fact that water is 
 clear and sparkling does not indicate that it is free from 
 disease germs, for they are invisible to the naked eye. 
 
 If the water must be brought from a farm house, there 
 should be a covered receptacle in which to keep it. It 
 should not be left to stand in an open bucket in the room. 
 Since there are many disease germs in the air, mingling 
 with the dust of the room, and since they are carried on 
 the children's clothing, if the water is left uncovered, they 
 will be taken into it. The tubercle bacillus and many other 
 disease germs are often found in the mouth and may be 
 left on the drinking cup. In order that these disease 
 germs may not be disseminated in this way, each pupil 
 should be required to own and use his own drinking cup. 
 
 Flies. — The common house fly breeds in barnyard 
 manure and other excreta. If manure were kept in closed 
 receptacles or spread upon the fields, flies would have 
 no breeding places and would in time become extinct. 
 Through draining the swamps and pools of stagnant 
 water and thus getting rid of the mosquito, the carrier 
 of malarial germs, this disease has almost become a thing 
 of the past. In a similar manner, by destroying the 
 breeding places of flies, we shall get rid of them also 
 and free ourselves of much annoyance and sickness. 
 
 Sanitary Closets. Too much importance cannot be 
 placed upon the installation of sanitary closets. In those 
 parts of the country where typhoid fever is prevalent, 
 much of the well water is contaminated by seepage from 
 some ill-kept water-closet. Even springs have been known 
 to be tainted by an outhouse situated above on the side 
 of the hill. In the Southern states where the hookworm
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 
 
 33 
 
 thrives and does its 
 mischievous work, 
 the ground becomes 
 saturated Avith filth 
 and h o o k w o r m s. 
 These worms enter 
 the blood of the in- 
 dividual through the 
 soles oi" the feet, and 
 lodge in the intes- 
 tines, where they do 
 their harm. Sickness ^ °^^^«^^^ ™ ^^^ community 
 and loss of life caused by lack of reasonable sanitation are 
 sufficient reasons for the installation of sanitary closets. 
 
 CORRECTING PHYSICAL DEFECTS 
 
 Adenoids and En- 
 larged Tonsils. — 
 
 Alan}' children are 
 afflicted with en- 
 larged tonsils and 
 adenoids, a growth 
 in the upper part 
 of the nasal pas- 
 sages. These enlarge- 
 ments obstruct the 
 free passage of the air 
 through the nose and 
 in other ways affect 
 the health of the 
 individual. Persons afflicted in this way usually breathe 
 through the mouth. If allowed to remain, these little 
 enlargements become serious and greatly hinder the 
 
 THE KIND OF SANITARY CLOSET ANY 
 SCHOOL CAN HAVE
 
 34 The Rural School 
 
 child in his development. Children who are troubled 
 with adenoids or enlarged tonsils should be taken to 
 a competent physician, and the abnormal growth should 
 be removed. By watching for the mouth-breathers and 
 that peculiar hollow somid which accompanies adenoids, 
 the teacher can detect the pupils who need attention. 
 
 Defective Eyes. — There are few schools m which there 
 are not pupils with defective eyesight. Many cannot see 
 as well as others, but they do not know it. They have 
 never noticed that they have to hold their book nearer 
 to their eyes than other pupils do. This the teacher 
 should notice and see that those with defective eyesight 
 have seats where they can easily see all the work on the 
 board. If the case requires, the parents should be noti- 
 fied and advised to consult an oculist. Some persons are 
 afflicted with headaches which are caused by their eyes. 
 The lenses of the eye are not perfect, and in adjusting 
 the focus for reading and study the muscles are strained 
 and become tired thus causing severe headaches. This 
 can often be entirely relieved by using glasses that are 
 rightly adjusted. In aggravated cases the services of a 
 specialist should be secured. 
 
 Testing Eyesight and Hearing. — It is a good plan for 
 teachers to test the eyesight and hearing of all pupils 
 at the beginning of the term. The test cards can be 
 obtained from almost any optician or oculist. A watch 
 may be used to test the hearing. Simply testing to see 
 who can hear the farthest will locate the ones that need 
 the teacher's attention. 
 
 LIGHTING AND SEATING 
 
 Light. — The light of a schoolroom should come from 
 one side of the room, at most from two sides, and then 
 from the left side and back of the room. If the light comes
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 35 
 
 from two opposite sides it causes cross shadows, and these 
 are hard on the eyes. If the Hght comes from the right 
 side, it causes the shadow of the right hand to fall in the 
 light of the writer. 
 
 The teacher in the rural school cannot rebuild the house, 
 but she can manipulate the shades so that the light will be 
 the best possible under the conditions. It is better that 
 the light should come in near the ceiling, so that it may 
 be scattered and reflected by it all over the room. It 
 would be ideal to have light come in from above as out 
 of doors. This cannot always be done, but shades can be 
 so arranged as to admit the light at the top of the window. 
 This can be accomplished either by placing tAvo shades 
 near the middle of the window, one rolling up and the 
 other down, or a shade adj uster may be had which allows 
 the shade and fixture to be moved up and down at will, 
 thus locating the curtain at any point desired. Shades 
 are not merely for ornament, but should serve their 
 purpose of regulating the light. School boards do not 
 always think of them as necessities, but teachers should 
 be able to show their importance and insist that they be 
 furnished. 
 
 The blackboards should be of a black or dark green 
 color, and the writing should be large and distinct, so 
 that it will not cause pupils to strain their eyes to read it. 
 
 Seating. — In seating pupils care should be exercised 
 to find seats suited to the several sizes in the school. 
 There are two faults quite prevalent; the first, where the 
 seat is too high for the child, and the second, where seat 
 and desk are too far apart. The little fellows in too many 
 schools must sit with their feet resting on nothing. This 
 is tiresome and injurious to the flexible bones of the 
 growing child. The feet should rest easily on the floor. 
 When a pupil can sit back in his seat with a right angle
 
 36 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 AN ADJUSTABLE DESK 
 And one that may be inoveil to any part of the room 
 
 formed at his knee and his feet flat on the floor, his seat 
 is of the riglit height. 
 
 The desk top should be near enough the pupil so that 
 he will not have to lean far forward in order to write. 
 It is preferable to have seat and desk too. near together 
 rather than to have them too far apart. If too near to- 
 gether, there will be trouble in getting in and out ; but if 
 too far apart, the pupils will have to assume an improper 
 position in writing and study. With a good adjustable
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 37 
 
 desk all these ills can be remedied and each pupil be 
 given a seat and desk suited to his size. Until then 
 teachers should make the best use possible of the material 
 at hand. 
 
 VENTILATION 
 
 Need of a Revival for Pure Air. — It is a sad fact, never- 
 theless true, that our teachers know a great deal more 
 about ventilation than they put into practice. When a 
 teacher talks about modern methods of heating and 
 ventilation, while her room is reeking with foul air and 
 not a window is open, you wonder what good her in- 
 formation is doing her or her pupils. What we need is a 
 revival for pure air. We need to realize that fresh air is 
 nature's free food and that we ought to have plenty of it. 
 
 Here are some facts upon which the theory and need of 
 ventilation are based: 
 
 1. Warm air rises and cold air settles. 
 
 2. In breathing we consume oxygen and exhale added 
 amounts of carbon dioxide. 
 
 3. Oxygen is necessary for life, but exhaled air con- 
 tains less and less of oxygen and more and more of 
 matter poisonous to the human system. 
 
 4. In order to keep air pure as it should be for breath- 
 ing it is necessary to introduce about thirty cubic feet of 
 fresh air each minute for each individual and to extract 
 an equal amount. 
 
 5. Very moist air is oppressive and excessively dry air 
 is irritating to the throat and lungs. 
 
 6. Ordinarily, when the temperature is raised nineteen 
 degrees, the moisture is decreased one-half 
 
 7. Many of the impurities of air are heavier than air 
 and gradually settle to the floor. 
 
 Our knowledge of disease germs and the conclusions
 
 38 The Rural School 
 
 from the above principles should convince us of the 
 necessity of schoolroom ventilation. 
 
 Effects of Impure Air. — It has been estimated by the 
 State Board of Health of New York that forty per cent 
 of all deaths are caused directly or indirectly by impure 
 air. A great waste is caused in our rural schools from the 
 effects of impure air. Pupils become dull and stupid, or 
 restless and irritable, all because the air of the room is foul. 
 When pupils are sleepy or things begin to drag, or some 
 complain of headaches, it is time to think about ventila- 
 tion. Throw open the windows and have the pupils march 
 until the impure air has been replaced by fresh air. 
 
 Warm air is not necessarily impure, nor on the other 
 hand is cold air always pure. If there has been no inter- 
 change during the interval, the air left overnight in a 
 schoolroom will be just as impure in the morning, though 
 cold, as it was the night before. The janitor should be 
 instructed to open the doors and windows while sweeping, 
 that there may be a complete change of air. 
 
 Schoolroom Experiences. — Methinks I hear the voice 
 of some lone teacher in a forlorn old schoolhouse say, " 1 
 cannot warm my schoolhouse with all doors and windows 
 closed as tight as I can get them. There are cracks in the 
 door and it does not touch the threshold by an inch. 
 The windows also do not fit, and the wind and cold pour 
 in. How am I to ventilate? " In reply: Your problem 
 is one of heating and not of ventilation. The " friendly 
 cracks " will furnish all of the fresh air you need, especially 
 on a windy day; on a still day you will need to follow 
 directions given to others. 
 
 Another says, " My schoolroom is tight enough, but 
 there is no way provided to ventilate it." This is the 
 condition of most schoolhouses, but it is not a valid reason 
 for teachers giving no attention to the subject.
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 39 
 
 If the door is located so that it does not cause a draft 
 on any one, it can be left a Httle ajar. Through this 
 crack a current of air will enter at the lower part and an- 
 other will go out from the upper part. A small wooden 
 wedge will hold the door in place. 
 
 Ventilation by Use of Windows. — The most common 
 method of ventilating under above conditions is by means 
 of an open window or two. The problem is to provide 
 an inlet and an outlet of air, and cause no draft on "pupils 
 or teacher. Sometimes this can be done by opening a 
 window from the top on the leeward side, and one or 
 more at the bottom on the other side. Another way is by 
 use of boards. In the first place, when only a little air 
 is needed, fit a board about six inches wide under the 
 lower sash. This allows a flow of air between the upper 
 and lower sashes. Where more air is wanted, fit a board 
 about ten or twelve inches wide on the inside of the casing, 
 then raise the lower sash about eight or ten inches. This 
 will allow a flow of air into the room under the window 
 but the board will give it an upward turn. By the use 
 of boards in this way you can prevent a draft on the 
 pupils. Whatever method is used, cold air must not be 
 allowed to strike the pupils or fall upon their heads. 
 
 Any of these ways are imperfect, for in cold weather 
 fresh air should be warmed before it enters the school- 
 room. Then again, it is impossible by these methods to 
 get fresh air into all parts of the room. 
 
 School boards generally place the stove in the middle 
 of the room, so that it will radiate heat into all parts of 
 the house. As many a boy or girl knows, this furnishes 
 a good hiding place from the eyes of the teacher and makes 
 seats back of the stove at a premium; also, those near 
 the stove roast, while those sitting in the far corners of the 
 room freeze.
 
 40 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 FOUl. 
 
 AIR 
 
 ■ > 1 RACTOf 
 
 ONE TYPE OF SANITAHY FURNACE 
 (The Smith System) 
 
 A Modern System of Ventilation. — There are now 
 on the market two rational methods of heating and ven- 
 tilating a one-room building by the use of a stove.
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 41 
 
 ANOTHER .MODERN SYSTEM 
 (Waterman-Waterbury) 
 
 Both these systems use a stove enclosed in a jacket. 
 Fresh air is admitted into this jacket from outside, is 
 heated, rises and spreads over the ceiling. A large foul 
 air pipe placed near the stove comes to within three or
 
 42 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 A TYPICAL fcJTOVE-HEATED, UNVENTILATED SCHOOLROOM 
 Note the waste of floor space 
 
 four inches of the floor, extends upward and passes out 
 through the ceiling and roof. The stove pipe passes 
 within this foul air duct up to a point on a level with the 
 opening in the flue, thus heating the air in the foul air 
 pipe. In the other case the chimney, beginning at the 
 floor, is used as the conduit for the foul air. 
 
 The air in the flue is heated by the smoke and gases
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 
 
 43 
 
 A SCHOOLROOM HEATED AND VENTILATED BY ONE OF THE MODERN 
 
 SYSTEMS 
 Note the conservation of floor space 
 
 from the stove, and causes a suction of air through the 
 registers. This takes air from the floor, and the heated 
 air next to the ceiHng gradually cools and settles. 
 
 In this way the whole room is evenly heated, while 
 fresh air is coming in all the time and foul air is going out. 
 Those sitting near the stove are no warmer than those in 
 the far corner. This stove may be set in the corner of the 
 room out of the way. 
 
 There is a water pan within the jacket. The evapora- 
 tion of this water moistens the air of the room. In most 
 schoolrooms the atmosphere is too dry. An open vessel 
 of water placed on the stove will replenish the moisture 
 of the room. 
 
 Under all circumstances it takes more fuel to heat a 
 room when there is cold air coming into it than when 
 everything is closed up tight. Yet it is almost impossible 
 to heat a room uniformly without a circulation of air, and
 
 44 The Rural School 
 
 entirely impossible to ventilate without it. While it may 
 cost a trifle more for fuel (the companies claim not, saying 
 that because of the circulation of air, which gives a 
 uniform heat in the room, it does not take as much coal 
 as where some of the house must be overheated to warm 
 the corners of the room), yet every schoolhouse should be 
 heated by some such system. The whole cost of install- 
 ing one of these plants is about one hundred twenty 
 dollars. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Allen, Civics and Health (especially Part III). 1909. 
 Ginn & Co., $1.50. 
 
 Barry, Hygiene of Schoolroom. 1904. Silver, Burdett 
 & Co., $1.50. 
 
 Conn, Elementary Physiology and Hygiene (chapters 5, 
 14, 15 and 16). 1913. Silver, Burdett & Co., 60c. 
 
 Foght, American Rural School (pp. 125-128 and Ap- 
 pendix B). 1910. The Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Newsholme, School Hygiene. D. C. Heath & Co., 75c. 
 
 Ogden, Rural Hygiene. 1911. The Macmillan Co., 
 $1.50. 
 
 Prudden, Story of Bacteria and their Relation to Health 
 and Disease. Second ed., rev. 1910. G. P. Putnam's 
 Sons, 75c. 
 
 Ritchie, Primer of Hygiene. 1910. World Book Co., 
 Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., 40c. A very practical little 
 book. 
 
 Ritchie, Primer of Sanitation. 1910. World Book Co., 
 50c. Equally practical. 
 
 Shaw, School Hygiene. 1901. The Macmillan Co., 
 $1.00.
 
 Chapter V 
 
 THE TEACHER — HIS QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 PHYSICAL EQXJIPMENT 
 
 No Physical Disabihty. — The person that stands from 
 day to tlay jjefore the boys and girls of a school should be 
 physically whole. However much we sympathize with 
 them and desire to assist them, persons who are maimed 
 or deformed are not the persons for school teachers. 
 Children are so inclined to imitate that they often assume 
 the walk, posture or special peculiarity of the person who 
 stands before them as teacher. Then too, the impressions 
 of childhood are so lasting that we should try to place 
 before them perfect models. The school boards that de- 
 sire to see the teacher before making a contract are not 
 to be blamed. Other things being equal, those boards 
 that choose the best looking teacher, should not be criti- 
 cised too severely. " A sound mind in a sound body " 
 is not more to be desired in any other walk of life than 
 in that of a teacher. 
 
 Importance of Good Health. — The young man or 
 woman who starts out in life to be a teacher needs a good 
 constitution. While there is an impression among a good 
 many rural people that school teaching is not hard work, 
 yet many break down and have to leave on account 
 of their ill health. To walk a mile and one-half, or two 
 miles; to eat a cold dinner; to act as teacher and janitor 
 
 45
 
 46 The Rural School 
 
 and build fires on winter mornings when the wind blows 
 and the snow flies; to remain housed up in a close room 
 five days in the week with thirty or more pupils breathing 
 impure air — to withstand these drains upon the vital 
 forces requires a good constitution. One may say that 
 these do not always come to the teacher. Though they 
 may not come all at once, yet most teachers who have 
 taught long in rural districts have encountered these 
 strains upon their health, and some even worse than these. 
 
 The Need of Strong Nerves. — The work of the school- 
 room is a constant drain upon the nervous system. In 
 regard to the control of a schoolroom the words of Holy 
 Writ are true, " Not by might, nor by power, but by my 
 spirit." Control is accomplished more by spiritual than 
 by physical forces. The old-time teacher tried to govern 
 by physical force, but the government never was good. 
 Fear was predominant in this scheme and the child was 
 not led to self-control. No better use can be made of 
 the influence of mind over mind than in school govern- 
 ment, but this consumes nerve force, and the teacher 
 who is to succeed must start with a generous supply. 
 
 Good Disposition. — In order to succeed, the teacher 
 should be kindly disposed toward children. The noise 
 and worry of the school work upon one's nerves and are 
 inclined to make a person irritable. If a person is in 
 sympathy with the children and can enter into their joys 
 and sports, he need not grow old and cross, but may live 
 young in life and spirit. 
 
 The grace that the teacher needs in good measure 
 should not be the kind that is content with anything that 
 happens, but the kind that suffers long and is willing 
 still to suffer that things may come to pass just right. 
 Children are not as thoughtful as grown people would 
 have them, and many things occur in the schoolroom that
 
 The Teacher — His Quahfications 47 
 
 " cannot be cured but must be endured." The children 
 are not the only ones who draw upon the teacher's patience. 
 Often patrons and even school boards are not in the 
 closest touch and sympathy with the work of the teacher. 
 They do not see things from his viewpoint and some- 
 times hinder rather than help the work. All this calls for 
 patience. Happy is the teacher who has " learned to 
 labor and to wait." 
 
 MENTAL EQUIPMENT 
 
 Thorough Knowledge of Common Branches. — The 
 
 teacher may be deficient in many things that are de- 
 sirable and yet be quite successful; but the district 
 school teacher, who undertakes to teach without a good 
 knowledge of the common branches, is sure to prove more 
 or less of a failure. He undertakes to teach these very 
 subjects, but how can he teach that which he himself does 
 not know? Then, first of all educational preparations 
 for teaching a rural school, is a thorough knowledge of 
 those branches that have become fundamental in our 
 educational system. Some young men undertake to teach 
 before they can write a legible hand or express their 
 thoughts in passable English. Some young women under- 
 take to teach before they have mastered the principles of 
 arithmetic, or have comprehended the simple logic of 
 events in the history of the United States. These people 
 fail, but it may not be checked up against them. They 
 may receive their pay as teachers when by right they 
 should pay tuition for the privilege of practicing on inno- 
 cent children. In these cases the would-be teachers 
 learn more than their pupils. 
 
 Knowledge of Advanced Studies. — No one can teach 
 all that he knows. He must have some store in reserve.
 
 48 The Rural School 
 
 The logic of much of United States history dates back 
 into English history. Many of the principles of arithme- 
 tic can be explained only through a knowledge of algebra 
 or geometry. Many things that come up in grammar and 
 composition require a knowledge of "rhetoric to make them 
 plain. Hence the teacher of common branches needs at 
 least some knowledge of advanced studies. The high 
 schools are demanding college trained teachers, and the 
 day is not far distant when the district schools will de- 
 mand teachers with at least a high school education. 
 
 Professional Training. - Not only should a teacher 
 know the subjects to be taught, but he should also give 
 some thought and study to learning how to teach these 
 subjects. There is an impression among those outside 
 the craft that any one who knows a subject knows how to 
 teach it. The architect knows a house, knows how it 
 should be built, but he lacks skill in using the tools to 
 build the house. He still needs to know how to use the 
 plane and saw that he may fit rafter to rafter, and make 
 joints that will pass the inspection of the master builder. 
 
 In the same manner, it is true in the profession of teach- 
 ing that the teacher needs to know the '' how " as well as 
 the " what." A good many teachers have acquired this 
 skill by years of practice and experience in the school- 
 room, but this is an expensive process and its evil results 
 fall upon the pupils of such schools. It is unfair that a 
 teacher should learn his trade by practicing upon those 
 whom he is paid to teach. We do not think of hiring an 
 unskilled man to build a house, for it would be too ex- 
 pensive. Nor would we hire the architect to do the car- 
 penter work. Each has his work, and in business we rec- 
 ognize this and give to each man his place. We should 
 recognize this in teaching, also, and require some train- 
 ing in the theory and art of teaching. The city schools
 
 The Teacher — His QuaHfications 49 
 
 generally are requiring this training either in a normal 
 school or through experience in the schoolroom. It is 
 time for the rural schools to raise their standard, also. 
 
 Practice Teaching. — Along with the theory of teach- 
 ing, should go practice teaching under skilled supervisors. 
 Possibly observation of model recitations, conducted by 
 a trained teacher, should precede any teaching by the 
 pupil. Such work followed by a recitation on the lesson 
 presented, calling attention to how the teacher had il- 
 lustrated in actual work the theory that had previously 
 been studied, will save the young teacher from committing 
 many blunders and save the pupils from the evil effect of 
 practice teaching. 
 
 Training for Rural Schools. — What is given above is 
 more or less general, and is needful whether the person 
 is to teach in the city or in the country. But there is a 
 certain training which is desirable for teachers of rural 
 schools to fit them for the special needs of the country. 
 
 While the normal schools offer an extended course in 
 professional isubjects, the rural schools may be willing 
 at the present to content themselves with less than a com- 
 plete course in psj^chology, philosophy of education, 
 history of education, school law, school management and 
 methods of teaching. Yet a knowledge of some of these 
 subjects seems almost necessary to any degree of success. 
 Before going into the schoolroom a person should have 
 some idea of how to conduct a recitation; how to make 
 out a program and follow it; how to govern a room full 
 of children with as little friction as possible; how to 
 start a class in reading, in numbers, etc. All of this pre- 
 supposes some knowledge of the psychology of child 
 life. The elements of these subjects may be comprehended 
 by young people who have attained the age when their 
 judgment is supposed to be mature enough to allow them
 
 50 The Rural School 
 
 to teach school, and states are raising the requirements 
 along these lines from year to year. It will probably be a 
 long time before we have reached the requirement of the 
 German schools, where every teacher must have normal 
 school training. 
 
 The following is the course which is offered in the 
 secondary department of the Kansas State Normal School 
 to students who expect to go into the rural schools to 
 teach. It is very similar to the course now given in over 
 one hundred high schools in the state of Kansas. This 
 course, completed, carries with it a one-year state cer- 
 tificate entitling the holder to teach one year in elemen- 
 tary schools. 
 
 Course of Study, Kansas Normal High School 
 
 English 3 units 
 
 Algebra 1 " 
 
 Geometry 1 " 
 
 Arithmetic Yi " 
 
 History 1 " 
 
 Civics Vi " 
 
 Physiology Yi " 
 
 Agriculture 2 " 
 
 Physics 1 " 
 
 Geography 1 " 
 
 Psychology H [* 
 
 Rural School Management Yi " 
 
 Manual Training ) 
 
 Domestic Science > 2 " 
 
 Drawing and Hand Work ) 
 
 Music Vi " 
 
 Explanation: A unit means a year's work, five recitations per 
 week. 
 
 It might be well to say in regard to some of these sub- 
 jects that they have special applications to practical life. 
 For example, the course in physiology pertains to rural 
 health problems, the hygiene of kitchen and barn, be-
 
 The Teacher — His QuaHfications 51 
 
 sides the general laws of health. The course in physics 
 deals with practical problems of the farm and home. Agri- 
 culture includes nature study, agronomy, farm manage- 
 ment, etc. Rural school management is the study of 
 school management aj^plied especially to rural schools. 
 Manual training and domestic science are both special 
 courses designed for country teachers, and treat of farm 
 and farm home subjects. The boys in manual training 
 design and make models for farm gates, moulds for 
 cement posts, plans for barns, etc. The girls study farm 
 cooking, serving of country dinners, economy of the 
 woman's work on the farm, etc. The drawing is elemen- 
 tary, such as will prepare for teaching in a mixed school ; 
 the hand work consists of seat work, paper cutting, mat 
 weaving, basketry, and raffia work. 
 
 The course in the normal college includes advanced 
 work along these lines, taking up rural problems and 
 county supervision, and a course in chemistry applied to 
 the kitchen and the farm. Teachers completing such 
 courses as these will be well prepared for rural school 
 work. 
 
 Ejiowledge of Rural Life. — The teacher who is going 
 into a rural district should know more than the city girl 
 who went into ecstasies over her uncle's " hand-painted 
 barn." It is a good thing for the women teachers to know 
 how to make bread, and something of the chemistry of 
 the process; how to make a dress and fit it; how to milk 
 a cow and make the butter, in short, how to do the house- 
 work of a country home. They will thus be more in 
 sympathy with rural people and rural conditions. It 
 would not be a hindrance if a man teacher knew how to 
 farm, raise corn and hogs, cattle and horses. If he had 
 walked between the handles of a plow, the fact would not 
 make him worth less to the boys of the school. By the
 
 52 The Rural School 
 
 way, it would be a good thing if every boy could come in 
 contact with a good man teacher somewhere in his school 
 life. It is to be deplored that the men are deserting the 
 district schools. Kansas had about 47% of male teachers 
 in 1870, but in 1908-1909 only about 19% of the teachers 
 were men. Another trouble with the rural schools is 
 that we have been trying to pattern after the city schools. 
 What we need are schools suited to the rural conditions, 
 taught by teachers who know and are in sympathy with 
 rural conditions. 
 
 ATTENTION TO BUSINESS DETAILS 
 
 Knowledge of Business. — One of the first things a 
 prospective teacher is called upon to do is to sign a con- 
 tract. Many young people just beginning teaching have 
 little conception of its importance and character. It is 
 the first they have ever signed or with which they have 
 had anything to do. What it means they have not thought 
 nor do they know what is in it, except that it gives them 
 a school. If every contract were carefully read before 
 it was signed, there would be less misunderstanding 
 and trouble afterwards. The teachers' contract contains 
 twenty or more specifications, and the law provides a 
 severe penalty for its violation. 
 
 But a contract is only one of many things of a business 
 nature a teacher should know. The business man has 
 complained that the boys and girls from our schools do 
 not know much about practical business. They learn 
 what there is in the books, but if they are given some 
 simple problem outside they are puzzled. It is not much 
 wonder that this is true when we realize how little the 
 teachers know about actual business. Even the men in 
 the teaching profession are seldom recognized in business
 
 The Teacher — His Qualifications 53 
 
 circles. Every teacher should be sufficiently conversant 
 with the common business transactions of the community 
 to understand them and to apply the principles of the 
 book to them. Also a teacher should be able to give 
 problems of a practical nature illustrating and applying 
 the business of the neighborhood. 
 
 Making Application. — (1) By Letter. When the teacher 
 is applying for a school away from his home county, it 
 often becomes necessary to write a letter of application. 
 This should be done with great care. First, he should 
 choose, if possible, business paper and envelope to match; 
 he should use pen and ink and not a pencil; the paper 
 should be folded correctly so that it will fill the envelope 
 neatly (the way to fold depends on the kind of paper 
 used); the address on the envelope should be in a plain, 
 neat hand and end near the lower right-hand corner. The 
 mechanics of the letter, punctuation, orthography, para- 
 graphing, margining, etc. should be faultless. The parts 
 of the letter, the superscription, the body and the sub- 
 scription should be so arranged that the letter will present 
 a neat appearance. In the body of the letter the very 
 best English at the command of the writer should be 
 used; not only English that is grammatically correct, 
 but such as expresses the thought in a pleasing way. 
 The author lent his aid in electing a young lady to a posi- 
 tion as teacher of English in a high school over several 
 other applicants because of the pleasing style of her letter. 
 
 Usually the body of the letter should contain three 
 paragraphs, the first, the formal application, beginning, 
 however, with some introductory remark as to source of 
 information of vacancy; the second, the teacher's educa- 
 tional qualifications and experience; the third, his refer- 
 ences to persons who know of his education, experience 
 and moral character. A fourth paragraph may be added,
 
 54 The Rural School 
 
 if the applicant desires to assure the board of his willing- 
 ness to spare no pains and efforts to make the school a 
 success, or to express his confidence in his ability to teach 
 and govern the school with the hearty cooperation of 
 the board, 
 
 (2) In Person. It is always better, if possible, to 
 make the application in person. The board wants to see 
 the individual whom it is to place in charge of its school; 
 and the teacher should desire to see the board for whom 
 he is to work. It is as much to the teacher's interest to 
 see and become acquainted with the board and the neigh- 
 borhood, as it is to the board's advantage to get an oppor- 
 tunity to estimate the teacher's worth by his appearance. 
 Teachers must know that there are some schools which 
 they do not want, that there are some schools in which 
 they would make a failure, perhaps; that, when they find 
 conditions in a locality uncongenial to them, they should 
 move on to the next district. 
 
 When making application in person, the teacher should 
 present as good an appearance as possible. This does not 
 mean that he should wear expensive or gaudy clothing, 
 but that he should be neat and clean. He needs to be able 
 to present his case, not boastingly, but in clear and con- 
 fident terms. It will not be considered egotism on his 
 part if he tell of his educational qualifications, his ex- 
 perience as a teacher, and what he is confident he can do 
 for the school. This is what the board wants to know, 
 and, if he does not tell these things himself, it may not 
 find them out in time to decide in his favor. 
 
 If the application is to be made to one individual, as 
 the superintendent, it simplifies the matter, and the 
 teacher can usually talk more openly and freely, knowing 
 that a superintendent is more in sympathy with him and 
 his ideals. If the employing board consist of several
 
 The Teacher — His Qualifications 55 
 
 members, it is usually necessary to see each one; but it is 
 well to remember that often one man is the member of 
 the board, and as he votes the board decides. To act 
 legally the members meet and act as a board and not as 
 individuals. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Colgrove, Teacher and the School (chapter 2). 1910. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. 
 
 Button, School Management (chapters 1 and 2). 1903. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.00. 
 
 Foght, American Rural School (chapter 5). 1910. The 
 Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Gilbert, The School and its Life (chapters 8, 9, 10). 
 Silver, Burdett & Co., $1.25. 
 
 McKeever, Psychologic Method in Teaching (chapter 4)- 
 A. Flanagan & Co., $1.00. 
 
 Sabin, Common Sense Didactics (Preparation for Teach- 
 ing). Rand, McNally & Co., $1.00.
 
 Chapter VI 
 THE TEACHER — HIS PERSONALITY 
 
 One teacher may step into a room, and immediately 
 every pupil is quiet and orderly; another may call for 
 order, ring the bell, and even rebuke and punish, yet dis- 
 order is everywhere. To one teacher the pupils are re- 
 spectful, and to another they are disrespectful. Upon one 
 they will play pranks, set a tack on his chair, turn his 
 watch forward, or hide his hat; upon another no one 
 would think of playing a trick, but on the other hand, 
 every one is anxious and willing to assist him in every 
 way possible. 
 
 Personality; What it is. — The above conditions may 
 be explained by saying that it is the personality of the 
 teacher which makes the difference. Personality, that 
 indefinable atmosphere which surrounds a person and 
 commands respect and obedience, is almost synonymous 
 with individuality or personal influence. We say of one 
 person that he has a strong personality, and of another 
 that he has a weak personality. One commands respect 
 and exerts a strong influence, it may be for good or evil; 
 the other commands little respect and his influence is 
 confined to a small circle of friends and acquaintances. 
 
 One person by stately form and beautiful appearance 
 commands respect at first sight. Boys especially admire 
 persons of strong and robust stature. Physical perfection 
 is their ideal, and they are willing to offer homage and 
 
 56
 
 The Teacher — His Personahty 57 
 
 submission at its shrine. But some of these persons who 
 at first command our respect by their very presence, after 
 a while lose our confidence. We learn that they are not 
 brave and courageous as we supposed at first, but, al- 
 though physically able, are cowards, — perhaps both 
 physical and moral cowards. Their inner selves do not 
 measure up to their physical selves. Their wishes and 
 demands are disregarded and they are not able to compel 
 obedience and respect. Observers have expected the 
 soul to be as large and as beautiful as the body, but they 
 were disappointed. 
 
 On the other hand, the appearance of others is so dis- 
 appointing and unprepossessing that at first we are re- 
 pelled by them and think that we can never have any 
 respect for such persons. However, when we become 
 acquainted with them, we find their mental acumen so 
 keen and their ability to assist us in our thinking so 
 great, that we forget their physical defects and pay our 
 homage to them as the ancients did to Psyche, the god- 
 dess of mind. 
 
 In a certain village, there lived a woman, with whom the 
 writer is well acquainted, who could not command much 
 respect bj'' her physical presence, for she had a poor weak 
 body; nor was her mental ability great. Yet her soul was 
 so large and so good that every one who knew her re- 
 spected her, and she was a power for good in that 
 community. 
 
 William E. Gladstone, Prime Minister of England, 
 combined all of these qualities. During his long and busy 
 career as a statesman, his physical manhood was never 
 neglected, but he was able, in what might have been ex- 
 pected to be his declining years, to chop wood like a 
 hardy woodman. But it was his brilliant genius com- 
 bined with his unswerving regard for right and justice
 
 58 The Rural School 
 
 which made him the first man in all England and gained 
 for him the title of the " Grand Old Man." 
 
 Personality is made up of physical appearance, mental 
 acumen and soul greatness. Each of these has its influ- 
 ence upon those with whom we come in contact, and each 
 should be considered in the study of this subject. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF A STRONG PERSONALITY 
 
 The question of interest to every person and especially 
 to the one who expects to become a teacher is this, " Is 
 my personality a fixed quantity or may I expand and 
 improve it? " A good many are inclined to think that it 
 is unchangeable. But if the question be put thus, " Can 
 I maintain and improve my physical, mental and moral 
 condition? " the answer is apparent to all. A few sug- 
 gestions will be given which may help persons desirous 
 of possessing a strong and influential personality. 
 
 The Maintenance of Physical Vigor. — In order that a 
 person may exert his best influence, it is necessary that he 
 maintain his health at the very best possible level. If 
 a teacher is all bent over on account of pain in his chest, 
 or if he has a throbbing headache from loss of sleep, he 
 cannot exert the influence that he would otherwise, if he 
 were buoyant with health and vigor. Thus, it becomes a 
 question of how to maintain vigor and energy and at the 
 same time do the work of the school. 
 
 First, find a good boarding place. This advice will 
 often be hard to follow, and in some places it is almost 
 impossible. But the teacher should inquire into this matter 
 before the contract is signed. In some districts all want 
 to board the teacher, in others no one wants that privilege, 
 and in still others, if the teacher boards at a certain place, 
 he incurs the enmity of some family of the district. Con-
 
 The Teacher — His Personality 59 
 
 ditions may be such that he cannot get a suitable board- 
 ing place in that district, and in this case he had better 
 look elsewhere for a school. When it is advised to get a 
 good boarding place, it is not suggested that one be 
 overnice about a place. If a person is fastidious, he had 
 better not go to the country to teach school. But he 
 should get as good a boarding place as he can, a place 
 where he likes the cooking, a place where the family is 
 congenial, — where he can have time to himself and will 
 not be expected to entertain the other members of the 
 household, nor be entertained by them all the time that 
 he is at home. The teacher should have a room to himself 
 if possible, and this is more impera'cive if the family is 
 large. In many places this will be impossible, and he will 
 have to become one of the family and put up with the 
 accommodations which the neighborhood affords. One 
 had better walk two miles and have a good home when 
 there, than to board next to the schoolhouse and have 
 accommodations that are repugnant to his tastes. 
 
 The teacher needs plenty of mind and nerve rest — 
 sleep. A good boarding place will not be the place where 
 they have supper at nine and begin the preparation for 
 breakfast at four or five in the morning. Then too, 
 there are the parties and dances that may tempt the 
 teacher to spend strength and nervous force that should be 
 conserved for use in the schoolroom. Very, very few 
 teachers can go to dances and parties, and teach a school 
 properly. They come at a time when a teacher should 
 be in bed asleep. This is not intended to mean that a 
 teacher should never go out at night while he is teaching 
 school. There are occasions when the teacher should be 
 a leader in the social events of the neighborhood, but 
 those events should not be mere dances and parties in 
 the common acceptance of the terms. Then again, there
 
 60 The Rural School 
 
 is the teacher who thinks he must work late at night or 
 he will not get through with his next day's duties. It 
 is true that a teacher should prepare his lessons for the 
 next day, but he must so apportion his time that he 
 shall be bright and fresh for the next day's work. 
 Freshness of spirit and vigor of mind are as indispen- 
 sable as well planned lessons. Find time to sleep. 
 
 The teacher that builds up and maintains his health 
 and vigor will have to find time for exercise each day, 
 exercise in the open air. Of course, if the walk to and 
 from the schoolhouse is long, it may suffice; but some 
 exercise, not so much for the exercise itself as for the 
 interest that it elicits, is better. Playing a game such as 
 tennis, basket ball or croquet for an hour will give suf- 
 ficient exercise, and at the same time will add pleasurable 
 employment for the mind. If one enjoys caring for 
 chickens or feeding and grooming horses, he will find 
 suitable exercise for each day. Let no one think that he 
 has not time for exercise; he has not time to omit it. 
 
 Mental Improvement. — It is only when the old cells 
 of the body are broken down and throAvn off and new ones 
 are supplied that physical vigor and vivacity are main- 
 tained. So it is with the mind. If it doles out the same 
 instruction from day to day and from year to year, it 
 becomes dull and tired. It needs vigorous exercise. It 
 needs to have its mental fibers quickened and energized 
 by the rapid flow of red corpuscles bearing the life-giving 
 oxygen. The mind that is dull will not of its own account 
 command respect. Its possessor, if he deserves and com- 
 mands respect at all, must gain it from some other source. 
 The question comes again, " How shall I maintain and 
 increase mental vigor? " The answer is almost apparent, 
 viz ; give the mind food and exercise. To the new teacher 
 the lessons of the school may furnish sufficient mental
 
 The Teacher — His Personality 61 
 
 work for the first year; but to the experienced teacher 
 who has gone over the work several times, it gives no 
 mental exercise worth mentioning and he must do some- 
 thing else or he will get into a rut. He should be reading 
 some good book, something not exactly along the line of 
 his school work, that will cause him to think. It may 
 be a book on advanced history, or psychology; it may be 
 philosophy or literature; it may be a professional book, 
 history of education, philosophy of education or methods. 
 As the body needs exercise different from the work of the 
 day, so the mind needs to make new flights into other 
 realms and view other scenes. In "short, keep the mind 
 fresh ])y learning something new each day. 
 
 Moral Improvement. — The teacher who thinks that he 
 can live a loose, inconsistent life out of school and main- 
 tain his moral standing before his school, deceives him- 
 self but not his pupils, for they will soon read his moral 
 standing. The teacher that is morally weak loses his 
 influence with his school. Pupils, as well as people in 
 general, respect the person who has moral courage, 
 who has moral principle and is willing to stand by it. A 
 teacher once stopped men from betting on a school game 
 of ball; they heeded him simply because he was in the 
 right and they knew it; otherwise they would have 
 laughed him to scorn. Though these men were in the 
 habit of gambling at every game, they gave back the 
 money and looked quietly on with the other spectators. 
 
 It is moral greatness more than physical prowess or 
 mental acuteness that determines the teacher's person- 
 ality. This is not a veneer that may be put on as we put 
 on our Sunday clothes, but it is real moral greatness. It 
 comes from moral thinking and moral living. He cannot 
 be morally great unless he is thinking good, pure thoughts, 
 for as Miss Brownlee, formerly of the La Grange School,
 
 62 The Rural School 
 
 Toledo, Ohio, has said, " Thoughts are things." The 
 fountain must be pure or the stream will not be pure. 
 Thoughts tend to work themselves out through the mus- 
 cular organism. Thoughts become deeds. " Out of the 
 abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh," expresses 
 the same truth. People expect the teacher to do just 
 about right. Although they may do very bad things 
 themselves, they will complain to the county superin- 
 tendent if the teacher steps just a little from the path of 
 rectitude. Public opinion has set a very high standard 
 for the teacher, and it is right that it should, for the per- 
 son who teaches children should live a consistent life. To 
 the credit of the profession, it can be truly said that very 
 few teachers disgrace their calling by immoral lives. 
 
 That we can maintain and improve our personality 
 it is easy to conclude. As we improve our physical con- 
 dition, as we grow mentally and morally, we improve our 
 personality. As we grow greater in being, we strengthen 
 that which gives us power with men. The young teacher 
 ought not to expect to have as great a personal influence 
 as he will have in days to come, and the teacher of years 
 of experience will not be far wrong if he thinks the same. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Benson, Personality of the Teacher. Educational Re- 
 view 37: 217 (March, 1909). This article by Arthur Chris- 
 topher Benson, of the University of Cambridge, is an 
 excellent treatise on the subject. 
 
 Colgrove, Teacher and the School (pp. 62-64)- 1910. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. 
 
 Jones, Principles of Education (chapter 5, The Teacher 
 as an Influence). 1911. The Macmillan Co., $1.00. 
 
 Maxwell, Personal Power of the Teacher. N. E. A. 
 Proceedings 1908: 116.
 
 Chapter VII 
 THE FIRST DAY 
 
 PREPARATION FOR THE FIRST DAY 
 
 What shall be the work of the first day, and just how 
 and when shall each thing l)e done? are questions that 
 should not be left until time for the work to begin but 
 should be answered in detail beforehand. The young 
 teacher especially must give careful thought to the de- 
 tails of this day's work. A good beginning is of great 
 importance, as its impressions will last and will help to 
 make the work of the remainder of the school easier or 
 more difficult as the case may be. 
 
 Inspection of House and Grounds. — There are certain 
 things that should be inspected before the first day; in 
 fact, all the plans for this day must be made in advance, 
 and it is well to know what can and ought to be done. 
 Of course nothing can be accomplished until the contract 
 is made and signed; but as soon as this has been done, or 
 at least a week or two before school is to begin, the teacher 
 should visit the schoolhouse and inspect the house and 
 grounds, the outbuildings and well, if there be one. 
 During this inspection, note should be made of the con- 
 ditions of the floor, walls, windows, and outbuildings as 
 to cleanliness; also as to whether repairs are needed. 
 The result of this visit should be brought to the attention 
 of the board, and courteous but insistent request made that 
 
 63
 
 64 The Rural School 
 
 the school premises be put in suitable condition for school. 
 Sometimes the weeds in the school yard are so high and 
 thick as seriously to impede the progress of the school 
 and at the same time to give the school a bad name. 
 While all these things are important, yet a teacher may be 
 unreasonable in his requests. As a rule, boards are will- 
 ing to clean the house, grounds and outbuildings and make 
 reasonable improvements, providing the matter is brought 
 to their attention in the right way. Teachers should re- 
 member that school officers are usually busy men, and 
 also, that they get no compensation for the time and work 
 they do in connection with the office of school directors. 
 The teacher should bring these things to the notice of the 
 board early so they will have plenty of time to get this 
 work done. Sometimes it is almost impossible to get any 
 one to do work of the kind needed, for every one is busy ; 
 in this case a little patience is necessary. This does not 
 mean that the teacher will cease efforts before the school 
 premises are put in shape for school. 
 
 Some one may ask, '' Will the teacher be justified in 
 closing school until the board has had this work com- 
 pleted? " Yes, the teacher might be justified, but it 
 would not be good policy on the part of the teacher to 
 do such a thing. The teacher had better interest the 
 large boys and girls in the project and take a Friday 
 afternoon and clean the house in this way, rather than 
 live in an unclean house or stop the school. Resort to 
 either of these methods will not often be necessary. 
 
 The teacher needs the register for the names of the 
 pupils of last year's school and such other information 
 as it may contain, and he also needs the classification 
 report in order to be familiar with the classification of the 
 school. The teacher should take these with him and 
 should study the names so that they will not be unfa-
 
 The First Day 65 
 
 miliar to him when he meets the pupils for the first time. 
 From the classification report the teacher can outline 
 the work for each class for the first day and the lessons 
 to be assigned. If the program of the former teacher can 
 be found, it will be of service in making a program for 
 the first day, or it may be advantageous to use it without 
 any change. 
 
 METHODS OF PROCEDURE FOR THE FIRST DAY 
 
 1. Be the first at the schoolhouse in the morning. This 
 may be quite early, for the pupils in a rural community 
 are usually excited about school the first day and anxious 
 to see the new teacher or to get there first to have the 
 choice of seats. There are other reasons for being there 
 early on the first day which are best known to the boys of 
 the neighborhood. If the teacher is not there before the 
 pupils, some plans may be laid which are not to the 
 teacher's advantage; at least, the teacher is on the safe 
 side, if he is at the schoolhouse when the first pupils come. 
 
 2. Assign seats. Greet pupils kindly as they enter the 
 schoolroom, learn their names, and assign them seats. 
 Assign has been said designedly, for it must be under- 
 stood from the beginning that the teacher has this right. 
 If the teacher prefers, the pupils may be allowed to select 
 their seats for the time being; but it must be with the 
 distinct understanding that the teacher reserves the right 
 to change them whenever there seems to be a need for 
 such change. It may be best to talk over the matter of 
 seats with each pupil, if there is opportunity. The 
 teacher should not be dictatorial, and assign seats merely 
 to show authority. If a pupil has a good reason why he 
 wants to sit in a certain place, it may be the best policy 
 to let him sit there. But often the reason for sitting in a
 
 66 The Rural School 
 
 certain seat will not bear inspection and is not for the 
 best interests of the school or the pupil. The teacher 
 may have some plan of seating the room which the 
 choosing of seats will entirely overthrow. In this case 
 the thing is to ask for cooperation in carrying out this 
 plan; this may settle all difficulties. Usually, the desire 
 to select seats has some element of disorder in it. The 
 pupils want to sit together that they may have a good 
 time, or boys want to sit in the rear seats so that they 
 will be a long way from the teacher. Here they hope 
 to have more opportunities for whispering without the 
 teacher's notice. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be seen that the matter 
 of seating may sometimes be quite a serious problem. 
 Understand that here, as elsewhere, no definite rule can be 
 laid down for the teacher to follow. Only a few of the con- 
 ditions that may arise can be suggested, and the teacher 
 will have to do his own thinking and make his own judg- 
 ments as to the best way to meet those difficulties that 
 confront him. The teacher who undertakes to use un- 
 digested book methods, or even methods learned at a 
 normal school, will fail. The good teacher adapts methods; 
 he does not adopt them. 
 
 3. Call school pro7nptly at nine o'clock. Keep the 
 time which the neighborhood generally keeps. If they 
 all keep sun time, all right, it will do for the school; but 
 whatever time the teacher keeps, let it be accurate time 
 and let him follow it rigidly. 
 
 4. Open school with appropriate exercises. Singing, 
 reading of a passage of Scripture and prayer, or the re- 
 peating of the Lord's Prayer is a good form of opening 
 exercises; the best according to the individual notion of 
 many. But in some places the opposition to Scripture 
 reading and prayer may be so strong that the teacher
 
 The First Day 67 
 
 will want to use some other form of general exercises. In 
 this case singing, quotations, current events, the reading 
 of a good book, instructions in morals and other special 
 features which the teacher may wish to introduce may be 
 brought in at this time and in a way take the place of 
 what was suggested above. The opening exercises have 
 a purpose to fulfill, viz., the unifying of the minds of the 
 children, — " the bringing in of their wandering minds 
 and placing them " upon their lessons. It takes a little 
 time to get ready for work, to get the mind off the out- 
 side attractions, or distractions as the case may be. 
 For this purpose, there is nothing better than music, for 
 " Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast." 
 
 5. Assign lessons. The teacher will have outlined 
 lessons for each class, using the course of study and classi- 
 fication as a basis. Some of these lessons he may think 
 best to write upon the board while he is waiting for 
 time to call school. This will save time and trouble in 
 doing it after school has been called. These first-day 
 lessons may be something of a review, but they will not be 
 a turning of the whole school back to the beginning of the 
 book. 
 
 Assign new lessons as your judgment dictates. Do 
 not expect pupils to recite as well on the first day of 
 school as when they left off the work. It will take them 
 a few days to adjust themselves to school work again. It 
 is seldom that students should go back to the first of the 
 book. A few days of review will often fit them to go on 
 from where they left off. 
 
 6. Classify new pupils. Now everybody has something 
 to do, except the new pupils who have never attended 
 this school before, and possibly the beginners. This is a 
 good time to look after the new pupils and classify them 
 temporarily. The best that can be done at this time is
 
 68 The Rural School 
 
 to give an oral quiz to find out about what each one has 
 done in school before coming to this district. Then 
 classify them as your judgment suggests and try them 
 out in class. It may take a day or two to find out just 
 where each one belongs, but as soon as possible each one 
 should be assigned to his proper class. 
 
 7. Follow a program. The teacher should have put 
 up a program before the opening of school, either the 
 last year's program or the one he has made for the day. 
 He is now ready to follow this program and call classes 
 according as they are suggested by it. If the little people 
 are to recite first, they can then be given seat work to 
 occupy their time while the other classes are reciting. 
 
 Follow the program as closely as possible; at least, 
 dismiss the school for recesses and noon hour on time and 
 give the full length of time. 
 
 Before school is closed, the teacher may make any 
 announcements concerning changes in the program, 
 methods of calling classes and passing out at close of 
 periods, or any other regulation of the school. 
 
 8. Close school promptly at four o'clock. The work of 
 the day may not all have been completed, yet if all have 
 been busy from nine o'clock in the morning to four in 
 the afternoon a day's work has been done and it is time 
 to close school. Send the pupils home in good humor, if 
 possible, feeling that they have done a day's work. 
 
 Method of Procedure without a Classification Re- 
 port. — 1. Make a program. If the former teacher left 
 no program, make one for your guidance for the first 
 day, or until you know enough about the school so that 
 you can make a permanent one. 
 
 2. Assign lessons to older pupils. After opening ex- 
 ercises, assign lessons to all pupils, to the older ones 
 first. An easy way, and probably as good as any, is to
 
 The First Day 69 
 
 assign a lesson to all who think they belong in the fifth 
 reader, a lesson to all in the fourth reader, to all in the 
 third reader, and so on do^vn to the chart class. 
 
 3. Examine, classify and assign lessons to younger 
 pupils. Call the primary pupils for recitation, exami- 
 nation, and classification. Of course this is not to be a 
 formal examination nor a rigid classification, but you 
 can learn about as well what a child can do in this way 
 as in any other. You will want to take their names and 
 send them to their seats with some seat work to do. Do 
 not expect five- and six-year-olds to study lessons like 
 older pupils. 
 
 Call the first reader class, examine, and classify them. 
 Assign the next lesson and seat work. 
 
 Call the second reader class, examine, classify, and 
 assign work; and so on through all the classes and during 
 all the day. Each class as it is called can bring the 
 books for the next lesson. 
 
 Summary. — The object the teacher should have in 
 view is to set every one to work as soon as possible after 
 opening exercises and to keep him busy all the day. 
 Make the first day a full day of work. As a rule, rural 
 schools have short terms, and parents are glad to have 
 every day count. 
 
 The young teacher ^vill do well to assimilate these 
 plans and follow them quite closely. The object to be 
 obtained by using these suggestions is to keep every one 
 employed while the school is being organized. One of 
 the secrets of school management is to keep every one 
 busy at some useful school work. Do this and many of the 
 other things will take care of themselves. 
 
 To the experienced teacher it may be said, that it is 
 not necessary to follow these suggestions to the letter in 
 order to make a good start on the first day; but if teachers
 
 70 The Rural School 
 
 have been wasting time in getting organized, it will be 
 well to heed some of the suggestions offered here, so that 
 this day shall count with every other day as a day of work. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bagley, Classroom Management (chapter 2). 1907. 
 The Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Colgrove, Teacher and the School {chapter 10). 1910. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. 
 
 Dinsmore, Teaching a District School (pp. 21-26). 1908. 
 American Book Co., $1.00. 
 
 Wray, Jean Mitchell's School (chapter 2). Public School 
 Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111., $1.00.
 
 Chapter VIII 
 THE DAILY PROGRAM 
 
 That there is a great waste m the daily work of our 
 schools is apparent to any one who has investigated this 
 subject. One needs but to visit our rural schools and ob- 
 serve the number of minutes spent by pupils doing noth- 
 ing; or inquire of young people whether they could have 
 done their regular work just as well as they did, and in 
 addition many other agreeable tasks, such as manual 
 training, agriculture, etc., had these been set apart for 
 them, providing the teacher knew how to get them ac- 
 complished, to be convinced of this fact. 
 
 It is not our intention, however, to outline what addi- 
 tional subjects might with profit, — or possibly I should 
 say must, in the near future, be introduced into the pro- 
 gram of the rural school; but, rather, to give some sug- 
 gestions about the making of a daily program for an 
 average country school, so that so77ie of this waste may be 
 eliminated. 
 
 There are three things for which a program should pro- 
 vide, viz., study, recitation, and recreation. The order 
 in which these have been placed is the order of importance 
 in the rural school ; at any rate, allow them to stand in 
 this order, for it is the study part of the program that 
 needs emphasizing. 
 
 71
 
 72 The Rural School 
 
 THE STUDY PROGRAM 
 
 In every store employing twenty or thirty clerks there 
 is a definite understanding between the chief clerk and 
 subordinate clerks, or between proprietor and clerks, 
 where each one is to work and just what each one is to 
 do. One man does not sell shoes, silks, and clothing, but 
 each has his place and his work, which is known to him- 
 self and to the head of the establishment. It is necessary 
 that there be system, or some would try to do more than 
 they could do well and others would do comparatively 
 nothing. 
 
 The teacher is to be at the head of an establishment 
 of ten, twenty, or thirty workmen, and whether each one 
 does his share depends upon the system with which he 
 organizes this force of busy toilers. 
 
 Will some work while others play? Will some inter- 
 fere with the work of others? This is the case in many 
 schools, and it is hard to eliminate it altogether; but this 
 waste of time can be reduced to the minimum by sys- 
 tematically organizing the forces. The storekeeper might 
 say to his clerks, " I want you to sell goods," but rather 
 he says to one, " Go into my store and sell shoes; " to 
 another, " Go and sell dress goods," and to a third, " You 
 may sell carpets." Each one has his place and each one 
 has his work. So the systematic teacher plans for the 
 work of each one, and knows what each one should do 
 each hour of the day. 
 
 Not only should the teacher know what Harry should 
 be doing now, but Harry should know what he should be 
 doing and what his teacher expects him to be doing now. 
 It should not be expected that young boys and girls so 
 plan their work that at the end of the day they will come 
 out without a loss of time. Advanced pupils may do this,
 
 The Daily Program 73 
 
 but the teacher should do the planning for the little chil- 
 dren at least. Our thought concisely stated is this: 
 Every teacher should make a study program as well as a 
 recitation program. 
 
 There was a time when the teacher had no regular 
 program, but had to stop to think what class he would 
 call next. After studying for a few seconds he might say, 
 " I guess I will hear the ' A ' class read to-day." But that 
 day has passed and now every teacher has some kind of 
 recitation program and follows it more or less closely, but 
 not all teachers have a study program. This part of the 
 day's work is left to the discretion of the pupils and, in 
 the rural schools, the study part of the day's program is of 
 great importance. With so many classes, the recitation 
 periods must necessarily be very short, and, if the study 
 periods are not well occupied, the work of the day will be 
 indifferently or poorly done. If the rural teacher wishes 
 to make his school a success, he must emphasize study. 
 The progress of the pupils depends largely upon the 
 amount of study they do. The study program simply 
 systematizes this work for them. 
 
 Study Periods. — There is a difference of opinion as to 
 when the lessons should be studied. Following custom, 
 the study period would immediately precede the recita- 
 tion; but there are many reasons why it should follow 
 the lesson. Among them are the following: 
 
 1. If study is begun right after the recitation, pupils 
 will go into the study of the lesson with the zeal and en- 
 thusiasm of the recitation. 
 
 2. If work is begun immediately after the lesson is 
 assigned, the children will know just what to do. They 
 will not have to ask about the lesson. 
 
 3. The lesson to be learned for the next day will have 
 to be more thoroughly studied and more carefully stored
 
 74 The Rural School 
 
 away in the memory than the lesson that is learned to be 
 recited at the next period. 
 
 4. It is an advantage to the pupil who has to be out a 
 day. While he will not be prepared on to-day's lessons, 
 he will have studied the lessons for the day he was absent; 
 he will get something of to-day's lessons from the recita- 
 tions, and will be able to prepare his lessons for the next 
 day. In a way, he has covered the ground and no serious 
 break has been caused by this one day's absence. 
 
 On the other hand, it seems that it is asking too much 
 of those just learning to study to require them to prepare 
 their lessons the day before they are to recite them. Sec- 
 ond-grade pupils should begin to work in this way, as they 
 will be required to do in the higher grades, but it should 
 not be the regular practice. 
 
 When to assign the lessons is a question that should 
 receive consideration. It is not so important whether 
 the lesson be assigned at the beginning of the recitation 
 or at the close. The important thing is that the teacher 
 take time to make a clear, definite assignment. If the 
 teacher cannot bring himself to the point where he can 
 close the recitation in time for a careful assignment at the 
 end, he had better take time at the beginning of the recita- 
 tion to make the assignment. Here again the little people 
 should be excepted. Often the teacher will need to assign 
 the work for them just before they do it. In fact, in the 
 begiiming, the teacher will need to show them what to do 
 and how to do it and leave them to go on with the work. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSES 
 
 Waves of Fatigue. — In making a program, it is worth 
 while to take into account the waves of fatigue. By 
 several experiments it has been found that the minds of
 
 The Daily Program 75 
 
 children are brighter and better able to accomplish their 
 tasks during certain periods of the day than at others. 
 The best time of the school is from about 9:15 to 10:30 
 or eleven o'clock. Between eleven o'clock and the close 
 of the morning session occurs the lowest depression of 
 the wave. This is relieved by the noon recess, but it does 
 not reach as high a point of effectiveness as in the earlier 
 part of the day, nor does it reach as low a depression in 
 the afternoon as in the morning session. 
 
 One noticeable thing which these experiments show is 
 that after an intermission of free play the wave rises. After 
 the noon hour and after each recess, pupils are able to do 
 better and more accurate work. 
 
 The practical teaching of these experiments is that the 
 more difficult subjects should come during the more 
 favorable times of the day. Arithmetic, which is a diffi- 
 cult subject for the upper grades, should be placed early 
 in the day. If all of the arithmetic classes are postponed 
 until after the first recess, as is often the case, some of 
 them will come during the very poorest part of the 
 day. Reading is probably the most difficult subject for 
 beginners and may come first for them. Arithmetic 
 followed by reading, grammar followed by geography and 
 history is probably a good order of subjects. It has been 
 found that some subjects may take almost any place on 
 the program, but others suffer if they do not have favor- 
 able places; for example, reading, except in the case of 
 beginners, may come almost any time in the day wdthout 
 appreciable loss, while such subjects as arithmetic and 
 grammar lose much if they are not given good places on 
 the day's schedule. 
 
 Saving Time. — In a rural school where there is a de- 
 mand for so many classes, the saving of time is a factor 
 in accompUshing the work outlined for the day. If in
 
 76 The Rural School 
 
 the moving of classes, or by combining two or more classes 
 the teacher can save ten or fifteen minutes, this time can 
 be used for some other recitation. The inexperienced 
 teacher sees the demand for so many classes that the time 
 is divided into small bits, and thus no recitation is worth 
 much. Twenty classes are about as many as one teacher 
 should undertake to handle; but conditions often seem 
 to force the teacher to have a greater number than this. 
 Superintendents who have visited a good many rural 
 schools and have given this subject quite a little study, 
 think that under no circumstances should the number of 
 classes ever exceed twenty-four or twenty-six. In order 
 that a teacher be able to conduct such a number of classes 
 in one day and at the same time benefit those who are to 
 recite, it is necessary that not a moment of time be lost; 
 and often the teacher will need to use every device known 
 to the craft to get the number down to its proper limit and 
 do justice to the individuals of the school. A few devices 
 for saving time and reducing the number of classes are 
 suggested below: 
 
 1. Two or even three small classes in reading may be 
 called at the same time, and those not reciting may be 
 studying the next lesson at the recitation seat. 
 
 2. Two classes may be moved at the same time, using 
 the same set of signals for both; one returning to their 
 seats and the others coming to the recitation bench. 
 " Rise! Pass! Be seated! " will answer for signals for 
 both classes. 
 
 3. Two arithmetic or two grammar classes may be 
 called at the same time, and one may be given written 
 work at the board while the other is given oral work. 
 
 4. The teacher can manage to give a written lesson 
 each day to some class, passing this from class to class so 
 that each class will have about one written lesson a week.
 
 The Daily Program 77 
 
 This lesson can be so planned that it will not take much 
 time from the other parts of the program. 
 
 5. Lessening the number of classes is another way of 
 saving time. Two classes may be combined, or " al- 
 ternated " as it is called in many courses of study. 
 For example, the fourth and fifth grades both use the 
 fourth reader, and thus may both read, one year, the 
 fourth year's work, and the next year, the fifth year's work. 
 This kind of combination can be made in history, geog- 
 raphy, language and sixth- and seventh-grade reading. 
 If there is an agreement in the state or county as to when 
 certain work will be alternated, as, that the fourth year's 
 work in reading will be begun in the odd years, there will 
 be no confiict when pupils go from one school to another, 
 and the plan will work quite well. 
 
