a FROM OF RHODES - SOLIMAN'S MOSQUE L MODERN TURKEY. MODERN TUEKVT. BY J. LEWIS FARLEY, CONSUL OP THE SUBLIME PORTE AT BRISTOL. AUTHOR OF " RESOURCES OF TURKEY," IN ONE VOLUME. LONDON: HURST AND BLACKETT, PUBLISHERS, 13 GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET. 1872. AH rights reserted. UBl TO HIS EXCELLENCY MUSURUS PASHA AMBASSADOR OF THE SUBLIME POETB THIS WOEK IS DEDICATED AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE SINCEEE KESPECT AND ESTEEM OP THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. IN the first part of this work, I have endea- voured to point out the benefits to health that may be derived from a residence in Syria. My views on the subject are not theoretical, as I experienced those benefits in my own person. Indeed, I believe that a great many of the ailments to which the inhabitants of Northern and Western Europe are liable would almost infallibly obtain relief from a residence in the clear, dry, exhilarating atmosphere of Beyrout, and in the midst of the lovely scenery to be found on and around Mount Lebanon ; notably, the earlier stages of consumption, and chronic chest complaints. Dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, and other affections of the digestive system, are Vlll PREFACE. also relieved or cured by the united tonic effects of the mountain air and out-of-doors life that the charming climate almost compels one to lead; while shaken nerves and exhausted brains are re- stored to energy by a combination of the various influences of climate, scenery, travel, and absence from the causes of those conditions which have been left behind. Besides, in favour of Beyrout and Mount Lebanon, it may fairly be taken into account that they are near the site of the Garden of Eden, the cradle of the human race, and in a part of that country where the Jews, the chosen people of God, were specially directed to reside. The account of the Empress Eugenie's visit to Constantinople was contributed by me, at the time, to the Daily News, but, considering the estimation in which that illustrious lady is held in this country, I have thought it desirable to preserve though in a condensed form a record of an historical event the like of which never occurred before, and may, probably, never occur again. A portion of the second, and nearly the whole PREFACE. IX of the third part of this volume was written during my recent residence at Constantinople; and I have to acknowledge, with thanks, the valuable suggestions and kindly aid of the Editor of the Levant Herald. I have required no other book of reference than the pages of the Levant Herald a weekly journal which ought to be in the hands of every one interested, politically, commercially, or financially, in Turkey. Imperial Ottoman Consulate, Bristol, May, 1872. CONTENTS. PART I. CHAP. I. BEYROUT ..... II. BEIT-MIRY . . . . . .17 III. MOUNT LEBANON . . . . ,23 IV. TRAVELLING IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE . .41 V. A DAY WITH THE BEDAWINS . . . .52 VI. SYRIA, PAST AND PRESENT . . . .60 PART II. I. THE EMPRESS EUGENIE'S VISIT TO CONSTANTINOPLE 69 II. THE SUEZ CANAL . . . . .104 III. TURKISH WOMEN . . . . .113 IV. TURKISH ARMAMENTS . . . 134 V. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION . . . 150 VI. THE CAPITULATIONS ..... 160 VII. TURKEY AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION . . 177 Xll CONTENTS. PART III. CHAP. Page. I. BRITISH INTERESTS IN TURKEY . . . 193 II. TUBKISH FINANCES ..... 202 HI. THE STOCK EXCHANGE . . . .217 IV. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE EMPIRE, &c. . 224 V. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS .... 231 VI. FISHERIES . . . , . .248 VII. MINES . 257 VIII. PETROLEUM . . . . . .267 IX. ROADS ....... 272 X. RAILWAYS ...... 297 XL RAILWAY TO THE PERSIAN GULP . . . 306 XII. DOCKS AND HARBOURS ..... 324 XIII. PUBLIC WORKS . . . . . .336 APPENDIX . . , 347 PART I. MODERN TURKEY. CHAPTER I. BEYKOUT. IT has often been to me a matter of surprise that, considering the number of persons who yearly seek the south of France or Italy for the benefit of their health, so few choose Syria as a winter residence. The climate, particularly of Beyrout, is superior to many places in Europe frequented by invalids ; while, for those predisposed to pulmonary complaints, it affords advantages that can hardly be found elsewhere. Hyeres has long enjoyed the reputation of being an excellent locality for persons suffering from bronchial affections ; yet it is much exposed to the mistral, in consequence of the absence of protecting hills on the north-west, and, in Win- ter, Spring, and Autumn, the cold north-easterly winds prevail to a considerable extent. Nice B 2 4 MODERN TURKEY. has enjoyed a still higher celebrity, although the inconstancy of the winds is very great, the temperature being subject to violent changes which are extremely trying to delicate or nervous organizations. The invalid is tempted out of doors by a brilliant sun, and then attacked by a cold piercing wind that neither clothes nor flannel can keep out. Dr. Meryon, who passed a season at Nice, declares that " there are more natives who die of consumption at Nice than in any town in England of the same amount of population." Naples, although possessing many advantages, cannot boast much of its climate, which is exceedingly changeable during Win- ter.* Cold, cutting winds prevail in the spring, while the scirocco, by its relapsing and paralysing influence, renders persons incapable, during its continuance, of either mental or bodily exertion. Even Madeira, which has long been considered the paradise of invalids, is not so favourably situated as is popularly supposed. Drs. Heineken and Gourlay, who practised in the island, state that no disease was more common among the native population than con- * The 1st of December, 1870, at Naples, was like a day in July. On the 2nd, a bitter cold north-east wind set in ; during the night it froze hard, and on the third it snowed heavily. BEYEOUT. sumption ; and Dr. Mason says that " affections of the digestive organs are a frequent cause of death with the majority of the inhabitants, and there are few places where the system is more liable to general disorder." The climate of Beyrout, on the contrary, is always moderate, and subject to less change than any of those places I have named. Asthma, bronchitis, and pulmonary disorders are unknown ; the tem- pera^ure is not subject to sudden vicissitudes of cold and heat; and the wind, from whatever quarter it may blow, never possesses any bleak- ness or ungenial chill. January and February are the only unpleasant months in the year, as then the heavy rains come on ; but the air is always balmy, and the blue sky is seldom ob- scured for any considerable length of time. March and April are delightful months, as all nature, refreshed by the showers, looks bright and cheerful; the "green herb and the emerald grass" are once more renewed, the cactus over- hangs the roads with its clustering blossoms, and the orange-tree puts forth its chaste and simple flower, loading the air with perfume. May and June resemble our finest Summer weather, while the climate, in October, Novem- ber, and December, is much like that of May in 6 MODERN TURKEY. England. The months of July, August, and September are very hot in Beyrout ; but the vicinity of Mount Lebanon affords means of varying the temperature to any extent that may be desired. Some of the foreign residents re- main in Beyrout during the entire Summer, but the greater number send their families to the villages of Beit-Miry, Brumanah, or Shemlin. Beit-Miry is distant about one hour and a half, Brumanah two, and Shemlin five hours.* Beyrout is a place of great antiquity, and be- came of considerable importance under the Eoman emperors. Justinian called it the Nurse of the Law, and conferred on it the privilege of teaching Roman jurisprudence in its schools. Traces of the magnificent baths and theatre, erected by Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, were to be seen, some few years ago, on the north of the town ; and even now, portions of tesselated pavement and columns of perfect finish are found in the gardens and on the sea- shore. The Romans gave the name of Felix to the * There are three routes by which travellers can reach Beyrout from London: First, vid Brindisi to Alexandria, and thence by steamer. Second, vid Vienna to Trieste, and thence by the Austrian Lloyds line of packets. Third, via Paris and Lyons to Marseilles, and thence by French steamer. BEYROUT. 7 city, and after its destruction by Tryphon, it was rebuilt by Augustus, who thought it worthy to bear the name of his favourite daughter Julia. The view of Beyrout, as the traveller ap- proaches from the sea, is very fine. While still at a distance, the peaks of Mount Lebanon are seen in mid-air, surrounded by the bold outline of its undulating ridges. Gradually the outline becomes more and more distinct. Yast ravines are seen between the chasms that divide rock from rock, and huge masses loom forth like sudden creations out of chaos. Specks appear on the mountain side that pre- sently expand into hamlets and villages ; while, on higher points, the towers of numerous monas- teries stand aloft in bold relief against the sky. The mountainous surface of the interior slowly spreads out like a diorama, and, as the steamer holds her way, the scene seems to unfold itself as if by enchantment. The houses scattered over the plain gleam in the morning sun from amidst their surrounding foliage, and the breeze from the shore comes laden with sweets from groves of citron and of orange. To the left, in the distance, is the snow-capped summit of Jebel-Sunnin ;* and * Jebel . . . Mountain. Deir . . . Monastery. Nahr . . . Eiver Ras . . . Cape. 8 MODERN TURKEY. in front, Beyrout herself, charmingly situated on the slope of a hill, her head, as it were, in the clouds, her feet bathed by the sea. The houses, with their slender arches and flat roofs, surmounted with embrasures of stone or balustrades of wood; the picturesque rocks along the shore ; the white-mulberry gardens and orange and citron groves ; the terraces filled with flowers ; the palms towering towards the sky ; the various and lively colours of the walls ; the minarets of the mosques ; the grand and noble mountain ; the atmosphere serene and bright ; all blend into a picture the most beautiful I ever beheld. In fact, there are but few places that can compete with Beyrout in the various induce- ments which it offers both to the traveller and the invalid. The country, too, all around is historical. There is scarcely a spot on which the foot treads, or over which the eye wanders, that is not rich in the brilliant memories of the past. Cyprus, on the one side, recalls the classic days of old when the lovely goddess arose out of the sea at Paphos; Tyre, on the other, awakens visions of princely argosies at anchor beneath marble palaces stretch- ing to the water's edge. Farther on is Acre before the mind's eye the red Cross of the Crusader sinks beneath the Crescent of Salah-ed- BEYROUT. 9 din. Opposite is Carmel, whose " flowery top perfumes the skies;" and six hours thence is Nazareth, Mount Tabor, and Genesareth. Twelve hours from Beyrout is Damascus the beautiful ; Baalbek is but forty miles distant ; the Druse and Maronite villages of Mount Lebanon are in the vicinity ; a visit to the Cedars forms a pleasant excursion ; while the Nahr-el-Kelb and cave of St. George are only an afternoon's ride. Life and property are perfectly secure in Beyrout. Murder, robbery, and other crimes so frequent in European cities, are nearly unknown, and a visitor might travel over all the surround- ing country without the least danger of molesta- tion. During my residence in Beyrout, I rented a small house, for the months of May and June, completely isolated on the borders of the Little Desert, and a considerable distance from any European habitation. My horse was picketed at night in the open air ; my servant went home in the evening to his family, and I slept with much more security, probably, than I should have done under similar circumstances, in the suburbs of London. I have often, too, ridden by moonlight, attended only by an Arab groom, from the Nahr-el-Kelb (Dog-River) to Beyrout; and, at other times, from Beyrout to Beit-Miry with, 10 MODERN TURKEY. certainly, no fear, and, decidedly, more safety than in many rural districts of England. The society of Beyrout, although limited, is agreeable. The foreign residents are very hos- pitable ; many of the married ladies having a special evening in each week for receptions. There are two principal hotels ; one in the town, the other, some little distance on the shore, at Ras-el-Beyrout. The latter, although not comparable with English hotels, is exceedingly clean and comfortable. The terms are ten shillings per day, everything, except wine, in- cluded. The house is beautifully situated, com- manding an uninterrupted view of the sea ; and on the right, looking from the balcony towards Lebanon, over the town and St. George's Bay, there is a picture of surpassing loveliness which I have never seen exceeded. Rents at Beyrout vary from twenty-five to sixty pounds a year, and furniture of a plain description is easily procured. Servants' wages are for a good cook about two pounds, and a groom (Egyptians are the best) twenty-five shillings a month. A serviceable horse may be purchased for eight to twelve pounds, and, as barley is cheap, it can be kept for about two pounds per month. The necessaries of life are all very moderate. BEYKOUT. 1 1 Those animals that minister to the wants of man are abundant, while carnivorous and destructive animals are rare. The goats are large, and yield milk of superior quality. The sheep attain an unusual size, and their tails, terminating in a ball of fat, become so heavy that they can hardly drag them along : their flesh is excellent. Fish and game are plentiful. Grouse, partridge, snipe, quail, and wild duck are abundant in the season. Vegetables of every description abound ; beans, peas, lettuces, onions, melons, cucumbers, &c. The gardens are filled with the citron and orange. Aleppo sends the far-famed pistachio to market. Jaffa produces the delicious water-melon ; Damascus plums, cherries, peaches, and above all,, the apricot, called, by the Persians, the seed of the Sun. In short, everything is there in profusion to satisfy material wants, to soothe the senses and charm the imagination. In its ethereal atmosphere, mere existence becomes en- joyment, for you have only to live to be happy; only to open your eyes to behold the brightest sky and loveliest landscapes ; only to stretch out your hand to pluck the sweetest and fairest flowers, and gather the most delicate and luscious fruits. To the stranger, everything in Beyrout con- 12 MODERN TURKEY. trasts remarkably with what he has been accus- tomed to in England. The Maronite, Armenian, and Druse ; the Turk, Greek, and Arab ; the Bedawins, with their picturesque costume and wild restless eyes ; the novel pictures of Eastern life daily seen in the bazaars ; all afford an ever- changing scene of amusement. In nothing, how- ever, is the contrast greater than in the climate ; November in London and November in Beyrout ; from damp, and fog, and copper-coloured stifling vapour to blue sky, clear atmosphere, and bright sunshine. If all were free, Who would not, like the swallow, flit, and find What season suited him ? In Summer heats Wing northward; and in Winter build his home In sheltered valleys nearer to the sun. Syria has manifold attractions; but, after all, her great charm is the sun. Until you visit the East, you can hardly say you have ever seen the sun ; comparatively, there is but twilight elsewhere. In Syria, you see and feel it ; your heart is, as it were, filled with it it is reflected everywhere. All your sensations give token of the change ; and every feeling, every thought, becomes brighter and gayer. The cares which may have hitherto beset you appear to be lifted BEYROUT. 13 from off your heart; you feel raised above the earth, and breathe, in reality, the air of heaven. There is no glare, for the sun shines with a soft and mellow light that makes the landscape look as if it calmly slept. No wonder the Parsees worshipped him. The favourite walk is to the west of the town, along the sea-shore at Ras-el-Beyrout. There, at the various cafes, the pedestrian can observe the picturesque costumes of the people, as they sip their coffee, or inhale the fragrant tobacco of Djebail ; some seated at the doors, others re- clining on the grass, or on the rocks overhanging the sea, everywhere forming groups the most various and picturesque. The hotel, I have mentioned, is situated on the Ras-el-Beyrout, and thence, towards evening, one of the finest views of the town and mountains may be obtained. Now upon Syria's land of roses Softly the light of eve reposes, And, like a glory, the broad sun Hangs over sainted Lebanon; Whose head in wintry grandeur towers, And whitens with eternal sleet, While Summer, in a vale of flowers, Is sleeping rosy at his feet. At this hour, nothing can exceed the beauty of 14 MODERN TUKKEY. the view. To the west, the sky is one sheet of burnished gold, shedding its brightness for miles over the waters. Here and there, the de- scending sun throws streaks of light across the many- coloured houses of Beyrout, and beyond, the varied and ever-changing tints of the moun- tains, now bright green, now purple ; at one moment, the deep gorges revealed to the eye, the next, lost in impenetrable shade; here the monasteries standing out in bold relief, there lost to view as if by magic, form a picture which even Poussin or Claude Lorraine have never realised. Passing the Hotel de Belle Vue, a narrow path winds along the rocky shore until, arriving at the potteries, it becomes wider and then forms a delightful promenade to the extreme point of Ras-el-Beyrout where the cliff rises two hundred feet above the level of the sea. The walk is pleasantly varied by proceeding over the sands and through the winding lanes, bordered by the cactus and numerous flowering shrubs, to the Grande Place and the barracks whence there is a beautiful view, overlooking the town, St. George's Bay, the Nahr-Beyrout and Lebanon. Often, from the barrack hill, have I admired the wonderful light and shade on the mountains, and the various changes in BEYIIOUT. 15 the colour of the sea. In the morning the mountain casts its immense shadow over the waves, which then appear of a deep blue, lightly tipped with foam ; at mid-day they are like billows of gold in the distance, and silver in the foreground ; in the evening, when the breeze lulls and the sun declines, the sea is one vast mirror where the gigantic forms of the mountains are drawn with a softness of shading and a dis- tinctness of outline most remarkable and perfect. Then, as the sun sinks more and more, the waves change from blue to violet, from violet to purple, through every gradation of colour, until, at length, darkness comes with tropical sudden- ness upon the scene, and all is wrapped in gloom. The greatest benefit, perhaps, which an invalid can derive from a residence in Beyroufc is the facility of taking constant exercise in the open air. The early morning walk, when the birds begin their song, is healthful and invigorat- ing ; the sun is not then too powerful ; the air is cool, and the flowers, refreshed by the dew, give forth an exquisite perfume. In the afternoon, again, about two hours before sunset, a breeze from the west springs up which is exceedingly refreshing, and then every one is on horseback 16 MODEBN TUEKEY. or donkeyback in the Pine Forest, the Rotten- Row of Beyrout. Dr. Lee, whose works on climate are well known, says, " A principal ad- vantage which invalids derive from a Winter's residence in a favourable climate is that they are enabled to take daily and sufficient exercise in the open air ; which, by causing free expan- sion of the lungs, by improving the functions of digestion, and exciting those of the skin to greater activity than would be the case in per- sons who remained in-doors, as also by inducing a more cheerful tone of mind, tends materially to rectify any abnormal condition of the blood, and by these means, better than by any other, to obviate the consequences of such abnormal con- dition when they have not been allowed to pro- ceed too far." The climate of Beyrout appears to me to fulfil all those requirements for the invalid, as its mildness and beauty attract him constantly into the open air ; and, when not walking nor on horseback, he can sit on the terrace of his hotel, or on the rocks overlooking the mountains, lulled into a peaceful and deli- cious reverie by the low murmur of the tideless sea. 17 CHAPTER II. BEIT-MIRY. "DEIT-MIRY, one of the " mixed villages " of *-* Mount Lebanon inhabited by Druses and Maronites is the favourite Summer resort of the European residents of Beyrout. During the months of July, August, and September, when the heat in the plains is excessive, a sojourn, even for a few weeks, at Beit-Miry is of great advan- tage to health. The air, particularly at night, is cool and invigorating, and the change of tempera- ture bracing and agreeable. The scenery, too, all round this part of the mountain is grand and im- pressive. Deep ravines and rising eminences on all sides, the latter clothed with the richest vegetation ; the fig and the olive ; the oak and the cedar ; the fir-tree and the aloe ; the citron and orange ; the mulberry and the vine. All the paths over these hills are flanked with the vine o 18 MODEEN TUKKEY. and fig-tree, which flourish in wild luxuriance without any assistance from man. Often, when riding from Beit-Miry to Brumanah, I have plucked the clustering grapes from branches so closely festooned overhead as to almost shut out the sun at mid-day. Even in more elevated parts of Mount Lebanon, where nature seems to afford nothing for the sustenance of the people, numerous Christian villages flourish, and every inch of ground is utilized. Fruit trees, mulberry plantations, vineyards, and fields of grain abound, though there is scarcely a natural plain of twenty feet square to be seen. The inhabitants, however, meet this difficulty by building terraces, and thus, while retaining the water requisite to irrigate their crops, secure a portion of level ground sufficient to prevent the earth from being swept down by the Winter rains. By dint of skill and labour, the Maronites have compelled a rocky soil to become fertile. To avail themselves of the waters, they have made channels by means of a thousand windings on the declivities, or arrested the streams by embankments and reservoirs in the valleys. At other places, they have propped up the earth by terraces and walls, so that the mountain presents the appearance of a staircase or amphi- theatre, each tier of which is a row of vines or BEIT-MIRY. 1 9 mulberry trees, and of which one hundred to one hundred and twenty tiers may be counted from the bottom to the top of a hill. It is enchanting to sit upon the brow of a hill at Beit-Miry, sheltered from the sun by a fig-tree or vine, and contemplate the sublimity of nature apparent on every side. For now the noonday quiet holds the hill : The grasshopper is silent in the grass : The lizard, with his shadow on the stone, Bests like a shadow, and the cicala sleeps, The purple flowers droop : the golden bee Is lily cradled. To the west, the plain of Beyrout stretches out before the eye, covered with the orange, the date, the pomegranate, and the banana ; the palms, here and there, rearing their tall stems and slender branches in the air ; the pines, so dark and solemn, contrasting with the bright colour of the sands ; the hills around rising higher and higher, dotted with villages and monasteries ; and, to the north, the Jebel-Sunnin rearing its snowy crest towards heaven. Few places, indeed, can compete with that glorious plain of Beyrout. There is the orange-tree, whose flowers have been compared to silver, and its fruit to gold ; the fig, with its foliage of glossy velvet; the plane, with its rich c 2 20 MODERN TUEKEY. and brilliant bark ; the luxuriant growth of the pine ; the graceful flexibility of the palm ; the rich verdure of the humbler plants, and prairies bright with the colours and fragrant with the scent of hyacinths, anemonies, and gilly- flowers. Beyond are the hills, with their varying tints, their contrasts of light and shade ; afar off is the sea, with its glittering wave-crests and deep azure, reflecting on its surface every hue that fleets over the sky ; while, standing out in bold relief against the clear horizon, are the frowning masses of the mountains bounding the prospect in the distance. Towards evening, when the wind sets in from the sea, a curious pheno- menon, forming the most exquisite dissolving views, is sometimes observable at Beit-Miry. Vast layers and wreaths of cloudy mist rise from the waters and the plains, and, as they increase, unite, and thicken, they take the appearance of irregular accumulations of foam, or enormous heaps of wool that Titans, or Cyclops, or some fabled giants might be supposed to have shorn from multitudinous flocks, numerous as the sands on the sea-shore. Everything beneath is hidden from sight. After a time, these misty clouds descend gradually as they arose ; the hills and trees, villages and monasteries, appear- BEIT-MIRY. 21 ing to rise up out of a sea of foam, as if in the magical phantasmagoria of a dream. In some of the valleys near Beit-Miry, the vegetation is so thick, and so completely covers the sloping sides, that it seems as if the very moun- tains were alive with herbage and verdure. An in- termingled mass of fragrant plants, shrubs of delicate foliage, bunches of heather, and tufts of fern, are twined together with innumerable creepers, whose tendrils stretch everywhere and cling where they extend, their festoons hanging from branch to branch or from stone to stone ; while, here and there, the ivy mats itself into a thick green coating up the side of the rock. In some places are little spots covered with lichens, growing in one dense mass, the ground often covered afoot deep with a soft and close vegetable carpet, varied with every shade and hue, and far surpassing, in vividness and beauty, the fantastically figured fabrics of Turkish looms. All through the valleys, too, spring up, in wild profusion, the most beautiful flowers, whose lively colours and exquisite perfume diversify the landscape and embalm the atmo- sphere. The myrtle and oleander are there sub- stitutes for our holly and thistles. The hyacinths, jonquils, and tulips fill the parterres ; the lilies, so extolled in Scripture for their purity; the 22 MODERN TURKEY. anemone, said by the poets to have sprung, near this very spot, from the blood of Adonis ; and the Narcissi, The fairest among them all, Who gaze on their eyes in the stream's recess Till they die of their own dear loveliness. Each feature of the landscape seen from Beit-Miry is lovely and sublime in itself, and all taken together make up one fascinating and incomparable tableau. The diversified surface of plain, valley, and moun- tain, with every variety of light and shade, every possible tint and colour of foliage and of rock, every form of tree and herbage ; the river of Bey rout wandering like a silvery serpent through the vale ; the wide expanse of sea, with its rocky nooks along the shore ; the eternal and stu- pendous mass of Lebanon, with its crags and forests; the snowy peaks that shoot up and gleam in the sun like silvery steeples ; the joyous though inarticulate voice of birds, and the hum of innumerable insects ; the distant lowing of kine, and the strange bleat of the camel; the vast azure canopy of the firmament, against which the crags of the mountain, and the giant trees that seem to emulate the hills, stand out in dark and prominent relief, are all mixed and blended into a gorgeous scene that might be taken for fairy- land. 23 CHAPTER III. MOUNT LEBANON. rilHE southern portion of Mount Lebanon, called the Chouefat, the Chouf, and the Meten, " mixed districts," inhabited by Druses and Maronites is that generally visited by travellers. The Kesrawan, or northern portion, inhabited exclusively by Maronites, is less known, although its scenery is not at all inferior to that in the vicinity of Zahleh, Zibdany, Djezzin, or Deir-el- Kamr. Frequent excursions can be made from Beyrout to every part of the mountain, but there is one excursion to Ghazir, Harisa, and Antoura in the Kesrawan which will be found of espe- cial interest. I remained only one night at each of these places, but I should advise any person that may follow the route indicated in the present chapter, to spend, at least, an entire day at Ghazir and Beit- Cash-Bow, as well as at Harisa 24 MODERN TURKEY. and Antoura, thus extending the excursion to seven or eight days instead of four. It would take months to travel over the Le- banon, to stop at all its beautiful sites, and visit all its romantic villages. It is everywhere mountainous, it is true, but some variety or some new feature is always presenting itself. I know of nothing more curative in its effect, or more likely to benefit the health of a dyspeptic invalid than a residence at Beyrout, and an oc- casional ride over those beautiful hills. It is well known that impressions made upon the mind are influenced, materially, by the condition of the body, and the one constantly re-acts upon the other. It is proverbial that the objective world takes the tone and tinge of our mind that the sun has no brightness and the flower no beauty for the unhappy ; while, if the heart is light, hope sanguine, and our prospects brilliant, the deepest gloom of a Winter night cannot sadden us. Every one of any sensibility must have ex- perienced this, and we have well-known illustra- tions of the fact in such instances as the imbecile torpor into which the great Chatham fell when the hereditary malady that had so long racked his body seemed to retire inwards and paralyse his mind when he retired to Hayes, and could MOUNT LEBANON. 25 not even hear business mentioned without an attack of the nerves; in the anecdote about Ravaillac, or some other regicide, who declared that, if he had taken the cooling medicine he re- quired, he should not have attempted the king's life : so true it is that Infirmity doth still neglect all office Whereto our health is bound ; we are not ourselves When nature, being oppressed, commands the mind To suffer with the body. No doubt the tone and state of the mind are often the result, not merely of the condition of our physical organism, but of external influence and circumstances. There is a continual reciprocal action going on between the outer world and our mind and feelings. Now, in Syria, the climate and scenery have all the elements for restoring any derangement of our corporeal functions. Skies ever sunny and serene ; an atmosphere pure, translucid, and exhilarating ; the entire aspect of nature combining the elements of the grand and the beautiful ; the impressions produced by mountains towering to the skies, and landscapes replete with gentle loveliness : all impress, with their various and cheering characteristics, the minds of those who are within their influence. The traveller over those mountains feels a buoy- 26 MODERN TURKEY. ancy that seems, as it were, to lift him from the earth ; and turn which way he will, there are objects admirably adapted to soothe and charm the senses, to excite and ravish the imagi- nation. No wonder, then, that he should be free alike from indigestion and low spirits, from lassitude and ennui ; that the joyous brightness and beauty without, should light up a cheerful serenity within ; that his mind should be in the healthiest and happiest state for receiving the gayest and most pleasing impressions, and that these should fix themselves in his memory, and be ever after recurred to with delight. Leaving Beyrout by the bazaars, we mounted our horses in the Grand Place, and, in about ten minutes, passed the spot where, it is said, St. George slew the dragon.* A little further on, * Some persons are so sceptical as to disbelieve the story relative to this terrible dragon, whose daily meal was a youthful virgin sent from Beyrout; until, at length, the beaxitiful prin- cess, on whom the lot had fallen, was fortunately rescued by St. George. These unbelievers even assert that the marks shown on the wall, near the cave, are not the marks left by the Saint when he washed his hands after the combat, but, merely, stains left by the hand of time. It is, however, undoubted that St. George was a Knight of Cappadocia, of good family, and suffered martyrdom during the reign of Diocletian, A.D. 290. Thomas Dawson, who published a curious little book in 1714, says there is good reason to conclude that the Saint was held in MOUNT LEBANON. 27 we crossed the old Roman bridge over the Nahr- Beyrout, and an hour's canter on the Mediter- ranean shore brought us to the Nahr-el-Kelb, or Dog-River, where we refreshed our horses, and then pushed on to Juneh, which we reached in about forty minutes. The village of Juneh is a favourite resort of the Beyroutines during the bathing season. The houses are built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the side of a hill, facing the sea, terrace above terrace, to a con- siderable height, affording from each the most exquisite views of water, plain, and mountain. We breakfasted in a charming little cottage over- looking the bay, and, after a couple of hours' rest, commenced the ascent to Ghazir. There is no actual road from Juneh to Ghazir, but the difficulties of the journey are amply repaid by the magnificent scenery met with in ascending the mountain. On the slopes and acclivities, tufts of shrubs and clumps of trees assume the most picturesque and even fantastic forms ; some great estimation among the English even in the Saxon period ; but I am inclined to assign the reign of Henry II. as the epoch when we became intimately acquainted with the hero, as he was then raised to the rank of first tutelar saint in the calendar, upon the marriage of Henry with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, who died fighting for the Holy Sepulchre, and whose patron saint was St. George. 28 MODERN TURKEY. growing in the shape of a cone, others spreading out like an umbrella, or forming a thick tangled mass of luxuriant foliage, like a colossal bush. Every variety of tint, shape, and size of leaf, too, is to be seen ; a vast variegated labyrinth where the deep hue of the orange, the bright yellow of the lemon, the dark colour of the cypress, the leaden green of the delicate leaf of the mulberry, the beautiful pomegranate, innumerable parasitic plants hanging from the over-arching branches, all mingle in a thousand wild and charming combinations, as novel as they are lovely. The ground itself is a soft carpet of green sward strewn with the brightest flowers ; while, here and there, plots of barley wave and bend to the breeze, or the spreading carob covers the sylvan homestead of a peasant, with its garden full of brilliant-coloured plants, and its porch shaded by a clustering vine, under which you are invited to take rest and shelter. Milk, with bread and fruit, is offered to you, and a nosegay, at parting, testifies the good- will of the humble but hospitable little household. Continuing to ascend the moun- tain, the horizon beyond the plain seems to recede and widen, while the terraces left behind have a charming effect, which I can compare to nothing so much as a brilliant cloth or tissue of many MOUNT LEBANON. 29 colours, all blended and arranged so as to pro- duce a sort of symmetrical disorder ; a wild, spontaneous harmonising of vegetable forms and colours, the beauty of which, without being seen, it is almost impossible to realize. Two hours' ride from Juneh brought us to the fine monastery of Beit- Cash-Bow, at Ghazir, where we received a cordial welcome from the Armenian fathers. An excellent dinner, served in European style, with wines of Mount Lebanon and France, was, in due time, placed before us, and, after a pleasant chat over our pipes and coffee, I retired to a comfortable bed, and slept more soundly than I had done for years. The next morning, Sunday, we had an excellent opportunity of seeing the Maronites in their magnificent church, and, afterwards, walked across the hills to the Jesuit college at Ghazir. Our guide was the village doctor, but his pro- fessional emoluments, I fancy, were very trifling, as he willingly accepted six piastres (one shilling) at parting. Returning to the monastery, we encountered a Maronite princess, attended by her maidens, forming, perhaps, one of the prettiest living pictures I had ever seen. The princess's dress consisted of a blue silk pelisse, friuged with 30 MODERN TURKEY. gold cord, over a pink silk vest embroidered in gold ; a rich shawl bound round her waist, loose trousers of yellow silk, and yellow leather papooshes. Her face was concealed by a white veil which hung from the tantoor,* but, as we stood admiringly, she withdrew the veil for a moment to take a look at the frangi, disclosing a face of perfect beauty, a com- plexion exceedingly fair, and those wonderful almond-shaped eyes that are so rarely seen away from the East. The dresses of her maidens, although less rich, were scarcely less picturesque. The costumes of the men were also very brilliant, consisting of a short red or blue embroidered jacket over a gay-coloured silk vest ; a rich scarf round the waist, containing silver-inlaid pistols or ivory -hafted daggers ; loose trousers fastened over the shoe by embroidered gaiters ; and the head-dress of the country the red tarbush. * The tantoor is a conical tube of silver, from a foot to two feet in length, and about three inches in width at the bottom and one inch at the top. It is secured to a pad on the head by two silken cords, which hang down the back, and terminate in large tassels or knobs of silver. The narrow end projects over the forehead at an angle of 45 degrees, and supports a long white veil that falls gracefully round the shoulders, and, when required, covers the face. The tantoor is worn only by the married women. MOUNT LEBANON. 31 The road to Harisa discloses beauties of a different nature from those seen in the ascent from Juneh to Ghazir; more wild and grand, yet revealing, here and there, some charming spots of surpassing loveliness. It seems like an effort of nature to group into one great maze the most diversified and opposite characteristics of oriental scenery. Every emotion of our aDsthetic faculties our sentiment of the beautiful, our conception of the sublime are here all called forth together, and arise in the mind at once. For hours over these heights, the place of des- tination is continually in sight, yet seems to recede as you approach ; or, as we read in fairy tales, as if your horse seemed to move, or your feet perform the function of walking, without any pro- gress, or one step in advance, having being made. Distance, seen across the vast expanse of open valley and through the clear transparent atmo- sphere, is almost inappreciable. We know that the inexperienced eye of a person confined in a cell from birth would take no cognizance of per- spective, and see nothing in the finest landscape but a variously coloured surface. It is only when the sense of sight is rectified by the other senses, and confirmed by judgment uncon- sciously, it may be, and without our taking 32 MODERN TURKEY. notice of it at the time that we are able to judge of distances. Thus, on visiting the Highlands of Scotland for the first time, the mighty masses of mountain and open sweep of moor and water make a stronger impression upon a stranger than on a person who has been accustomed to range over the hills, and whose eyes have become familiar with the prospect. The stranger is not so well abe to judge of distance and relative size, because he finds himself amidst scenery that is new to him ; and his power of appreciating perspective, acquired from the top of Primrose Hill or the heights of Gravesend, altogether fails. From a little hillock called Belmont, at Stanmore, and also from Brockley Hill, on the St. Alban's road, the Crystal Palace at Sydenham can be seen, when the day is sufficiently clear which, how- ever, seldom happens and it is difficult to believe that the edifice is at the distance we know it to be. On Mount Lebanon, this effect is heightened by the extreme clearness and transparency of the atmosphere. Places seen over vast tracts of valley seem close at hand, when, in fact, they are many hours' journey off. The traveller is thus often out in his reckoning ; but even when deceived, he is not disappointed, MOUNT LEBANON. 33 for he certainly would not surrender a step of the way, leading as it does through a natural garden, where the spontaneous efforts of nature have surpassed all that art has ever accomplished. Sometimes the path lies along the course of a torrent, the bed of which has been dried up by the Summer heats. On either hand, rocks, to the height of four hundred feet, rise like per- pendicular walls. Gigantic blocks and boulder- like masses lie scattered irregularly in every variety of position, as if shot down and strewn about the surface at random. Some rest on their broadest side, firm and solid as a pyramid, and seem destined to remain fixed for ages ; while others sit, fantastically, upon their apex, with such apparent instability that they appear as if a child could push them over. On emerging from these rugged gorges, you come out, from time to time, into some shady highland valley, a little paradise of verdure ; while, here and there, green flights of stairs lead up to eminences, like the steps of some vast altar erected to Nature in one of her most favoured haunts. Villages appear perched, like birds' nests, on ledges of the cliff, or seem to hang upon the mountain's shelving side. Two of these villages will be so close together that a stone may be D 34 MODERN TURKEY. thrown from one to the other, and the Inhabitants of each can converse from their respective doors, yet a deep chasm intervenes, the path round which it will take a very long time to traverse. Ascending still higher up the mountain, more extensive views of sea and plain are obtained. Spread out, too, as in a maze, are wooded knolls and grassy valleys ; waterfalls glittering in silver showers and bounding in spray from rock to rock. In one direction, perhaps, a wreath of mist envelops the landscape ; while in another you see the welcome turrets of a monastery through the trees, and your attention is arrested by the rude harmony of the shepherd's pipe and the tinkling of the sheep-bells. Suddenly, the path seems brought to an end by a craggy ledge of rock, the side of which goes sheer down for some hundreds of feet ; but the guide points out a narrow wind- ing way between rugged masses, where the utmost caution is necessary, as a single careless step might send you headlong into an abyss so deep that escape, with life, would be impossible. On these occasions, it is prudent to leave mules and horses to their own judgment and discretion, and, when not tampered with, they are never known to stumble. It is usual to account for their sure-footedness by saying " It is instinct ;" but MOUNT LEBANON. 35 this explanation is about as intelligible as that of the doctor in the French comedy, who, being asked why laudanum put people to sleep, replied " Be- cause it possesses a soporific quality." It is curious to see how the animals examine the path they are traversing, and how careful they are in making good their foremost foot-hold on the rock, before moving another step in advance. It would indeed seem as if their mode of acquiring experience was very much the same as our own. The sagacity of the Arabian horses, and their al- most human qualities have become proverbial, but their extraordinary degree of polish, so to speak, arises from their constantly sharing the society of their masters, and from the education for it is an education which they receive. They may be said to eat, drink, and sleep with their owners are their companions at home and abroad, share their habitations, and carry them with speed over the desert sands, into which an English horse would sink up to his knees. The colt always attends its dam, runs by her side when on a journey, and shares the caresses of her master and his family. By thus following the actions of its mother over the treacherous footing of the desert or the precipitous paths of the mountains, it acquires, almost without artificial training, a D 2 MODKtiN TURKEY. degree of sagacity and dexterity that is almost incredible. During ray residence in Syria, I possessed an Arab horse that carried me every- where. He was wild like his race, and yet, with me, as gentle as a lamb. At the slightest motion of my hand, he would fly like the wind, or stop in an instant. When tired, we have lain down together, my head pillowed on his shoulder. He would follow me like a dog, and stand perfectly quiet for me to mount, yet it was a most dangerous feat for anyone else to try to get into the saddle. "When leaving Beyrout, I parted from many friends, but I parted from none with greater regret than from my horse, Duroc. Five hours' ride from Ghazir brought us to the monastery of Harisa, where we received even a more hearty welcome than at Beit-Cash-Bow. We dined with the brothers in the refectory, and the repast, though not so varied as that of which we partook on the day previous, was exceedingly good ; the hospitable Prior producing, for our special consumption, some exquisite old Lebanon wine, which, he said, had lain in the cellar for a number of years. Early next morning we started on our journey from Harisa ; some new beauty in the scenery dis- playing itself at every step, until in the midst of a MOUNT LEBANON. 37 site teeming with a luxuriant flora the mulberry, the fig, the orange, the sycamore, and the pine the charming village of Antoura lay in a valley before us. At each turn in the descent, its wonderful fertility and profuse vegetation, its picturesque position, surrounded by lofty moun- tains, astonished and delighted me; and I ex- claimed with the Eastern poet, " If there be a paradise on earth, it is this it is this !" We were courteously received by the superior of the Lazarist college, and shown over the school-rooms, dormitories, dining-hall, and play- grounds. The pupils to the number of three hundred come from Beyrout, Aleppo, Damascus, and other towns in Syria ; Persia, Egypt, and even from Nubia and Abyssinia. They are boarded, lodged, and educated for fifteen hundred piastres (about 12 10s.) per annum ; or includ- ing all extras with the exception of clothes, for two thousand piastres (about 16 13s 4d.) ; and are taught the French, Italian, Latin, and Arabic languages; writing, arithmetic, and the usual branches of a European education. We dined with the boys at the professors' table, and found the food excellent. The following morning I had a delicious breakfast, as, on opening my bedroom window, I found the golden fruit of an orange- 38 MODERN TURKEY. tree hanging like bunches of grapes within my reach. It added much to the picturesqueness of the scene, as we rode over the hills on leaving Antoura, to meet some of the pupils returning after vacation, mounted on horses or mules, and followed by camels bearing their brightly painted boxes. As the boys passed, they all saluted after the manner of the country ; a form of salutation which is much more graceful than that prevailing in many other countries. At New Guinea the mode is certainly picturesque ; for the people place leaves of trees upon their hands as symbols of peace and friendship. An Ethiopian takes the robe of another and ties it round his own waist, leaving his friend partially naked a custom which in a cold climate would not be very agreeable. Sometimes it is usual, as a sign of humility, for persons to place themselves naked before those whom they salute ; as when Sir Joseph Banks received the visit of two Otaheitan females. The inhabitants of the Philippine Islands take the hand or foot of him they salute, and gently rub their face with it; a proceeding which is, at all events, more agreeable than that prevailing with the Laplanders, who have a habit of rubbing noses, applying their own with some degree of force to that of the person MOUNT LEBANON. 39 they desire to honour. The salute with which you are greeted in Syria, is at once graceful and flattering. The hand is raised, with a quick but gentle motion, to the heart, the lips, and the forehead; thus intimating that the person who salutes is willing to think, speak, and act for you. At a distance of about an hour from Antoura, we rested at the convent of Deir Beshara, where sweetmeats, confections, and mountain wine were cheerfully placed before us. The nuns could only speak Arabic; but, from their retreat behind a screen, they conversed for some time by means of an interpreter. Passing through the little village of Zook, where the superb gold and silver brocades, sold in the bazaars at Beyrout, are manufactured, we soon arrived at the Nahr-el- Kelb, and rested under the pleasant shade of the Hotel Pittoresque. Here, after a little time, we partook of a simple repast, consisting of fish, caught in the river after our arrival, pilaff and fowl. Figs from Smyrna, pistachios from Aleppo, oranges from Jaffa, and apricots from Damascus, formed our desert, with wines of Cyprus and Lebanon cooled in pressed snow from the peaks of Jebel-Sunnin. Before we rose to depart, the sun had disappeared below the horizon, and, as 40 MODERN TUKKEY. there is little or no twilight in Syria, the shades of night suddenly closed around, wrapping moun- tain, sea, and river in the deepest gloom. The moon, however, was near the full, and soon began to brighten up the landscape; its soft and gentle light presenting a marked contrast to the fiery glow of the sun, and displaying a wonderful scene of loveliness and grandeur. On every object in the sky, on the dark frowning moun- tain, in the broad and shining bosom of the sea was written, " Behold the Eternal !" The very air breathed the spirit of devotion the earth and the heavens seemed instinct with the power and presence of the Omnipotent, unseen yet felt. We sent our horses home by the shore, and returned by water. The sea was perfectly calm ; the Arab boatmen sang their favourite songs, and a pleasant row of an hour and a half brought us to Beyrout. 41 CHAPTER IV. TRAVELLING IN SYEIA AND PALESTINE. TRAVELLING in the East is rather an expen- sive recreation. It is not necessarily so, but it becomes expensive in consequence of the mode of travelling usually adopted. Few persons visit Palestine and Syria without the prescribed accompaniments of dragoman, servants, horses, mules, tents, &c., &c. ; while the old beaten track is still followed : Jaffa via Kamleh, to Jerusalem ; from Jerusalem, by Nablous, to Nazareth; from Nazareth to Tiberias and Damascus; from Damascus to Baalbek; from Baalbek to the Cedars, and from the Cedars to Beyrout. This route is by no means an un- pleasant one; on the contrary, it has many attractions, and its novelty possesses, for the romantically inclined, an almost indescribable charm. 42 MODERN TURKEY. The wandering life, from day to day, under a pure and cloudless sky; the encampment at night, on the brow of a hill or in some sheltered valley, beneath the dome-like vault of heaven, spangled with its countless myriads of stars, are replete with pleasurable sensations unknown to the tourist in Europe; but there are many in- cidental disadvantages, not the least being the expense. The mode of travelling, besides, is only suited to those who are in the enjoyment of vigorous health, and not at all adapted to ladies or invalids. The most economical, and, in my opinion, pleasantest way of seeing the country is for the tourist to establish his head-quarters at Beyrout, as excursions can thence be made to the most interesting places in Syria and Palestine at a very trifling cost, and with little or no fatigue. In the following notes of an excursion to Nazareth and Tiberias, I have purposely omitted a description of those places: for has not each sacred spot of the storied land, from Gaza to Aintab, been " done " over and over again by book-making travellers of every stamp. The route indicated, however, is out of the ordinary track of tourists, and will serve to show the facility with which excursions can be made from Beyrout. TRAVELLING IN SYEIA AND PALESTINE. 43 Leaving Beyrout by the Austrian Lloyd's steamer, at ten o'clock p.m. on Friday, we landed next morning after a pleasant passage of eight hours, at Kaiffa, the ancient Sycaminum of the Romans, beautifully situated at the foot of Mount, Carmel. Here, my excellent friend, Her Majesty's Vice-Consul, gave us a hearty welcome, and, after breakfast, we mounted our horses, and started, at one o'clock, en route for Nazareth. The road from Kaiffa winds, for some time, through fields and gardens to the village of Belled-esh-Sheikh, which is reached in about an hour. Half an hour thence is the village of Yahoor, near the river Kishon, which we crossed, and an hour and a half more brought us to El-Hartie, about mid- way between Kaiffa and Nazareth. Leaving El- Hartie, we entered a forest of dwarf oaks inter- mingled with trees bearing white blossoms like the orange; the ground being one carpet of flowers, in which the anemone was most con- spicuous. It was a delightful spot A seat where gods might dwell, And wander with delight. Passing through this forest, we came in sight of the plains of Esdraelon and the mountains of Gilboa. In an hour from El-Hartie, we rode at 44 MODERN TURKEY. a canter through the village of Jeidah, and half an hour more brought us to the spring of Semunieh the Simonias of Josephus.* As we reclined to rest ourselves here, several women approached to draw water at the spring, clad in their pic- turesque costume, and appearing in every respect as in the time of Christ. Nearly two thousand years have passed, and the dress, habits, and customs of the people remain unchanged. Many of the wandering Bedawins, armed to the teeth, looked very formidable as they passed on their fleet horses, but we greeted them with civility; and here I may remark that I have never, in any part of Palestine or Syria, received aught but courtesy and respect from the natives. If they are treated kindly, they will be respectful ; but many travellers, particularly English and American, think it necessary to assert a superio- rity, and, in some cases, suffer in consequence. In another hour and a half six hours altogether from Kaiffa we rode down the steep hills that encompass Nazareth, and alighted at the hos- pitable dwelling of the monks of Terra Santa. The sun had set ; night had quickly succeeded day, and the town looked picturesque as the * It was in this place that the Romans attempted, during the night, to seize Josephus. TRAVELLING IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 45 lights twinkled in the darkness. The heart o quivered, and awe crept over the frame, for, here, we stood on holy ground. On this very spot, perhaps, our feet trod in the footsteps of Christ, for here his youth was passed, and over these hills he wandered. The next day, Sunday, we visited the Church of the Annunciation second only to that of the Holy Sepulchre the Greek Church, the Well of the Virgin, the Mensa Christi, the presidents of the Greek and Latin communities, &c. On Monday, as the rain the " latter rain " of Scrip- ture prevented our going to Tiberias, we paid a visit to the superior of the Church of the An- nunciation, who received us with every courtesy, and, after coffee, sent one of the brothers to con- duct us over the chapel built on the site of St. Joseph's workshop. Above the altar, in this chapel, there is a most exquisite painting. In the centre stands Joseph in his workshop, holding the handle of a carpenter's axe, the edge of which rests on a block of wood ; his eyes are directed, with a mingled expression of affection and reve- rence, towards the child Jesus, who, with a book in his hand, the contents of which he is evidently expounding, sits on a low stool in the foreground. On the left sits the Virgin, eagerly listening to 46 MODERN TURKEY. her son, and casting upon him looks of tender- ness and love. It was a picture of home, and recalled in full force to my imagination the early scenes of our Saviour's life. In that very room where I stood, our Lord had sat, and talked, and was obedient unto his parents. There he assisted Joseph ; there he grew up to manhood ere he went forth on that saving mission which ended with his death. In and about Jerusalem, the remembrances are sad and gloomy, but at Nazareth, they tell of happiness and peace. I could not soon tear myself from the place made sacred by these associations, and I do not envy the man who could stand there unmoved. I plucked a wild flower from the garden trodden by our Saviour's steps, a mute memento of the hallowed spot. The clouds, which had hung over the valley during the morning being now dispersed, we rode to the hill that, from the West, overlooks Nazareth, and on which stands the lonely wely, or tomb, of Neby Ismael. There is a glorious prospect from the summit of this hill, and the air is deliciously pure and fresh. The western part of the great plain of Esdraelon stretched out at our feet. To the left, Mount Tabor towered above the intervening hills. On the West, Gilboa TRAVELLING IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 47 and Hermon, and the mountains of Samaria stretching from Jeniu to the chain that extends from Carmel. Mount Carmel itself with the town of Kaiffa on the shore beneath, and the town of Acre washed by the Mediterranean on the shore beyond. To the North, extends one of the vast plains of Palestine, called El-Buttauf, which yields a tributary stream to the Kishon. To the South, can be seen a large village on the side of a hill, the ancient Sepphoris,- now called Sefiurieh. Beyond the plain of El-Buttauf, extend long ridges of hills running east and west, and, in the extreme distance, stands Safed, " the city set upon a hill." To the right, there is a curious grouping of hills and mountains, above which a still loftier chain rises in the dis- tance far away. Most persons have probably felt, at some time or other, how much the pleasure derived from scenery is enhanced by certain familiar reminis- cences, and how much more attractive nature appears when associated with the remembrance of some dear friend, or the forms of those we loved. If such be the case, what pleasure must be felt in the contemplation of scenes like these, where every spot is hallowed by recollections dear to our hearts, and where, at every step, 48 MODERN TUBKEY. remembrances of Him who loved us appeal so strongly to our imagination. Every place near Nazareth is, in fact, full of interest, but the road to Tiberias is, perhaps, more so than any other. Passing by Kefr-Kenna, the Cana of Galilee where the house is shown in which the miracle was performed of turning water into wine we come to the Mount of Beatitudes. Further on is the scene of the miracle of the loaves and fishes, and then before us is Lake Gennesa- reth. There is little in Tiberias itself worthy of observation, if we except the church, which is said to have been built on the spot where stood the house of Peter. It is the associations in the mind that invest everything around with interest, for although doubts may be cast on many traditional sites, there is no doubt that on these waters our Lord walked in the stillness of the night; on these waters the tempest-tossed ship of the disciples laboured amidst the storm. At Tiberias, there is little or no accommodation for travellers ; the King of the Fleas, it is said, holds his court there, and his subjects, consequently, swarm in great numbers. The best way to visit Tiberias is to leave Nazareth at daybreak, going north-east over the hills to Er-Reineh, a small village half TRAVELLING IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 49 an hour distant, and thence to Kefr-Kenna ; then passing the village El-Meshad, situated on a high hill to the left, and so by Lubieh to Gennesareth : returning the same afternoon in time to reach the summit of Mount Tabor, and behold the mag- nificent view and glorious sunset.