 6. If the number of classes demanded is about to ex- 
 ceed the maximum, it is better to have some classes re- 
 cite twice a week and others the other three days. This 
 plan should be followed with the advanced classes only. 
 
 7. Some teachers arrange a program from which certain 
 classes will be omitted each day of the week. For example, 
 geography classes will not recite on Mondays, and certain 
 arithmetic classes will not recite on Tuesdays, and so 
 forth, making four recitations a week instead of five. 
 
 8. Sometimes older pupils preparing for the county 
 examination desire to review all the subjects in the curric- 
 ulum and would greatly increase the number of classes. 
 This can be avoided to a great extent by having them do 
 intensive study on a few subjects and then drop them and 
 take up something else. For example, if a student wants 
 to review reading, orthography and geography, let him 
 spend a month each on reading and orthography and two 
 months on geography. This will be better than for him 
 to carry all three of these subjects for four months,
 
 78 
 
 The Rural School 
 
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 80 The Rural School 
 
 making three recitations a day. One recitation a day will 
 be all that is necessary to carry these three subjects for 
 the four months, if these suggestions are followed. 
 
 It is to be understood that these devices are for the 
 busy teacher with the crowded program. They are not 
 better than the regular way of having each class do its 
 own work and recite every day for five days in a week. 
 
 On pages 78 and 79 is given a program for a country 
 school having seven grades, showing how the study and 
 recitation programs may be combined. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bagley, Classroom Managejnejit {chapter 4)- 1907. 
 The Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Colgrove, Teacher and the School (chapter 12). 1910. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. 
 
 Dinsmore, Teaching a District School (pp. Jf.3-45)- 
 1908. American Book Co., $1.00. 
 
 Seeley, Foundations of Education {chapter 5). Hinds, 
 Noble and Eldredge, $1.00.
 
 Chapter IX 
 THE RECITATION 
 
 The recitation is the important event in the day's 
 program. It is for this that teacher and pupils have pre- 
 pared. It is the time for which all other exercises of the 
 day lend their aid. It is then that the teacher and the 
 pupils transact the business of the school. The pupil 
 spreads before the teacher his store of treasures; the 
 teacher tells him which to keep and sends him back to the 
 storehouse for another supply, with instructions as to 
 what to select and, perhaps, a few hints as to how to ex- 
 hibit his store. 
 
 The Three Functions of the Recitation. — The English- 
 man places little stress upon the daily recitation, but 
 emphasizes the examination as the opportunity for test- 
 ing. The same is true of the German teacher. But we 
 Americans think of the recitation as a place of testing, 
 teaching, and training. Some teachers who have studied 
 the subject little think the recitation is complete when 
 they have tested the class and found out what the pupils 
 know. This is only a small part of the opportunity of the 
 recitation. It might be not a third of what ought to be 
 done. Again, some will teach, teach, teach, or perhaps 
 it better be said, talk, talk, talk, and never stop to find 
 out whether they have taught anything or not. Talking 
 is not necessarily teaching; it may be far from it. Most 
 teachers talk too much. The teacher should talk less 
 
 81
 
 82 The Rural School 
 
 and get his pupils to talk more. How does a teacher know 
 what to say until he has found out what the pupil knows? 
 Whatever the pupil knows about the lesson he should be 
 allowed to tell. He may not be able to express himself 
 in the best of language, but with some criticisms from 
 pupils and a few corrections and suggestions from the 
 teacher and with another effort he will improve. It is by 
 drill, — going over again, correcting, improving, repeating 
 — that the training, which makes usable the knowledge 
 obtained, shall be secured. 
 
 Securing Attention. — Before the recitation can pro- 
 ceed with profit, the teacher must have the attention of 
 the class. The practical question for the teacher to ask 
 at this point is, " How can I secure and hold attention? " 
 This is not an easy question to answer, for there are so 
 many things that may come in to distract attention, or, 
 it may be, there is so little to attract attention. In the 
 first place, everything that will distract attention from the 
 lesson should be removed, if possible. The desks should 
 be cleared of all books, except those that may be for use 
 in the recitation. If none are to be used, then the desks 
 should be perfectly clear. All paper, pencils, knives, 
 marbles, etc., should be out of sight and, perhaps, out of 
 reach, and the class in a good position near the teacher. 
 In the second place, there must be something to which to 
 attend. The teacher may now be thought of as a caterer 
 who is to prepare the banquet. If this meal is so pre- 
 pared and served as to tempt the tastes and appetites 
 of those who are to eat, there will be little trouble about 
 getting them to attend. So if the lesson is properly 
 assigned, if the pupils are well prepared for the lesson, 
 there will be little trouble in getting attention. 
 
 Arousing Pupil's Interest. — But the following of the 
 suggestions given above will not always secure attention,
 
 The Recitation 83 
 
 for some minds will wander, because they are more in- 
 terested in something else. Interest is catching. Let the 
 teacher become intensely interested in the subject and in 
 the boys and girls of the class. This will exert a great in- 
 fluence in getting the pupils interested. Interest begets 
 attention, so when you have your class interested, you 
 have them attending. It is equally true that attention 
 begets interest, so that required attention is not out of 
 place, but it in turn will lead to interest in the subject 
 at hand. 
 
 These suggestions do not cover all the ground, nor sug- 
 gest a remedy for all the cases that may arise. As has 
 been said before, the conditions must be met and mastered. 
 Inattention may be caused by one of many things. It 
 may be the monotony of the teacher's voice, the lack of 
 variety, the condition of the atmosphere of the room, lack 
 of animation on the part of the teacher, etc. But, what- 
 ever it is, it must be overcome and attention must be 
 secured; for we are not teaching unless the pupils are 
 learning, and pupils are not learning unless they are giving 
 attention. 
 
 The Recitation for the Whole Class. — The whole class 
 should be giving attention, for the recitation is for 
 the whole class. In general, the oral recitation is better 
 than the written, because, when the pupil recites aloud, 
 the class gets the benefit of his recitation. The pupils 
 can then compare their information with that of the re- 
 citing pupil. If his knowledge is approved by the teacher, 
 the rest of the class can correct theirs by this standard; 
 on the other hand, if the pupil's recitation is disapproved 
 by the teacher, the other members of the class may offer 
 their information for the teacher's criticism. It is some- 
 times the custom for teachers to have one member of the 
 class explain a problem while the other members are still
 
 84 The Rural School 
 
 working their examples at the board. The objection to 
 this practice is that the teacher and the one member are 
 all that get the benefit of this explanation, while it should 
 be for the whole class. 
 
 PURPOSES OF THE RECITATION 
 
 Superintendents who have visited extensively in our 
 rural schools tell us that there is a great deal of purposeless 
 teaching. The young teacher, who has not studied the 
 subject, hears recitations because that is the way it was 
 done when he went to school. It is not because he has 
 any special end in view, and generally no end is reached. 
 In this chapter the purposes of the recitation will be 
 studied to see if there is any reason for conducting such 
 an exercise. 
 
 I. To Find What the Pupil Knows. — In his book on 
 *' Method in Education," Mr. Roark gives as the first 
 purpose of the recitation the following: " To find what 
 the child knows and how he knows it." This seems to be 
 important, for it is not enough that a child can say in 
 parrot fashion the words of the lesson. He may have 
 a good verbal memory and may have memorized the 
 words of the book and yet know comparatively^ nothing 
 of the thought. It may be that it is not his own work, 
 perhaps some one has helped him or has worked his 
 problem for him, and he does not understand it at all. 
 If it is written work, his seatmate may have earned the 
 credit that is due. He may be visual-minded and remem- 
 ber the words as they appear on the page, and when the 
 picture is gone all that he knows about the subject fades 
 also. Thus it is important not only that the teacher find 
 out what a pupil knows but also how he has learned it 
 and how he holds it in mind.
 
 The Recitation 85 
 
 2. To Find What the Pupil does not Know. — The 
 
 second purpose that Mr. Roark gives is " To find out 
 what he does not know and why he does not know it." 
 The resourceful pupil will find numerous reasons why he 
 does not know his lesson, but the teacher is interested in 
 the valid ones only. It may be asked, Was the pupil pre- 
 pared for this lesson? Or it may be the lesson was too 
 long or perhaps too short. Did the pupil try to get the 
 lesson, or were conditions of the room such that he could 
 not study? Perhaps conditions at his home are not favor- 
 able to study and school work. He may be motor-minded 
 and unless he may move his lips while studying or in 
 some way accompany study with muscular activity he 
 cannot learn. It may be that he is auditory-minded and 
 learns those things he hears better than those things he 
 reads. All these things interest the teacher and he must 
 consider them in directing the work of the pupil. It is 
 not mere curiosity that should lead the teacher to this in- 
 quiry, but a purpose and a determination to remove the 
 obstacle and correct the evils. 
 
 3. To Correct Pupils' Mistakes. — This object must 
 not be lost sight of, for few pupils get a correct idea of a 
 subject from their owm study, so that they are able to 
 express it clearly. The teacher must correct these ideas 
 or have other pupils do it. 
 
 4. To Supplement Pupils' Knowledge. — The teacher 
 should know more of a subject than is contained in the 
 textbook, and when the class have exhausted their re- 
 sources, the teacher may come in with additional knowl- 
 edge and information that makes the thought clearer and 
 enlivens the recitation. 
 
 5. To Lead Pupils to Correct Expression. — As a rule 
 pupils should be required to recite in complete sentences. 
 A good plan to follow is to require the pupil to stand and
 
 86 The Rural School 
 
 to recite in full statements. Do not accept a word or 
 phrase for the full statement of the fact. There may be 
 one exception to this rule, viz., in number work. When 
 the teacher is working for rapid results he camiot wait 
 for full statements. The teacher should keep a watchful 
 eye on the English used in the recitation. Give pupils the 
 idea early in their school life that their knowledge is for 
 use, the English in the arithmetic class, the arithmetic in 
 the geography class, etc. As far as possible, good pure 
 English should be demanded in all classes. Mr. Mc- 
 Keever in his book, " The Psychologic Method in Teach- 
 ing," extends the idea of expression beyond that of mere 
 verbal utterances. The sawing of a board, the painting 
 of a picture, the making of a dress or the baking of a loaf 
 of bread are all means of expression, and are valuable in 
 the markets of the world. The newer idea of education 
 would have these recognized and cultivated as well as 
 the use of good English. 
 
 6. To Prepare for the Next Lesson. — The recitation is 
 a time in which to prepare for the next recitation, or 
 rather to prepare for the study period. There is the prep- 
 aration of the ground before the planting of the seed. 
 To see that the pupils are prepared for the next lesson is 
 one object of the recitation which the teacher should be 
 careful not to forget. 
 
 7. To Study Pupils. — There is no place that the 
 teacher comes nearer to his pupils than in the recitation, 
 and thus it becomes a place to study each pu})il, — to learn 
 his likes and dislikes, his peculiarities and inclinations. 
 It furnishes an opportunity, also, to develop character. 
 Honesty of purpose, upright dealing, true manliness, and 
 many of the other virtues may be cultivated in the recita- 
 tion by the teacher who is a lover of truth and has high 
 ideals of living and acting. Each subject has its moral
 
 The Recitation 87 
 
 lesson. History has its heroes, arithmetic its exactness 
 and precision, and Hterature its world of truths. 
 
 Conclusion. — Each author who treats of school 
 management gives a list of six or eight purposes of the 
 iccitation more or less similar to the above, but the young 
 teacher just beginning the work of teaching need not 
 worry if he cannot keep in mind all these purposes for 
 each recitation. He needs to know them and must 
 seek to accomplish them. But he will realize that there 
 is more to do in the recitation than simply to " hear the 
 lesson." This he should do, but he should also seek to 
 make it a place of intense interest in the lesson at hand, 
 a place of pleasure, not a place of torment. If he will cor- 
 rect the pupils' mistakes in a kindly spirit and lead them 
 back into the right road; if he will connect the work of 
 the schoolroom so closely with the homes and their life, 
 that each pupil will feel that he is getting something worth 
 while and something he can use; if he will somehow and 
 at sometime inspire his pupils with an intense desire to 
 know more and be more, the professional fraternity Avill 
 forgive his pedagogical sins, though he should fail to keep 
 all the rules of the recitation. He must never forget, how- 
 ever, that the recitation is a place for the teacher to teach 
 and the learner to learn. These things can be accomplished 
 only h Y the teacher who knows and who grows, who has a 
 purpose in life and a laudable ambition to succeed, even 
 though it takes work, work, work to accomplish this end. 
 
 MECHANICS OF THE RECITATION 
 
 In order to attain the high ideals set forth in the pur- 
 poses of the recitation, it will be necessary to use everj' 
 device, every method that will assist. There are certain 
 arrangements which may be made, certain regulations
 
 88 The Rural School 
 
 to be observed, that will greatly aid in the successful 
 progress of the recitation. 
 
 Order of the Room. — Before beginning the recitation 
 the teacher should see that the room is in order, i. e., 
 see that all questions have been answered that should be 
 answered at this time; that each one is at his task for this 
 period; that the room is properly heated and ventilated; 
 and that such other mechanical duties as may call the 
 attention of the teacher or the class shall have been per- 
 formed. 
 
 Movement of Classes. — There should be a definite 
 understanding as to how a class shall move, i. e., whether 
 pupils shall pass straight forward from where they stand 
 after rising from their seats, or whether they shall all 
 move to the back of the room and come up one of the side 
 aisles; what shall be each one's place in the class, or 
 whether the class shall recite from their regular seats. 
 In a rural school, unless there are single seats and the 
 pupils are seated according to grades, the class should 
 move to a recitation seat near the teacher. Close range 
 adds efficiency in the recitation. In this case it is quite 
 important to have signals for the movement of the classes. 
 The following are perhaps as good as any: " Third reader 
 class, stand! pass! be seated! " or " Stand! pass to board! 
 erase! " Some accomplish this by counting, " One, two, 
 three," etc. Some use a bell, but the noise is distracting. 
 However, the plan is not so important as the way it is 
 used. The common fault is to give the signals so fast 
 that it is impossible for the pupils to obey them. This 
 breeds disorder and thwarts the very purpose for which 
 the signals are used. Some will be coming to the class 
 while others are just rising or perhaps looking for a book 
 in the desk; some are being seated while others are com- 
 ing to the recitation seat, and thus all order, the very
 
 The Recitation 89 
 
 thing for which the teacher is striving, is lost. Give the 
 first signal and allow plenty of time for it to be obeyed 
 before giving the second. See also that pupils are at- 
 tempting to comply with the signals. In other words, 
 give plenty of time in which to execute the requirements 
 of the signals and require prompt obedience. A little 
 persistency along this line will soon bring good order in 
 the movement of the classes. These suggestions will 
 apply equally well to dismissal at noon and recess. 
 
 The larger the number of pupils, the more need there 
 will be of regulations in handling them, and vice versa. 
 As suggested in the chapter on the Daily Program, if the 
 school is large and time is precious, one class may come 
 to the recitation while the pupils who have just recited 
 are passing to their seats. This gives pupils an opportunity 
 for some foolishness while meeting in the aisles; but, 
 when the teacher has good control of the school, he can 
 use this order of passing. 
 
 Position of Teacher. — It is quite important that the 
 teacher assume a dignified and graceful position before 
 the class. No slouchy or uncouth posture is at all ex- 
 cusable. The teacher may sit or stand as the occasion 
 seems to demand. Inquiry of a number of Normal stu- 
 dents seems to indicate their preference for the standing 
 attitude. When the teacher is on his feet, he can see 
 better what is going on in the room. It is a good plan for 
 the teacher to move around the room at times to see what 
 otherwise would be hidden from his sight. 
 
 Position of Pupil. — Some of what has been said about 
 the teacher is applicable to the pupil, — at least, that he 
 is more alive when on his feet. This also may be empha- 
 sized, viz., that as a rule he should hold his book in his 
 left hand; that almost without exception the pupil 
 should stand while reciting, for the other members of
 
 90 The Rural School 
 
 the class can hear better, and he needs to think while 
 standing. A graceful position, without the aid of seats 
 or other support is hard for the teacher to secure from 
 all pupils. They have not been " trained from their 
 youth up," and have contracted habits of careless pos- 
 ture; or it may be that bashfulness is the cause of an 
 awkward position. The bashful child should not be 
 treated the same as the careless child; he should be 
 shown and encouraged, but not scolded. The teacher's 
 opportunity for this kind of training is with the little 
 folks before they have become self conscious and bashful. 
 The teacher of little children has an opportunity of 
 training them in graceful habits, that should not be 
 overlooked. 
 
 No Textbook in the Hands of the Instructor. — While 
 there may be times and conditions which will justify the 
 teacher in having a textbook in hand, yet there are so 
 many other advantages and arguments for not having the 
 textbook in hand that it is a good rule to adopt. Consult 
 your own experience as a pupil and see which teacher did 
 the better work, the one that was tied to the book or the 
 one that was free from it. Let the teacher test him- 
 self to see which lesson he teaches the better, — the one 
 in which he is confined to the book, or the one in which 
 he knows the subject and does not need the book. 
 
 Assignment. — On the part of the teacher there should 
 be careful preparation for the assignment of the lesson. 
 Whether the lesson shall be the next five pages or the next 
 page, depends upon several things. It may ])e that the 
 next lesson in arithmetic should be twenty examples, or 
 it may be that it ought to be three, depending very much 
 upon the class, upon the problems and other conditions, 
 such as weather, other lessons, social attractions, etc. 
 These conditions the teacher should know before at-
 
 The Recitation 91 
 
 tempting to assign the lesson. In other words, the teacher 
 should know that the class is ready for the lesson and 
 that there will be opportunity to study it. If the pupils 
 are not ready to proceed, they should review until such 
 time that they will be able to proceed step by step from 
 the known to the unknown. This advice is not for the 
 teacher who always wants to turn the classes back to the 
 first of the book at the beginning of every term. This is 
 generally done by teachers who have a false conceit that 
 they are going to do more thorough work than has been 
 done by the previous teacher. 
 
 The assignment should be clear and definite. Pupils 
 should not be allowed to go away from the class not know- 
 ing just what preparation is needed for the next recitation. 
 They should know it so clearly that they will know when 
 they have their lessons learned. 
 
 Too long a lesson ties the hands of the teacher; too 
 short a lesson leads to idleness on the part of the pupils. 
 The following incident from a superintendent of many 
 years' experience well illustrates the latter point. A 
 teacher had assigned a class 20 words for their next spell- 
 ing lesson. The superintendent asked if he might take the 
 book. This being granted, he pronounced the 20 words 
 to the class and only one Avas misspelled. Of course the 
 superintendent plainly demonstrated to that teacher that 
 she had assigned no work for the class commensurate 
 with their ability. They would either not study, or they 
 would go over something which they already knew and 
 dawdle aAvay their time, — in either case acquiring waste- 
 ful habits. 
 
 In the assignment, the teacher links the old lesson with 
 the new, and explains such parts as the class will not be 
 able to get for themselves. Some days, when the new 
 lesson consists of almost wholly new material, the teacher
 
 92 The Rural School 
 
 will need to take most of the period in assigning the new 
 lesson. It may be well to study the lesson over with 
 the pupils. In a beginning reading class, the new words 
 will need development; in a geography class the unusual 
 words will need to be pronounced, and perhaps, to be ex- 
 plained. A class in history may not be able to see the 
 connection between what they have already had and 
 that which is to follow. Every class should be so grounded 
 in the assignment of the lesson that by their own efforts 
 they can prepare for a creditable recitation. 
 
 When once the lesson is assigned, both teacher and 
 pupils should be prepared on it for the next day. The 
 pupil should be held to strict account for just what has 
 been assigned, and should have an opportunity to tell 
 what he has learned about it. The teacher is not to recite 
 the lesson now but the pupil. Here is where a good many 
 teachers fail; they either recite the lesson for the pupil 
 or accept a poorly learned lesson as one well learned. 
 Accept no recitation as perfect that is not a clear, accurate 
 expression of the thought of the lesson. Clear, accurate 
 thinking is an object worth attaining.
 
 Chapter X 
 
 THE RECITATION (Continued) 
 DEVICES OF THE RECITATION 
 
 It was said in the previous chapter that interest begets 
 attention. Now it may be profitable to know some ways 
 of creating interest. Here, as in all school work, the 
 teacher must use his own individuality — be himself. 
 A teacher's personality will do more to arouse and hold 
 interest than any or all the devices or rules that may be 
 given in this book. Yet, if the teacher can adapt some of 
 these devices, and make them his own, they will assist 
 in making his school more interesting. Only a few can be 
 suggested; he must find some more of his own contriving. 
 
 1. The Teacher Being Taught. — The teacher may 
 assume the position of not knowing and of being taught 
 by the pupils. 
 
 2. Pupils the Questioners. — Notice that pupils are 
 to give questions such as the teacher would ask on the 
 lesson. Pupils will have questions about some phases 
 of almost every lesson, but to ask the questions as the 
 teacher would ask them is another thing. 
 
 3. Contests. — Debates and contests have been found 
 interesting in a class in history. Debate some such 
 question as, " Which did more for his country, Lincoln 
 or Washington? " Sometimes a contest in geography, 
 spelling or arithmetic will arouse great interest in the sub- 
 ject under discussion. 
 
 93
 
 94 The Rural School 
 
 4. Variety. — The three points above mentioned might 
 be summed up by saying, — have variety and spice in 
 your recitations. Spring a pleasing surprise upon the 
 class. Tell an interesting story that will illustrate some 
 point in the lesson; a good laugh is healthy sauce for a 
 class of 3^oung people. The story should not be for the 
 story alone, but for the sake of the recitation and should 
 illustrate some point in the lesson. 
 
 METHODS OF THE RECITATION 
 
 There are several ways in which a lesson may be con- 
 ducted. Following are a few suggestions in regard to 
 classroom methods which may be found helpful. 
 
 I. Oral and Written. — In every school there should 
 be both oral and written recitations. Of the two, the 
 oral work calls for the higher type of thinking. The pupil 
 must be alert, ready, and must frame his composition on 
 the spur of the moment. He does not have time to go 
 back and correct, nor to study long as to how he will form 
 his sentences. The oral recitation tends more to cultivate 
 extemporaneous speaking, rather than careful and exact 
 expression of thought. 
 
 The written recitation gives opportunity for more 
 accurate statements and better language in which to ex- 
 press one's thoughts. A pupil needs practice in l)oth. 
 Many of our rural teachers are inclined to neglect written 
 work, while city teachers often overdo it. Many boys and 
 girls from the rural schools come to the County Diploma 
 or Teachers' examination without aliility to express them- 
 selves clearly on paper or to answer a question completely. 
 This comes from two evils, viz., the want of written work 
 in school, and the lack of the habitual r(Hiuirem(nit of ac- 
 curacy — the need of giving the answer in full, complete
 
 The Recitation 95 
 
 sentences. Too many teachers are willing to accept a 
 word or two instead of a complete statement of the 
 truth required. 
 
 2. Object Method. — In order to be successful, the 
 teacher of beginners must know and use the object method. 
 The order in teaching is the object, the thought, the 
 word. When teaching a new subject, the object itself 
 furnishes the best illustration, next the picture of the 
 object, then a drawing and lastly a description. This is 
 but saying in other words that the concrete should pre- 
 cede the abstract. The child probably does very much 
 of its first thinking by the use of object symbols. 
 
 The importance of having objects for use in our teach- 
 ing is often illustrated in our own experiences. The 
 writer might give a description of Pike's Peak, how it 
 looks like a huge pile of rock some builder has unloaded 
 for a mammoth building. He might go on into the details 
 of the description, yet how surprised the reader would be 
 when he sees it with his own eyes. How different it will 
 appear from what he imagined. Notice the use of this 
 method in the chapters on primary methods. 
 
 3. The Topic Method. — It is a good practice to have 
 pupils recite by topics. The teacher announces the topic 
 and the pupil arises and discusses the subject to the 
 best of his ability without any other suggestion from the 
 teacher or pupils. It requires independence and a better 
 grasp of the subject than when required to answer a few 
 questions on the topic. This method can be used to 
 advantage in history, physiology, civil government, geog- 
 raphy, etc. 
 
 4. The Lecture Method. — This method has little 
 place in the rural schools. It may be used in a college or 
 university where the professor has given a subject special 
 study and has original material not in the textbook. This
 
 96 The Rural School 
 
 he gives to his pupils in the form of lectures and requires 
 it back in the test or examination. From the very nature 
 of the case, our rural teachers must learn to use the text- 
 books and be content to use the methods that may be 
 applied to them. 
 
 5. The Question Method. — The teacher can afford to 
 make of himself a big question mark and learn how and 
 where to place it. One of the great teachers of the world 
 used this method so exclusively and so effectively that he 
 gave his name to a method of questioning. The teacher 
 can covet no more desirable art than to be a good ques- 
 tioner. There is, perhaps, no better way of teaching than 
 by asking questions in a proper manner. 
 
 There are a few directions a student may learn that 
 will be of great advantage to him in mastering the art 
 of framing questions. In the first place, the teacher should 
 be original in the question asked, and not tied to the ques- 
 tions of the book. These questions may be a guide to him in 
 arranging others, but he will never be a good questioner 
 until he frees himself from dependence upon the textbook. 
 
 In the next place, all questions should be clear and 
 definite. They should call for something, and that thing 
 should not be one of two or more things. For example, 
 if the teacher asks what lake is on the boundary of New 
 York State, he has not made himself clear, for there are 
 several lakes that will answer these conditions. Again, 
 if he say, " Give me the definition of a fraction," he sug- 
 gests that there is only one kind of fraction, whereas there 
 are several kinds and he has not signified which one he 
 wants defined. 
 
 Then again, the questioner should endeavor to make 
 his questions follow each other in logical order. The skill- 
 ful questioner can begin where the pupil is and by a scries 
 of questions arranged consecutively and in logical order,
 
 The Recitation 97 
 
 lead the pupil step by step from the known to the related 
 unknown. This was Socrates' method. If the pupil 
 thought that he knew more than he really did, by ques- 
 tions Socrates would lead him to see how very little he 
 knew and how insignificant was his knowledge. If, on 
 the other hand, his pupil lacked self-confidence, he would 
 lead him from one step to another to realize that he knew 
 a great deal. 
 
 Leading a student step by step to a clear and definite 
 understanding of a subject by means of a series of logical 
 questions is called the Socratic method of teaching. 
 
 When the teacher wants to find out what his pupils 
 know about a certain subject he can best do this by a 
 series of questions called testing questions. Here there 
 is no place whatever for suggestive questions. Any sug- 
 gestion of the answer defeats the very object for which the 
 questions were asked. These should not be the questions 
 that can be answered by yes or no; they should call for 
 definite information gotten from textbook or elsewhere. 
 When the instructor desires to teach certain truths or to 
 lead pupils to see certain relations, often he can best 
 accomplish this by a series of questions called instruc- 
 tional questions. 
 
 When it is a choice between telling, or asking a sug- 
 gestive question, use the question. It is better to ques- 
 tion a child into seeing a thing than it is to tell it to him. 
 
 In teaching, there is not much use for the direct or 
 categorical question. We may ask a pupil whether he has 
 studied his lesson or not, and he may answer by yes or 
 no; but to ask, " Is Kansas bounded on the north by 
 Nebraska? " is hardly worth the effort that it takes to 
 ask it. 
 
 We are often warned against the use of elliptical ques- 
 tions, but it seems that we may use them sometimes for
 
 98 The Rural School 
 
 variety. Questions are used to arouse pupils to earnest 
 thinking and good expression, and any form of question 
 that will do this, may be used with profit. 
 
 As a rule the question should be directed to the whole 
 class, and then some one called on to answer it. If this 
 plan is used to its fullest extent, every one in the class will 
 be held responsible for the answer, and each one will be 
 formulating the reply. If the individual who is called 
 upon to answer the question has not a clear idea of the 
 subject, the teacher may need to question him to lead 
 him into a clearer understanding of the matter. 
 
 INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION 
 
 What we have given above under the caption of methods 
 may be objected to as not worthy the name methods, 
 being simply devices. However that may be, all will 
 agree that there is an inductive and a deductive method 
 of teaching and that they should be understood by all 
 progressive teachers. 
 
 Induction. — When the mind proceeds from the par- 
 ticular to the general, it is called inductive reasoning or 
 inductive thinking. This is best illustrated by some of the 
 inductive sciences, as botany for example. Botanists 
 have studied the life, habits, and structure of plants until 
 they can tell us many interesting and useful facts or 
 laws about them. They have learned from observation 
 that if a plant has seed it has had a flower of some kind 
 and belongs to the great series of flowering plants. If 
 the leaves are parallel veined, we may look for certain 
 other characteristics. 
 
 Again, we observe that this neighbor has died. We 
 notice that old people become foeliU^ and die, etc.; and 
 finally we come to the conclusion that all men will die,
 
 The Recitation 99 
 
 that " Man is mortal." This last statement is what is 
 called the " general or universal." 
 
 Deduction. — We reached the above conclusion by a 
 series of observations, and we call this process induction. 
 But, if we should begin with this conclusion, " Man is 
 mortal " and reason from it in the following way, e. g., 
 " Man is mortal, Jolm is a man, therefore John will die," 
 — we are reasoning deductively. We are proceeding 
 from the general to the particular. 
 
 Induction, then Deduction. — Both these methods have 
 their place in teaching, but most educators think that 
 induction is the more natural for the young student. The 
 faculty of observation is active in early life, for the child 
 is seeing, handling, tasting and hearing at every oppor- 
 tunity, and drawing his childish conclusions, some true 
 and some not. He makes his deductions also, e. g.-, he 
 thinks, " I can push a chair; this is a chair; therefore 
 I can push this." 
 
 It is generally believed that, if a subject can be pre- 
 sented inductively, this is the better method to follow. 
 So, instead of learning the rules in arithmetic first and 
 then working the examples and problems by the rule, 
 examples and proljlems are worked, illustrations are 
 given and finally the rule is formulated. In the study of 
 the sciences the laboratory method and the inductive 
 method are one and the same method. One goes into a 
 laboratory and observes that heat expands iron, that 
 other metals expand when heated, that water and mer- 
 cury expand under the influence of heat; in fact, all 
 things that he has found expand under the influences of 
 heat. He thus comes to the conclusion or universal " All 
 things expand when heated." 
 
 The Goal of the Recitation. — By this process of in- 
 duction, going from the individual to the general, we reach
 
 100 The Rural School 
 
 what Mr. Button in his " School Management " calls 
 the " goal of instruction." He says that every recitation 
 should have for its goal some universal truth. For ex- 
 ample, a lesson in subtraction should lead up to the rule 
 for subtraction; a lesson in percentage should lead to the 
 rule for working examples in this case in percentage; a 
 lesson in history should lead to some moral truth or 
 patriotic sentiment. 
 
 Whatever may be the advantage of the inductive 
 method, we are called upon sometimes to present sub- 
 jects that cannot be taught inductively, and must use 
 deduction. No one need be alarmed, for it is a good 
 method. Doubtless, the mind often follows induction by 
 deduction. Our conclusions derived from induction are 
 often hastily reached and faulty, and we need to test them 
 by deduction. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bryan, The Basis of Practical Teaching {chapters 9, 10, 
 11). Silver, Burdett & Co. 
 
 Colgrove, Teacher and the School {chapter 17). 1910. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. 
 
 Button, School Management {chaptets 11 and 12). 1903. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.00. 
 
 Hamilton, The Recitation. 1906. J. B. Lippincott Co., 
 $1.25. 
 
 Hinsdale, Art of Study {chapter 8). American Book Co., 
 $1.00. 
 
 Keith, Elementary Education {chapters 8 and 9). 1905. 
 Scott, Foresman & Co., $1.25. 
 
 Roark, Method in Education {p. 53). 1899. American 
 Book Co., $1.00.
 
 Chapter XI ' 
 
 TEACHING PUPILS HOW TO STUDY 
 
 Meaning of Study. — By studying we mean the con- 
 centrating of the mind upon a certain subject. The de- 
 grees of studying in school may be expressed as follows: 
 first, the simple thinking of a little child in comiection 
 with its seat work; second, gleaning thought from the 
 printed page; third, judging; fourth, reasoning such as 
 is required in solving difficult problems in arithmetic. 
 
 Importance. — The importance of learning to study 
 can hardly be overestimated. When one has learned to 
 study, he has acquired the means of obtaining an educa- 
 tion; even more, he has a large part of his education al- 
 ready secured, for knowing how to study is a good part of 
 an education. 
 
 The Old Plan and the New. — From an inquiry of 
 classes in a normal school, it has been found that few, and 
 many times none, have had any instruction whatever in 
 the grades in the art of study. Teachers have not thought 
 that there was any instruction to give about study, ex- 
 cept to tell the pupils to study. Many of us in our child- 
 hood days, when we were in earnest about studying, knew 
 of no other way than to repeat, and we were encouraged 
 to repeat by being requested to read our lesson over five 
 times, to study our spelling over ten times. This we used 
 to do in the following way: b-a-ba-k-e-r-ker, baker; b-a- 
 ba-k-e-r-ker, baker; b-a-ba-k-e-r-ker, baker, as fast as we 
 
 101
 
 102 The Rural School 
 
 could make our tongues go, and with as Uttle thought 
 about how " baker " was spelled as possible. We could 
 do this and think most of the time about something else, 
 and this was the feature that commended itself to the 
 average boy or girl. It is easy to see that there was no 
 mind concentration in this process. Its value depended 
 entirely on the law of repetition; but there are ways of 
 learning and remembering things other than by repeating 
 them, and some of them are more economical. In teach- 
 ing pupils how to study, the plan should be comprehensive, 
 suited in its devices to the various grades of the school. 
 The little beginner should be started, for if he is ever to be 
 a scholar he must learn to study. (Beginners are not how- 
 ever to study in the common acceptance of the term, 
 and as they are often required to do.) The pupils learn- 
 ing to read ought to be getting the thought from the 
 printed page, and so on throughout all the grades of 
 the school. 
 
 STAGES IN THE ART OF STUDY 
 
 Teaching Beginners to Study. — As was said in the 
 previous paragraph, first-year pupils should not be ex- 
 pected to do independent study, and even second-year 
 pupils camiot do much studying, in the common accept- 
 ance of the term. The practice of many rural teachers 
 of putting the book into the hands of first-year pupils, 
 and expecting them to study is all wrong. Yet they should 
 be doing something that contains the elements of study 
 and which will lead them into the art of study. Let us 
 illustrate. It is conceded by psychologists that nmscular 
 activity, especially that which is under the control of the 
 will, builds nerve or l^rain power; hence the reason for 
 manual training in the scihool curriculum, and hence the 
 place for much of the busy work or seat work used by all
 
 Teaching Pupils How to Study 103 
 
 good primary teachers. The child who is placing two 
 colored sticks in several positions, as, ^, "^, +, X, etc., 
 is doing some elementary study or thinking. When he is 
 sewing the outline of a leaf or pricking the holes in a card 
 to be sewed, he is doing appropriate study for a child that 
 has just entered school and has never learned this work. 
 In special schools for feeble-minded children, the first 
 lesson is often some simple act, such as jumping over a 
 stick. Something like this is thought to be sufficient at 
 first, and by gradually making the requirement more 
 difficult it is hoped to arouse the mind to activity. 
 
 Much of the beginner's first work is imitation of what 
 the teacher has just done, but there is, or should be, 
 thought in this imitation, and there will be, if it is properly 
 presented by the teacher. For example, the children are 
 learning to write the word " flower." The teacher slowly 
 writes the word on the board while the children are watch- 
 ing every movement of the teacher's hand. The teacher 
 calls attention to the form of the letter '' f," — that its 
 back is straight, that the upper part extends up farther 
 than the " o " or " w," that the upper part is just hke 
 the "I," that the lower part extends down as far below 
 the line as the upper part extends above the line. He will 
 call attention to how to go from the " f " to the " 1," from 
 the " 1 " to the " o," etc. He will now hide the word or 
 have pupils close their eyes and try to see the word; after 
 this he will erase the word and have them try to write it. 
 This process of teaching writing is a thoughtful process 
 and requires study, as intricate and exacting as little 
 children should be required to attempt. 
 
 The study of the first year should be something of what 
 has been suggested above and should be almost wholly 
 under the direction of the teacher. The seat work, the 
 reading, the number work, in fact all the work of the school
 
 104 The Rural School 
 
 should be thoughtful work. In teaching the first lesson in 
 reading, the teacher will try to get thought expression 
 from the pupil; this thought expressed he may use for the 
 first sentence in the reading lesson. If the thought is the 
 pupil's, there will be no trouble in getting correct ex- 
 pression in reading; but if the thought is not the pupil's 
 own, he will get correct expression by leading questions 
 which will suggest the thought. Thus, the very beginning 
 of reading may be a thoughtful process. The thought is 
 directed and brought out by the teacher and it is not cus- 
 tomarily called study, but it is elementary study under 
 the direction of the teacher. It is not the grade of study 
 required to get the thought from the printed page, a thing 
 which children of this age should not be expected to do 
 without the help of the teacher. 
 
 Thought Getting. — If the kind of thought work sug- 
 gested above is carried through the first year and con- 
 tinued in the second year, by the middle of the second 
 year, pupils may be expected to do some thought gleaning 
 for themselves. This will have to be stimulated by the 
 teacher, for where there is so much effort required in learn- 
 ing to recognize and pronounce words, if the teacher is 
 not careful, the energy will all be expended in this direc- 
 tion and none will be left for getting the meaning of what 
 is read. Indeed, in many schools the whole effort of the 
 pupil is expended in getting the words. This is true in re- 
 gard to the higher grades also, and even in the seventh 
 grade, pupils are not getting the thought from the reading 
 lessons. To call the word correctly seems to be the height 
 of the ambition of many reading classes. This ambition 
 is encouraged by the practice of allowing the pupils to 
 make all the corrections in the reading class, for, as a rule, 
 they criticise only the miscalled words. This custom has 
 its place, but it should not be the only and most important
 
 Teaching Pupils How to Study 105 
 
 criticism offered by class or teacher, nor should word 
 calling be counted as reading. The calling of the words 
 correctly is, no doubt, the first element, in process of time, 
 in good reading; but in advanced reading, this part should 
 be secondary, requiring little thought and effort. Thought 
 getting and thought expressing should absorb most of the 
 energy and effort. The reason why boys and girls have 
 hard work to get lessons in such subjects as history and 
 civil government, is that they have not learned to glean 
 the thought from the reading lesson. This is where 
 they should learn it first, and it should be a continuous 
 process from the first day in school to the last classic that 
 the school is expected to read. Much trouble in arith- 
 metic comes from pupils not l^eing thoughtful readers. 
 Our boys and girls have not learned how to study be- 
 cause teachers have not taught them how to study, — 
 they have not required thoughtful work in reading, the 
 fundamental subject. 
 
 Judging. — In the study of history and classics the 
 pupils should be encouraged to do thinking for themselves. 
 Pupils are quite willing to take the opinions of the author 
 or teacher for their opinions. Especially in regard to 
 morality should they be encouraged to form judgments 
 of their own. The teacher should not be too free to ex- 
 press his opinions. Let him hold them in reserve until 
 the members of the class have expressed theirs. It is 
 sometimes a good indication when a pupil differs from 
 the opinion of the teacher. It shows, if it is not stubborn- 
 ness merely, that he is doing some independent thinking. 
 Current events furnish material for this kind of thinking. 
 
 Reasoning. — Analysis in grammar and analysis in 
 arithmetic furnish about the best material that our com- 
 mon schools have for this higher form of study. Too many 
 of our teachers allow analysis in grammar to degenerate
 
 lOG The Rural School 
 
 into diagramming in which there is no clear meaning, 
 and neglect analysis in arithmetic altogether, so that our 
 boys and girls get little training in this essential kind of 
 study. In order to be good, clear thinkers, they must be 
 able to take hold of a subject and analyze it, whether this 
 be a speech of some legislator, or whether it be a business 
 proposition. The foundation of this work should be 
 laid by our common schools. A man should not be ex- 
 pected to get this training wholly from experience, for 
 tuition is high in the school of experience. 
 
 Note that in all of the above suggestions there are 
 problems of some nature to be solved. The httle beginner 
 has two sticks to place in a certain directed position. 
 In the writing of the word floiver, there are several small 
 problems uniting in the larger problem of writing the 
 word. When the child begins to read from the book, he 
 has to find out what the book says and express it for the 
 teacher and his fellow pupils. In literature or history, 
 when the pupil is asked to form judgments regarding the 
 character of Hamlet, Arnold or Washington he has a 
 problem. In analysis of sentences in grammar or the 
 solving of examples in arithmetic, the problem is very 
 evident. The problem serves as the best incentive to 
 study of any device yet found. 
 
 HINTS ON STUDYING 
 
 The Eye, The Hand, The Ear.^ Of all the sense organs 
 the eye is, perhaps, the most serviceable in conveying to 
 us knowledge, both from books and from nature. Al- 
 though our eyes sometunes deceive us, yet we believe in 
 the old saying that " seeing is believing." Children want 
 to see, old people want to sec, everybody wants to see, 
 for every one learns much by seeing. Although one
 
 Teaching Pupils How to Study 107 
 
 learns by seeing, he is not satisfied with seeing alone; he 
 wants to handle. On seeing something for the first time, 
 a little child next wants to handle the new object, and 
 grown people are much like children in this respect. Not 
 everything about an object can be learned by the use of 
 the eyes. Feeling and the muscular sense add to, and 
 correct, the knowledge that comes through the eyes. An 
 object may look heavy, but when lifted it is found to be 
 light. Some retain that which they hear much longer than 
 that which they read. It seems that sensations which come 
 to them through the auditory channel are retained much 
 more easily than knowledge gained from other sources. 
 
 From these facts it would seem that it is important to 
 present knowledge through the three channels to the 
 mind, viz., the eye, the hand, the ear. That which we 
 see, handle, and hear we know more about and remember 
 longer. The writing of a lesson impresses it upon the 
 memory. The committing to memory of an outline or the 
 learning of a lesson in spelling is often facilitated by wri- 
 ting the same. Drawing a map or an outline picture of 
 an object appeals to both hand and eye. The teacher 
 that is " handy " with chalk will find that it materially 
 aids word pictures and he will soon be known as one who 
 can " explain things." The oral element should not be 
 neglected in recitation and study. In studying a lesson 
 in reading, pupils should often be encouraged to read 
 aloud to themselves, for thereby they are training the vocal 
 organs and also the ear, two organs that must be trained 
 to do good work in oral reading. It is sometimes good 
 practice to read aloud a lesson in history, physiology, etc., 
 for thus the ears are brought into use along with the eyes. 
 
 In general, the greater the number of the senses that 
 can be brought to bear upon an object, the more knowledge 
 will be acquired and the longer will it be retained.
 
 108 The Rural School 
 
 Three Times Over. — Children are sometimes en- 
 couraged to study their lessons many times over, and this 
 often becomes an ideal of perfect study, so that the child 
 who has studied his lesson over " ten times," has about 
 reached the goal of perfection in study. But if this is 
 given due consideration, it will be seen that " ten times " 
 cannot be ideal, for the student would make slow progress 
 if he were compelled to go over his lessons ten times. The 
 ideal is one time. The advanced student should strive 
 to get a lesson so well in once going over it that he will not 
 need to go over it again. This will take concentration of 
 thought and close application, such as is not expected of 
 pupils in the grades. But they should not be led to think 
 that they should go over a lesson many times in order to 
 learn it. This is permissible only when the purpose is 
 drill. When an artist is training the voice, or hand, or 
 some other of the muscles of the body, it is necessary to 
 repeat again and again, and here, also, thoughtful repeti- 
 tion is much more effectual than thoughtless repetition. 
 Too frequently this " many times over " is merely 
 thoughtless repetition. 
 
 Mr. Roark in his " Method in Education " suggests 
 that a lesson should be learned in going over it three 
 times. The first time it should be read as a whole. This 
 can be done more or less hurriedly, aiming to get a general 
 view of the lesson. The second time it should be studied 
 very carefully, studying each paragraph separately and 
 noting the particulars that come under this sub-topic. 
 Most textbooks have the subjects of each paragraph in 
 heavy-faced type; these furnish the sub-topics mider 
 which the student may arrange his knowledge of the 
 lesson. In this second going over, the pupil is supposed to 
 continue his study of the topic until he understands it and 
 knows what is in this division of the lesson. Thus, para-
 
 Teaching Pupils How to Study 109 
 
 graph by paragraph, he goes over his lesson, picking the 
 whole to pieces. It now only remains for him to put it 
 together again. This he does in the third going over. 
 This time he may simply look at the headings of each para- 
 graph, thinking them back into the whole lesson. If it 
 should happen that he has forgotten what is said in one 
 of the paragraphs, he will have to read it over again, but 
 as soon as its contents come to him, he will go on. 
 
 Concentration. — These suggestions can be followed 
 only when thought is put into the study. Students 
 sometimes find themselves reading along but thinking 
 about something else. The thing to do under these cir- 
 cumstances is to go back to the place where his thinking 
 ceased and begin over again. If the student will ask and 
 answer for himself this question, it will be a great aid 
 to him in getting on the track again, " What is the sub- 
 ject about which I am reacUng? " or in other words, 
 " What is this author talking about? " Sometimes this 
 should lead back to the general subject, and again to the 
 subject of the paragraph. This question and its answer 
 will often lend aid to an understanding of what an author 
 means in a sentence that is difficult of interpretation. 
 
 All of the above is but another way of saying that study 
 is a thoughtful process. It is study only when the mind 
 attends, and the more intently the mind attends, the 
 more of its energy that is focused upon the subject at 
 hand, the more will be accomplished. The more the mind 
 is concentrated upon the subject at hand, the more the 
 mind is absorbed in the subject, or absorbs the subject, 
 the higher the character of study becomes. It is wonderful 
 what can be accomplished by a mind that concentrates 
 itself upon a lesson to be learned, and wonderful how 
 little time it takes to accomplish a great task. This kind 
 of work is intense, absorbing; the worker becomes ahnost
 
 no The Rural School 
 
 oblivious of surroundings and for the time knows but 
 one thing. 
 
 The person who can study in this way does not need 
 the usual time in which to get a lesson. A lesson that 
 it usually takes an hour to prepare, with this kind of 
 study may be gotten in half the time. As a rule, pupils 
 spend more time than is necessary in getting a lesson. A 
 good deal of the time is spent in dawdling over the lesson 
 while the mind is stupid and half awake. Every pupil 
 who has tried it knows that he can get a lesson in half the 
 usual time. 
 
 Such strenuous study cannot long be sustained. The 
 mind tires and must have relaxation. A study of a differ- 
 ent nature affords some relief, but exercise in the open 
 air is the best restorer of mental energy. All who have 
 graded large lists of examination papers know how 
 fatiguing the work is, for the monotony of going over the 
 same thing time after time induces listlessness and lan- 
 guor. The writer once had such a task before him and 
 tried the following plan, which worked well. He worked 
 as fast and diligently as he could for about an hour on a 
 number of papers on one subject, arithmetic for example, 
 and then left off grading for ten minutes and walked in 
 the open air. Returning to the papers again, he worked 
 as vigorously as possible, this time on grammar papers. 
 By this plan he thought that he accomplished more in 
 a day than where he stayed continuously at the work. 
 
 Motives in Study. — The above suggestions are more 
 or less mechanical and may not appeal to the pupil; but 
 if a motive for study can be presented to the child, if 
 he can see why he is expected to study, or better, if 
 he sees the end near at hand for which he is working, 
 his efforts will be spontaneous, vigorous and worth 
 while. If the little child is making a pretty card or mat
 
 Teaching Pupils How to Study 111 
 
 for her mother she will work with much more zest than 
 if there is no end in view. The child who is learning to 
 read so that he may read a story for himself or for an- 
 other will find more interest in the reading lesson. 
 Motivation is a subject to which the five teacher should 
 give special study. A good reference is given at the end 
 of the chapter. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Charters, Methods of Teaching (chapters 9, 10, 11). 
 1912. Row, Peterson and Company. 
 
 Button, School Management (chapter 13). 1903. 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.00. 
 
 Earhart, Teaching Children to Study. 1909. Houghton 
 Mifflin Co., 60c. 
 
 Hinsdale, Art of Study (chapter 10). American Book 
 Co., $1.00. 
 
 Jones, Principles of Education (chapters). 1911. The 
 Macmillan Co., $1.00. 
 
 McMurry, How to Study. 1909. Houghton ]\Iifflin 
 Co., $1.25. 
 
 Roark, Method in Education (p. 48). American Book 
 Co., $1.00.
 
 Chapter XII 
 
 PLAY AND PLAYGROUNDS 
 THE FUNCTION OF PLAY 
 
 Many have thought, and some doubtless still think, 
 that play is a sort of necessary evil. " Children will play 
 and you cannot help it, but it would be much better if 
 they did not," has been the opinion held by very many 
 " grown-ups." 
 
 A little study will show the fallacy of this position. 
 Play is an instinct given the child for its protection or 
 good in some way. Some one has said that the only ani- 
 mals that can be trained are those animals that play while 
 they are young. If this is true, then there must be some 
 relation between play and development. Dr. Woods 
 Hutchinson, in the Contemporary Review of September, 
 1903, says that the child plays through the five stages of 
 development of the race, viz., the " root and grub," the 
 " hunting," the " pastoral," the " agricultural," and 
 the " commercial " stages. He thinks, when the little 
 child wants to put everything he gets into his mouth, 
 that he is passing through the root and grub stage — he is 
 merely living through that prehistoric period when man 
 lived on roots that he dug from the ground. When, 
 a little later, he is hiding behind doors to jump out at 
 papa or sister, he is passing through the hunting period 
 of the race; and so on through the different periods, until 
 
 112
 
 Play and Playgrounds 113 
 
 he wants to keep store, trade knives, and gather the 
 products of many lands and keep them all in his pocket. 
 Then he has reached the culmination of his race — the 
 commercial stage. Whether or not this theory of Mr. 
 Hutchinson's is correct, it suggests to us that the child 
 is developed through play, and with this we, as teachers, 
 are interested. 
 
 Development of the Body. — We have but to look 
 about us to convince ourselves that play has a very im- 
 portant use in the developing of the child into manhood. 
 Is it not the natural method of educating or training 
 human beings for usefulness? The babe in the crib 
 begins very early in life to throw out his hands and kick 
 his feet, and the more vigorous this activity is the more 
 pleased he seems. And all these throws of the hand are 
 teaching him to control its movements and find the way 
 to his mouth; and all these kicks of his little feet are 
 making his legs strong enough to hold his weight and carry 
 his unstable body whither his head directs. So it is not 
 hard to believe that play develops the physical being, 
 for it gives the child use of his hands and feet; it makes 
 more acute his hearing, and sharpens his eyesight; it 
 gives him suppleness of the whole body by bringing every 
 joint and muscle into use and under his control. 
 
 Development of the Mind. — But play does more than 
 develop his body; for, as Dr. Hutchinson says, " When 
 the child plays it is not merely relaxing itself, getting an 
 appetite, getting health; it is literally building and organ- 
 izing its body, nay, its brain and mind." He also says, 
 " Every sport worth the name develops not merely 
 strength, endurance, and fleetness, but also alertness, 
 quickness of repose, coolness, balance, and wariness, judg- 
 ment that is both sound and swift." If there is a man 
 running from first base to second and one from second
 
 114 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 
 ■ii.,. : j 
 
 
 .:<»■ 
 
 Jt.^.-.rJ^M. ■ iK^ ^ ^^\- 
 
 ^K^l^fl 'W' ^^B' ~*'^i3H 
 
 PLAYING DODGE BALL 
 
 to third, in a game of baseball, the shortstop that catches 
 a fly ball must decide almost instantly where to throw 
 it. An error in judgment may lose the game for his side. 
 So it is with many of the games that young people play — 
 they require quick and accurate judgment that is of 
 practical benefit in after life. Some railroad men were 
 talking about an accident that occurred, and they were 
 of the opinion that the engineer was unable to bring him- 
 self to prompt action and stop his train at an unexpected 
 signal, so he wrecked his train and lost his life. Perhaps 
 if he had had this experience in games that require im- 
 mediate and accurate judgment he could have reversed 
 the lever, closed the throttle and saved his train. 
 
 HOW THE SCHOOL SHOULD PROVIDE FOR PLAY 
 
 Love of Freedom. — In every human being there seems 
 to be a struggle of the will to be free — a revolt against 
 law or restraint. In play, it is simply a sham ; but if this
 
 Play and Playgrounds 
 
 115 
 
 LINE UP FOR A GAME OF MODIFIED FOOTBALL 
 
 Designed for boys below high school grade 
 
 revolt becomes real and against constituted authority, 
 it is a crime. This explains why school children are in- 
 clined to play pranks. School children, who are under the 
 control of a teacher during school time, when recess comes 
 break away from the restraints of school discipline and 
 give full freedom to their wills in the outdoor recess. 
 Closely directed exercise, such as marches and drills or 
 gymnastic exercises, will not take the place of free play. 
 At the free recess he can imitate the conventionalities 
 of real life, by playing school, by contests of strength and 
 fleetness, by mock battles in football, baseball, and snow- 
 balling. All these and many others are imitations of the 
 real transactions of life and are entered into with zest 
 and perfect freedom. 
 
 Even grown men and women who put themselves under 
 restraint and bind themselves down to books and school 
 must have their time of relaxation and freedom from this 
 restraint. This breaking away is so vigorous and so 
 extreme that the authorities are sometimes shocked and 
 chagrined. The whole nation of England went from the 
 strict, hymn-singing times of Oliver Cromwell to the 
 merry, profligate times of Charles II.
 
 116 The Rural School 
 
 Neither grown people nor children can endure restraint 
 all the time; there must be a time of freedom. It is true 
 that " all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy," but 
 it is equally true that all play and no work makes Jack 
 a profligate boy. There must be equilibrium, and it is 
 the place of the school to take account of this and provide 
 for both work and play. Other things being equal, the 
 school that judiciously provides means and opportunity 
 for free play on the schoolground, will get the best work, 
 both in kind and quantity. 
 
 In the Normal Bulletin which is sent to the rural 
 teachers of Kansas, Mr. Clair Turner of the Physical 
 Training Department of the Kansas State Normal School 
 has spoken so well on the subject of the recess that by 
 permission I am quoting him at length. He says: 
 
 The Recess Gang. — " Mr. Principal or Superintendent, 
 what are you doing for that crowd of boys that collects in 
 the corner on the sunny side of the school building at 
 recess these fall days? Do you know the theme of the 
 conversation there? How about the stories that are told, 
 and the plans that are laid for the afternoon's mischief 
 in school? If the crowd is a regular one about your school 
 building you may as well get out your apple sprouts or 
 your suspension blanks, for soon there is bound to be a 
 fight, or other disturbance just as bad. Probably al- 
 ready there have been complaints by neighl)ors of stone 
 throwing or broken windows, or of young children being 
 tormented. 
 
 " These things can be easily prevented and the gang 
 broken up by giving the boys something to do, for boys 
 were made to do things, and, if there is not something 
 good for them to do, they will do something perhaps not 
 so good. Now the boy is naturally interested in gymnas- 
 tics and athletics and he has an almost uncontrollable
 
 play and Playgrounds 
 
 117 
 
 PLAYING GERMAN BALL 
 
 play instinct. The teacher has a great opportunity to 
 take advantage of these play tendencies as a means of 
 developing growing muscles as well as growing brains. 
 In the fifteen minutes twice a day provided by most 
 Kansas schools, the teacher can get better acquainted with 
 the pupils under his charge than he is able to do through- 
 out the whole year. 
 
 " Upon the playground the teacher can get into the 
 real boy world. Here he will often find his dullard a tjT)- 
 ical general, and perhaps be shocked to find his favorite 
 boy student not even considered in the ' choosing up ' 
 for a game. Perhaps, too, he may see the boy who can 
 never get up courage enough to make a recitation, dive 
 right into a football scrimmage, and another one with 
 courage enough in school, who will shamelessly run away 
 when there is danger of being ' roughed up ' a bit in a
 
 118 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 A SUDE ON A RUKAL I'LAYGKOX'XD 
 
 game. So the teacher who would really know his pupils 
 and prevent the rising of the mob spirit must be with them 
 at play and direct them in their games. 
 
 " The recess instead of being a period of aimless loafing 
 should be entirely devoted to pleasurable physical ac- 
 tivity that would increase circulation, oxygenize the 
 blood, make sound muscles, give relief from sitting and
 
 Play and Playgrounds 
 
 119 
 
 A COMBINATION APPARATUS 
 Ladder, rings, slide and two swings all in one 
 
 stooping postures and at the same time develop courage, 
 self-reliance, and loyalty for team and school. 
 
 Playground Apparatus. — " Gymnastic apparatus upon 
 the playground can be made very interesting, and there 
 are many kinds that can be provided by the boys them- 
 selves at very little expense. One thing that never fails 
 to attract is a jumping pit made by digging a hole one 
 foot deep and six feet wide and say ten or twelve feet 
 long. Fill this pit with builder's sand, and you have an 
 excellent landing place for broad and high jumping, as well 
 as for pole vaulting and even tumbling. 
 
 " Another piece of playground apparatus easily made is 
 a German horse. Get a log about sixteen inches in diam- 
 eter and about six feet long. Set it upon four legs so that 
 it will furnish a back about three feet from the ground. 
 Get the blacksmith to make two grips or pommels of iron
 
 120 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 
 / / 
 
 bi 
 
 
 •Mm^ :■ ^, ^' 
 
 
 A COMBINATION OF SWINGS AND TEETER BOARDS 
 
 that can be placed transversely on the log, one about where 
 a saddle horn would be and the other where the back 
 rim of the saddle would come. Make these large enough 
 to grasp easily when bolted through the horse. Now make 
 a jumping pit at one side of the horse, and you have a piece 
 of apparatus that will provide a great variety of exercises 
 that children will enjoy. 
 
 " A horizontal bar can be easily made with six feet of 
 two-inch gas pipe and a couple of poles for uprights. 
 This bar should be high enough to allow the average boy 
 to swing under it with arras and body at full length and 
 should have a jumping pit under it extending at least six 
 feet each way from under the bar. A low horizontal bar 
 can be made similar to the high one. It should be about 
 three feet from the ground." This will provide for the 
 smaller children.
 
 A giant's stride 
 11211
 
 122 The Rural School 
 
 What can be done in the way of equipping a school 
 playground is graphically shown at Ellis, Kansas. The 
 equipment is simple and inexpensive, yet well adapted 
 to the purpose. There are swings for the boys and 
 swings for the girls, a " teeter-totter," a tennis court, 
 a baseball diamond, oblique ladder, turning poles, 
 giant's stride and vaulting poles. Besides these there 
 are seven sets of horseshoes, one set of boxing gloves, 
 several sets of jumping weights, hammer shot, and a 
 twenty-foot climbing rope. All these things were bought 
 and paid for by the pupils and teachers of the school. 
 Not a cent came from the treasury. This apparatus is 
 used. I was surprised in examining the swings to find 
 the ground worn out about a foot deep under each swing, 
 showing that they had been extensively used. The prin- 
 cipal told me that when everything else was out of 
 use the giant's stride was still going. 
 
 Do you see how to make a giant's stride? 
 
 It is just an old wagon wheel and spindle on the top 
 of a good pole firmly set in the ground, and ropes or 
 chains from the rim. All the other apparatus is simple 
 in construction, but answers every purpose. If to this 
 were added a sand pile and some blocks from a carpenter 
 shop for the benefit of the little people, you would have 
 a very complete equipment. 
 
 The principal thinks that the effort he has put upon 
 the playgrounds has materially aided the school, not only 
 in the attendance, but also in discipline and the quality 
 of the work done in the classroom. Since the playgrounds 
 have been thus equipped there has been little or no need 
 of punishment. There have been very few failures in the 
 grades and lower classes of the high school, and none in 
 the higher classes, and the school is well represented in the 
 University and other institutions of the state.
 
 Play and Playgrounds 
 
 123 
 
 " SKINNING THE SNAKE " 
 
 Apparatus for Rural Schools. — The teacher of a rural 
 school may think that these things are all right for a 
 village or city school, but that they cannot be had in a 
 country school. While it is true, perhaps, that not all 
 these things may be obtained for a rural school, yet what 
 is needed may be secured. The teacher can have some 
 of them, if he wants them and is willing to put forth an 
 honest effort to get them. It will depend very much 
 upon the school what can be gotten and what is needed. 
 If there is a number of large girls in school, a basket ball 
 equipment is good. If little people predominate, a swdng 
 and a sand pile are perhaps all that is needed. What 
 should be gotten will depend very much upon the school 
 and surroundings. 
 
 Games and Plays. — But if equipment for a playground 
 cannot be gotten, a book of school games and plays can 
 be put into the library and the children taught new games
 
 124 The Rural School 
 
 when the old ones wear out. There are plenty of games 
 that do not require any equipment, and that will keep the 
 children interested on the playground. Many good ones 
 may be found in the books listed below. 
 
 Remember that games and plays educate as well as 
 develop the body, and that they are a part of every good 
 school. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Angell, Play. 1910. Little, Brown & Co., $1.50. 
 
 Bancroft, Games for the Playground, Home, School and 
 Gymnasium. 1909. The Macmillan Co., $1.50. 
 
 Hetherington, Fundamental Education. N. E. A. Pro- 
 ceedings, 1910. 
 
 Johnson, Education hy Plays and Games. 1907. Ginn 
 & Co., School ed., 90c. 
 
 Jones, Principles of Education (chapter 4)- 1911. The 
 Macmillan Co., $1.00. 
 
 Perry, Wider Use of the School Plant (p. 149). 1910. 
 (Russell Sage Foundation Publications.) Survey Asso- 
 ciates, Inc., N. Y., $1.25. 
 
 Playground Association of America, Proceedings and 
 Publications. New York.
 
 Chapter XIH 
 THE LIBRARY AND ITS USES 
 
 Importance. — Every school that is without a Hbrary 
 is placed at a disadvantage. One of the great objects of 
 the school is to acquaint the pupils with good books, and 
 to give them ability to use them. If in his school days a 
 pupil comes into contact with his textbooks only, his 
 opportunity is dwarfed and the school is doing only part 
 of what it should do for him. Why does the child spend 
 so much time in learning to read unless he is going to use 
 this ability in reading? And will he not take more interest 
 in learning to read if he sees that it is all for a purpose, 
 namely, to read something for his own gratification and 
 pleasure? 
 
 Then, the textbook is written with a definite object in 
 view, and much that is of interest to the child must be 
 sacrificed in order to accomplish this object. For example, 
 the readers must be graded so that the pupil will be led 
 step by step into the art of reading. No complete long 
 story can be given, no poem of any length can be inserted, 
 no complete biography can be used. Just snatches of 
 the best are given, and the teacher is supposed to lead 
 the pupils to an interest in literature from these bits of 
 the great masterpieces. 
 
 What is true of literature is true of history. Only a 
 small part of what is known of our country can be put into 
 
 125
 
 126 The Rural School 
 
 one textbook. There should be other histories in the 
 school for those whose interest may lead them to fur- 
 ther reading. 
 
 Thus it is with almost every study. The school text- 
 book merely gives the pupil a start in the subject, and 
 the school should provide means for advancement, or, 
 better still, encourage advancement into broader fields 
 along the lines wherein the pupil shows ability. 
 
 ACQUIRING A LIBRARY 
 
 How to Start a Library. — In assembling a library, do 
 not ask for general contributions from the patrons of the 
 school. One will feel obliged to accept all the books that 
 come, and in doing this he will probably receive the 
 rubbish of the neighborhood. Not many people are 
 willing to give away their best books, but will freely part 
 with those for which they do not care to provide room 
 any longer. Then, too, one will get some books that are 
 worse than useless to the school. In this way the shelves 
 can be filled up, but the library will be useless, to say the 
 least. As a rule, buy books outright from a list that has 
 been carefully selected by competent judges. 
 
 Of course, if there is a library fund or if a library tax can 
 be levied, this is the best way to get the money. Many 
 teachers have started a library by giving an entertain- 
 ment of some kind and charging a small fee. This ac- 
 complishes two things, it secures the money and interests 
 the patrons and school in the enterprise. Often when a 
 library is once started, it will be maintained and built 
 up by district funds. 
 
 Traveling Libraries. — Thirty or more states have 
 traveling libraries. These are managed by commissions 
 or boards and are maintained in many instances at state
 
 The Library and Its Uses 127 
 
 expense. The thing of interest to the rural teacher who is 
 without a Ubrary, however, is that one may be had at a 
 very nominal expense. Usually this is the cost of trans- 
 portation to and from the depository. A letter of inquiry 
 to your state librarian, or secretary of the library com- 
 mission, will bring needed information. In case these 
 are not knowai, make inquiry of your state superintendent. 
 No school need be without a small library. From the 
 traveling library at a cost of two or three dollars, a list of 
 fifty or more books may be had for the school term. Some- 
 times a teacher has the opportunity to choose such books 
 as he desires for his school. A little extra enthusiasm and 
 a bit of hard work will raise the money. 
 
 WHAT TO BUY 
 
 How to Use and What to Buy. — How to use often 
 depends on what there is to be bought, and what to buy, 
 on how the books are to be used. In purchasing books for 
 a library, some teachers, and others also, are impressed 
 with the idea of '' getting a library." This is a vague im- 
 pression of books, and almost any book will help to make 
 this library. The picture of a number of books is clearly 
 outlined but quality and usefulness do not enter into 
 its make-up, so the object is often to get the greatest 
 possible number of showy books. This is akin to receiv- 
 ing collections from the neighborhood; it fills up the 
 shelves but does not provide a library that can be used. 
 Agents try to sell sets of books. They look well and are 
 all right, providing there is unlimited means with which 
 to build up a library. 
 
 A Working Library. — What a school needs first is a 
 number of books that a teacher can use in the every-day 
 work of the school.
 
 128 The Rural School 
 
 This may be called a working library. Often, in buy- 
 ing the first books for a library, the teacher thinks he 
 must buy books for general reading, such as would be 
 called a circulating library. But a better way is to buy 
 books for use in the school. A few copies of Florence 
 Bass' " Lessons for Beginners " make an excellent choice 
 for the teacher who expects to teach beginners reading 
 by the object method. Miss Bass begins with plants, — 
 things with which children in the country are acquainted 
 — the very place to begin so that the object may be 
 brought into the room and the teacher may proceed from 
 the known to the unknown, presenting first the object, 
 then the spoken word, and then the written word. A 
 teacher might well afford to buy some such set out of 
 his own earnings if they could not be gotten for the 
 library in any other way. 
 
 There should be duplicate copies of first and second 
 readers to be used as supplementary readers. Often the 
 teacher will want to use them for sight reading. Then he 
 will keep the books in his own possession and give them 
 to the class only at the recitation period. No study is 
 supposed to be given to such lessons; they are intended 
 to give skill in reading new matter. The " Mother 
 Goose Reader " is an excellent book for this purpose. 
 It is suited for about the first or second grade. Enough 
 copies of this book to supply an average class in school 
 should be included in the first order. Then there should 
 be a number of books for nature study and books of cul- 
 tural value. There are many excellent books from which 
 to make this selection. 
 
 A working library will furnish books for the little people 
 so that they may read as soon as they have acquired the 
 ability. " Child Life," a first reader published by Mac- 
 millan, is a good book for this purpose. Some that are
 
 The Library and Its Uses 129 
 
 a little too difficult for the pupils to read may be read by 
 the teacher and the stories used for language work and 
 ethical instruction. Perhaps " Sleepy-time Stories," 
 published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, will suit most teachers 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Again, there should be some books on agriculture, in 
 order that the boys may be led to read along this line. 
 There are many good books being put upon the market 
 each year, and much good information can be obtained 
 from them. " Farm Life Readers," published by Silver, 
 Burdett and Company, is a series which will commend 
 itself to the rural teacher. Then, too, the writing of a 
 postal card will bring valuable information from the 
 Agricultural Department at Washington or from the 
 Agricultural College regarding bulletins and reports. 
 Many of these can be had for the asking. 
 
 No field of school literature is richer with excellent 
 helps than geography. There are a great number of 
 sets of geography helps, each covering almost the whole 
 field, and no school library is complete without a number 
 of these books. They furnish the material for making 
 geography the most interesting subject in school instead 
 of the dryest. By the use of such books the subject may 
 be made more useful and more practical. 
 
 Of course, there should be books on history to supple- 
 ment the text used, but it is of equal, or perhaps greater, 
 value that a number of history stories and biographies 
 be furnished the young to lead them to the desire for 
 reading history. 
 
 A library would not be complete without a few books 
 for general reading. A good many boys and girls have no 
 taste for reading. For this reason some books of a light 
 nature should be on this list. Each year the Kansas 
 Reading Circle Board selects a list of the best new books.
 
 130 The Rural School 
 
 USING THE LIBRARY 
 
 Preparing a Place for the Library. — Even before the 
 library has been purchased, some tliouglit ougiit to be 
 given to liow to preserve it. As soon as it has been de- 
 termined that books will be bought for the school, " Where 
 shall the books be kept? " is a pertinent question. If 
 there is money enough, with the first order a case should 
 be purchased. This is taking for granted that a bookcase 
 was not built into the house when it was first erected. 
 If the amount of money is small and the need of books 
 is great, as is usually the case, no embarrassment need 
 be felt, for a small box fitted with a few shelves and deep 
 enough to receive the books, may be nailed to the wall, 
 and will answer every purpose. If some one can be in- 
 duced to make a door for it, the cost of the hinges and 
 lock will be all the necessary expense, unless it is for a 
 little paint. If no door can be had, the teacher or one of 
 the older girls can make a curtain that will cover up the 
 rough exterior and protect the books from dust. 
 
 How to Use a Library. — It is sometimes hard to 
 interest boys and girls in good books and get them to 
 read for themselves. The following way has been sug- 
 gested by a teacher of long experience in the teaching of 
 literature: Let the teacher read to the school an inter- 
 esting chapter from a book and then place it on the shelves. 
 Interest will thus be aroused and pupils will be asking for 
 more from that book. The teacher will say, " You may 
 take the book and read it for yourself, if you like." Do 
 not suggest that pupils read it, but let them come to the 
 teacher first. 
 
 Another plan is to go through the geography somewhat 
 in advance of the class to see what aid is needed and what 
 can be found in the geograjDhy helps. Suppose the lesson
 
 The Library and Its Uses 131 
 
 is about China, and there is in the hbrary, " Stories of 
 China," by Miss Pratt. When something of interest 
 is found in this book some such note as the following in 
 Hght pencil may be made on the margin of the geography : 
 " See ' Stories of China,' page 40." There will usually be 
 found in the class some one who can get his lesson and 
 have time to play. Ask this one to look up what is on page 
 40 in " Stories of China " and tell it to the class. This 
 accomplishes two things, — something additional and 
 interesting has been given to the class, and the bright 
 pupil has been given something to do to keep him out of 
 mischief. This plan can be used in other subjects also. 
 
 Those pupils who are easily stronger than the other 
 members of the class and who have proved themselves 
 such in their recitations may be given permission to use 
 the library after they have their lessons prepared. In 
 some of the Denver schools this plan is used to equalize 
 the work of the dull and bright pupils in a grade. A few 
 books are kept in the room, and pupils may read or study 
 along the line of their choice, even during the time of the 
 recitation, providing they hold themselves in readiness 
 to be called upon at any time to answer a question in 
 the recitation that other members of the class cannot 
 answer. If they are unable to answer the question, they 
 lose their privilege until they prove themselves again in 
 the recitation. It is not necessary to have a large library 
 in order to carry out this plan. One book on the teacher's 
 desk is enough to start it in a school and furnish profitable 
 employment for a bright pupil and save a teacher trouble 
 and worry. 
 
 Extended Use of Library. — The library movement is 
 not selfish in its spirit, but rather philanthropic. The use 
 of a small library in a district school shauld not be con- 
 fined to the school alone, but should extend to all the
 
 132 The Rural School 
 
 district whenever and wherever there is opportunity. 
 As the hbrary grows, the needs of the patrons and tax- 
 payers should be recognized in the selection of books and 
 magazines. The school should strive to uplift the com- 
 munity, and the library may be its most potent instrument. 
 The school library might be the medium of exchange for 
 farmers' bulletins, papers, and books on farming, poultry 
 raising, dairying, household economy, home sanitation, 
 and so on. 
 
 Librarian. — While school is in session the teacher 
 should act as librarian, during vacation the clerk or 
 some other member of the board. A strict account should 
 be kept of every book that goes out of the room. Books 
 should be returned at the end of two weeks or renewed, 
 and due appreciation and regard for the books must be 
 required of all. Nothing destroys the usefulness of a 
 library sooner than to allow the books to be misused. 
 Children should early be taught to love and care for 
 a good book. 
 
 SUGGESTED PLAN OF ORGANIZATION FOR SMALL 
 SCHOOL LIBRARY 
 (One hundred volumes or less) 
 
 Compiled by Willis H. Kerr, Librarian, Kansas State 
 Normal School, Emporia, Kansas 
 
 Minimum organization: 
 
 A. Permanent record book (called Accession book). 
 
 B. Property stamp. 
 
 C. Record of issue. 
 
 A. Permanent Record of all hooks in the library: 
 
 Headings extend over two opposite pages, thus: 
 
 (Left-hand page) 
 
 No. Date Vol. Author Title 
 
 (Right-hand page) 
 
 Place Publisher Year Source Cost Remarks
 
 The Library and Its Uses 133 
 
 Such a book may be purchased aheady ruled from 
 
 Library Bureau, 37 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. Ask 
 
 for Condensed Accession Book No. 1059, price 
 $1.10 postpaid. 
 
 Explanation of above headings: 
 
 1. No. — Lines numbered consecutively 1, 2, 3, etc. 
 
 2. Date — Date of invoice. 
 
 3. Vol. — Give volume number if a work is in more 
 than one volume. Never enter more than one volume 
 on a line. 
 
 4. Author — Last name, followed by initials. 
 
 5. Title — Short title. 
 
 6. Place — City where published. 
 
 7. Publisher — First company mentioned on title 
 page. For example: Ginn, Macmillan, Scribner, Wiley. 
 
 8. Year — Date given at bottom of title page. If 
 none, use last copyright date, given on back of title page. 
 
 9. Source — Bookseller from whom purchased, or 
 name of donor. 
 
 10. Cost — Actual cost to school. If a gift, mark " g " 
 in this column. 
 
 11. Remarks — Used chiefly to show when book is 
 worn out, lost, withdrawn for contagion, etc. 
 
 12. In accession books on the market, other headings 
 are given and should be used by librarians of larger 
 libraries. 
 
 As soon as books are received, enter each on a line 
 of the accession book, and put the number of the line 
 (accession number) in the volume received, at the bot- 
 tom of the first right-hand page after title page; write 
 it in bold clear figures with ink. This number is called 
 the accession number of the book. 
 
 B. Property mark: 
 
 This identifies your book when it is out of the school- 
 room, and is indispensable even in the smallest library. 
 A rubber stamp is the cheapest form. A good style is 
 small Gothic lettering, reading thus, for example:
 
 134 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 Oak Hill School Library 
 
 Clay County, Kansas 
 District 37. No. 
 
 Rubber stamps may be secured from any dealer in rubber 
 stamps at a cost of forty or fifty cents. 
 
 Stamp the title page of every volume, the inside of the 
 front cover, and also a certain arbitrary page (say, 21) 
 of each volume. 
 
 Inventory, or take stock of the books each autumn 
 when school opens. With the accession book in hand, go 
 carefully through the shelves and note in the Remarks 
 
 column, " Not found, Sept. ," for every volume 
 
 missing. (Use pencil for these remarks, erasing note 
 when book is found.) Make list of missing volumes for 
 your own record, and report it to the School Board. 
 
 C. Record of Issue: 
 
 Have on your desk slips of paper about 3 by 5 inches 
 in size, and for each book given out write the accession 
 number, the name of the person who takes it home, and 
 the date. Keep these slips in an envelope marked " Books 
 out." When a book is brought back, find and destroy 
 the sHp. Insist that all books be returned before last 
 day of school. 
 
 This form of slip is suggested as about the simplest 
 that can be devised. If these are kept alphabetically 
 arranged any name may easily be found. By twisting 
 the cards one way the number of a book may be seen, by 
 twisting them the other way, the dates will appear and 
 books due will be found. 
 
 No. 
 
 3G5. 
 
 Snyder, Walter. 
 
 
 11/27/12. Date. 

 
 The Library and Its Uses 135 
 
 The following list is only suggestive of the different 
 classes of books which are suited for a rural school li- 
 brary. When this list is exhausted and the library has 
 grown beyond the Hmits of a small rural school library, 
 other sources of information should be sought regarding 
 selection of books and organization. 
 
 A WORKING LIBRARY FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS 
 
 Compiled by Miss G. M. Leaf, Reference Librarian, 
 Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas 
 
 (The grades for which each book is suitable are in- 
 dicated.) 
 
 Reference Books 
 
 Adams, C. C, Textbook of Commercial Geography. 
 D. Appleton & Co., $L30. 
 
 Appleton's Encyclopedia. 6 vols. D. Appleton & Co., 
 $18.00. (May be bought of dealers for $9.75.) 
 
 Gayley, C. M., Classic Myths in English Literature, 
 Revised. Ginn & Co., $L50. 
 
 New Family Atlas of the World. Rand, McNally & Co., 
 $L00. 
 
 Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. G. & C. Merriam Co., 
 $3.00. 
 
 Bible Stories 
 
 Bible for Young People; arranged from the King 
 James version by Mrs. J. B. Gilder. New ed. Century 
 Co., $L50. (4-6.) 
 
 Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress. (Riverside sch. ed.) 
 Houghton Mifflin Co., 60c. (7-8.)
 
 136 The Rural School 
 
 Heermans, Stories from the Hebrew. Silver, Burdett & 
 Co., 42c. (4-5.) 
 
 Proudfoot, Child's Tales. A. Flanagan & Co., 75c. 
 (3-5.) 
 
 Easy Reading for the Youngest Readers 
 
 Andersen, Fairy Tales, ed. by Turpin. Small, May- 
 nard & Co., 40c. 
 
 Baldwin, Fairy Stories and Fables. American Book Co., 
 35c. 
 
 Bass, Nature Stories for Young Readers. 2 vols. D. C. 
 Heath & Co., 70c. 
 
 Grimm and Grimm, Fairy Tales, ed. by Wiltse. 2 
 vols. Ginn & Co., 70c. 
 
 Grover, Overall Boys. Rand, McNally & Co., 38c. 
 
 Grover, Sunbonnet Babies* Primer. Rand, McNally & 
 Co., 40c. 
 
 Lindsay, Mother Stories. Milton Bradley Co., $1.00. 
 
 Mickens and Robinson, The Mother Goose Reader. 
 SUver, Burdett & Co., 36c. 
 
 O'Shea, Six Nursery Classics. (Home and School 
 Library.) D. C. Heath & Co., 20c. 
 
 Perrault, Tales of Mother Goose, tr. by Welsh. D. C. 
 Heath & Co., 20c. 
 
 Potter, Beatrix, The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Frederick 
 Warne & Co., 50c. 
 
 Progressive Road to Reading, Book 1 . Silver, Burdett & 
 Co., 32c. 
 
 Progressive Road to Reading, Book 2. Silver, Burdett & 
 Co., 40c. 
 
 Scudder, H. E. cd.. Book of Fables and Folk Stories. 
 (Riverside Literature Series.) Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 40c. 
 
 Serl, In Fable Land. Silver, Burdett & Co., 45c.
 
 The Library and Its Uses 137 
 
 Myths, Legends, and Fairy Tales 
 
 Baldwin, Story of Siegfried (Heroes of Olden Times). 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.50. (5-7.) 
 
 Brown, In the Days of Giants: a Book of Norse Myths. 
 (Riverside Literature Series.) Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 50c. (4-5.) 
 
 Hawthorne, Wonder Book and Tanglewood Tales. 
 (Riverside Literature Series.) Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 40c. (6-9.) 
 
 Pyle, Some Merry Adventures of Rohin Hood. (School 
 Readings.) Charles Scribner's Sons, 50c. (6-8.) 
 
 Ruskin, King of the Golden River. Rand, McNally & Co., 
 25c. (4-6.) 
 
 Zitkala-Sa, Old Indian Legends. Ginn & Co., 50c. 
 (5-7.) 
 
 Nature 
 
 Andrews, Stories Mother Nature Told her Children. 
 Ginn & Co., 50c. (3-5.) 
 
 Brown, Plant Baby. Silver, Burdett & Co., 48c. (4.) 
 
 Burroughs, Birds and Bees. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 60c. (7-8.) 
 
 Dana, Plants and Their Children. American Book Co., 
 65c. (4-5.) 
 
 Kirby, Mary and Elizabeth, Aunt Martha's Corner 
 Cupboard. Educational Publishing Co., 40c. (3-5.) 
 
 Miller, First Book of Birds. Houghton Mifflin Co.. 
 60c. (5-8.) 
 
 Poulsson, In the Child's World. Milton Bradley Co., 
 $2.00. (1-3.) 
 
 Poulsson, Through the Farm Yard Gate. Lothrop, Lee 
 & Shepard Co., $1.25. (1-2.)
 
 138 The Rural School 
 
 Saunders, Beautiful Joe. American Baptist Publication 
 Society, 60c. (4-6.) 
 
 Serl, In the Animal World. Silver, Burdett & Co., 
 50c. (4-6.) 
 
 Willis and Farmer, Month by Month. 3 vols. Kellogg, 
 $4.00. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Burkett, Stevens and Hill, Agriculture for Beginners. 
 Ginn & Co., 75c. 
 
 Duncan, Evans and Duncan, Farm Life Readers. 
 Bks. 4 & 5. Silver, Burdett & Co., 45 & 50c. 
 
 Goodrich, O. L., First Book of Farming. Doubleday, 
 Page & Co., $1.00. 
 
 Jackson and Daugherty, Agriculture through Labora- 
 tory and School Garden. Orange Judd Co., $1.50. 
 
 Kansas Agricultural College, Bulletins. 
 
 Kern, Among Country Schools. Ginn & Co., $1.25. 
 
 King, Textbook of the Physics of Agriculture. F. H. 
 King, $1.75. 
 
 McKeever, Farm Boys and Girls. The Macmillan Co., 
 $1.35. 
 
 Sargent, Corn Plants, their Uses and Ways of Life. 
 Houghton Mifflin Co., 75c. 
 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 Amusements and Occupations 
 
 Adams, Harper's Indoor Book for Boys. Harper & Bros., 
 $1.75. (7-8.) 
 
 Adams, Harper's Outdoor Book for Boys. Harper & 
 Bros., $1.75. (7-8.) 
 
 Alexander, Songs We Like to Sing. Silver, Burdett & 
 Co., 35c. (7-8.)
 
 The Library and Its Uses 139 
 
 Bacon, Songs That Every Child Should Know. Double- 
 day, Page & Co., 90c. (7-8.) 
 
 Baker, Boy's Book of Inventions. Doubleday, Page & 
 Co., $2.00. (7-9.) 
 
 Barnard, Tools and Machines. Silver, Burdett & Co., 
 60c. (5-6.) 
 
 Bancroft, Games for Playgrounds, Home and School. 
 The Macmillan Co., $1.50. (6-7.) 
 
 Benton, C. F., pseud., Saturday Mornings. Dana Estes 
 & Co., 75c. (5-7.) 
 
 Literature 
 
 Lamb, Charles and Mary, Tales from Shakespeare. 
 (Riverside Literature Series.) Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 50c. (6-8.) 
 
 Norton, Heart of Oak Books. Vols. 1-2. D. C. Heath 
 & Co., 60c. (1-2.) 
 
 Stevenson, Child's Garden of Verses. Rand, McNally & 
 Co., 50c. (2-4.) 
 
 Wiggin and Smith, Posy Ring. McClure Co., $1.25. 
 (5-6.) 
 
 Geography Aids 
 
 Andrews, Jane, Seven Little Sisters. Ginn & Co., 50c. 
 (2-4.) 
 
 Ayrton, Child Life in Japan. (Home and School 
 Classics.) D. C. Heath & Co., 20c. (5-6.) 
 
 Carpenter, Geographical Readers. 6 vols. American 
 Book Co., 60c each. (5-8.) 
 
 Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South 
 America. 
 
 Carroll, Around the World Series. 5 vols. Silver, Bur- 
 dett & Co., each 36c. (1-6.)
 
 140 The Rural School 
 
 Chamberlain, How We Travel. (Home and World 
 Series.) The Macmillan Co., 40c. (4-6.) 
 
 Chance, Little Folks of Many Lands. Ginn & Co., 50c. 
 (1-2.) 
 
 Dunton, World and Its People Series. 12 vols. Silver, 
 Burdett & Co., 36 to 60c. (2-8.) 
 
 Little Journeys, ed. by M. M. George. 10 vols. A. 
 Flanagan Co., 50c each. 
 
 Alaska and Canada; Cuba and Porto Rico; France and 
 Switzerland; Germany; Holland and Belgium; Mexico 
 and Central America; Norway and Sweden; Russia 
 and Austria; Turkey; The Balkans and Greece. 
 Long, Home Geography. American Book Co., 25c. 
 Our Little Cousin Series. 11 vols. L. C. Page & Co., 
 60c each. (3-4.) 
 
 Alaska; Australia; Chinese; Cuban; Greek; German; 
 Italian; Panama; Philippines; Spanish; Swedish. 
 Peeps at Many Lands. 16 vols. The Macmillan Co., 
 50c each. (8-9.) 
 
 Burma; China; Egypt; England; Germany; Greece; 
 Holland; Scotland; Switzerland; Holy Land; Ice- 
 land; India; Italy; Japan; Morocco; Norway. 
 Shaw, Big People and Little People of Other Lands. 
 (Eclectic Readings.) American Book Co., 30c. (3-4.) 
 Starr, Strange Peoples. (Ethno-geographical Readers.) 
 D. C. Heath & Co., 40c. (5-7.) 
 
 History and Biography 
 
 Andrews, A Perfect Tribute. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
 50c. (6-8.) 
 
 Baldwin, Fifty Famous Stories Retold. (Eclectic Read- 
 ings.) American Book Co., 35c. (3-5.)
 
 The Library and Its Uses 141 
 
 Blaisdell and Ball, Hero Stories from American History. 
 Giim & Co., 50c. (5-7.) 
 
 Eggleston, Stories of American Life and Adventure. 
 (Eclectic Readings.) American Book Co., 50c. (3-5.) 
 
 Eggleston, Stories of Great Americans for Little Ameri- 
 cans. American Book Co., 40c. (3-5.) 
 
 Hazard, Indians and Pioneers. Silver, Burdett & Co., 
 45c. (5-6.) 
 
 Mowry, Hero Series. American Pioneers, 65c (5-7); 
 American Heroes and Heroism, 60c (5-6). Silver, Bur- 
 dett & Co., 
 
 Newell, Indian Stories. Silver, Burdett & Co., 45c. 
 (5-6.) 
 
 Starr, American Indians. (Ethno.-geog. Readers.) 
 D. C. Heath & Co., 45c. (5-8.) 
 
 Stone and Fickett, Everyday Life in the Colonies 
 D. C. Heath & Co., 35c. (4-6.) 
 
 Tappan, European Hero Stories. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 65c. (6-8.) 
 
 Stories 
 
 Alcott, Little Women. Little, Brown & Co., $1.50. 
 (5-7.) 
 
 Defoe, Robinson Crusoe. (Riverside School Library.) 
 Houghton Mifflm Co., 60c. (6-8.) 
 
 Dodge, Ha7is Brinker. Charles Scribner's Sons, 75c. 
 (5-8.) 
 
 Eggleston, Hoosier School-Boy. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
 60c. (6-8.) 
 
 Hale, Man without a Country. (National edition.) 
 Little, Brown & Co., 35c. (6-8.) 
 
 Spyri, Heidi. (Home and School Library.) Ginn & Co., 
 40c. (4-5.)
 
 142 The Rural School 
 
 Swift, Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Regions 
 of the World. (Home and School Classics.) D. C. Heath 
 & Co., 30c. (6-8.) 
 
 Westover, Bushy. Silver, Burdett & Co., 75c. (6-7.) 
 
 Wiggin, Bird's Christmas Carol. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 50c. (5-8.) 
 
 Wyss, Sioiss Family Robinson. (Home and School Li- 
 brary.) Ginn & Co., 45c. (5-7.) 
 
 Zollinger, Widow O'Callaghan's Boys. A. C. McClurg & 
 Co., $1.25. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bulletins may be obtained from the library commis- 
 sions of the different states or from the state department 
 of education. These often contain graded lists of books 
 from which selections may be made; they also give help- 
 ful hints about the choice, care, and use of books. The 
 following are good: 
 
 Brown and Webster, Buying Lists of Books for Small 
 Libraries. 1913. American Library Association Pub- 
 lishing Board, 78 E. Washington St., Chicago, 111., 15c. 
 
 Ely, Library Aids for Teachers, State Normal School, 
 Duluth, Minn., 15c. 
 
 New York Education Department, Division of School 
 Libraries. An annotated, graded, and classified list of 
 books suitable for elementary school libraries (Bulletin, 
 Feb., 1912), Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Walter (of N. Y. State Library), The Care of School 
 Libraries. Printed by Michigan State Board of 
 Library Commissioners, Lansing, Mich.
 
 Chapter XIV 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 
 
 Its Importance. — If it were asked, '' In what espe- 
 cially do teachers fail? " the answer would be, " In school 
 government." It may very easily be detected, for the 
 children report it to their parents, the board members 
 soon find it out, and it is apparent to the superintendent 
 the moment he steps into the room. The teacher may be 
 making a failure of instruction, but if he keeps " good 
 order " the children cannot determine whether the in- 
 struction is good, bad, or indifferent, and the superin- 
 tendent may not, in his short visit, at once discover that 
 the teaching is of poor quality. 
 
 Thus it is that school government becomes a very im- 
 portant subject to every teacher. If a teacher camiot 
 govern a school he must move on from place to place, 
 not rising in the profession but merely eking out an ex- 
 istence. Then, too, quiet and order are very important 
 features of the school itself. A schoolroom should be 
 a place for study, and a pupil has a right to a place 
 where he can study without serious interruption. Then 
 again, boys and girls need to learn at school what many 
 of them do not learn at home, viz., to be obedient to 
 law. They need to learn obedience, system, punctual- 
 ity, orderliness, and respect to superiors, and many of 
 them will learn this, if at all, only in a well-governed 
 school. 
 
 143
 
 144 The Rural School 
 
 AIDS TO SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 
 
 Since school government is of such importance, if the 
 State Normal School could instruct the teachers of its 
 state how to govern successfully, it would pay to dismiss 
 the schools for a year and have all the teachers study school 
 government. But the truth is, each teacher must govern 
 his school in his own way, and the school which he teaches 
 may require quite a different form of government from 
 the school in an adjoining district. A teacher's person- 
 ality must enter into all his school work, and especially 
 into his school government. 
 
 While it may not be possible to tell just how to govern 
 a school, it is hoped that some things may be said that 
 will set teachers to thinking, and that will help them 
 better to help themselves. 
 
 It has been said that the best governed school is the 
 one that is least governed. It is hoped that the few sug- 
 gestions which are given in this chapter will aid the young 
 teacher in making the school self-governing. 
 
 Plans for Each Day Necessary. — If the teacher will 
 plan his work from day to day and know just what he 
 expects to do and how he is to do it, it will greatly aid him 
 in the management of his school. Something may arise 
 to hinder what he has outlined tor the day, but it will 
 be much easier to make some minor changes in his plans 
 than to think them out as the work of the school 
 progresses. 
 
 Lessons Well Studied. — Closely allied to the first 
 suggestion, if not a part of it, is preparation of the lessons 
 for the day. They should be well planned and well 
 studied. Many a school has become disorderly while the 
 teacher was vainly trying to work a probU^m for the class 
 in arithmetic, or while he studied out the analysis of a
 
 School Government 145 
 
 difficult sentence that he did not know was in the lesson. 
 Disrespect is almost always engendered for the teacher 
 who does not know. Sham knowing will not suffice; it 
 is better to say, " I do not know," but this should not be 
 said too often. 
 
 Definiteness in Assignments and Requirements. — 
 Sometimes a lesson is not learned because the pupils do 
 not know just what they are expected to do. " Take 
 the next page " can seldom be deemed an assignment. 
 Especially Avith small pupils the teacher should be very 
 definite about what is to be learned and how to study it. 
 This means more time for this part of the work, but it 
 means better work on the part of the pupils and less 
 annoyance for the teacher while hearing another class. 
 Then, too, the pupils do not know just what is expected 
 of them in passing to and from class, or what is meant by 
 some regulation for the play at recess and noons. The 
 pupils sometimes try to take advantage of an ambiguous 
 regulation, as is illustrated by the following: Some boys 
 and girls were accustomed to go to one of two hills to 
 coast during intermission, and were always late. The 
 teacher told them that they should not go to that hill 
 any more, for it made them late getting in. They did not 
 go to that one, but went to the farther one and were late 
 as usual. 
 
 Showing Reasonableness of Requirements. — A young 
 boy is more willing to obey when he knows the reason 
 why. It is a good thing for the teacher to explain the 
 reasonableness of regulations, for it will restrain him from 
 making arbitrary rules. It also makes the pupils feel 
 that they are consulted in affairs of the school, and, to 
 some extent, are cooperating in its management. 
 
 Keeping Every one Busy. — If one can ke(^p the scTiool 
 busy, he will not need to do much governing. This is
 
 146 The Rural School 
 
 where our modern schools are an improvement over the 
 old-time school, where the rod was such an important 
 factor. One good way to keep everybody busy is to make 
 out a program of studies for each class; then pupil and 
 teacher both know just what is to be done. When this 
 is well miderstood, before beginning a recitation, the 
 teacher should see that each one is busy at his own task. 
 
 It will pay to become enthusiastic about work. Let 
 the teacher work himself, and get others to work from 
 the very first hour of the first day to the last hour of the 
 last day of school. This is one of the secrets of good school 
 teaching. Use it for all it is worth. 
 
 Making Use of School Games and Plays. — There is u, 
 certain amount of motor energy that becomes stored up 
 in the body during the study periods that must be worked 
 off. If confined too long, like dammed-up water, it will 
 finally break its bounds. Good, vigorous plays and games 
 are helpful for every school, and it will pay the teacher 
 to be able to step in and give suggestions about new games 
 when the old ones are worn out or when the rivalry be- 
 comes too strenuous. Vigorous play, outdoors, often 
 saves annopng tricks during school hours. The teacher's 
 interest in the school play often elicits the pupils' coopera- 
 tion in the work of the schoolroom. 
 
 But never let disorder reign in the house, either at recess 
 or during school time. Unrestrained conduct in the house 
 at recess leads to noise and confusion during the school 
 period. Play in the house during stormy weather should 
 be under the direction of the teacher. The schoolroom 
 should be sacred to study. 
 
 Personality of the Teacher. — Of all the aids to school 
 government mentioned above, none is so important and 
 so effective as the personality of the teacher. To com- 
 mand and receive obedience seems almost natural to
 
 School Government 147 
 
 some; to others this power is obtained only with great 
 effort. For one, his very presence seems to command 
 respect and obedience; for another, even his looks seem 
 to be against him and to cause disrespect. The former 
 class seem to be a favored few, but if what we learned in a 
 previous chapter be true, then each one can keep his 
 personality at its best and improve it as time goes on. 
 If we would care for our health, we must keep our body 
 at its best; if we would add something new and enliven- 
 ing to our mental store, if we would cultivate our moral 
 natures, we must live up to the best that is in us; in 
 other words, if we would be our best in our three-fold 
 nature, our personality would grow and we would com- 
 mand the respect of those with whom we associate. If 
 the teacher's personality is what it ought to be, it will 
 show itself in neatness of dress, and in personal appear- 
 ance. The voice should be cultivated; a sharp, rasping, 
 high-keyed voice will muierve a whole school and will 
 lead to disorder and noise. 
 
 THE INFLICTION OF PUNISHMENTS 
 
 A Time for Action. — All the above suggestions may be 
 followed out almost religiously, and yet in some schools 
 and under some conditions things will not go right. There 
 will come a time when something must be done. This 
 may be the making of a rule and the infliction of the pen- 
 alty; or it may be the infliction of corporal punish- 
 ment. Here are found two classes of teachers: One 
 becomes frightened, begins to tremble and never reaches 
 the point of actually inflicting punishment; the other is 
 in a hurry and reaches the punishment before it is neces- 
 sary. The latter are the ones who whip on slight provo- 
 cation, forgetting the principle that " the least punish-
 
 148 The Rural School 
 
 ment that will accomplish the end is the right punish- 
 ment." Punishments of all kinds should be incentives 
 of last resort, and especially should this be true in the 
 case of corporal punishment. 
 
 The End of Discipline, Character. — In all school 
 govermnent, in all discipline, m all punishment, the 
 teacher should keep in mind that it is for the good of the 
 pupil. It is not for the school, nor for the community, 
 nor for the state, but for the individual pupil. He is 
 interested in building character, and if he can develop 
 wholesome moral characters in his pupils, all these other 
 things will take care of themselves. If he can whip a 
 boy to make him better and is able to show him that this 
 is the reason for it, he will probably make a right use of 
 corporal punishment. If, however, he whips him to 
 vindicate himself, or even to set an example for the rest 
 of the school, he will fail. There are other secondary ob- 
 jects, but the principal end of school govermnent is 
 development of character. 
 
 Continuous Discipline. — School government should be 
 continuous, i. e., it should be the same to-day that it 
 was yesterday. It should not depend on the teacher's 
 digestion nor the condition of the weather, but should be 
 calm and firm from morning until night, from one week 
 to the next. A boy unintentionally paid a high compli- 
 ment to his teacher when he said, " You would do what 
 you promised even if the world came to an end." The 
 teacher whose discipline is even, though strict, will in 
 the end be respected by his pupils; indeed, pupils as a rule 
 believe in strict discipline and like it providing it is 
 " fair." The teacher who can maintain an even temper 
 and a high average of self-control on his part and on the 
 part of his pupils, is the teacher who is, to that degree, 
 successful in school government.
 
 School Government 149 
 
 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT AS VIEWED BY THE COURTS 
 
 As many young teachers have not been instructed in 
 school law regarding corporal punishment and do not 
 know the attitude of the courts toward those who inflict 
 this form of punishment, it might not be out of place to 
 introduce a brief discussion of its legal aspect. The 
 following paragraphs are from the pen of Professor L. A. 
 Parke, formerly a practicing attorney, now head of the 
 department of commerce of the Kansas State Normal 
 School, who has made a thorough study of court decisions 
 relative to school law. 
 
 " This brief discussion of corporal punishment is not a 
 consideration of it from a pedagogical view point, but 
 is merely a statement in very condensed form of what 
 the courts have decided. Many cases have been carried 
 up to the courts of last resort in the different states, thus 
 showing that corporal punishment in the schools has 
 been a prolific source of litigation. Parents are quick 
 to resent what they consider any unjust or unduly severe 
 chastisement of their children by a teacher, and courts 
 and juries scan closely the circumstances attending its 
 infliction and the spirit and motive of the teacher who 
 inflicts it. 
 
 Right to Inflict. — " The courts, however, with entire 
 unanimity have affirmed the right of the teacher to ad- 
 minister corporal punishment unless a statute of the 
 state or a regulation of the school board forbids it, but 
 there has been some difference of opinion as to the degree 
 of severity that may be used. 
 
 Degree of Severity. — " The earlier cases permitted a 
 more severe chastisement than later cases uphold. The 
 teacher must exercise his authority with discretion and 
 moderation. When, in the judgment of reasonable men,
 
 150 The Rural School 
 
 the punishment is clearly immoderate or excessive, a jury 
 will be justified in finding the teacher guilty of assault 
 and battery. In determining what is a reasonable degree 
 of punishment, the circumstances attending the offence 
 — the age, size, strength, and sex of the offender, his ap- 
 parent motive, the nature of the offence, the influence of 
 his example on others, his attitude towards his teacher 
 and his past conduct — may all be considered. The ob- 
 duracy of a pupil under punishment may justify severity, 
 but it does not follow that a teacher would be justified 
 in continuing the punishment until the pupil should be 
 subdued. The obduracy of the pupil would not warrant 
 immoderate punishment. All necessary force may be 
 used to overcome the resistance of the pupil to reason- 
 able punishment or to the proper commands of the 
 teacher, but no unnecessary or disproportionate force or 
 violence may be employed. 
 
 Attitude of the Teacher. — " The bearing of the teacher 
 is an important factor in determining whether the pun- 
 ishment is justified in the eye of the law. Punishment 
 must not be inflicted in anger or insolence, but should be 
 given in a kind and reasonable spirit, and one court adds, 
 * accompanied with that affectionate moral suasion so 
 eminently due from one placed by the law loco parentis, 
 the sacred relation of parents.' " 
 
 PLACING PUPILS ON THEIR HONOR 
 
 When you are master of the situation, you can allow a 
 great many privileges that otherwise you would deny. 
 By being master of the situation is meant that you know 
 your school and feel confidence in yourself that you can 
 restrain any abuse of a privilege, or are sure that you 
 can prevent your school from getting away from you, or,
 
 School Government 151 
 
 if it does get a start, that you can easily bring it back 
 to its original behavior. This is not an admonition to 
 young teachers, but to those who have had experience and 
 know their ground. Children like to be free, so does the 
 teacher; then let the boys and girls be put upon their 
 honor and be given an opportunity to develop character. 
 Place confidence in your pupils. As soon as boys or 
 girls know the meaning of honor they ought to have an 
 opportunity to exercise honor, and the teacher ought to 
 trust them so far as they are able to bear. When a settle- 
 ment has been made with a pupil and he has promised 
 to do right, expect him to do right. Do not watch him 
 from the corner of your eyes, and expect him to do the 
 same thing over again, but trust him, and you may not 
 need to see some little things that he has done, especially 
 if he is making an honest effort. 
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTOR ACTIVITIES 
 
 The impressions that come through the sensory organ- 
 ism tend to work themselves out in motor activities of 
 appropriate form. For example, if while hungry one is 
 passing a house and catches the appetizing odor of frying 
 ham, the chances are that his mouth will water; the 
 glands have been set to work and the saliva begins to 
 flow as if he were really eating the meat. This experience 
 may lead the hungry tramp to the back door in an 
 attempt to get some of the meat by fair means or foul. 
 Again, a boy looking through the fence at a patch of ripe 
 watermelons is not safe. There is one thing open for him 
 to do and that is to remove himself from the reach of 
 these melons or he will be over the fence. Anger contracts 
 the muscles, while grief relaxes them. The joyous child 
 is inclined to dance and play; the sad person sits demurely
 
 152 The Rural School 
 
 in one place. Fear blanches the cheek, while shame brings 
 a flush of blood to the otherwise pale face. 
 
 In Tarbell's "Teachers' Guide for 1908" Henry 
 Churchill King is quoted as saying, " Positive self-control 
 means that we are to heed that principle which the psy- 
 chologists call impulsiveness of consciousness; that is, 
 every thought, by its very presence in the mind, tends to 
 pass into action, and will do so, if it is not hindered by the 
 presence of some other thought leading in some other 
 direction. I regard that principle of very great importance 
 in all our moral and spiritual life. If you are sitting in 
 the parlor of a friend, while you are waiting for him, and 
 there is an open letter on the table, and you are not think- 
 ing particularly of what you are doing but have your eye 
 on the letter, before you know it you will very likely put 
 out your hand, take it up and begin to read it, until 
 you recall yourself with a start. The single idea, un- 
 checked by any other for the moment, was present in the 
 mind; it passed into action almost in spite of you." 
 
 Two Methods of Inhibition. — The phase of this sub- 
 ject that interests the teacher is how to inhibit those 
 acts that are detrimental to the school and the individual. 
 There are two ways of doing this; first, by negation, and 
 second, by substitution. 
 
 Negation. — The more common method of inhibiting 
 evil acts is by negation. This is where the teacher or one 
 in authority says, " don't " or " you must not," or some 
 other negative command. Mr. Wilkinson, ex-president 
 of the Kansas State Normal Schools, used to tell the story 
 about a little boy, who, when asked at school what his 
 name was, replied, " Johmiy Don't." He had heard 
 " Johnny don't " so much at home that he supposed that 
 that was his name. This method of inhil)ition by ne- 
 gation does not relieve the tendency to act out the im-
 
 School Government 153 
 
 pulse; it only seems to clam it up for the time being with 
 the possibility, if not probability, that it will break forth 
 more vehemently than it otherwise would have done. 
 Try to stop a crowd of girls from laughing by inhibiting 
 by negation and see the result. The best way is to let 
 them laugh and laugh until they laugh it out. 
 
 Punishment. — It is claimed by some that pain will 
 inhibit certain tendencies; it seems to relieve the tension 
 or inclination and ofttimes effectually inhibits. 
 
 Substitution. — The most effectual way of inhibiting 
 is by substitution. By this is meant the replacing of the 
 thought by a thought of a different character, or by letting 
 the impulse work out in a form that will not be harmful. 
 Mr. Keith in his book " Elementary Education " in dis- 
 cussing the subject of discipline gives an example that 
 illustrates this point. A grandfather and two little grand- 
 sons were in a railroad station one day with other passen- 
 gers while it was raining. The water came in under the 
 door and crossed the floor in two or more streams. The 
 little fellows were playing in it and were getting their 
 clothes soiled. No threats or entreaties that the grand- 
 father could make, nor appeals that " Mamma would 
 feel so bad, if they got their clothes wet," were of any 
 avail. Finally a man understanding inhibition by sub- 
 stitution suggested that they walk across the water on 
 their heels, and headed a procession of three around the 
 room walking through the water on heels. This satisfied 
 the boys and did not soil their clothes. 
 
 The only true way then to inhibit is by substitution. 
 If one can get the angry man to think about something 
 else, he will cease to be angry. This shows the philosophy 
 of the old adage, " When angry, count one hundred be- 
 fore you speak." Generally by that time the person will 
 be thinking about something else. If the laughing girls
 
 154 The Rural School 
 
 can be brought to think about something serious, they 
 will stop laughing. 
 
 Application of Principle of Substitution. — The op- 
 portunities of inhibiting by substitution in school govern- 
 ment are many. One of the hard things to control is 
 snowballing. This may often be regulated by allowing 
 snow " fights " between certain pupils and on certain 
 parts of the school grounds, with the understanding that 
 the teacher will have the cooperation of the pupils in pro- 
 hibiting it elsewhere. All that go into the battle must take 
 what comes, and not run to the house for protection. 
 
 It will take a wise head to find substitutions for all the 
 impulses that will arise in a vigorous school, but any 
 teacher knowing the principle can make advantageous 
 use of this method of inhibition. 
 
 THE USE OF INCENTIVES 
 
 By incentives are meant those things which induce de- 
 sirable school activity, which spur a pupil on to put for- 
 ward his best effort. For example, emulation sometimes 
 leads pupils to thoughtful, hard study; and the desire 
 for praise from teacher or parent will often lead to good 
 conduct and obedience. 
 
 Characteristics of a Good Incentive. — In the first 
 place an incentive should be adapted to the grade of the 
 pupil. A good incentive for the primary grade may not 
 be suited to the higher grades. In the second place, a 
 good incentive takes account of effort and does not recog- 
 nize results alone. Many incentives are directed toward 
 results only, and no credit is given to the person who has 
 done his best, but has failed to surpass some other. There 
 should be incentives for the slow plodders and the com- 
 mon workers; for there are so many of them, that they
 
 School Government 155 
 
 far outnumber the prize-winning groups. The good 
 incentive should be continuous; it should grow in at- 
 tractiveness from day to day and lead the pupil to ad- 
 vance in his desire to conform to school regulations. 
 Finally an incentive should appeal to the best that is 
 in the pupil. 
 
 Incentives of Last Resort. — Under this head are clas- 
 sified the various forms of punishment and the use of 
 sarcasm and ridicule. Such measures should be resorted 
 to only after all higher incentives have failed and should 
 always have for an object to save or better the pupil. 
 
 Incentives Liable to Abuse. — There are certain in- 
 centives whose degrees of usefulness depend largely on 
 how they are used. The giving of prizes is an example. 
 The objectionable features of prize giving are that it does 
 not take account of effort except as it is shown in results; 
 that it is not a continuous incentive; that it does not 
 develop character; that it is inclined to make the re- 
 ceiver of the prize proud and selfish; and that it often 
 leads to rivalry and envy. However, if prizes are offered 
 in such a way that every pupil may receive one, the giving 
 of prizes may become of real service to the school. For 
 example, if certificates of perfect attendance are offered 
 to all who are neither absent nor tardy, every one is given 
 a chance to receive a prize, the fact that one is given a 
 certificate does not bar another from receiving the same 
 honor. In the same class as prizes, come grades and 
 merit marks, for in nature they are prizes open to all. 
 The principal fault in the use of grades is that too much 
 stress is laid upon them. In trjdng to determine into 
 what grade a pupil should go, the ultimate question 
 should not be what mark did he get, but will it be better 
 for the child to take this work over again or should he 
 pass on to the next?
 
 156 The Rural School 
 
 It must be kept in mind all the time that grades are 
 simply mechanical estimates made by the teacher, and 
 that no system of grades can be made absolutely accu- 
 rate. Furthermore, earnestness, effort, and honesty are 
 things that are hard to estimate in per cents, yet they are 
 things more desirable than the scholarship which we often 
 credit with a high grade. 
 
 While emulation is an incentive which is often abused, 
 still we need to measure our own efforts with those of our 
 fellows to accomplish our best results. In school work, 
 something of a contest is needed to bring out the best 
 efforts of the pupils. A form of emulation which is ap- 
 plicable to small schools is where a pupil competes with 
 himself. He compares his penmanship of to-day with 
 that of two weeks ago; he finds that in the same time he 
 can work ten examples where last week he could do only 
 five of the same grade; he has been able to go a whole 
 week without missing a word, etc. Thus, in many ways 
 emulation may be judiciously directed for the advance- 
 ment of pupils and the upbuilding of the school. 
 
 Best Incentives. — The incentives which we have clas- 
 sified as Incentives of Last Resort and Incentives Liable 
 to Abuse are, in general, to be used when pupils are not 
 on a high enough plane morally to respond to higher in- 
 centives. The teacher must begin on the plane of the 
 pupil's appreciation and strive to bring him to a higher one. 
 
 Approbation. — The scholar has fallen very low in the 
 scale of morality who does not care what others think of 
 him. He may not value the approbation of his teacher 
 and his parents, the ones who are most interested in him 
 and whose approbation is worth most to him, yet he 
 values the opinions of his mates. For this reason, one 
 of the very best incentives to cultivate in school is class 
 or school spirit along with a high standard of morality.
 
 School Government 157 
 
 Gratification of Curiosity. — In every child there is more 
 or less of curiosity and, if the lessons and school work can 
 be so presented as to arouse this characteristic, it becomes 
 a strong incentive and one that should be cultivated. The 
 writers of continued stories know how to make use of this 
 bent of our natures and close the chapters in the most 
 interesting places. The teacher can use this method in 
 getting scholars to read a new book, as suggested in the 
 chapter on the library. But it is the primary pupils, 
 especially, who will respond to this incentive. They are 
 interested in things that move, — in action, no doubt 
 wondering what the outcome will be. Hence a chart in 
 which the letters may be arranged by the teacher has an 
 interest about it that the ready-made chart does not 
 have. The drudgery of learning words can be enlivened 
 by hunting for the word among a number of other words 
 that the teacher has written on the board; also, by find- 
 ing two-year-old or three-year-old words, " an "-words, 
 " ing "-words, etc. The ingenious teacher can find use 
 for this faculty in geography and other subjects. 
 
 The Satisfaction of Knowing is a direct reward for the 
 labor expended. It is labor paying labor in labor's own 
 product and thus is the most natural of incentives. When 
 people can be brought to love knowledge for its own 
 sake, they are on safe ground educationally. 
 
 Overcoming Difficulties. — There is more or less of pug- 
 nacity in all people, and, if this can be brought to service 
 in overcoming the difficulties of the schoolroom, it be- 
 comes a powerful agent for good. All like to win, and, if 
 a student can be brought to feel the satisfaction of victory 
 when he has worked a hard example in arithmetic or has 
 mastered a difficult lesson in grammar, he is then putting 
 his pugnacity to good use, a better use than if he were 
 pounding one of his mates on the playground.
 
 158 The Rural School 
 
 Satisfaction of Doing Right. — There is, perhaps, no 
 higher incentive than the doing of right for right's sake. 
 It is not an incentive that little children can appreciate, 
 but, if the upper grades have been properly taught, and 
 have right ethical principles, it ought to appeal to them. 
 The school that will respond to an appeal embodying this 
 principle is an enviable body of young people. They will 
 do the work of the school because it is right; they will 
 refrain from misdemeanors upon the playgrounds, be- 
 cause these things are wrong; they are the making of 
 good citizens and the state can feel that its money has 
 been well expended in their education. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bagley, Classroom Management (p. 290, School City). 
 1907. The Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Charter, Methods of Teaching {chapters 8-10). 
 Colgrove, The Teacher and the School {chapter 24). 
 
 1910. Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. 
 
 Keith, Elementary Education {chapter 7). 1905. Scott, 
 Foresman & Co., $1.25. 
 
 Murphy, Turning Points in Teaching {chapters 5 and 6). 
 New ed., 1909. A. Flanagan & Co., 60c. 
 
 Phillips, The Art of Saving Character: The Treatment 
 of Delinquent Boys in Institutions and in the George Junior 
 Republic Contrasted. World's Work 2: 1296. 
 
 Dutton, School Management {chajiter 8). 1903. Charles 
 Scribner's Sons, $1.00. 
 
 Jones, Principles of Education {chapter 3, Motivation). 
 
 1911. The Macmillan Co., $1.00. 
 
 Page, Theory and Art of Teaching {chapter 9). American 
 Book Co., $1.00. 
 
 White, School Management {p. 130). American Book 
 Co., $1.00.
 
 Chapter XV 
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS 
 
 THE NEED OF ETHICAL TEACHING 
 
 A Call for Upright Men. — The state has a right to 
 expect that the schools will train its future citizens in 
 morals as well as teach them concerning the secular af- 
 fairs of life. The state is as much interested in an obe- 
 dient, upright citizen, as in a well-informed citizen. It 
 needs men with deep convictions of moral right and 
 wrong. Men have too long worshiped the person who 
 has been successful financially without asking whether he 
 acquired his money by fair means or foul. To win, by 
 fair means if possible, but win, has been the prevailing 
 policy in college athletics and school games. There is an 
 awakening along these lines in the political world, and it 
 is high time that there be an aAvakening in the schools; 
 for there is a call for men who can play fair and deal hon- 
 estly. The state needs such men in pohtics, and it has a 
 right to expect that the schools will do their part in fur- 
 nishing them. 
 
 Moral Teachers. — The place to begin this moral train- 
 ing is with the teacher. If the teacher is immoral, there 
 is little use for him to teach morals in school, for he will 
 be but " sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal." The 
 oft-quoted lines of Emerson fit well here: " How can I 
 hear what you say while what you are thunders so loud 
 in my ears? " The teacher with a strong personality and 
 
 159
 
 160 The Rural School 
 
 an upright character can do more for character building 
 than ail the ethical codes and formulas that may be 
 printed. It is the living teacher that is so important in 
 all school work. Again and again this thought must be 
 reiterated and the burden of the success or failure of the 
 school must be laid upon the shoulders of the teacher. It 
 has been said, " As the teacher, so the school," and the 
 truth of this statement is being verified in thousands of 
 instances every year. In some way good schools seem to 
 follow certain teachers, and poor schools are in the wake of 
 other teachers. While the statement about Mark Hopkins 
 and the log was not made to disparage the idea of good 
 schoolhouses, it was made to emphasize the importance 
 and influence of a good teacher. A school board can well 
 afford to inquire into the character of the teacher that they 
 are about to hire; for a teacher with convictions that he 
 is ready to stand for, and discretion enough to know when 
 and how to act is worth more to a district than a college 
 graduate without any defuiite moral principles. 
 
 METHODS OF ETHICAL TEACHING 
 
 Unsuccessful Attempts. — American teachers have suc- 
 ceeded in teaching primary subjects, geography and his- 
 tory, but they have not been so successful in teaching 
 ethics in the common schools. The reasons for this are 
 various. The first is because they have not tried very 
 hard. They have not felt the need. Of course, they have 
 acknowledged that ethics should be taught, but have not 
 realized the necessity of teaching this subject as much as 
 they have that of teaching physiology, history, reading, 
 etc. In the second place, they have failed because, when 
 they did attempt to teach ethics, they did it in a formal 
 manner, and boys and girls felt that they were being
 
 School Ethics 161 
 
 " preached at," and revolted and set themselves as flint 
 against the truths presented. There was no attempt to 
 connect this teaching with the every-day affairs of life, 
 no call to put the truth of these lessons into practice. It 
 was dry formalism, and it failed to accomplish the results 
 desired. Then again, teachers have failed because they 
 went to the other extreme and said that all teaching of 
 morals should be informal; that, when the truth pre- 
 sented itself in the regular lessons of the day, they would 
 take it up; that, if a difficulty in the schoolroom or on the 
 playground called for the teaching of a certain moral 
 truth, they would then present the principle underlying 
 and give the requisite instruction. In other words, they 
 wait for the occasion to direct them as to time and sub- 
 ject. This is in part a good plan, if it were carried out; 
 but it is easy to neglect the occasion, and hard to break 
 away from the regular program of the day to teach a 
 lesson in morals. Then, too, the school may not bring 
 out all the truths that one should teach. It is easy to 
 neglect those things for which we do not plan and for 
 which our daily program does not call. 
 
 Making Use of Incidents. — A teacher ought to step 
 aside from the daily routine when occasion suggests, to 
 teach some important moral truth. A wreck on the rail- 
 road may present the opportunity for teaching a lesson 
 on obedience to orders, or carefulness, or exactness as the 
 case may indicate. Some transaction at school, if it is 
 not too personal, may give an occasion for a talk on neat- 
 ness, or some other of the school virtues. At opening 
 exercises in the morning or at noon, or it may be at the 
 close of the recess period, will be the proper time to bring 
 the subject to the attention of the school. 
 
 A Formal Plan Desirable. — While the incidental plan 
 should not be lost sight of, some more formal plan of
 
 162 The Rural School 
 
 teaching ethics should be adopted. There was a time 
 when all the up-to-date schools were teaching spelling 
 incidentally. There were no spelling books used, but 
 words were selected from all the lessons, and spelling was 
 made a part of every exercise. The plan seemed to be 
 good, but it did not work; or, perhaps, it is better to say 
 the teachers did not work it, and they turned back to the 
 spelling book again. So with ethics, some definite plan 
 or formal outline must be incorporated into the course of 
 study or little or nothing will be accomplished. 
 
 Right Thinking. — In order to get pupils to act right 
 it is necessary to get them to think right. If you can in- 
 fluence people to think good thoughts, you will have no 
 trouble with their outward actions. Many are inclined 
 to believe that it does not matter how one thinks so long 
 as he acts right. They forget that thinking is father to 
 acting. As a rule we do not do those things to which our 
 thinking is all averse. We sometimes do things under 
 the impulse of the moment, in a flash of temper, that we 
 would not do were we calmly to think it over; but even 
 then, if we analyze these deeds closely, it will be seen 
 that they bear some relation to our thinking. 
 
 How to Get Pupils to Think Good Thoughts. — Then 
 the question is, How shall the teacher get the pupils to 
 do pure thinking? First, the pupils should know this 
 truth, " Thoughts arc things." Next, they should be 
 given material for good wholesome thoughts. There are 
 many short selections of poetry, which contain elevating 
 thoughts, that may be learned by the whole school and 
 recited as a part of the opening exercises. As far as pos- 
 sible, keep from sight ugly pictures, especially those 
 which suggest immoral thoughts. This suggestion ap- 
 plies to word pictures as well as to other pictures. See 
 also the suggestion given by Mr. Turner in his " Recess
 
 School Ethics 163 
 
 Gang " in the chapter on Play and Playgrounds. The 
 immoral stories of one boy on the playgromid or on the 
 road to and from school will poison the minds of every 
 one with whom he may come in contact. 
 
 The teacher has not done his whole duty until he sees 
 that the outhouses are clean from all immoral pictures 
 and suggestions. It is necessary to keep the mind pure 
 as well as to feed it with pure thoughts. 
 
 Time an Element. — One of Miss Brownlee's ideas 
 is to keep a subject before the mind for a month; for 
 example, she takes kindness as the subject for Septem- 
 ber. The quotations are all about kindness, the motto is 
 kindness, and for the whole month the moral teaching is 
 about kindness. She takes a division of the subject for 
 each week; first week, kindness to parents; second week, 
 to the teacher; third week, to brothers and sisters and 
 associates; fourth week, to animals. Thus the whole 
 month is spent on the subject of kindness, and the im- 
 pression is deepened and the moral concept is broadened 
 as it could not be if these lessons were given haphaz- 
 ard. She follows this month's work on kindnes s-by 
 cleanliness, obedience, self-control, curtesy _ and cheer- 
 fulness, work, honor, honesty and trut hfulness, and clean 
 language for the respective months of the school year, 
 keeping each thought before the minds of the pupils for 
 the required time. 
 
 Value of Opportunity for Expression — All moral 
 training will be more or less a failure that does not pro- 
 vide for an opportunity to put the teaching into prac- 
 tice. One may talk all he pleases about kindness, but 
 unless he gets his pupils to be kind to some one or some- 
 thing, he will leave no lasting impression. They must be 
 encouraged to be kind to father and mother, to teacher 
 and others, to do little acts of kindness to playmates and
 
 164 The Rural School 
 
 pets, that they may make the moral growth desired. The 
 same truth holds good here as in school government; we 
 need to inhibit the evil acts and encourage the good ones. 
 If the tendency to do kindness is inhibited, the desire is 
 lost and it becomes moral degeneracy rather than moral 
 growth. Some one has said that an evil effect of the 
 theater is that it arouses our emotions but gives no op- 
 portunity for giving practical expression to the emotion. 
 For example, we see pity depicted on the stage and we are 
 constrained to relieve the distress, but when the play is 
 over, we awaken to a sense of the conditions and realize 
 that it was all a play and our emotions were for naught. 
 The feeling was inhibited, and the next time it is harder 
 to arouse the sense of compassion. The month that clean- 
 liness is taught will avail but little unless the boys and 
 girls come with cleaner hands and faces, and unless the 
 floor is kept cleaner than usual. It should be a time for 
 everybody and everything to be clean. Cleanliness 
 should be the motto; it should also be the subject of short 
 morning talks. Keep the subject constantly before the 
 minds without making it offensive. Think it, talk it, 
 practice it. 
 