* From Mount Tabor to Nazareth is a ride of an hour and a half. The attention and hospitality of the monks of Terra Santa, during our visit, could not be ex- ceeded. The bed-rooms in the monastery were extremely neat and clean, and the fare placed before us was excellent. We left Nazareth earlv tf on Wednesday morning, and, after an hour's ride, came to the fountain of Seffurieh,f which * When I visited Mount Tabor, a solitary hermit had made his home on the summit. He had lived in the Crimea; but, having dreamt that he should pass the remainder of his life in prayer and meditation upon a mountain in Palestine, he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and wandered till he came in sight of Mount Tabor, which corresponded exactly in appearance with the mountain he had seen in his dream. After some time, he discovered the ruins of the Church of the Transfiguration, which had been destroyed in A.D. 1263 by the Sultan Bibars. He excavated until he reached several chambers, some of which he roofed in and occupied. f It was here, in A.D. 1187, that the flower of the Christian chivalry assembled, to the number of fifty thousand, before the fatal battle of Hattin. Count Raymond, of Tripolis, advised that they should remain encamped near the fountain, and await Salah-ed-din ; but the proud and impetuous Grand Templar E 50 MODERN TURKEY. was peaceably occupied by women washing clothes in the stream. The women of Nazareth and the neighbourhood do not veil their faces, but walk erect with a graceful and elegant car- riage. They are tall and handsome, the profile being really beautiful, with that straight line of forehead and nose we see in the masterpieces of ancient Greece. Their head-dress is peculiar. Instead of the gold or silver coins, worn in their long tresses by the women of Beyrout, the Naza- rene women wear a multiplicity of coins over- lapping one another and attached to a pad on the head so placed that they form a sort of frame, through which their faces appear as in a picture. Bracelets and silver anklets give a further addition to the picturesqueness of their costume. In half an hour from the fountain, we reached the village of Seffurieh the Sepphoris of Josephus and Diocaesarea of the Romans which, in the time of Herod Antipater, was the largest and strongest city of Galilee. Leaving the ruins of the church, built on the site of Joachim and prevailed upon the weak King, Guy de Lusignan, to march towards Tiberias, and the result was a final blow to the power of the Crusaders. A few days after the battle of Hattin, the vic- torious Salah-ed-din encamped at the fountain, whence he con- tinued his triumphant march to Acre. TRAVELLING IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 51 Anna's house, to the right, we shortly entered the flowery plain of Zabulon, and, ascending the hills near Shefa-Omar, came in view of the Mediterranean and the town of Acre. Crossing these hills, we descended into the plain of Abilin, and, on reaching the heights above the village four hours from Nazareth we, unexpectedly, came upon an encampment of Bedawins under the command of Salihl Aga, by whom we were most hospitably received. E 2 52 CHAPTER V. A DAY WITH THE BEDAW1NS. I HAVE seldom beheld a more animated or picturesque scene than that which presented itself as we halted on the hill overlooking the village of Abilin. The dark tents of the Hawaras dotted the hill sides, and stretched far away into the plain beyond. Hundreds of richly capari- soned horses stood around. Crowds of hand- some, though rather wild-looking men, some reclining under the tents, others sauntering up and down, or placidly smoking their chibouks ; while, apart, on a rich Persian carpet, sat Salihl Aga, chief of the tribe, surrounded by his prin- cipal officers, numerous secretaries, with silver ink-holders stuck like daggers in their scarfs, and several distinguished -looking Arabs, who, I subsequently learned, were relatives and guests. As we hesitated to advance, Salihl Aga at once A DAY WITH THE BEDAWlNS. 53 sent his first lieutenant to beg us to alight, and, almost at the same moment, our horses were taken possession of by the grooms, while we willingly obeyed the chief's request. As I ap- proached, Salihl Aga and his officers arose ; the latter giving place to me on the right hand of their chief, whose graceful salutation I returned by bending low, and placing my hand on my heart, my lips, and my forehead. Taking our seats on the carpets spread upon the ground, Salihl Aga and I repeated our salutations, and, then, according to Oriental etiquette, I saluted each officer in form, one after the other, beginning with the one nearest to me, every man respond- ing by a bow, and laying his hand on his mouth and forehead. Two Nubians then approached with two nargilehs exactly alike, and presented them, at identically the same instant, to me and the chief, who bowed, as if he would render to me the homage due to a superior.* Coffee was then brought to us in china and silver filigree cups, the same ceremony being observed as with * In. the East, paradoxical as it may appear, the guest is, for the moment, the host. When a Mussulman receives you into his house, he, for the time, ceases to be master. He places himself, his servants, and his house, at your disposal, and, while he supplies all your wants, he appears rather as the guest, and you as the host and superior. 54 MODEEN TURKEY. the nargilehs, the chief and I emptying our cups and returning them simultaneously to the atten- dants, so as to make our salutations at the same moment. Coffee was afterwards handed to the officers, who, as they returned the cups, again saluted; and, the strictness of etiquette being apparently relaxed, conversation became general. Salihl Aga then informed us that they were celebrating the wedding of his son, Mohammed Ali, with the daughter of his brother, Akili Aga ; the bridegroom having attained his eighteenth year, and the bride having seen fourteen Sum- mers. After a little time, servants approached with silver jugs containing cold water, which they poured over our hands, while other domestics presented fine napkins richly embroidered in gold. This ceremony completed, a huge dish of boiled rice, with a boiled lamb on the top, was placed before us. Leben, or sour goat's milk, was poured here and there into the rice, a small quantity of which was taken up in the palm of the hand, rolled into the form and size of a pigeon's egg, and then transferred to the mouth. We had neither knives nor forks; the lamb being torn and eaten with the fingers. I enjoyed this breakfast immensely. The rice was well A DAY WITH THE BEDAWlNS. 55 boiled; the lamb tender; the tail delicious; and having ridden during four hours in the pure morning air, I was decidedly hungry. At first, I was rather shy of the tail, but the chief lieutenant tore a piece off and presented it to me, an act of especial courtesy and it was really excellent. To strangers, this eating with the fingers seems unpleasant ; but, like many other things, " it's nothing when you're used to it." These roving sons of the desert do not encumber themselves with much baggage ; and besides, the ablutions so scrupulously performed, before and after meals, prevent any idea of uncleanli- ness. After breakfast, native musicians and dancers the latter being dressed as women appeared upon the scene. The performance, al- though novel and graceful, was rather sensuous, and I was not sorry when Salihl Aga gave the signal to mount our horses, and proceed to the more stirring business of the day. The chief, at the head of about five hundred horsemen, now led the way down a hill tp a plain of considerable extent, where an opposing force of similar strength was drawn up under the command of his son, Mohammed AH. The women and children assembled on the heights, and the combatants, as they faced each other, 56 MODERN TURKEY. looked as if they had met to decide the fate of Abilin. For some moments not a man moved. At length, Salihl Aga advanced leisurely and alone towards the ranks of the enemy, and, brandishing his long spear almost in their faces, challenged them to the combat. Three of the enemy, one after the other, put spurs to their horses and sprang forward to capture their challenger, who instantly wheeled, then turned suddenly, again wheeling, and leaning so low over his horse's neck, to evade the enemy's blow, as to be for a moment lost to sight ; then rising and reining in his splendid Arab, he discharged his pistols at the foe as they passed him in their headlong speed. Pursued again, he turned once more, and, throwing the reins on his horse's neck, unslung his carbine, discharging it in the face of his would- be captor as he advanced upon him ; then, seizing the reins, guided his horse at full speed into the ranks of his own men, who, in their turn, advanced to the attack, and charged the enemy up to the opposite line. Thus, in a short time, the entire forces on both sides were engaged, and the whole field became the scene of a great battle, in which the eye followed two principal figures, the chiefs of the contending hosts. The young bridegroom exhibited wonderful skill in eluding the attacks of A DAY WITH THE BEDAW1NS. 57 his pursuers; wheeling in an instant on his nearest foe, the bridle thrown carelessly on the neck of his steed, while he unslung his carbine, which in a real contest would have brought down many an antagonist. Salihl Aga himself, in the excitement of the fight, let fall his turban and gold-embroidered cloak, exhibiting his shaven crown, with one long plait of hair floating in the wind ; and, as he led on a charge, uttering his shrill war-cry, it was difficult to fancy the combat otherwise than real. The prancing and excited horses ;. the brilliant and various costumes of the combatants ; the white burnouses streaming in the air; the clatter of steel and silver housings; the shouts of the men and loud reports of pistol and musket ; the chivalric bearing of Salihl Aga, and the noble mien of Mohammed Ali ; the women and children on the heights between the village and the plain ; all made up a scene the wildest and most picturesque I ever beheld. The sham-fight over, the sport of casting the djerreed commenced, the activity required in which exceeds even that with the spear and pistol. Each .horseman singles out an adversary, against whom he hurls his djerreed with considerable force, the skill consisting in catching it at the critical moment, and flinging it back again before 58 MODEEN TURKEY. the attacking party can escape. This sport is not unattended with danger, as a well-directed blow from a djerreed has frequently been fatal. Sometimes, when it is found impossible to catch the djerreed, the Bedawy almost throws himself from the saddle, and holding on to his horse's neck, lets the weapon pass over him ; then, swiftly wheeling, pulls the djerreed from the ground, and hurls it at his retreating antagonist. The horse performs a conspicuous part in this tourney, as upon his sagacity and perfect training depends much of his rider's success. The bridegroom, having now proved his valour, returned in triumph to the village. Most of his men had dismounted and followed on foot with drawn swords, two of the principal officers walk- ing at either side of his horse ; their swords crossing over the animal's shoulders. Mohammed Ali held a bouquet in his hand a love-token which, according to a custom of the tribe, he must bring back to his bride, otherwise the mar- riage could not be consummated. Instances have occurred where a rival has attacked the bride- groom and carried off the love-token, and as its possessor can claim the bride, this part of the day's ceremony always possesses a special interest. As the cortef/e advanced, a band of men, armed A DAY WITH THE BEDAWIXS. 59 with swords, rapidly descended the hill, while an equal number of the young chief's followers rushed to the front. For a second or two, they stood facing each other, the bright steel glittering in the sun, and then the swords clashed, beating time, with alternate strokes, to a strange wild dance, as they all proceeded towards the village. The crowd beat time with their hands, uttering shrill cries of heli-li-li-li-li-li-li, until the bride- groom alighted, and, being taken possession of by the women, disappeared from sight. We bade farewell to our kind host, and, leaving Abilin, entered the fertile plain of St. Jean d' Acre, through which a pleasant canter, over delightful green turf, brought us, in three hours, to the town itself, where we passed the night. The next day, Thursday, we inspected the fortifica- tions, and then rode round the bay of Acre, about eight miles, to Mount Carmel, where we were hospitably received at the monastery of Elias, the finest in the Holy Laud. On Friday, at eight a.m., we embarked at Kaiffa on board one of the Austrian Lloyd's steamers for Beyrout. 60 CHAPTER VI. SYEIA, PAST AND PRESENT. TT7HEN Greece was in her infancy, and long before Rome had even been founded, the coast of Syria was covered with magnificent and wealthy cities. On the north stood Aradus (the modern Rouad) ; eighteen miles to the south, Tri- polis; at a similar distance, Byblos (Djebeil), with the temple of Adonis; again, farther south, Berytus (Beyrout) ; at a like distance, Sidon; and, finally, about fifteen miles farther stood the " Queen of the "Waters," the stately Tyre. From the latter city arose commerce, civilization, the arts and sciences, and above all, that great instrument of social progress, the gift of letters. To its in- habitants, the Phoenicians, we are indebted for the knowledge of astronomy and arithmetic, as well as for the discovery of weights and measures, of money, of the art of keeping accounts or book- SYEIA, PAST AND PRESENT. 61 keeping, for the invention, or at least for the improvement, of ship-building and navigation, and for the discovery of glass. They were also famous for the manufacture of fine linen and tapestry ; for the art of working in metals and ivory ; for their skill in architecture, and, espe- cially, for the manufacture of that rare and costly luxury, the Tyrian purple. A formidable rival, however, at length com- peted with Tyre, and the trade of the latter was, to some extent, transferred to Alexandria that great city founded by the Macedonian conqueror. ^Nevertheless, Syria lost nothing of her material prosperity, for, when subsequently reduced to a Roman province (B.C. 65), the com- merce which had created her wealth received an unexpected impulse, and found a new source of profit in the luxurious habits of her masters. Another and more remunerative market was im- mediately opened, as the conquerors, having once tasted the delights of Asia, soon felt wants un- known to their frugal forefathers, and eagerly demanded her perfumes, her silks, and her precious stones, which they paid for with the spoils of the world. The ports of Syria continued to send forth ships filled with rich and costly merchandise; with gold, silver, tin, and other metals ; with 62 MODERN TURKEY. vessels of brass, slaves, mules, sheep, and goats ; pearls, precious stones, and coral; wheat, balm, honey, oil, spices, woven silk, and wine. Berytus (Beyrout) was famous for its immense exportation of corn, oil, and choicest wines. The cedars of Lebanon furnished the Romans with wood for the manufacture of magnificent ornaments, as well as for the domestic architecture of the rich, and the adornment of the temples of their gods. The dates of Syria were well known ; for Galen, in one of his treatises, mentions their properties, and compares them with those of Egypt. The plums and other fruits of Damascus appeared, among various exotic luxuries, upon the tables of epicures ; and Virgil tells us of delicious species of pear, the cultivation of which had been, in his time, introduced from Syria into Italy. After the fall of the Roman ascendancy (A.D. 638), this wondrous and classic land became the scene of many contests, and the battle-field on which the destinies of many kings were decided. Under the reign of the Caliphs, however, commerce again revived, and civilization made greater progress in two centuries than the world had ever seen before. The cities of Syria were re-embellished, an architecture of the highest order gave a charm SYRIA, PAST AND PRESENT. 63 to the buildings, and everything that human ingenuity could accomplish was effected for the prosperity and welfare of the country. History records the grandeur and magnificence ofHaroun- al-Raschid, and the astonishment of Charlemagne at the presents sent to him by that Caliph, amongst which were perfumes, pearls, jewels, rich stuffs, arms, and a mechanical clock worked by water, that then appeared a wonder in Europe. Haroun-al-Raschid, although he had to pay an army of five hundred thousand soldiers, and had built many palaces in different parts of his empire, was yet able to give his son, Al-Mamoun, two millions four hundred thousand denarii of gold; and when that prince was married, a thousand beautiful pearls were placed upon the head of his bride, and a lottery was opened in which each prize was either a house or a piece of land. Notwithstanding, however, all the vicissitudes through which the country has since passed, the Syria of to-day is as rich and fertile as the Syria of a thousand years ago. Upon her fruitful soil, wheat, barley, maize, and rice, spring up with the same luxuriant abundance. The sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco, those modern sources of wealth, abound; and the white mulberry trees 64 MODERN TURKEY. afford food for myriads of silkworms, which supply the manufactories of Lyons with their precious products. Limestone, sandstone, basalt, slate, coal, iron, and copper are plentiful in the mountain districts ; timber of every description may be had for the felling, while sycamores of enormous size spread their branches wide enough to cover a caravan with their grateful shade. Here are plains and valleys where everything useful in the vegetable kingdom is produced, by the most superficial cultivation, in rich and prodigal abundance. Gardens where the rose, the orange-flower, and the jasmine mingle their perfume into one delicious odour. Avenues of vine and fig-trees shade the roads ; growths of oleander follow the course of the rivers ; red- flowered grass blends its hues with a thousand flowers that enamel the meadows ; above is the beautifully blue vault of heaven, and between stretches the clear ocean of pure, pellucid atmo- sphere. In the poetry of the Turks, this favoured region has been called " the odour of Paradise;" in that of the Hebrews, " a garden planted by God for the first man;" and in that of the Arabs, it is described as a country " where the moun- tains bear Winter on their heads, Autumn on their SYRIA, PAS.T AND PRESENT. 05 shoulders, Spring in their bosoms, while Summer is ever sleeping at their feet." For some years past, a considerable improve- ment in the commercial prosperity of Syria has been everywhere apparent; and if the traffic between India and Europe, so long carried on through the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, returns to its more direct course by the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf, this improvement will naturally continue. The royal cities of Nineveh, and Babylon are, it is true, no more, and the mean towns of Mosul and Hillah alone mark the places where they stood ; but the great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, which contributed to their grandeur, are still capable of being made important arteries of trade. The Jordan, although, only sixty feet wide, is, in some places, twenty feet deep, and might easily be rendered navigable ; while the Orontes rushes through the plain with a velocity that has induced the Arabs to call it El'-Asy, or The Rebel. The maritime cities of Syria are despoiled and neglected. Tyre, whose " merchants were princes, and her traffickers the honourable of the earth," has become "a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the sea ;" but the old Berytus still remaims, bereft of her artificial splendour, yet possessing those natural p 66 MODERN TURKEY. beauties which time cannot destroy, and reviving, by her increasing trade, the memory of the vast commerce she once enjoyed, and the greatness to which, from her advantageous position, she is likely again to attain. PART II. 69 CHAPTER I. THE EMPEESS EUGMlE's VISIT TO CONSTANTINOPLE. visit of the Empress of the French to Con- stantinople in the Autumn of 1869, although without much political importance, was histori- cally interesting as the first occasion on which a crowned head had visited the Court of the Padishah. Since the Crimean War, it is true, some imperial and royal personages, amongst them the Prince and Princess of Wales, have been the guests of the Sultan, but they were all outside the " Divine " circle to which fortune and her own deserts had raised the beautiful Countess de Montijo ; and " Eugenie, Irnperatrice" was, therefore, the first and on the 13th of October, 1869, the only Christian Sovereign who had looked upon St. Sophia since the time of the Crusades. The reception of Her Majesty was, consequently, of the most splendid description,, 70 MODERN TURKEY. worthy, in every respect, of the exalted host and illustrious guest. In the reception of the Emperor of Austria, some days later, there was, perhaps, more ceremonial, more etiquette observed ; but in that of the Empress of the French there was, together with the honours due to her rank, a warmth and cordiality on the part of the people which I have never seen equalled in the East, except on the occasion of the present Sultan's visit to Egypt, in the month of April, 1863. The count- less multitude of men and women that lined the banks of the Bosphorus, crowded the streets of Pera and Stamboul, and thronged to the review at Be'icos, went not so much to pay homage to the wife of the great Emperor, as to admire a woman the fame of whose virtues and beauty had reached them; and that feeling found ex- pression in the address presented by Salih Bey, on the part of the municipality, when he grace- fully alluded to the courage and abnegation shown by Her Majesty on visiting the sick in the cholera hospital at Amiens. Every one has, at some time or other, when staying at country houses in England, felt much more "at home" in one place than in another. There is an indescribable some- THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 71 thing that tells us at once we are wel- come, and, as a result, everything affords satisfaction and pleasure. From the moment the Empress's foot touched Turkish soil she was saluted with the name of mussafir,* and from the Sultan himself down to the meanest Tiamal^ there was an expression almost of affection in the welcome with which she was greeted. Her Majesty plainly saw this, and therefore appeared to thoroughly enjoy herself. Almost her last words on parting from the Sultan were " I have been for a week past dreaming a delightful dream." On Saturday, October 9th, the three iron- clads, Mahmoudie, Osmanie, and Azizie, left for the Dardanelles, under the command of Admiral Ibrahim Pasha, and the following day (Sunday, 10th,) his Highness A'ali Pasha, the Grand Vizier, after an audience with the Sultan, embarked on board the SuUame. His Highness was accompanied by the Ministers of War and Marine, the President of the Admiralty Council, and the Grand Chancellor of the Imperial Divan. His suite was composed of Me*hemed Djemil Pasha (Ottoman Ambassador to Paris) ; Reouf * Mitssafir means a guest, and the person of a guest is sacred in Turkey, t Hamal a porter. 7'2 MODERN TURKEY. Pasha, First Equerry to the Sultan; Mahrnoud Bey, Secretary General of the Council of State; Aali Fuad Bey, First Translator of the Imperial Divan ; Serkis Effendi, Secretary General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; together with the Aides-de-Camp Sami Bey and Hassan Effendi. The SuUanie was followed by the Sultan's yacht, the Pertevi-Piale, on board of which Reouf Pasha embarked at the Dardanelles, and, accompanied by the iron-clads, proceeded to meet the Empress as she entered Turkish waters from the Pirasus. The French Ambassador, M. Bouree, also left with his suite the same day on board the despatch boat Ajaccio, together with the ship of war Forbin. The weather during the week had been very wet and stormy. Hail fell in the neighbour- hood of Smyrna, and several casualties were reported from the Black Sea. Umbrellas and overcoats had become a necessity ; but on Wed- nesday, the 13th of October, the morning broke calm and beautiful over the Anatolian hills, and the sun, tipping with gold the countless minarets of Stamboul, announced that we had entered upon the pleasant season of the second Summer. From the flat-roofed terrace of the house I occupied in the Grand' Rue de Pe>a, just opposite THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 73 the Galata Tower, a magnificent view was ob- tained ; extending, on the left, up the Bosphorus as far as the Palace of Beglerbey ; and on the right, over the Sea of Marmora to the islands of Halki and Prinkipo, with, in the far distance, the mountains of Bithynia and the snow-crowned summit of Mount Olmypus. In front, across the Bosphorus, was Scutari (the ancient Chrysopolis) with its melancholy-looking Cyprus grove and Turkish burial-ground. Then Kadikeui (the ancient Chalcedon), and nearer, across the Golden Horn, the beautiful panorama of old Stamboul, from Seraglio Point past the Sublime Porte, the mosques of Saint Sophia, of Sultans Achmet, Bajazet, Solyman, and Mahmoud; the beautiful tower of the Seraskeriat, the ruined aqueduct, the old walls, and Eyoub to the dark cypresses of " the place of a thousand tombs." From an early hour every one was astir, and the streets were filled with, perhaps, a more motley group than could be seen in any other city in the world. Men from all quarters of the globe , Franks and Turks, Persians and Greeks, Jews and Armenians, Circassians and Ethiopians, Copts and Nubians, Hindoos and Egyptians, all wending their way to some spot upon the shore whence a good view might be obtained of the 7 1- MODERN TURKEY. coming spectacle. Numerous steamers, including the Taurus and Neva, belonging to the Mes- sageries Imperiales, started for the Marmora at ten a.m. ; but the Empress did not arrive for some hours afterwards. The imperial yacht, Aigle, passed the Dardanelles at half-past one a.m., and, as she steamed fifteen knots an hour, found herself off San Stefano, in the Marmora, shortly before noon ; but the French Ambassador and iron-clad fleet were " nowhere." The captain of the imperial yacht evidently hesitated to proceed further, and waited on and off this point for up- wards of an- hour, until at length the Sultan's yacht, the Pertevi-Piale, came up and led the way into the Bosphorus. At two p.m. exactly, the Aigle, with the Empress on board, -passed Seraglio Point under a booming welcome from the batteries at Scutari and Tophane ; and, as the yacht approached Beglerbey, the salutes were taken up by the heavy guns of the frigates anchored off Salih- bazar and Dolma-Baghtche*, while, from the Giant's Grave to the Maiden's Tower, the hills on either side exchanged their thundering echoes till the Aigle came to her moorings at the buoy placed for her especiaj use at TchengeL-Keni Bay, a little above the palacl. Three thousand and THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 75 thirty shots were fired. All the men-of-war, as also many of the foreign merchant-ships in the Horn, were flag-dressed from taffrail to truck and jib-boom ; the fleet manned yards and simultaneously fired a royal salute as the yacht neared Tophane; while along both sides of the Bosphorus, wherever an opportunity occurred, troops were drawn up in a double line, and every available space was crowded with spectators. The harbour was a mass of bunting, and over the British Consular buildings and Post-office floated the national ensign, in honour of the Consort of our imperial ally. The Aigle is, or was, a magnificent steam-yacht, and the double-gilt cables, running round the hull a little apart from each other, formed a very ornamental addition to her appearance. The tri- coloured flag floated from the main, and attracted attention from the magnificence of its embroidery. The blue and red stripes contained each four- teen bees embroidered in gold, and the white stripe eight bees, four above and four below, with the imperial cipher also in gold on the white ground. The *cabin was decorated in white and gold, and on the quarter-deck a spacious saloon was erected^ the whole evincing an amount of comfort, taste, and elegance worthy of its illustrious occupant. 