 Encouraging the Pupils to do the Talking. — That the 
 pupils may not think that they are being " preached at," 
 it is a good plan to have them do most of the talking. 
 They have ideas on moral subjects and often very good 
 ones, and if they may be led to express these ideas, it will 
 be better than for the teacher to do all the talking. In- 
 deed, the teacher should not do a great deal of talking; 
 a short talk of five minutes in the morning will be better 
 than long-drawn-out lectures on a subject. These long 
 talks were what weakened the influence of the old time 
 method of moral instruction. This is the preaching that 
 all pupils dread. Lead them to do the preaching.
 
 School Ethics 165 
 
 The following is quoted from the Course of Study in 
 Ethics for the Pubhc Schools of Kansas: " The child 
 may resent having a moral drawn for him which he can 
 draw for himself. He is more likely to follow the prin- 
 ciple which he himself discovers or formulates, because 
 it is his own." Miss Brownlee has a very pretty device 
 for teaching the little people ethical truths. She tells 
 them that they have a servant that ought to be taught 
 to obey them, — it is body. Body does not always do as 
 it should; it does not keep its hands clean; sometimes it 
 eats too much, and again it will not go to bed when it 
 is time, etc., but they can make body obey, if only they 
 keep trying. 
 
 This device is all right for little folks, and, if they are 
 instructed in the presence of the older ones, these in turn 
 will take the lessons to themselves. The suggestions 
 given in the following topic will apply more particularly 
 to the older pupils. 
 
 The School City. — It is possible to introduce some 
 of the features of the School City into the rural school. 
 Briefly stated, the School City is an organization in the 
 school in which the pupils elect a mayor, a city clerk, and 
 the other officers of a city from among their own number. 
 Sometimes these officers are the governing body of the 
 school; in other instances they have certain duties and 
 responsibilities, but these do not extend to the control- 
 ling of their mates nor to the making of rules and regula- 
 tions for the school. 
 
 The Plan in Operation. — In the model rural school 
 maintained by the State Normal of Kansas during the 
 summer of 1910, Mrs. Emily K. Hoelcel, the teacher, 
 used some such plan as the following. One girl was a 
 committee to see that there was some one to sweep and 
 keep the house clean. All who were old enough to do
 
 166 The Rural School 
 
 this work were given lessons in sweeping and dusting. 
 This instruction was a part of the domestic science teach- 
 ing, which consisted of lessons in sewing, folding and 
 brushing of clothes, very much about cleanliness and 
 a little about cooking and serving. One afternoon the 
 teacher and pupils served a light lunch to the parents 
 of the district. This organization for work extended to 
 committees to look after the cloakrooms and furnish 
 water and carry out the slops. On the playground there 
 were captains for each of the swings, one for the " slide " 
 and one for the " giant's stride; " captains for the ball 
 games and other games and plays. There was a sanitary 
 commission whose duty was to look after the grounds, 
 water the flowers and keep the outhouses clean. The 
 children took great interest in these matters and it was 
 surprising how much was accomplished in two months 
 in the way of better sentiments and higher ideas. 
 
 Responsibility and Cooperation. — It is of great im- 
 portance to place responsibility upon a pupil commensu- 
 rate to his age and judgment. It is often the very best 
 thing for a bad boy, who is accustomed to breaking the 
 rules of school and of play also, to give him charge of a 
 swing and let it be his place to see that all have equal 
 opportunities and that each one gets his turn to swing. 
 If it is his business to see that there is fair play in the 
 game, it will lead him to look at right and wrong from a 
 different standpoint and change his own acts in accord- 
 ance with his new ideas of thinking. Cooperation in the 
 management of the school, whether it be in keeping the 
 house clean and decorating its walls by hanging a pic- 
 ture; beautifying the grounds by planting a tree, a shrub 
 or flower; raking the yard and burning the trash; or 
 assisting in the government of the school by seeing that 
 there is fair play in the school games, is of intrinsic value.
 
 School Ethics 167 
 
 To lead pupils to feel that the school is theirs and to de- 
 sire to make it the very best possible, is worth more than 
 many lessons learned from books. Another good thing 
 about this cooperation is that it is reactive; the pupil, 
 when he becomes imbued with the spirit, is willing to do 
 his work in the schoolroom. 
 
 Wise judgment and careful management are needed to 
 put these plans into operation. The teacher who tries to 
 get his pupils to do the sweeping so that he may be saved 
 this drudgery, or the teacher who is unwilling to take hold 
 of the broom in order to show a pupil how to sweep with- 
 out making a dust, or even do the work himself if circum- 
 stances seem to justify, need not try this plan. The plan 
 of having captains on the playground, in order to save the 
 teacher the management of them, will fail. In this idea, 
 there is no place for selfishness. It is utilizing the indi- 
 vidual for the good of the whole school. Its great lessons 
 are unselfishness and the dignity of labor; and the teacher 
 who is afraid of work, or who tries to introduce it from 
 selfish motives, had better leave it untried. 
 
 Influence of Heroes. — There are still other means that 
 may be found for the special instruction of older boys and 
 girls. Mr. E. T. Fairchild, State Superintendent of Kan- 
 sas, has prepared and distributed throughout the state 
 an excellent course of study in ethics, from which the 
 following quotation is to our purpose: " Each school 
 study has a specific moral value. Literature and history 
 embody in concrete form moral facts and principles, show- 
 ing to the child his own self, ' writ large,' furnishing him 
 with ideals and incentives, and molding his moral judg- 
 ment; and they will accomplish these results the more 
 surely as the teacher is himself moved by that which is 
 presented. Every subject involving observation and ex- 
 pression j« essentially moral. Every subject, therefore,
 
 168 The Rural School 
 
 should be so taught as to make for truth-telHng in word 
 and act, and for training in self-expression." 
 
 This suggests the method to be pursued. The heroes 
 of history and literature furnish the basis for a great deal 
 of moral instruction for older pupils. If a boy can really 
 be interested in Lincoln, in his struggles for an educa- 
 tion, in his combat with poverty, in his battle with slavery 
 and the forces which opposed him and in his life-long 
 effort to bring out the best there was in himself, he will 
 be led to be a better man with higher ambitions and a 
 stronger determination to fight against the vicissitudes 
 of life. History is replete with examples of heroes and 
 men and women of noble lives. Here may be found ex- 
 amples of almost any of the virtues as well as the vices of 
 mankind. However, it is always better that the teaching 
 be positive rather than negative; in other words, it is 
 better to commend the virtues of men rather than to 
 condemn their vices. History nowhere furnishes better 
 examples of upright characters than in the lives of Abra- 
 ham, Joseph, Moses, and, above all, in the life of Christ. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Brownlee, Character Building in School. 1912. Hough- 
 ton Mifflin Co., $1.00. 
 
 Brownlee, Moral Training in Public Schools. 1908. 
 Holden Book Cover Co., 10c. 
 
 Everett, Ethics for Young People. Ginn & Co., 50c. 
 
 Ethics of Success (Books 1, 2, 3, for grades 3 to 8). 
 Silver, Burdett & Co., 48, 60, & 90c. 
 
 Kansas State Board of Education, Course of Study in 
 Ethics. 1909. State Supt. of Public Instruction, Topeka, 
 Kansas. 
 
 White, School Management. American Book Co., $1.00.
 
 Chapter XVI 
 
 AGRICULTURE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 
 
 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES 
 
 Diificulties. — Sympathy should be extended to those 
 teachers who say that they have a hard time to get all of 
 the work done that is now outlined in the course of study, 
 without adding a new subject. Those who are in close 
 touch with the work being done in the rural schools know 
 that much of the work is but poorly done and that the 
 teachers are not prepared to teach the subject of agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 But if agriculture has a body of truth suited to school 
 instruction, room will have to be made for it and teachers 
 will have to be trained to teach it. That the Agricul- 
 tural Colleges and the Department of Agriculture at 
 Washington have gotten together a great body of knowl- 
 edge that is worth the farmer's knowing cannot be 
 denied, and much has been put into textbook form so 
 that it may be taught in our schools. It is only a ques- 
 tion of time until this knowledge will be adjusted to the 
 needs of the schools. 
 
 Nature of Material Suited to Rural Schools. — Our 
 first textbooks in physiology were very different from 
 what they are now, and even the last few years have seen 
 a great change in the subject matter used. Formerly, 
 much time was spent in learning the names of bones and 
 muscles; now hygiene and sanitation are centers of at- 
 
 169
 
 170 The Rural School 
 
 tention. So it will be with agriculture. It has been 
 handed doA\ai from the colleges and it has been too tech- 
 nical and scientific for the rural schools. It must be ele- 
 mentary and practical. 
 
 Farmers are inclined to think that a woman cannot 
 teach a boy how to farm and how to raise hogs. And 
 there is some truth in this; but as a woman can teach 
 certain laws of health and certain truths regarding sani- 
 tation, so there are certain truths of agriculture that either 
 a man or woman can teach. As was said above, these 
 truths must be elementary, such as can be put into a text- 
 book and will yield to the textbook method of teaching. 
 The rural schools are not equipped to do laboratory work 
 and will not be for years to come. There are facts that 
 can be presented in school and that pupils may observe 
 in the field, the garden or barnyard. These must relate 
 to plants and other vegetation, farm animals, and insects 
 that help or hinder the farmer. Nature study has only 
 to be given an agricultural trend to answer the purpose 
 of agriculture for the lower grades. A text containing a 
 little more advanced material comprising the elements of 
 botany and zoology, and possibly something of chemistry 
 and geology, presented in common terms and simple 
 language, should ])e used for the higher grades. 
 
 Things Which Can be Done. — In spite of obstacles 
 there are a number of things which an earnest teacher 
 can do to encourage the study of agriculture in the com- 
 munity and among the older boys and girls. The Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture at Washington publishes numerous 
 bulletins on various subjects pertaining to agriculture. 
 These bulletins may be had for the asking. They treat 
 not only of agriculture l^ut also of dairying, chicken rais- 
 ing, bee culture, stock breeding, etc. The teacher can 
 get a number of these and lend them to persons interested
 
 Agriculture in Rural Schools 171 
 
 in these subjects and encourage them to send for others 
 on their own account. The agricultural colleges also are 
 sending out bulletins, and in some cases are even send- 
 ing out members of their faculty to give lessons in agri- 
 culture and conduct classes in domestic science and 
 household economy. The teacher who keeps informed of 
 and in touch with these movements can do much by in- 
 teresting the community in them. 
 
 OUTLINE OF WORK FOR A RURAL SCHOOL 
 
 Professor H. L. Kent, of the Extension Department of 
 Kansas State Agricultural College, gives the following 
 outline of what can reasonably be accomplished in agri- 
 culture during a seven months' term in a rural school: 
 
 " So long as we can have but one year of agriculture 
 in the grades, this one year of work must deal very largely 
 with fundamentals and general principles. It can not 
 and indeed should not deal with specific rules for various 
 practices and specific information about various crops. 
 If the proper kind of nature study be done in the low^er 
 grades much of the foundation work may be taught be- 
 fore the work in formal agriculture is begun. 
 
 " The work must be applied locally and in this way the 
 general principles may be illustrated and applied most 
 effectively. These principles should whenever possible 
 be illustrated and applied to special crops, as corn, oats, 
 wheat, apples, sorghum, etc. 
 
 " The work must follow the order of the seasons so 
 that the teacher may secure materials and apply the sub- 
 ject matter. It must not be wholly a textbook course, 
 but it must be more a study of things. The barnyard, 
 the orchard, the field, and the feed lot must constantly 
 be sources of information and illustration.
 
 172 The Rural School 
 
 " The following outline will give an idea of how the 
 above principles may be applied. It is arranged for a 
 seven-month school. For longer terms, more time should 
 be given to each month's work. 
 
 " First and Second Months. — General principles of 
 plant growth and structure : Flowers and fruit formation, 
 roots and their work, leaves and their work, stems and 
 their work. Special topics : budding, insect studies, 
 weeds, propagation of plants and fungous diseases. Use 
 important crops of the locality for illustration while 
 teaching the above, 
 
 " Third and Fourth Months. — Relation of live stock, 
 farm crops and successful farming. Domestic animals 
 and their improvement. Study breeds, market, classes, 
 types, feeding, caring for and marketing the following: 
 hogs, horses, cattle (including dairying), sheep, poultry. 
 Special study of animal feeding (connect with plant 
 growth and storage of food.) Make live stock surveys 
 of the district. 
 
 " Fifth Month. — Soils, soil origin and soil types, soil 
 air and water, relation of plant to soil (recall and review 
 work of first two months), soil management, tillage and 
 its effects, fertilizers, use and application. Continue field 
 and laboratory work. 
 
 " Sixth Month. — Seeds, seed selection, seed testing, 
 germination and germination requirements, preparation of 
 seed bed, planting and managing the hotbed. Wherever 
 possible there should be a hotbed on the school grounds. 
 Gardens and gardening should be emphasized in connec- 
 tion with this month's work. 
 
 " Seventh Month. — Continue work with hotbed as 
 laboratory and review work. Grafting, pruning, tree 
 planting, yard improvement, garden work, insects and 
 spraying, birds and crop-planting calendar should be
 
 Agriculture In Rural Schools 173 
 
 worked out. If possible include time, amount of seed and 
 preparation of seed bed for each crop. This must be 
 brief, a ready reference compilation." 
 
 A LESSON PLAN 
 
 The following lesson suggestions by Professor Kent fit 
 in with the outline for the sixth month. By making 
 similar lesson plans for the other topics of the outline, the 
 teacher can make agriculture a most interesting and 
 profitable study. 
 
 " How the Seeds of Plants are Formed. — Although 
 this is called a lesson plan, it may require several days 
 to teach it. 
 
 " Introductory. — Why do plants need seeds? To con- 
 tinue life of plant through the winter; to increase the 
 number; to spread more widely over the earth. 
 
 " What kind of plants produce seeds? Only mature 
 plants which bear flowers. (Toadstools, puffballs and 
 molds bear spores, dustlike particles, in place of seeds.) 
 
 "Use of seeds to farmer: feed for animals; for new 
 plants or crops. 
 
 " Kind of seed the farmer wants: many; large; seeds 
 with food that tastes good, for feed; good seed from good 
 plants, for planting. 
 
 " Use the corn plant to learn how seeds are produced. 
 Find late corn stalks with tassel and silk just shot. Take 
 these to schoolroom for use of pupils. Try to have one 
 for each pupil. 
 
 " The Tassel. — Describe it. Carefully pull some of the 
 little green scales apart. What is found? How many? 
 Color? Shape? Have pupils ever seen these in the field? 
 They are called stamens. What do they contain? (Try 
 to get a mature tassel and dust pollen on a dark surface.)
 
 174 
 
 The Rural School 
 
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 CHILDREN WITH FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES RAISED IN THEIR 
 GARDENS 
 
 The corn tassel is a cluster of flowers. It is the function 
 of these flowers to produce pollen. 
 
 " The Ear. — Strip off the husks carefully. Do not in- 
 jure the silk. Tell what you see. (Describe the ear.) Ker- 
 nels — size, hardness, etc. Where does the silk start? 
 How does it differ there from at the tip of the ear? The 
 ear is another cluster of flowers. Each silk and " baby " 
 kernel is a part of one flower called a pistil. The end of 
 the silk is slightly rough for an inch or two. 
 
 " Summary. — Kinds of flowers on corn plant. What 
 each flower bears. Where each is found on stalk. How 
 these differ from other flowers. 
 
 " Questions. — Is it necessary that a part of a plant be 
 })right-colored to be a flower? What is necessary to make 
 it a flower? Name some other plants which do not have 
 bright-colored flowers.
 
 Agriculture in Rural Schools 
 
 175 
 
 A SCHOOL CAXXEHY 
 
 " Note. — No recitation in agriculture on the following 
 day, but for drawing and grammar or English lesson 
 pupils draw (from objects) the things studied the day 
 before and write a description of them. Insist on plain, 
 unshaded drawings. Criticise language, capitalization, 
 punctuation, etc." 
 
 SCHOOL GARDENS 
 
 In the northern states, from the fact that the school 
 terms extend over that part of the year in which gardens 
 do not usually grow, and from the fact that the teachers 
 lack a knowledge of the subject and that patrons are 
 prejudiced against the introduction of the study into the 
 school curriculum, not much has been accomplished in 
 school gardens in our rural schools. In the southern 
 states, weather conditions are more favorable, and better
 
 [176]
 
 Agriculture in Rural Schools 177 
 
 results have been attained. In either section the most 
 successful work is being accomphshed by getting pupils 
 interested in raising gardens at home. Sweet potato, 
 tomato, cabbage, and lettuce plants may be raised in a 
 hot-bed on the school grounds. The plants are then 
 taken home and set in a garden there. 
 
 A Canning Outfit. — An almost necessary supplement 
 to gardening of this kind 
 is a camiing outfit. The 
 boys and girls must be 
 able to dispose of their 
 products or they will soon 
 lose interest in raising 
 them. Through the direc- 
 tion of the Department 
 of Agriculture very suc- 
 cessful experiments are 
 being conducted along 
 these lines in the South. 
 Pupils are raising toma- 
 toes at home and canning 
 them in tin cans for the 
 market. A camiing outfit 
 
 is bought by the district or loaned by the county or 
 parish. In some instances government, state, or county 
 experts visit the community and show the people how to 
 use a canner. 
 
 A Winter Garden. — A firm m Louisville, Kentucky, 
 is manufacturing a double glass sash for hotbeds and cold 
 frames. When made according to directions, these hot- 
 l)eds will withstand zero, or even colder, weather w^ithout 
 freezing. These winter gardens have been tested in 
 mxany parts of the United States; and lettuce, radishes, 
 onions, and other hardy vegetables have been grown 
 
 LOOKING OVER HER CROP
 
 178 The Rural School 
 
 A CORN CLUB MEETING 
 
 through the coldest winter weather. The usual size of 
 the sash is 3 by 6 feet, and it sells for $4.20. For ten 
 or twelve dollars a school can equip a small hotbed of 
 this kind, and by this means maintain both a fall and 
 early spring garden. 
 
 CONTESTS AND CLUBS 
 
 About the best results are being attained in the teach- 
 ing of agriculture and domestic science through the corn 
 growing contests for boys and the cooking and sewing 
 contests for girls. These are usually conducted by the 
 county superintendent or the agriculture society of the 
 county, but the teacher can encourage the pupils to enter 
 and do their best for the honor of the school and neigh- 
 borhood. In Nebraska, under the direction of former 
 State Superintendent E. C. Bishop, much was accom-
 
 Agriculture in Rural Schools 179 
 
 plished by the organization of clubs for consideration of 
 various subjects. Numbers of young women banded 
 together for the study of domestic science or household 
 economy, and by the perusal of bulletins, by meetings 
 and discussions, by actual practice and demonstrations 
 much interest was aroused and much useful knowledge 
 was gained. 
 
 An Example. — W. M. Oakerson, County Superin- 
 tendent of Nodaway County, Missouri, gives the follow- 
 ing report of agricultural and domestic science contests, 
 conducted by him. " A few years ago, we decided that in 
 Nodaway County, Missouri, we could secure greater in- 
 terest in farm work among the boys by inaugurating a 
 corn growing contest for the boys, and that we could 
 secure greater interest among the girls of the county by 
 inaugurating contests for them in cooking, sewing and 
 other home work. We believed then, and are now con- 
 vinced, that these contests would tend to do the following: 
 
 "1. To stimulate and direct educational progress along 
 practical lines. 
 
 "2. To teach such scientific facts in reference to agri- 
 culture and domestic science as will stimulate habits of 
 observation, that will enable boys and girls to recognize 
 good and bad qualities in their products, that they may 
 learn something of the value of labor and the cost of 
 production, that they may be encouraged to read good 
 Uterature, that their views may be broadened and that 
 they may be prepared for useful citizenship. 
 
 "3. To utilize the natural love of young people for 
 competition and cause them to put forth greater energy 
 and activity for advancing their own education. 
 
 " So each year we raise from $800 to $1000 to be used 
 in giving prizes and forwarding the work. All boys and 
 young men from 10 to 20 years of age who desire are en-
 
 180 
 
 The Rural School* 
 
 A CORN CLUB BOY AND HIS CROP 
 
 rolled in these contests, and certain rules are given them 
 by which they must abide. The girls are enrolled for 
 doing work in domestic science. We usually have about 
 400 boys enrolled in the corn growing contest, and about 
 600 girls enrolled in the domestic science contest. Prizes 
 are given to the boys for the best ten ears of white corn, 
 the best ten ears of yellow corn, the best 20 ears of white 
 corn, the best 20 ears of yellow corn, the best ear of corn, 
 the best kept record book, the largest acre yield of corn 
 and for the best corn judging. The boys are divided into
 
 Agriculture In Rural Schools 181 
 
 two classes according to age, those from 10 to 15 forming 
 one class and those from 16 to 20 forming another class. 
 This is to give the yomiger boys a chance to compete 
 with each other and not require them to compete with 
 the older boys. Instruction is sent to the boys from the 
 office of the county superintendent, the Department of 
 Agriculture of the State University, and the U. S. Depart- 
 
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 MAKING A PRIZE LOAF OF liKE.VD 
 
 ment of Agriculture. This instruction tells the boys how 
 to select their seed corn, how to prepare the seed bed, 
 how to plant the corn, how to cultivate the corn, and how 
 to care for the crop. The corn judge who has been with 
 us from year to year says there is a vast difference in the 
 boys' ability to select and judge corn now and at the time 
 we began this work. It not only arouses interest among 
 the boys, but when you have the boys interested, the 
 parents become interested also, and while the object of
 
 182 The Rural School 
 
 this work is to improve the boys, it is also proving bene- 
 ficial to the boys' fathers. 
 
 " The girls are offered prizes for such work as the best 
 work apron, the best fancy apron, the best shirt waist, 
 the best dressed doll, the best loaf of bread, the best 
 butter cake, the best sponge cake, the best can of 
 fruit or vegetables, etc. For different years different 
 products may be worked. Instruction is sent to the girls 
 which is prepared by the Home Economics Department 
 of the Maryville State Normal School and by the U. S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " This work is done through the teachers of the county. 
 The teachers enroll the boys and girls in the work and 
 give them instruction in it. We believe that this is inter- 
 esting the young people of the county in the farm work 
 and that many of them will be kept on the farm, while 
 without this work they would not. It is not difficult to 
 keep the young people on the farm if we can really get 
 them interested in the work there." 
 
 THE VIEW POINT OF THE COUNTRY 
 
 If authors of textbooks and courses of study would 
 recognize more fully the law of apperception and that 
 there is a certain amount of local significance that should 
 enter into every course of study, much could be done for 
 our rural schools. This would, doubtless, require a 
 different textbook and a different course of study for the 
 rural schools from that used in city schools. Too much 
 of the work in our books and courses of study is based 
 on the supposition that pupils have had the experiences 
 of city life rather than the experiences of country life. 
 The pupil interprets new experience through the old, and 
 this law should be recognized for the farmer's child as
 
 Agriculture in Rural Schools 183 
 
 well as for the merchant's child. The teacher can do 
 much along this line by making some changes here and 
 there in the textbooks and courses of study in order to 
 make them conform to the needs of the locality. For 
 example, if the community is a wheat-growing region, the 
 study of wheat and its products should enter largely into 
 the work of the school. Here is a place to begin, for the 
 pupils probably know something about wheat growing 
 and they can be interested in this for a starting point. 
 If our teachers would teach more about the country and 
 less about the city; if they would set forth the health of 
 its pure air, the beauty of its landscapes, the cooling fresh- 
 ness of the timber's shade, and the enchanting attrac- 
 tion of the babbling brook; if they could show that toil 
 is honorable and that farming is a worthy calling — the 
 most independent and honorable on earth; if they could 
 show the boys and girls that there is need of men and 
 women of brains to till the soil and raise the poultry and 
 live stock of the farm; in short, if the teachers could lead 
 the boys and girls to appreciate and respect farming, 
 they would have done their share in teaching agriculture 
 in the rural schools. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bailey, Principles of Agriculture. 1909. The Mac- 
 millan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Butterfield, Chapters in Rural Progress {chapters 9 and 
 16). 1908. University of Chicago Press, $1.00. 
 
 McKeever, Farm Boys and Girls {chapters 16 and 17). 
 1912. The Macmillan Co., $1.50. 
 
 United States Country Life Commission,2?eporf. 1911. 
 Sturgis and Walton, $1.00. 
 
 Warren, Elements of Agriculture. 1909. The Mac- 
 millan Co., $1.10.
 
 Chapter XVII 
 
 DUTIES OF THE TEACHER 
 TO THE DISTRICT 
 
 To Protect Property. — In the minds of some, " Public 
 property is my property, especially if I want to destroy 
 it." This thought or some kindred one leads to the wan- 
 ton destruction or mutilation of a great deal of public 
 property. It is the teacher's imperative duty to protect 
 the district's property; not simply by force of arms, but 
 to instruct pupils and instill into their minds a regard for 
 public property. This instruction should take broad 
 grounds and teach care for all property both public and 
 private. Pupils should understand that they ought to 
 care for their own property, too; that the mere fact that 
 they own a thing is no reason why they should destroy or 
 mutilate it. Boys are more inclined to destroy things 
 than girls are, and it takes many lessons to teach them 
 otherwise. This teaching should lead to lessons in econ- 
 omy, care and regard for a book, economy in the use of 
 pencils and tablets. There is no reason why an example 
 should begin in the middle of a page and all the remainder 
 of the page be wasted. Often a few scril^bles on a page 
 destroy it for any other purpose. These are small mat- 
 ters but serve as a basis for lessons in economy. 
 
 Playing in the house leads to the injury of the school 
 furniture, as one of the least of its results. Careless 
 
 184
 
 Duties of the Teacher 185 
 
 throwing of stones, halls, and snowballs is. the cause of 
 many broken window lights. As a rule, pupils should 
 stand the expense of their careless and wanton destruction 
 of property. 
 
 Another way in which much public property is dam- 
 aged is by defacing with knife and pencil. It is hard 
 to keep teachers during institutes and other teachers' 
 meetings from marking on the desks with pencils; after 
 the pencil has done its work, the boy with his knife com- 
 pletes the rude and destructive decoration. The best 
 means of preserving school furniture from this mutilation 
 of pencil and knife is to keep the desks and chairs well 
 cleaned and varnished and then watch for the first pencil 
 mark. Hold a pupil responsible for his individual seat. 
 He should keep it from day to day as clear of marks as it 
 was the day he first received it. 
 
 In this respect, the most difficult task is to preserve the 
 outbuildings in clean and wholesome condition. This 
 becomes doubly difficult if the teacher be a young woman. 
 But these are the source of much evil, and the teacher, 
 man or woman, must face the responsibility. The teacher 
 can keep track of the condition of these places, and if the 
 remedy seems beyond her reach she can appeal to some 
 member of the board through his wife, if necessary. No 
 such difficulty confronts the male teacher, and he will 
 have no excuse for neglecting his duty in this respect. 
 
 If school officials could be brought to understand that 
 property well maintained will command tespect and will 
 be less liable to abuse, it would make it much easier for 
 teachers to protect school buildings and their equipments. 
 The outhouse that is well cleaned in the fall before school 
 begins, and from which all marks, obscene language and 
 pictures are erased or removed by a coat of paint, will be 
 much more easily kept clean. It would be hard to find
 
 186 The Rural School 
 
 any one who would go into a schoolroom or oj0fice and with 
 knife carelessly deface a new and brightly varnished desk 
 or chair. Seldom could a man be found who would go 
 into a merchant's office and thoughtlessly cut his desk 
 or chairs, but there is many a man who will sit in front of 
 his store and whittle his boxes to pieces. Not often will a 
 boy be found who will cut a notch in a brightly varnished 
 seat, but there are many who have rudely carved old, 
 rough, unpolished desks and gave little thought to what 
 they were doing. The best way to protect public prop- 
 erty is to keep it in repair and well painted or varnished. 
 
 To Maintain the Good Name of the School. — As a 
 rule, the patrons of a district take pride in their school 
 and are pleased to learn of its success. The new teacher 
 coming into the district for the first time should take 
 advantage of this feeling and try to make this year's 
 school add to its already good reputation. It often 
 takes tact and enthusiasm to get the cooperation of the 
 pupils. They sometimes think that it is their place to 
 work against the teacher and make the school as poor as 
 possible, but the really tactful teacher can change their 
 minds and transform this opposition into cooperation. 
 
 The teacher can generally get this cooperation and suc- 
 ceed in building up the school by presenting the truth of 
 the matter just as it is. Pupils should be very much in- 
 terested in the school. It is for them and not for the 
 teacher. He gets his salary and, perhaps, some reputation; 
 they are getting their preparation for life; and, if the 
 school fails, they fail. The presentation of such truths 
 as the above will often gain for the teacher a majority of 
 the school, and, if the teacher is wise, he will use this ma- 
 jority for building up sentiment for a good school. Where 
 this cannot be done, the teacher must not despair, but 
 try some other plan.
 
 Duties of the Teacher 187 
 
 Another way of building up school spirit is by contests 
 with other schools. These contests may be in the nature 
 of ciphering matches, spelling contests, or some form of 
 athletic sport. Perhaps nothing will build up school 
 spirit more than a good team of some kind. It may be a 
 basket ball team, a baseball team, a track team, or a 
 spelling team. The only trouble with these team contests 
 is that they may absorb all the energy of the school and 
 thus defeat the very object for which the school is striving. 
 There should alwaj^s be a rule that no one can play on a 
 team who does not keep his school work up to grade. 
 
 To Teach a Good School. — In the chapter followang 
 we shall speak of teaching a good school as an oppor- 
 tunity; here we wish to present it as a duty. That the 
 teacher should give the best that he has, cannot be em- 
 phasized too strongly as a duty, nor held out too invitingly 
 as an opportunity. His energy, his personality, and his 
 life with the best that it contains should be put into his 
 school. School teaching is not shoveling dirt, it is not 
 plowing corn, it is not merely making money. It is more 
 than any or all of those. It is building lives, not for time 
 but for eternity. The work should be faithfully and 
 thoroughly done. 
 
 Tests of a Good School. — Some maj'' be helped if they see 
 more clearly what is meant by a good school, hence a 
 number of tests of a good school will be enumerated. 
 These are more or less outward tests and neglect that in- 
 ward spirit or bond of sympathy which sometimes exists 
 between the teacher and pupils and makes a fairly good 
 school out of what otherwise would be a very poor school. 
 The following are tests of a good school. 
 
 (1) Orderliness. — By this is meant a school that does 
 things systematically, has a program and follows it, has 
 an orderly way for the classes to pass and maintains that
 
 188 The Rural School 
 
 order. Everything is done " decently and in order." Of 
 course, an orderly school will be a reasonably quiet 
 school. The quietness is a result of the order, and not 
 order the result of the quietness; for we can imagine a 
 very quiet school that is not orderly. An orderly school 
 is the result of system. It is worth while to be sys- 
 tematic in school work, not simply for order, but for the 
 lessons it teaches the pupils. The teacher; who keeps 
 his desk in order and requires his pupils to do the same, 
 who is careful and neat in all work that he puts on the 
 board and requires pupils to be the same, who is system- 
 atic in all the arrangements of the school, will teach les- 
 sons that will be practical and worth more than many 
 of the lessons learned from a textbook. 
 
 (2) Punctuality. — In the second place, a good school 
 should be punctual; not only should it do things in an 
 orderly manner, but it should do them on time. School 
 should begin on time, close on time, have recesses on time, 
 call classes on time, do everything on time. This is another 
 of the practical lessons that the school should teach. The 
 element of time enters into every transaction of business, 
 and the business man who has learned to be punctual in 
 boyhood has the advantage over the one who has to learn 
 this in the school of experience. In order to be success- 
 ful, the business man must be punctual, his obligations 
 must be met on time, — not a day or two late. 
 
 One of the sins against punctuality is tardiness. This 
 is one of the school evils, and one that is hard to break up 
 in some localities. It is a detriment to the school in that 
 it disturbs the progress of the work and distracts the 
 attention of the whole school for the time being. It is 
 one of the evils against which every school should contend 
 and against which the good school is more or less success- 
 ful. How successfully to prevent tardiness is a question
 
 Duties of the Teacher 189 
 
 that has never been answered to the satisfaction of teach- 
 ers. There have been many devices offered, and some of 
 them have been quite effective under certain teachers 
 and under favorable circumstances. These devices take 
 the form of (a) punishments, (6) attractions, and (c) senti- 
 ment. 
 
 (a) Punishments: Some have the rule that every one 
 who has been tardy must make up the time after school 
 or at recess. This conforms to the rule for punishment, 
 viz., that the punishment should be a sequence of the 
 offence. While this punishment seems just, it has its 
 faults and does not always accomplish the result desired. 
 The trouble is that it deprives the pupil of his playtime 
 and all that this means to the growing child, and yet does 
 not always punish the guilty party, for it is often the 
 parents who are to blame. Some teachers have imposed 
 certain tasks such as writing hsts of words, or committing 
 to memory certain poems or other selections. This is a 
 very pernicious custom, for learning should not be classed 
 with punishments but be made enjoyable and attractive. 
 One may have the pupil make up his lesson as a concession 
 on the part of the teacher for the good of the pupil, but 
 not as a pimishment. In prescribing a punishment for 
 tardiness, the teacher should be sure that it is the pupil 
 who is to blame and not his parents. Many teachers 
 require written excuses from the parents for tardiness. 
 This is something of a punishment of parents who have 
 to write them. In a rural district where the people are 
 not used to this requirement, it will be well for the teacher 
 to consult with the board before trying to enforce it. 
 
 (6) Attractions: Some are quite successful in making 
 the opening exercises so interesting and so attractive that 
 pupils are loath to be absent from them. This may be 
 done in various ways. Some read an interesting book,
 
 190 The Rural School 
 
 others make the opening exercises attractive by having 
 a program made up of songs, stories, recitations, current 
 events, or quotations. This method often succeeds well, 
 as it reaches the parents in an indirect way, when they 
 are the ones at fault. If one can interest the children, 
 through them he will interest the parents also, and thus 
 bring about an earlier hour for breakfast. 
 
 Many county superintendents are using perfect at- 
 tendance certificates. These consist of three grades of 
 certificates: first, those which are given at the end of 
 each month to those pupils who have been neither absent 
 nor tardy for the month. When any pupil gets six of 
 these, the county superintendent issues to this pupil a 
 larger certificate. Again, when he has received three or 
 four of these large certificates, he may present them to 
 the superintendent and receive a large diploma which 
 he can frame and keep as a memento. This system has 
 been found quite successful in preventing tardiness 
 and absence. 
 
 (c) Sentiment: But if the teacher can build up a senti- 
 ment for punctuality, he has done something lasting and 
 of real benefit to the individual pupils of the school. A 
 sentiment can be aroused by presenting the business 
 necessity of being punctual. A man once asked for an 
 interview with the president. He received the terse tele- 
 gram " To-morrow at ten." He had barely time to catch 
 his train and arrived in Washington at nine o'clock and 
 made his way immediately to the White House. When he 
 finally gained admittance to the president's private office 
 the clock was striking ten. After his interview, he asked 
 the president what would have been the consequence had 
 he been late, and was told that he could not have gained 
 a hearing, for the president's time was all allotted, and 
 each one must use his allotted time or be refused an audi-
 
 Duties of the Teacher 191 
 
 ence for that day, or, perhaps, for several days. The 
 earnest presentation of the importance of being on time 
 should accompany all efforts for the prevention of tardi- 
 ness. It is sometimes a habit that takes time to over- 
 come, so that the teacher who does not succeed at first 
 should not become discouraged. 
 
 (3) Respect. — The good school is a respectful school, 
 respectful to the teacher, respectful to okl people, respect- 
 ful to one another. One of the first things that an Ameri- 
 can boy should learn is to respect the rights of others. 
 Some never learn it, and if our country were made up of 
 such people, this would be a poor country in which to 
 live. The conditions in many homes are not suited to 
 teach this lesson in its concrete form. In the common 
 schools, where every one is on a common footing, the child 
 should early learn this lesson. The playground often 
 teaches this lesson in a forcible manner and the teacher 
 should see to it that fair play and equal rights are its code. 
 
 In these days of soft discipline, parents are often lax 
 with their children and do not require respect for elders; 
 indeed, it is often true that the child demands subservi- 
 ence to his will. It is said that Dr. Arnold of Rugby per- 
 mitted the " fag " system in that school for the good of 
 the "fags." These new boys that entered school came from 
 homes where they were petted and pampered by servants 
 and made to believe that they were " lords of creation." 
 They had never worked nor respected the rights of any 
 one, they were almost wholly selfish. But when one of 
 them entered school he became the " fag " of an upper- 
 class man. He blacked his boots, swept his room, carried 
 out his slops and ran errands for him. From the cuffs he 
 received and the odd jobs he was compelled to do for 
 others, he learned that there were others besides himself 
 who had rights. Doubtless, Dr. Arnold was right in his
 
 192 The Rural School 
 
 conclusion that the system was a good thing for the boys 
 that entered Rugby; they learned to respect the rights 
 of others and became useful citizens, when otherwise they 
 might have become sordid bigots. 
 
 (4) Study. — The great business of the school, and 
 especially of the rural school, is study, and, if the school 
 is not studying, it is not sticking close to business. A 
 visitor has but to cast his eyes around in order to deter- 
 mine whether the school is working, and, if it is not work- 
 ing, something is wrong. The teacher is not requiring 
 thorough preparation for the recitation, the conditions 
 in the schoolroom are not suital)le for study, or there is 
 a lack of interest. It is not a good school. It may be dis- 
 orderly, not punctual, to some degree disrespectful, and yet 
 be a fairly good school ; but, if it is not a studious school, 
 if it does not work, if it does not think, it misses the very 
 thing for which it is being maintained. Lack of studious- 
 ness often comes from noise or confusion, from distrac- 
 tions from within or without, from the teacher doing the 
 greater part of the reciting, from not having a properly 
 arranged study program, from lack of enthusiasm on the 
 part of the teacher or pupils. 
 
 (5) Enthusiasm. — The good school should be enthu- 
 siastic. Naturally enthusiasm must originate with the 
 teacher; one can hardly conceive of a school being en- 
 thusiastic when the teacher is a " dead " teacher or more 
 interested in other things than in the school. Interest 
 begets interest and enthusiasm begets enthusiasm. The 
 way to get an enthusiastic school is for the teacher to be 
 enthusiastic himself. A live teacher will develop a live 
 school. For, as is oft quoted, " As the teacher is, so is 
 the school." 
 
 (6) Growth. — Finally, the good school will be a grow- 
 ing school. This may mean that additional pupils will
 
 Duties of the Teacher 193 
 
 enroll; the older pupils, who thought that they would 
 not go to school this winter, will change their minds and 
 conclude that as the school is such a good one, they will 
 go another term. It may mean that pupils will come from 
 other districts when their school has closed. The fame of 
 the school has extended beyond the borders of the dis- 
 trict and strangers are knocking at the door for admis- 
 sion. But it surely does mean that it is growing from 
 within; that it is getting better from week to week and 
 from month to month; that new plans are being laid and 
 new and better regulations are being introduced. It 
 means that the school is not dying but is growing; there 
 is no half way place, it is either improving or retrograding. 
 
 TO PUPILS 
 
 To Classify Aright. — One of the first duties of the 
 teacher is to classify pupils aright. This is sometimes a 
 difficult task, for the teacher may not have accurate in- 
 formation on which to base a judgment; and, second, 
 the pupil and parents ofttimes desire that the pupil be 
 put into a class too far advanced for him. In the first 
 instance, the teacher will have to suspend judgment for 
 the time being, until better information can be obtained. 
 This suspension of judgment should be brief, for the 
 pupil may be losing precious time. As to the second hin- 
 drance, the teacher will try in the most discreet way pos- 
 sible to convince pupil and parent of their mistake in the 
 matter, but may in some instances have to go contrary to 
 their wishes and put the pupil into the class where he be- 
 longs. It is for the best interests of the pupil that he be 
 placed in his proper classification. 
 
 To See That Conditions are Favorable for Study. — It 
 was said above that the school might not be a st'idious
 
 194 The Rural School 
 
 school because conditions were not favorable for study. 
 One of the reasons for keeping order in the schoolroom is 
 to make conditions so that a pupil can study if he so de- 
 sires. Whatever the teacher's ideal of order, discipline 
 or quiet may be, this one thing must guide and govern it. 
 The writer remembers the instruction of an institute 
 teacher of a good many years ago. He said that in his 
 room at home he had this motto, " Sacred To Study," 
 and that the order of the room was such that at any time 
 during school hours a pupil could come into this room and, 
 undisturbed, sit down to study. This is a high ideal 
 for the conditions of a schoolroom, but not too high for 
 which to strive. 
 
 To Give Judicious Help. — In the process of his work 
 a pupil usually comes to a place where he needs some 
 help, and it is the mark of a good teacher to know how and 
 when to give help. Too much help makes a weakling of a 
 student, and not to help at the proper time is likely to 
 discourage him. Too often the help is telling or doing the 
 work for the pupil. This satisfies the average student, 
 but is not judicious, for telling does not insure under- 
 standing, and doing the work for another does not indi- 
 cate that he can do it afterwards. The judicious teacher 
 does not tell, when by questions he can lead the pupil to 
 see or work out his problem for himself. As a rule the 
 student should be encouraged to go as far as he can with 
 his problem or proposition so that the teacher can get his 
 line of thought or reasoning; then the teacher can come 
 in with a question or two and lead him to complete his 
 thought and solve his pro])lem or explain his proposition. 
 
 To Direct Intellectual Growth. — The teacher should 
 be interested in the intellectual growth of his pupils. To 
 watch the growth, to sec that the thinking is logical and 
 not biased by prejudice, to see that the will does not over-
 
 Duties of the Teacher 195 
 
 step the bounds of reason, are parts of the dehcate work 
 of the teacher. It is especially in the study of civics, 
 history, and literature that the teacher can get into the 
 inner chambers of the pupil's thinking and learn his bent 
 of mind. It is then through judicious direction that his 
 mental growth can be cared for. 
 
 To Direct Moral Growth. — Closely connected with 
 intellectual growth is moral growth. The pupil's ideas 
 of right and wrong, the expression of his moral judg- 
 ments, his attitude of mind toward moral issues of comi- 
 try, city, and school, should all receive the teacher's at- 
 tention and direction. The playground is another field 
 for the cultivation of moral ideas. The teacher should 
 see that its code is a just one. 
 
 To Give Suggestions as to Physical Well-Being. — It 
 is in youth that many bad habits of sitting, standing, 
 walking, etc., are contracted. Directions about eating, 
 sleeping, bathing, etc., should be a part of the program. 
 The child with wet feet or clothing should be dried; the 
 child with dirty hands or face should be washed; the 
 child with " tousled " head should be combed, and his 
 foul body bathed. To accomplish this will require much 
 tact on the part of the teacher. 
 
 Then the teacher should have a good stock of games 
 and plays so that the pupils will not lack for healthy school 
 sports and exercises to build up a strong and robust 
 physique. " A sound mind in a sound body " is as much 
 to be desired to-day as when this statement was first 
 uttered. 
 
 To Inspire with Higher Ideals. — The teacher that 
 leaves a school and has not left in the minds of the pupils 
 a desire for better and higher things has not fulfilled 
 all of his mission. Life in a good many of their homes 
 is sordid, and they need the touch of a loving hand and
 
 196 The Rural School 
 
 the comfort of cheering words. This is not merely a 
 duty but a privilege and a great opportunity that comes 
 especially to the rural teacher. Tliis topic will be found 
 treated more at length in the chapter on the Oppor- 
 tunity of a Rural Teacher. 
 
 TO THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT 
 
 To Keep Accurate Records. — The superintendent, 
 with officers of higher rank, is interested in compiling and 
 reporting school statistics. The apportioning of the 
 state school funds is based in various ways on the reports 
 of the county superintendent. He depends upon the 
 reports he receives from teachers and school officers for 
 the data for his report. For tliis reason he is interested 
 that the teacher keep and make out accurate reports. 
 
 To Make All Reports Promptly. — Not only should 
 the reports be accurate, but they should be made out 
 promptly. It takes no longer to make out the report the 
 day it is due than two or three days after, and often it 
 can be made out much more easily and more quickly 
 while the facts are fresh in mind. For example, a tru- 
 ancy report can be made much more readily at the time 
 that it is due than a week or ten days later, after the facts 
 have been forgotten; then, too, a report made promptly 
 is worth much more, for the pupil is losing time from 
 school while the teacher is holding the report. It is a 
 relief to the teacher to know that his work is done 
 promptly, and it commends the teacher to the superin- 
 tendent. He would like to have his schools filled with 
 teachers who are in the habit of doing things on time, 
 for it saves him time and labor. In any business trans- 
 action it pays to be prompt. 
 
 To Cooperate in His Plans. — The good superintend- 
 ent always has some plans for his schools that he would
 
 Duties of the Teacher 197 
 
 like to see put into effect. It is through the teachers and 
 through them alone that he can put these plans into oper- 
 ation. The teacher may not see the need of them, for he 
 has not studied the subject as the superintendent has, 
 but loyalty to his superior requires him to follow the lead 
 of his superintendent. If the superintendent wishes to 
 interest the boys in agricultural contests or the girls in 
 cooking or sewing contests, it is only when the teachers 
 cooperate with him that he can make these a success. 
 He looks from a higher elevation and has a broader view 
 of the school interests of the county and should be ac- 
 cepted as the educational leader. The results can be left 
 CO his account to be answered for at the next election. 
 
 Following the course of study is important among the 
 many things that the live superintendent wants done. 
 In some states where this plan has been in operation for 
 a number of years, it may be a matter of course; but in 
 other states it still needs emphasis. The course of study 
 simply outlines the work to be accomplished in a week or 
 month, as the case ma}^ be, and this can be followed even 
 though the school is not well graded. If the school is not 
 graded, it is desirable that it should be, but this cannot 
 be accomplished all in a day without great detriment to 
 individual pupils. It should be a gradual pushing for- 
 ward in the subjects in which the class is behind and a 
 letting up in those studies in which the class is in advance 
 of grade. 
 
 By this process, the school should be quite well 
 graded in two or three years. Of course, the new 
 pupils should never get out of grade. The teacher owes 
 it, not only to the superintendent but also to the edu- 
 cational interests of the county, to follow the course of 
 study and grade the school as it can be done without 
 detriment to the pupils.
 
 198 The Rural School 
 
 TO THE NEIGHBORHOOD 
 
 The teacher should consider that he is one of the neigh- 
 borhood and should lend his assistance for the upbuilding 
 of its every interest, social, intellectual, and moral. What 
 he can do depends very much upon the conditions and 
 needs of the neighborhood. It may be that the young 
 people very much need a leader in their social affairs. 
 Then the teacher who knows how to lead an evening 
 gathering and entertain a house full of young people in 
 unobjectionable amusements, has a rare opportunity of 
 uplifting these young people and leading them into the 
 enjoyment of a pleasant and helpful pastime. We are 
 social beings and must mingle, one sex with the other, but 
 a sharp line should be drawn between improper associa- 
 tions, and those which are innocent and healthful. For- 
 tunate is the district that employs a teacher who can 
 discern between the bad and the good, the better and the 
 best, in social life. 
 
 Again, the neighborhood may be ready for advanced 
 steps in agriculture, domestic science, or hygienic condi- 
 tions of the home. The teacher who knows how and is 
 willing to help bring about these conditions can be of 
 great service to the neighborhood. This is the age for 
 the improvement of country life, and the teacher should 
 be in the advance guard of the procession. With dis- 
 cretion and tact, the teacher can give many valuable 
 hints of how the homes may be l)eautified and made 
 more sanitary; how some of the drudgery may be avoided 
 and the health and happiness of the family be improved; 
 how life may be stripped of its sordidness and be made 
 useful and happy in serving others. 
 
 By placing himself on friendly terms with the people 
 of the community, the teacher can often receive as well
 
 Duties of the Teacher 199 
 
 as give information. The boy or girl who goes from town 
 into the country to teach school has a good many things 
 to learn and can well afford to listen to those who know 
 more about comitry life and rural conchtions than one 
 who has been brought up in towTi can possibly know. 
 Wrapped up in the rough exterior of many an old farmer 
 is a generous suppl}^ of good common sense, and, if the 
 young teacher can get the use of this free of cost, it will 
 be courteous and wise to receive it and use it. 
 
 TO SELF 
 
 In all this multiplicity of duties the teacher must not 
 forget his duty to himself. He has his health to preserve, 
 for no one who has lost health can do the work of a suc- 
 cessful teacher. He must have some time for himself to 
 improve his mentality and to grow in vigor of mind as 
 well as in vigor of body. But all of this attention to self 
 must have in it an altruistic spirit. The thought upper- 
 most should be, " I am here to serve this neighborhood 
 and I must do nothing to impair me for that service." 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Dinsmore, Teaching a District School {chapter 2). 1908. 
 American Book Co., $1.00. 
 
 Seeley, New School Management (chapter 18). 1903. 
 Hinds, $1.25.
 
 Chapter XVm 
 
 THE OPPORTUNITY OF A RURAL TEACHER 
 THE LESSER OPPORTUNITIES 
 
 To Earn a Salary. — To the average person starting 
 out to teach a rural school, it is an opportunity to make 
 forty or fifty dollars a month, and to some this is really 
 and truly an opportunity. This may be the first time in 
 their lives that they have had the privilege of earning some 
 money for themselves. Merely to be able to buy a good 
 suit of clothes often gives a man new confidence in him- 
 self and higher ambitions in life. 
 
 A Stepping-Stone. — To others it is an opportunity for 
 eking out an existence while they are preparing for some 
 other occupation, — studying law or medicine. The 
 teacher of a large country school has a rare opportunity 
 to learn something and to learn it thoroughly. There is 
 no better place to get an accurate knowledge of the com- 
 mon branches than in a district school. Many a young 
 person has testified to the fact that he learned more the 
 first year of teaching than in any previous year of his life. 
 While teaching a country school and earning a comfort- 
 able living, many a young man has prepared himself for 
 the study of medicine or law. 
 
 The making of the rural school a stepping-stone to some 
 other profession has been to the great detriment of the 
 schools. Teaching the school becomes a secondary mat- 
 ter and the school does not receive the best thought of 
 
 200
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 201 
 
 the teacher. Until the school shall receive the best the 
 teacher has to give, both in thought and interest, the 
 school will suffer and not reach a very high standard. 
 The rural schools have been suffering from this practice 
 more than the city schools, for teachers are " tried out " 
 in the rural schools and, if they prove successful and want 
 to continue the work, the chances are that they will find 
 a position in some village or city school. This practice 
 has resulted in the cities getting the experienced teachers 
 and those Avho have fitted themselves for the work, while 
 the rural schools have so far been compelled to take 
 the remainder. 
 
 THE GREAT OPPORTUNITIES 
 
 To Teach a Good School. — The first great opportu- 
 nity for the person who goes out into the country to teach, 
 is to teach a good school. With so many young, inexperi- 
 enced teachers, with so many teaching just for the money, 
 and with those who are making school-teaching a step- 
 ping-stone to some other profession and giving only a 
 part of their energies to the school work, the rural schools 
 are sadly in need of good teachers, teachers who know how 
 to teach and are willing to put their life and energy into 
 it. One of these schools which has seldom or never had a 
 really good teacher will appreciate intelligent and inspir- 
 ing work in the schoolroom. 
 
 To Inspire to High Ideals. — A greater opportunity 
 than has thus far been indicated lies in the finding of boys 
 and girls and inspiring them to higher ideals and aspira- 
 tions. A farmer may be found in the geogTaphy class, a 
 physician in the physiology class, an artist in the drawing 
 classes, etc. After all, the great work of the teacher is 
 inspirational, and the teacher who can lay his hand on 
 the shoulder of a boy and inspire him to a great future,
 
 202 The Rural School 
 
 has done more than the one who has taught him how to 
 solve every problem in the arithmetic. 
 
 He will not have failed, if he has found one boy and 
 placed his feet on the solid rock of a nobler ambition. 
 
 The story of liow Miss asked John to stay after 
 
 school one night illustrates the point at hand. John was 
 asked to remain after school. He stayed and pondered 
 what he would say when he was confronted with some of 
 his misdemeanors, but judge his surprise when the teacher, 
 after all were gone, stepped up to him and said, " John, 
 I want you to go to college." That is the idea; inspiration 
 pure and simple is what lasts and is still working when 
 the knowledge of textbooks becomes " ancient and for- 
 gotten lore." 
 
 Then too, the boys and girls of the country are the ones 
 who are ready and willing to receive this inspiration. 
 The boys of town have so many opportunities, and at 
 the same time so many temptations, that they are not so 
 susceptible to good influences. 
 
 Extension of Teacher's Influence. — The teacher's 
 sphere of work need not be limited to the school. The 
 whole neighborhood may be in need of some one to lead 
 them out of their sordid lives into higher and more com- 
 plete living. This may be accomplished through a moth- 
 er's club, a literary club, or social entertainments. Tact 
 and good judgment are necessary to determine what is 
 best to be done. It is quite plain that the teacher should 
 become one of the neighborhood and take an interest in 
 its welfare and enlightenment. Jean Mitchell (see Jean 
 Mitchell's School " by Wray) succeeded in making the 
 school the social center of the neighborhood and inter- 
 esting all in the work of the school. 
 
 Making the school the source of inspiration for civic and 
 social uplift is not the dream of an enthusiast nor the
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 203 
 
 story of a fluent writer, l)ut it has actually been worked 
 out by rural teachers in various states. 
 
 WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED BY TEACHERS IN 
 COUNTRY SCHOOLS 
 
 From the fact that the three R's have dominated the 
 rural curriculum for so long a time, too many teachers 
 have come to think that nothing out of the regular rou- 
 tine can be accomplished in a one-teacher school. But 
 to all who think in this way, we commend a careful study 
 of what has been done by these several teachers. 
 
 In Kansas. — Mrs. Emily K. Hoelcel has been able, 
 through energy, enthusiasm, and hard work, to accom- 
 plish many things usually thought to be impossible in a 
 one-teacher school. While the equipment with which 
 she had to work was better than is often found in a 
 country school, yet very much of it can be had, if the 
 teacher has the will, and most of it Mrs. Hoelcel would 
 have wherever she might teach. It was a large, clean, 
 roomy schoolhouse, freshly painted on the exterior and 
 in the interior, but not a modern building. At the en- 
 trance of the building was a hall. To the right in this 
 hall the teacher had placed two benches and tools for 
 manual training; to the left, a water stand with indi- 
 vidual drinking cups numbered and hung above, a wash 
 place, and a dinner pail stand. 
 
 There were seven fine pictures on the walls, a large 
 case of maps, a globe, a dictionary, liquid and dry meas- 
 ures, a cupboard for seat-work material and tools, a book- 
 case with three hundred volumes, an organ, a teacher's 
 table, two chairs, and a blackened stove. The teach- 
 er's table contained loan pencils (cleaned daily), ink, 
 pen, a tray of pins, a magazine for the boys and one for
 
 204 The Rural School 
 
 the girls, a clock, and always a vase of flowers, also the 
 necessary books for recitations. 
 
 There were all grades, excepting the second grade. 
 All classes recited daily with few exceptions. By a wise 
 adjustment of her program the teacher was able to give 
 twenty minutes to a number of her classes and fifteen to 
 many others. During part of the opening exercises music 
 was taught three times a week and rote song twice a 
 week. After dinner a period of twenty minutes was 
 devoted to reading by the teacher, the telling of stories, 
 or the discussion of topics in agriculture. Drawing was 
 done incidentally in all grades as seat work. 
 
 The mind of the good teacher is of the same type as 
 that of the general. It marshals the troops and finds a 
 place and work for each one. In this school no one was 
 idle. The little people had seat work, in the direction 
 of which the teacher was assisted by older pupils. They 
 in their turn did some kind of handwork, basketry, 
 sewing, domestic science, manual training, or helped with 
 the care and management of the schoolhouse. 
 - In the domestic science class an outline of recipes was 
 followed which varied with the months. For instance, 
 September and October lessons included the camiing 
 of fruits, making of relishes, preserves and fruit butters. 
 For some of the work the girls furnished the material 
 and each one supplied the necessary utensils. After a 
 course of twenty lessons in domestic science was finished 
 the girls took up a regular course in sewing, consisting 
 of the different kinds of stitches, gathering, different 
 kinds of seams and fancy stitches. The final test of this 
 work was shown upon towels, aprons, handkerchiefs, 
 and many other useful articles. 
 
 Lessons in manual training were given on Tuesday 
 afternoons from three to four o'clock. During this hour
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 205 
 
 the boys were given instruction and advice upon all 
 points that might have come up during the week in regard 
 to their work. All errors in handling tools were cor- 
 rected. Difficulties anticipated were clearly explained 
 so that the class could continue work during their spare 
 moments in the afternoons without the teacher's atten- 
 tion. The drawing of their pieces was done during spare 
 moments. During the eight-month term each pupil of 
 the ninth grade, besides completing his school work, 
 made ten pieces: a bread board, a coat hanger, a foot- 
 stool, etc. On rainy days the spare time at noon was 
 devoted to this work. The fourth and fifth grades com- 
 pleted five small pieces in wood whittling. 
 
 The board paid the school for doing the janitor work, 
 and this money went into the " pupils' fund." With this 
 money and that obtained from entertainments, pictures 
 and other adornments for the schoolhouse were pur- 
 chased, as well as the oil stove, oil and some of the uten- 
 sils for the domestic science classes. Sweeping, dusting, 
 building of fires, fetching of water, etc., were closely 
 linked with the domestic economy program. Each one 
 did his share and took his turn. When playtime came, 
 there were games and plays, in which both teacher and 
 pupils took a lively interest. Nor was ethics neglected, 
 for each day brought its lessons of politeness, truthful- 
 ness, kindness, etc. Twice a month the mothers met, 
 and together with the teacher, studied some good book 
 on Child Study, etc. A " Children's Hour," a " Mothers' 
 Day," a " Fathers' Day " and a " Parents' Day " linked 
 the school with the home and made every patron feel an 
 added interest in the school and a new courage for 
 life's duties. 
 
 Decorating the Schoolroom, for Festivals. — Incidental 
 ways in which the schoolhouse can be made a community
 
 206 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 A SCHOOLROOM DECORATED FOR THANKSGIVING 
 
 center have often been demonstrated. Especial oppor- 
 tunities for identifying the school with the social life of 
 the community are afforded on the occasion of some fes- 
 tival. The following is a description of the way in which 
 Mrs. Hoelcel's pupils decorated their schoolroom for 
 Hallowe'en. This plan of decoration would be suitable 
 for any festival of the autumn. 
 
 A window was assigned to each class. The smaller 
 classes aided by making chains, baskets, lanterns, etc. 
 The teacher gave the pupils an idea of what was desired. 
 Pupils discussed their suggestions and ideas with the 
 teacher before putting them into effect. 
 
 The windows had dark olive green shades and pretty 
 white curtains. Window number one was decorated in 
 evergreen sprays intertwined into the edges of curtains 
 to their full length. A triangular effect of evergreen
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 207 
 
 ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SAME SCHOOLROOM 
 
 was carried out over the lower sash. Upon the window 
 sill was a bed of sand filled with shells, and amid the 
 shells stood a small globe of goldfish. 
 
 Window number two contained kaffir corn stalks of 
 different lengths filled in on both sides. Where the 
 stalks met a jack-o'-lantern "was placed. Upon this 
 window sill different kinds of ears of corn were placed, 
 also a few squashes. 
 
 Window number three contained stalks of corn with 
 ears arranged like the kaffir corn. This was somewhat 
 softened by bunches of asparagus tops. Upon the sill 
 were placed different kinds of apples. 
 
 Window number four was decorated much as number 
 one only in buck-brush and asparagus green. Upon the 
 window sill were vases containing flowers, with autumn 
 leaves bunched prettily about them.
 
 [2081
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 209 
 
 Window number five belonged entirely to the two 
 primary grades. The chains and baskets were hung in 
 festoons across the window underneath the curtains. 
 Upon the curtains all kinds of paper jack-o'-lanterns 
 were pimied. The window sill was filled with evergreen, 
 among which gourds with carved faces peeped at the 
 audience. 
 
 The lamp brackets were twined with evergreen and 
 bittersweet vines. The pictures were decorated with 
 flags and bunting. Pictures may be borrowed tempo- 
 rarity to carry out the idea of the day. 
 
 In Louisiana. — Mr. E. C. Bott of Natchitoches parish 
 was sent by the Parish Board to take charge of Cedron 
 Consolidated School. When he came into the district 
 in the early summer of 1911 he found no dwelling in 
 which to house his family. However, the board gave 
 him permission to move his family into the new school- 
 house while he and his two sons made over into a dwell- 
 ing for the teacher the two old schoolhouses which had 
 been moved to the new school site. When the school 
 opened in September twenty pupils came in the dis- 
 trict's wagonette, others on horseback, and on foot, until, 
 before the year closed, all but three of school age in the 
 district had presented themselves for enrollment. 
 
 The houses having been erected in the midst of a forest 
 of young pines, there was no playground, so teacher and 
 pupils with axes and spades cut down the trees and dug 
 up the roots, thus clearing about three acres, enough for 
 playground, school garden and dooryard for the dwelling. 
 
 Not the least interesting feature of this remarkable 
 school was the school garden. The pupils cleared the 
 ground, built the fence and planted the seeds. In one 
 comer of this garden a hotbed was made in which tomato 
 and cabbage plants were started for the school garden
 
 210 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 THE teacher's DWELLING 
 
 A NEIGllHOit s I)\\ KLLINQ
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 211 
 
 THE CEDRON SCHOOL GARDEN 
 
 and for the tomato clubs of the neighborhood. The 
 beans and peas raised here were the earliest and best 
 of any in that vicinity, as were the tomatoes and cab- 
 bages. In every respect this garden was the best in all 
 that neighborhood and was an object lesson for the 
 community. By means of this garden, not only were 
 the pupils instructed in gardening, nature study and ele- 
 mentary agriculture, but also fifteen or twenty dollars 
 were made for the school, to be expended for books or 
 other school supplies. 
 
 Among the girls of the school, sixteen were organized 
 into a tomato club to raise tomatoes at home. They 
 were instructed in school how to prepare the coil, how to 
 fertilize and set out the plants. As soon as the season 
 had opened, the plants in the school hotbed were large 
 enough to set out From this bed, plants were furnished 
 not only to pupils of the school but to all persons in the 
 neighborhood who desired them.
 
 212 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 TEACHER S HOGS 
 
 The teacher brought with him two pure bred O. I. C. 
 hogs. From this start some eight or ten pure bred hogs 
 have been distributed throughout the vicinity. A " Pig 
 Club " of three pupils was organized. The original 
 " Razor Back " is doomed in that vicinity. 
 
 Four boys decided to put their energy into raising corn. 
 As a result of this club work, an intense interest in agri- 
 culture, gardening and general community improve- 
 ment was aroused. This interest culmmated in many 
 competitions at the parish fair. 
 
 Mr. Bott organized a literary society which was well 
 attended, and he aroused much interest in civic affairs. 
 He organized a Sunday school, a mutual telephone com- 
 pany and a canning company, which canned the tomatoes, 
 corn, etc., raised in the school garden and by club mem- 
 bers and others of the comnmnity.
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 213 
 
 THE ORIGINAL RAZOR HACK IS DOOMED 
 
 It is hard to estimate the worth and influence of this 
 school and its teacher upon the neighborhood; for every 
 one in the whole vicinity has been awakened, been aroused 
 to new effort. They are seeing visions, dreaming dreams. 
 Before the coming of the teacher and the consolidated 
 school there was no life, no ambition to do more than 
 they had been doing for years. They were making a 
 bare living and did not expect to do more. Now they 
 believe they can raise anything that grows out of doors. 
 The prospects are that there will be forty acres of 
 tomatoes planted next year, and that the capacity of 
 the canning plant will have to be more than doubled. 
 
 The idea that they can raise better hogs is spreading 
 and the young men for miles around are seeking for a 
 start of pure bred pigs. The teacher brought with him 
 a pure bred Jersey cow. There is grass and pasture 
 going to waste and the introduction of this cow may
 
 214 The Rural School 
 
 serve as an object lesson which will lead to the estab- 
 lishment of a creamery. 
 
 The people of this community know now that they can 
 raise other products besides cotton. They will be the 
 first to eradicate the benumbing influence of the hook- 
 worm and will come to the front educationally, socially 
 and economically. 
 
 All this Mr. Bott accomplished because of his energy 
 and spirit, and because he knew what was needed to 
 be done in that vicinity. When he entered the community 
 there were dissensions and factions among neighbors, 
 but he succeeded in interesting all for the common good 
 of the neighborhood and for the uplmilding of a common 
 interest. There are many other neighborhoods ready to 
 be led to better things economically, socially and morally, 
 when the teacher can be found who can lead them. 
 
 Very little of what has been accomplished in the Cedron 
 Consolidated School could have been done had not the 
 teacher lived on the school grounds. To make the school 
 a community center and inspiration for better country 
 life, the teacher must not be a transient, he must be not 
 merely a nominal resident, but an actual member of the 
 community. 
 
 In Iowa. — That a teacher can create an interest in 
 remodeling and decorating the school grounds even 
 where.no interest has been manifested before, is forcibly 
 showTi by what was accomplished by Mrs. Huftalen, now 
 county superintendent of Page County, Iowa. She says: 
 " In 1903 I began in a nearly new schoolhouse at Oneida 
 in the northeastern part of Iowa. The school ground was 
 literally covered with debris of various kinds, including 
 heaps of earth and ashes, sticks and stones galore, weeds, 
 some grass and a hub-deep mud hole in front of the porch. 
 On the inside there was a spirit of grumblmg, misde-
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 215 
 
 meaner, and rebellion. For ornament there were three 
 meaningless newspaper prints posted on the walls. Other- 
 wi-se the room was light and cheery and well heated with 
 a furnace, which gave us warm floors. 
 
 " Although the pupils were loud, restless and rude, in a 
 short time they were led to turn this worse than wasted 
 energy of youth to industrious pursuits and intelligent 
 cooperation. During the five years of my stay in this 
 school, the ash heaps were removed to the hillside gutter, 
 the dirt mounds were carted to fill hollows and to make a 
 raised flower bed which was bordered by the waste stones, 
 eighty-four trees were planted, an octagonal arbor twelve 
 feet in diameter was constructed of discarded telephone 
 poles and chicken wire and an arch bearing the name of 
 the school, " Arbor Vitae Summit," was erected in front. 
 The grass was kept mowed during the summer. No 
 mark or scratches of any kind were to be found in either 
 of the outhouses, which were scrubbed often. 
 
 " With money raised by school socials a large bell was 
 purchased and placed in a belfry. Besides this, we bought 
 a flag, bat and ball, books, pictures, etc." 
 
 Mrs. Huftalen beheves in play as well as work for chil- 
 dren, for while teaching in another school at Norwich she 
 speaks of securing for this place, a sandpile, swings, see- 
 saws, volley ball, tennis net, croquet, and an iron Maypole. 
 
 Besides these, there were placed on this school ground 
 a walled terrace 48 by 97 feet for a playground, flower beds 
 bordered with cement, an arch with seats, trees and two 
 outbuildings, the best in the county. 
 
 All this was accomplished through efforts of a teacher, 
 whose capital was energy, enthusiasm, and an intense 
 devotion to the cause of education. 
 
 In Washington; The Noon Lunch. — Professor Virgil E. 
 Dickson of the State Normal School at Cheney has started
 
 216 The Rural School 
 
 a movement which is worthy of consideration and imita- 
 tion. Its application is possible in almost any school 
 where children bring a cold lunch. The plan is something 
 as follows. Some provision is made for a stove and a few 
 dishes and cooking utensils. The stove may be an oil 
 burner, rented or borrowed, and the dishes may be loaned 
 by the patrons whose children bring their dinners. 
 
 The noon lunch may be managed in some such manner 
 as Professor Dickson described to the author. He said: 
 Sometime before noon, two girls went into a little 
 room and started the noon dish, which for this day was 
 vegetable soup. Just before close of school for noon, these 
 same two girls, without any directions from the teacher, 
 again went and finished preparing this hot dish for the 
 noon meal. When school was dismissed, each child got 
 his lunch basket, found his place to eat, took from his 
 basket a paper napkin and spread it upon his desk. On 
 this he placed his Imich, using his napkin as a tablecloth. 
 He also provided himself with a small doily on which to 
 set a dish of hot soup. He now set aside his basket. 
 The two girls served each one with a dish of the hot soup, 
 and all sat and ate like a large family. 
 
 This gave an opportunity for social conversation, 
 some lessons in table manners and suggestions as to what 
 were good things for a cold dinner. No one was expected 
 to leave until all had finished; so there was none of the 
 usual unseemly haste of a school lunch. When the meal 
 was finished, the girls removed the dishes, washed them 
 and put them away. 
 
 Do pupils like this way? So much that they would not 
 go back to the old plan after it has been tried. Do they 
 not get tired of soup every day? They doubtless would 
 but for the fact that soup is not served every day. One 
 day it will be a cup of hot cocoa, a dish of rice or hominy
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 217 
 
 or a dish of hot bean soup. How about the cost? It is 
 very httle, about one cent a dish. Each teacher will have 
 to meet the expense in his own way. Sometimes the 
 board will furnish the money needed, other times each 
 pupil will contribute five cents a week, and again, the 
 teacher will give an entertainment and raise the amount 
 of money needed." 
 
 The social and refuiing influence of a noon lunch con- 
 ducted properly, to say nothing of its hygienic value, 
 commends it to the attention of every thoughtful teacher. 
 Through it the teacher may reach every home in the dis- 
 trict with a refining and uplifting influence. 
 
 In Oregon; A Way to Unite School and Home. — There 
 has been much admonition on the part of educators 
 urging the union of the interests of school and home; 
 but no one has succeeded so well in solving this 
 problem as L. R. Alderman, formerly State Super- 
 intendent of Oregon. In his little pamphlet, " School 
 Industrial Credit for Home Industrial Work," he says: 
 "The idea of giving school credit for home work first 
 occurred to me nine years ago, when I was a school princi- 
 pal. I had noticed that one of my rosiest-cheeked, most 
 vigorous appearing girls spent much time on the streets 
 after school. One day Mary's mother was pointed out to 
 me. She was a pale, nervous little woman with several 
 children. Knowing that the family was not well-to-do I 
 felt myself burning with indignation at tlie circumstances 
 that were drawing Mary away from interest in her home. 
 I thought, ' What is the use of my teaching that girl al- 
 gebra and general history, when what she most needs to 
 be taught is that her mother is her best friend and needs 
 her help? ' 
 
 " At the algebra recitation the next day I announced 
 that the lesson for the following day would consist of ten
 
 218 The Rural School 
 
 problems as usual, but that five would be in the book, and 
 five out of the book. The five out of the book would con- 
 sist for the girls in helping cook supper, helping to do up 
 the kitchen work after supper, preparing breakfast, help- 
 ing with the dishes and kitchen work after breakfast and 
 putting a bedroom in order. When I asked for ' hands 
 up ' on all the problems the following day, I noticed that 
 Mary kept her hand raised after the others were down. 
 ' What is it? ' I asked. ' I worked five in advance,' 
 she replied with sparkling eyes. ' I worked five ahead in 
 the book, besides the ten that you gave us.' From that 
 time Mary's interest in all school work was doubled. She 
 was right up in the first rank." 
 
 Ex-Superintendent Alderman's account of what is be- 
 ing done by an Oregon teacher in a rural school reads as 
 follows: "A. I. O'Reilly, a young man who is just com- 
 pleting his third year at the Spring Valley school, a coun- 
 try district in Polk County, determined last September 
 (1911) to test the plan of giving credit to his pupils for the 
 work they did at home. He went to his directors, and se- 
 cured their promise to give money from the general school 
 fund to be awarded to the pupils earning the most credit 
 in a home-work contest. He then proceeded to work out 
 his plans, the contest idea being original with him." 
 
 The duties for which home credit is offered and the 
 amount of credit for each are as follows: 
 
 " Building fire in the morning, 5 minutes; milking a cow, 
 5 minutes; cleaning out the barn, 10 minutes; splitting 
 and carrying in wood (12 hours' supply), 10 minutes; 
 turning cream separator, 10 minutes; cleaning horse, 
 each horse, 10 minutes; gathering eggs, 10 minutes; feed- 
 ing chickens, 5 minutes; feeding pigs, 5 minutes; feeding 
 horse, 5 minutes; feeding cows, 5 minutes; churning, 10 
 minutes; making butter, 10 minutes; blacking stove, 5
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 219 
 
 minutes; making and baking bread, 1 hour; making 
 biscuits, 10 minutes; preparing the breakfast for family, 
 30 minutes; preparing supper for family, 30 minutes; 
 washing and wiping dishes, one meal, 15 minutes; sweep- 
 ing floor, 5 minutes; dusting furniture, cleaning rugs, etc., 
 one room, 5 minutes; scrubbing floor, 20 minutes; ma- 
 king beds, each bed, 5 minutes; washing, ironing and 
 starching own clothes that are worn at school, each week, 
 2 hours; bathing, each bath, 30 minutes; arriving at 
 school with clean hands, face, teeth and nails, and with 
 hair combed, 10 minutes; practicing music lesson (for 
 thirty minutes), 10 minutes; retiring on or before 9 
 o'clock, 5 minutes; bathing and dressing baby, 10 min- 
 utes; sleeping with window boards in l^edroom, each night, 
 5 minutes; other work not listed, reasonable credit." 
 
 The conditions and rules of the home credit contest 
 are given here: 
 
 1. No pupil is obliged to enter the contest. 
 
 2. Any pupil entering is free to retire from contest at 
 any time, but if any one does so without good cause all 
 credits he or she may have earned will be forfeited. 
 
 3. Parent or guardian must send an itemized list (with 
 signature affixed) to the teacher each morning. This list 
 must contain record of work each child has done daily. 
 
 4. Each day teacher will issue a credit voucher to the 
 pupil. This voucher will state the total number of 
 minutes due the pupil each day for home work. 
 
 5. At the close of the contest pupils will return vouchers 
 to teacher, the six pupils who have earned the greatest 
 amount of time, per the vouchers, receiving awards. 
 
 6. Contest closes when term of school closes. 
 
 7. Once each month the names of the six pupils who 
 are in the lead will be published in the county papers. 
 
 8. Ten per cent credit will be added to final examina-
 
 220 The Rural School 
 
 tion results of all pupils (except pupils of the eighth grade) 
 who enter and continue in the contest. 
 
 9. When pupil has credits to the amount of one day 
 earned, by surrender of the credits and proper apphcation 
 to teacher he may be granted a holiday, provided not 
 more than one holiday be granted to a pupil each month. 
 
 10. Forfeitures: dropping out of contest without 
 cause, all credits due; unexcused absence, all credits due; 
 unexcused tardiness, 25 per cent off all credits due; less 
 than 90 per cent in deportment, 10 per cent off all credits. 
 
 11. Award?: three having highest credits, $3 each; 
 three having second highest credits, $2 each. Awards 
 to be placed in a savings bank to the credit of the pupil 
 winning them. Funds for awards furnished by the school 
 district board out of general fund. 
 
 All of Mr. O'Reilly's pupils, thirty-one in number, 
 entered the contest with the vim and eagerness for which 
 children are noted, and have faithfully kept up their home 
 work throughout the year. The parents have cooperated 
 by sending in the lists of work done by the children at 
 home. Every morning Mr. O'Reilly receives these notes, 
 which are usually written by the children and signed by 
 the parents. Here are a few samples of parents' reports: 
 
 Flora Mortensen, 
 
 April 17, 1912. MiN. 
 
 Fed the chickens 5 
 
 Gathered the eggs 15 
 
 Set the table 5 
 
 Wiped the dishes 5 
 
 Tended flowers 20 
 
 Swept one floor 5 
 
 Was in bed before 9 5 
 
 Washed teeth 10 
 
 Prepared one lunch 5 
 
 Total 75
 
 The Opportunity of a Rural Teacher 221 
 
 Henry Davidson, 
 April 17, 1912. Mm. 
 
 Milked cows 20 
 
 Curried horses 10 
 
 Hunted eggs 10 
 
 Fed chickens 10 
 
 Fed horses 10 
 
 Fed pigs 10 
 
 Fed cows 10 
 
 Cut wood 10 
 
 To bed before 9 5 
 
 Total 95 
 
 So far as is known to the author, no better plan has been 
 devised for connecting the school and home than that set 
 forth by Superintendent Alderman. It commends itself 
 in that pupils will be given an interest in home duties and 
 be brought to realize that an education is not for the pur- 
 pose of freeing oneself from work. It will give the parents 
 a more vital interest in the school, as they see it aiding 
 with the every-day duties of the home. This plan is 
 worthy the thoughtful consideration and a careful judi- 
 cious trial on the part of every experienced teacher. 
 
 But some one says, for much of this I am not paid, nor 
 is it in my contract. While this is true, yet, if the teacher 
 is not working just for the money and wants to know how 
 best he can invest his life while teaching a district school, 
 here is his opportunity. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Butterfield, Chapters in Rural Progress (chapter 8). 
 University of Chicago Press, $1.25. 
 
 Field, The Corn Lady. A. Flanagan & Co., 50c. 
 
 Wilson, The Church in the Open Country. Missionary 
 Movement of United States and Canada. New York. 
 
 Wray, Jean MitchelVs School. Public School Publish- 
 ing Company, Bloomington, 111., $1.00.
 
 Chapter XIX 
 
 CONSOLIDATION 
 CHANGED CONDITIONS 
 
 Doubtless many a thinking teacher has asked himself, 
 if no one else, " Why this need of consolidation? Why 
 were not the districts made large in the first place and 
 left so? " In reply to these questions it may be said 
 that conditions have changed. In the early days the 
 cities had not improved their schools to the present 
 state of efficiency, and the one-room school in the country 
 was more nearly on a par with the village school near by. 
 But the concentration of people and wealth into the 
 cities and towns and the successful operation of the 
 graded school system has left the one-room rural school 
 of our forefathers far behind. The contrast between the 
 two is great, and it is greatly to the humiliation of the 
 rural school. 
 
 Not that a otie-room school is necessaril}^ a poor school, 
 nor that a country school is by reason of that one fact a 
 poor school; but a small school is, and always has been a 
 poor school. In early days families were large and pro- 
 portionately more people lived in the country than now. 
 Consequently the schools were larger. In almost any 
 county may be found a schoolhouse that was built to 
 accommodate fifty children which now has an attendance 
 of less than ten. Some one may ask where the children 
 are? The only answer is that they are gone. To be sure, 
 
 222
 
 Consolidation 223 
 
 occasionally there is a schoolhouse that is full, but the 
 crowded schoolrooms are in the cities and villages. The 
 children are not in the country as they used to be. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE DISTRICT UNIT 
 
 Although the above is true, it is possible that the in- 
 dependent district was a mistake in the first place. Origi- 
 nally, in New England, the township was the school and 
 governmental unit. By an ordinance in 1647, Massa- 
 chusetts decreed that " Every township after the Lord 
 has increased them to fifty housekeepers, shall then forth- 
 with appoint one within their own town to teach all such 
 children as shall resort to him to write and read." At 
 that time the church parish and the governmental unit 
 were one and their interests were the same. Of course, 
 education was largely under the control of the church, 
 and so long as the church unit and the governmental unit 
 were the same and harmonious, it was all right; but when 
 other denominations began to come into a toAvm and to 
 hold independent church services, they wanted to control 
 the schooling of their children. This gradually led to 
 giving the control of schools into the hands of committee- 
 men for independent districts. 
 
 In 1789 Massachusetts incorporated the district system 
 into its revised code. Horace Mann said regarding 
 " school districts " that it was the most disastrous fea- 
 ture in the whole history of educational legislation in 
 Massachusetts. From this it seems that this great edu- 
 cator was never pleased with the independent district 
 unit. It must be understood that at times and places 
 these districts have been entirely independent, having 
 power to hold school or not as they pleased and to hire 
 such teachers as suited their caprice. In some cases they
 
 224 The Rural School 
 
 would have one term of school in three or four years. 
 But now, in Kansas, for example, if the schocl district 
 neglect or refuse to have a term of school or to provide 
 schooling for the children of the district, it becomes the 
 duty of the county superintendent to step in and provide 
 a school for these children and charge the expense to 
 the district. In these old-time districts, the school com- 
 mittee would examine the teacher, and make suggestions 
 as to methods of conducting the school and governing the 
 pupils; in fact, they were school board and county super- 
 intendent combined. 
 
 EVILS OF THE DISTRICT SYSTEM 
 
 The above is the independent district carried to its 
 fullest extent; and this idea of local self-government has 
 so captivated the American people that the district system 
 of school control has engrafted itself upon a large number 
 of the states of the Union, and school people have been 
 fighting its evils ever since the days of Horace Mann. 
 
 Taxation. — These evil results are various. First, the 
 small unit is not equitable when it comes to raising money 
 by taxation. It is a principle of our free school S3^stem 
 that the property shall pay the expenses of running the 
 schools; but it is said that one third of the property of 
 Massachusetts is within a radius of ten miles around Bos- 
 ton. It is hardly possible that one third of the schools 
 of Massachusetts are within this radius. In many ways 
 it can be shown that the large unit is more just when it 
 comes to raising money for schools by taxation. 
 
 Need of Supervision. - - Then again, it has been im- 
 possible for all the schools to get teachers who were pro- 
 ficient in school management and methods in teaching; 
 in other words, teachers who do not need supervision.
 
 Consolidation 225 
 
 In other ways also it has been found that an expert in 
 education can be of great service to the individual school, 
 and this has led to school supervision. Supervision in 
 turn calls for a larger unit, the city, the county, and the 
 state; it is too expensive for the small unit. While neither 
 taxation nor supervision has been settled satisfactorily 
 to the school interests of the country, yet the tendency 
 is all toward the larger unit, toward consolidation. 
 
 Lack of Social Contact. — The social element is such a 
 factor in all school life that segregation becomes wither- 
 ing in its influence, while aggregation and consolidation 
 are stimulating and helpful. In many ways it can be 
 shown that the small school is a poor school, but es- 
 pecially in its lack of social opportunities. Persons learn 
 from each other. The contact of mind with mind is one 
 of the best ways of learning. Travel, coming into con- 
 tact with many people in a social or business way, gives 
 a breadth of character, culture and understanding that is 
 not obtained from books or study. The society events 
 and social intercourse of a large school are in themselves 
 a great educational factor and a source of much profit 
 to the young man or woman that comes in from a rural 
 community. 
 
 THE LARGER UNIT 
 
 Progress of Movement. — Although consolidation of 
 school districts has been advocated for a good many years 
 and Horace Mann succeeded in consolidating the dis- 
 tricts of a number of townships in Massachusetts, yet 
 it was not until the Committee of Twelve made its report 
 to the National Educational Association (1896) that it 
 was brought prominently before the people of the country. 
 Since then many states have authorized consolidation by 
 law, and quite a little has been accomplished in this time.
 
 226 The Rural School 
 
 The consolidation of school districts is but another 
 form of " centralizing tendencies," as Mr. Boone calls 
 them in his " History of Education " which we have 
 mentioned elsewhere. It is getting back to a larger unit 
 for the school proper. It is not claimed that this should 
 be the unit for su})ervision and taxation; perhaps the 
 state and county for supervision, and the township, 
 county and state for taxation, are about the ideals of 
 educators of the present time. 
 
 Social Value. — As has been said before, the small 
 school is, as a rule, a poor school. The social element is 
 lacking, and the larger boys and girls will not attend. 
 There is a lack of emulation, and the pupils and classes 
 do not do their best work. In a small school there is no 
 class spirit, there is no school spirit. Consolidation 
 brings a larger number of puj^ils together and makes a 
 good school possible. 
 
 Economy. — Often it is a matter of economy to con- 
 solidate a number of districts. It frequently happens 
 that a number of schools in a locality are all small, eight 
 to twelve pupils each. Sometimes four or five of these 
 schools may be combined and taught by half the former 
 number of teachers. Much, also, can be saved in the 
 expense of fuel, apparatus, etc. 
 
 The matter of economy would commend consolidation 
 to the rural communities, and especially to those that are 
 sparsely settled, were it not for the difficulty of getting 
 pupils to and from the schoolhouse, which, from the nature 
 of things, must be located at some distance from many 
 of the homes. The solution proposed for this problem 
 is what is known as Transportation. A number of routes 
 are laid out covering the district, wagons are bought by 
 the district, and drivers are hired to gather up the chil- 
 dren in the morning and bring them to the schoolhouse.
 
 Consolidation 227 
 
 At night these same routes are retraced and each child 
 is left at his o^vn home. 
 
 Objections and Answers. — There seem to be serious 
 objections offered by those who should be most directly 
 interested and who would be most benefited if the plan 
 of consolidation should prove a success. We quote the 
 following among the prominent objections offered: 
 
 1. " Depreciation of property; decreased valuation of 
 farms in districts where schools have been closed." 
 
 This seems to be imaginary, as experience has proved 
 the contrary to be true. Land values have increased 
 more in the consolidated district than in a neighboring 
 district of the old type. 
 
 2. " Dislike to send children to school far from home, 
 away from the oversight of parents." 
 
 This also is a myth, for under consolidation children are 
 better cared for than under the old system, and now that 
 there are the telephones, in cases of sickness the child 
 can be more readily relieved and the parent can be more 
 quickly notified than if they were under the conditions 
 of the old-fashioned district school. (See reports of 
 Superintendent H. S. Gilhams, page 229, and of Dean of 
 Department of Agriculture of the University of Illinois, 
 page 230.) 
 
 3. " Danger to health and morals: children obliged 
 to travel too far in cold stormy weather; obliged to walk 
 a portion of the way to meet the team, and then to ride 
 to school in damp clothing and with wet feet." 
 
 As to health and morals, the consolidated school has 
 every advantage over the old custom. In bad weather 
 it is certainly better to ride than to trudge through mud 
 or cold a mile and a half or more. The moral conditions 
 under a poor driver will never be worse, and under a good 
 driver will be infinitely better, than where a mixed group
 
 228 The Rural School 
 
 of children loiter along the public road or roam unpro- 
 tected through the open fields. No man who would be 
 trusted with the driving of one of these wagons would 
 permit the abuse and vile language before little girls that 
 now takes place on the road to and from school. If a 
 child had to walk a short distance to meet the wagon, this 
 would be no worse than to walk all the way; and the 
 instances where this would occur would be rare, for the 
 wagon will generally come to the door. (See report of 
 Superintendent Gilhams, page 229.) 
 
 4. " Difficulty of securing proper conveyances on 
 reasonable terms, or if the parent is allowed compensa- 
 tion, of agreeing on terms satisfactory to both parties, 
 parents and officials." 
 
 While in some localities it may be difficult to secure 
 suitable drivers and make satisfactory terms for trans- 
 portation of pupils, yet where districts have consolidated 
 they have been able to adjust this matter and convey 
 the children to schoial just as the Government has been 
 able to find men and teams to deliver the mail daily at 
 the farmer's door, and just as creamery companies have 
 found persons willing to make a daily route to gather 
 cream. (See report of Dean of the Department of Agri- 
 culture of the University of Illinois, page 230.) 
 
 5. " Natural proneness of some people to object to 
 any innovation, whatever the measure or however well 
 it is received elsewhere." 
 
 To us this seems to be the greatest hindrance to the 
 consolidation of many districts. We " rather bear ills 
 we have than fly to those that we know not of." Where 
 consolidation has been tried, it has been almost univer- 
 sally satisfactory, but people are slow to take up new 
 ideas and make radical changes. If it is judiciously 
 advocated, the coming generation will accept it.
 
 Consolidation 229 
 
 REPORTS IN REGARD TO CONSOLIDATION IN SEVERAL 
 
 STATES 
 
 Hon. E. T. Fairchild, State Superintendent of Kansas, 
 has set forth the advantages of consoUdation so well that 
 by permission we are quoting from his Bulletin on Con- 
 solidation as follows: 
 
 In Indiana and Ohio. — The report of Superintendent 
 H. S. Gilhams for 1903-04 gives the following statement 
 of facts as to consolidation in La Grange County, In- 
 diana: 
 
 "1. The drivers carry watches and consult them while 
 on the route. 
 
 " 2. Each driver keeps the time of the consolidated 
 school, generally standard. 
 
 " 3. The rate of speed while on the route averages five 
 miles per hour for the year. 
 
 "4. The time of arrival varies from ten to fifteen 
 minutes prior to the opening of the schools. 
 
 " 5. The more remote pupils ride about five miles, and 
 sixty per cent ride three miles or less. 
 
 " 6. Children are kept comfortable by stoves, patent 
 heaters, blankets and soapstones. 
 
 " 7. The greatest advantage to the service is township 
 ownership of hacks and the improvement of roads. 
 
 " 8. The drivers exercise due responsibility in promptly 
 and safely conveying the children to school and return- 
 ing them to their homes; they also, by contract, prohibit 
 questionable language, undue familiarity and boisterous 
 conduct in or about the hacks. 
 
 " 9. Eighty-five per cent of the patrons have reported 
 the consolidated school as their preference in comparison 
 with the ' old way.' " 
 
 The Dean of the Department of Agriculture of the
 
 230 The Rural School 
 
 University of Illinois caused a special investigation to be 
 made of the consolidated schools in Indiana and Ohio, 
 and below are some extracts from the report: 
 
 " Over sixty per cent of the districts report the cost 
 as less and the results as better after consolidation. About 
 fifteen per cent report the cost as being the same, and ten 
 per cent that the system costs more, but the results are 
 better. ..." 
 
 " There are four things that are going to benefit this 
 country: These are the telegraph, the daily mail, the 
 electric car and the centralized schools in the country, 
 and when you have gotten these you have many of the 
 advantages of the city in the country, and all the advan- 
 tages of the country besides. I do not think I can ad- 
 vocate too strongly the centralized schools. . . ." 
 
 " The advantages of centralization are many. It has 
 been found that the attendance has been more regular; 
 very seldom are the scholars absent. Much more interest 
 is being taken and greater progress made. They have 
 larger libraries, better teachers, more competition in their 
 work, and, in the end, are far more accomplished than 
 would have been possible had they attended the district 
 school. I might add further that it has been proven that 
 the children have been warmer and more comfortable." 
 
 "... If a child is taken sick at the school, he is sent 
 home at public expense. This has occurred, I was told, 
 four times in the past three years. As one of the parents 
 said, ' It is a great comfort to know that if occasion de- 
 mands it my child will be brought home.' " 
 
 '' As to the character of the work done in this well- 
 graded six-room high school as compared with that of 
 the scattering schools, there is no room for argument, 
 there is absolutely no comparison possible." 
 
 " Of the fifty-six persons interviewed in Gustava and
 
 Consolidation 231 
 
 Green townships, forty-five were in favor of the system, 
 four were indifferent, and seven opposed, and of the seven 
 who were against the system, six were without children 
 in attendance at school. The advantages of an up-to-date 
 and thoroughly conducted high school were in this rural 
 school shared alike by all the children of the township. 
 Six months imder the central system is as good as nine 
 months under the old district plan. ..." 
 
 " The poor man who has heretofore been able to send 
 his children only to the district school now has the pleas- 
 ure of seeing them securing the best education that could 
 be provided by the country." 
 
 " The plan of centralization offers equal advantages to 
 all the children of the township. It permits a better 
 grading of schools and classification of pupils. It affords 
 an ojDportunity for thorough work by adding more weeks 
 of schooling and by the addition of higher grades of study. 
 Fewer but better and more capable teachers will be em- 
 ployed and retained; and, besides, it brings the stimu- 
 lating influence of larger classes, with the spirit of emula- 
 tion incident thereto. Small schools cannot have the 
 vitalizing force that comes from larger numbers. Chil- 
 dren who are transported in comfortable wagons are not 
 exposed to the rigors of inclement weather. Tardiness 
 and absence are almost unknown. The parents become 
 more deeply interested in the schools. The result is better 
 school buildings, better sanitary conditions, better equip- 
 ment, and all of this at a less aggregate expense than under 
 the small district plan." 
 
 A. B. Graham sent inquiries to parents in townships 
 in Ohio having consolidated schools, and secured the 
 information below: 
 
 " How does the driver announce his coming? " The 
 answers were: " By blowing a horn; " " Blows a whistle; "
 
 232 The Rural School 
 
 " Halloos; " " Doesn't announce his coming; children 
 learn about his regular times of coming." 
 
 " Does your child stand and wait for the wagon? " 
 Every reply so far is " No." 
 
 " Is it necessary to clothe your child as heavily for the 
 winter trips as under the old plan? " Seventy-five per 
 cent answer "No"; fifteen percent " No difference " ; 
 ten per cent " Yes." 
 
 " Does your child attend school more regularly than 
 under the old plan? " Eighty per cent answer " Yes," 
 twenty per cent " See no difference." 
 
 " Does your child show an increase in its interest above 
 what it was under the old plan? " Ninety per cent answer 
 " Yes," ten per cent " No." 
 
 " Do your teachers show an increase in interest above 
 what was shown under the old plan? " Ninety per^cent 
 answer " Yes," five per cent answer " No," and five per 
 cent " Notice no difference." 
 
 " What effect have centralized or consolidated schools 
 on the social and educational interests of the township? " 
 Most who answered said that there had been great im- 
 provement. 
 
 " In the main, do you feel favorable toward centralized 
 or consolidated schools to-day? " Seventy-five per cent 
 of those who at first had objected, answered this question 
 by saying " Yes." Some on the end of the longest route 
 answered " No." 
 
 In Ohio the State Commissioner of Education is loud in 
 his commendation of the plan. 
 
 In Eastern States. — The president of the State 
 Board of Education of Massachusetts reports that 
 " in Massachusetts, at least, the plan of consoli- 
 dation of rural schools is no longer an experiment, but 
 is recognized in most of the towns of the Common-
 
 Consolidation 233 
 
 wealth as a means of raising the standard of education 
 in rural communities. 
 
 In Connecticut, consolidation, as reported by the state 
 superintendent, has been most advantageous to the state. 
 
 In New Jersey the advantages enumerated in favor of 
 consolidation are: (1) economy; (2) better teachers and 
 equipment; (3) better supervision; (4) regularity of at- 
 tendance of pupils; (5) better educational spirit. 
 
 Report of United States Commissioner. — Wm. T. 
 Harris, formerly United States Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, in his report on the subject of consolidation, says: 
 
 " Upon the success of this movement rests the chief 
 hope for the improvement of the rural school. It is for- 
 tunate that a device which changes the ungraded school 
 into a graded school involves a saving of expense. The 
 improvement is well worth the trial, even were it to double 
 the cost of the rural school ; but, as will be seen by statis- 
 tics, it is secured with an actual saving of expenditure. 
 Better teachers, more sanitary buildings, less personal 
 expenses on the part of the pupils, better classification, 
 and many lesser advantages are commending this reform 
 to the entire country." 
 
 Modified Forms of Consolidation — Superintendent I. 
 J. Scott of Story County, Iowa, has inaugurated a plan of 
 gradation in the schools of Grant township, which is, 
 to say the least, unique, yet simple in its organization. 
 The pupils of each of three adjacent school districts are 
 divided into three groups. In the first group are grades 
 one to three, in the second group, grades four to six and in 
 the third group, grades seven to nine. Pupils of the first 
 group are assigned to the central building, those of the 
 second, to another, and those of the last group to a third. 
 Each child is supposed to walk to his own schoolhouse; 
 then, if his group belongs in one of the other buildings,
 
 [2341
 
 Consolidation 235 
 
 he rides there iii a conveyance furnished by the combined 
 districts. By arranging the programs of each school to 
 suit the convenience of the driver, one school beginning 
 at nine-thirty and another closing at three-thirty, one 
 wagon conveys all pupils to and from their respective 
 schools. Two wagons, one starting at one extremity of 
 the combined districts and the second at the other, and 
 meeting at the central house, exchanging pupils and then 
 returning, would do the work more satisfactorily. At 
 night they could be returned in a similar manner. 
 
 By this plan schools in the country^can have many of 
 the advantages of graded schools. ~~""~-— -^ 
 
 The legislature of Minnesota of 1911 provided" that 
 certain " high schools, graded schools or consolidated 
 rural schools, having satisfactory rooms and equipment " 
 etc., might be designated by the state high school board 
 as schools in which ^' an agricultural and industrial de- 
 partment . . . might be maintained." This department 
 consists of courses in agriculture, manual training and 
 home economics. With these designated schools " one 
 or more rural districts " may be associated. These rural 
 districts are not to be disorganized, but unite in the sup- 
 port of these special courses. A common tax of not less 
 than two mills is levied. The " Central School " receives 
 state aid to the amount of $2500, and $150 for each asso- 
 ciated rural district. The rural districts receive $50 each. 
 
 STANDARDIZATION OF THE SCHOOLS 
 
 In Louisiana. — A commendable movement on foot in 
 Louisiana, advocated by C. J. Brown, State Rural School 
 Supervisor, is worthy of consideration and imitation in 
 other parts of the country. It is known there by the term 
 " Standardization of Schools." By this plan it is aimed
 
 236 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 to reduce the number of grades in the one-room school to 
 possibly five; and to centralize the upper two or three 
 grades in a consolidated school. 
 
 This plan has a number of commendable features: 
 (1) It furnishes a school near home for the younger chil- 
 dren and makes it possible to employ a teacher suited to 
 lower-grade work. (2) Since, as a rule, there are fewer 
 pupils in the upper grades by this plan it will cost less for 
 transportation to the consolidated school. (3) In many 
 cases these older pupils can furnish their own conveyance 
 and thus obviate altogether the expense of transportation 
 to the district. (4) It will bring older pupils together into 
 a school where a man teacher may be employed and 
 athletics fostered. (5) In some states the primary school 
 will want two sessions, a fall and a spring session, with the 
 vacation in the winter, while the consolidated school 
 would have but one, beginning in the fall and closing in 
 the earl}^ spring. (6) Little or no expense to the district 
 is involved. Where conditions lend themselves to this 
 plan, it would seem an admirable method of consolidation. 
 In Minnesota. — To improve the schools of this state, 
 aid is offered to certain high schools, graded schools and 
 common schools which fulfill specified requirements. " For 
 the purpose of fixing state aid for common schools " they 
 are classified as Class A, Class B, Class C. The table 
 shows the requirements and the aid given each class: 
 
 Class 
 
 Teacher 
 
 Term 
 
 Building and Equipment 
 
 State Aid 
 
 Class A 
 
 1st Grade 
 
 8 months 
 
 Suitable Building and 
 other apparatus 
 
 $150 
 
 Class B 
 
 2dd " 
 
 8 " 
 
 (< 
 
 100 
 
 Class C 
 
 II (1 
 
 7 " 
 
 II 
 
 75
 
 Consolidation 237 
 
 In Wisconsin. — For the purpose of bringing about 
 better conditions in the country schools of the state, 
 Wisconsin is offering state aid to several classes of her 
 schools which meet certain requirements. While the 
 state offers this aid to other schools, we are interested in 
 the " state graded schools " and the '' rural " schools. 
 
 Of the former there are two classes. The first class 
 consists of schools of three or more departments, which 
 maintain a nine months' school taught by competent 
 teachers, a principal holding a state certificate, with as- 
 sistants holding high-grade certificates or teachers of 
 successful experience. 
 
 Schools of two departments may be state graded schools 
 of the second class, providing they have a principal who 
 holds a first-grade county certificate. If he holds a cer- 
 tificate of lower grade, he must be a teacher of successful 
 teaching experience certified to by the county superin- 
 tendent. The assistant must be a well qualified teacher. 
 
 In both classes the buildings, furniture and grounds 
 must be " maintained in good condition and free from 
 any unsanitary feature." " Sufficient equipment, in- 
 cluding globes, maps, blackboards, library and other 
 essentials for the proper work of the school shall be pro- 
 vided by the school district." 
 
 If, when inspected by the state rural school inspector, 
 a school meets the requirements of a state graded school 
 of the first class, the state aids in the maintenance of the 
 school to the extent of |300; if of the second class, $200. 
 
 A law passed by the recent session of the legivslature 
 gives an additional $100 to either class of state graded 
 schools that do strong work in agriculture and one other 
 industrial subject. Special state aid may be withheld 
 from any school not doing high grade work in every 
 department.
 
 238 The Rural School 
 
 Of the rural schools there are two classes, first and sec- 
 ond. " Every school district . . . which shall have 
 maintained a school or schools for eight months the pre- 
 vious year; provided a suitable school building, needful 
 apparatus, supplementary readers; installed an ade- 
 quate system of ventilation; and done efficient work, 
 shall ... be deemed to have maintained a rural school 
 or schools of the first class." A school of this class is 
 entitled to state aid to the amount of fifty dollars for 
 three years. Schools of the second class do not receive 
 any special state aid. 
 
 In Missouri. — It does not seem necessary to offer 
 special state aid in order to bring about standard schools; 
 indeed, it seems questionable in the mind of the author 
 whether this is the better method. What is needed is an 
 awakened public sentiment for better schools in the coun- 
 try; and probably, a better and purer public opinion 
 can be aroused without state aid than with it. 
 
 Without prize money but with the aid of county 
 superintendents and a rural school inspector, Wm. P. 
 Evans, State Superintendent of Missouri, has under- 
 taken to raise the standard of the schools of his state. 
 He says: " The first plan for approval of rural schools 
 was promulgated in 1909. It led at once to increased 
 interest, on the part of many communities, in the grading 
 of the school, in attendance and in better buildings and 
 grounds. Nearly three hundred schools have been 
 placed on the approved list, and many others are taking 
 such steps as will lead to their approval in the near 
 future." The county superintendent and inspector " ap- 
 prove " a school when it reaches the required standard. 
 
 In order to determine whether a school is up to stand- 
 ard or not, eighty out of a possible one hundred points 
 must be earned. Twenty of these hundred points
 
 Consolidation 239 
 
 are based on the Condition of the School Building; sev- 
 enteen, on Apparatus and Equipment of Building; thir- 
 teen, on Grounds and Outbuildings; twenty-five, on 
 the Course of Study and Organization; twenty-five, on 
 the Teacher. 
 
 '' Before a school will be approved it must comply with 
 the following requirements: (1) The term must be at 
 least eight months in length. (2) The teacher must hold 
 a certificate higher than a third-grade county. (3) The 
 salary paid the teacher must be at least forty dollars per 
 month. (4) The board must have complied with the 
 library law, section 818G, R. S. 1909. (5) The state course 
 of study must be followed. (6) The organization and 
 classification of the school must be definite and sys- 
 tematic. (7) The instruction and discipline must be 
 satisfactory. (8) The school buildings, grounds and out- 
 buildings must be adequate, clean and sanitary. (9) The 
 room must be heated by other means than radiation. 
 (10) The teacher must be a regular attendant at county 
 and to^\^lship meetings. (11) A satisfactory program of 
 recitation and study must be posted conspicuously." The 
 legislature in the 1913 session has provided for state aid 
 to weak districts under certain conditions. 
 
 In Illinois. — In the arousing of sentiment for better 
 conditions in country schools, a rural school inspector is 
 of inestimable value. Illinois now has two supervisors 
 under the direction of the state superintendent. With 
 the aid of these supervisors, Francis G. Blair, State Super- 
 intendent of Illinois, has been able to take advanced 
 ground in the movement of standardization of rural 
 schools. From his bulletin, " The One-Room and Village 
 Schools of Illinois," for 1912, the following is quoted: 
 " The supervisors of country and village schools upon 
 invitation of the county superintendent, will visit a
 
 240 The Rural School 
 
 county spending two or three days inspecting schools in 
 all parts of the county. The directors will be invited 
 to be present. The grounds, house, furnishings, heating, 
 ventilation, library, water supply, outhouses, qualifica- 
 tions of the teacher, teaching and conduct of the school 
 will be inspected, and when the essentials of a good school 
 are found present, a diploma will be granted it as a stand- 
 ard school. A plate bearing the words ' Standard 
 School ' or * Superior School ' will be placed on the 
 door. The diploma and plate will be subject to recall if 
 the school fails to keep up to the standard. It will be 
 the policy, not simply to find fault, but to assist in find- 
 ing out what the schools really need and to encourage 
 improvement." 
 
 "... Seven hundred schools have been standardized. 
 Not more than one fifth of these were up to standard 
 when inspected. Four fifths of them were brought up 
 after inspection by the state supervisor and the county 
 superintendent. ' ' 
 
 " On the whole the work is very encouraging. County 
 superintendents, school officers, teachers and parents 
 have responded as soon as the matter was clearly before 
 them. Some counties have already half their schools 
 on the standard list. We have every reason to expect 
 that in a few years ninety per cent of the schools of some 
 counties will take rank as standard schools." 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR A STANDARD SCHOOL 
 
 Following are the requirements for a standard school 
 as outlined by Superintendent Blair: 
 
 Yard and Outbuildings: 1. Ample playground. 2. Good 
 approaches to the house. 3. Two well-kept, widely sepa- 
 rated outhouses. 4. Convenient fuel house. The School-
 
 Consolidation 241 
 
 house: 1. House well built, in good repair and painted. 
 
 2. Good foundation. 3. Well lighted. 4. Attractive interior 
 decorations. 5. Good blackboards, some suitable for small 
 children. 6. Heated with jacketed stove in the corner, or 
 a room heater and ventilator in the corner, or basement 
 furnace which brings clean air in through the furnace and 
 removes foul air from the room. 7. Floor clean and tidy. 
 Furnishings and Supplies: 1. Desks suitable for children 
 of all ages, properly placed. 2. Good teacher's desk. 
 
 3. Good bookcase. 4. A good collection of juvenile books 
 suitable as aids to school work as well as general reading. 
 Pupils' Reading Circle organized. 5. Set of good maps, a 
 globe, dictionaries, sanitary water supply. The Organi- 
 zation: 1. School well organized. 2. Classification and 
 daily register well kept. 3. Definite program of study. 
 
 4. Program of recitation. 5. Attendance regular. 6. At 
 least seven months of school. 7. Discipline good. The 
 Teacher: 1. The equivalent of a high school education. 
 2. Must receive at least $360 per annum. 3. Ranked by 
 the county superintendent as a good or superior teacher. 
 4. Must read Teachers' Reading Circle books and attend 
 institutes and meetings. 
 
 Superintendent Blair says, " Many school oflftcers have 
 not only expressed themselves in favor of having the 
 essentials of a good school, but they want their school to 
 be as nearly right as it can be made. To encourage this 
 laudable desire a diploma will be offered to a Superior 
 One-room School." The requirements for a superior 
 school are along the same lines as for a standard school, 
 except they are more complete and rigid. Along similar 
 lines the schools of villages and small towns will be 
 standardized. Read these requirements for a standard 
 graded school: 1. The discipline must make good work 
 possible and tend to establish sound character. 2. If the
 
 242 The Rural School 
 
 school does only eight years of work, pupils must be well 
 prepared for first year of high school. 3. If the school does 
 ten years of work, the 9th and 10th years must be equal 
 to the first two years of the course of a good four-year 
 high school. 
 
 When rural schools can be brought up to the above 
 standards, good work will be possible in the one-room 
 comitry school. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Fairchild, Consolidation. State Supt. of Public In- 
 struction, Topeka, Kansas. 
 
 Kern, Among Country Schools. 1906. Ginn & Co., 
 $1.50. 
 
 Kern, The John Swaney Consolidated Country School 
 in Magnolia Township, Putnam County, Illinois. N. E. A. 
 Proceedings 1908: 420. 
 
 Kern, New Kind of Country School. World's Work 16: 
 10720 (Sept., 1908). 
 
 Knorr, Organization of a County System. 1910. (Bulle- 
 tin, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. of Agri- 
 culture.) Superintendent of Documents, Government 
 Printing Office, Washington, 15c.
 
 PART II 
 RURAL SCHOOL METHODS
 
 Chapter 1 
 
 PRIMARY READmG 
 IMPORTANCE OF READING 
 
 The importance of reading is hard to overestimate. 
 It is the foundation stone upon which all education is 
 based. It is the door which admits one to the store- 
 house which contains the products of the master minds 
 in all fields and of all periods. Literature, natural sciences 
 and mathematics must be approached largely through 
 this avenue. It is the first and most important means 
 at man's command of coming into contact not only with 
 the rudiments of learning but with the best and latest word 
 on any and all subjects of past or present interest. By 
 this means we are kept in close touch with the doings of 
 the world, — the current events which make future his- 
 tory, — with the latest finding in the fields of science and 
 art and mechanics. To but few are given the time, the 
 opportunity, the means, to do original research work, to 
 travel, to study at the best schools or to investigate 
 sociological and kindred conditions at first hand, but by 
 means of books the results of such work are brought di- 
 rectly to us at little cost or trouble. He who enables one 
 to take advantage of these efforts of others by teaching 
 him to read understandingly and to like reading for its 
 own sake has performed a great service. He has placed 
 at one's command the means by which he may obtain 
 
 245
 
 246 The Rural School 
 
 instruction, entertainment and pleasure independent of 
 season, friends or financial conditions. 
 
 In spite of the importance of this subject and the fact 
 that it is the first and ahnost the last subject taught in 
 the rural schools, it continues to be one of the most poorly 
 taught subjects of the common school course. It is taught 
 as a duty, as a matter of course, but with little thought 
 about it except that it is a means of learning to pronounce 
 words. In this respect the spelling book might just as 
 well be used as a textbook with but little difference in 
 results. In fact, much of the so-called reading is little else 
 than a naming of words. 
 
 KINDS OF READING 
 
 Silent Reading and Oral Reading. — Reading is of two 
 kinds, silent, or mental, and oral, or vocal. Silent reading 
 is of first importance because the greater part of what 
 one reads is read thus for his own pleasure and profit, 
 and because his oral expression of thought is entirely de- 
 pendent upon his mental grasp of the thought to be 
 expressed, plus the mechanics of effective speech. Al- 
 though the chief end and aim of teaching reading is to 
 render one a good silent reader, it is through the agency 
 of oral reading that the teacher is enabled to do this. By 
 oral reading, mainly, is he able to judge of the pupil's 
 ability to understand and translate the thought of the 
 printed page, and it is only by this means that he can 
 correct errors, direct the mind into right channels and 
 assist the mental concept by insuring for it the proper 
 physical expression. Although the oral expression of a 
 thought cannot excel the reader's concept of the same, 
 yet the knowledge of the pupil's idea, gained through his 
 oral expression of it, enables the teacher to approve or to
 
 Primary Reading 247 
 
 improve the pupil's grasp of the thought. Hence, we 
 must concern ourselves chiefly with obtaining correct 
 oral expression as an indication that the mind is getting 
 the desired idea. Silent reading is a ihoxight-getting 
 process, oral reading is a thought-^mwg process. Thought- 
 getting must precede thought-giving. As the child must 
 generall}^ get the thought which he gives from the printed 
 expression of it, the chief work of the teacher of primary 
 reading is the development of the ability to interpret the 
 printed page. As this power increases, more emphasis 
 is given to control of voice and body and the various 
 physical attributes concerned in the oral expression of 
 the thought, but in no stage of the work can the two 
 lines be entirely separated, nor can any sharp line be 
 drawn to indicate where one ends and another begins. 
 As the pupil advances there should be less difficulty in 
 thought-getting and greater ease in thought-giving. 
 
 What Constitutes Good Oral Reading. — Good oral 
 reading consists mainly in reading as one would wish 
 others to tell it to him in those words. Judged by this 
 simple standard, there is much poor reading, for it is 
 remarkable how seldom one hears the natural speaking 
 tone used by the average reader in school. Instead, there 
 is heard the high pitch, the halting or the drawling man- 
 ner, a too loud, a too low, or a muffled, indistinct tone. 
 There is little or no attempt either to understand or to 
 express the author's thought and the reader rushes or 
 drags through the selection as his familiarity with the 
 words or his lack of it will permit. This is all the more 
 deplorable because the teaching of reading maj^ easily be 
 made one of the most interesting and satisfying of all 
 the common school subjects, and a subject in which one 
 may quickly see the results of earnest effort and the 
 use of proper methods.
 
 248 The Rural School 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING READING 
 
 As has been said before, the province of teaching pri- 
 mary reading is chiefly to put a child into possession of 
 the means of thought-getting. To do this it is necessary 
 ineffaceably to impress certain forms upon the child's 
 mind so that he shall not only know these forms but shall 
 be able to use them in the recognition or determination 
 of other forms to be met in the future. The mastery of 
 these symbols will be discussed under the different methods 
 which have been or are used in teaching primary reading. 
 
 Aim of All Methods. — Of these methods there are 
 many, but when used alone, no method is without its de- 
 fects. In all methods the final end is the same, regardless 
 of the means employed to secure it. This end is the ready 
 recognition and easy use of the written symbols of ideas 
 and thoughts as expressed by words and sentences. 
 By whatever means this is secured, certain things must 
 be accomplished before the child is fully equipped for 
 efficient, independent work, before he is in possession of 
 all the instruments which he needs for the mastery of 
 the art of reading. He must recognize words and groups 
 of words, he must know letter forms, sounds and names 
 and how to combine sounds and forms. He must acquire 
 the habit, unconsciously perhaps, of looking upon the 
 words not as an end in themselves, but as a means to an 
 end, and that end, the thought bound up in the words. 
 The words are only the shell of the nut which must be 
 cracked before he can obtain the meat. For this reason 
 too, the sentences presented to the child before he begins 
 the study of reading in a book should not be merely a 
 string of words. The first book of a series of readers 
 especially should have real literary value in order that 
 a taste for good reading may be acquired.
 
 Primary Reading 249 
 
 The best method, then, is the one that enables the child 
 to become an independent reader with the least expense 
 of time, and with the greatest degree of interest and 
 pleasure. He should early acquire some way of deter- 
 mining new words, and this should proceed gradually 
 from the known to the unknown. 
 
 Various Methods. — The principal methods of teaching 
 reading are: The Alphabetic, the Word, the Phonetic, 
 the Phonic, the Sentence and the Rational method. Each 
 method chooses a different basis for the point of attack 
 in learning to recognize sight symbols and in connecting 
 the symbols with the corresponding sounds. Each of 
 these methods has had its advocates who proclaimed it 
 the sole and only good system; but the test of use has 
 shown the strength and the weakness of each in turn. 
 By each, many thousands have learned to read, though 
 often in spite of the method. No one of them is without 
 some weakness, but long experience and careful observa- 
 tion has shown that a judicious use of the best features 
 of several different methods produces a method which 
 gives a proficiency and a broadness which is not 
 otherwise possible. 
 
 The Alphabetic Method. — The alphabetic method, 
 which fortunately has fallen into quite general disrepute 
 and disuse in recent years, has few claims to merit except 
 that of teaching the names of the letters — which is in 
 no sense learning to read — and that, perhaps, it helps 
 to make good spellers, which also has nothing to do with 
 good reading. Its advocates proceed on the theory that 
 naming the letters will assist in pronouncing the word. 
 That nothing is farther from the truth must be evident 
 when one studies a few words and attempts to pronounce 
 them by combining the names of the letters that compose 
 them. Cow becomes se-o-double u. Instead of pronounc-
 
 250 The Rural School 
 
 ing cow, he really says four other words, see, o, double, 
 you. Man becomes em-a-en and hand, aitch-a-en-d. 
 Also, kt spells Katie and nme spells enemy. From these 
 examples it is seen that, instead of being a help, the names 
 of the letters are an actual hindrance to correct pronun- 
 ciation. That which really happens in the use of the al- 
 phabetic method is one or the other of two things. The 
 letters are named and then the teacher pronounces the 
 word. After countless repetitions of this sort the mind 
 becomes indistinctly conscious that a certain character 
 represents a certain sound — not the name — though the 
 sound, in all probability, could not be given apart from 
 the word. Were the attention directed at once to the 
 sounds represented by the letters, how much time and 
 useless effort would be saved. The other process is that 
 which occurs in the use of the word method. That is, by 
 constant repetition the child associates the name with 
 the form of the word as a whole. Thus we again find that 
 the names of the letters are simply useless material that 
 cumber the mind and distract attention from the real 
 matter and might much better be left to be learned inci- 
 dentally as the need for them arises later. 
 
 The Word Method. — The word method places the em- 
 phasis upon the word instead of upon the letter as the 
 unit in learning to read. The words are simply taken as 
 wholes without any consideration of the letters or sounds 
 which compose them. The word to be learned is given, 
 preceded by object or picture, when possible, and the 
 pupil or teacher gives its name. The natural order of 
 presentation should be, object or picture, spoken word, 
 written word, and later, elementary sounds and letters. 
 
 After words are given they must be reviewed again and 
 again until their recognition becomes instantaneous and 
 accurate. The chief objection to this method is the fact
 
 Primary Reading 251 
 
 that the pupil remains too dependent upon the teacher 
 for each new word. Each word stands out alone and no 
 means of correlation and comparison gives ability to 
 pronounce new words. Sooner or later many pupils do 
 this but it is not an integral part of the word method. One 
 advantage of this method is that it is logical. It begins 
 with the single word, which is the unit of child language. 
 His first speech consists not of letters, elementary sounds 
 or sentences, but of single words or at the most of phrases. 
 These words are names, " mamma," " dog," " drink," 
 etc. Then come words of action, " see," " go," " run," 
 " take," or " mamma take," etc., and these are soon 
 followed by adjectives, as qualifying words, '' pretty," 
 " little," " good," etc. The personal element appears 
 early also, and " my," " I," " me," etc., are heard. 
 Soon these are joined into simple sentences. In about 
 this order, words may be presented to the child who is 
 learning to read, but words alone should be presented 
 for a few lessons onl}^ As soon as the stock of sight 
 words will permit it, these should be combined into sen- 
 tences, or stories, as the children like to call them. 
 
 The Sentence Method. — The sentence method is ad- 
 vocated by those who claim that the sentence, rather 
 than the word, should be considered as the basis, or 
 unit of speech. Complete sentences are given from the 
 beginning, on the theory that the sentence is the only 
 unit that expresses a complete thought and, since reading 
 is a process of thought-getting and thought-giving, it is 
 illogical to begin with an incomplete thought. The ad- 
 vocates of the word method and of the sentence method, 
 however, do agree in insisting that the unit with which 
 they begin shall have meaning and be capable of analysis 
 rather than that meaningless fragments must be pieced 
 together like a puzzle before they have any value. The
 
 252 The Rural School 
 
 sentence method demands conversation, the develop- 
 ment of the sentence orally and then its presentation in 
 written form. This is then given back by the pupils. In 
 the beginning no attention is given to the division of the 
 sentence into words. The whole sentence is given by 
 the teacher, and the pupils are expected to recognize it as 
 a whole. Sentences containing the same words combined 
 in various ways should be given. One can readily see 
 that the same combination of words cannot be used 
 frequently enough to give ready recognition of more than 
 fragments of sentences. As the pupils note these similar 
 groups and, finally, the individual words, the sentence 
 method lapses into the word method just as, when the 
 child begins to combine the words into sentences, the 
 word method merges into the sentence method. For, 
 if the teacher insists, as he should, that the whole thought 
 be grasped mentally before any oral expression be given, 
 he has crossed completely over from the one method to 
 the other. The skillful teacher will secure excellent 
 results by the use of the sentence method, but, when time 
 is limited and the teacher is not an expert, usually much 
 better results will be secured by means of the word method. 
 
 The Phonetic Method. — The phonetic method employs 
 all the elementary sounds with their diacritical mark- 
 ings. The silent characters are usually omitted. 
 
 A specially prepared book must be used in taking up 
 this method. After the child learns to read, this system 
 is abandoned and another taught him. It is therefore 
 very impractical, discoimected, uninteresting, and wholly 
 a matter of memory. 
 
 The Phonic Method. — The phonic method has all the 
 advantages of the phonetic method and more, without 
 some of its disadvantages. It also makes early and 
 constant use of the elementary sounds, making them, as
 
 Primary Reading 253 
 
 does the phonetic method, the basis of teaching. It em- 
 ploys all the letters of the alphabet to indicate particular 
 somids and then uses diacritical markings to indicate 
 the additional somids of the language. All this must be 
 taught just as the a, b, c's are taught and is open to the 
 same objections, but, unhke the phonetic method, it does 
 not require specially printed books for its use, nor the 
 learning of two forms of the same word. All new v/ords are 
 learned by the combination of these elementary sounds. 
 The Rational Method. — A modified phonic method 
 originated by the late Edward G. Ward, superintendent 
 of the Brookl^ai schools, makes use of all these simple 
 forms and also recognizes and employs numerous com- 
 binations of sounds, which appear frequently as an aid 
 to ready recognition of new words. Some of these com- 
 binations are, " ing," "old," '' ight," " ite," " ness," 
 " ish," etc. Their use lightens the work materially, for 
 this grouping requires but one mental effort where, 
 otherwise, several would be necessary. It also compels 
 recognition of the common element in a great many 
 words and makes their mastery easy. These phonic 
 symbols are called phonograms and are divided into 
 simple and compound. The simple ones are the regular 
 elementary sounds, and the compound ones are, " ing," 
 " old," etc., such as have been mentioned as occurring 
 frequently enough to be of advantage in learning many 
 other words. Others of these are, " an," " at," " all," 
 " ail," etc., which give rise to such lists of words as, can, 
 ban, T)an; hat, cat, iat; call, hall, iall; hail, iail, hail; 
 etc. In using them, the compound phonogram is recog- 
 nized and then the pupil has only to sound the simple 
 phonogram and combine it with the compound one in 
 order to pronounce the word. It does not require great 
 effort, if one knows that c-at is cat, to infer that r-at is rat.
 
 Chapter 11 
 PRIMARY READING (Continued) 
 
 Having set forth in the previous chapter the chief 
 attributes of the various methods, it may not now be 
 hard to concede that the ideal method of teaching primary 
 reading is not by any particular one of these, but by a 
 combination of the word and the modified phonic methods 
 with the early use of words in sentences. Experience 
 proves that pupils learn, thus, to read quickly and skill- 
 fully, because the phonic feature gives independence, the 
 word feature gives them a large initial stock of material 
 for reading matter, and the sentence feature requires 
 thought and brings about smoothness and naturalness 
 of expression. 
 
 In the next several paragraphs, for the sake of con- 
 nection and further emphasis, several things already men- 
 tioned will be repeated. 
 