7C> MODEEN TURKEY. A considerable delay took place after mooring the yacht at Tchengel-Keni Bay, before the Sul- tan went on board, as the French Ambassador had not arrived from the Dardanelles. Some of the Sultan's caiques, with the coxswains clad in green, pulled leisurely round the yacht; then Ke"ouf Pasha, First Equerry of the Sultan, boarded her, but in a short time returned to the Palace, when almost immediataly afterwards His Majesty came alongside in a magnificent state-barge, built expressly for the Empress. Loud cheers from the Aigle and the numerous steamers on the spot greeted the Padishah as he mounted the port gangway ladder, and, saluting first in Oriental fashion, shook hands with his lovely guest. His Majesty wore the Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honour, and his dark blue coat was well set off by a pair of white Cashmere trousers striped with gold. The Empress, it is no mere common-place to say, although a little thinner than when I had last seen her in Paris, looked very beautiful. She was dressed in what I believe is called a " costume," the entire robe being of one material. The dress was, straw-colour, and fitted her with matchless grace ; yellow leather boots, and a small straw-coloured hat, with a white feather, THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 77 completed her toilette. In a very few minutes Her Majesty, followed by the Sultan, descended to her barge, and, sitting side by side, they were slowly rowed by twenty caiquejies to the landing stage of Beglerbey Palace, where, at ten minutes to three p.m., His Majesty, stepping first on shore, gave his arm to the Empress, and led her into the Serai'. The scene at this moment was very striking, as the Ministers of the Porte and high dignitaries of the Palace were in attendance. The troops, drawn up in double line, paid military honours, and the splendid band of the Sultan received his Imperial visitor with the French national air of " La Heine Hortense." On entering the Palace, the Empress complimented His Majesty on the magnificent ap- pearance of his Body-Guard drawn up in the vestibule and on the staircase ; and, in the grand drawing-room, they conversed together pleasantly for abont ten minutes. The Sultan then presented the Ministry and high functionaries of the Porto. This ceremony concluded, His Majesty took leave of the Empress and returned to Dolma-Baghtche' in his own state-caique, the men-of-war still manning yards, and again firing an imperial salute. The delegates of the French colony, as well as 78 MODERN TURKEY. the civil and military functionaries of France resident in Constantinople, were then presented to the Empress by the Count de Brissac, Her Majesty's Chamberlain ; M. Bourse, the Ambas- sador, not having yet arrived. She questioned each upon the mission with which he was en- trusted, and appeared to be well informed on the subjects of mines, forests, roads, and railways. The manager of the Messageries Imperiales having mentioned that he had detained the steamer for Marseilles until the following day (Thursday), Her Majesty replied that, although the sea had been rough, she had prepared all her correspon- dence on board, and regretted that any delay should take place in the mail, adding, " The in- terests of the public should always take prece- dence of ours." After the presentations, which lasted an hour and a half, the Empress retired to her private apartments, and, about six o'clock, re-appeared in a white satin dress for the purpose of paying a visit to the Sultana Valide". On the arrival of Her Majesty at Dolma-Baghtche, she was received at the quay of the Palace by His Highness A'ali Pasha, the Grand Vizier; the Sultan himself awaiting her on the staircase ascending to the drawing-room. His Majesty descended two THE EMPJtESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 79 steps, and then giving his arm to the Empress, conducted her, accompanied by only one Maid of Honour, across the throne-room to the en- trance of the harem. Here the Sultana Valide" (the Sultan's mother) and the Bach-Kadyn (first wife of the Sultan) received Her Majesty. There was no one present, besides Madame Myran Bey, who acted as interpreter, but Prince Joussouf Izzed-din-EfFendi (the Sultan's eldest son), two little Princesses, and five or six Kasnadars, or confidential women of the harem. This visit over, the Empress was conducted to the dining- hall, where two thrones were erected for their Majesties, and a banquet of the most sumptuous description was served. The Empress sat on the right hand of the Sultan, and next to Her Majesty was the Grand Vizier, A'ali Pasha, who acted as interpreter. To the left of the Sultan sat the French Am- bassador, M. Bouree, who had arrived at about 5 p.m., and then, at either side, the suite of the Empress. Mustapha Fazyl Pasha, brother of the Viceroy of Egypt, was also present, as well as Kibrisli Mehemet Pasha, formerly Grand Vizier, and Mustapha Naish Pasha, Minister without portfolio. The Ministers of the Porte, beside the Grand Vizier, were Kiamil Pasha, President 60 110DEKN TURKEY. of the Grand Council ; Mehemet Ruchdi Pasha, Minister of the Interior; Hussein Avni Pasha, Minister of War; Mahmoud Pasha, Minister of Marine ; and Sadyk Pasha, Minister of Finance. The Sultan was particularly gallant and courteous to his guest, who was accompanied by her nieces Mile. Marie Stuart, Marquise de la Raneza, and Mile. Louise Stuart, Marquise de Vandun- gello. The other ladies present were the Com- tesse de la Poeze and the Comtesse de Naclaillac, together with the Maids of Honour Miles. O Marion and de Larininat, and Madame Redel, governess of the Scoto-Spanish young ladies, d'Alba. The gentlemen in the suite of the Empress were Prince Joachim Murat, the Duke de Huescar (nephew of Her Majesty), General Douay (aide-de-carnp of the Emperor), M. de Surville (captain of the Aigle), Count de Cosse- Brissac (chamberlain), Count Regnault de St. Jean d'Angely, the Commandant Reffye', and Captain Clary (officers of artillery). All the arrangements were under the care of His Ex- cellency Kiamil Bey ; and it is said that Marco Vido, maitre-d' hotel of the Imperial Palace, proved himself in every respect worthy of the occasion. The following was the menu which, THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 81 although served in the European style, contained some delicious Turkish dishes, Consomme a 1'Imperiale ; Biz de veau, a la Villeroy ; Beurek ; Bar, a la Valide ; Filets de boeuf, a la Re*gence ; Cotelettes de chevreuil, aux truffes ; Cailles, a la Lucullus ; Chaud-froid de filets de dindonneaux, k 1'Anglaise ; Supreme de faisan a la Circassienne ; Cronstade de foie gras, en Sultane; Filets de rougets, a la Parisienne ; Punch, a la Rornaine ; Haricots verts ; Asperges ; Patligian dolmassi ; Tzarchi Kebabi ; Chapon; Becasses rotis; Pilaff ; Ananas, a I'lmperatrice ; Serai lokmassy ; Caimakli Ekmek ; Cadaiff ; Glaces printanieres. After dinner, coffee was served in the grand drawing- room, and, the assembled guests having retired into another apartment, the Sultan and the Empress, with His Highness A'ali Pasha, still as interpreter, remained in conversation for upwards of an hour. At 9.30 p.m., Her Majesty returned in the Sultan's yacht to the Palace of Beglerbey, and was saluted on her passage by a splendid exhi- bition of fireworks ; all the men-of-war being outlined from stem to stern, and from water-line to masthead, with a brilliant display of Bengal lights. The palace of Beglerbey, on the Asiatic shore, G 82 MODERN TURKEY. is situated on one of the most beautiful of the many beautiful spots upon the banks of the Bosphorus. Close to the water, it is on three sides enclosed by a curtain of verdure which extends over the slopes of the rising hills that form the foot of Mount Borougourlu. If the exterior of the palace is elaborately ornamented, the interior, to a still greater extent, displays all that luxury and magnificence with which Oriental monarchs love to surround themselves. Prodigies of Moorish decoration meet the eye everywhere ; the ceilings and walls are inlaid with gold and fantastic designs in thousands of colours blending harmoniously together; hangings of golden tissue in various patterns fall round the windows and before the doors, while the choicest furniture, the chefs-d'oeuvre of Sevres, and the extraordinary productions of China and Japan add to the general effect. The principal entrance is from the south, overlooking the garden, whence a rich staircase of a double spiral form leads to the grand drawing-room or " salle d'honneur." On the left, there is a large room a coupole, and on the right, at the side next to the Bos- phorus, is the throne-room in the Moorish style, and altogether in marquetry, at the end of which are large niches supported by columns of rare THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 83 woods encrusted with ornaments in ivory of the most exquisite delicacy. An ornamentation of the same kind decorates the different panels forming the basement and the spaces between the niches ; while a frieze composed of a series of small columns, divided by festoons in mosaic, runs round the upper part of the cornice. At the bottom of this room, raised some height from the floor, is placed the throne, resplendent in gold and precious stones. In that part of the building, opposite to the throne-room, the Em- press's bed-room was arranged, and furnished in every particular after the model of the one occupied by Her Majesty in the Tuileries. The dressing-room, especially, was prepared with the greatest care, so that nothing should be wanting which the usages of Europe might require, or the most fastidious feminine taste could exact. The requisites for the toilette, provided by a Parisian upholsterer, were consequently of the richest description ; the art of the goldsmith and the talent of the jeweller having been combined to produce an ensemble of the most superb character. From the private apartments you enter the grand drawing-room, round which runs a colonnade ; splendid lustres hang from the ceil- ing; candelebra of exquisite workmanship are G 2 84 MODERN TUBKEY. \ attached to each column ; Persian carpets cover the floor; Turkish divans of brocade and em- broidered velvet are relieved by luxurious sofas of European fashion ; magnificent pier-glasses adorn the walls; the whole combining "Western comfort with Eastern display. This saloon gives access to the bath-room, which was so much admired by the Empress that the architect not only presented Her Majesty with a model, but, by order of the Sultan, sent to Paris sufficient marble in a perfect state of preparation for the erection of a bath on the same plan. There are three compartments in this bath. The first room is called ihefrigida- rium ; thence you enter into the tepidarium, which is but moderately heated ; and then into the third apartment, or calidarium, where the temperature is at the highest point. The bath-room properly so called, that is the tepidarium and calidarium., is composed of pure white marble, the ceilings being formed in the shape of a dome through which the light is admitted in such a subdued and singular manner that the vault has the appearance of being filled with some translucid substance. From the " salle d'hou- neur," a private staircase leads to a room beneath, altogether of marble, in the centre of which there THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 85 is a basin fed by three fountains of most beauti- ful design, and surrounded by divans, sofas, &c. In this room there are also four immense bronze vases, ornamented with sculptures representing combats of wild animals, which are considered chefs-d* 'ceuvre of Parisian workmanship. The gardens of the Palace, perhaps the most wonderful of the whole as a work of art, are disposed in terraces rising one above the other to a great height, each filled with the choicest flowers. On the topmost of these terraces, a miniature lake has been formed, ornamented with grottoes, and shaded by the parasol pine, mag- nolias, willows, and various trees that give forth a delicious perfume. The view, when seated in one of the caiques on this lake, particularly at sun- set, is most illusive and extraordinary ; for, as nothing is seen beyond but the summits of the hills, the pellucid atmosphere above, and the golden sky in the distance, you can almost imagine yourself following the sun, upon some unknown sea, suspended in the midst of the air. On Thursday, at eleven a.m., the Sultana Valide visited the Empress at the Palace of Beglerbey, and, in the afternoon, Her Majesty went to Stauiboul,, where she was enthusiastically 86 MODERN TURKEY. received by thousands of true believers. I do not think there could have been fewer than ten thousand Turkish men and women in the court of the Seraglio when the Empress arrived, and she appeared to charm all by the condescension and elegance of her manner. The women were even more excited than the men, and one old lady, replying to the remarks of her yashmaked companions relative to the absence of state cere- monial, cried out, " She does not want the Saltanat (Imperial parade), for she has it in her- self; she carries it with her in her lovely face and graceful form." Her Majesty, simply dressed in blue silk, with a small white hat, was in an open carriage drawn by four horses, and accompanied by Djemil Pasha, Ottoman ambassador to Paris, and the maids of honour, Mile. Marion and Mile. Larminat. Prince Murat, M. Bouree, French ambassador to the Porte, Kiamil Bey, Grand Master of the Ceremonies, and General Douay, were in a second carriage ; the rest of Her Majesty's suite following in other court equipages, but without any state display, beyond an escort of mounted gendarmerie. The palace of Top-Capou, the mosques of Saint Sophia and Sultan Selim, the bazaars, the tomb of Sultan Mahmoud, and the Hasne, or Imperial THE EMPEESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 87 Treasury, were successively visited. Her Majesty appeared to take great interest in some of the costly curiosities accumulated in the latter build- ing, particularly the rich collection of ancient armour and coats of mail worn by the Sultans, the most remarkable of which is that of Sultan Murad II., conqueror of Bagdad. The head- piece of this suite is of gold and silver, almost covered with precious stones ; the diadem sur- rounding the turban is composed of three emeralds of the purest water and about seven to eight centimetres in size, while the collar is formed of twenty-two large and magnificent diamonds. In the Hasne there is also a curious ornament, in the shape of an elephant of massive gold, standing on a pedestal formed of enormous pearls placed side by side. There is also the table, thickly inlaid with oriental topazes, pre- sented by Catherine of Russia to the Vizier Baltadji Mustapha, together with a very remark- able collection of ancient costumes, trimmed with rare furs, and literally covered with precious stones. The divans and cushions formerly used in the throne-room of the Sultans were carefully inspected by the Empress and her ladies. The stuff of which the cushions are made is pure 88 MODERN TURKEY. tissue of gold, without any mixture of silk whatever, and is embroidered with pearls weigh- ing each about 3,600 drachmas. Children's cradles of solid gold, inlaid with precious stones ; vases of immense value in rock-crystal, gold, and silver, encrusted with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds; daggers, swords, and shields, beautifully wrought and richly jewelled, all tell a story of ancient wealth and grandeur, when the Ottoman power was a reality, and Western Europe trembled before the descendant of the son of Amurath. It was thought that the Empress would return by Isserkedji-Iskelessi, where the municipality had laid down some magnificent Persian carpets; but she re-em- barked at Yali-Kiosque, and returned at about 5.30 p.m. to Beglerbey, where a diner intime, to which the French ambassador and Djemil Pasha were invited, closed the programme of the day. On Friday morning, the 15th, at 10 o'clock, the Empress received the foreign ministers in the grand drawing-room at Beglerbey. Mrs. Elliot (now Lady Elliot), wife of the English ambassador, and Madame Ignatieff, wife of the Russian minister, together with Mmes. Uebel, Ehrenoff, and Stourdza, were also presented. Her Majesty, THE EMPKESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 89 who wore an amber satin dress trimmed with mauve velvet, spoke in English to* Mrs. Elliot, and expressed great pleasure at meeting with a compatriot, as she was herself, she said, half a Scotchwoman. After the reception, Her Majesty gave a private audience to His Highness Mustapha Fazyl Pasha, brother to the Viceroy of Egypt, and then crossed the Bosphorus to the Djam- Kiosk at Dolma-Baghtche to witness the pro- cession of the Sultan going to Mosque. From an early hour the neighbourhood of the palace was thronged with a compact multi- tude of red-fezzed and turbaned men, whilst Turkish women, clad in snowy yashmaks and glowing coloured feridjies of every shade, lined the road, at either side, from the grand entrance to the Mosque at Be"chiktach. A double line of guards kept the route, and at a few minutes before twelve, Prince Izzed-din-EfFendi, in the uniform of a colonel, and wearing the grand cordon of the Osrnanie, passed before the Kiosk, at the windows of which the Empress and her suite were seated. Immediately afterwards followed the generals and colonels, riding two abreast, preceding some files of superior officers on foot. Then came, on horseback, the President of the Dari-Choura, the President of the Council 90 MODERN TURKEY. of Marine, the President of the Council of the Imperial Guard, the Admirals, the Grand Master of the Artillery, the Ministers of War and Police, and, lastly, His Highness A'ali Pasha, the Grand Vizier. At a short distance came the Sultan himself, mounted on a splendid white charger, richly caparisoned ; and immediately behind followed the body-guard who are selected from the best families of every race in the empire, and wear, each of them, their own national costume several led horses in magnificent trappings, and an escort of picked imperial troops. As His Majesty passed slowly along, the bands stationed at intervals struck up the Sultan's march, and the soldiers shouted " Long live Sultan Abdul Aziz ; may he live for ever !" As His Majesty passed the Djam Kiosk, the Empress rose, and the Padishah graciously bowed, saluting at the same time with his hand in Oriental fashion. It was an imposing sight, and as the cavalcade of pashas of every rank, with dazzling gold embroidery on their saddle- cloths, and uniforms studded with medjidies and nishan-iftiars, moved down the long line to the music of the imperial band, the ensemble would have compared favourably with any court proces- sion to be seen elsewhere in Europe. After the THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 91 passage of the Sultan, the Empress visited the Sweet Waters of Europe, and subsequently the Sweet Waters of Asia the beauties of which have been so frequently described where she was received by an immense crowd of Turkish ladies, who make this delightful retreat their usual promenade on Fridays. In the evenings the Grand Vizier dined with the Empress at Beglerbey, and it was nearly midnight when his Highness returned to his Yali at Bebek on the opposite side of the Bosphorus. On Saturday, there was a grand review of the troops at Hunkiar-Iskelessy. The Porte, as well as the public offices, was closed, and the Bos- phorus was covered, almost from sunrise, with innumerable steamers and caiques, bearing thou- sands of eager holiday-makers to the beautiful valley of Beicos. About 2 p.m., the Sultan and the Empress arrived at the Kiosk constructed for the occasion, and as soon as the Imperial party were seated the march past began. The Kiosk was a magnificent specimen of Moorish archi- tecture. On the right, where the Empress sat, floated the Imperial flag of France with its golden bees ; and, on the left, over the Sultan's head, a gentle breeze from the Euxine spread out the ooce formidable standard of the Crescent and the 92 MODERN TURKEY. Star. The entrance was draped with crimson and green velvet, the Turkish colours, richly embroidered in gold ; and as their Majesties took their seats under the verandah, surrounded by their respective suites, the immense multitude burst forth into a long-continued hearty cheer. During two hours the troops, consisting of about twenty thousand men under the command of Omar Pasha, defiled before the Padishah and his illustrious guest, the latter expressing to her evidently gratified host her pleasure at the splendid sight, and making, from time to time, some flattering remarks as the admirably- equipped regiments of Circassians, lancers, and light dragoons passed by. After the review, which lasted until half-past four o'clock, the Sultan and the Empress, followed by their suites, drove in an open carriage to the ancient Kiosk of Hunkiar-Iskelessy, where they dined; and about ten p.m. His Majesty conducted his lovely visitor back by water to the palace of Beglerbey. The wonderful beauty of the scene as H.M.'s steamer floated down the current is said to have moved her deeply. The hills of Beicos, and the banks on both sides of the Bosphorus were lit up as if by enchantment. Every house and palace was illuminated ; the Yalis of the Grand Vizier, the THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 93 Viceroy of Egypt, Kiamil Pasha, Mustapha Fazyl Pasha, and Kiamil Bey being conspicuous for the taste and profusion of lights displayed. Fires burned all round the camp, and myriads of coloured lamps, festooned in every variety of design, shed a soft gleam over the water, while from rafts and ships flew thousands of rockets bursting in a blaze of diamond light. The fleet burned Bengal lights, and from Buyukdere to the Golden Horn, torch and lamp outvied the bright- ness of the moon, which shone in a cloudless sky. To add to the wonders of the night, a con- tinued dropping fire was kept up by the twenty thousand troops on the heights of Yeni-Keni, Kalender, and Therapia, which was answered by the artillery in the distance ; the whole appearing rather like a dream of fairy-land than a reality of every-day life. The magnificent reception national it may, in every respect, be termed given to the Empress, culminated on Sunday, when Her Majesty entered Pera for the first time. After breakfast, the Empress crossed in a caique from Beglerbey to the Palace of Dolrna-Baghtche, in the court-yard of which state-carriages were awaiting Her Majesty and suite. The Empress's carriage was drawn by six splendid horses richly caparisoned. Troops 94 MODERN TURKEY. lined the entire route from Dolma-Baghtche to the Palace of the French embassy, while the Grand' Rue, from the Taxira to the Galata-Serai, was festooned at either side with flowers pendent from standards bearing many-coloured flags, and decorated alternately with the Imperial eagle and the Crescent and the Star. The street itself was strewed with fresh gathered leaves of trees, and the windows of the houses, hung with pieces of rich tapestry, were filled with the femi- nine elite of Pera, dressed in their most be- witching of toilettes. A triumphal arch had been erected by the municipality at the entrance of the Grand' Rue, and as the Empress's carriage stopped close to the Sultan's portrait, which ornamented the left side of the arch that of Her Majesty being on the right the acclamations of the people were such as had never before been heard in the streets of Pera. After receiving an address presented by Salih Bey, president of the municipality, Her Majesty proceeded to the Armeno-Catholic Church of St. Marie, where high mass was celebrated. On the arrival of the Empress at the church, eight of the principal Armenian laymen presented Her Majesty, according to an ancient custom, with THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 95 gold and silver cups containing rare perfumes > after which she advanced with her suite, followed by Djemil Pasha, Server Effendi (Mayor of Con- stantinople), Kiamil Bey, Reouf Pasha, Arifi Bey, A'ali Bey, Musafer Bey, Madjib Bey, and Eustem Bey, together with the French Ambas- sador, and was conducted by the Patriarch, Monsignor Hassoun, to the throne prepared for her at the right of the altar. The ceremony was worthy of the City of the Seven Hills itself; some twenty Archbishops and Bishops having come to do honour to the wife of the Eldest Son of the Church. These prelates were chiefly Armeno- Catholic dignitaries from different parts of the Turkish empire Erzeroum, Trebizond, Broussa, Angora, Kharput, Mount Lebanon, &c. ; besides whom there were two Greek-Catholic Bishops, a Bulgarian Catholic Archimandrite, and two Mektarist Archbishops (one from Venice, the other from Vienna.) The service was intoned in the Armenian chaunt, with flute or reed accom- paniment, and presented some very striking effects, particularly when the Empress stepped from her throne to kiss the Gospel, presented to her by Monsignor Kaloupjian, Archbishop of Amasia. After mass was concluded, the Armenian Patriarch read an address from the 96 MODERN TURKEY. altar, and as the Empress arose from her seat, surrounded by her attendants and the twenty prelates, clad in every variety of gorgeous vest- ment, I, certainly, never beheld a grander or more solemn scene. The following is a trans- lation of the address, which has a greater signi- ficance than may at first sight appear : "Madam, In coming to pray in this church, your Majesty has deigned to give the Armeno- Catholic community a proof of your august and supreme good-will, the memory of which will always attach to this sanctuary, and be remem- bered amongst us. I join my humble voice to that of the prelates who surround this holy altar in imploring the Creator of all things to shed His most abundant blessings upon your Majesty, upon the Emperor, the faithful ally of our well-beloved sovereign the Sultan, and upon your glorious nation, whose hopes and affections are centred in your son. These prayers, Madam, we asso- ciate with those which come from the bottom of our hearts for the Sultan, our august sovereign, whose reign will be illustrious for the inauguration of those great principles of civilization which have assured the liberty of the Church, and the happi- ness of his people, without distinction of race or creed. It is, in fact, to these favours that we THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 97 owe the signal honour which has been conferred upon us by your Majesty, whose piety, gracious- ness, and generosity have decorated this humble church with so magnificent a gift as that which now adorns its walls." After the address was read, the Archbishops and Bishops descended from the altar. The Empress left her throne, and, pros- trating herself before the Patriarch, received from him the Apostolic benediction. Her Majesty then left the church, and, as she passed close to me, I had an opportunity of well observing the pensive beauty of the face, and the inexpressible grace and elegance of the form which had won all hearts in the old city of Byzantium. So youthful, bright, and happy did she look, that I should certainly have assigned 1840 as the date of her birth, rather than that which is to be found in the Almanach de Gotha. In the address read by the Armeno-Catholic Patriarch, allusion is made to a gift presented by the Empress. This gift, one of the many magni- ficent decorations that adorned the church, was a splendid specimen of Gobelin tapestry, after Raphael's