 THE COMBINED METHOD 
 
 A Bad Habit. — One of the worst habits, and one of the 
 most distressing to hear, which children are often allowed 
 to contract, is that of droning over and drawling cat the 
 words of the reading without expressing any meaning 
 or obtaining any for himself. No child should be allowed 
 to express a sentence without first having gotten the full 
 idea to be expressed. This makes a perfect knowledge 
 
 254
 
 Primary Reading 255 
 
 of the words most essential, hence much and careful word 
 drill must precede the reading. 
 
 Learning Words. — The more words one knows per- 
 fectly, the more readily and fluently he will read. The 
 first few weeks of school life may be termed the word- 
 getting period. The time will vary from five to ten weeks 
 according to the age and ability of the pupils. The 
 words should be given as fast as the child can master 
 them, but care should be taken to see that he does master 
 them and that, by constant reviews, the old words are 
 not crowded out by the new. Time spent in insuring this 
 in the beginning will be time saved for the future. That 
 the child may not tire of these constant reviews, it is 
 necessary that they be presented in as many ways as 
 possible. Go daisy picking or rabbit hunting, gather 
 autumn leaves, throw snowballs, make a tree of words 
 and call them apples or Christmas presents, then see who 
 can pick the most apples or name the most presents 
 without missing. Find a certain number or all the words 
 of one kind, see who can fuid certain words first, etc., etc. 
 
 The First Words. — A few of the first lessons must 
 consist, necessarily, of detached words. Naturally, these 
 should be names of common objects and action words, 
 because the noun and the verb are the foundation of the 
 sentence. They should be words, too, which are fomid 
 in the child's own vocabulary. If possible, he should be 
 led to use the words himself before they are presented to 
 him in written form. At first, he must simply be told 
 the word and made to understand that this written form 
 is just another way of saymg the same thing which he 
 has said. 
 
 It is well to choose the names of objects that can be 
 represented easily by the objects themselves and by pic- 
 tures and drawings, e. g., boy, dog, flower, box, baby,
 
 256 The Rural School 
 
 bird, nest, apple, etc. This gives them a reahty and they 
 easily become the subject of conversation. From this one 
 can approach the word form without abruptness. The 
 verb forms may be those which the child frequently uses, 
 or those which he can illustrate by the action itself, as, 
 see, run, sing, etc. The personal element is soon added 
 by the use of / and my. The little words, a, an, 
 and the must be given early. After their first intro- 
 duction, the close combination of these words with their 
 accompanying nomis, almost as though they were one 
 word, will avoid the bad habit, so common, of empha- 
 sizing the " a " and the '' the " and saying a man, the 
 boy, etc. From the first these words should be slurred 
 into the next word, thu man, a (ii) little boy. For a time 
 it is helpful to illustrate this close comiection graphically 
 by drawing a line below the group, thus : a bird, the baby. 
 This same plan is convenient and helpful to illustrate 
 the natural word grouping found in speech and to assist 
 in securing proper expression: I see the dog. I can see 
 the little dog. My baby can see the bird in the big green 
 tree. Run, my little dog, run to me. 
 
 A child's initial stock of words does not, necessarily, 
 consist of the shortest words alone, for he is using sight 
 and form as means of recognition, and the words, baby, 
 apple, flower, mamma, etc., are as characteristic in form 
 and as much a part of his vocabulary as, cat, dog, and 
 boy. The sight words, however, should be mainly those 
 the child will meet when he takes up his first book, with 
 such others as the teacher may need to carry out her 
 scheme of lessons. 
 
 A Knowledge of Phonics. — During the period when 
 the pupil is mainly occupied in word-getting he should 
 be laying the foundation for future independence in this 
 respect by building up a knowledge of phonics. The
 
 Primary Reading 257 
 
 child is gradually introduced to his new words by a blend- 
 ing of the elementary sounds, or a process of slow pronoun- 
 cing of words Avhose sounds blend easily, and continues 
 the work in increasing amount, the teacher giving the 
 sound until the pupil's ear becomes accurate and he can 
 pronounce readily by this means. The pupils may then be 
 encouraged to sound some new words with the teacher 
 to see if they can tell what the sounds say. By choosing 
 words that possess no difficulty, they will be pleased to 
 find that they can both sound and pronounce the words. 
 
 They are ready then to begui the analysis of some 
 written words which they already know by sight. The 
 teacher may point out and sound the parts of the word 
 h-at, m-at, m-d-d^, m-d-kf, h-an-d, trr-ef. By using a 
 number of words having one or more common elements the 
 child will soon recognize them and associate form and 
 sound, e. g., mdy, make, made ; me, se^, tre^; hall, iall, call, 
 etc. The characters may then be separated, using, at first, 
 those whose sounds are easily made and which have but 
 one sound, as, 1, f, m, t, h. Drill on these sounds similarly 
 to the way in which the sight words were drilled upon until 
 sound and form are associated. Ask pupils to name / 
 words (use names of sounds, not letters, in asking for 
 these words), m words, t words, etc. Gradually include 
 long and short vowels and other consonants. 
 
 When the list is sufficiently large and well known, the 
 child should be encouraged to work out new words for 
 himself. Many new words will fall wholly within his field 
 of knowledge; others he can pronounce by hearing the 
 teacher sound them, and some, whose peculiar formation 
 might be misleading, had better be given as sight words 
 until some future time, when an explanation will be 
 understood. When we take up the sounding of the written 
 forms, it is necessary to call attention to the fact that
 
 258 The Rural School 
 
 some words have letters that say nothing, that is, are 
 silent and, hence, are sometimes marked out. Special 
 attention should now be called to the compound phono- 
 grams that they may be made daily use of in self-help to 
 proper pronunciation. Children may be asked to give 
 ight words, ail words, old words, etc., just as they were 
 required to give words containing the single phonograms. 
 In case of occasional confusion of similar words, such, for 
 instance, as lack, back, and black, only the dissimilar part 
 need receive special attention to secure its correct pro- 
 nunciation. Drill cards, similar to the word cards men- 
 tioned elsewhere, may be used for frequent and rapid 
 drill in any and all the ways suggested for the use of the 
 word cards. Above all, from this time forth, the teacher 
 should help the child to help himself but should pro- 
 nounce, outright, no word which the child can determine 
 for himself. After sounds and forms are closely associated 
 in thought, it does no harm to mention, incidentally, the 
 names of the letters, though this is not necessary until 
 pupils begin to spell. 
 
 Spelling. — It may be well to mention here that spelling 
 by letter is not a part of the general plan until about the 
 time the pupils take up the use of the book. One must 
 not imagine, however, that pupils are not learning any- 
 thing of the subject of spelling. They are getting word 
 forms and letter sounds which will make the spelling of 
 their stock of sight words and of the new words, as they 
 come, so easy that the average pupil will very soon master 
 all the old words as well as the new ones. In giving the 
 names of the letters, it is well to keep before the pupil's 
 mind that while the name of the letter is aitch or el or ef, it 
 says, not this name but its elementary sound. 
 
 Sounding Words and Expressing Thought. — When sen- 
 tence reading has l)cgun, should there be some word which
 
 Primary Reading 259 
 
 the child does not recognize, he must be made to feel free 
 to make this fact known. He should be helped to pro- 
 nounce it for himself, b}^ sounding it or by comparing it 
 with some known word. The teacher should avoid mere 
 telling whenever possible, and it is nearly always possible 
 if the child is thus taught from the beginning. When he 
 has made sure that he knows all the words and has the 
 thought in his own mind he will have little or no difficulty 
 in expressing it orally, just as he has no difficulty in ex- 
 pressing a thought of hia own because he knows what he 
 wants to say and he says it. Herein lies the secret of good 
 reading, which is simply saying things just as one would 
 talk under exactly similar conditions. But, if the ex- 
 pression should be faulty, a little skillful or suggestive 
 questioning will usually bring the desired result. If this 
 fails, however, as may occasionally happen, some other 
 child can almost surely give the sentence with the expres- 
 sion wished, and this is preferable to the teacher's giving 
 it. Sometimes a child's interpretation may be different 
 from the teacher's and yet be allowable. In such cases, 
 the final rendition must depend upon what seems the 
 most reasonable meaning and the child should be led 
 to see this by his judgment and reason rather than by 
 mere imitation. But that expressive reading is desirable 
 from the first and that it cannot be secured until the 
 child has some thought which he wishes to express, 
 are facts which should not be forgotten by the teacher 
 of beginners. 
 
 At first, this may seem to be a slow method, because 
 the teacher must wait until the class has taken in a whole 
 sentence, mentally, before a word is spoken. A reason- 
 able time must be allowed for doing this, time enough, 
 at least, for the large majority of the class to get it. The 
 pupils should not be made to feel hurried, though they
 
 260 The Rural School 
 
 should be encouraged to see who can get it ready first. 
 Concentration of attention and interest are both secured 
 in this way, for every child is intent upon his own work, 
 which is one and the same for all. In the beginning the 
 sentences must be quite short so that these may not be 
 too much for the mind to grasp and hold at once. Gradu- 
 ally, these may be lengthened and made more difficult. 
 Interest. — From the first there should be some relation 
 of thought between the various sentences of a lesson. 
 The idea that they form a story always adds interest and 
 makes one eager to know what is coming next. Interest 
 is the keynote in all teaching. If one has gained that, 
 success, in some measure at least, is certain, while, with- 
 out it, learning is forced and slow. In this connection it 
 is not amiss to say, that there will be no class interest if 
 the teacher is not interested. The new matter must then 
 be made alive and of seeming importance if it is to make a 
 lasting impression. Introductory talks help to create 
 this importance. That the sentences may be as inter- 
 esting as possible, they should be of various forms, — 
 statements, questions, exclamations and commands. This 
 will make them more conversational and give opportunity 
 for variety of expression. It is helpful, at all times, to 
 make use of the period, the question mark and the ex- 
 clamation point as keys to the meaning and proper ex- 
 pression of the thought. 
 
 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Use of Cards. — One quick means of reviewing all old 
 words is to have them written on large cards, of a size, 
 say, 3" X 5 " or 33^" x 6 ". These are held before the 
 class and run over rapidly, either in concert or individu- 
 ally, as desired. All words may be named by one pupil,
 
 Primary Reading 261 
 
 or they may be named in turn, or promiscuously, as the 
 children's names are called. Sometimes the pupil may 
 be allowed to hold all the cards he names, to see who can 
 get the most. This gives much drill in a short time with 
 little labor. It is also a means of keeping a complete list 
 of all words where blackboard space is small. The in- 
 ventive teacher will find many ways of giving the drills 
 necessary for advancement and confidence in one's own 
 ability while, at the same time, avoiding weariness. 
 
 The Transition from Script to Print. — The beginning 
 work in reading should be blackboard work, largely, 
 using script only. If one has a script chart, that may be 
 used; but no chart gives the amount of drill work that is 
 necessary. This can be obtained only by the use of the 
 board. The printed chart should not be used in the first 
 stages because the form of the printed words is suffi- 
 ciently different to cause more or less confusion. The 
 chart is good for review and drill when the transition is 
 made from script to print. Do not use print on the board 
 until ready to make this transition. Its use then is prin- 
 cipally for the sake of comparison and is of short dura- 
 tion. When ready to make the change from script to 
 print, which is preparatory to taking up the first book, 
 choose words that are similar in the print and the script, 
 as: cap, man, little, dog, hop, etc. Introduce the subject 
 by some such explanation as the following: Miss S. does 
 not wear the same waist every day, but she is still Miss S. 
 Susie sometimes wears a red dress, but we still call her 
 Susie. Fred had on a white blouse yesterday, but to-day 
 he has on a blue blouse. So, children, the words you have 
 learned are going to change their dresses in your nice 
 new books. Then begin with some such words as those 
 given above. At first, Avrite both forms, and later, only 
 the printed one.
 
 262 The Rural School 
 
 The ease with which the pupil will be able to name the 
 first words will cause him to lose any fear of difficulty. 
 Whenever he cannot pronounce the printed form show 
 him the written word for comparison. To do this and to 
 teach many printed words quickly, it is an excellent plan 
 to have the written form on one card and the printed 
 form on another of the drill cards mentioned above, thus : 
 man, man. First, show the written form, then the printed 
 form, explaining that the words are the same. Have 
 pupils name both forms. After considerable drill of this 
 sort, the printed form should be shown first. If the child 
 does not recognize it, he should be shown the written form 
 and then the printed form again, which he now names. 
 Resemblances and differences should be noted. 
 
 Danger of Using the Book too Soon. — A very common 
 and serious error made by teachers is that of giving a book 
 too soon. This is generally due, no doubt, to a lack of 
 appropriate seat or busy work, with which to keep the 
 child employed when he is not actually reciting. The 
 teacher feels, and rightly, that the child must be occu- 
 pied. Generally, more harm than good is done by such 
 procedure, for the child has not sufficient knowledge really 
 to study a book for several weeks — the number varying 
 from six to twelve, according to the age of pupils and 
 the time the teacher has to devote to this work. No 
 primer or first reader can give the required amount of 
 drill on all the words used to make the child proficient 
 in this recognition and use, and, if he is held to the book, 
 without a great deal of supplemental work, very soon he 
 has gotten beyond the boundary of his knowledge into a 
 region whose objects and paths are all unlmown to him. 
 Sometimes he will learn the stories by rote but cannot 
 begin to pronounce the words when they are taken pro- 
 miscuously, or, perhaps, he cannot even read the stories
 
 Primary Reading 263 
 
 without the aid of the pictures. Since a child who has 
 been given his book too soon reads it but poorly, he is 
 of necessity obliged to "go through it " — he does not 
 really read it — several times. 
 
 Supplementary Readers. — It is a waste of precious time 
 to read the primer and, at least, the first two readers of a 
 series more than once. This does not necessarily mean, 
 however, that a child should take the second reader as 
 soon as he has read one first reader. It would be far 
 better, as a rule, to read at least two sets of first and 
 second readers before taking the next higher book in the 
 regular series. These supplementary books are often con- 
 venient to use in testing the child's ability to read at 
 sight. If the exercise chosen is somewhat simpler than 
 that which he has been accustomed to read after study and 
 contains but feAV new or difficult words, the pupil should 
 be able to read it with a reasonable degree of accuracy 
 and fluency. In order that the supplemental books do 
 not become too conunon, it is not a bad plan for the 
 teacher to keep them on her desk or on the shelves, except 
 at such times as when she wishes the class to use them or 
 when she allows a child to use one as a special reward or 
 privilege. Their possession, then, becomes an honor, and 
 the book itself, an object of respect. 
 
 Unless a book is very well graded, and sometimes even 
 in such cases, it is frequently advisable to take the lessons 
 in some other order than the one in the book. This may 
 be due to a season, a holiday, to the study of some par- 
 ticular author, or subject. 
 
 Occasionally a part of each recitation should be used 
 in discussing the meaning of the more difficult and mi- 
 usual words and expressions, that these may become a 
 part of the pupil's actual working vocabulary and insure 
 a better understanding of future reading.
 
 264 The Rural School 
 
 Synonyms and Meaning of Words. — An interesting 
 drill at times is the finding of synonyms. The teacher may 
 help by giving other sentences using the word in the same 
 sense, then asking the pupils to suggest a new word mean- 
 ing the same thing. This work may begin even in the 
 primer and the first-reader classes and be given more and 
 more attention as the grade advances. Too often it is 
 taken for granted that a child knows the meaning of a 
 word because it is small or because he has no difficulty 
 in pronouncing it. A child who knows his phonics and 
 can pronounce hill and mill, can also pronounce rill, but it 
 is very probable that he may not know that it means a 
 tiny stream. Likewise, he may know book and brook, but 
 since in some sections the term brook is not commonly 
 heard, he may not know the meaning of the word. 
 
 Reading the Lesson to the Class. — Some teachers make 
 the mistake of reading the lesson aloud to the class, before 
 they study it, as a part of the assignment. If this is to 
 be read by the teacher, it should be after the child has 
 done his best with it, aided by the teacher's questions 
 and suggestions. If the teacher is a good reader, he can 
 do a great deal to help and inspire his pupils, by reading 
 much that is good, yet, at the same time, bright, interest- 
 ing and suited to his hearers. Many things of this sort 
 will bear frequent readings and will be liked better and be 
 of more value, because of their repetition and familiarity. 
 
 Good Literature. — Some one has said that it is a crime 
 to teach a child to read and not teach him what to read 
 or not teach him to love the best in literature. There is 
 so much that is good and within the comprehension of 
 little children, that it is a waste of time to give them that 
 which caters to no legitimate need in their natural devel- 
 opment or that which is trashy. We must not forget that 
 childhood revels in fairy tales and " make believe " and
 
 Primary Reading 265 
 
 the youth delights in the tales of adventure, of prowess 
 and of chivalry. Each has a right to have his desire satis- 
 fied. One needs to choose carefully, to be sure there is 
 some element of ethical good, though one is not compelled 
 to lug in bodily the moral of each one and label it as 
 such. It is sometimes well enough to let the moral sug- 
 gest itself to the child's mind, even though it is not always 
 the one the teacher would suggest. 
 
 In the " make believe " age, the flowers, the trees, the 
 animals, all inanimate things must be made to live, to 
 act, to talk. At the same time we are allowing the child 
 to develop his power of imagination, it is often advisable 
 to remind him, occasionally, that it is only pretence after 
 all, in order that the too impressionable child shall not 
 really come to believe, as true, much that is only legend 
 or fable. This need not, hoAvever, be emphasized to the 
 extent of deadening vitality or destroying interest, for 
 such stories afford an excellent opportunity for obtaining 
 that much desired characteristic of good reading, animated 
 and natural expression, as well as helping to create and 
 then supply a natural desire in this stage of mental de- 
 velopment. " Blessings upon him who first invented 
 books " and then upon the one who helps others to appre- 
 ciate them.
 
 Chapter m 
 LANGUAGE WORK 
 
 Importance of Subject. — ■ A subject of vital importance 
 in any school course, and yet one more often neglected 
 than almost any other at the time when the utmost care 
 should be exercised, is that of language. Language is 
 both the science and art of expressing one's self accurately 
 and easily. 
 
 Correct Habits. — It is one of the subjects which must 
 be acquired b}^ practice and example rather than by rule. 
 Or, as one has put it, it is one that is " caught as well as 
 taught." One may be versed in all the laws of the subject, 
 may have them at his tongue's end, and yet display the 
 most wonderful ignorance of their application and the 
 greatest skill in disregarding and breaking them in his 
 daily conversation and use. Bad habits of speech formed 
 in childhood are hard to overcome. A child whose asso- 
 ciates use good language, will himself form correct habits 
 of speech by imitation without the aid of rules. If they 
 talk not only correctly but well, he is quite apt to do the 
 same. Hence, in primary language work, habits and 
 practice are worth much; rules, but little. 
 
 Suggestions and Methods of Procedure. — Language 
 is of two kinds, spoken and written. Since language work 
 has to do so largely with the spoken word, the thoughtful, 
 careful teacher finds no lack of opportunity to teach 
 language even though his program is ever so crowded, 
 and no time is available for separate daily recitations. 
 
 266
 
 Language Work 267 
 
 Almost every exercise offers many and varied opportuni- 
 ties for teaching this subject. In schools where errors in 
 speech are habitual and constant, correction of errors 
 must be as habitual and constant. While the vigilance 
 may never be relaxed, yet the work must be done kindly 
 and unobtrusively as a matter of course. If the child 
 talking freely should say, " When I come to school," or 
 " Tom and me," the teacher may say " When I came to 
 school " or " Tom and I," and the pupil corrects himself 
 and goes on without confusion or shame. But whether 
 the work is written or oral, spasmodic attacks of care and 
 exactness, no matter how energetically carried on, can 
 effect much less than the quiet continuous efforts. Also, 
 when the application of one principle has been made, 
 every violation of that principle should be noticed until 
 its improper use is the rare exception rather than the 
 rule. Mastery is indicated by the correct use of the form 
 without conscious effort. 
 
 Language has to do not only with the ability to express 
 one's self, but also with the additional ability to express 
 one's self well, that is, freely, easily, comiectedly and in- 
 terestingly. It not only enables a person to have some- 
 thing to say, but it gives him the power to say it. He who 
 has suffered from the feeling that he cannot say what he 
 wishes, or from the equally painful one that he has abso- 
 lutely nothing to say, can realize what it is worth to a 
 child or a man to have something to say and to have 
 power to say it. 
 
 No one can express himself who has nothing to express. 
 In this thought lies many a hint for the language teacher. 
 Not the least element of her work is to see that the pupil's 
 mind is supplied with material worthy of expression, and 
 when this is done, there will be few who will not feel a 
 willingness, even an eagerness to express themselves. The
 
 268 The Rural School 
 
 expression will need to be directed, but this direction will 
 be acceptable and valuable now, whereas, without the 
 language material, it would have been meaningless. 
 
 Language work must necessarily be almost entirely- 
 oral for the first year, and largely so for a much longer 
 period; the amount of written and really technical work 
 increasing from year to year as the child advances. 
 
 The work may and should begin in the lower grades in 
 connection with reading lessons and in conversation about 
 things of general interest to the pupil. They are then 
 apt to express themselves freely and are unconscious of 
 any effort on the part of the teacher to form their minds 
 or shape their expression. A child must talk, before the 
 teacher can assist greatly in forming correct speech or 
 aid materially in facilitating it. 
 
 Language may be taught incidentally in connection 
 with all school subjects, in as much as correct language 
 should be insisted upon at all times, but such exercises 
 should not and cannot take the place of definite and 
 distinct language work. Because the mind is occupied 
 with the subject matter of the lesson rather than with 
 the careful expression of the facts as an end in itself, ex- 
 pression in full, complete and careful statements dis- 
 closes one's grasp of the thought of the lesson. Under 
 such conditions, if one is called upon to express his ideas, 
 he must systematize and formulate them and is thus 
 given mental exercise. The attempt to recite under such 
 conditions discloses to him what he knows clearly and 
 what but poorly. Sometimes we think we know, but when 
 we attempt to express our thoughts, we discover them to 
 be hazy and disorganized. 
 
 The frequent writing of a paragraph or two in connec- 
 tion with the various lessons is a good practice, serving 
 the double purpose of a short test and a language lesson
 
 Language Work 269 
 
 as well; but the thought should be emphasized that lan- 
 guage work as language work should be given a place 
 on the program. 
 
 Too often this work, instead of keeping the language 
 element uppermost, is made to be an exercise in elemen- 
 tary grammar. This is especially apt to be true in the 
 case of inexperienced teachers, for the reason that the 
 technical matter is easier to present. It does not require 
 as much skill or originality in presenting and it lends itself 
 to being memorized in a parrot-like way by the pupils, 
 thus making a show of knowledge whether its import is 
 well understood or not. 
 
 Some of the technical work and the mechanics of 
 composition, such as punctuation, capitalization, etc., are 
 necessary as soon as the written work is begun. But the 
 grammar feature should not be allowed to predominate 
 during the first four or five school years. The business 
 of this period is to gather ideas and thoughts, material to 
 express, and marked ability to express it. The usual lan- 
 guage book will be an aid to the teacher but should not 
 be in the hands of the pupil before the fourth, or better, 
 the fifth grade. 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 
 
 Some of the topics which may be presented orally long 
 before it would be advisable to study a language book 
 formally are: 
 
 1. The kinds of sentences, as to meaning, and their 
 punctuation. 
 
 2. Quotations and their punctuation. 
 
 3. Possessives, singular and plural. 
 
 4. Use of capitals in sentences, proper nouns, poetry, 
 quotations, I and O. 
 
 5. Contractions.
 
 270 The Rural School 
 
 All of these may be studied as their use occurs in con- 
 nection with the reading lessons. After that they may be 
 reviewed frequently or noticed as they appear again and 
 again in the various lessons. A very limited study may 
 be given to some of the parts of speech; as the noun, pro- 
 noun, verb and adjective, but the following should receive 
 more careful attention; viz., a and an; this, that, these, 
 those; is, was, were; has and have; lie, lay; sit, set; rise, 
 raise; teach and learn. 
 
 Pupils should not be given formal rules and definitions 
 and asked to learn them. Instead, the rules or defini- 
 tions should be developed in the class and the pupil led 
 to formulate them from what he has actually seen or done. 
 
 For example, suppose it is desired to develop the rule 
 that, " Most nouns form their plurals by adding ' s ' to 
 the singular form," or that " Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, 
 X or z make their plurals by adding ' es ' to the singular 
 form." For the first rule present a long list of nouns or 
 write the list as the pupils give the nouns. Then ask 
 them to give the corresponding word meaning more 
 than one. Note how many of the words add " s " 
 merely. Compare this number with the number that 
 make their plural in some other way. What is the 
 comparative number? Make other lists, have pupils 
 make long lists, and compare as before. What may 
 we say about most nouns? " Most nouns make their 
 plural by adding ' s ' to the singular." 
 
 To develop the " es " rule, one might choose from the 
 list already made those words whose plural is made by 
 adding " es " to the singular; or a list of such words 
 might be placed on the board by the teacher. Pupils 
 should then give the plurals, spelling each one and tell- 
 ing what is added. Following are a few suggestions for 
 such an exercise.
 
 Language Work 271 
 
 dress plus es equals dresses 
 
 class 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 classes 
 
 dish 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 dishes 
 
 church 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 churches 
 
 watch 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 watches 
 
 bench 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 benches 
 
 box 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 boxes 
 
 fez 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 fezes 
 
 topaz 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 topazes 
 
 tax 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 taxes 
 
 wish 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 wishes 
 
 With what sound did the first word end? With " s." 
 The word dishf The next word, and the next, etc.? With 
 what other sounds than s, sh, ch, x or z did any of the 
 words in the list end? Examination shows none; deduce 
 from this illustration that, " Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, 
 X or z make their plural form by adding '' es " to their 
 singular. {Ox is an exception to this rule.) In like man- 
 ner we can develop the rules for other plurals, for the use 
 of a, and an, this, that, is, are, etc. That which the child 
 helps to develop and formulate has more meaning to him 
 than that which he simply learns to repeat mechanically 
 and of which he makes no practical application. It is 
 unnecessary to learn many rules, but such as are learned 
 should be definite and exact and should be developed 
 carefully before they are memorized. 
 
 Discussions sometimes grow long over such questions 
 as, " Shall we say noun or name word, verb or action word, 
 or asking or interrogative sentence? " There seems to 
 be a golden mean between these two extremes. In gen- 
 eral, use the technical term from the beginning if its mean- 
 ing is understood by the child, otherwise use a simpler 
 term. For instance, the meaning of the term " action 
 word " is easier for the child to comprehend than the 
 word " verb," but we must make sure that only " action
 
 272 The Rural School 
 
 words " are included under the term. In like manner, 
 the term " asking sentence " has more meaning than 
 interrogative sentence. Consequently one must exercise 
 his judgment and present such matters in the way best 
 suited to the needs of his pupils. 
 
 LANGUAGE PROPER 
 
 There is no end to the material that may be used for 
 this work. It naturally divides itself into several groups 
 or classes of exercises: observational work, picture sto- 
 ries, letters and other original compositions, paraphra- 
 sing, reproduction and dictation exercises. Variety is 
 good but one should avoid scattering efforts. 
 
 Whichever plan is followed, the same line of work can 
 be pursued through the first four grades simply by de- 
 manding more work and greater excellence from the 
 classes as they advance. 
 
 As was said before, the work of the first grade must 
 consist almost entirely of oral exercises, conversational in 
 character. A few simple sentences and an occasional 
 paragraph, which have been first written on the board, 
 and noted with respect to capitalization and punctuation, 
 are about all the written work that can with reason be 
 expected from this grade. The second grade can do this 
 and more. They command a larger vocabulary both in 
 speech and in ability to spell, and may occasionally be 
 expected to write an entire little story. They should be 
 able to see, to think and to reason more clearly and 
 deeply than first-grade pupils. 
 
 Observational Work. — The conversational and obser- 
 vational period gives much opportunity for nature study 
 and there is endless material from which to choose. This 
 should be as seasonable and appropriate as possible.
 
 Language Work 273 
 
 In the fall there may be study of some of the autumn 
 flowers; the sunflower, the aster, the goldenrod; of the 
 autumn leaves and the preparation of plants, animals 
 and insects for winter. A little later some time may be 
 spent in studying the familiar forms of moisture; such as, 
 rain, mist, fog, dew, hail, sleet, frost and snow. Compare 
 rain and hail, frost and snow, mist and sleet, dew and 
 frost, fog and clouds, etc. We may call this work geog- 
 raphy, nature work or what we please when it is pre- 
 sented, but in its final expression it is language work. 
 
 Another interesting topic for rural children is the study 
 of birds. Pupils will be interested in observing their 
 habits of migration, and many of their prominent charac- 
 teristics; such as bills, bodies and feet of swimmers; legs 
 and necks of waders; feet and bills of scratchers. 
 
 Thanksgiving time gives a chance to correlate language 
 and history in the story of the Pilgrims and early life in 
 the colonies. Christmas has its story, a many-sided one 
 if we choose to make it so; and it affords a good oppor- 
 tunity to present some of the Madonnas. Though the 
 little people need not be expected to analyze them crit- 
 ically, if they feel something of their meaning, that is 
 sufficient. The feeling will probably reveal itself in 
 speech. 
 
 Springtime brings more material than one can pos- 
 sibly use; seeds, their germination and modes of growth, 
 signs of returning life in plants and all nature, resem- 
 blances and differences in flowers and fruit blossoms. It 
 will be profitable to give some study to some of the more 
 common botanical families, such as the rose family, to 
 which most of our fruits belong, and the lily family, which 
 is also very large. It is easily seen that from the nature 
 side alone there is a limitless field upon which to draw 
 for material.
 
 274 The Rural School 
 
 Pictures. — Pictures are both interesting and helpful in 
 language work. The power acquired in seeing things in 
 the observational work is here put to another and further 
 test. In the first exercise in which pictures are used there 
 should not be too many details and the subject should 
 be such as has meaning for the child mind and is pleasing 
 to it. Pictures of children, their pets, their sports, and 
 their work are good subjects. They should first be taught 
 to see and express the large, distinguishing features. If 
 a child says, " I have a picture of a little girl and her 
 dog," it does not mean anything in particular; but, if 
 she says, " I have a picture of a little girl teaching her 
 dog to sit up in a chair and hold a stick on his nose," or, 
 " In this picture there is a little girl lying fast asleep on 
 the ground under a big tree with a big shaggy dog watch- 
 ing over her," we do not need to have the picture before 
 us, because the mental eye can see the essential features 
 unaided by the physical eye. 
 
 After the picture is generalized in this manner, the 
 attention should be centered upon the lesser details in 
 the order of their importance. Care should be exercised 
 to see that the treatment is not given in a hit and miss 
 manner. That is, when one has started in to describe 
 the dress and appearance of the little girl in the above 
 picture, he should not break off and give something about 
 the dog and then return for some added information about 
 the little girl. This is a most common fault in the work 
 of beginners. They seem to find it difficult to hold the 
 mind to a logical order until much practice has fixed it 
 as a custom. This is the beginning of the work of para- 
 graphing, for a paragraph is only a group of related 
 sentences. 
 
 Another error to be guarded against is that of connect- 
 ing entirely unrelated things by and. A question or a
 
 Language Work 275 
 
 suggestion will be sufficient to show that, since there is 
 no relation in thought, there should be none in written 
 expression. The other extreme is the use of too many 
 short sentences, the monotonous repetition of the same 
 form, as: "I see," " I see," " The girl is," " The girl has," 
 etc. B}^ questions or suggestions the teacher needs to 
 show that the same thought may be said in many differ- 
 ent waj's. He needs to show also hoAV a few details will 
 enliven the otherwise commonplace and uninteresting 
 story. Try to make the child see that he is to tell his 
 story in a way entirely different from that in which any 
 one else will tell if. Illustration: An}^ one can say, " The 
 boy has a pair of new skates," but not every one would 
 say, " The boy's skates, which seem to be bright and new, 
 are hung across his shoulder by a long strap." Or it is 
 perfectly correct to say, " The little girl has curly hair," 
 but it is far more interesting to say, " The wind has blown 
 one of the little girl's curls across her plump cheek." 
 
 In all original sentence work, if the teacher will em- 
 phasize the thought that each sentence should express 
 an idea in the writer's own peculiar way, different from 
 the way any one else would express it, he wall accomplish 
 many beneficial results in the field of story writing. 
 
 In picture work as well as in other composition exer- 
 cises, careful distinction should be made between descrip- 
 tion and imaginative writing. Usually it will be suffi- 
 cient to distinguish them by pointing out that the de- 
 scription tells what is actually seen or known, while in a 
 story there is much " make believe." One writes what 
 the picture makes him think might or would happen. It 
 will be found that there is a decided tendency to mix the 
 present and past forms, but this can usually be corrected 
 before pupils reach the fifth grade. 
 
 Pictures to be used for imaginative work should be
 
 276 The Rural School 
 
 such as are really suggestive, and then the mind should 
 confine itself within reasonable limits and not imagine 
 too much that the picture does not warrant. The mind 
 may be directed into the proper channel by questions, and 
 stiffness and bareness be avoided, by such suggestive 
 questions as the following: " What did he have in the 
 basket? " , " What did he do with it? ", " What did she 
 say? ", " What did he answer? ", etc. 
 
 It is necessary to criticise written work and to note 
 where improvement can be made; but it is as helpful and 
 encouraging to call attention to any good sentences and 
 paragraphs. This is helpful to the less skillful by showing 
 them what is desirable. 
 
 Letter Writing. — Letter writing is an important part 
 of language work. The greater part of a person's written 
 work after k^aving school is in this fine. If one stops to 
 think about it, he knows that the writing of friendship 
 letters is an accomplishment of no mean sort, or art if 
 you please, and that there are comparatively few artists. 
 This is unfortunate, for next in importance to seeing and 
 talking with our friends comes our correspondence with 
 them. Who does not like to get a letter? But cannot 
 every one recall with what little enthusiasm he has opened 
 some letters and again how eagerly he has opened others? 
 How anxious he has been to learn what the writer has to 
 say, to say, for a letter is only a one-sided conversation 
 with the pen, instead of the tongue. 
 
 The contents of the first letter mentioned above, if it 
 be from a regular correspondent, can very nearly be told 
 without reading. It is a series of stereotyped phrases 
 about the weather and other items of equal interest, 
 well intended but without character or special meaning. 
 The second letter is filled with bright little things on 
 commonplace subjects, perhaps — even health and the
 
 Language Work 277 
 
 weather as before, but they are said in a way they have 
 never been said before and may never be said again. 
 
 The following will illustrate the two styles: One per- 
 son will say, " I got up before sunrise this morning but 
 the birds were singing gayly even then." The second 
 person conveys the same thought in somewhat this style: 
 " The sun has not shone for several days and, thinking 
 that perhaps Mr. Sun might be displeased with the seem- 
 ing lack of welcome in this lie-a-bed-in-the-morning com- 
 munity, I determined last night to give him a surprise, 
 if he would but show his shining morning face to-day, so 
 I arose, not bright and early, but just early. But the birds 
 were earlier than I, and how they did sing. One bird near 
 the house sang as though he were so full of music that he 
 would certainly burst, if he did not discharge some of it 
 from his beautiful little music box at once. It poured 
 out so fast that I feared he would choke on some of the 
 longer notes. One almost imagined he had been given a 
 certain number of exercises to sing before he could have 
 any breakfast and that he was so very, very hungry. At 
 the same time he sang exultantly as though he had just 
 heard that the last cat in the world had but recently been 
 hung and the last bo}^ with a sling shot had been banished 
 from bird land for ever. 
 
 " But enough about birds, except to say it would be 
 well worth one's time to rise before sunrise ever}^ morn- 
 ing, if he could hear such a concert as I heard this morn- 
 ing at so little expense — tickets : a few seeds, bugs, worms 
 and berries, some water and a shady safe place for a nest. 
 If you do not know what I mean, try the experiment and 
 learn. It has made me feel like organizing a sunrise club." 
 
 There is no particular merit, except that of original- 
 ity, in this extract, but it illustrates the point in ques- 
 tion; one has told a common thing in an uncommon way.
 
 278 The Rural School 
 
 Not every one is full of fancies, but if he is drilled care- 
 fully in telling of every-day experiences in a variety of 
 ways, one need not always be painfully commonplace. 
 Letter writing is a good form of composition for this kind 
 of work. One writes about those things in which he is 
 interested and to those who will be interested in the 
 same things. 
 
 This is a point worthy of consideration in all composi- 
 tion work, and especially in the lower grades. Write 
 about things in which there is interest if possible, but 
 certainly write about sojnething about which we have or 
 can obtain some information, rather than about some ab- 
 straction, like " Cheerfulness " in which there is no cheer, 
 or " Courage " which is performed with fear and trem- 
 bling. There should be vital contact between experience 
 and expression. 
 
 Some of the topics which may be used as the basis of 
 school letters are telUng of one's school work, subjects he 
 likes best and why; describing a school game; telling 
 about a special program, picnic or excursion; relating 
 some story read; description of schoolroom; our Christ- 
 mas tree; what I want to do or what I did during vaca- 
 tion; a walk, a trip to town; how I raised corn for the 
 fair; my trip to the corn-judging contest; etc., etc. 
 
 While the body of the letter gives opportunity for the 
 cultivation of expression, it also affords a field for study 
 of the character of the writer. The letter is the most 
 personal of all forms of composition and the young writer 
 rather unconsciously puts himself into his letters and thus 
 reveals his true self and gives the teacher a hint that 
 may be of future value. 
 
 Letter writing is a good exercise in another respect in 
 that, while there is great latitude as to body, or content, 
 there is the greatest formality in other matters. Strict
 
 Language Work 279 
 
 regulations govern form and position of heading, address, 
 salutation and superscription. Care should be exercised 
 in teaching these, and frequent repetitions are necessary 
 to fix them firmly in the mmd. The things to be observed 
 are few and simple, but exactness in this respect is the 
 exception rather than the rule. 
 
 After there has been much drill on the ordinary or 
 friendship letter, the more advanced grades may give 
 some attention to business forms, invitations and replies, 
 both formal and informal. 
 
 Reproduction Stories. — A reproduction story is one m 
 which the form and substance are retained, but the exact 
 wording is not followed. 
 
 Stories for reproduction should be such as are worthy 
 of a place in the memory. They may be little myths, 
 fables, stories of ethical value, with the moral not too 
 evident, fairy stories and stories of people and thmgs. 
 As in descriptions and imaginative stories, the reproduc- 
 tion of these stories must be oral at first. Later they may 
 be written. 
 
 The repetition of some of these stories may be a pleasmg 
 feature of the morning exercises. This offers an oppor- 
 tunity for their frequent repetition, so all may become 
 familiar with them, and for many pupils to tell the same 
 story without becoming weary of it. At first, it is quite 
 likely that only the bare outhnes will be given. This is 
 better than nothing as a beginning, but one should not 
 be satisfied with this long, for such work will develop 
 little skill in the use of language. One of the objects of 
 the reproduction story is to supply good material for m- 
 crease of vocabulary as well as to cultivate attention and 
 memory. The repetition of the actual words of the story 
 will accustom the pupil to one use of these words. As 
 far as possible, the meaning should be made evident, as
 
 280 The Rural School 
 
 by this means many of the unusual words and expressions 
 will gradually become a part of the child's own language 
 stock in trade. 
 
 It is well for teachers to recognize that many of the 
 expressions are figurative, and though full of meaning to 
 the understanding mind, may be vague and confusing to 
 the child. Care in this respect would cause fewer chil- 
 dren to wonder why the boy " laughed in his sleeve," or 
 how a horse could " eat his head off." Though it is better 
 some misunderstandings than no understandings, yet chil- 
 dren are capable of comprehending more, if rightly pre- 
 sented, than many people suppose. 
 
 Paraphrasing. — Paraphrasing may be considered as one 
 form of reproduction work. It is a helpful exercise and 
 its advantages are two. First, it requires careful inquiry 
 into the meaning of the selection to be changed; and then 
 it requires a re-expression of the meaning in pupils' own 
 words. Paraphrasing bears some relation to translating 
 from a foreign tongue into one's own. In an effort to 
 translate the author's language it becomes a part of the 
 translator's. The explanation of proverbs, maxims, etc., 
 is a related exercise and is excellent to develop a pupil's 
 power of expression and as a test of his understanding 
 of figurative speech. 
 
 Dictation Exercises. — Dictation exercises are a good 
 means of testing how readily a child can apply the knowl- 
 edge he has gained. Short sentences and brief exercises 
 may be given which will contain a vast amount of the 
 mechanics of writing, such as: punctuation, capitaliza- 
 tion, possessives, quotations, contractions, abbreviations, 
 margins, indentations of paragraphs, etc. Dictation ex- 
 ercises should be corrected, at least have the errors in- 
 dicated and returned to the writer for correction and re- 
 writing. They are of no particular value to the child
 
 Language Work 281 
 
 unless this is done. As constant repetition of the act of 
 walking at last produces an almost automatic action, so 
 long-continued, painstaking, and well-directed practice 
 in the art of writing and speaking will bring about a de- 
 gree of excellence and facility in these lines which other- 
 wise could not be expected. A child, to derive much 
 benefit from dictation exercises, must have its errors 
 indicated and the correct forms emphasized and im- 
 pressed upon his mind by being required to rewrite the 
 exercise correctly. In fact, it is a good plan to collect 
 most of the Avritten work. If it is thought the work is 
 to be inspected, better work will be accomplished than 
 otherwise would be. Often it pleases and encourages the 
 children, if the best productions are preserved and ex- 
 hibited on the wall or reading table. It makes the work 
 seem of more value and consequence. This is true in 
 other work besides language. 
 
 Lastly, if the teacher can create the idea that story 
 telling and story writing is a great privilege and " lots of 
 fun," he will simplify language work wonderfully. Chil- 
 dren ought to, and do like to express themselves, when 
 they have been helped as to what and how. They should 
 be glad, rather than displeased, at the thought of a com- 
 position; and they will be, under the inspiration of a good 
 language teacher.
 
 Chapter IV 
 BUSY WORK, WHAT AND HOW 
 
 That mischief for idle hands to do will be found, is no- 
 where truer than in the schoolroom. Much of the dislike 
 entertained by many little people for school is directly 
 traceable to the dreadful monotony and dreary round of 
 day after day with little else to do except to swing the 
 feet and long for the home-going hour to come if one is 
 disposed to be good, or to make things lively for the 
 teacher and school if one is wide-awake and averse to 
 losing any time. 
 
 As was said in a former chapter, the little people five 
 or six years old, as the case may be, when they start in 
 the rural school, cannot and should not l^e expected to 
 " study " in the usual acceptance of the word. Too often 
 this is expected and they are given a book. About the 
 only result is, that the charm of the book is worn off 
 before the child is able to use it to any advantage, and 
 when he might use it he does not enjoy it because there 
 is nothing new. Possibly he knows the stories, even 
 though he cannot read them; and some of them at least 
 he has droned over till no interest or life remains in them. 
 Board work and busy work should fill the first two or 
 three months of school life, and fill it so full that there is 
 no need of a book to occupy the time. 
 
 Object of " Busy Work." — This is a much a])used term. 
 Too often it is thought of as merely something to consume 
 
 282
 
 Busy Work, What and How 283 
 
 the time of the Httle people so that they may not be idle 
 or have time for mischief. Were there no other purpose, 
 this would be better than that they should learn habits of 
 idleness only, but this is not the purpose of real busy work. 
 Busy work in its true sense is real work. It is a manifes- 
 tation of mind through matter before it can manifest itself 
 abstractly. Its aim and object is to emphasize and drill 
 upon instruction previously given or to prepare the way 
 for that which is to follow. The child is not able to read 
 or write, but he is able to think and to execute some of 
 his thoughts by means of his hands and materials. If 
 he is allowed thus to express himself, his school hours, 
 which otherwise might be worse than wasted, may be 
 happily and profitably spent and he may be gaining 
 ability to express himself in other ways — may be laying 
 the foundation for future building. 
 
 Even the child who can study is given new interest in 
 his work, and will often gladly do tasks, such as making 
 the combinations of twelve, or writing numbers in the 
 Roman notation, if he is permitted to do so by using a 
 number box, or cardboard forms, or colored toothpicks, 
 or peg board, because it is a change and a rest from the 
 usual work. We must not forget the truth that " variety 
 is the spice of life," and that children especially require 
 frequent changes of occupation. 
 
 Many teachers fail to supply themselves with sufficient 
 and suitable busy work because they think they camiot 
 afford to purchase such material. Even were it necessary 
 to buy the material at a considerable expense, it would be 
 economy in the end. Much can be purchased at fairly 
 reasonable prices, but much if not quite all of the more 
 common and most essential supplies can be made by any- 
 one willing to give to the matter some time, thought 
 and labor.
 
 284 The Rural School 
 
 BUSY WORK FOR YOUNGER PUPILS 
 
 Number Work and Material. ■ — In number work a child 
 must learn to recognize numbers and figures. Often he 
 can count to five or ten or farther when he enters the 
 school, but this does not imply that he knows numbers. 
 A slight examination usually discloses the fact that num- 
 bers are not known beyond three or four, or possibly five. 
 After instruction in these matters is given in class, the 
 necessary drill to fix it firmly may be given in a great 
 many forms by means of busy work. Colored cardboard 
 forms — squares, triangles, circles, etc., toothpicks, pegs, 
 corn, etc., may be used. The cardboard can be obtained 
 in sheets at a printing office and cut as desired. The 
 toothpicks, the ordinary cheap kind, can be purchased 
 in large-sized boxes for five cents and colored with Easter- 
 egg dyes. These dyes can be had in eight colors for five 
 cents. One package will color a great quantity. 
 
 Ask the pupil to place one, two, three, etc., objects on 
 his desk, using any of the above-named materials. For 
 example : 
 
 D DD nan 
 
 A AA AAA 
 
 Wooden beads, colored or plain, may be strung to illus- 
 trate the same numbers. When colored materials are 
 employed it is well to use but one color for a single num- 
 ber, but different colors may be used for the different
 
 Busy Work, What and How 285 
 
 numbers. The wooden beads, which may be purchased 
 at ahnost any book store, come in the six standard colors, 
 about sixty in a box, in three forms, spheres, cubes and 
 cylinders. These may be strung on shoe strings, which 
 are easily handled. The colors make the necessary 
 divisions into groups. If smaller beads of one color are 
 used, they are strung with coarse needle and thread, and 
 little perforated cardboard forms are used to separate 
 into groups. These little forms are placed in the boxes 
 with the beads, so are always ready. 
 
 Many rural teachers can supply themselves with pretty 
 red beads without cost by gathering wild rose hips — 
 buds, as they are sometimes erroneously called. These 
 hips may also be strung on wires, about twelve on 
 each, and used as individual numeral frames. 
 
 [}0<XXXXXK>CKX>0|] 
 
 Other beads may be made by cutting small cane or sor- 
 ghum stalks in quarter-inch or half-inch lengths and per- 
 forating them with a large darning needle or wire so that 
 they may be strung easily. 
 
 If one does not wish to purchase peg boards, which cost 
 from ten to fifteen cents each, he may make them by 
 taking a flat, smooth board about seven inches square, 
 ruling it off into half-inch squares and making a hole at 
 each intersection with a round or wire nail. The pegs 
 themselves are very cheap and come in the six standard 
 colors. The round ones are best for the peg boards, but 
 the square ones are best for all general purposes. 
 
 All grades, even up to the fifth, will think it great fun 
 — no work at all — to make the Roman numerals with 
 colored toothpicks or pegs, while to write them is some-
 
 286 The Rural School 
 
 times a task. All numbers up to ninety can be made 
 easily, and even C and D are not too hard. 
 
 I VI XIV Lll CD MM 
 
 The forms shown represent all necessary characters. 
 
 All the materials already mentioned can also be used 
 to make combinations of numbers, large or small. For 
 example, toothpicks, using different colors to represent 
 different numbers, may be used thus: || (red), 1|| (blue), 
 mil (yellow), etc.; read, 2 + 3= 5. Pegs of one color 
 may be used entirely to make, || -f- ||| = |llll, signs and 
 all. Corn — red, white, and yellow — can also be used. 
 Lightweight cardboard or heavy paper forms may serve 
 the same purpose. The forms are used to represent the 
 numbers, and narrow strips and small squares to make the 
 signs. 
 
 nn*nnn^nnnnn 
 
 AAAAA==AA^AAA 
 
 OOOOvOO^OO 
 
 OO^OO^OOOO 
 
 For a lesson in form and color, as well as in numbers, 
 the above work may be written on the board with colored 
 crayon ^ and the pupils required to reproduce it in the 
 
 ^ A few sticks of colored crayons are of great assistance in pri- 
 mary work. Colors appeal to a child and afford him great pleas- 
 ure. They offer a means of securing variety of work, and variety 
 often means interest.
 
 Busy Work, What and How 287 
 
 same form and colors. Do not hesitate to call all forms 
 by their right names and teach pupils to do so. They 
 will thus get much information without conscious effort. 
 Much of the work suggested above can be done before 
 the child has learned to recognize figures. After he has 
 learned these, he may be required to reproduce the above 
 stories and many similar ones in figures, or the figures 
 may be given and the child allowed to build them with 
 the objects. Thus he associates numbers with figures. 
 Later, the answers or any one of the figures may be 
 omitted and the child required to complete the story. 
 Again, he may be given the material and merely asked 
 to form all the combinations that make five, seven, twelve, 
 etc. In this last work, number boxes are very helpful. 
 They are easily made from calendar pages of convenient 
 size pasted upon heavy paper or lightweight cardboard 
 and then cut into squares. The rulings on the calendar 
 make the cutting very easy and save time and labor. 
 The use of these cards is made much more convenient 
 by writing the same number on the reverse side or by 
 pasting two calendar pages together, though the latter 
 would not give the same number on both sides. In case 
 two pages are used, care must be taken to see that the 
 rulings coincide, so that no chfficulty shall occur in cut- 
 ting. If the characters are written on the reverse side, 
 the sheet should be ruled one way to agree with the ruling 
 on the opposite side and then cut in the other direction. 
 The writing is then easily done in the proper place. The 
 blank squares may be used for writing the arithmetical 
 signs and extra small numbers. There should be many 
 more of the signs and of numbers up to twelve than of 
 those beyond twelve, and some of these smaller numbers 
 may be written on the reverse side of the large-number 
 cards. These cards may be used by the beginners in
 
 288 The Rural School 
 
 learning to associate name and figure. Pupils may find 
 and place in order one to three, one to five, one to ten, 
 etc., up to thirty or more if one chooses to add more 
 numbers to the boxes. But when they have learned 
 figures to thirty there is but little for them to learn be- 
 tween that and one hundred, except forty, fifty, sixty, etc. 
 
 Figures may first be placed upon the board, and the 
 same ones may be found in the boxes by comparing them 
 with the written ones. Afterward -they are placed in 
 order from memory. Thus, counting and figures are 
 correlated. Then objects may be chosen to correspond 
 to the figures. Figures and numbers are again correlated. 
 
 The use of the number boxes need not be confined to 
 first-grade pupils. They can often be used advantageously 
 by second- and third-grade children in constructing com- 
 binations and tables, and are a recreation and a rest 
 from the constant writing of such work. 
 
 The toy alphabet and number blocks, which can be 
 purchased for five or ten cents a box of from sixteen to 
 twenty-five blocks, may be used by the first grade in 
 hunting figures and arranging them in order, and may 
 also be used by other grades in studying and building 
 forms in the subject of cubic measure. In the same way 
 the cardboard squares may be used in the study of areas 
 and square measure. 
 
 Dominoes, cheap sets of which may be had for five or 
 ten cents, may be used as combination blocks, the com- 
 binations and answers to be written by pupils. Pupils 
 may also be asked to find all blocks that have a four or a 
 six, or all blocks whose coml:)ination is five or eight, etc. 
 
 Domino combination cards may be made by pasting 
 dots or squares upon plain cards. The circles and squares 
 may be purchased " ready gummed " or may be cut from 
 colored paper and pasted.
 
 Busy Work, What and How 
 
 289 
 
 The groups may be of different colors or shape or may 
 be indicated by spacing only. These may be used for 
 class drill or for seat work. 
 
 o„ o 
 
 Elementary Designs. — Many of the things suggested 
 for use in number work can be used in drawing or design 
 work. The geometric forms, the pegs, the toothpicks, 
 etc., can all be used in making borders, outlines of familiar 
 objects, etc. Single colors or harmonious combinations 
 may be used. Forms found in primers, primary arith- 
 metics and other books may be copied. Pupils may be 
 asked to make all the designs they can by using three 
 sticks, five sticks, etc. For example: 
 
 NHFA°5 
 
 Repetitions of any of these forms will give a border. 
 
 DOnOD ITITI 
 
 Reading Helps. — In reading as well as in numbers 
 much busy work may be employed profitably. Reading 
 boxes are among the most useful supplies. As soon as a 
 child knows a few words he should be given a box contain- 
 ing a number of copies of these words and be required to 
 find as many copies of a given word as he can. Again, 
 he may be asked to find a certain number each of several 
 different words. Then a list of words may be placed on
 
 290 The Rural School 
 
 his slate or on the board and he be asked to find each 
 word. Later he may be asked to build sentences by hunt- 
 ing the required words from the box. At first one sen- 
 tence is enough. Later several may be given. Again, 
 certain unknown words may be placed in the box and the 
 child asked to select all the words he knows and leave the 
 others. This may be called gathering flowers, autumn 
 leaves, making snowballs, catching fish, etc., according 
 to the season, thus making it a game. If he can separate 
 known from unknown one may feel reasonably sure that 
 he knows the ones he chooses. If one makes use of 
 phonograms in teaching reading he may ask a pupil to 
 find all the af-words in his box — eat, rat, iat, etc. — or 
 all the aw-words — can, ran, ian. As new words are 
 added to the list of known words they should be added 
 to the boxes. 
 
 If one has access to a mimeograph, or any sort of dupli- 
 cating machine, a large number of lists of the words 
 learned and many sentences using these words may be 
 struck off and used as review lists and reading exercises, 
 as copies for tracing and writing, and the same lists, 
 printed on heavy paper or cardboard, may be used to 
 supply the reading boxes, thus saving the labor of writing. 
 Several copies of each word should be in every box, and 
 as in the case of the number cards, their use will be 
 easier if the same word is on each side of the card. Sen- 
 tences may be written with spaces wide enough between 
 the lines to allow the laying of the corresponding word 
 cards below the words. 
 
 Caring for Materials. — And now the question of se- 
 curing boxes for all these various supplies is an important 
 one. Without boxes or envelopes for each kind of ma- 
 terial and for each pupil, the distribution and collection 
 of the material takes too much time and is hard upon the
 
 Busy Work, What and How 291 
 
 material. It is also a good plan to have each box marked 
 with the name of the child who is to use it. This renders 
 each child responsible, in a way, for the care and preser- 
 vation of certain material. This is good both for child 
 and material. The child should regard the latter as prop- 
 erty, and should be taught to give it care and respect. 
 He is thus taught early one lesson in good citizenship. 
 The plan of having a certain box for each child is es- 
 pecially good if there is any reason why it is best that one 
 child should not handle material used by another, and it 
 avoids annoyance in the matter. Material that may be 
 contaminated may then be destroyed easily without 
 much loss. 
 
 All material should be collected at the close of an exer- 
 cise and not be left to be handled at will by the pupils 
 and become too common. An exercise should not be 
 continued so long that pupils become weary of it, but 
 each should be required to do the work assigned to the 
 very best of his ability, be that great or small. 
 
 Thread boxes of all kinds are convenient and suitable 
 for all busy work material, and they can be secured free 
 from any dry goods merchant, if one will but ask to have 
 them saved for him. Try to keep a few extras always on 
 hand to replace those which become soiled or broken, 
 and to receive new material which may be discovered or 
 invented from time to time. 
 
 BUSY WORK FOR OLDER PUPILS 
 
 Language, Reading and Spelling Helps. — Additional 
 busy, or occupation work, in language, reading and spell- 
 ing for older pupils is found in the following exercises: 
 Pupils may search for and make lists of all the name 
 words, or nouns; the action words; the describing
 
 292 The Rural School 
 
 words, or adjectives; the singular nouns; the plural 
 nouns; possessives, or contractions, etc. Or, he may 
 copy a certain number of sentences of the various kinds 
 or all the sentences containing quotations, possessives, 
 proper nouns, contractions, etc. Again, he may find all 
 the words he can beginning with a certain letter of the 
 alphabet, as: all the a-words, all 6-words; or, he may 
 take the letters in order, finding a word for each if pos- 
 sible, as: apple, haby, cannot, doll, every, etc. 
 
 Incidentally, the child is studying the reading lesson 
 again, willingly and advantageously, which he would not 
 do if he were merely asked to study his lesson again. He 
 would be apt to think he knew it well enough and resent 
 being asked to " waste more time " on it. More than 
 that, he is unconsciously getting spelling, punctuation 
 and arrangement. A little booklet may be made of a 
 few sheets of tablet paper folded once, with, perhaps, a 
 colored cover, and tied with a colored cord. These may 
 be used in second and third grades for writing the lists of 
 words mentioned and called spelling books or word books. 
 They will help to make willing workers. Pupils may occa- 
 sionally be asked to study their a-words, their 6-words, 
 etc. The fact that they are not all exactly alike will not 
 prevent their being beneficial. 
 
 An old exercise, but a good one to aid in spelling and to 
 quicken observation, is to give pupils some long word 
 like Madagascar, recognition, or some such word and let 
 them make as long a list of words as possible, using only 
 the letters found in the word and using them no more 
 times in any one word than they are actually found in 
 the given word, as: Recognition, — cog, cot, core, coin, 
 cone, tin, ton, tone, tine, tire, tore, etc. 
 
 Color and Form Work. — Color and form work offer 
 a number of opportunities for seat work. First, there
 
 Busy Work, What and How 293 
 
 are scissors and plain paper. The pupils may cut def- 
 inite forms, squares, circles, triangles, or fruits, vegeta- 
 bles, etc. There are usually simple drawings of objects in 
 the primers or number books, which the little people may 
 try to reproduce by cutting, drawing, or stick-laying. 
 Cardboard geometric forms or objects may be traced, if 
 pupils are unable to draw them, and then colored with 
 drawing crayons, one object of coloring being to get a 
 nice, smooth coat of color, and another one to confine 
 one's self to the boundary lines, — not an especially 
 easy thing for little people to do. 
 
 Another occupation is the cutting out of pictures from 
 catalogues, newspapers and similar sources. These may 
 also be colored, if desired, though the cutting is the main 
 point, because it demands care and attention and trains 
 to accuracy. Insist upon pupils being careful of scraps. 
 Try to keep them from the floor and gather any that 
 chance to fall. 
 
 In the autumn, leaves of many shapes may be traced, 
 or drawn and colored. This calls attention to general 
 shapes and to character of margins. The teacher may 
 trace leaves on cardboard, then perforate them, and use 
 them for sewing cards if she wishes. 
 
 Busy work involving comparison may be done by 
 using pegs, splints and cardboard forms. Make a line 
 one unit long, two units, five units; make square 
 figures one unit each way, three units, six units; 
 make rectangles one unit by two units, one unit by 
 three units, etc. 
 
 Geography Helps. — In geography, the extension of 
 this work gives drawing to scale. An occasional exercise 
 like the following may serve as seat work. A section of 
 country is 100 miles X 60 miles in dimensions. Draw 
 plans on the following scales:
 
 294 The Rural School 
 
 1" equals 10 miles, 
 
 1" equals 20 miles, 
 y^" equals 20 miles, 
 3^" equals 10 miles. 
 
 Plans of more or less irregular fields, gardens, yards, etc., 
 whose dimensions embrace rods, yards and feet may be 
 drawn on varying scales also. Little diagrams may be 
 made and called maps and the directions marked upon 
 them, first, the cardinal points, later the intermediate 
 points also. Cut-up maps may be properly assembled or 
 the sections used for tracing or drawing. The cut-up 
 maps may be purchased at a toy store or old maps a:ay 
 be pasted on fairly heavy cardboard and then cut on 
 boundary lines, except in the case of the very small states. 
 Several of these may be left comiected. 
 
 Many of these exercises will doubtless suggest others 
 to the teacher who is eager and alert and any and all of 
 them may be adapted to suit the occasion and the means 
 of application. Without the ability to adapt, many of 
 them may lose their vitality and, hence, much of their 
 effectiveness. Well used, they will lessen the weariness of 
 mind and body of many a child in his " first days " or 
 first years in school. 
 
 When one really begins, he will discover in many things 
 possibilities which he little suspected. And when one 
 once discovers how much is added to the effectiveness of 
 his work and to the pleasure of his pupils by " busy work," 
 he will never willingly ])C without a considerable amount 
 and variety of such supplies, even at the expense of some 
 money and considerable time and labor in its preparation.
 
 Chapter V 
 NUMBERS 
 
 THE NUMBER IDEA. 
 