Transfiguration, and said to be worth 10,000. I was not surprised at the fervour of Monsignor Hassoun's gratitude, for the gift was a right royal one> worthy indeed of the fair and H 98 MODERN TURKEY. pious donor. From the church of St. Marie, the Empress drove to the French embassy in the Grand' Rue de Pera, where she received deputa- tions from the Sisters of Charity, the ladies of Sion, the brothers of the Christian schools, and the clergy of the Latin churches. I was unable to be present, as, although I left the church of St. Marie almost immediately after Her Majesty, I found it impossible to make my way through the wall of human beings that literally barred the passage. I tried going round by the British embassy into the Petit Champ des Morts, and up a byway further down into the Grand' Rue, but with the same result; in fact, although I have seen dense crowds in London and Paris, I never before saw such a compact, impenetrable mass of humanity as I encountered on that Sunday. It was not that the crowd would not make way, for the people in Constantinople are always quiet, civil, and well-behaved; but they actually could not, so thickly were they packed together. The following, however, is a translation of the address presented to Her Majesty, and read by M. Bautony on behalf of the French colony : "Madame, The arrival of your Majesty fills us with joy. Disinterested friend of Turkey, France could not better show the unalterable THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 99 attachment which she bears to this race, noble and chivalrous like itself, than in sending its gracious Sovereign to seal that friendship by her presence. The welcome that the entire popula- tion of Constantinople has given to your Majesty, the anxiety of all classes to approach and admire your august person, prove by their spontaneous- ness the moral effect which the presence of your Majesty has produced in the East. And this effect will be all the greater inasmuch as the impressions created in Constantinople, the heart of Turkey and of Islam, will spread from that vital centre to the extremities of the Empire. " If, after the war in the Crimea, Turkey entered politically speaking, into the comity of European nations, your voyage to the East, Madame, and your sojourn in this capital of the Ottoman Empire, will certainly be causes of moral progress in this beautiful land our second country whose progress and happiness we ardently desire. France, of which your Majesty is the gracious personification, our ' Belle France,' returns to-day to Turkey, by its Sovereign, the visit the Sultan paid the year before last to our country. The civilized West allies itself more intimately to the reforming East. From the exchange of courteous visits between the H 2 100 MODERN TURKEY. Sovereigns themselves, in face of their people, and in the midst of the populations assembled in the capital from the most distant provinces, will arise a new era of progress and solid liberty which the lights of civilization and the destruc- tion of ignorance cannot fail to extend to every country. " We salute with ardour, therefore, the advent of this new day, with which your Majesty's name will ever remain joined to that of France, whose civilizing mission will bear fruit in ages yet unborn. The French colony in Constantinople, whose respectful homage your Majesty conde- scends to receive, and of which I am the humble interpreter, will be for ever grateful for the interest that in all circumstances you have taken in them. I esteem myself happy in being on this day the organ of the general sentiment, and in being able to say in the name of all, Madame, you are welcome to the East. Vive 1'Impe'ratrice Eugenie !" The Empress, I learned, was much affected at the address, and spoke in her usual winning manner to the principal members of the colony presented to her. Her Majesty then returned to Dolma-Baghtche, and crossed in the State caique to Beglerbey, whence, after lunch, she rode on horseback, accompanied by Prince Murat and THE BMPKESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 101 suite, to Tchamlidja, one of the highest points on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, overlooking Scutari. In the evening, Her Majesty again dined with the Sultan at Dolma-Baghtche ; but this time, besides those present on the previous Wednesday, the Sultan had invited all the foreign representatives and their wives. After dinner, the Sultan led the Empress into the grand draw- ing-room, where coffee was served, and it was very generally remarked that never had His Majesty appeared more affable and gratified. He chatted pleasantly with his guests, and bore himself towards his ministers, for the first time, as a European rather than an Eastern monarch. The Empress returned to Beglerbey at ten p.m., and on Monday made an excursion with the Sultan to the Kiosk of Alem-Dagh. In the morning, Her Majesty received the wife of A'ali Pasha, the Grand Vizier, as also that of Djemil Pasha and Kiamil Pasha ; the wife and daughters of Mustapha Fazyl Pasha, and the daughter of Halim Pasha. With the latter the Empress was particularly gracious, as the grand-daughter of the great Mehemet Ali, founder of the hereditary Vice-royalty of Egypt, speaks French perfectly, and was dressed a la Franque, in the best taste of II ur Majesty's own milliner. 102 MODERN TURKEY. Before her departure, the Empress conferred the Cross of the Legion of Honour on nearly all the Turkish officials attached temporarily to her service. Our countryman, Hobart Pasha, received the rank of Commander, " in recog- nition of his personal attention to the French squadron during Her Majesty's visit." Besides valuable presents of diamond rings, pins, snuff- boxes, bracelets, &c., the Empress also gave one hundred and sixty thousand francs to the various charities of Constantinople, the Imaums of the mosques she visited, and the servants in waiting at the Palace of Beglerbey. Her Ma- jesty declined to accept the valuable presents prepared for herself, with the exception of some pieces of cloth of gold and two superb carpets which the Sultan presented, saying in French, " C'est pour un boudoir." The Empress on her part presented to the Sultan two beautiful Sevres vases, and to the Grand Vizier a magnificent tea service of old Sevres porcelain. On Tuesday, the 19th of October, all those brilliant fetes came to an end. At 11 a.m. the Sultan went from Dolma-Ba^htche to Beffler- o o bey, and remained in conversation for some time with the Empress. His Majesty then, at about ^2.30 p.m., conducted his fair guest on board THE EMPRESS EUGENIE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 103 her yacht; the thunder of the cannon from the ships of war and batteries announced the Pa- dishah's return to shore, and at one o'clock exactly the beautiful Franza Imperatrizassy preceded by the iron-clads, together with the Forbin and Pertevi-Piale was borne on her Aigle past the Golden Horn, and was lost to sight beyond the heights of the Seraglio. 104 CHAPTER II. THE SUEZ CANAL. rilHE 17th of November, 1869, witnessed the historical apotheosis of M. de Lesseps. After half a lifetime of devotion to an idea, and faith in his own destiny to carry it out, he, on that day, received a triumph grander both in its signifi- cance and its attendant incidents than Roman conqueror ever enjoyed. The presence, at the opening of the Suez Canal, of two sovereigns ; half-a-dozen royal princes ; statesmen, ambas- sadors, savants, and other celebrities beyond count besides thousands of less distinguished visitors from the Old and New Worlds, and representative squadrons from every Navy in Europe sufficed to give an eclat to the occasion with which even a Frenchman's passion for " glory" might be well content. Nor was the honour unearned ; for, be the mere commercial THE SUEZ CANAL. 105 result what it may, this union of the two seas will rank amongst the great works of the world, and to M. de Lesseps, more than any other living man, does the credit of it belong. Nor is this lessened by the fact that the idea which was thus realised is as old as the Pharaohs. The honour is rather all the greater that what successive sovereigns, from Sesostris to the Caliphs, failed to effect, or accomplished only in part, has now been completely achieved. Cen- turies before the Christian era, both Hebrew and Phoenician ships traversed the Eed Sea on their way to Ophir, and, during the dynasty of the Ptolemies and the Roman dominion, large fleets were sent out annually from Berenice and Myos-Hormes to India. After the establishment of the Mohammedan empire in the seventh century, an immense trade was carried on through the Red Sea with India and China ; and, in the period between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, the treasures of the East found their way over the coral-reefed Yam-Suph to the Venetian factories in Alexandria. During the long historic span thus covered, many efforts had been made to pierce the Isthmus. Herodotus, Book ii., Chap. 158, relates that Nichos, son of Psammiticus (610-000 B.C.), was the first who 106 MODERN TURKEY. opened a communication by means of a canal between tbe Nile and the Red Sea. The canal was large enough to allow two trireme galleys to go abreast ; the water being taken from the Nile, a little above the ancient Boubrastis sub- sequently called Basta a city situated on the Pelusian branch of the river. The canal opened into the Red Sea near the Pithomus of Scripture the Patumas of Hero- dotus, and the Hieropolis of the Ptolemies ; the site of which, at the present day, is to be found at the northern extremity of the Bitter Lakes, not far from the actual shore of the Red Sea. It must be remembered, however, that two thousand five hundred years ago these lakes were only an extension of the Erythrean Sea, and that the Gulf of Suez was then called the Gulf of Hiero- polis. The galleys were towed by men, and Herodotus gives four days as the time required for the passage. It appeared, nevertheless, that this route was not the best, and that the most direct course would have been to begin the canal on the shore of the Mediterranean, near Mount Cassius, which separated Egypt from Syria, and from which the Erythrean Sea was only distant a thousand stadia. According to Herodotus, this O ' was the shortest route. In cutting his canal., THE SUEZ CANAL. 107 King Nichos caused the death of one hundred and twenty thousand men, but, having been told by an oracle that the canal would be the means of bringing the barbarians into Egypt, he discon- tinued the works, and gave up his project in despair. According to Strabo, the canal of Nichos com- menced at Phacusa, and passed to Belbe'is, where it met the one which washed the walls of Bou- brastis. From Belbeis (Pharbaetus) , it entered the bitter lake below Hieropolis, and as this canal was a derivative of the Nile, the water of the bitter lake, in receiving that of the river, partook of the character of the sweet water of the Nile. A century after Nichos, Darius, son of Hydaspes, King of Persia (521-485 B.C.), caused the works to be recommenced ; but, the engineers having assured him that the Red Sea was of a higher elevation than Egypt itself, he was so much afraid of altogether submerging the country he desired to improve, that the works were once more suspended. In fine, Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt (273 B.C.) finished the canal joining the two seas, and, in order to render the mouth of the canal in the Red Sea more safe, he made a dam (hizei-orou) which opened and shut at will. The dam served, at the same time, to 108 MODERN TURKEY. collect the waters of the Nile in the canal, and thus facilitated internal navigation. The canal of Ptolemy entered the Red Sea near Arsinoe" the present Suez which afterwards took the name of Cleopatra. After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Cleopatra, seeing that the forces of Egypt could not resist those of the Roman empire united against her, formed the singular project of taking her fleet through the canal into the Red Sea, and thus fly into some distant country. Some ships at- tempted the passage, but were burned by the Arabs, and Antony persuaded Cleopatra to abandon her design, and defend the entrance to her kingdom both by sea and laud. Under the Roman empire, Trajan renewed the canal of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and even added a branch which went some stadia below Memphis. This extension of the canal was called by the name of Trajan ; Ptolemy called it Amina Tra- janus; Quintius Curtius named it Oxius, and the Arabs Merahemi. Nothing further was done until the time of the Arabs, when in the year 637 of the Christian era, Amrou, the lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, succeeded in reopening the old channel as far as Bubrastis, on the Pelusian branch of the Nile. Volney, however, relates THE SUEZ CANAL. 109 that one hundred and thirty-four years later, the Caliph Abou-Djaffat-el-Mansour destroyed it in the hope of crushing his rebellious subjects by cutting off the means of transporting provisions, and thus starving them into subjection. From that time, no further effort was made, and the canal soon became blocked up by the then un- conquerable sands. So it remained for a thousand years, until, in 1798, General Bonaparte, then commanding the troops of the French Republic in Egypt, proposed to cut a canal across the Isthmus capable of being navigated by sea-going ships, and the work which had been begun upwards of two thousand four hundred years before, would then have been recommenced but for the mistake of French engineers, who de- clared the Mediterranean to be considerably below the level of the Red Sea, and a canal to be therefore impossible. From that time, the question continued to be agitated at intervals, but nothing definite was done till 1830, when Lieutenant Waghorn then engaged in the establishment of his Overland Route again surveyed the Isthmus, and found the level of the two seas to be identical. Still, though interest was for a time revived by the announcement of this fact, no further action was 110 MODERN TURKEY. taken with reference to the scheme till 1847, when England, France, and Austria sent out a commission to solve, once for all, the problem of the sea levels. This commission on which Mr. Robert Stephenson represented our own Government confirmed Waghorn's report, with the sole variance of finding a difference of five feet in the tide not the real levels of the two seas at the proposed termini of the canal. Another examination leading to similar results was made five years later, but Mr. Stephenson, nevertheless, pronounced against the feasibility of the canal, and his opinion though at variance with that of M. Talabot, the French member of the commission being accepted by the Government and public of England, the railway from Cairo to Suez, which he recommended instead, was the result. In the meantime, another mind had been occupied with the scheme for nearly a quarter of a century. When Waghorn was advocating his own peculiar enterprise, young Ferdinand Lesseps was an eleve in the French Consulate at Cairo, and, interested by our countryman's settlement of the sea levels, he conceived the idea of accomplishing the great work which, years before, Napoleon had abandoned. For four-and-twenty years of active THE SUEZ CANAL. Ill official life, the idea kept firm hold of his imagina- tion, until being again in Egypt in 1854, he developed his plan to the then Viceroy, Said Pasha, and finally, two years later, obtained from him a concession to construct a ship-canal across the Isthmus from a point near Tyneh to Suez. Of the opposition that then began on the part of Lord Paimerston and the English press, it is needless to speak, for is it not all written in Blue Books and journals innumerable? This, however, rather stimulated than dis- couraged M. de Lesseps, while it also stirred up the national feeling in France, and, with its help, enabled him, in 1858, to launch his " Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez," with a capital of 8,000,000 sterling, on nearly every stock exchange in Europe. Few shares, however, were taken up out of France, but enough were placed there to war- rant his commencing operations in the Spring of the following year, and, accordingly, on the 25th of April 1859, the " President Fondateur" and his little band of followers took possession, in the Company's name, of the narrow belt of sand' on the northern coast of the Isthmus, be- tween Lake Menzaleh and the sea. The subsequent ten years' history of the 112 MODERN TUEKEY. scheme need not be traced. Enough to say that, by dint of perseverance and energy which may, without extravagance, be called heroic, M. de Lesseps overcame difficulties against which few living men could have .successfully battled, and he now has his reward in witnessing o the completion of an enterprise which will indissolubly link his name with Egyptian history. 113 CHAPTER III. TURKISH WOMEN. FT was to be expected that the visit of the Em- press Eugenie to the Turkish capital would naturally cause a certain amount of attention to be directed to the social condition of Turkish women. The French journals, particularly, were in ecstasies over the results that would certainly ensue. According to them, the unveiled face of Her Majesty had effected a sumptuary coup d'etat, resulting, even before she left, in the abandonment of the yashmak, the exchange of papooshes for Louis XIV. boots, and the sub- stitution, for the feridjee and shalwar, of mantles and skirts of the latest Paris fashion. Nor was the revolution to end there ; harem-life, with all its jealous restrictions, was to be at once abolished ; eunuchs were to become in-pensioners of the museum, and their caged charges to enjoy i 114 MODERN TUKKEY. henceforth as much freedom as the monde if not as the demi-monde of France. All this, however, I need hardly say, existed only in the imagination of the writers for the Paris press. Whatever may have been the effect of the Em- press's unveiled beauty on the Turkish women who saw her, certain it is that the yashmak, feridjee, and shalwar still hold their ground. Feminine coquetry, it is true, has long ago dis- placed the old opaque swathing that hid every- thing but the eyes, for the diaphanous gossamer through which the whole battery of the wearer's charms now plays as freely as if no single fold of muslin remained. The bright eyes flash and the pearly teeth dazzle beneath the veil which, from the fineness of its texture, no longer serves to conceal, but rather add an additional charm to the natural beauties of the wearer. The yellow papoosh, too, has largely yielded to the elastic European boot ; but the Louis Quatorze abomination, and its " graceful Grecian bend " are as yet, thank Heaven, foreign to the pre- cincts of Stamboul. The exaggerated nonsense of the Paris journals was, however, quite consistent wih the still prevalent notion in Western Europe as to the status and treatment of women in Turkey. Ac- TUEKISH WOMEN. 115 cording fco this, every Turk is more or less a Bluebeard, with four wives at least, and as many concubines to boot as he can afford the whole of whom are the mere slaves of his caprice, jailered by eunuchs, and without domestic authority of any kind. Nothing could well be further from the reality. Instead of this para- disaic plurality being the rule, polygamy, in fact, is fast going out. Of the present genera- tion of Mussulmans, few have more than two wives, while the great majority have only one. Thus the late Grand Vizier, and most of his col- leagues in the ministry, were monogamic, as are, I believe, without exception, the whole of the superior officers of the navy. Odalisques, again, are the "luxury" of the very rich, and a very rare luxury too ; for in Turkey, as here in the West, wives are jealous of their rights, and whatever may have been the laxer rule in the good old times they now-a-days set their faces stoutly and successfully against illegitimate rivals. The Khanum is, in reality, as much mistress cJiez elle as any Western wife of the day, and has, if anything, rather more than her fair share of authority in-doors. Instead, there- fore, of the harem being a prison guarded with bolts and bars, it is rather a sanctuary from i 2 116 MODERN TURKEY. which care and trouble are, as far as humanly possible, excluded. The man is always the bread-winner ; he alone bears the attendant anxieties of life, while the woman passes her days, if not in Arcadian in- nocence and calm, at least free from the frivolous and not always innocent excitements which make up much of the existence of her sisters in the West. Nowhere in Europe is that " pearl with- out price," the purity of woman, to be found in greater perfection than in the households of the Osmanlis, and although the Turks are, unfor- tunately, not free from evils, many introduced from this side of the Alps, there is one evil the social evil which has no home among them. Even the laws of the Empire have been framed so as to give protection to women. No matter what political change may affect the husband, the property of the wife is always secure ; under every circumstance it remains her own, nor is it liable for her husband's debts any more than the property of a married woman in England when secured by settlement. This, too, applies to all her property not only that which she possessed before marriage, but also that which she may have acquired subsequently; while, if her husband purchase lands and houses TURKISH WOMEN. 117 in her name, they belong to her absolutely, and no claim of any kind against him can reach them. The slight disabilities under which Turkish women do labour the comparative privacy of their lives, and partial concealment of their face and figure from public gaze are only relics of a rude and barbarous age, useful as a means of protecting them from injury and insult. Besides, the yashmak is not a religious institution. The women in the villages cover their faces only in presence of strangers, while those of the nomad tribes do not cover at all. The women of the Turkoman tribes, as well as those of the Kurds and Arabs, go unveiled, and in Bosnia, although the married women wear the yashmak, the young girls have their faces exposed and ap- pear well pleased when they are admired. If a Mussulman lady of Constantinople were to-day questioned upon the subject, and asked whether she would prefer to appear in society with or without the yashmak, she would probably say : ' Yes ! I should certainly prefer that every one could see and admire me, but I would not wish that my husband should have the opportunity of seeing other women handsomer than I am." Turkish women will safely bear comparison in 118 MODERN TURKEY. beaufcy with the women of any other country in the world. Education is their one great want, but in favour of that, too, the tide of fashion is fast setting in among the higher classes, while its extension amongst all ranks throughout the empire is amply provided for in the new law on public instruction. This latter fact may be of little immediate practical value, but it at least implies recognition of the want, and a disposition on the part of the Government to meet it. That only it is which will both individually and socially elevate the sex in Turkey, and not, assuredly, either the aping of Western fashions or the adop- tion of Western morals. As it is, till this true " revolution " is effected, I prefer the yashmak and feridjee, with their accompanying simplicity of life and manners, to the costumes decolletes and ethical laxity of the salons either of Paris or London. The day would be an evil one for the Turk when his harems exchanged the one for the other. It is a popular belief in this country that Mo- hammed excluded women from paradise, but it is only necessary to read the Koran, Chaps. III., IV., XIII., XIV., XL., XLVIII., to learn, on the contrary, that the evil deeds of women will be punished, and their good works rewarded, TUEKISH WOMEN. 119 God making no distinction on this point between the sexes. It is no doubt related that, when an old woman asked the Prophet if she would be admitted into paradise, he replied, "No;" but then he added, " not in the state in which you now are, for God will restore to you at the gate both your youth and your beauty."* Another popular belief is that polygamy is a bar to all human progress. Yet it is a fact that Islamism marched for ten centuries at the head of humanity. Polygamy did not prevent Greece from creating her masterpieces of art, nor was it to monogamy, but to the study of Greek letters, that we owe our own literary renaissance ; while as to the exact sciences, and that which is so proudly called liberty of thought, we owe them to Islamism. The Turks are, it is true, polygam- ists;' but they are not alone. Five hundred mil- lions of men, out of seven hundred and fifty mil- lions inhabiting the terrestrial globe, are poly- gamists. Christians are now monogamic, although they were not always so ; for the earlier kings of France, good Christians as they were, had several wives. Gontran, Childebert, and Dagobert I. had, each, three wives, while Clodomir, uncle of Dagobert, had four. * " Soirees de Constantinople," par Ch. Mismer. 120 MODERN TURKEY. We are all, more or less, creatures of circum- stances and habit; apt to consider our own institutions superior to those of others. Before, however, condemning the practice of polygamy, it is but just to ascertain if it possess anything of goo.d, and whether the system of monogamy is so immeasurably superior. Statistics enable us to appreciate some of the results of monogamy : prostitution, infanticide, abortion, clandestine polygamy, and adultery. As to polygamy, it is right to mention that when Mohammed appeared, the Arabs could legally possess two hundred wives, whereas he reduced the number to four. To be a polygamist, besides, requires, according to the Koran, not only the desire, but the means, as the rules imposed are quite sufficient to pre- vent its abuse. And as to the woman, she can- not be forced to marry contrary to her own wish ; while the entry into marriage procures consider- able advantages, finding, as she always does, a natural protector in her husband, and her own happiness in his contentment. The prohibition against wine and gambling is, moreover, a true safeguard for the wife against the brutalities of the husband. Drunkenness and gambling are the destruction of domestic peace, and, in cursing them, Islamism procures for the wife those TURKISH WOMEN. 121 positive guarantees which are in reality much more efficacious than the platonic recommenda- tions of Christian preachers. The stipulation of a marriage gift by the husband is, besides, an essential condition to the legitimacy of marriage; and, as this gift or dower is bestowed upon the wife and placed under her control, it becomes a security against injustice on the part of the husband. Conjugal life is regulated by these words of the Koran (Chaps. II., V.) " Wives should be obedient to their husbands and perform the duties devolving upon them, and husbands should treat their wives with justice, but they have authority over them." The Koran also says that man is superior to the woman, but the Turk is never- theless kind and affectionate towards his wife. His kindness is grave and protecting, as that of a superior to a feeble being who is necessary for his happiness. He regards her as the greatest blessing bestowed by God, and prefers her to every other possession. Instead of demanding a dowry with her, he gives her one. He makes presents to the relations of his wife, instead of receiving them. He takes the management of external matters, while the wife presides over the home, and the duties of both are laid down by nature herself. 122 MODERN TURKEY. I wish some learned theologian would tell me why it is that men are so much better, in all the social relations of life, under Mohammedan laws than under those of Christianity. It is unheard of for a Turk to strike a woman. He is always tender towards women, children, and dumb animals ; and if a dog howl with pain in the streets of Pera, you may be quite certain it is not a Turk that has struck the blow. A Turk is truthful and scorns a lie ; he is sober, tempe- rate, and never a drunkard or a gambler; he is honourable in his dealings, kind to his neighbour, and charitable to the poor. In Turkey no man, woman, or child can really want bread, much less die of starvation. Can as much be said for Christian countries ? It is generally supposed in Western Europe, that the harem is a prison in which the Mussul- man wife is closely immured. But the word harem means simply that part of the house allotted to the women, as the word selamlik signifies that part allotted to the men. Entry into the harem is interdicted to strangers be- cause it is the sanctuary of conjugal love, but reclusion does not in any way exist, and there arc no women more free in their going out and coining in than the Mussulman women. The TURKISH WOMEN. 123 harem, however, has not always been inviolable, for Ibrahim, Grand Vizier of Selim, was per- mitted free entrance into the harem of his master, and conversed at his will with the mother and wives of the Sultan. The women of the Almora- vides, too, walked with their faces uncovered, until Mohammed-ben-Abdallah, disciple of the celebrated Al-Gazzali, re-established the disci- pline of the Koran after he had been placed at the head of the Almohades. Amongst the Turks, women enjoyed considerable liberty up to the reign of Solyman the Magnificent, when several restrictions were imposed in order to assure their inviolability and protect them from the licentious- ness of men. At the present day, however, women in Turkey enjoy as much, if not more, liberty than their sisters of the West. The Christian woman has, undoubtedly, more liberty to do evil. She has the liberty of showing herself nearly half-naked at balls, and representing tableaux vivants at theatres. She has the liberty of making a trade of love ; for, with us, love has its permanent army and its extraordinary budget like war. Turkish civilization has not advanced as far as that, while, on the other hand, Mussulman women have quite as much liberty to do good ; and although they 124 MODERN TURKEY. may have some desires unfulfilled, they neverthe- less, have little reason to envy their Christian sisters. Our law sacrifices the woman to the man. With us, a married woman remains always a minor. She has neither the power of managing her own property, nor the right to dispose of it. An unnatural husband can sell everything, even to the furniture, without being obliged to leave his wife as much as a table or a chair, which she may, perhaps, have paid for with the produce of her own labour. She cannot appear in a court of justice without the consent of her husband ; she has not the right of directing the education of her children or opposing their marriage, and she cannot act as guardian to an orphan other than her own son or grandson. Paternity being ignored, the woman alone has the burden of natural children, and the shame of faults committed through passion. In fine, a woman without fortune is a pariah condemned by law and Christian manners to all the consequences of isolation and misery. Islamism, on the contrary, is full of solicitude for woman. Legal polygamy apart, she is not subject to the various incon- veniences suffered by her sex in other lands. Thanks to the principle of absolute equality which obtains amongst the Turks, the humblest TURKISH WOMEN. 125 slave can marry the highest personage ; and every woman that bears a child to a man has the right to claim the benefits of paternity for her offspring. Besides, polygamy is not obligatory ; and if the advantages of monogamy are suf- ficiently apparent to a Mussulman, he is perfectly free to have only one wife a custom which is now frequent and likely to become still more general. It is frequently asserted that Christianity con- siderably elevated the condition of woman, and that, outside of Christianity, woman is but an instrument of procreation and pleasure, without any social influence whatever. Such, however, is not altogether the case. It was civilization that improved the condition of woman, for in the earlier days of Christianity she was little better than a slave. What are our modern ideas of Lucretia? The middle ages, the grand age of Louis XIV. and Charles II., without mentioning our own times, show how rare are the cases in wh'ich women have sought death as a refuge against dishonour. The crown of a Tarquin always covers with impunity the brutalities of a Sextus ! The condition of women was not ameliorated until after the contact of Christians with Mussul- 126 MODERN TURKEY. mans had given birth to chivalry. Chivalry had its root in Spain, whence Charlemagne trans- planted it to the centre of Europe. The tourna- ments and jousts, the troubadours and knights- errant, Castilian pride, courtesy towards ladies, serenades, single combats, generosity towards the vanquished, faith in plighted word, respect for hospitality, all were borrowed from the Mus- sulmans of Spain. Even in the present day, there is a great similarity between the Spanish character and that of the Arabs, who still possess the noble qualities which distinguished the warriors of Granada. And so great is the Arab's respect for woman, that the most irreconcilable enemy finds safety and protection under their tents from the moment he succeeds in touching the robe of one of their wives. From time im- memorial, too, the women of the idolatrous Arabs had full control over their property, could dis- pose freely of their hand, and give themselves up to the bent of their natural genius. It is not on Mohammed rests the respon- sibility of the passive role imposed upon Turkish women ; for he employed women as powerful auxiliaries in the propogation of his great work. The names of Ayesha, Fatima, and Khadidja are closely connected with Islamism. Fatima, TUEKISH WOMEN. 127 daughter of Mohammed, and wife of All, gave her name to the dynasty of the Fatimites ; while no greater homage could be rendered to woman than that paid by Mohammed when he said : " Paradise is at the feet of the mothers." Nowhere, in fact, outside of Islamism, are mothers treated with more respect. Nowhere is their influence greater upon the destinies of the family or the future of the children ; and so true is this that it would be impossible to write the history of the Sultans of Turkey without, at the same time, writing those of the Sultanas Valides. In every Mussulman household, the great object of respect and devotion is the mother. There is no loss which a Turk can suffer equal to the loss of his mother. If his wife die, he says, " I can get another." If his child is cut off, he says, " Others may be born to me, but I can be born only once, and have but one mother." It is well known what powerful influence Zoraya, mother of Abou-Abdallah, called Boabdil, exercised over the mind of her husband Muley- Hassan of Granada. Saflye, daughter of a noble Venetian house, the Baffos, reigned in Turkey at the same time as Catherine de' Medici in France and Elizabeth in England. She ruled during the two reigns of Amurath III. and Mohammed III., 128 MODERN TURKEY. as Roxolana had ruled during those of Solyman II. and his son Bajazet. Catherine de' Medici entered into direct correspondence with SafFye, wife of Amurath, in order to obtain the assistance of the Ottoman fleet against Philip II. The Sultana Koesem, mother of Ibrahim, lived during seven reigns, and governed during three ; while her profound political sagacity obtained for her the name of Empress of the Ottomans and mother of the soldiers. " Les moeurs et les lois religieuses," says a great French writer, " releguent en vain les fernmes dans la servitude et dans le mystere ; la nature, la beaute, et 1'amour leur rendent la place que la nature leur a faite dans le coeur de 1'homme." I have already said that the Mussulman laws are very favourable to woman. For example, she is of age at nine years, and, when married, can manage her own property, and dispose of a third of her fortune. She can abandon the con- jugal domicile for a just cause. If the husband have not sufficient means, the wife is bound to prepare the food and perform the duties of the household for herself and family ; but not for guests, or with the object of profit. The wife cannot be compelled to labour for the support of her husband ; on the contrary, the husband TURKISH WOMEN. 129 is bound to provide for the wants of bis wife. It is prohibited for the husband to insult or ill-treat his wife. In certain disputes, the husband is not believed unless he produce collateral testimony ; failing in which, the oath of the wife is as good as his. Should the husband not provide means of existence for his wife, she is authorised to borrow in his name ; her right even going so far as the sale of articles specially belonging to him. Although a wife cannot actually take the initia- tive for a divorce, she has many ways, if she desire, of rendering it inevitable ; and amongst certain Arab tribes it is sufficient that the woman declares her intention to re-marry with another man who shall be better than her actual husband. It requires four witnesses to convict a woman of adultery; but as the honour of woman constitutes the principal element of Mussulman society, that honour is naturally guarded by the severest penalties of the law as well as of public opinion. The punishment for adultery is death. While this doom, however, is recorded against infidelity, it stands rather as the expression of public abhorrence than as a law which is to be carried into execution. The annals of the Ottoman Empire record but a single instance of punishment for K 130 MODERN TURKEY. adultery inflicted by an indignant multitude or rabble who gathered stones at the wayside to cast at the adulteress. If a woman amongst the Druses, however, be guilty of conjugal infidelity (an occurrence which is extremely uncommon), she always pays the penalty with her life. The husband sends his wife back to her Hither' s house, and, with her, the khanjar or dagger which he had received on his marriage, but without the sheath.* This notifies her dishonour, which attaches, not to the husband, but to the wife's relations, and can only be washed out with her blood. The father and brothers sit * The Drnse women are generally very beautiful, and re- markable for fairness of complexion, dark blue eyes, long raven tresses, and teeth of pearly whiteness. The men generally marry at from sixteen to eighteen years of age, and take but one wife. The bride is usually from thirteen to fourteen years old. Three days before the wedding, the bridegroom, with some of his male friends, goes to the house of his betrothed, and de- mands her in formal manner from the hands of her father, who, in an equally formal manner, gives his consent. The dowry which the husband is to settle on his wife is then agreed upon. The bride, closely veiled, is led forth by her mother, who vouches for the purity and honour of her daughter ; and then the bride presents her future husband with a khanjar, or dagger, which denotes the protection she expects to receive from him, and is, at the same time, significant of punishment, should the declara- tion of her mother be false, or should she subsequently be un- faithful to her marriage vow. TURKISH WOMEN. 131 in solemn judgment on the wife at her husband's house, and if the evidence be sufficient, her doom is pronounced. A father's love is of no avail, a mother's shrieks cannot stay the hand that strikes, nor a sister's tears mitigate the punish- ment. The executioner, generally the eldest brother, severs the wife's head from her body; and the tantoor, with a lock of her hair steeped in blood, sent to the husband, testifies that punishment has been inflicted.* Adultery is exceedingly rare, and there is no Divorce Court in Turkey. There is, however, a legal marriage, not very frequent it is true, in Turkey, which if introduced into this country might in time render the labours of Lord Penzance exceedingly light, and put an end altogether to the scandals of his Lordship's court, which are so disgraceful to Christianity and civilization. This marriage is called kabin. It consists in the man presenting himself before the cadi or magistrate, and binding himself to maintain till a certain time the woman whom he designates, and whose consent he has obtained. Her consent must be attested by her father or nearest relation, and two witnesses. The man further binds himself to take * The tantoor is a silver ornament worn on the head by married women. K 2 132 MODERN TURKEY. care of the children that she shall bear, and to give up to her, besides, at the expiration of the term agreed upon, a sum of money or effects and property stipulated and expressed. The children who are the issue of these marriages enjoy the same rights as others, and remain at the charge of the father. It would appear, however, that the idea of the bond of marriage being indissoluble is more difficult to bear than the bond itself, for it is said the parties generally make use of their liberty, at the ex- piration of the time fixed, to renew their engage- ment ; the consciousness of its being merely temporary, and not for life, having no doubt much influence on their willingness to do so. It might be curious to inquire into the principles in human nature that underlie this institution. They seem to resolve themselves into that rooted and universal antipathy to constraint which is an essential element of our nature, especially when what is sought to be fettered consists of the in- voluntary and uncontrollable affections of the heart. It is generally supposed that the Turks are bigoted, but there is no city in the world where religious liberty exists to a greater extent than in the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Even TURKISH WOMEN. 133 marriages with Christian women have not been uncommon, the latest instance I am aware of being the marriage of Haidar Effendi, recently ambassador at Vienna from the Sublime Porte, who, on his return last year to the Bosphorus, brought with him a Christian wife from the court of the Kaiser. In the present state of manners, there are, no doubt, many prejudices to be overcome, but there is no legal prohibition against mixed marriages. The only formality required by law is that the woman must be invited to embrace Islamism ; but as soon as she declares, three times, her desire to remain faithful to her own religion, no further interference is possible. In principle, the Mussulman law offers no obstacle to the amelioration of women or to the progress of society. Nature, in the East, has endowed women with an extremely rapid perfectibility, and I expect great results will follow from the moment when education shall have finally eradi- cated from the harems all traces of ignorance and superstition. Even as it is, I believe there is much that the Christian woman might envy in the social condition of her Mussulman sister. 134 CHAPTER IV. TURKISH ARMAMENTS. IT has been so common in this country, to hear the Turkish ironclad fleet spoken of as a mere financial blunder, that it is not easy to realise, all at once, how important a part it has played in the political history of the past year. No doubt many of Lord Granville's hearers were surprised, and many incredulously shook their heads, when from his place in the House he stated that the Turkish Navy was now one of the strongest in the world ; and yet the remark was incontestably true. Whether the saga- cious statesman, the late A'ali Pasha, who so long filled the post of Grand Vizier foresaw events which have lately come to pass, or whether, if there had been no armoured fleet, Russia would have recently moved in the Black Sea question, it is now useless to speculate. But one thing TURKISH ARMAMENTS. 135 is certain ; the possession of a powerful navy enabled Turkey, in a most perplexing juncture, to assume an attitude of calm self-reliance, which not only left her allies free to pursue their own line of policy, but likewise mainly contributed to the pacific adjustment of a difficulty otherwise fraught with peril without any sacrifice of dignity on the part of the Sultan's Government. Gratifying, however, as this result may be to the Porte, and calculated as it is to inspire con- fidence in those who have lent money to Turkey, it must be regarded, not as crowning the edifice of Ottoman maritime power, but only as a foundation, the successful laying of which augurs well for the stability of the structure to be super- imposed on it as time goes on. There are now in the Ottoman Navy, one hundred and eighty-five vessels carrying two thousand three hundred and seventy guns, including four line-of-battle ships, five first-class mailed frigates, twelve corvettes, and five gun-boats of modern construction; no inconsiderable force as it stands, but which may yet be judiciously and largely increased. There is no reason, therefore, why Turkey possessing, as she does, first-class vessels, fine men, a well- instructed rising generation of officers, and an arsenal second to none, should not continue to 136 MODEBN TURKEY. hold the leading position which she has attained among the naval powers of Europe. The stirring events which have recently taken place in Western Europe have given a consider- able impetus to every department engaged in the manufacture of war material. Turkey is more than ever convinced that she must rely upon her own unaided efforts to preserve her position amongst the nations of Europe ; and this feeling is manifesting itself in the activity shown by the Grand Master of Artillery, not only in the rapid accumulation of increased stores of arms, but in the permanent enlargement of the buildings connected therewith; the acquisition of the newest and most powerful machinery, and the improvement and simplification of several branches of manufacture. In fact, Tophaueh is fast be- coming the Woolwich of the Bosphorus. Since September, 1870, great changes have taken place in the buildings themselves. A long shop facing the Bosphorus has been built for the purpose of giving room for the entire separation of machinery worked by hand from that driven by steam, and several other shops have been enlarged in order to give accommodation to an increased number of machines and men. The most notable improvement in this direc- TURKISH ARMAMENTS. J37 tion, however, is the construction of a new shop for the reception of machinery suitable to the manfacture of guns up to thirteen and fourteen inches in diameter. This vast erection, which will occupy the centre of the Imperial Gun Factories at Tophaneh, will be the largest work- shop in the world, and will be eight hundred and fifty feet long about half the length of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham eighty-two feet wide, and nearly forty feet high. This noble building is fast approaching completion; the glazed roof is nearly finished, and the foundations for the heavy machinery, which it is intended to contain, are being laid, as rapidly as is consistent with solidity, upon the solid rock, which, in some places, is conveniently found at a few inches below the surface. Several of the gigantic lathes and boring machines are already in position, and the rest are either waiting to be put up, or are on their way from this country. One boring lathe which recently reached Tophaneh, is forty-five feet long, and will turn a coil of eighty inches in diameter. These ponderous machines will be worked by three engines, of an aggregate horse- power of nearly two hundred, which are now being erected. The carriage department has also been enlarged; a change rendered necessary by 1'38 MODERN TURKEY. the entire abandonment of wooden gun-carriages and limbers, which are now manufactured entirely of wrought iron, a stronger, lighter, and more durable material for the purpose. Antiquarian readers may, perhaps, sigh over the news that the old Genoese, Venetian, Persian, 'and Russian guns which were clustered round the clock-tower at Tophaneh, are fast being melted up and converted into modern weapons. Some of these were really specimens of art, and their loss is to be regretted ; but economy is the order of the day, and these bouches inutiles have been condemned to the melting furnace. The most noteworthy improvement, however, is one introduced by Halil Pasha into the system of manufacturing muzzle-loading guns on the "Woolwich principle. These guns are made up of 'a central steel tube, strengthened at the breech-end by one or more welded coils of wrought iron. Halil Pasha's improvement con- sists in substituting for the wrought-iron coils a jacket of cast bronze of similar shape and size. The advantages claimed for the new system are obvious. The operations through which the bronze jacket passes are much fewer than those gone through in making the wrought- TURKISH AEMAMENTS. 139 iron coils, and the work can be entrusted to % artisans possessing a smaller amount of skill; while the chances of obtaining a casting free from defects are greater than in the case of the- . wrought-iron coils. As yet, no guns larger than 68-pounders have been manufactured upon the new principle; but all of them, from the small 9-pounder mountain gun upwards, have fully ' withstood the tests applied to them during recent trials at Tophaneh and Choban Tchesme". These experiments have been so successful that it has been determined to apply the system to guns of 4 larger calibre, and preparations are now being made for the manufacture of a batch of large for- tress and siege guns upon the new model. During recent trials, the practice made by artillerymen at Choban Tchesme was exceedingly good, the flag-staff, forming the point de mire, having been carried away by one of the shots fired from a 40-pounder at 4,000 yards. There is a cartridge manufactory at Kirk- Aghatch, where over a hundred machines, for making the metal work of the cartridges, have been erected in the new workshops facing the water at Tophaneh. The conversion of arms on the Snider system is being rapidly carried out ; so much so that in a few months the stock 140 MODERN TURKEY. of muzzle-loaders in store will be quite exhausted. The Snider is an excellent arm in every way, and is particularly suited to excitable soldiers like the Turks, who somewhat resemble the French in being liable to throw away their ammunition without taking deliberate aim when using a quick-firing piece. The late war has proved that quick-firing rifles like the Martini-Henry, are much more fitted for being placed in the hands of cool calculating Teutons than in those of hot-blooded Southerns. Great improvements have also been made in the copper-smelting pro- cess as carried on at Tokat. A batch of five tons of unrefined copper was lately received at Swansea, to be refined by the best methods, in order to compare the results obtained with those of Zeitoun-Bournou. The specimens were sub- mitted to several well-known copper-smelters at Swansea and elsewhere, who gave it as their opinion that the unrefined metal was of such excellent quality and colour that, if introduced into the English market, it would fetch from 1 to 1 10s. per ton above the prices then ruling. It was recently reported that the Turkish Government had ordered a large supply of powder from a Prussian manufacturer. This statement, TURKISH ARMAMENTS. 141 however, was quite incorrect, and arose no doubt from the fact that the director of the Barout- haneh works had obtained a few pounds of Prussian prismatic powder, as a specimen for comparison with that manufactured in Turkey. The mills at Barout-haneh works which by the way are large enough to supply double the amount of powder necessary for home use are actively engaged in making " pebble," " bean," and prismatic powder on a large scale. The first two kinds are sufficiently described by the epithets given to them ; not so, however, the prismatic powder, which consists of hexagonal prismatic blocks one inch and a-half in diameter and one inch and three-quarters in height, and are pierced with nine cylindrical holes one eighth-of- an-inch in diameter. The object of making powder in this shape is that it may burn more slowly when exploded in the gun. A small-grained powder would speedily destroy a large gun, the explosion being too sudden and violent. The larger the gun, therefore, the larger should be the grains of powder ; the prismatic powder being consequently used for guns of the largest calibre. Another description of powder is also being made for guns of an intermediate size, in the form of flat blocks half an inch long, quarter of an 142 MODERN TURKEY. inch broad, and three-sixteenths of an inch thick. The torpedo department of Zeitoun-Bournou attached to Tophaneh, under the direction of the Grand Master of the Artillery is also making rapid progress ; but the proceedings are being accomplished so quietly by the able American officer who has organised the works, that little is known on the subject to the outside public. The extent and power of these defences of the sea-approaches to Constantinople, when they come to be fully known, will probably cause some surprise. The factories at Zeitoun-Bournou have completed a large number of massive hemi- spherical iron tanks, each of which will contain from six thousand to seven thousand pounds of powder, and it is intended to build two hundred of these tanks and sink them in suitable parts of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, at the Black Sea mouth, and in the Bosphorus. They are doubly-riveted, and made stronger than the strongest steam-boilers, as they will, when sunk, have to support a pressure of about seventy pounds to the square inch. These tanks, are, in short, submarine mines, containing the most terribly destructive charges of powder, lying on the bed of the sea, and explosible at will, from TUKKISIi ARMAMENTS. 143 the shore, by electricity. They will be fitted with an apparatus, very durable, but at the same time most delicate and unerring, which indicates at once, to the operator at the electric battery on land, the passage of any ship over the spots at which they are sunk. The explosion of one of them in the deep waters of the Bosphorus would utterly annihilate, within a radius of about two hundred yards, the largest iron-clad ever built. These submarine mines are destined, of course, only for defensive purposes; but they will be also supplemented by a system of torpedo-rams for offensive attacks. The variety of these latter engines, adopted by the Tophaneh administration, are a marked improvement upon those which were used with great effect during the American civil war against the Federal fleet. Within a week or so, two vessels will be destroyed as an experiment at Buyuk-Limau, near the Black Sea entrance of the Bosphorus ; one by the explosion of a submarine tank, and the other by a ram- torpedo attached to a steam-launch. The Ameri- can war was the first occasion in modern war- fare on which torpedoes were used as military engines on a really scientific and comprehensive scale; and, during the course of that struggle, the Confederates succeeded in destroying, by 144 MODERN TURKEY. their agency, a more powerful fleet than the Northern Navy possessed at the beginning of it, namely, eleven iron-clads and twenty-four wooden ships of different sizes. Turkish waters are peculiarly adapted for this system ; and, in view of any possible " eventualities," it must be a source of satisfaction to the Sultan and his Government to feel that, with the arrangements now in progress at Zeitoun-Bournou, Turkey will soon be in possession of the most extensive and complete system of torpedo defences now in existence. The same spirit of activity prevailing at the Government establishments of Tophaneh and its dependencies, is equally manifest in the rapid progress which has been made during the last nine months at the Naval Arsenal, at Haskeui. The Minister of Marine, like the Grand Master of Ordnance, is evidently animated with the strongest desire to see Turkey render herself every day more and more independent of other nations for the supply of the means of offence or defence. A notable instance of the carrying out of this wish occurs in the new armour-plated vessel which has been on the stocks at Haskeui for the last fifteen months, and is now fast approaching completion. The Mukat-demi* TURKISH ARMAMENTS. 145 heigher, as the new iron-clad will be called, is the sister-ship to the Fati Bulend, which was constructed by the Thames Iron Works last year for the Turkish Government. She is the first iron-clad laid down in Turkey, and is being built from drawings and specifications by Mr. Reed (late chief constructor to the British Navy.) Her general dimensions are : Feet. inch. Length between perpendiculars . . . 235 Breadth at water-line 38 Breadth at battery 42 Tonnage, building measurement 1601 Draft of water, mean (deep) . . . .173 Engines nominal 500 h. p. The MuJcat-demi-heigher will be armed with twelve and a half ton Armstrong guns, inclosed in a central box or battery, that, as the dimensions show, projects two feet on each side something like a bow-window to a house which commands up and down a street as well as directly in front. This arrangement has enabled Mr. Reed to realise his favourite theory of " all round fire" with ample accommodation for working ropes, &c., which he maintains has never been satisfactorily realised in a turret vessel; though, perhaps, the nearest approach was the ill-fated Captain, designed by his late rival, Captain 146 MODERN TURKEY. Coles. The thickness of the armour plates on the central box of the ship now being built will be nine inches and six inches ; supported by a back- ing of teak, nine inches and twelve inches ; behind which is worked a " double skin," and a framing of very strong scantling. The armour belt beyond the "box" extends to a depth of four feet below and two feet above the water line, and will be an average thickness of five inches. The decks at the ends of the ship and over the battery are entirely covered with iron plates ; and a complete water-tight inner bottom is worked for nearly the whole length of the ship. Besides which she has the great advantage of drawing no more than about seventeen feet of water- some six or eight feet less than the frigates of the English navy. It has only been during this year that our Admiralty has begun to be alive to the important part which such vessels are destined to play in the future, and has promised to provide a powerful fighting ship with a comparatively light draught of water. Prussia has already moved in the same direction, and has, I believe, given an order for two vessels similar to the Mukat-demi-heigher to an eminent London ship-builder, who, as far back as 1866, built for that government a turret vessel with a draught of only thirteen feet. TURKISH ARMAMENTS. 