 It will greatly aid in the teaching of numbers or arith- 
 metic to have a clear notion of the number idea. Without 
 this knowledge the teacher is at sea, not knowing whither 
 he is going or which way he should steer his course. For 
 our present purpose it is not necessary to go into the 
 discussion as to the exact meaning of the term " number," 
 but it will be sufficient to know that it is an abstraction 
 and is gained in the same way in which any other such 
 idea is gained. One gets his conception of the abstraction 
 " redness " in some such process as the following; viz., he 
 sees a red flower, a red ribbon, a red dress, a red sky, etc. 
 After a time the mind eliminates or abstracts all material 
 from these ideas and leaves the idea of redness. By a 
 similar process the child gets his idea of number. He gets 
 his idea of the number two, not from the contemplation 
 of the figure 3, but from seeing, using, and handling ob- 
 jects, as two ears of corn, two horses, two eyes, etc. In- 
 deed, he should have some notion of two before ever the 
 figure is presented for his consideration and his concep- 
 tion of two should be quite clear before he is given such 
 a problem as: 1 and 1 equals f In " The Psychology of 
 Number," by McLellan and Dewey, number is defined as 
 " The measure of quantity." It has also been defined as 
 " The measure of the relation of things of the same kind," 
 
 295
 
 296 The Rural School 
 
 and " That abstract species of quantity which is capable 
 of being expressed by figures." The old definition of 
 number as a " unit or collection of units " is not tech- 
 nically true. One cannot see three, but may see three 
 horses, three dollars, or three fingers. That our number 
 idea is something apart from the objects is evident from 
 the following: If a number is a collection of units, two 
 crayons is a collection of units and is the number two; 
 for a similar reason two dollars is two also; but number 
 two must equal number two, hence two crayons equal 
 two dollars, which is absurd. To every mature mind the 
 number idea in these two groups of objects is the same, 
 but it is apart from the objects themselves. 
 
 OBJECTS OF NUMBER TEACfflNG 
 
 With the above brief discussion of the number idea as 
 a starting point, it may now be in place to consider the 
 objects of number teaching. By numbers is here meant 
 the whole subject of arithmetic as taught in the common 
 schools. 
 
 I. To Develop the Number Idea. — The first object of 
 number teaching should be the development of a correct 
 number idea. If this is an abstraction as suggested above, 
 it indicates that objects should be used in the develop- 
 ment of this idea, and that there should be a variety of 
 objects. If a child never saw any red object except a red 
 rose, he would never get the notion of redness apart from 
 a rose; it is necessary that he see a number of red objects. 
 So with the child in getting the number notion, he should 
 receive it from a variety of objects. Not from three fin- 
 gers alone, not from three marks on the blackboard only; 
 but from three fingers, three chickens, three pigs, three 
 yards, three pints, etc. The lack of a variety of ob-
 
 Numbers 297 
 
 jects and a proper use of them may be the cause of the 
 bad practice so common in our schools of counting in 
 addition instead of adding. The counting of the fingers 
 or the making of dots on the blackboard in addition and 
 subtraction should never be allowed to become a habit. 
 For example, 4 should mean more than 3 and 1. It should 
 mean just as clearly 2 and 2, 1 and 3, four I's, 5 less 1, 
 and perhaps also, one and one third threes, etc. When 
 the number 4 is known in this way, a child will hardly 
 want to count it by I's if asked to add 2 and 2. 
 
 On the assumption that number is '" measured quan- 
 tity," G. B. Longan, formerly Assistant Superintendent 
 of Kansas City, Missouri, devised a system of number 
 work in which all the smaller numbers and many others 
 up to one hundred are developed by a process of meas- 
 uring. Units of measure, such as the quart, the yard, 
 the nickel, the foot, the dime, the pound, etc., are used 
 in the development of various numbers. There seems to 
 be a fascination and interest about this system because 
 it deals with actual units of business life. In the study 
 and development of tivo, the quart, among other things, 
 is used; with three, the yard is used; with five, the nickel; 
 with ten, the dime, etc. This is a very complete sj^stem 
 and one by which fractions and the various number 
 phases may be represented and almost marvelous results 
 attained. (See Longan's " First Lessons in Arithmetic") 
 
 In the early stages of a child's study of numbers he 
 should be asked to compare quantities, or use his judg- 
 ment as to the length of lines, the width of the black- 
 board, the height of the ceiling, the width and length of 
 a book, etc. He may be asked to draw a line on the 
 board one foot long, another twice as long, another half 
 as long, etc. As this is being done, other members of 
 the class may be called upon to correct or corroborate
 
 298 The Rural School 
 
 his judgments, and in the end all this work should be 
 tested by an accurate measure. 
 
 In the acquisition of the number notion, some atten- 
 tion should be given to the grouping of objects. At first 
 it may be necessary to count in order to select certain 
 groups of objects, but it should be the aim to get pupils 
 to recognize the number in a group of objects as soon as 
 possible. This is not particularly hard to do up to five, 
 but a little experimenting will disclose that groups larger 
 than five often require separation into smaller groups 
 for ready recognition. But this affords good opportunity 
 for drill on combinations. Groups of actual objects, 
 objects in pictures, and groups on the numeral frame are 
 all good material for such drill. 
 
 2. To Give Skill in the Manipulation of Figures. — The 
 second object in the teaching of numbers or arithmetic is 
 to give skill in the use of figures. It is not sufficient to 
 grasp a number idea, but one must learn to represent 
 that number by symbols or figures and acquire dexterity 
 in the use of large numbers beyond the mind's actual com- 
 prehension. Thus far in the study of numbers, there 
 should have been much concrete work in which numbers 
 were represented by objects, but comparatively little in 
 which numbers were represented abstractly by the use 
 of figures. The child now needs to learn to read and 
 write numbers, to add and subtract, multiply and divide 
 numbers which are beyond the range of concrete repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 Reading and Writing Numbers. — It is not to be under- 
 stood that no use of figures will be made in the early 
 part of number work, but on the contrary, as soon as the 
 child has the conception of a number, it may be repre- 
 sented by its appropriate, symbol. By this means, as 
 soon as the children are able to write, much seat work
 
 Numbers 299 
 
 can be given and thus the lessons taught in class can be 
 strengthened. In the second or third year, when the time 
 comes that they should learn the art of writing numbers, 
 they should early learn by the use of the splints that, 
 '' Ten units of one order make one of the next higher." 
 For this purpose prepare bundles of tens (by binding ten 
 splints or toothpicks with a rubber band), and bundles 
 of hundreds (ten bundles of tens). 
 Eleven will require one bundle of 
 tens and one separate splint, 
 twenty-two will require two bun- 
 dles of tens and two separate 
 splints. By such concrete ex- 
 amples pupils will soon get a 
 
 clear conception of the method of representing numbers 
 by figures. 
 
 The difference between a place or order and a period 
 should be noted; the fact that a period contains three 
 places or orders; and that the names of these periods, 
 thousands, millions, etc., are relatively the same as a 
 person's family or surname, as Smith, Jones, or Brown; 
 that each family always lives in the same relative position 
 in respect to everj^ other family; e. g. the thousands al- 
 ways live in the next house to left of units, the billions 
 family in the fourth house, may all be made interesting 
 features to a class of beginners in the art of reading and 
 writing numbers. Continuing the figure, one may say 
 that each family lives in a house of exactly the same size, 
 each having just three rooms. The room on the right is 
 always occupied by the units, the smallest members of 
 the family; the next room is occupied by those next in 
 size, the t€7is; and the third room by the largest mem- 
 bers, the hundreds. There may be any number from 
 none to nine in a room. Since there must always be three
 
 300 The Rural School 
 
 rooms in each house, if there is no one living in one of the 
 rooms, a sign is put up to say that it is empty. The sign 
 is always the same, '' 0," naught. The figures always 
 show how many units, tens or hundreds of a family live 
 in each room. 
 
 The Roman notation is little used and should be taught 
 incidentally as it is presented in the readers and else- 
 where. Little formal work will be necessary or profitable. 
 
 Formal JVork in the Fundamentals. — As has been indi- 
 cated, much work in addition, subtraction, and so forth 
 will have been done before a presentation in a formal 
 manner, but when it comes time to add numbers repre- 
 sented by figures, such as 24 and 32, the numbers should 
 be represented by means of splints, the 24 by two tens 
 and four ones or units, the 32 by three bundles of tens 
 and two units. The addition consists simply in uniting 
 these two groups which will give five bundles of tens and 
 six units. Whenever the separate units will make a 
 bundle of tens they must be combined into such a group. 
 By a similar process subtraction and multiplication may 
 be illustrated. Suppose it is given to divide 33 by 2. The 
 number 33 may be represented by three bundles of tens 
 and three ones. Dividing by 2 means finding how many 
 twos in 33 or separating 33 into two equal parts. Taking 
 the second conception for illustration, the tens may be 
 separated by putting one bundle in one place and an- 
 other in another place; one ten will be left which will 
 have to be broken into ones before it can be divided. 
 Doing this and adding them to the other ones there are 
 now thirteen ones; six of these may be placed with one 
 ten and six with the other; this still leaves one unit which 
 has not been divided; it will have to be broken and one 
 half put with each group, thus making IGJ/^ in each place. 
 The custom of saying that 33 divided by 2 gives 16 and 1
 
 Numbers 
 
 301 
 
 remainder is a questionable practice and leaves the child 
 mind in doubt as to the meaning of the " one over," or 
 remainder. By some such process, concrete illustrations 
 can be given for all the fundamental operations. This 
 should be done so that the child may get clear concep- 
 tions of these processes. 
 
 Fractions. — Pupils should begin the use of fractions 
 from almost the very first. If concrete illustrations are 
 used, a child can grasp the idea of one half about as soon 
 as he gets the notion of two. If as suggested before, a 
 unit be taken which may be divided into other units, as 
 the quart, yaxd, nickel, etc., he will have little trouble in 
 getting the notion of one half, one third, one fifth, etc. 
 This will give him the idea that a fraction may express 
 a relation or ratio and that it is not necessarily a part of a 
 unit. He will have no trouble in comprehending that 
 one pint is one half of a quart, that one foot is one third 
 of a yard, that one cent is one fifth of a nickel, that one 
 inch is one twelfth of a foot, etc. 
 
 The teacher can lead his pupils to a more general notion 
 of fractions, if he will but make sure that the terms 
 halves, fourths, sixths, etc., are understood to be the 
 names of parts, and may be treated as so many apples, 
 boys, pencils, etc. Two fifths plus one fifth need give no 
 more trouble than 2 apples plus 1 apple. The above ex- 
 ample may sometimes be written 2 fifths and 1 fifth. To 
 illustrate the reduction of a 
 fraction to other terms, the 3 
 
 rectangle may be used. The 
 accompanying rectangle di- 
 vided into sixths may be 
 used to illustrate that two 
 sixths equal one third, that 
 four sixths equal two thirds. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 1 
 6
 
 302 The Rural School 
 
 By dividing the rectangle into other parts the common 
 denominators of other fractions may be illustrated. Again, 
 it is quite easy to show that two cents are one fifth of a 
 dime, that three inches are one fourth of a foot, etc. 
 Begin the use of fractions early in concrete ways and in 
 connection with other arithmetic work and never allow 
 them to become a bugaboo. 
 
 Drill. — To know how to add and subtract, to multiply 
 and divide both simple and fractional numbers is not 
 enough; there is need of accuracy and speed. These 
 can be attained only by drill and rapid work: 7 and 4 
 should mean 11 just as readily as two ones (11) mean 
 eleven. Three times 7 should mean 21 without any hesi- 
 tancy. The forty-five combinations of addition should 
 be thoroughly learned and drilled upon in order that 
 addition may be rapidly done and become more than a 
 counting-by-one process. There should be much count- 
 ing by 2's, 3's, 4's, etc., begimiing first with 2, then with 1, 
 then with 3, as the case may demand. For example, in 
 counting by 2's begin 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., next, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. 
 In counting by 3's begin, 3, 6, 9, etc., next, 1, 4, 7, 10, etc., 
 then 2, 5, 8, etc. This drill work is more or less abstract 
 and should follow the work of development suggested on 
 previous pages in this chapter. 
 
 The combinations in multiplication should be pre- 
 sented in various forms, other than those found in 
 the usual textljook. For example, an oral drill on 
 the multiplication table may be given in this mamier: 
 2 times 3 equals? 2 times 4 equals? 3 times 3 equals? 
 2 times 5 equals? 2 times 6 equals? 3 times 4 equals? 
 2 times 7 equals? 3 times 5 equals? 2 times 8 equals? 
 4 times 4 equals? etc., the teacher keeping in mind the 
 results of the multi])li('ation table, as 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 
 etc., and giving the pupil the combinations which produce
 
 Numbers 303 
 
 these results. This work should be rapid fire, questions 
 and answers, with no time for formalities. 
 
 Visual Forms. — The form in which the work is placed 
 before the eye is often suggestive and helpful. Instead 
 of writing the example 3 + 4, it is perhaps better to 
 
 3 
 
 write it , ., the " -j- " indicating addition. Subtraction 
 
 ... . 77 
 
 and multiplication may be written thus : , . These 
 
 o X o 
 
 are more nearly the customary forms of business life. A 
 
 109 
 convenient way of expressing division is thus: r . 
 
 This becomes quite convenient in the division of decimals, 
 for example: 
 
 2.5 1500 
 
 25)62.5 or /15.)225/00. 
 15 
 75 
 75 
 
 Dividing 225 by .15 we move the decimal point two 
 places to the right and place the decimal point in the 
 answer when we come to it in the process of division. If 
 required to add fractions the following is a good form: 
 
 The common denominator 60 is 
 found and placed below the line and 
 the sum of the several numerators, 
 or 139 is placed above this common 
 denominator. This fraction is sim- 
 -. « -. o n in plified and added to the sum of the 
 ■^^-^eo 60 ^60- whole number. Never reduce such 
 examples to improper fractions. 
 
 36f 
 
 40 
 
 41* 
 
 30 
 
 16f 
 
 24 
 
 87f 
 
 45
 
 304 The Rural School 
 
 Good forms and neat work on blackboard, slates and 
 tablets is worth while. The following are some good forms 
 for seat work. 
 
 I. 3 
 
 ? 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 + 4 
 ? 
 
 + 4 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2. 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 4 
 ? 
 
 — 3 
 ? 
 
 — ? 
 
 4 
 
 — ? 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 — 4 
 3 
 
 — 3 
 
 4 
 
 — ? 
 
 4 
 
 — ? 
 
 3 
 
 3. 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 X 3 
 ? 
 
 X 4 
 ? 
 
 X ? 
 12 
 
 X ? 
 12 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 X 4 
 
 12 
 
 X 3 
 12 
 
 X ? 
 12 
 
 X 2 
 
 12 
 
 4. 4 
 ?)12 
 
 4 
 ?)8 
 
 _5 
 
 ?)10 
 
 2 
 
 ?)4 
 
 2)6 
 
 ? 
 3)6 
 
 3 
 
 ?)9 
 
 4 
 3)? 
 
 Though it may seem a waste of time and though it often 
 grows monotonous to the teacher, nevertheless, vigor- 
 ous and judicious drill on the fundamentals is the highest 
 type of economy. It not only saves time directly in the 
 work of performing these operations in later years, but 
 it gives the pupil confidence in himself, and in after days,
 
 Numbers 305 
 
 when he comes to solve problems, he will not lose so 
 much time from making mistakes in the fundamentals, 
 and be led to think that he is working problems wrongly. 
 Drill, drill, drill, but never let it grow monotonous or 
 dull. Pupils enjoy lively, rapid drill in a variety of ways. 
 
 3. To Develop Thinking and Reasoning. — The third 
 object of arithmetic teaching is to develop clear thinking 
 and reasoning. There is a good deal of loose, inaccurate 
 thinking in our schools. The teacher asks a question and 
 the pupil gives a word or two, merely hints at the answer, 
 and it is passed as good. It is not good, for the pupil has 
 only a hazy idea of the correct answer asked for. He 
 should be required to clarify his thought by stating it 
 definitely in words. The accurate expression of an indi- 
 vidual's own thought must be preceded by a clear impres- 
 sion of the idea. The teachers of the past generation re- 
 quired their pupils to learn the rules and definitions 
 " by heart," and ofttimes they received only " words, 
 words, words." The pendulum has swung to the other 
 extreme, and now the teacher gets little of either words or 
 thought, in the pupil's reply. 
 
 Mathematics is an exact science and, in a sense, one 
 reply is right and all others wrong; one answer is correct 
 and all others incorrect. In the arithmetic class the 
 teacher has the best opportunity offered anywhere in 
 the school for teaching accuracy and exactness, for re- 
 quiring clear thinking through exact expression. 
 
 To accomplish similar ends, there should be much anal- 
 ysis in the arithmetic exercises. This process is simply 
 thinking accurately the parts or conditions of the prob- 
 lem and then giving the thought clear expression. Pupils 
 can acquire no better habit than that of logical and ac- 
 curate thinking and clear expression. This, analysis will 
 give if well taught.
 
 306 The Rural School 
 
 Below are given a number of forms for analysis of the 
 fundamentals in arithmetic. Let the teacher not mistake 
 the author's purpose in giving them. They are not to be 
 learned and fitted to the problem; this could be done 
 with little or no thinking. The thinking should precede 
 the expression, not the expression the thinking. These 
 are goals towards which the teacher should lead his 
 pupils in their thinking and reasoning, and when they 
 have thought the conditions clearly, in general, the ex- 
 pression will take care of itself. 
 
 A FORM FOR ADDITION 
 
 Example: A boy paid 5c for a pencil, 10c for a tab- 
 let, and 20c for a book; how many cents did he spend in 
 all? Analysis: If he spent 5c for a pencil, 10c for a 
 tablet, and 20c for a book, he would spend for all the 
 sum of 5c, 10c, and 20c, or 35c. 
 
 A FORM FOR SUBTRACTION 
 
 Example: A boy had 12 marbles and lost 4 of them; 
 how many had he left? Analysis: If a boy had 12 marbles 
 and lost 4 of them, he would have left 12 marbles less 4 
 marbles, or 8 marbles. 
 
 A FORM FOR MULTIPLICATION 
 
 Example: If one pencil costs 5c, what will 6 pencils 
 cost? Analysis: If one pencil costs 5c, six pencils will 
 cost 6 times 5c (not 6 times 5, 5 times 6 cents, or 6 pen- 
 cils times 5c), which is 30c. 
 
 FORMS FOR DIVISION 
 
 (1) Example: If 6 hats cost $30, what will one hat 
 cost? Analysis: One hat will cost one sixth of $30, or $5. 
 (No use for the expression " as many as " in this form.)
 
 Numbers 307 
 
 (2) Example: At S6 each how many hats can be 
 bought for $36? Analysis: As many hats can be bought 
 for $36 as $6 is contamed times in $36, which is 6 times, 
 or 6 hats. 
 
 4. To Give Ideas of Certain Commercial Forms and 
 Practices. — - This gives rise to the teaching of percentage 
 with a number of its applications, and denominate num- 
 bers with problems illustrating many business usages. 
 All this should be brought, as nearly as possible, within 
 the range of the pupil's experience. No textbook can 
 give sets of problems which will suit all the schools into 
 which the book is likely to come. It remains for the 
 teacher to make many problems for his pupils so that 
 the school and the home will be brought close together 
 and more or less united in the work of rearing the young. 
 If the school be in the country, there should be many 
 problems relating to the farm, — to agriculture, stock 
 raising, home economics, etc. It should be the aim of 
 the teacher to make this part of the arithmetic very 
 practical. The following problems are offered as sug- 
 gestions. 
 
 John's father had a field of 40 acres of corn which 
 produced 37 bushels per acre. It was worth 64 cents per 
 bushel. How much did he make on this field, providing 
 he spent 20 days plowing, 3 days harrowing, 24 days 
 cultivating, 3 days for an extra man in planting, 3 cents 
 per bushel for husking, and rent of the land was worth $5 
 per acre? The price of team, man and corn should all 
 be determined by prevailing prices of the neighborhood, 
 indeed the whole example should be suited to some boy's 
 or girl's home condition. 
 
 This problem might be changed or enlarged in the fol- 
 lowing manner: Would it pay better to sell the corn or 
 feed it to hogs at the present market price, or would it
 
 308 The Rural School 
 
 be more profitable to make silage of the whole crop and 
 feed it to the cows? Would it pay better to churn the 
 cream when butter is 25 cents a pound or sell it provid- 
 ing butter fat is 28 cents a pound? 
 
 Mary's mother ha's a flock of 100 hens. She feeds them 
 a peck of oats and 5 pounds of bran per day. Twice per 
 week she gives them ground bone or blood meal costing 
 25c. In the last month she has spent 50c for medicine. 
 They are averaging 3 dozen eggs per day; have they been 
 paying for the last month? The problem may be ex- 
 tended for the whole year, bringing in the varying condi- 
 tions of the different seasons. 
 
 A man had $7000 in cash which he deposited in the 
 First National Bank. He bought a quarter section of 
 land, for which he paid $15 per acre. He bought a team 
 of mules, a wagon and harness. He bought posts, barbed 
 wire and staples with which to fence the farm. He also 
 bought fencing, posts and nails with which to fence a 
 barn lot 10 by 12 rods. He bought lumber and built 
 a barn, a house, sheds, chicken house, etc., etc., etc. He 
 bought plows, mowing machine, rake, etc. He planted 
 his crops and reaped his harvest, cut his hay and put it 
 into barn and stack, etc. This can be continued indef- 
 initely, so that a review class may find work here for 
 the whole winter. 
 
 The class should be required to compute the number 
 of posts required for fencing the farm, the wire and the 
 staples, and the cost of each. The amount and cost of 
 lumber, nails, etc., for the barn should all be computed 
 by the members of the class. The size could be agreed 
 upon by the class, and the price of labor, lumber, etc., 
 should be determined by the local markets. The number 
 of tons of hay in barn and stack should be computed by 
 rules found in the arithmetics and elsewhere. The cost
 
 Numbers 309 
 
 of planting, plowing, harvesting, etc., and the profits 
 from a field should be computed, using data from neigh- 
 boring farms. Notes should be given and received and 
 the interest reckoned. In fact, all the transactions likely 
 to occur in the course of a farmer's business life may be 
 brought into this problem. This plan of arithmetic 
 teaching has been tried, and it proved very interesting to 
 the class. 
 
 Superintendent Jessie Field of Iowa has published a 
 little book full of problems for the rural schools, but 
 " ready-made " problems are not to be compared to 
 " homemade " problems which bring in actual condi- 
 tions as they are in the pupil's home. 
 
 There are probably other objects for the teaching of 
 arithmetic but it does not come within the province of 
 this book to treat them further.
 
 Chapter VI 
 
 LEARNING TO WRITE 
 TEACHING THE BEGINNERS 
 
 Writing an Art. — Writing for the little people! What 
 shall they do? When? How? These are the points 
 worthy of consideration. Children often know some- 
 thing of words and of number when they start to school, 
 but seldom do they know anything about writing. Learn- 
 ing to write is not the simple or the inconsequential thing 
 that it is often thought to be. It approaches a fine art 
 in nature and requires both mental effort and muscular 
 skill. The muscles cannot execute well until there is both 
 a clear and an exact mental image of the thing to be ex- 
 ecuted. Even then the muscles cannot execute the 
 mental picture until they have been brought under 
 subjection to the mind by frequent and painstaking 
 efforts. After the muscles can execute the will of the 
 writer, the writing will improve as the mental image 
 becomes more ideal. 
 
 Eternal vigilance is the price of good penmanship, and 
 in this case, as in many another, " There is no excellence 
 without great labor." When children enter school their 
 muscles are entirely untrained in such exercises as are 
 required in writing, and, for the reasons just stated, 
 writing, if it is done in a painstaking manner, is in its first 
 stages an exacting and a fatiguing exercise. Whenever 
 
 310
 
 Learning to Write 311 
 
 a child has tried faithfully and done creditably well, his 
 work should be encouraged and commended. If the 
 teacher can say, " This is a fine word," or, " Why, this 
 is almost as good as mine; now let me see if you can write 
 this word just as nicely," he is quite sure to get an ear- 
 nest effort at least. It is not then so discouraging to the 
 child to be shown his errors and their corrections. 
 
 When and How Much. — Good authorities differ con- 
 cerning the advisability of requiring little people of five 
 or six years of age to write at all, but most teachers begin 
 the work of teaching about as soon as the child enters 
 school. A reasonable amount of such work is not too 
 much for the child to attempt; but all agree that no 
 long-continued efforts should be required in the initial 
 stages of the work. The necessity for early writing is the 
 greater in those schools where the teacher does not have 
 a considerable amount and variety of seat work to keep 
 the little pupils employed in helpful and pleasant occupa- 
 tions. But, it is under precisely these conditions that 
 the child is apt to be asked to write too much. The 
 teacher wishes to keep him busy, and it is an easy way to 
 say, " Write all the lesson," or, " Write this sentence ten 
 times," etc. Pupils should be kept busy during their 
 school hours, but a writing exercise should have a more 
 important purpose than merely to keep pupils occupied. 
 
 It is under these conditions, also, that the exercise is 
 apt to be done carelessly and so do more harm than good. 
 Only some unusual condition or circumstance should ever 
 make a teacher willing to accept written work which is 
 not done to the best of the pupil's ability. Such work 
 is not only detrimental to the penmanship itself, but 
 also allows the child to form bad habits in general. 
 
 First Lessons. — The child's first writing ought to be 
 ahnost entirely blackboard work, because the characters
 
 312 The Rural School 
 
 may be made much larger and with easy, free, muscular, 
 movements. It avoids the cramped position of the hand 
 apt to be assumed in grasping a small, and sometimes a 
 short, slate or lead pencil. His muscles should not be 
 taxed with making small, fine characters, until he is able 
 to make the forms fairly well, at least, in large charac- 
 ters, with free movements. He should also write with- 
 out lines and spaces, as he finds the forms themselves 
 difficult enough to occupy his attention without the 
 added effort of " keeping on the line " and confining 
 himself to space limits. 
 
 It is better, in the beginning, that the pupil should see 
 the teacher write the word or exercise which he is to copy. 
 This gives him the benefit of seeing how it is done. Even 
 older people, those of mature minds, can often perform 
 a task or an exercise more easily after having seen it done 
 than they could have done without the illustration. 
 Little folk need the example of '' how to do " even more. 
 The teacher, too, by this means, is better able to call 
 attention to the point of beginning, the nature of strokes, 
 particular turns, and any peculiar or difficult parts of a 
 word or letter. 
 
 While one of the points for which we strive in more 
 advanced writing is speed, the main points in primary 
 writing are form, and good habits of position and move- 
 ments. In the first respect, on account of its slower 
 movements and attention to details of form, the subject 
 is somewhat related to drawing. 
 
 MATERIALS 
 
 Use of Copy. — It is scarcely wise or profitable to ask 
 or allow a child, who is just learning to write, to repeat 
 an exercise more than two or three times from a single
 
 Learning to Write 313 
 
 model form, for the reason that he is apt to observe the 
 copy less and less carefully as he gets farther and farther 
 from it. This is not applicable to begimiers only, for, 
 though it should not be, it is often true that the more ad- 
 vanced pupils' copybooks show poorer writing on the 
 last line of a page than on the first line. On this account, 
 it would be beneficial if, instead of only one model form 
 on a page, all lower-grade copybooks had two, or even 
 three. It is not a good plan to require begimiers to copy 
 words or sentences from the board while at their seats 
 before they have learned to write quite well. It is im- 
 possible to see the characters and to write at the same 
 time. It is too difficult for them to keep the whole 
 form in mind while writing the word, and, unless one 
 can do so, continual halting is necessary while the eye 
 travels back and forth from board to desk. 
 
 Making Copies. — To save time the teacher may pre- 
 pare many copy slips which he may distribute to the 
 class to be copied on slates or paper. They have the ad- 
 vantage of being movable and may always be placed just 
 above the line which the pupil is writing. By this means 
 he may cover his own cruder efforts and keep the model 
 constantly before him. With impression paper, a num- 
 ber of copies of the same specimens may be made, or a 
 number of different specimens may be made and, by 
 exchanging the copies, a set will last a class for some time. 
 Another time saver is to have the little people first find 
 certain words or build a sentence from the script word in 
 their reading boxes, — see use of these boxes under 
 Reading Seat Work, — and then copy these same words 
 or sentences on slates or paper. If a person has access 
 to a duplicating machine of some sort, sheets of sen- 
 tences may be prepared which may be used as reading 
 lessons and then preserved for writing purposes.
 
 314 The Rural School 
 
 Do not teach or allow the pupils to print. It is a waste 
 of time and serves no particularly good purpose, as there 
 are but few times, either in school or out, when one has 
 occasion to use it. Those who need it can learn it when 
 the need for it occurs. Then, too, its use develops the 
 finger movement. 
 
 Writing Material. — As has been suggested already, 
 the first writing materials should be crayon and black- 
 board. These are followed by slate and pencil or paper 
 and ink, preferably unruled paper at first. When either 
 slate or lead pencils are used, care should be taken to see 
 that they are of reasonable length so that they may be 
 held properly. The use of an extremely short pencil 
 causes a pinched, cramped position of the hand. When 
 ink is used, the wells should have just enough ink in them 
 so that pen points will not be filled. Pen wipers should 
 be used after the first lesson, and blotters as soon as pos- 
 sible. In some graded schools, the use of pen and ink is 
 introduced in the first grade, but, in general. Just as satis- 
 factory results, if not more so, with fewer difficulties, are 
 obtained by beginning the use of these materials some- 
 what later. 
 
 How to Handle Materials. — All danger of accidents to 
 pens, or from overturned ink, or the use of such material 
 at inappropriate times may be obviated by collecting 
 pens and ink at the close of the writing period. A light, 
 shallow, wooden box serves nicely as a receptacle in which 
 to collect the ink, and a pasteboard box two and a half 
 inches in depth and any convenient length and width, 
 according to number of pupils, serves for the pens. Rule 
 the cover of the box into squares, three fourths of an inch 
 to one inch in dimension, and make holes at the inter- 
 sections of the lines by perforating with a sharpened lead 
 pencil. Letter the rows, a, b, c, etc., and number the
 
 Learning to Write 315 
 
 holes in a row, 1, 2, 3, etc., and tie the cover on the box 
 securely with small, strong cord. The pens ai:e collected 
 by rows, inverted, and placed in these holes. As each 
 pupil's pen is thus known by letter and by number, pens 
 may be passed and collected quickly without confusion. 
 
 DISCUSSION OF METHODS 
 
 System. — It is not the intention in this chapter to 
 discuss systems of writing further than to say that the 
 general consensus of opinion is, that whatever system 
 professional penmen, bookkeepers and business men 
 may select for speed, the easiest to learn to write well and 
 by far the easiest to read is the vertical system or, at most, 
 a style that has only a slight slant. Some will argue that 
 a child naturally changes his style as he advances in 
 grade. This is no argument against the system, as he 
 does that to some degree, regardless of the system by 
 which he is taught. He is only individualizing his style. 
 
 Position. — Teachers can err by insisting too strongly 
 upon one certain position for every one, as well as by 
 being careless about the whole matter. A slightly side 
 position usually gives better desk support for the arm 
 than a straight front position unless desks are quite 
 wide. The arm should not be allowed to hang off the 
 desk, as is apt to happen when one has neared the bottom 
 of a page, and leave all the weight upon the hand, as this 
 hampers free movement. Often pupils act as though 
 they had but one hand, as far as writing is concerned, 
 and they try to hold the paper in position by pressing 
 down with the writing hand instead of using the other 
 hand for that purpose. This also prevents good muscu- 
 lar action. Having both hands on the desk is apt to 
 insure corresponding elevation of the shoulders.
 
 316 The Rural School 
 
 Usually the back of the pen hand should be turned 
 upward, instead of sidewise, the ends of fourth and Httle 
 fingers acting as a support, but the shape of the hand 
 has some bearing upon the matter and an easy position 
 for one is not always easy for another. The shape of the 
 first finger is a very sure index as to whether or not the 
 pen or pencil is being gripped too tightly. If the whole 
 length of the finger presents a nicely rounded outward 
 curve, then all is well, but if the middle joint is sharply 
 bent and the lower half of the finger bends inward, the 
 grip is too tense and the hand is strained. These little 
 signs are easily remembered and observed, by the pupils 
 as well as by the teacher, and serve as a simple but 
 effective guide. 
 
 In general, the body should be erect, leaning slightly 
 forward, but not bent sidewise, humped over the desk, 
 or allowed to take any awkward, ungainly, or distorted 
 position. The feet placed flat upon the floor will assist 
 in assuming and maintaining this position. The head 
 should be erect that the eyes may look squarely at 
 the copy. 
 
 Movement. — While form, as was said before, is the 
 main feature in lower-grade writing, yet no pains should 
 be spared to make muscular movements as free and as 
 easy as possible. To this end a number of movement 
 exercises are beneficial. A few good exercises are those 
 shown on page 317: Lines of undotted i\s and u's com- 
 bined with an upward circle; w's or rn's with the down- 
 ward circle; the regular oval; the inverted oval; and the 
 old style /. These should all be large enough to re- 
 quire the arm movement. To secure uniformity and 
 regularity of movement in these exercises, it is well to 
 count for the writing, first slowly, then rapidly. For oval 
 count one; for i and /, two each; for u and n, three each.
 
 Learning to Write 
 
 317 
 
 Analysis. — A number of years ago a very important 
 factor in the subject of writing was the analysis of letters, 
 that is, the naming of the principles which they con- 
 tained. Now the pendulum has swung entirely to the 
 other side and scarcely any reference is ever made to 
 principles. No formal analysis will make a good pen- 
 man, but some attention to the similarity of various let- 
 ters will be of assistance in their formation, e. g.,u consists 
 of two i's, minus the dots; w is u with a finishing line like 
 V, while the first part of v is like the first part of n; 6 is Z 
 finished like v, and h is I finished like the last of n; g is 
 a with a downward loop, while j is i with the downward 
 loop; d is a with an upward extension, or, it is c, com- 
 bined with the t without the cross; d also contains all 
 the essential features of a, c, i, and t, except the dot and 
 the cross; y is the first of n and the j minus the dot.
 
 318 The Rural School 
 
 This sort of analysis, which might be continued much 
 farther, camiot fail to be helpful in writing, and also 
 causes close observation. An opportunity to cultivate 
 this faculty can be profitably seized, wherever met. 
 
 Dividing the Writing Period. — Each writing period 
 should be divided into two or three parts, or, if time is 
 very short, the different sorts of exercise may be taken 
 at different and alternating periods. One part of the 
 period should be given to movement exercises, another 
 to drill on letter forms, and a third to individual writing. 
 If all are drilling on one letter form, the more common 
 errors are easily pointed out and corrected. The num- 
 ber of well-written forms may be placed upon the board 
 by the teacher and the pupils called upon to explain 
 wherein their various forms are incorrect. The third 
 division of the work consists of the actual writing of 
 copies. This is individual work rather than class work. 
 The pupil is expected to put into actual use what he has 
 learned in the other divisions of the work, and he may 
 progress as rapidly or as slowly as his skill may warrant. 
 At all times one need not hesitate to impress upon the 
 pupils' minds, that to write well is an accomplishment 
 of which they may well be proud.
 
 Chapter VII 
 • DRAWING 
 
 A Means of Expression. — Although the curriculum 
 for the rural school is quite full, and there are many 
 demands on the teacher's time, the subject of drawing 
 has a valid claim for a place on the program. It is simply 
 another mode of expression, and fortmiate is he who can 
 express himself in many ways. Few things give more 
 pleasure or are of more value than the ability to express 
 one's self by means of a sketch. To draw well, one must 
 observe form, and to execute form, he must train the 
 muscles to respond accurately just as they are taught to 
 respond in performing any other work. 
 
 Beginning Early. — When pupils have had no training 
 in drawing till they are well advanced in the grades, they 
 become selfconscious and fe«l their limitations, and conse- 
 quently dislike the subject. If drawing is begun in the 
 first grade, it is done as a matter of course the same as 
 reading, writing and numbers; and though the first ef- 
 forts are crude, yet they compare favorably with the 
 children's efforts in other lines of work. If they are led 
 to make attempts and are not made to believe that draw- 
 ing is difficult, they will like to express themselves in this 
 way. In truth, a moment's reflection will recall the fact 
 that few are the little people who do not try to draw long 
 before they enter school. Unfortunately these early ef- 
 forts do not always receive the encouragement from par- 
 
 319
 
 320 The Rural School 
 
 ents and teacher which they should; if, indeed, they are 
 not wholly repressed. 
 
 If, then, drawing is so desirable a subject, the question 
 naturally arises, what shall be drawn and how? It is 
 not the intention in this chapter to go very fully into the 
 " what " or the " how," but to offer some suggestions 
 showing the possibilities of the subject and to urge its 
 claim for a place on the program. 
 
 HOW TO BEGIN 
 
 Materials. — The materials needed for the accomplish- 
 ment of much and of good work in drawing are few and 
 inexpensive. Twenty-five sheets of drawing paper, white 
 or manila colored as preferred, a good medium or a soft 
 drawing pencil, and a box of good colored drawing cray- 
 ons, eight colors including the six standards and brown 
 and black are all the actual essentials. A good soft eraser 
 is convenient but should be used sparingly, and in the 
 lower grades only by the teacher. Erasing becomes a 
 habit. 
 
 The colored crayons are valuable in the design work, 
 and if handled with care are most effective in the draw- 
 ing of scenes. Children delight in color, and drawings 
 done in color appeal to them when black and white would 
 fail to do so. The teacher should have knowledge of and 
 taste in color if good results are to be obtained. Children 
 should be taught to make harmonious combinations and 
 to use color sparingly so that the results may be delicate 
 rather than gaudy. 
 
 Point of Attack. — Teachers of drawing differ in both 
 the point of attack and the method of attacking the sub- 
 ject; though, eventually, they cover about the same 
 ground. Some emphasize line drawing, some mass draW'
 
 Drawing 321 
 
 ing. In general, according to the best authorities mass 
 drawing' seems preferable; because an object appears to 
 be a solid and because the desired form is, to a great ex- 
 tent, a matter of development. Line drawing demands 
 more perfect muscular control and greater perfection of 
 form at the very first. In mass work, general form is first 
 sought and then by analysis and comparison the imper- 
 fections are found and corrected. 
 
 But, whether lines or masses are used, sharply defined, 
 hard lines as a rule are to be avoided and broad gray lines 
 and smooth gray shading are to be sought. To secure 
 this effect a slightly rough surface paper is preferable to a 
 smooth or glazed paper. Regular drawing paper has such 
 a surface. Again, some supervisors begin work with the 
 type forms, circle, square, triangle, sphere, etc., while 
 others prefer to sketch objects based upon these forms. 
 
 Use of Type Forms. — The type forms are perfect 
 forms and are hard to reproduce and, if the type form is 
 the object to be attained, perfection must be striven for. 
 Also, the type form is more or less an abstraction, while 
 objects based on these are more concrete and more in 
 harmony with the child's life experiences; so they seem 
 a more logical point of beginning. An apple or a turnip 
 is much more easily reproduced than a ball; a carrot 
 or a long radish, more easily than a cone; a log or a 
 tree, more easily than a cylinder, — because the sides 
 do not need to balance exactly. Some articles like vases 
 whose opposite sides are duplicates are harder to draw 
 because of this very fact. Consequently the unbalanced 
 objects and those which vary from the tj'pe are most 
 easily drawn and do not suffer greatly on account of 
 deviation. 
 
 But regardless of whether the drawing shall be that o^i 
 the type forms or of objects based upon them, the oppor-
 
 322 The Rural School 
 
 tunity should not be lost for actually studying, analyzing 
 and comparing the real type forms and developing their 
 characteristics and the terms applying to them. A good 
 text defining and setting forth the characteristics of the 
 sphere, the cube, etc., should be in the hands of the 
 teacher. With this as a guide the teacher should en- 
 deavor to lead the pupils to get clear ideas of these type 
 forms and their relation to each other. 
 
 Helping by Criticising. — One need not hesitate to 
 attenipt the more difficult forms, if he can arouse interest 
 and will criticise attempts carefully and without censure. 
 Find some good point, if possible, then show where and 
 how another point may be improved greatly, by a very 
 slight change or addition. Then get the child to criticise 
 his own work. He cannot improve it, except by chance, 
 unless he can detect and describe the defects. Show to 
 the whole school something that has been well done. A 
 drawing does not have to be finished minutely in order 
 to possess excellence. If the sketch shows life and char- 
 acter, it is good even though the one executing it has not 
 secured exactly the form and finish desired. Both of 
 these features may be noted in the criticism. Much of 
 the first work might well consist of sketch work chiefly, 
 striving for general effect, leaving perfection and minute- 
 ness of detail till a later period of the work. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE 
 
 Frequently children want to draw an object as it is, 
 not as it appears. For instance, in making a box or a 
 house all sides instead of the possible ones are shown. 
 The number and faces of an object to be drawn depend 
 wholly upon its position with respect to the observer. 
 The following drawing illustrates this well.
 
 FIG. B. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 FIG. A. 
 
 \ ■ / 
 
 323 
 
 FIG.C. 
 
 FIG.D. 
 
 V FIC.B'. 
 
 \FIG./f. 
 
 FIG.E. 
 
 HORIZON 
 
 LINE 
 
 VANISHING^ 
 POINT FisiK- 
 
 PI'G.F / 
 
 FIG.G.\ 
 
 rjn-T\ 
 
 
 '. FIG.H.^ 
 f v V 
 
 AN ILLUSTRATION OF PERSPECTIVE 
 
 All figures A — H' represent the same object, an almost 
 cubical block, in fifteen positions which it might easily 
 occupy in respect to a stationary observer whose eye 
 is at some point on the line 1-2, in front of Fig. G and 
 equally distant between Figures A and G. 
 
 Fig. A is directly in front of and somewhat above the 
 observer's eye. 
 
 Fig. G is equally distant in front of and as far below 
 the eye as Fig. A is above it. 
 
 Fig. C and Fig. B are equally distant with A above the 
 eye but C is as far to the right as B is to the left.
 
 324 The Rural School 
 
 Figures F and H are as far below the eye as Fig. G or 
 as far below as A is above and they occupy the same 
 relative positions below the eye as B and C, respectively, 
 occupy above it. 
 
 Figures B, C, F and H each present three sides to the 
 observer and are equally distant from Vanishing Point. 
 
 Figures D and E are equally distant from the Vanishing 
 Point on the left and the right, respectively, both are in 
 front of eye and they extend equally above and below the 
 horizon line which cuts their front faces. Therefore 
 they are on a level with the eye and neither their tops nor 
 their bottoms are seen and they present but two faces. 
 
 If the figure were directly in front of the eye as well as 
 on the same level, a single face would be seen. 
 
 Stating relations and positions in another way: Figures 
 C, E and H are all the same distance to the observer's 
 right of the Vanishing Point. C is above eye, E on a 
 level with it and H below it. 
 
 Figures B, D and F occupy corresponding positions, 
 respectively, on the left of the observer. 
 
 Figures B, A and C are all equally distant above the 
 eye and to the left, directly in front of it, and to the right 
 of it, respectively. 
 
 Figures F, G and H occupy corresponding positions, 
 respectively, below the eye. 
 
 Figures A' to H' are the same figures, respectively, at 
 a considerably greater distance from the observer, that 
 is, much nearer the horizon line and the Vanishing Point; 
 therefore they have seemingly decreased in size, corre- 
 spondingly. The fact that the vanishing lines pass 
 through the same corresponding points indicates that the 
 loss of size is due to greater distance and not to any 
 actual change, for, all parallel lines of similar figures be- 
 tween any two vanishing lines are equal.
 
 Drawing 325 
 
 SCENE DRAWING 
 
 Some Principles. — Little scenes are good drawing 
 exercises; for, even though the child does not reproduce 
 the copy exactly, he still has a " picture " and is pleased 
 with it. Scenes involve and easily illustrate the laws of 
 perspective drawing. Some of the important ones of 
 these are: All lines that are vertical in the object must 
 be made so in the drawing. Illustrate the principle by 
 making some rough dramngs, a fence, a tree, a house; by 
 showing that the fence post that is showTi by an oblique 
 line is a leaning post, so, unless that is what one wishes 
 to represent, he must not draw it in this way. Receding 
 parallel lines converge and, if extended far enough, will 
 finally meet at a point called the vanishing point. Conse- 
 quently, objects at a distance are drawn much smaller 
 than other objects of the same size in the foreground. 
 Even a little child may comprehend this law if his atten- 
 tion is called to the fact that, if a man is near him, he 
 is seen his full size; but, if the man is far doAvn the level 
 road, he is not seen larger than a boy, though he has not 
 changed in size. A few simple lines will illustrate this 
 law and the one for vertical lines also. A road, a line of 
 trees, a fence, or a row of telegraph poles, furnish material 
 for the lesson. 
 
 The same scenes may be made in pencil and in colors. 
 A picture may be made in different tones of one color or 
 of black or in different colors. Some initial practice 
 should be given to secure and appreciate the color tones 
 or color scale. 
 
 The scene shown in the accompamdng illustration might 
 be colored as follows: — a pale j'^ellow, wintry sun, dark 
 evergreen shrubbery in distance, or it might be snow 
 covered, snowy foreground with slight yellow cast, gray-
 
 326 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 A aCENE UNI THKEE TOKES 
 
 ish ice on pond, yeHowish gray or pale blue sky. Almost 
 any scene may be worked out in tones of any desired one 
 color. 
 
 Suggestive Drawings for the Different Months 
 
 September: Grasses, goldenrod, sunflower, corn stalks, 
 asters, trees, cat-tails, hunting scene. 
 
 October: Autumn leaves, such as oak, elm, sumac, 
 maple; thistle; nuts; fruits and vegetables; Hallowe'en 
 ideas, such as, Jack o' lanterns, brownies, black cats, 
 witches; Colum})us pictures; Autumn scenes. 
 
 November: Fruits and vegetables, ears of corn, geese, 
 turkeys, Indian and Pilgrim objects or scenes.
 
 Drawing 327 
 
 December: Trees in winter aspect; cut snow crystals; 
 draw snow man; sleds; children rolling snowball; coast- 
 ing scenes; Christmas ideas, such as, trees, toys, stock- 
 ings, Santa Claus, fireplace, reindeer, camels, holly bells, 
 etc. 
 
 January: Snow scenes and objects as in December; 
 Eskimo huts; dog teams; seal; reindeer; an Arctic 
 scene. 
 
 February: Make and decorate valentines; draw ob- 
 jects suggestive of Colonial times, of Washington and 
 Lincoln and of any patriotic idea. 
 
 March: Birds, branches and buds, and earliest spring 
 plant forms, tulips, iris, etc; Dutch windmill, kites, etc., 
 suggesting winds. 
 
 April: Easter suggestions: rabbits, chickens, eggs, 
 lilies; leaf and flower forms as they appear in nature; 
 scenes suggesting rains and spring occupations. 
 
 May: Spring scenes, flowers, etc., similar to April; 
 butterflies, birds' nests, etc.; boys with fishing poles, 
 picnic parties, etc.; May basket decorations. 
 
 Illustrating Stories. — Children sometimes like to il- 
 lustrate stories told to them, or a paragraph from a 
 reading lesson. The following story is given as an 
 example: 
 
 Willie Goes Fishing 
 
 One day Willie's mother told him that, since he had 
 worked so well all the week, he might go fishing. She put 
 up a basket of lunch, for she knew he would get hungry. 
 Willie took his pole and line and a can of bait, gave 
 the basket of lunch to Skip, his dog, to carry and set out 
 for his favorite fishing hole. His mother watched him 
 till he had crossed a little stream on a foot log, climbed 
 up a steep hill, and disappeared on the other side, then
 
 328 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 A child's drawing for the fishing story, nos. 1-2 
 
 A child's drawing for the fishing story, nos. 3^ 
 
 she went back to her work, hoping that WilHe would have 
 a good time and that nothing would happen to him. 
 
 After a while Willie saw two large birds flying above 
 a tall pine tree and he sat down to watch them for a few 
 minutes, but the next thing he knew he awoke to find 
 himself lying upon the ground with his bait can empty 
 beside him and Skip eating the last bite of the lunch. As 
 it was growing late, he laughed at the joke he had played
 
 Drawing 329 
 
 on himself and said to his dog, " Well, you might have 
 left me the crumbs, at least. I should have done that for 
 you. I think I do not care to go fishing, anyway, so let 
 us go home." 
 
 PAPER- CUTTING AND DESIGN 
 
 An occupation closely related to drawing is that of 
 freehand paper-cutting. This work is one that gives the 
 pupils pleasure as well as excellent practice in seeing form 
 with the mind's eye and then executing that form by 
 means of the scissors without the aid of lines. The phys- 
 ical eye must follow the mental outline and the muscles 
 must be taught to work in harmony with both. Again, 
 the equipment is simple, nothing but scissors and plain 
 paper of any kind is absolutely essential. The scissors 
 present the greater difficulty; for it is not always conve- 
 nient to have these brought from home, but good school 
 scissors with the round points may be had for fifteen 
 cents or less. Fifty cents or a dollar spent for scissors 
 would pay a high rate of interest. 
 
 Applications. — ■ Paper-cutting may be applied in the 
 illustration of reading lessons or stories such as, " The 
 Three Bears," " Ulysses and the Winds," " Chicken 
 Little," etc.; in illustrating events of particular interest 
 as, The Circus, the study of the Pilgrims, the depar- 
 ture or return of the birds; in representing fruits, vege- 
 tables, autumn leaves, etc., — by using colored papers 
 these are made more realistic, ^ and common household 
 articles, such as bowls, cups, vases, hats, boots, hatchets, 
 and so forth. 
 
 Snow crystals, cut from paper, as well as flower and 
 bird forms may be used as decorations for home-made 
 valentines, Christmas or Easter cards, book covers; and 
 the crystals whole or divided into their units as decora-
 
 MHlH 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS CUT FROM PAPER 
 
 [330]
 
 1W 
 
 :v 
 
 SOME PAPER-CUTTINGS MADE BY CHILDREN 
 
 [331]
 
 332 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 APPLICATIONS OF CUT-WORK DESIGNS 
 
 tions for cardboard construction workboxes, letter cases, 
 and so forth. 
 
 Larger cut designs may be converted into posters ap- 
 propriate to the various holidays, such as Hallowe'en, 
 Thanksgiving, Arbor Day, etc. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations are suggestions both for 
 paper-cutting and the regular drawing work as mentioned 
 in various places in this article. A number of these are 
 actual cuttings made by the pupils in a rural school. 
 
 Conventional Designs. — While speaking of paper- 
 cutting, mention may be made of forms cut from folded 
 paper to produce a repetition of units about a center or 
 in rows. Take a square, fold on both diameters and, 
 without opening, fold on a diagonal from the inner 
 folded point of square to opposite outer corner, and cut 
 in any form desired, merely leaving connecting points 
 between the units. Cut on curved lines. No lines are 
 used in the actual work. This produces four units about 
 a center.
 
 Drawing 
 
 333 
 
 CUTTING A DESIGN 
 
 Long strips folded together into squares and then 
 folded again on the vertical diameter or on a diagonal 
 will give the units in rows, if a connecting portion is left 
 uncut at the sides. This form of cutting develops the 
 inventive faculty. In the actual business world such 
 designs are employed in the figures of carpets, wall paper, 
 oii cloth, woven goods, and for many such purposes. In 
 the schoolroom applications of them may be made by 
 using them for forming designs for book covers, port- 
 folios, pillow tops, etc. To see that they have use gives 
 dignity to an occupation which otherwise some might 
 look upon as mere child's play. Mention of these uses 
 should be made even though no application of them is 
 attempted. 
 
 Design work calls for exact repetition and for conven- 
 tional forms of either geometrical or natural objects as 
 illustrated in the borders Nos. 1 to 6 on page 335. Little 
 people may be allowed to make designs by laying card- 
 board tablets - circles, squares, oblongs, diamonds, 
 etc., — upon sheets of paper and then tracing around 
 them. They may then be shaded or colored, if desired 
 Work requiring accurate measurements is not well suited
 
 334 
 
 The Rural School 
 
 K.-^^^^^^ 
 
 »i9f 
 
 ^& 
 
 SOME PTNISHED DESIGNS 
 
 to little children, but aside from this, they may attempt 
 almost anything the older ones do. It is all the more 
 necessary in rural schools to choose work that can be 
 done by the pupils all together, because the time which 
 may be devoted to such work does not permit of much 
 division. Some of the older ones may be given exer- 
 cises in simple cardboard construction in which the 
 patterns are drawn to given dimensions. The lower 
 grades may do construction work, making small arti- 
 cles like boxes, chairs, tables, carts, cupboards, wall 
 pockets, etc., by folding papers into small squares, fold- 
 ing and pasting according to the teacher's directions, 
 using the creases made by the folding as guide lines. 
 Pencils and measures are both unnecessary. This work 
 is easy and a number of books containing the necessary 
 directions are to be obtained at a cost of anjrwhere 
 from twenty-five cents to one dollar.
 
 JiJUflTI 
 
 Tla I 
 
 Tto% 
 
 no- 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 Dfustii 
 IhxS 
 
 VfldjJTV 
 Tlofa 
 
 SOME SUGGESTED DESIGNS FOR BORDERS 
 
 1335]
 
 336 The Rural School 
 
 A Final Word. — Finally since this chapter is merely 
 meant to be suggestive and in no way an exhaustive treat- 
 ment of the subject, it will have accomplished its end, 
 if it has created interest in the subject, and shown that 
 it has a place in a complete educational scheme; that it 
 has its utilities as well as its aesthetic side; that it may 
 serve to add interest to other school subjects; that its 
 value as a mental stimulus is of no small weight, demand- 
 ing, as it does, close observation, keen analysis, careful 
 synthesis, and constructive imagination; that it is so 
 varied that it should never cease to interest; that it may 
 be adapted to the ability of the most unskilled person or 
 to that of him who has unusual artistic ability; and last 
 and most important, that this work is not beyond the 
 ability or power of the teacher who is willing to make the 
 same effort she makes in other lines of work and who will 
 equip herself with some one or more of the excellent 
 series of drawing textbooks which are in the market.
 
 Chapter Vm 
 MUSIC 
 
 IMPORTANCE 
 
 At the present time when so many subjects are clamor- 
 ing for attention in our school program it is well to bear 
 in mind that the school should not merely enable the 
 pupils to earn a livelihood but it should also prepare 
 them to get the most from life after a livelihood has been 
 attained. Good or bad citizenship is very largely de- 
 termined by the manner in which the members of a com- 
 munity occupy the hours when they are not at work. 
 
 If we take into account the fact that in the rural 
 schools the boys and girls should be taught not only 
 reading, writing and kindred subjects but also those 
 things which will form their diversions in the years to 
 come, the importance of music in the school will be better 
 appreciated. 
 
 In the vast majority of schools, teachers are content 
 with only a limited amount of song singing or with no 
 music at all. Class work in music is rarely attempted. 
 This is often due to a lack of knowledge on the part of 
 the teacher as well as to a want of confidence in the re- 
 sults that may be obtained. Practical experience has 
 proven that a daily music period is perfectly possible for 
 every school. This may be made productive of very 
 definite results and at the same time afford an agreeable 
 relaxation for the pupils and teacher. 
 
 337
 
 338 The Rural School 
 
 EQUIPMENT 
 
 The Textbook. — The question of a textbook will be 
 determined by conditions and the teacher's choice. A 
 one-book course in which there is much work on the 
 simple problems is best suited to rural school conditions. 
 There should be an introduction of the bass clef and a 
 glossary of the ordinary musical terms. It goes without 
 saying that copies of the textbook should be in the hands 
 of the pupils if possible. 
 
 Use of Blackboard. — A resourceful teacher can make 
 good use of the blackboard. If there is room a painted 
 staff enables the teacher to present many simple melo- 
 dies. On such a staff the spacing between the lines should 
 be not less than an inch and a quarter apart. If the 
 blackboard space is limited, a staff liner may be used. 
 This is a device which holds five pieces of crayon, so that 
 a staff can be drawn with one movement of the hand, or, 
 by holding a piece of crayon between the first and second 
 and another between the second and third fingers a staff 
 may be drawn with three instead of five strokes. Do not 
 make notes by filling in " o." Take a third piece of 
 crayon and rub this on the board until the side is worn 
 flat. A downward stroke of this flat surface will make a 
 square note head. 
 
 Use of the Pitch Pipe. — If no instrument is in the 
 schoolroom, the teacher should purchase a pitch pipe. 
 The most serviceable is one giving all the tones of the 
 scale, commonly known as a chromatic pitch pipe. If a 
 " C " pipe is used, the beginning tones of the common 
 keys may be found as shown in the table on the follow- 
 ing page. 
 
 The Non-Singing Teacher. — - For the teacher who does 
 not sing it is encouraging to remember that listening is
 
 Music 
 
 339 
 
 TABLE SHOWING HOW TO FIND BEGINNING TONES OF OTHER KEYS 
 
 BY MEANS OF " C " PIPE 
 
 KEY OF 
 
 IN SCALE OF 
 C SING 
 
 IN NEW KEY CALL IT 
 
 G — « 
 
 Sol 
 
 Doo 
 
 I) — u 
 
 Re 
 
 Doo 
 
 A — WJ* 
 
 La 
 
 Doo 
 
 E — JStU 
 
 Mi 
 
 Doo 
 
 KEY OF 
 
 SOUND C AND 
 CALL IT 
 
 
 F — b 
 
 Sol 
 
 Sing to Doo in 
 new key 
 
 Bb— bb 
 
 Re 
 
 Eb— !?bb 
 
 La 
 
 
 Ab— bbbb 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 one of the most important and difficult points to be mas- 
 tered by the teacher. A teacher's abihty to sing well 
 often retards the children. She helps so much that the 
 children camiot learn. The non-singing teacher should 
 know the correct sounds when they are given. Rhythm 
 is more difficult to teach than tone and that can be mas- 
 tered even by one who is tone deaf. In the vast majority 
 of cases lack of ability on the part of a teacher often 
 means merely lack of effort and persistence. In case a 
 teacher positively cannot sing the simplest exercises, she 
 can find a boy or girl who has a keen recognition of the 
 different pitches and appoint him as critic or referee. 
 Often this honor may be passed around. Not infre- 
 quently, the class as a whole may be depended upon to 
 note the errors that may occur. This is always true when 
 the previous work has been thoroughly mastered. A 
 teacher whose limitations are merely vocal should not 
 allow this to prevent the boys and girls under her care 
 from enjoying the privilege of music study, however
 
 340 The Rural School 
 
 elementary this may be. A large number of rural schools 
 possess organs and these are of even more service than a 
 piano in the ordinary school. In deahng with monotones, 
 the sustained tone from a particular key on the organ 
 aids wonderfully in bringing the children's voices to the 
 same pitch. 
 
 TEACHING IN GROUPS 
 
 In the ordinary one-room school the pupils very natu- 
 rally divide into three groups, each of which can follow a 
 distinct line of work in music: Group One, a group in 
 song singing. This will ordinarily include the first three 
 grades. Group Two, a group in note reading, is composed 
 of grades four, five and six. Group Three, a group 
 including the remaining grades, takes up the theory 
 of music. With this arrangement, each group may de- 
 rive benefit from hearing the recitation of the other groups. 
 
 The following plan is merely suggestive and should be 
 shaped by the teacher to meet conditions. Set aside the 
 first fifteen minutes after the noon recess for the music 
 period. This will be found more satisfactory than at- 
 tempting to combine instruction with the devotional ex- 
 ercise in the morning. A special seating is usually de- 
 sirable. A good plan is to have Group One in the front 
 seats, Group Two back of them and Group Three in the 
 rear. If the pupils in the third group do not sing well it 
 may be wiser to seat the groups in rows from the front 
 to the back of the room. The recitation period of Group 
 One may be Monday and Wednesday; Group Two, Tues- 
 day and Thursday, and Friday may be wholly given to 
 Group Three. Written work and study may occupy this 
 last group for their second recitation on one of the days 
 when group one or two is singing.
 
 Music 341 
 
 Rote Singing. — Group One should include the pupils 
 of lower grades, and by means of songs and rhythm games 
 the foundation should be laid for the note reading to be 
 done in Group Two. Some of the beginners, if not all, will 
 require individual attention. In dealing with the so-called 
 monotones, first learn if they can observe a difference in 
 pitch of various tones. Next let them sing in unison 
 single tones and simple melodies. If a child after repeated 
 efforts will not take the pitch given, use his starting tone 
 as a beginning and call it " doo." The principal difficulty 
 with children who can recognize pitch but do not imitate 
 different pitches readily is due to the fact that they have 
 not learned to properly use the so-called head voice. 
 Light quality of tone and the sound of '' oo " are condu- 
 cive to this sort of production. It is often easier for such 
 children to sing an upper tone and then sing doAvn the 
 scale. " E " in the fourth space of the soprano clef is a 
 safe starting tone. 
 
 In the selection of song material the teacher should see 
 to it that the words are within the comprehension of the 
 children. It is not necessary, however, that the music 
 be extremely simple. The teacher should search through 
 all available songs and should include songs of nature, 
 songs that illustrate the every-day affairs of life, those 
 that deal with special vocations as well as those suitable 
 for all of the national holidays. All publishers of music 
 and music books for schools issue sheet music, called 
 " supplementary music for schools," at a very low cost. 
 Before presenting a song the teacher should carefully 
 study the meaning of the words; he should note the em- 
 phatic words and pauses and should see in imagination 
 the things which the song suggests. Go over the melody 
 very carefully in preparation. Any error in the first pre- 
 sentation is hard to correct. In teaching a song by rote,
 
 342 The Rural School 
 
 that is, by imitation, sing the whole song through; then 
 sing the first phrase and let the children sing after you; 
 similarly the second phrase, etc. Children will learn by 
 imitation many melodies that they might not be able to 
 read after several years' training. 
 