147 The other parts of the establishment at Has- keui are in a similar state of activity, and a large amount of work has been got through during the past year. In addition to the pair of engines for the Mukat-demi-heigher, which are of five hundred horse-power, nominal, two other pair of sixty horse-power, nominal, are being made for two gunboats now in course of construction. Two twenty-five horse-power stationary engines have also been made, and are now being erected in the factories ; and four pair of floating fire engines are nearly finished. The whole of the boilers throughout the works have been entirely renewed and all the modern improvements in- troduced. A new smith's shop, to contain fifty fires, is also being built ; and drawings are being got out for the erection of several large factories and foundries, to replace those of Yali-Kiosk, the site of which has been given up to the Roumelian Railway Company for their Stamboul terminus. When these are finished, Haskeui will be able to execute work of the largest kind, and keep in repair, not only the Turkish Navy, but also those of her allies in case of necessity. New engines and boilers have been placed in flip parMlo-wheel frigates, Taif and Sharl'i- L 2 148 MODEKN TURKEY. Shadia, but the largest amount of work done has been necessitated by the defective construc- tion of the two iron-clad monitors which were bought in France during the Cretan insurrec- tion. The whole of the armour plating of these two vessels has had to be removed and refitted, there having been, in many places, gaps between the joints of an inch and a half in width. The method of fastening the iron plates on to the backing, too, was defective; the plates being simply screwed into the wood instead of being fastened by means of bolts and nuts passing completely through it. The sea-cocks throughout both vessels have been removed, as they were con- structed on a long abandoned and dangerous principle. One of these vessels, which in addi- tion has been fitted with a telescopic chimney, is now finished and anchored off the palace of Dolma-Baghtche, where she will be joined by her sister ship in the course of a month or six weeks. Of less important work I may mention the light ships for the Black Sea, a pair of gates for a large dock, and a number of small engiues for steam launches belonging to the iron-clads. The railway, too, upwards of a mile long, com- municating with the different shops, has just TURKISH ARMAMENTS. 149 been completed with the old English Crimean rails that were received from Balaclava at the close of the war; the whole of the turn tables having been made at the arsenal. A large fac- tory is also being erected to contain the new rope-making machinery, lately constructed by Messrs. Fairburn and Kennedy, which possesses many improvements that effectually do away with the necessity for the long rope walks of former days. Of future work, I may mention that a set of drawings is being got out for the engines of an iron-clad of greater size and power than any of those already in possession of the Government. These engines will be of about eight thousand effectual horse-power, but the vessel for which they are intended will be con- structed in this country. The Turkish fleet, in fact, has never been in a better state of repair ; and, when the effi- ciency of the crew and officers becomes on a par with the condition of the ships, the Minister of Marine may be congratulated upon having under his authority, a navy fully fit to cope with any it is likely to encounter. 150 CHAPTER V. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. IT has often been asserted that Islaraism is adverse to enlightenment, and obstructive to the spread of education among its followers. Such, however, is far from being the fact. On the contrary, in no country is instruction more esteemed, or its professors more respected. The position of Khodga (teacher) is always one of honour, and a pupil, no matter to what rank he may rise in the State, always evinces towards his former master a degree of affection, bordering on reverence, which is seldom seen in other countries. There are in Turkey three classes of Mussul- man public schools : the primary district schools ; the Eushdiyes, or schools of a superior order; and the Medresses, or schools of the mosques. Every mahalle, or district, possesses a small PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 151 rudimentary school, founded generally by private bequest, in which children of tender age are taught the Turkish alphabet and the reading of the Koran in Arabic. The pupils remain in these schools, which are mostly conducted by the neighbouring Imaums, for five or six years, their parents or guardians paying a small annual sum ; but indigent children are admitted gratui- tously. Leaving these district schools at ten or twelve years of age, the children are then ad- mitted as out-door pupils to the Eushdiyes, which are schools of a somewhat higheV class, and are gratuitous. There, they learn reading, and also writing in Turkish, such as the sulus, or ordinary hand, and the rica, or current commercial writing, together with the first principles of arithmetic, geography, and Turkish history. As a general rule, there is one of these Rush- diye schools to every province, and the pupils attend them for four or five years. Above the Rushdiyes, are the Medresses or Mosque schools, where instruction is given in Turkish, Arabic, and Persian, as well as in philosophy, theology, and history. Pupils enter these schools at eighteen or twenty years of age, and receive board and lodging in special dwellings known as " Medresses," where they muster in numbers "of 152 MODERN TURKEY. thirty or forty, and sometimes as many as a hundred. Of these Medresse"s, there are said to be no less than five hundred in Stamboul. During the sacred month of Ramazan, most of those students go into the provinces, and give courses of religious instruction in the country mosques. Leaving the Me"dresses at thirty-five or forty years of age, several of the students become cadis, muftis, or professors ; many, however, enter upon no occupation. When the Ottoman Empire was at the summit of its power, the schools of the mosques enjoyed a high reputation, and several of the most eminent men of Turkey passed a portion of their educational course it the Medress^s. In addition to these public schools, accessible indiscriminately to all Mussulman youth, there are certain special schools to which the Govern- ment sends lads whom they wish to bring up to particular careers. The six principal establish- ments of this kind are the Military, Naval, Ar- tillery, and Medical shools, and the schools for Military and Mining Engineers. Each of these has a preparatory school, called an Idadiye', and all are gratuitous. The pupils pass from three to five years in the idadiyes, according to the length of their course in the rushdiyes, and PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 153 during this term they are perfected in Turkish reading and writing, and learn arithmetic, history, geography, and the rudiments of a foreign language, such as French or English. The pro- gramme of these special establishments cor- responds fairly enough with the various careers for which the pupils are to be qualified, but much improvement is required in the preliminary instruction given in the idadiye's. There are a few other special schools in Constantinople of less general importance; such, for instance, as a training school for teachers in the rushdiye's ; a school of languages for instructing the trans- lators at the Porte ; and a school for the instruc- tion of managers of the vast forests of the empire. The general law on public instruction, pub- lished by Imperial Hatt in 1869, decreed the establishment of the primary schools in all large towns, a provincial lyceum in every vilae't, and seminaries or colleges, for a higher order of instruc- tion in Constantinople. The Dar-el-Founoun, or Turkish University, was opened during my recent visit to Stamboul, and each evening the vast hall (near the mausoleum of Sultan Mahmoud) was filled with an attentive audience that evidently appreciated the benefits to be derived from the MODERN TURKEY. study of those scientific and commercial subjects which were being successively placed before them. Azziz Effendi, professor at the medical school, delivered a very interesting lecture, illustrated by experiments, on "Chemistry;" Tahsin Effendi, director of the Dar-el-Founoun, discussed " The scientific properties of Water;" Wahid Effendi, professor of the medical school, gave a disserta- tion on the important question of " Cemeteries in relation to Public Health," and Munif Effendi, president of the administrative section of the Grand Council of Public Instruction, entertained his numerous hearers with an admirable lecture on " The Industrial Progress of the Country." Selim Effendi discoursed in a very lucid manner about " The Planets ;" Azziz Effendi, again, on " Climate and Temperature ;" Tahsin ETffendi on " The Immense and the Microscopic," while the series of lectures was brought to a close by Munif Effendi, who discussed the not unimportant question of the " Sources of National Wealth." Munif Effendi also delivered the inaugural address in Turkish, of which the following is a condensed translation : " To conquer a country," said his Excellency, " to be avenged upon an enemy, to accomplish PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 155 other similar deeds which tend to satisfy the ambition of man, are considered by. nations as great causes of congratulation. Yet, in the eyes of enlightened men, none of these triumphs equal that of erecting such a monument as this insti- tution, which is destined to revive science, and diffuse the benefits of education. How can it be otherwise ? Material conquests are invariably achieved at the expense of others, and the advantages obtained are always limited. But the benefits derived from moral conquests, those con- quests that injure no one, are immense, for all humanity is the gainer. " The efforts of our glorious Master and Sovereign have been crowned with success in many enterprises destined to consolidate his empire, and secure the happiness and prosperity of every class of his subjects. His Majesty has thus justly acquired a right to the thanks of every one; but, in my humble opinion, the reform of public instruction ought to be con- sidered as the most important act of his reign. Those who are acquainted with the spirit and exigencies of our time, know that education is, to-day, the basis of prosperity and strength. Without education, none of the measures adopted for the reform of the country would have the 156 MOUEBN TURKEY. desired result, and even if a certain result were obtained, it would only be ephemeral. The wealth of a country and the strength of its government are in direct ratio with the degree of capacity and knowledge which the people possess in their industrial and other pursuits. The better individuals perform their several duties, the more will the country be rich and its govern- ment powerful. But to arrive at this result we must have instruction, for it is evident that the difference existing at the present day in the wealth and power of nations is owing to no other cause. " Turkey has always been the protectress of science ; the schools, the Medresses, and the libraries, at present existing in Constantinople and several other parts of the Empire, afford ample proof. Nevertheless, our epoch cannot be compared with any of the ages that have preceded it, for human intelligence has never before been so developed ; while science, the marvellous effects of which we every day observe, has made immense progress and is constantly advancing. Under these circumstances, our present scientific institutions are no longer sufficient, particularly as the schools and medresses, are, in great part, devoted exclusively to Mussulmans; and the PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 157 Imperial Government, therefore, has for a long time felt the necessity of a University like this in which modern science would be taught, and which would be open to all His Majesty's subjects. Our neighbours in Europe, thanks to the efforts they have made for so many years, have greatly pro- gressed in the knowledge of science, and have, by that means, attained to a high degree of civilization. It is not consistent with the in- terests of this country, nor with the dignity of the government, to remain behind. " The late Sultan Mahmoud, illustrious father of our Sovereign, made considerable sacrifices for the purpose of re-organising his army, and thus saved the Empire from a great danger ; but the reform that our august Master has just ac- complished in public instruction will, undoubtedly, be even more salutary in its influence, by strengthening the foundations of the Empire, and increasing his power and glory. Since the establishment of the regular army, military schools have been instituted for the preparation of officers, but, unfortunately, no University was founded in which civil functionaries and other classes of the population could easily learn the higher sciences. If the study of certain sciences is necessary to enable men to fight against an 158 MODERN TURKEY. enemy, is it not equally so to qualify them for equipping and provisioning the troops as well as to fit them to undertake other positions to which the interests of the country may call them ? Besides, civil-service officials constitute the intellectual faculty of the State, and, the reins of power being confided to their hands, it is, I think, one of the first duties of the State to pro- vide proper means for their training and in- struction, so that they may be able to fulfil their duties in the most satisfactory manner. Thus, this University, in addition to other measures that are being adopted, will tend to the realisa- tion of that great end, and produce, I am convinced, important results not only in the spread of education, but in the industrial pro- gress of every part of the Empire. And as, at the present day, all Ottoman subjects are admitted, without distinction of race or creed, to the enjoyment of equal civil rights, so, in this establishment, they will learn science and morals together, thus drawing closer those fraternal ties that ought to connect them. " His Highness the Grand Vizier, who is animated with the most enlightened sentiments, as well as the other Ministers, particularly His Excellency Savfet Pasha, Minister of Public PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 159 Instruction, will continue to give their aid and assistance towards the progress of this institution, which, with the blessing of God, will be the means of producing instructed and enlightened men, amongst whom the Ministry of His Majesty will find functionaries capable of one day succeed- ing them. As for myself, placed by chance in this position, I am happy to proclaim here the beneficence of our Sovereign, who has endea- voured to insure the future prosperity of the country by the establishment of an institution destined to regenerate his empire." 160 CHAPTER VI. THE CAPITULATIONS. THE jurisdiction exercised by our Consuls in Turkey is a subject of very great im- portance, and one upon which serious differences of opinion exist. But I doubt if there is any person practically acquainted with the country, and having no personal interests to serve who is not convinced that some modifications are necessary in the relations existing between the Porte and the various European Consulates in the Ottoman empire. It is quite true that in those early days pre- ceding the Cromwellian era when the master- mariners of England shaped their course for the dominions of the Grand Seignior in pardonable dread of the corsairs of Tunis and Barbary, and when the Christian and the Mussulman entertained, for each other, undisguised senti- CAPITULATIONS. 161 lents of hatred and contempt it was the duty >f our ambassadors at the court of the Sultan to obtain for British subjects the most compre- hensive measures of protection in all matters affecting either their persons or property.* Now, however, that Turkey has fairly entered into the community of nations, that her administrative system has been remodelled, and the equality of all before the law declared ; now that the universal brotherhood of man is recognised as paramount to the claims of sect, and her commerce ramifies to every trading centre in the world, some of the points conceded by the Porte in the Capitulations seem to be singularly unsuited to present circum- stances, and demand such revision as may be in accordance with existing requirements. The rights and privileges of foreigners in Tur- key are regulated by a series of ancient conven- tions which are better known to jurists as the * Article XIX of the Capitulations. That if the corsairs or galliots of the Levant shall be found to have taken any English vessels, or robbed or plundered them of their goods and effects ; also if anyone shall have forcibly taken anything from the English, all possible diligence and exertion shall be used and employed for the discovery of the property, and inflicting condign punishment on those who may have committed such depreda- tions ; and their ships, goods, and effects shall be restored to them without delay or intrigue. M 162 MODERN TURKEY. Capitulations. "What those Capitulations really are, however, but few, I believe, in this country accurately understand. A vague impression pre- vails that, as they confer upon foreign residents a great many exceptional privileges, and exempt them from almost every sort of correlative obliga- tion to the native government, these Capitulations were, at one time, wrested from the fears and weakness of the Ottoman Government. Nothing, however could be more historically inexact. Turkey was a great and conquering power when she signed those Capitulations; and they were certainly not granted out of consideration to our position as a nation, for the time when they were confirmed was that in which our ships were being burned by the Dutch, and our trade and credit were at their lowest ebb. The germ of the Capitu- lations is to be found in the protective privileges enjoyed by the Genoese under the Lower Empire, and confirmed to them by Mohammed II. after the capture of Constantinople. The Crescent had, however, displaced the Cross on St. Sophia for more that eighty years before any record ap- pears of their extension to the other Western Powers. It was not, in fact, until 1535 that France, the first of the Royal Governments thus favoured, obtained some similar concessions for CAPITULATIONS. 163 its merchants from Solyman the Magnificent, on the eve of that monarch's alliance with Francis I. against the Emperor Charles V., who had, some months before, attacked and taken Tunis. But, assuredly, neither France nor any other State in Europe could have wrested anything from the conqueror of Belgrade, of Rhodes, ofBuda, and, very nearly, of Vienna. "Whatever was conceded was, on the contrary, the result of imperial mag- nanimity and free grace. Nearly a century more passed away before Eng- lish merchants were similarly favoured ; Murad IV. being the first to extend to them like privileges to those enjoyed by the French. It was not, how- ever, until 1675 that the protective rights, from time to time accorded, were formally ratified ; as in that year " capitulations and articles of peace " were entered into between Mohammed IV. and the English Government, confirming and extend- ing what had previously been granted. The con- vention then concluded consists of seventy-five clauses, and the very terms on which it assures " protection " to our countrymen of that day ad- venturing in the perilous field of Turkish com- merce, afford the best disproof of the power of the Stuart King to wrest even a recognition of equality from " the King of Kings of the world, M 2 164 MODERN TURKEY. the Prince of Emperors of every age, the Dispenser of crowns to monarchs, and the Champion Sultan Mohammed."* It was, in fact, distinctly stated * The following is the preamble to the Capitulations. SULTAN MOHAMMED, MAY HE LIVE FOR EVER! " Let everything be observed in conformity to these Capitulations, and contrary thereto let nothing be done." The command, under the sublime and lofty Signet, which imparts sublimity to every place, and under the imperial and noble Cypher, whose glory is renowned throughout all the world, by the Emperor and Conqueror of the earth, achieved with the assistance of the Omnipotent, and by the special grace of God, is this : We, who by Divine grace, assistance, will, and benevolence, now are the King of Kings of the world, the Prince of Emperors of every age, the Dispenser of Crowns to Monarchs, and the Champion Sultan Mohammed, Son of Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Son of Sultan Ahmed Khan, Son of Sultan Mohammed Khan, Son of Sultan Murad Khan, Son of Sultan Selim Khan, Son of Sultan Solyman Khan, Son of Sultan Selim Khan. The most glorious amongst the great Princes professing the faith of Jesus, and the most conspicuous amongst the Potentates of the nation of the Messiah, and the umpire of public differences that exist between Christian nations, clothed with the mantle of magnificence and majesty, Charles the Second, King of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland (whose end terminate in bliss!) having sent an Ambassador to the Sublime Porte in the time of our grandfather Sultan Murad (yhose tomb be ever resplendent !) of glorious memory and full of divine mercy and pity, with professions of friendship, sincerity, devotion, partiality, and benevolence, and demanding that His subjects might be at liberty to come and go into these Parts, which permission was CAPITULATIONS. 165 that the Capitulations were granted " through friendship," and it was made matter of special imperial favour that the King of England might " with his own money, purchase at Smyrna, Salonica, or any other port of our Sacred Domi- granted to them in the reign of the Monarch aforesaid, in addi- tion to various other special commands, to the end that on coming and going, either by land or sea, in their way, passage, and lodging, they might not experience any molestation or hindrance from anyone. He represented, in the reign of our grandfather Sultan Mohammed Khan (whose tomb be ever resplendent !) to our just and overshadowing Porte, His cordial esteem, alliance, sincere friendship, and partiality thereto. As such privilege, therefore, had been granted to the Kings and Sovereigns of France, Venice, and Poland, who profess the most profound devotion for our most eminent throne, and to others between whom and the Sublime Porte there exists a sincere amity and good understand- ing, so was the same, through friendship, in like manner granted to the said King ; and it was granted Him that His subjects and their interpreters might safely and securely come and trade in these our sacred Dominions. The Capitulations of sublime dignity and our noble com- mands having been, through friendship, thus granted to the Kings aforesaid, and the Queen of the above-mentioned King- doms having heretofore also sent a noble personage with presents to this victorious Porte, which is the refuge and retreat of the Kings of the world, the most exalted place, and the asylum of the Emperors of the universe (which gifts were graciously accepted), and She having earnestly implored the privilege in question, Her entreaties were acceded to, and these our high commands conceded to Her. 166 MODERN TUKKEY. nions, in fertile and abundant years, and not in times of dearth or scarcity, two cargoes of figs and raisins for his own kitchen ;"* and better still, is was graciously conceded that Embassy drago- mans should not be reproved, beaten, or put in prison without the knowledge of the Ambassador a proof that official interference with the Porte involved much greater risks in those days than at present.! * Article LXXIV of the Capitulations. That the King, having always been a friend to the Sublime Porte, out of regard to such good friendship, His Majesty shall and may, with his own money, purchase for his own kitchen, at Smyrna, Salonica, or any other port of our Sacred Dominions, in fertile and abundant years, and not in times of dearth or scarcity, two cargoes of figs and raisins, and after having paid a duty of three per cent, thereon, uo obstacle or hindrance shall be given thereto. f Article XXV. That the Consuls appointed by the English Ambassador in our sacred dominions, for the protection of their merchants, shall never, under any pretence, be imprisoned, nor their houses sealed up, nor themselves sent away ; but all suits or differences in which they may be involved shall be represented to our Sublime Porte, where their Ambassadors will answer for them. Article XLV. That the Ambassadors of the King of England, residing at the Sublime Porte, being the representatives of His Majesty, and the interpreters the representatives of the Ambas- sadors for such matters, therefore, as the latter shall translate or speak, or for whatever sealed letter or .memorial they may convey to any place in the name of their Ambassador, it being found that that which they have interpreted or translated is a true interprc- CAPITULATIONS. 167 In fact, the continuance of these stipulations in their present form is, now-a-days, a huge anachronism, and renders the admission of Tur- key into " the European family " a mere one-sided arrangement ; for while she is expected to dis- charge to the letter all the duties arising out of such new fellowship, these antiquated checks on her rights and powers within her own territory remain as operative now as they were upwards of two hundred years ago. In no other country in the world, having equal rank as a state, do foreigners hold such a privileged position as in Turkey. For example, they are exempt from all imposts whatsoever, either state or municipal, customs' dues alone excepted ; they may lead a life of pleasure or of business; may settle and amass wealth, or may travel and spend it ; and at all times may claim the fullest protection which the laws of the empire are capable of affording, without contributing one piastre to the expenses of the state, and without being amenable, in the smallest degree, to Ottoman jurisdiction. If the tation of the words and answers of the Ambassador or Consul, they shall be always free from all imputation of fault or punish- ment; and in case they shall commit any offence, our judges and governors shall not reprove, beat, or put any of the said in- terpreters in prison, without the knowledge of the Ambassador or Consul. 168 MODERN TURKEY. Porte construct a road, light a town with gas, or pave and cleanse the streets, it cannot compel the foreign residents to contribute a para towards the cost, while the whole system of taxation is ren- dered irregular and difficult in consequence of the mischievous obstructions offered by these char- ters in nearly every relation between the foreign population and the Government.* All Englishmen will easily understand the position of a person residing in a country to- wards the expenses of which he is not bound to contribute, and to the laws of which he is not compelled to render obedience. There are few, however, that have not visited the Ottoman Empire, who are perhaps aware that throughout the dominions of the Sultan are officers named Consuls, who administer justice in the name and under the commission of their respective * A few years ago, the Porte proposed to levy a tax on horses and donkeys in Constantinople, but the representatives of some of the Great Powers objected to the payment of this tax by their subjects on the ground that it was a " personal" tax from which they were exempted by the Capitulations. As some of the repre- sentatives would not allow it to be levied, of course, the others were under the necessity of refusing also ; and as the Porte did not consider it just to levy a tax upon Turkish subjects, which foreigners refused to pay, the scheme dropped, and thus a con- siderable and legitimate source of revenue was abandoned. CAPITULATIONS. 169 sovereigns, and that a foreigner resident in Turkey is altogether independent of the civil or criminal courts of the country, and amenable only to justice as administered in his own Con- sulate.