 Marching songs, songs which have a strong accent and 
 rhythm and games should be used for the development 
 of the feeling of rhythm. Clapping in time with the ac- 
 cent exercises is valuable in this comiection. After the 
 children have learned a number of songs, select some of 
 the simpler ones and teach the syllable names as an addi- 
 tional verse. Do this with eight or ten songs; also use 
 scale songs of fifteen words or syllables sung to the as- 
 cending and descending melody of the scale, e. g., " See 
 the soldiers marching gaily keeping step with fife and 
 drum," 
 
 Good rote songs will be found in any of the following 
 books: 
 
 " Songs of the Child World " by Jessie L. Gaynor. 
 Books 1 and 2. 
 
 '' Song Development for Little Children " by Ripley 
 and Heartz. 
 
 " Small Songs for Small Singers " by Neidlinger. 
 
 " The Song Primer " b}'" Alys Bentley. 
 
 " Children's Old and New Singing Games " by Marie 
 Hofer. 
 
 " Popular Folk Dances " by Marie Hofer. 
 
 " Art Song Cycles " by Miessner. 
 
 Sight Singing. — Group Two should utilize the knowl- 
 edge gained in Group One. If music is being introduced 
 for the first time some of the work, including the rhythm 
 drill, that is, exercises to develop the feeling for the ac- 
 cent in music, and memorizing of syllables will have to 
 be done before note reading is attempted. All the exer-
 
 Music 343 
 
 cises and songs used for sight reading should be extremely 
 simple. In no other phase of the work is the adage, '' not 
 how much but how well," more applicable. The children 
 in this group should learn the recognition of the different 
 signatures but simply as a means of knowing where 1, 
 that is the " doo " of the scale is located. To explain the 
 whys of scale construction to this group is a waste of 
 valuable time. A very simple rule which any child can 
 follow is to count up one line or space from the last sharp 
 and down two lines and a space or two spaces and a line 
 from the last flat and this will locate 8 or 1 oi the scale. 
 Call attention to the fact that the last, that is the right- 
 hand sharp is on " Ti " and the right-hand flat is on 
 " Faw." In this group spend practically all the time in 
 sight reading. When an error occurs, ask the class to 
 sing the scale tones or an easy skip which will make the 
 matter easier. Fix in the minds of the children the fact 
 that the important tones are 1, 3, 5, and 8 and let them 
 think of 4 as tending toward 3, 7 toward 8, 2 toward 1, 
 etc. — the numbers referring of course to the syllables 
 of the scale. When an error reveals a weakness on the 
 part of the class in singing a particular interval or in 
 understanding a time problem, drill then and there on 
 this point mitil it is mastered. 
 
 The foremost aim in this phase of the work is the de- 
 velopment of 'power on the part of the children. This 
 requires real judgment on the part of the teacher. While 
 an exercise should not be carelessly read, it is not neces- 
 sary to go over every exercise until each child can do it 
 " letter-perfect." The reason for this is that after a 
 certain number of repetitions the singing of the tones 
 as they occur in the particular exercise becomes mere 
 memory work. Drill to correct errors but keep as your 
 goal the reading of similar exercises — the development
 
 344 The Rural School 
 
 of power. Do not give the children more than one thing 
 at a time to master. If an exercise brings a problem that 
 is new, either in time or tune, prepare for this by imita- 
 tion. Present all things for the first time by imitation. 
 " Sing it. Name it. Represent it," is good pedagogy in 
 the teaching of music. Do not confuse the children by 
 explaining things that they cannot do. The aim of all 
 the work in Group Two is the independent note reading 
 of simple exercises. Reserve the " whys and where- 
 fores " for Group Three. Spend your time on the things 
 which the children will meet most commonly. If by the 
 time they have finished the work in this group they can 
 read the music in the church hymnal, the teacher has 
 done all that can be expected and has prepared them for 
 an appreciation of the next group's work. 
 
 In teaching time or " rhythm," as it is called, make 
 sure that the children recognize the different notes that 
 go to make up a beat or " pulse." Then see to it that 
 they make every pulse clear and distinct. In singing a 
 half note in quarter measure teach them to think of it 
 as two quarter notes tied (Doo-oo) and " pulse " or em- 
 phasize each one, by repeating the vowel with emphasis 
 for the second one. Later when they sing two tones to a 
 beat, as two eighths to a pulse in quarter measure, the 
 regular accent of the beats will be best felt by singing the 
 second tone much lighter. In the " catch note," as 
 represented by the dotted quarter and the eighth, pulse 
 strongly, that is sing with stress by repeating the vowel, 
 the beat that occurs on the dot (e. g., Doo-oo-Doo). 
 
 In all phases of sight reading it is important — so im- 
 portant that it cannot be overemphasized — that the 
 children should be taught to recite individually as in any 
 other subject. This will require tact but is a sure way 
 to obtain definite results. Preparations may be made
 
 Music 345 
 
 for this by way of individual singing in Group One and 
 by dividing the class into threes and twos in the sight 
 reading work. Competition always engenders interest 
 and encourages effort. Appoint two captains. Let them 
 " choose sides " and " spell doAvn " in music reading. Let 
 each side read as a whole; then assign very simple exer- 
 cises for the captains to read and then the individual 
 members in turn, alternating one side and then the other. 
 If the opposing side detects the error, and the next singer 
 does the exercise correctly let them choose from those 
 who have been seated through failure if it is desired to 
 prolong the contest. This plan has often been the means 
 of inducing strenuous effort on the part of otherwise 
 timid or stubborn pupils. Occasionally some additional 
 members may be chosen from Group Three, if they are 
 possessed of about the same degree of ability. This may 
 form the basis of a more elaborate contest which will 
 afford a very entertaining evening for the parents, from 
 whom judges may be selected. This has the important 
 advantage of demonstrating a practical value in what 
 some consider a subject that is cultural only. 
 
 In the use of syllables, better tone quality will be ob- 
 tained if the broader vowel sounds are employed as 
 " Doo," " Sool," " Faw," " Law." The Miessner Music- 
 Motif Cards provide a way by which the pupils could 
 learn to read music mth rapiditj^ and intelligence. 
 
 Theory Study. — In Group Three the time should be 
 largely devoted to the so-called " theory." If the pupils 
 can sing, however, their recitation period on Friday can 
 well be devoted to part singing and more advanced sight 
 reading. The other day when they have music at the 
 same time as one of the other groups they may do written 
 work, or work in cooperation with Group Two by writing 
 certain definitions, scales, etc., that occur during the les-
 
 346 The Rural School 
 
 son. The ground covered in these grades will include the 
 following entirely or in part: 
 
 An understanding of all kinds of measure; the different 
 scales, major and minor; the " intermediate " tones — 
 those between the regular scale tones; the commonly- 
 occurring musical terms employed to mark expression; 
 familiarity with the bass or F clef. Advanced students 
 in this group may be assigned the task of writing exer- 
 cises for Group Two to read and, when possible, the recog- 
 nition of intervals sung incorrectly may be required. 
 
 Group Three will perhaps include a wider variety of 
 pupils than any other. Some who are entirely miable to 
 do the sight reading may be advanced into this group 
 from Group Two. This should be done only after this 
 inability is clearly established. Such pupils who have 
 come up through Group Two may be enabled by the 
 additional knowledge to work ahead of the class in the 
 matter of sight reading. In the upper grades the rudi- 
 ments of music should be thoroughly studied and their 
 application, whenever possible, observed in the work of 
 the lower grades. Pupils going from rural schools with 
 this preparation are well qualified to enter the County 
 High School, where they will readily acquire ability in 
 advanced sight reading as a result of their practice in 
 Groups One and Two in note singing and sight singing 
 and their theory study in Group Three. 
 
 If music is just being introduced, deal with Group One 
 as suggested above; include in Group Three all above 
 the third grade who carniot sing; the rest will constitute 
 Group Two. Before starting this last group on sight 
 reading, it will be necessary to do some of the preparatory 
 singing — which should have been done already had 
 Group One been in existence — also the memorizing of 
 the syllables to several songs and singing of scale songs.
 
 Music 347 
 
 Tone Quality and Breathing Exercises. — In all the 
 work in music the matter of tone quality should be 
 thought of. At the begimiing of the music period two 
 minutes, taken for breathing and tone drill, will be time 
 well spent. Teach the children to respond with soldier- 
 like promptness: 1, " Stand " (heels together, hands at 
 the sides, head erect, shoulders back and chin in) ; '2, " Po- 
 sition " (hands on the hips, fingers to the front on the 
 lower ribs); 3, " Inhale " (the children filling the lungs 
 till the ribs press out against the fingers) ; after a brief 
 holding, 4, " Exhale slowly," as teacher counts 1, 2, 3, 4; 
 all the breath to be out of the bodj^ and the ribs well in on 
 the last count. The length of time covered by the hold 
 and the counting will of course be prolonged gradually. 
 This may be used to advantage as an all school drill at 
 any time in the day. 
 
 APPRECIATION OF MUSIC 
 
 A very important phase of music teaching lies in the 
 development of intelligent listeners. The phonograph is 
 now being employed as an educational instrument. It is 
 a part of the equipment in nearl}^ all city schools and the 
 possibilities for culture and instruction which it affords 
 has led to the purchase of machines by smaller schools. 
 When wisely used and the records selected with discretion, 
 such machines are of inestimable value. The children 
 become familiar with many compositions which they 
 would other^vise never hear; a deeper love for the various 
 kinds of good music is instilled and discriminating atten- 
 tion on the part of the children is developed. Such ma- 
 chines are of practical assistance in marching and as an 
 accompaniment to many games. At the present time 
 arrangements may be made with dealers whereby ma-
 
 348 The Rural School 
 
 chines can be purchased upon most reasonable terms. 
 A word of caution with reference to records should be 
 given. As it is possible to lower a child's taste for good 
 literature by means of sensational novels, so also is it 
 possible to cultivate a taste for music which is poor or 
 worthless. Classical music, so-called, need not be any 
 less attractive than the cheaper sort. Many of the 
 great masters have composed selections which children 
 will enjoy just as much as the popular rag-time tunes. 
 In selecting records or music, if you are in doubt, ask 
 some musician for the names of compositions which are 
 " good music " and possess melodies that will really ap- 
 peal to the children and the ordinary listeners. It is not 
 safe to trust the ordinary salesmen of records, since no 
 musical knowledge is required for such a position. Trau- 
 merei by Schumann; the Intermezzo from Cavalleria 
 Rusticana; Rubinstein's Melody in F and scores of the 
 airs from the operas and oratorios together with the folk 
 songs of the various nations will always please any au- 
 dience; and best of all they are melodies that wear. 
 
 Frank A. Beach, 
 
 Director of Music, 
 Kansas Stale Normal College, Emporia, Kansas',
 
 Chapter IX 
 
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 
 
 INTEREST OF THE SUBJECT 
 
 Haedly a subject in the curriculum offers the rural 
 teacher more practical and useful material than does 
 physical science. To very many high school graduates 
 the mention of physics brings to the mind only confused 
 notions of mathematical exercises, but little understood, 
 the whole idea accompanied by a feeling of discomfort 
 and antagonism — all thankfully escaped at the end of 
 the course. Yet the child is continually surrounded 
 with physical phenomena, which, if properly explained, 
 may become intensely interesting, and children from the 
 fifth to the eighth grades are usually eager to have the 
 " whys " of their physical environment explained. In 
 fact, it is often found that children of this age are more 
 easily interested in physics than when they have reached 
 the last years of the high school. Furthermore, the 
 majority of the grade pupils leave school before reaching 
 physics in a high school course. 
 
 Following is a list of experiments and demonstrations 
 which can be performed with very little apparatus which 
 may add wonderfully to the interest of the school. The 
 list is merely suggestive. As much, or more, depends on 
 the teacher as on the experiment, and each teacher must 
 arrange, devise, and select those demonstrations in which 
 he himself is interested, if he is to interest his pupils. 
 
 349
 
 350 The Rural School 
 
 Two lessons are given in some detail. Children should 
 be permitted to ask questions during the lesson. They 
 will ask many which it will be impossible to answer, but 
 let the teacher answer as many as possible and say frankly 
 that he does not know the answers to the others. 
 
 LESSON I: WHY HOT AIR GOES UP THE CHIMNEY 
 
 We all know that the air is drawn into the grate of the 
 stove and through the fire and up the chimney, but can 
 we tell why the air goes up the chimney when it is hot? 
 Let us stop a minute and find out what the air is made 
 of. We usually think of air as some thin, invisible sub- 
 stance which occupies all space about us which is not 
 filled with some more solid substance. But if we could 
 see the air with a vision a great deal more acute than that 
 made by the most powerful microscope, we should find 
 the air made up of a great many fine particles all moving 
 about among each other. Though these particles are so 
 numerous and so closely crowded together, they seem to 
 be trying to avoid one another; but they are flying so 
 rapidly that they are continually rumiing into each other 
 and crowding each other out of the way. It is just as if 
 every person in a crowded room should try to rim with 
 all his might in a direction different from that of any one 
 else. Of course there would be a good many collisions 
 and a good many changes in directions for each person. 
 The difference between hot air and cold air is just this: 
 In the hot air these particles are flying about a great deal 
 more rapidly and striking each other much harder and 
 more frequently than in cold air. For this reason they 
 push each other away so that there are not so many of 
 them in a given space as there are in cold air. 
 
 Now we are ready to see why hot air goes up the
 
 Physical Science 351 
 
 chimney. Suppose we had a large " teeter board " and 
 eight bo3^s should get on it, four on one end and four on 
 the other. If they are of the same size, the board would 
 just balance; but suppose the boys on one end begin to 
 push and shove each other until one or more of them fall 
 off, what will happen? The two or three will fly up, of 
 course, because they are lighter than the four boys on the 
 other end. Now that is w^hat happens to the hot air. 
 We say that hot air is lighter than cold air. It is hghter 
 just as two or three boys are lighter than four boys. 
 Each air particle is just as heavy as when cold, but when 
 they get hot, they push each other away so that not so 
 many of them are left m the same space. Then the same 
 thing happens to them as happens to the boys left on the 
 light end of the " teeter board." The cold, heavy air 
 from outside pushes in at the grate and forces the light 
 air up to the top of the chimney, just as the four boys on 
 one end of the " teeter board " forced the two or three 
 boys up as high as the board would carry them. 
 
 The same thing applies to the hot air outside the stove. 
 It acts as if it were trying to get up to the ceiling, but it 
 is really trying to get down to the floor, only the cold 
 air is heavier and so gets under it and pushes it up. 
 Whenever hot air rises, the same principle holds good, 
 namely, it is being pushed up by cold air. 
 
 LESSON n: PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 In our last lesson we talked about the particles of which 
 air is composed. We said that they were very small and 
 were moving about very rapidly. To-day let us talk 
 about the difference between these particles, for they 
 are not all alike. If we should put four bushels of shelled 
 corn with a bushel of beans and mix them thoroughly
 
 352 The Rural School 
 
 together, we would have something to represent the air. 
 The beans mixed all through the corn would represent 
 one kind of air particles called oxygen, while the corn 
 would represent another kind called nitrogen. Although 
 there is only one fourth as much oxygeii as nitrogen, yet 
 the oxygen is much more important to us. 
 
 Other substances besides the air are made up of very 
 small particles. We shall learn the name of one of these 
 and see why oxygen is so important to us. This other 
 substance about which we wish to talk is called carbon. 
 It is found in everything that ever grew or had life. All 
 plants and animals contain some carbon particles. When 
 carbon and oxygen are cold they may come against one 
 another and move away again without seeming to make 
 any change upon either. But if they are hot a very dif- 
 ferent result is .seen, for then two particles of oxygen 
 will seize one particle of carbon and the three cling 
 tightly together. This makes an entirely new substance. 
 It is a gas like oxygen or nitrogen and will mingle with 
 them in the air. If we should mix a handful of oats with 
 the four bushels of corn and the one bushel of beans, the 
 oats might represent the particles of the new substance, 
 which is called carbon-dioxide. When the carbon and 
 oxygen fly together to" form this new substance, they 
 become much warmer than before. 
 
 Experiment: Suppose I hold this piece of paper up in 
 the room. The paper is made of wood which, of course, 
 was alive once, and so contains carbon. The oxygen in 
 the air blows against this carbon but does not affect it, 
 because they are both cool. But suppose I hold the 
 flame of a match against the paper. This will heat the 
 oxygen in the air where it touches the paper and at once 
 the carbon in the paper and the oxygen in the air begin 
 to fly together to form carbon-dioxide, and at the same
 
 Physical Science 353 
 
 time they get very warm. We say that the paper is 
 burning. Now, suppose I put this piece of burning paper 
 into a wide-mouthed bottle and close the mouth. The 
 paper soon begins to burn with a low blue flame and then 
 goes out altogether. If I put a second burning piece into 
 the bottle, it goes out the instant it gets into the bottle. 
 The explanation is just this: The flame was caused by 
 the oxygen of the air in the bottle uniting with the car- 
 bon in the paper. When the oxygen was nearly gone, 
 the flame was low and blue, and when it was quite ex- 
 hausted, the flame went out altogether. 
 
 Our breathing of air is in many ways like the burning 
 of this paper. We eat some part of a plant or animal as 
 food and this contains carbon. The blood carries the 
 carbon to all parts of the body, — - let us suppose to a 
 muscle in the arm. Then we breathe air into the lungs, 
 the oxygen from the air soaks through the lung walls 
 and the blood carries it all over the body, — part of it 
 to the muscle in the arm. Then suppose I want to move 
 my arm, what happens? A message starts from my 
 brain and travels along a nerve to the muscle in the arm 
 and, when it reaches the carbon and oxygen in the arm, 
 it has the same effect that the flame from the match had 
 on the paper. It causes the carbon and oxygen to fly 
 together and form carbon-dioxide, this causes heat just 
 as in the burning paper. In this way the body may be 
 warmer than the surrounding air. But more than crea- 
 ting heat, when the carbon and the oxygen unite, they 
 cause the muscles to move and that moves the arm. 
 This is an explanation of why rumiing causes one to 
 breathe more rapidly. A great deal of motion like run- 
 ning requires the union of a great deal of carbon and 
 oxygen and so we have to breathe rapidly in order to 
 supply the oxygen.
 
 354 The Rural School 
 
 Let us return to the burning paper in the bottle. When 
 the oxygen in the bottle was used up, the flame burned 
 low and went out. Imagine a bottle large enough to 
 hold a person. What would happen, if a person instead 
 of paper were put into the bottle? When the oxygen 
 supply ran low, there would be no more of it to unite 
 with the carbon and the fires of the body would burn 
 lower and lower and, if the oxygen were entirely cut off, 
 they would finally go out. That does not very often 
 happen, but how many people sleep in rooms with the 
 windows closed or open a very little way, so that the 
 fires of the body must burn low. Many people think 
 that fresh air means cold air, but we can see from this 
 that fresh air means air containing plenty of oxygen 
 whether it is warm or cold. 
 
 LESSON III: AIR PRESSURE 
 
 Another lesson may be given on the weight and pres- 
 sure of the air. Every fifteen cubic feet of air weighs 
 about a pound. One of the simplest experiments to 
 demonstrate air pressure is to place the tongue against 
 the roof of the mouth and try to draw it down without 
 letting air get above it. It is air pressing against it 
 which seems to hold the tongue against the roof of the 
 mouth. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure may also be shown by filling a 
 tumbler level full of water and pressing over the top a 
 piece of cardboard. If, while holding the cardboard 
 firmly against the glass, the tumbler be inverted, the 
 cardboard may not fall for several minutes, — till it is 
 soaked through. The air pressure holds it up. Another 
 good illustration may be had by soaking a piece of leather 
 to which a string has been attached near the center.
 
 Physical Science 355 
 
 Press the leather against a smooth rock or a piece of thick 
 glass and observe how it may be Hfted by means of the 
 string. It is not the string which pulls the rock up, but 
 the air under pushing it up. 
 
 SUBJECTS FOR OTHER LESSONS 
 
 Following is a suggestive list of subjects which may be 
 treated as in the lessons above. The teacher should 
 remember that he is under no obligation to stay strictly 
 within the realm of physics. It is that which will be of 
 help to children, not the subjects of a curriculum, which 
 are to be taught, and whether it is physics, chemistry, biol- 
 ogy, geography, or what not makes little final difference. 
 Teach the child the things he wishes and ought to know 
 about his physical surroundings. 
 
 I. Expansio7i Due to Heat. 
 
 1. Thermometers, construction, use; temperature of 
 a schoolroom; temperature of boiling water; tempera- 
 ture at which water freezes; things which affect tempera- 
 ture, — latitude, altitude, evaporation, etc. 
 
 2. Things from which thermometers may be made — 
 mercury, spirits, w^ater, steel. 
 
 3. Expansion of iron — wagon tires, railroad irons, 
 boiler rivets. 
 
 II. Expansion Due to Cooling. 
 
 Floating ice; bursting water pipes; the burst water 
 bucket; a stick in the rain barrel. 
 
 III. Making of Charcoal and Coke. 
 The kiln; uses in stoves; furnaces, etc. 
 
 IV. The Lime Kiln. 
 
 Lime as shells of animals; limestone; the quarry; 
 solubility in water; hard water; lime in soils. 
 
 V. Cement Industries.
 
 356 The Rural School 
 
 The limestone; the shale; the mixing; the burning; 
 the grinding; the uses — sidewalks, water tanks, fence 
 posts, blocks for foundations, building houses. 
 
 VI. Water Wheels. 
 
 Kinds — Overshot, undershot, breast wheel, turbine; 
 uses — for mills, factories, electrical machinery. 
 
 VII. Windmills. 
 
 Construction; kinds; why it moves; uses — pumping 
 water, grinding feed, etc. 
 
 VIII. Physical Phenomena. 
 
 1. Study clouds, rain, hail, dew, frost, snow, evapora- 
 tion, condensation. 
 
 2. Keep daily records of thermometer; study daily 
 forecasts of United States weather bureau; discuss value 
 to farmers and seamen, 
 
 3. Study about lightning, thunder, Franklin and his 
 kite, lightning rods made out of fence wire well grounded 
 and sharpened to fine points. 
 
 IX. Water Supply. 
 
 In country, in cities; wells, their location; drinking 
 water for school; cisterns; keeping water pure by aera- 
 tion; springs — cause; diseases spread by impure water. 
 
 X. The Sun. 
 
 1. Compare with earth, as to size, shape, heat; influ- 
 ence of each on the other. 
 
 2. The source of heat and light, a. Heat, wave mo- 
 tion, conduction, convection; 6. Light, wave motion, 
 speed, absorption, reflection, mirrors, lenses, prisms. 
 
 3. Effect of sun rays on man, earth, plants, water; 
 the perpendicular rays; the slanting rays. 
 
 XI. Air Pressure and Expansion. 
 
 Pumps, water and bicycle; bicycle and automobile 
 tires; air brakes on cars. 
 
 XII. Principle of Still.
 
 Physical Science 357 
 
 In making alcohol, gasoline, coal oil; in making per- 
 fumery (by distilling alcohol on flower petals). 
 
 XIII. Crystallizatio7i of Substances. 
 
 Illustrations: alum solution and a string, rock candy, 
 snowflakes. 
 
 XIV. Oxidization of Iron. 
 
 Uses of tin plate: galvanized iron, wire, tanks, etc. 
 
 W. G. Lewis, 
 
 Kansas State Normal School. 
 
 The following is offered as an illustration of the way 
 in which stories may be used to teach the facts about 
 physical phenomena. 
 
 THE FAIRY CHILDREN OF THE OCEAN 
 
 One hot summer's afternoon, away, way out in the ocean 
 Old Mother Ocean was washing, " swish-a-swashy, swish-a- 
 swashy," washing the shores of her islands. Her children were 
 out playing and she said to them, " Don't go far away, I am too 
 busy to follow after you." But it was so very hot that it fairly 
 made them hop up and down, so one of the older ones said, 
 " Let's go up a little ways in our tiny balloons." So off they 
 started, not two or three, but millions of them. They did not ex- 
 pect to go so far, but up and up they went, away up into the 
 sky, and when they were started, they could not stop until they 
 had reached the blue sky, ever and ever so high. Soon they began 
 to be very cold, and the wind carried them off over the land. 
 They were far away from home and some of the little fellows 
 began to cry, their feet were so cold. Now, what do you think 
 happened? Some of the older ones took the little fellows into 
 their balloons and they soon started down. Their balloons 
 were so heavy they could not sail any more so down they came, 
 head over heels, helter-skelter, topsy-turvy, every which way; 
 Johnny, standing on the porch, was looking up into the sky, and 
 as one of these big balloons hit him in the eye, he said, "Oh, what 
 a big — rain drop! "
 
 358 The Rural School 
 
 Now they began to come down, just whole troops of them. 
 Some ran down the roof tlirough the gutter into the cistern. 
 Mary, the maid, came and pmnped up a great many of them 
 into the teakettle and set tliem on the hot stove. My, but it 
 was hot! Hotter than it had been at liome. They began to 
 cry, oh, so mournfully. Did you ever hear them? 
 
 Some of them ran into the ground where it was very dark. 
 They kept going down, down, until they met others, and they 
 ran along together until they came to a place where they could 
 see out. It was a well. Now what do you suppose happened? 
 Well, I'll tell you. Whole barrels of them were pumped up into 
 the water tank at the depot, and the big engine came steaming 
 up Sh — sh — ^ ch — ch — and stopped right at the tank. The 
 fireman went up over the coal in the tender, took hold of the 
 chain, pulled down the spout, and in they went. Then the 
 engineer let them into the boiler where it was steaming hot. 
 They did not know where they were, but they knew it was hot 
 — the hottest place they'd ever been in, and they began to try 
 to get out. They began to crowd and push in all directions. 
 Once the engineer pulled a cord ; this opened a little door; those 
 near it gave a shriek, and out they were. Then he pulled a big 
 lever and let many of them into a big box; now they began to 
 push on the piston which turns the big wheels. Push, push, 
 push, the wheels began to turn, the train began to move and 
 out they came, going high up into the air. Some were so happy 
 they began to play ring-a-round-a-rosy. Perhaps you have 
 seen them playing this on a winter morning. 
 
 Some of them that came down from the sky were sulky, and 
 stayed around on the grass and weeds all night. By the next 
 morning they were in a good hirnior and thought they would 
 play a trick on the little boys and girls who get up early; so 
 they made some pretty little beads which shone like diamonds 
 when the sun came up. They left them on the grass and weeds 
 everywhere, and when Johnny went out to get some of them, he 
 only got his feet and hands wet; for when he tried to pick them 
 up, they stopped shining and there were no diamond beads at 
 all. The next night some of them thought that they would do
 
 Physical Science 359 
 
 a more wonderful thing than make diamond beads- so they 
 painted pictures on the windows, pictures of houses, trees and 
 birds. John and Mary thouglit that Jack Frost did tlais, but 
 it was the Fairy Children of the Ocean. 
 
 The wind blew some of these fairies away, off over the land 
 and up the side of a mountain. It got so very cold that they 
 went to sleep and looked just as if they were dead. There they 
 lay aU winter, as white as they could be. But when the spring 
 came with liis warm sun, he said to the little Fairy Children, 
 " Wake up now, it is time for you to go home." So one little 
 fellow opened his eyes and then another and another, and 
 every one of them began to scamper down the mountain side, 
 running to the rivulet, then to the brook, — to the creek, then 
 down the big river back home again to the ocean; and there 
 was Old Mother Ocean still washing, " swish-a-swashy, swish-a- 
 s washy," washing the shores of her islands.
 
 Chapter X 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Interest and Scope of Subject. — Of all the studies in 
 the whole program, there is none which can be made more 
 interesting than geography. In order to do this, it is 
 necessary to make it a study of real things, and not 
 merely the gleaning of facts from a textbook. The 
 teacher must realize that the study of geography should 
 not be the learning of names of places and their location 
 on a map, but rather a study of the earth's surface with 
 the life, both of plants and animals found thereon. This 
 apparently modest scope of the nature of the subject, 
 is nevertheless quite comprehensive, embracing a great 
 field for study and information. In studying the earth's 
 surface, we not only consider the land with its mountains, 
 hills, valleys, plains, etc., and the water with its seas, 
 gulfs, bays, lakes, rivers, etc., but also climate, winds, 
 ocean currents, tides, waves, temperature, products, and, 
 last of all, man and his occupations and relations to other 
 created things. With this vast field for exploration and 
 study, surely there are few classes but can be interested 
 in some of its features, for material for this work is at the 
 very door of the rural school. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL OR PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY 
 
 1. Begin at home and study those things with which 
 the pupils are somewhat acquainted. 
 
 360
 
 Geography 361 
 
 2. Teach color, distance, direction, distance and di- 
 rection of homes from the schoolhouse. 
 
 3. Teach the seasons, the months of the year, the days 
 of the week. 
 
 4. Study about rain, frost, snow, hail, and some of 
 their effects on plants and animals. 
 
 5. Study about domestic animals, their names, food, 
 uses. The following outline for the study of hogs will 
 illustrate how a very common thing may suffice for 
 several lessons of interesting study and become finally 
 the basis of a good composition. 
 
 HOGS 
 
 Breeds: 
 
 Color and characteristics of each breed. 
 What fed? 
 
 When and where sold? 
 Where shipped? 
 
 By whom bought? Market price? 
 Where is meat sold? 
 What do packers do with: 
 
 Hams, shoulders, head, ears, tails, ribs, backbones, 
 
 feet, fat, intestines, sides, etc.? 
 
 This work may be carried as far as the teacher and the 
 class are able to go and time will permit. Care should be 
 taken to suit the work to the ability of the pupils. 
 
 6. Have pupils tell all they know about the wild ani- 
 mals of the locality, the wolf, the coyote, the rabbit, the 
 gopher, the prairie dog, etc. 
 
 7. Study the plants of the locality, wheat, corn, oats, 
 alfalfa, etc. This study of plants may extend to the 
 finished product; as. Wheat, — preparing of the ground, 
 selecting of the seed, sowing, cultivating, harvesting, 
 stacking, threshing, marketing, grinding, breadmaking. 
 Make similar outlines for corn and other grains.
 
 362 The Rural School 
 
 8. " Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard," by Mary and 
 Elizabeth Kirby, will furnish information for lessons 
 about things in the cupboard; tea, coffee, rice, sugar, 
 and so forth. 
 
 9. The use of simple outline maps will add interest 
 to much of the study about products. 
 
 MAP STUDY 
 
 1. Draw an outline map of the school ground, locating 
 schoolhouse, well, coal house, hitching posts, etc. 
 
 2. Enlarge the above map so as to include the section 
 on which the schoolhouse stands. Draw section lines 
 double, other lines single. Locate the farms and homes 
 on this section and any other things of interest. 
 
 3. Fill into the above map any streams, ravines, or 
 " draws " that may be in the section. Find in which 
 direction the water flows from this section. Encourage 
 the pupils to find out these things from their own obser- 
 vation. 
 
 4. The map may be enlarged so as to include the dis- 
 trict. Learn what the people produce: grains, cattle, 
 horses, sheep, hogs, fowl, etc. Each one of these prod- 
 ucts may become the subject for one or more language 
 lessons. 
 
 Product Maps. — If on this map are pasted the pic- 
 tures of the animals raised on each farm and the grain 
 and grasses grown in each field, it will add much interest 
 to the work and prepare the way for a more extended 
 study along the same line. Following the suggestions 
 given above, maps may be made of the county, state, 
 and country. Wlierever possible, use the actual products 
 for pasting on these maps, e. g. corn, wheat, cotton, rice, 
 coffee, tea, coal, lead, salt, etc.
 
 Geography 363 
 
 THE TEXT REINFORCED 
 
 Concrete Illustrations. — The first lessons of most 
 primary geographies contain necessary geographical ideas 
 which can be taught from observation better than from 
 the exclusive use of the textbook. Teachers should learn 
 a lesson from the experience of an eminent educator 
 when he went out with his class at recess and studied 
 geography while they waded in the marsh. There are 
 miniature capes, bays, islands, and peninsulas to be found 
 in almost every marsh or creek; and, if the teacher can 
 get a class to see these in their real forms, he will be 
 giving to them first-hand information. This teacher 
 in commenting on his experience with his geography class 
 says, " For the first time the real difference between 
 studying about things through the medium of a book, 
 and studying things themselves without the medium of 
 a book, was revealed to me." 
 
 Conversation and objective illustration should always 
 accompany the use of the textbook. Air in motion, rain, 
 day and night, and the seasons are all objects of experi- 
 ence, yet they need to be re-observed and the facts about 
 them need to be stated before the knowledge is secure. 
 Connect the real things with the story of the book, and 
 make use of the children's activity in examining, repro- 
 ducing, drawing, and describing. Encourage them .to 
 bring to the school specimens of rocks, fossils, Indian 
 relics, shells, samples of different kinds of wood, in fact, 
 almost anything which enforces and illustrates the les- 
 son of the book. Pictures are a never-ending source of 
 delight and they are found in abundance in every good 
 text on geography. The teacher should make good use 
 of those found in the book and reinforce them by bringing 
 to the class, and having the pupils bring others, illustra-
 
 364 The Rural School 
 
 ting places of note and interest. These pictures can be 
 gotten from books, magazines, postcards, railroad fold- 
 ers, and advertising pamphlets. 
 
 Imaginary Journeys. — In the study of Niagara Falls, 
 the Grand Canon of the Colorado, Yellowstone Park, 
 and other places of note, very interesting lessons may be 
 gotten from the advertising pamphlets put out by the 
 railroad companies. These can be had for the asking and 
 may serve as a basis for an imaginary trip through South- 
 ern California, a journey through the Rockies, etc. 
 There are nearly always places of interest in one's own 
 county or state which may be illustrated and made more 
 real by the use of postcards. In the imaginary journey 
 lesson, a wall map showing the route traveled over would 
 be good to have. One can manage this by making a 
 progressive map on a large sheet of coarse paper, or on 
 the blackboard, if there is room. Keep up the conversa- 
 tional plan all the way through, for the teacher cannot 
 know where the children are in their thought unless they 
 talk. Drawing is the best expression of form and the 
 ability to make outline maps should be cultivated; maps 
 of the small and rather simple form are better than the 
 extended, complex maps of irregular shaped states. 
 
 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 
 
 In studying the grand divisions some regular order 
 should be observed. The following outline will answer 
 very well, and it will be found especially helpful in re- 
 views. 
 
 1. Location on the globe. (This presupposes a study 
 of the globe and the fixing of the poles and equator.) 
 
 2. Relation to other continents and to the ocean. 
 
 3. Extent, size, shape.
 
 Geography 365 
 
 4. Details of contour. 
 
 5. Large surface features, e. g. mountains, plains, 
 valleys, etc. 
 
 6. Climate. 
 
 7. Drainage, e. g. rivers, lakes, and inland seas. 
 
 8. Forests and prairies. 
 
 9. Suitability for the occupation of man. 
 
 10. Number and kinds of people. Their occupations, 
 modes of living, wealth, homes, inventions, institutions, 
 exports and imports, domestic animals, factories, etc. 
 
 This outline may be modified to suit a coimtry, a sec- 
 tion, or a state. 
 
 Geography and History. — Geography and history 
 should go hand in hand. The one seems to reinforce the 
 other. The knowing a bit of the history of a city, state, 
 or country, helps to fix and hold its location in mind. 
 " Stories of India " read while studying southern Asia, 
 will help to impress the geography of this country and 
 make it more real. There are many such books that will 
 prove excellent aids in this work and make it one of the 
 most interesting and profitable studies offered in the 
 whole school course.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abstraction, 295. 
 
 Accession book for library, 
 132, 133. 
 
 Addition, how teach by use of 
 spUnts, 300; of fractions, 
 how teach, 301 ; a form for 
 analysis of, 306. 
 
 Adenoids, 33. 
 
 Advanced studies, teacher's 
 knowledge of, 47. 
 
 Agriculture, books on, 138; 
 in Rural Schools, Chapter 
 XVI, 169; difficulties in 
 teaching, 169; material 
 suited for rural schools, 
 169; department of, 170; 
 outline for rural school, 171; 
 a lesson plan, 173. 
 
 Air, pure, need of revival for, 
 37; impure, effects of, 38; 
 pressure, 354. 
 
 Alderman, Ex-Supt. L. R., 
 217. 
 
 Alternation, 77. 
 
 Amusements and occupations, 
 books on, 138. 
 
 Analysis, 105; in writing, 317. 
 
 Appearance, of teacher, 54; 
 physical, 58. 
 
 Application for school, by let- 
 ter, 53; in person, 54. 
 
 Appreciation of Music, 347. 
 
 Arbor Day, 8. 
 
 Arnold, Dr., of Rugby, 191. 
 
 Art Song C^jcles, 342. 
 
 Assignment of lesson, 90. 
 
 Assignments, and require- 
 ments, definiteness in, as aid 
 to govermnent, 145. 
 
 Atmosphere, pressure of, 354. 
 
 Attention, holding, 82; se- 
 curing, 82; a means of in- 
 citing interest, 82. 
 
 B 
 
 Beach, Frank A., 348. 
 
 Beads, wooden for busy work, 
 284. 
 
 Bible stories in Hst of books, 
 135. 
 
 Bishop, Ex-Supt. E. C, 178. 
 
 Blackboards, 35; use of in 
 music, 338. 
 
 Boarding place, 58. 
 
 Book, danger of using too 
 soon, 262. 
 
 Books, agricultural, hst of, 
 138; reference, 135. 
 
 Boon, Mr., on centrahzing or 
 consolidation in Hist, of Ed., 
 226. 
 
 BoTT, E. C, what he accom- 
 plished in Louisiana, 209- 
 214. 
 
 Breathing exercises in music, 
 347. 
 
 Brownlee, Miss, on person- 
 ality, 61 ; on teaching mor- 
 als,' 163. 
 
 Bulletins, agricultural, 170. 
 
 Business, knowledge of, 52. 
 
 367
 
 368 
 
 Ind 
 
 ex 
 
 Busy work, what and how, 
 Chapter IV, 282; object of, 
 282 ; how make material for, 
 285; for older pupils, 291. 
 
 Call for upright men, 159. 
 
 Cannery, 12. 
 
 Canning company, Cedron 
 school, 212. 
 
 Canning outfit, 177. 
 
 Carbon, 352. 
 
 Carbon-dioxide, 352. 
 
 Cards, use of, in reading, 260. 
 
 Cary, Supt. C. P., on heating 
 and ventilation, 17. 
 
 Character, end of discipline, 
 148. 
 
 Charles II, profligate times of, 
 115. 
 
 Child Life, a first reader, 128. 
 
 Children's Hour, 205. 
 
 Children's Old and New Sing- 
 ing Games, 342. 
 
 City schools, comparison of 
 rural schools with, 2; what 
 has been accomplished by, 2. 
 
 Classes, reduction of number 
 of, 76; movement of, 88; 
 signals for, 88. 
 
 Classification report, methods 
 of procedure without, 68. 
 
 Classifying pupils aright, 193. 
 
 Closets, sanitary, 32. 
 
 Clubs, 178; in Missouri, 179; 
 tomato growing, 211; corn 
 growing, 212; pig raising, 
 212. 
 
 Color work, 292. 
 
 Commercial forms and prac- 
 tices, 307. 
 
 Committee of Twelve, report of, 
 225, 
 
 Common branches, knowledge 
 of, 47. 
 
 Comparing quantities by 
 measuring in teaching num- 
 bers, 297. 
 
 Concentration, 109. 
 
 Confidence in pupils, 151. 
 
 Connecticut, consolidation in, 
 233. 
 
 Consolidated school, Cedron, 
 209. 
 
 Consohdation, Chapter XIX, 
 222; changed conditions 
 which have led to, 222; a 
 centralizing tendency, 226; 
 economy of, 226; social 
 value of, 226; objections 
 and answers, 227; reports 
 from several states concern- 
 ing, 229; in Indiana, 230; in 
 Ohio, 230-231 ; in Connecti- 
 cut, 233; in New Jersey, 233; 
 modified form of, in Iowa, 
 233; in Minnesota, 235. 
 
 Consumption, cause of, 28; 
 how disseminated, 28. 
 
 Contests, 178; prizes for, in 
 Missouri, 180; cooking, in 
 Missouri, 180-182; instruc- 
 tion for, 181. 
 
 Contract, teacher's, impor- • 
 tance of, 52. 
 
 Conventional designs, 332. 
 
 Cooperation, pupil's, in man- 
 agement of school, 166; 
 teachers, in superintend- 
 ent's plans, 196. 
 
 Copies, making for writing, 
 313. 
 
 Copy, use of, 312. 
 
 Corn, how to study, 173. 
 
 Cornell, model schoolhouse on 
 campus of, 20. 
 
 Corporal punishment as 
 viewed by the courts, 149.
 
 Index 
 
 369 
 
 Correct habits in language, 
 266. 
 
 Country, viewpoint of, 182. 
 
 County examination, prepar- 
 ing for, 77. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, hymn-sing- 
 ing times of, 115. 
 
 Cut-up maps for seat work, 
 294. 
 
 D 
 
 Daily program. Chapter VIII, 
 
 71. 
 Deduction, 99. 
 Designs, elementary, 289. 
 Development, stages of child's, 
 
 112; of body, 113; of mind, 
 
 113. 
 Dickson, Prof. Virgil E., 216. 
 Dictation exercises, 280. 
 Discipline, continuous, 148; 
 
 end of, 148. 
 Disease, precautions against, 
 
 29. 
 Diseases, contagious, prevent- 
 ing spread of, 29 ; of eye, 29. 
 District unit, 223; evils of, 
 
 224-225. 
 Division, how teach, by use 
 
 of splints, 300; forms for 
 
 analysis of, 306. 
 Domestic science contests, in 
 
 Nebraska, 178; in Missouri, 
 
 179. 
 Dominos, use of in busy work, 
 
 288. 
 Dramatization, place for in 
 
 modern house, 22. 
 Drawing, Chapter VII, 319; 
 
 to scale as seat work, 293; a 
 
 means of expression, 319; 
 
 beginning early, 319; how 
 
 begin, 320; materials for, 
 
 320; Une, 321; mass, 321; of 
 
 type forms, 321; of scenes, 
 325; for different months, 
 326; conventional designs 
 in, 332. 
 
 Drinking water, 31. 
 
 Dust, removal of, 30. 
 
 Duties of teacher, Chapter 
 XVII, 184; to district, 184; 
 to pupils, 193; to county 
 superintendent, 196; to 
 neighborhood, 198; to self, 
 199. 
 
 E 
 
 Economy in modern house, 15. 
 
 Electric lights in schoolhouses, 
 25. 
 
 Emporia plan of modern 
 schoolhouse, 21-23. 
 
 Equipment, of house, 26; 
 physical, of teacher, 45; 
 mental, of teacher, 47. 
 
 Ethics, school. Chapter XV, 
 159; need of teaching, 159; 
 unsuccessful attempts at 
 teaching, 160; methods of, 
 160; formal plan desirable 
 in, 161; Kansas Public 
 School course in, 165. 
 
 Examples, practical, for coun- 
 try schools, 307. 
 
 Experiment, burning paper, 
 352. 
 
 Expressing thought in reading, 
 258. 
 
 Eyes, diseases of, 29; defect- 
 ive, 34. 
 
 Eyesight, testing of, 34, 
 
 F 
 
 Fairchild, Stipt. E. T., on 
 ethical teaching, 167; on 
 consolidation, 229.
 
 370 
 
 Index 
 
 Fairy Children of the Ocean, 357. 
 
 Fairy tales, list of, 137. 
 
 Farm Life Readers, 129. 
 
 Fathers' Day, 205. 
 
 Fatigue, waves of, 74. 
 
 Figures, teaching skill in ma- 
 nipulation of, 298. 
 
 First day, Chapter VII, 63; 
 preparation for, 63; meth- 
 ods of procedure on, 65. 
 
 Fhes, breeding places of, 32. 
 
 Form work, 292. 
 
 Forms for number work, 303. 
 
 Fractions, teaching of, 301. 
 
 Freedom, love of, 114. 
 
 Fundamentals, formal work in, 
 300. 
 
 Furnaces, for rural schools, 18. 
 
 G 
 
 Games and Plays, 123. 
 
 Garden, winter, 177. 
 
 Gardens, school, 175. 
 
 Geography, Chapter X, 360; 
 books of, 139; interest and 
 scope of subject, 360; oral, 
 360; concrete illustrations, 
 363; text reinforced, 363; 
 advanced, 364; and history, 
 365. 
 
 Germ theory of disease, 28. 
 
 German horse, 119. 
 
 Giant's Stride, 122. 
 
 GiLHAMS, Supt. H. S., on con- 
 solidation, 229. 
 
 Gladstone, William E., 57. 
 
 Goal, of the recitation, 99; of 
 instruction, 100. 
 
 Government, school. Chapter 
 XIV, 143. 
 
 Geaham, a. B., on consolida- 
 tion, 231. 
 
 Grammar, elementary as lan- 
 guage work, 269. 
 
 Grounds, size of, 6; plans of, 
 
 7; improving in Iowa school, 
 
 214. 
 Grouping objects, in number 
 
 work, 298. 
 Growth, intellectual, 194: 
 
 moral, 195. 
 
 H 
 
 Harris, Wm. T., on consolida- 
 tion, 233. 
 
 Hays' plan of modern school- 
 house, 20. 
 
 Health, importance of, 45. 
 
 Hearing, testing of, 34. 
 
 Heating of schoolhouse, 17. 
 
 Heating and ventilating sys- 
 tems, 40. 
 
 Help, giving judicious, 194. 
 
 Heroes, influence of, 167. 
 
 History and biography, books 
 of, 140. 
 
 HoELCEL, Mrs. Emily K., 
 what she accomplished in 
 Kansas, 203-209. 
 
 Home economics contest, 182. 
 
 Home work, credit for, 217. ' 
 
 Honor, placing pupUs on, 150. 
 
 Hookworm, 33. 
 
 Horizontal bar, 120. 
 
 Hot air, lesson on, in chapter 
 on Physical Science, 350. 
 
 Houses, Better, 13; hygienic 
 considerations in, 16; heat- 
 ing of, 17; ventilating of, 
 17; plans of, 21-26. 
 
 HuFTALEN, Mrs., what she 
 accompUshed in Page 
 County, Iowa, 214. 
 
 Hutchinson, Dr. Woods, on 
 play, 112. 
 
 Hygiene and sanitation, 
 school, Chapter IV, 28.
 
 Index 
 
 371 
 
 Ideals, opportunity to inspire 
 pupils to high, 201. 
 
 Imitation, a factor in work of 
 beginners, 103. 
 
 Inattention, 83. 
 
 Incentives, use of, 154; good, 
 characteristics of , 154; liable 
 to abuse, 155; of last resort, 
 155; best, 156. 
 
 Induction, 98. 
 
 Industrial center, school as, 12. 
 
 Industrial credits for home 
 work given by A. I. O'Reilly, 
 218. 
 
 Influence, teacher's extension 
 of, 202. 
 
 Inliibition, two methods of, 
 152. 
 
 Instruction for boys in con- 
 tests, 181. 
 
 Intellectual growth, judicious 
 direction of pupils', 194-195. 
 
 Interest, arousing pupils' in 
 recitation, 82. 
 
 Iowa, improvement of play- 
 grounds in, 215; modified 
 form of consolidation in, 
 233. 
 
 Janitor work, pupils paid for 
 doing, 205. 
 
 Jean Mitchell's School, 202. 
 
 Journeys, imaginary in geog- 
 raphy, 364. 
 
 Judging, 105. 
 
 K 
 
 Kansas, what has been ac- 
 complished in rural schools 
 of, 203. 
 
 Keeping everyone busy, 145. 
 
 Kent, Prof. H. L., on work 
 in agriculture for rural 
 schools, 171. 
 
 Kern, 0. J., on Arbor day, 8. 
 
 Kerr, Willis H., on how to 
 organize a library, 132. 
 
 King, Henry Churchill, on 
 psychology of motor ac- 
 tivities, 152. 
 
 Kirk, President J. R., 24. 
 
 Kirksville plan of schoolhouse, 
 24. 
 
 Knowledge, pupil's, supple- 
 menting of, 85. 
 
 Language Work, Chapter III, 
 266. 
 
 Language, correct habits of, 
 266; importance of study of, 
 266; suggestions as to proce- 
 dure in teaching, 266; inci- 
 dental study of, 268; how 
 make rules for, 270; obser- 
 vational work in, 272; 
 proper, 272; use of. pic- 
 tures, 274. 
 
 Leaf, Miss G. M., list of 
 books for library prepared 
 by, 135. 
 
 Learning words, 255. 
 
 Legends, list of, 137. 
 
 Lesson, studying three times, 
 108. 
 
 Lessons, when to assign, 74; 
 well studied as an aid in 
 government, 144; subjects 
 for physical science, 355. 
 
 Letter \\Titing, 276. 
 
 Librarian, 132. 
 
 Libraries, traveling, 126. 
 
 Library, its uses. Chapter 
 XIII, 125; a working, 127,
 
 372 
 
 Index 
 
 135; room for, 22; impor- 
 tance of, 125; how to start, 
 126; tax, 126; what to buy 
 for, 127; how to use, 130; 
 preparing a place for, 130; 
 plan of organization, 132. 
 
 Lighting of schoohoom, 18, 34, 
 
 Literature, books of for li- 
 brary, 139; teaching appre- 
 ciation of good, 264. 
 
 Location of house, 5. 
 
 LoNGAN, Ex-Supt. G. B., his 
 system of number teaching, 
 297. 
 
 M 
 
 Maintaining good name of 
 school, 186. 
 
 Mann, Horace, regarding dis- 
 trict unit, 223. 
 
 Map study, 362. 
 
 Materials, for busy work, how 
 to care for, 290; for writing, 
 312-314; for drawing, 320. 
 
 Methods, object, topic, lec- 
 ture, question, 94-96; So- 
 cratic, 97; word, 250. 
 
 Minnesota, modified form of 
 consolidation in, 235. 
 
 Missouri, agricultural contests 
 in, 179. 
 
 Moisture, need of in air of 
 schoolroom, 43. 
 
 Moral teachers, 159. 
 
 Mothers' Day, 205. 
 
 Motives in study, 110. 
 
 Motor activities, psychology 
 of, 151. 
 
 Movement in writing, 316. 
 
 Multiplication, form for analy- 
 sis of, 306. 
 
 Music, Chapter VIII, 337; im- 
 portance of, 337; equip- 
 ment for, 338; textbook, 
 338; use of blackboard in 
 
 teaching, 338; use of pitch- 
 pipe in teaching, 338; teach- 
 ing in groups, 340; reading at 
 sight, 344; study of theory, 
 345; appreciation of, 347. 
 Myths, list of, 137. 
 
 N 
 
 Nature books, list of, 137. 
 
 Nature study, in city and 
 country, 4; and agricul- 
 ture, 170. 
 
 Negation, 152. 
 
 Nerves, teacher's need of 
 strong, 46. 
 
 New Jersey, consolidation in, 
 233. 
 
 Noon lunch, in Washington, 
 215. 
 
 Norton County schoolhouse, 
 19. 
 
 Number blocks, 288. 
 
 Number idea, 295; develop- 
 ment of, 296. 
 
 Number work, material for, 
 284; as busy work, 284-289. 
 
 Numbers, Chapter V, 295; 
 reading and writing, 298. 
 
 O 
 
 Oakerson, Supt. W. M,, on 
 agricultural contests in Mis- 
 souri, 179. 
 
 Observational work in lan- 
 guage, 272. 
 
 Ohio, consolidation in, 231. 
 
 Opening exercises, 66. 
 
 Opportunities, lesser, 200; 
 great, 201. 
 
 Opportunity, for expression, 
 value of in ethics, 163; of 
 a rural teacher, Chapter 
 XVIII, 200.
 
 Index 
 
 373 
 
 Oral lesson in geography, 
 
 360. 
 Order and period, how teach 
 
 diiTerence, 299. 
 Order of room, 88. 
 Oregon, credit for home work, 
 
 in schools of, 217. 
 Outbuildings, screening of, 8. 
 Oxygen, experiment to teach 
 
 facts concerning, 352. 
 
 Paper-cutting, application of, 
 329; conventional designs 
 for, 332. 
 
 Paraphrasing in language 
 work, 280. 
 
 Parents' Day, 205. 
 
 Parke, Prof. L. A., on corpo- 
 ral punishment, 149. 
 
 Peg boards, directions for ma- 
 king, 285. 
 
 Pencils, precautions in regard 
 to, 30. 
 
 Personality, what it is, 56; de- 
 velopment of, 58; physical 
 element, 58; mental ele- 
 ment, 60; mora] element, 
 61; how to improve and 
 maintain, 62; of the teacher, 
 as a factor in school gov- 
 ernment, 146. 
 
 Perspective, teaching in draw- 
 ing, 322. 
 
 Phonics, teaching of, 256. 
 
 Physical science, Chapter IX, 
 349. 
 
 Physical vigor, maintenance 
 of, 58. 
 
 Physical well being, giving 
 pupils suggestions as to, 
 195. 
 
 Physiology, a lesson in, 351. 
 
 Pictures in language work, 
 274. 
 
 Plans for day, necessary as aid 
 in school government, 144. 
 
 Play, spirit of, lost in country, 
 3; and playgrounds, Chap- 
 ter XII, 112; function of, 
 112; school should pro^^de 
 for, 114. 
 
 Playground apparatus, 119; 
 for rural school, 123; in 
 Iowa school, 215. 
 
 Pla5'^ground movement, 3. 
 
 Playgrounds, 112. 
 
 Playroom in schoolhouse base- 
 ment, 25. 
 
 Plays and games, making use 
 of, in government, 146. 
 
 Plurals, how to make rules 
 for, 270. 
 
 Popular Folic Dances, 342. 
 
 Position, of teacher, 89; of 
 pupils in writing, 315. 
 
 Practice teaching, 49. 
 
 Preparing for next lesson, 86. 
 
 Prizes, 155. 
 
 Product map, 362. 
 
 Professional training, teach- 
 er's need of, 48. 
 
 Program, for first day, 68; 
 study, 72; importance of 
 study, 73. 
 
 Property, school, duty of 
 teachers to protect, 184. 
 
 Property mark for Ubrary, 
 133. 
 
 Punishment, infliction of, 147; 
 as method of inhibition, 
 153. 
 
 Pupils, correcting mistakes of, 
 85; studying, 86; placing 
 on honor, 150; encouraging 
 to do talking in teaching 
 ethics, 164; classifying of, 
 193.
 
 374 
 
 Index 
 
 Q 
 
 Qualifications, the teacher, his. 
 
 Chapter V, 45. 
 Questions, pupils to ask, as 
 
 device of recitation, 93; 
 
 logical, 96; elhptical, 97. 
 
 R 
 
 Readers, supplementary, 263. 
 
 Reading, primary, Chapters I 
 and II, 245, 254; impor- 
 tance of, 245; kinds of, 246; 
 oral, 246; silent, 246; what 
 constitutes good, 247; aim 
 of all methods of, 248; meth- 
 ods of teaching, 248; alpha- 
 betic method, 249; the best 
 method, 249; word method, 
 250; sentence method, 251; 
 phonetic, 252; phonic, 252; 
 rational method, 253; a bad 
 habit of, 254; learning 
 words, 255; first words in, 
 255: use of cards, 260; of 
 lesson to class, 264; helps, 
 289. ^ 
 
 Reasoning, 105; number work 
 to develop, 305. 
 
 Recess Gang, the, 116. 
 
 Recitation, Chapters IX and 
 X, 81, 93; three functions 
 of, 81; seeming attention 
 during, 82; for whole class, 
 83; purposes of, 84; con- 
 clusions about, 87; me- 
 chanics of, 87; movement 
 of classes to and from, 88; 
 order of room during, 88; 
 devices of, 93; methods of, 
 94; oral and written, 94; 
 variety of, 94; goal of, 99. 
 
 Record of issue for library, 
 134. 
 
 Records, teacher's, keeping 
 accurate, 196. 
 
 Reports, importance of ma- 
 king promptly, 196. 
 
 Reproduction stories, 279. 
 
 Requirements, definiteness in, 
 145; showing reasonable- 
 ness of, 145. 
 
 Responsibihty, placing, upon 
 pupils, 166. 
 
 Rhythm, 344. 
 
 RoARK, Mr., excerpts from 
 Method in Education by, 
 84. 
 
 Rural education, a brighter 
 day for, 4. 
 
 Rural life, knowledge of, 51. 
 
 Rural school, a laggard, Chap- 
 ter I, 1. 
 
 S 
 
 Salary, opportunity of teacher 
 to earn, 200. 
 
 Sanitary closets, 32-33. 
 
 Saving time, 75. 
 
 Scale drawing as seat work, 
 293. 
 
 School and home, way to 
 unite, 217. 
 
 School City, the, 165. 
 
 School, grounds, plan of, 7; 
 plant, 11; government, 
 Chapter XIV, 143; govern- 
 ment, importance of, 143; 
 government, aids to, 144; 
 gardens, 175; maintaining 
 good name of, 186; tests of 
 good, 187; teacher's duty 
 to teach good, 187; small 
 contrasted with large, 222. 
 
 Script, transition from to print, 
 261. 
 
 Seating pupils, 35, 65. 
 
 Seats for schoolroom, 27.
 
 Index 
 
 375 
 
 Seeds, how formed, lesson on, 
 173. 
 
 Signals for classes, 88. 
 
 Silent forces, 13. 
 
 Singing, rote, 341; sight, 342. 
 
 Site and grounds of school- 
 house. Chapter II, 5. 
 
 Slates, precautions in regard 
 to, 30. 
 
 Sleepy-time Stories, a book for 
 beginners, 129. 
 
 SmaU Songs for Small Sing- 
 ers, 342. 
 
 Smith system of heating, 40. 
 
 Social center, school as, 12, 22. 
 
 Song Development for Little 
 Children, 342. 
 
 Song Primer, The, 342. 
 
 So7igs of the Child World, 342. 
 
 Sound mind in sound body, 
 45. 
 
 Sounding words, 258. 
 
 SpelUng, 258_. 
 
 Standardization, of schools in 
 Louisiana, 235; of schools in 
 Minnesota, 236; of schools 
 in Wisconsin, 237; of schools 
 in Missouri, 238; of schools 
 in Ilhnois, 239; require- 
 ments for, 240. 
 
 Stories, of China, how to use, 
 131; list of Bible, 135; Ust 
 for library, 141; reproduc- 
 tion, 279. 
 
 Study, periods for, 73; how 
 to, 101; importance of, 
 101; meaning of, 101; old 
 plan, 101; teaching pupils 
 how to, Chapter XI, 101; 
 teaching beginners to, 102; 
 hints on, 106; use of differ- 
 ent sense organs in, 106; 
 a thoughtful process, 109; 
 motives in, 110; strenuous, 
 110; business of the school, 
 
 192; conditions favorable 
 for, 193; Uttle people can- 
 not, 282. 
 
 Substitution, apphcation of 
 principle of, 154; as a mode 
 of inliibition, 153. 
 
 Subtraction, a form for analy- 
 sis of, 306. 
 
 Synonjrms and meaning of 
 words, 264. 
 
 System of writing, 315. 
 
 Tank, pressure in basement, 
 24. 
 
 Tardiness, 188; devices for 
 preventing, 189-190. 
 
 Teacher, cottage of, 11; his 
 personality, Chapter VI, 56; 
 iDcing taught, device of reci- 
 tation, 93; personality, as 
 factor in school government, 
 146; extension of influence 
 of, 202; the non-singing, 
 338. 
 
 Teaching, practice, 49; re- 
 garding as a stepping stone, 
 200. 
 
 Testing, function of recitation, 
 81. 
 
 Tests of a good school, 187. 
 
 Textbook, not in hands of in- 
 structor, 90; for music, 338. 
 
 Tliinking, right, 162; number 
 work to develop, 305. 
 
 Thought getting, 104. 
 
 Time, saving of, 75; element 
 in the teaching Ethics, 163. 
 
 Toilet rooms, in modern 
 schoolhouse, 18; in Kirks- 
 ville house, 24. 
 
 Tone quality, 347. 
 
 Tonsils, enlarged, 33. 
 
 Trained teachers, 3.
 
 376 
 
 Index 
 
 Training, professional, 48; for 
 rural schools, 49; function 
 of recitation, 81. 
 
 Trees, kind to plant, 9; plant- 
 ing of, 9; for western plahis, 
 10. 
 
 Tuberculosis, see Consump- 
 tion, 28. 
 
 Turner, Mr. Clair, on Re- 
 cess Gang, 116. 
 
 Types, three of schoolhouses, 
 18. _ 
 
 Typhoid fever, 29; resulting 
 from lack of sanitation, 32. 
 
 U 
 
 Unit, origin of district, 223; 
 larger, 225; social value of 
 larger, 226. 
 
 V 
 
 Ventilation, facts regarding, 
 37; by windows and doors, 
 39; modern systems of, 40. 
 
 W 
 
 Waste in work of schools, 
 71. 
 
 Water closets, screened, 8. 
 
 Waterman-Waterbury system 
 of heating, 41. 
 
 Waves of fatigue, 74. 
 
 Window shades, manipulation 
 of, 35. 
 
 Winter garden, 177. 
 
 Word books, how make, 292. 
 
 Words, many from one, 292. 
 
 Work for each pupil, 72; 
 thoughtful, 104. 
 
 Workroom in modern house, 
 19. 
 
 Write, learning to. Chapter 
 VI, 310. 
 
 Writing, an art, 310; first les- 
 sons, 311; when and how 
 much, 311; materials, how 
 handled, 314; position, 315; 
 system, 315; movement, 
 316; analysis of, 317; period, 
 divisions of, 318. 
 
 16
 
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