* Nay more, that there are a considerable number of natives who having by some means obtained a foreign passport claim, under the present system of Consular jurisdiction, the pro- tection of that flag when the occasion answers, and thus contribute, not a little to the difficulties which arise every now and then between the Consuls and the Ottoman authority. If, for example, a foreigner were to commit a murder in Turkey, he could not be ar?sted without the * Article XV. That in all litigations occurring between the English, or subjects of England, and any other person, the judges shall not proceed to hear the cause without the presence of an interpreter, or one of his deputies. Article XVI. That if there happen any suit, or other differ- ence or dispute, amongst the English themselves, the decision thereof shall be left to their own Ambassador or Consul, accord- ing to their custom, without the judge or other governors, our slaves, intermeddling therein. Article XXIV. That if an Englishman, or other subject of that nation, shall be involved in any lawsuit, or other affair con- nected with law, the judge shall not hear nor decide thereon until the Ambassador, Consul, or Interpreter, shall be present; and all suits exceeding the value of 4000 aspers shall be heard at the Sublime Porte, and nowhere else. 370 MODERN TURKEY. authority of his own Consul, and if the said murderer happened to take refuge in the house of a foreigner of another nationality, the latter's house could not be entered without the pre- sence of a delegate from that foreigner's Con- sulate. In civil matters, things are even still more complicated, for if a merchant have a claim against a foreigner, he must prosecute it before the Consul or Consular Judge of the nation to which the defendant belongs, so that a mer- chant or shopkeeper may have to sue in fifteen or sixteen different courts for goods sold on credit to individuals of as many different nation- alities, in each of which a different code of law is administered. Considered simply from our own point of view, this is a state of things suf- ficiently serious; but when the number of Con- sulates, necessarily existing in every large town, is borne in mind, the magnitude of the evil, as it affects the Turkish Government, becomes at once apparent. Our Consuls have no legal juris- diction in Russia or Greece, and the condition of affairs under which the Capitulations were granted by the Porte has long ceased to exist. The entire system of consular protection, there- fore, in the Ottoman empire requires complete CAPITOLATIONS. 171 revision. It cannot be sustained, for one mo- ment, that if the whole of the extraordinary immunities contained in the Capitulations were \/\ swept summarily away, the persons and property of foreigners in Turkey would be less safe than they are at present. Nor can analogy be adduce! in proof of the assertion that the destruction of the ancient Capitulations would injuriously interfere with the integrity of the consular power, or the effective protection of its sub- jects. The perplexing position in which the Turkish administration is placed towards the consular body, and the difficulties which the latter ex- perience between their desire to do that which is obviously right, and yet make no admission calculated to injure the infallibility of their office, are evidences of the mischief which the system entails. The duties of a Consul in Turkey, especially in the large towns, are, besides, suffi- ciently onerous ; and their labours should not, therefore, be increased, or their relations with the Turkish authorities complicated, by claims on their nationality justified neither by reason nor by expediency. Frequent complaints were, some time ago, made because foreigners were not permitted to 172 MODERN TURKEY. hold real property in Turkey. The Porte, how- ever, said, " We will allow you to purchase land, and exercise all the rights of ownership, on condition of your paying the usual fiscal imposts incident thereto, and obeying the laws." The foreign communities replied, " No ; we must have the same rights in this matter as any subject of the Porte, but we will not concede one iota of the Capitulations, by which it is expressly stated that we are not liable to tribute or any other tax, nor subject to the laws."* And so the matter stood ; the Government of the Sultan inviting foreigners to settle in the country on the only terms consistent with self-respect, and foreigners complaining because the Porte was not sufficiently lost to a sense of its own dignity to make concessions which could not be justified. " The Government of the Sultan," said his Highness A'ali Pasha, " desires to act towards other nations according to the principles of the most civilized people. < In return, it considers it is right, and as due to its own dignity and pre- servation, to invoke these same principles on its * Article XIII. That all Englishmen, and subjects of England, who shall dwell or reside in our Dominions, -whether they be married or single, artisans or merchants, shall be exempt from all tribute. CAPITULATIONS. 173 behalf. It is well known in what a position Turkey was when its relations with Europe com- menced. A few foreign merchants, completely separated from the rest of the population, resided in the seaports of the Levant. They had hardly anything to do with the natives, and were entirely devoted to wholesale trade. The Otto- man Government granted them privileges which the state of society in which they lived, and the customs and habits of that time, had rendered necessary; but what existed then has given place to a state of things completely different. " Europe has changed, and Turkey is no longer what she was. The relations between her and Europe are no longer the same. Everything there is changed, except those antiquated Capitulations, which are often put forward in order to justify pretensions incompatible with the present system, and of such a nature as to render impossible the regular course of the Government. Foreign subjects are, in virtue of the said Capitulations, only subject to their own authorities. It follows, then, that in the provinces of the Empire there are as many police administrations, as many tribunals governed by different laws, as there are Consulates. Consequently in any police matter, 1~4 MODERN TURKEY. as well as in everything relating to judicial, financial, and other administrations, the hand of the Government .is paralysed in the name of this irregularity. The great inconvenience arising from such an extraordinary state of things, the insurmountable obstacles opposed to the accom- plishment of the wishes of the Sultan to have order and regularity in all branches of the administration, are too evident to require enumeration, and the extent of them cannot be more fully appreciated by anyone than by those upon whom the responsibility of the government of the Empire rests. " I am persuaded that if the Representatives who signed the collective note would take into consideration the preceding observations, they will admit, that, as long as such a state of things exists, it must be impossible for the Porte to adopt the course upon which they advise it to enter. In fact, how can it grant the right of establishing themselves as proprietors to popula- tions who do not recognise its authority or its laws, and who do not submit to the obligations to which the subjects of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan are themselves subordinate, but to their own foreign tribunals. Everywhere else, where strangers enjoy the privilege of possessing pro- CAPITULATIONS. 175 perty, they are subjected to the police, the laws, and the tribunals of the nation amongst which they reside; they pay the same taxes as the people of that nation, and they do not expect to be treated more favourably than its own subjects."* This, in fact, sums up nearly the whole question, and the least generous of us will admit that if the Porte is to be held to European obliga- tions, it is, in turn, entitled to European rights, and amongst the most primary of these, are the rights of taxation and police. The horse-tax, I have mentioned, was only one of many legiti- mate sources of revenue that are closed against the Turkish Government by the difficulty of im- posing fiscal burdens, however just, on its own subjects, from which foreigners liable to similar imposts everywhere but in Turkey are there exempt. So, too, it is with the police : privileges which were essential to the personal protection of foreigners a couple of centuries ago, are now no longer necessary in the same sense or to the * Pending a revision of the old Treaties, a new Law has been promulgated by the Porte, granting to Foreigners the right of holding real property in the Ottoman Empire, without any other condition than that of submitting to the laws and regulations which bind Ottoman subjects- themselves. (See Appendix). 176 MODERN TURKEY. same extent, but have, on the contrary, become painful sources of abuse. It is evident, therefore, that such modifications as will adapt conventions framed in 1675 to the altered circumstances of 1872 are urgently required. Many of the privi- leges granted by Mohammed IV. have become obsolete by the mere progress of civilization, while, of those that remain, not a few are at variance with every principle of political equity. 177 CHAPTER VII. TURKEY AS A FIELD FOB EMIGRATION. YTOTWITHSTANDING the trifling distance, as regards time, which now separates Turkey from England, there is, probably, no country in Europe of whose internal state more erroneous ideas exist. Most persons, allowing their imagination to carry them back to the days when the haughty and bigoted Turk looked down upon the Giaour as the abject slave who should minister to his pleasures and his wants, forget the various changes which have occurred since, by one severe and effectual blow, Sultan Mahmoud destroyed for ever the pride and fanaticism of the Moslem. With the destruction of the Janissaries (June 15, 1826) fell that military despotism under which both prince and people groaned, and the Sultan was then, for the first time, enabled to begin those salutary reforms which the exi- 178 MODERN TURKEY. gencies of an advancing civilisation required. Since that day, Turkish statesmen have become amenable to foreign counsel ; the ancient bigotry has disappeared, and been replaced by a religious tolerance which is certainly not surpassed, if even equalled, in any country in Europe ;* whilst the * " To those who remember what Turkey was thirty or forty years ago, the improvement of the position of the Christians, and in particular the change in the bearing of the Sovereign and of the high Ottoman functionaries, appear immense." Lord Lyons's Report to tlie Foreign Office, May 6, 1867. " With respect to religious freedom and toleration, the Chris- tian subjects have no cause for complaint. A firman is, indeed, required for the erection of a new church ; but so it is also for a new mosque, and it is granted, perhaps, with too much facility in either case. Bells are put up and rung, crosses and pictures carried about, and ecclesiastical dresses worn everywhere and openly." Mr. Consul Palgrave, Trebizond. " Religious toleration on the part of the Government exists in a degree not equalled in all European communities." Mr. Consul STcene, Aleppo. " The inhabitants of these islands (the Sporades), who are all Christians, enjoy privileges which are quite unknown, not only in Turkey, but in any other part of the world." Mr. Vice-Consul Biliotti, Rhodes. " I think it would be difficult to find many countries in which toleration is more largely practised, and in which the governing class allows its subjects more perfect enjoyment of their respect- ive religions than in Turkey." Mr. Consul Blunt Adrianople. " The condition of the Christians has immensely improved." Mr. Consul Rogers, Damascus. "All the Christians in Epirus, with the exception of a few TURKEY AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. 179 old jealousy towards the Frank has been suc- ceeded by a cordial friendship and by the most unbounded hospitality. In Turkey, hospitality appears under a grand and noble aspect. It is not only a momentary shelter from the storm ; it is a hospitality which, rising from the dignity of mere benevolence to that of a political reception, embraces the future as well as the present. As soon as the stranger places his foot on Turkish soil, he is saluted by the name of musaffir (guest). Civil, commercial, and religious liberty is secured to him ; his own laws are administered by functionaries of his own nation ; unlimited free trade exists ; while, by the State, the Moslem is recognized only in foreigners, belong to the Greek Church. The places of worship are numerous, their services are frequent, and some of their ceremonies and processions are attended with much display. But they are never interfered with in their religious exercises." Mr. Consul Stuart, Epirus. "When I first became acquainted with Turkey, more than thirty years ago, I could never have expected to see social equality realised to the extent it has now been, and that in so short a period." Mr. Consul-General Longworih, Belgrade. " The Sultan, wishing in his own person to set a conspicuous example of tolerance to all his subjects, has recently adopted the unprecedented step of taking several Christians into the Palace as domestic servants, who are placed on the same footing and receive precisely the same treatment as his Mussulman attend- ants." Levant Herald June 14, 1871, N 2 180 MODERN TURKEY. his mosque, the Christian in his church, and the Jew in his synagogue. This civil, commercial, and religious liberty, granted to the stranger, renders Turkey, not only a favourable field for English capital and enterprise, but also an eligible home for those who are daily seeking in distant lands the com- forts and independence denied them in their own. In fact, the " hewers of wood and drawers of water " are at the present moment one of the desiderata of Turkey the paucity of hands being a serious obstacle to the development of the great natural resources of the empire. In most civilised countries, there appears to be an irresistible attraction which draws men of energy and intelligence from the rural districts into populous towns, and makes them prefer the active bustle of city life to the peaceful tenor of a pastoral existence. In Turkey, from the opera- tion of various causes, the principal cities, such as Constantinople, Smyrna, Salonica, Trebizond, and Beyrout, are filled with a busy crowd un- ceasingly engaged in the pursuits of commerce, while, in the country, agriculture languishes from the want of hands necessary to till the soil. In Macedonia, for example, which possesses a de- lightful climate, only one-fourth part of the land TURKEY AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. 181 is under cultivation, and even that does not yield one-third of what it is capable. Cyprus, which, in the time of the Venetians, possessed a population of one million, now con- tains only one hundred and eighty thousand. The Pashalic of Damascus, which extends, North to South, from Hamah on the Orontes down to the deserts of Arabia Petrsea, south-east of the Dead Sea a length of about four degrees of latitude is extremely fertile, and capable of supporting a population of six millions of souls, whereas, at present, the population is not more than five hundred thousand. This state of the rural districts is apparent all over the empire, and may be traced to that baneful system of farming the taxes which prevailed from the reign of Mohammed II. to that of the late Sultan Abdul- Medjid. Formerly, the taxes of a province were usually farmed by the Pasha or Governor for the time being, who, knowing that his tenure of power was most uncertain, invariably governed the Pashalic for his own personal advantage, ignoring altogether the interests both of the people and the State. It is related by Volney that the merchants of Aleppo, dissatisfied with the numerous incon- veniences of Alexandretta, wished to abandon 182 MODERN TURKEY. that port, and carry the trade to Latakia. They proposed to the Pasha of Tripoli to repair the harbour of Latakia at their own expense, pro- vided he would grant them an exemption from all duties during the space of ten years. To induce him to comply with this request, the merchants talked much of the advantages that would in time result to the whole neighbouring country. " But what signifies it to me," replied the Pasha, " what may happen in time ? I was yesterday at Marash ; to-morrow, perhaps, I shall be at Djeddah. Why should I deprive my- self of present advantages which are certain, for future benefits I cannot hope to partake of?" Under such a rule as this, the unfortunate peasant was ground to the dust, the last para was ex- tracted from him, and the poverty and depopula- tion of the country were the natural results. Mahmoud II. endeavoured to remedy these evils ; and his son, Abdul-Medjid, by the Hatti- Sche'riff of Giil-Hane (November 3rd, 1839), fearlessly denounced the abuses of the ancient system, and declared his determination to reform altogether the mode of collecting the revenue. Since that time, no Government official has been permitted to farm the taxes, the condition of the peasant has improved, the Pashas no longer TURKEY AS A FIELD FOE EMIGBATION. 183 possess unlimited power, while every man is guaranteed the fruit of his labour, and can do as he pleases with his own. It is true there is still much to be desired as to the mode in which the revenue is collected, but with all its disadvan- tages to the agriculturist, Turkey offers as favourable conditions for a happy existence as the immigrant can find in most other countries. Syria and Asia Minor are, comparatively, close to our shores ; they possess a fertile soil, a de- lightful climate, a hospitable population, and are capable of producing in abundance everything necessary for the wants of man. Approaching the subject practically, however, three questions present themselves, viz. What has Turkey to gain from immigration ? what may immigrants gain in Turkey ? and which are the localities where the mutuality of advantage would be most complete? The first of these queries involves no very subtle problem. The present population, as I have said, is in many districts insufficient, and any importation of fresh labour, intelligence, energy, or wealth, so it be in a tax- paying shape, would be a direct strengthening of the empire's weakest point its Treasury ; while it would afford an example to, and tend to rouse emulation in, the native proprietors and tillers of 184 MODERN TURKEY. the soil. At the same time, the peaceful charac- ter of the element introduced its freedom from political bias, and the involvement of its own welfare in that of the State divest it of every suspicion of proving in the future a source of disquiet. An ordinance was, some time ago, issued by His Majesty the Sultan, which offers important advantages to immigrants. By the principal clause therein it was decreed that " whoever shall clear uncultivated and neglected lands, and convert them into cultivated fields, shall receive such lands gratuitously, and without charge ; and title-deeds shall be delivered to him on the sole condition that he will pay three piastres (six- pence) by way of stamp duty. Further, the produce of these lands shall be exempt from the payment of tithes for one year ; or, should the land be stony, for two years. If amongst the lands thus cultivated, any should be found in which the cejssionnaire cultivates cotton, the ex- emption from the tithe, or any payment made in lieu of tithe, shall be extended to five years." The natural advantages possessed by Turkey, in its climate and geographical position, are enjoyed by few other countries in the world, and enor- mous tracts, where water is plentiful and the soil TUEKEY AS A FIELD TOE EMIGRATION. 185 most fruitful, could be readily obtained ; and when it is considered that Turkey in Asia pos- sesses an area of six hundred and seventy-three thousand, seven hundred and forty-six square miles, with a population of but sixteen millions, and fifty thousand, giving only 23*8 to the square mile, it may be imagined what a vast extent of fertile land is there lying unproductive. European Turkey also presents considerable advantages of climate, supplemented by accessibility of position ; but the political unrest which affects these districts would tend, so long as it continues, to neutralize the advantages which the Government would de- rive from immigration ; and when it yields to repose, the power of self- development in the native population sufficing, might turn the foreign element into an incumbrance. On the other hand, the rich peninsula of Asia Minor appears to be free from all these objections. It vegetates in the enjoyment of the most perfect tranquillity; it nourishes no sort of political ferment, nor the elements of any ; the population is loyal and sub- missive ; scanty besides, and poor but progress- ive ; the Mussulman residents are not fana- tical ; the Greek population not haunted by " great ideas," nor, for the matter of that, by small ones either ; the climate is, on the whole, salubrious, and the soil sufficiently varied in its 186 MODEEN TURKEY. capacity to allow of new paths being opened to- wards the development of its resources. This district is of no mean extent, containing some one hundred and twenty thousand square miles, of which it will be remembered that a western colony the Galatians occupied no small pro- portion some two thousand years ago. It now, however, differs from any other modern colonial field, in that the population is not im- perfect and increasing, but complete, though diminishing. That is to say, the agricultural, com- mercial, and industrial elements all exist in their due proportion. The landed proprietors find all the labour they require, and the labourers full employment. There is a market for all the pro- duce grown, and native craftsmen adequately minister to the simple wants of the other classes. Thus there is no opening for labourers alone, nor for artizans alone ; a butcher, a baker, a tanner, a mason, a carpenter, or a miller might find a vacancy here and there for the exercise of his calling in one of the seaport towns ; but these opportunities are too few to be worth calculating or even mentioning under the head of immigration. It is the wide spread of uncultivated land, and that only, which affords a field to foreign settlers, and it is, therefore, to agriculture that immi- grants should direct their energies. TURKEY AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. 187 Next to the possession of some practical know- ledge of agriculture, and intelligence to apply it to local circumstances, capital, sufficient for the work he proposes to undertake, is the first requisite for an immigrant. His land will cost him little; but he will find no buildings on it, and working stock and implements have to be purchased. He will require, moreover, about three times as much arable land as, with the same views regarding extent of culture, he would undertake in England. Because, 1st manure cannot be purchased; 2nd the raising or fat- tening of stock does not assume the promi- nence in Turkish which it does in English farming ; 3rd the manure made by his working stock will be in full demand for the portion of the. farm amenable to irrigation ; therefore, bare fallow has, as a rule, to supply the place of manure, and due allowance for this must be made in the area of land obtained or purchased. Further, no immigrant farmer should trust altogether to native labourers; not only would their comparative apathy thwart the energy he might himself possess, but their " feast-days " would be a perpetual hinderance to him, whether they were Turks or Christians. He should, therefore, bring out with him a sufficient staff of 188 MODERN TURKEY. labourers, with their families, to conduct the ordinary work of the farm ; if possible, making the enterprise a co-operative one.* Then let him * H.B.M's. Consul at Trebizond reports to the Foreign Office that the climate of Central Anatolia is dry, healthy, and bracing, and the hygienic conditions good, except in some of the deeper valleys, where intermittent fever occasionally appears. The forests are scanty, the general aspect of the region being that of a series of wide undulating plains with excellent pasturage, deep soil, and rocky stretches. There are large and rapid rivers in every direction available for irrigation as well as transport purposes, and clear springs of water aboiind. Cereals form the staple produce of the country, and corn and barley are of the best quality; turnips, carrots, beet, and all sorts of fruit suc- ceed admirably with very little trouble. Silk and cotton also flourish, and the wool of the sheep reared on these pastures is exceptionally fine. It is useless for an isolated person to attempt to make his way ; but he says that by co-operation in large bodies, composed solely of English capitalists and workmen, success might be looked upon as certain. This would be practically forming colonies for the establishment of factories, mills, &c., for improving the naturally fine agricultural capacities of the soil, breeding stock, cultivating silk, cotton, the vine, &c. Mining establishments, having regard to the undoubted mineral wealth of the country, silk and wool factories, as well as flour- mills, are in great demand, and would drive an excellent business, while it is stated that excellent arable land for farming purposes may be bought at about 2 per acre ; strong, thickset horses cost from 3 to 7 ; a pair of oxen 6 ; a cow 2 10s. ; a pair of buffaloes from 8 to 13 : a sheep 8s. 6d. ; a goat 7s. ; a lamb Is. 8d. In such matters, fact is more desirable than theory, and a remarkable case in point exists. There has been established for twenty years in the town of Amasia, TURKEY AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. 189 bear in mind that grain-growing, though com- paratively a tame pursuit to an enterprising man, is almost a certainty in Turkey, and that, with ordinary care, it is fairly remunerative; but that cotton, tobacco, sesame, flax, and other Summer crops, though perhaps more tempting, require special study and local experience. The culture of the vine and wine-making, as well as that of the mulberry and rearing of silk-worms if undertaken with an adequate amount of know- ledge are, however, as safe as grain-farming, and more profitable. Fulfilling these conditions, steadily bent upon adopting the country with all its minor defects, and acting in conformity with the law granting about seventy miles inland, a large silk spinning factory and flour mill, belonging to some South Germans, Krug, Stroh and Co. It is a complete colony of Protestant Germans. They have their own clergyman, doctor, tailor, smith, baker, car- penter, rear their own stock, cultivate their own vegetables, and, except for occasional common day labour, do not employ the natives at all. The experiment has proved such a complete success that a large body of German agriculturists are about to establish themselves in the neighbourhood of Kasta- mouni, not far from Angora, probably with the view of improving and increasing the breed of Angora sheep ; the quality and value of the Angora fleeces in commerce being sufficiently known to make the venture a probably lucrative one. Here, then, is a large field for English capital, enterprise, and industry. 190 MODERN TURKEY. to foreigners the right of holding real property in Turkey, there is no reason why a band of agriculturists, or many of them should not lead as happy and profitable an existence in Syria or Asia Minor as in Australia or New Zealand (the climates are almost identical), with this advantage in favour of Syria and Asia Minor that they are but a week or ten days' journey from " the old country." PAET III. 193 CHAPTER I. BRITISH INTERESTS IN TURKEY. TT may not be uninteresting to some of my readers to inquire what are the interests Great . Britain has in the stability and progress of the Ottoman Empire. It is a question I have been frequently asked, as most persons only look at the matter from a political point of view, and are little acquainted with those material interests by which, after all, nations as well as individuals are, to a great extent, actuated. The answer, how- ever, is very simple. Apart from political considera- tions, our interests in Turkey consist in the fact that she is one of the best customers we have for our products and manufactures, and that, besides, we are her creditors for loans to a con- siderable extent. Forty years ago, the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was comparatively of little importance to MODERN TURKEY. us, as, in the year 1827, the entire exports from Great Britain to Turkey did not exceed the in- significant sum of 531,704. At present, the question bears a very different aspect, seeing that the annual exports of our manufactured goods to Turkey, exclusive of Egypt, amount to the large sum of eight millions sterling. These exports have been increasing for some years past. Thus, in the year 1853, they amounted to 2,515,395; in 1857, to 4,012,242; in 1860, to 5,237,105; in 1864, to 7,501,988 ; and in 1869 to about 8,000,000. At one time, Turkey was noted for the cunning and skill of her handicraftsmen, but since the invention of the powerloom, and the application of steam to nearly every department of manufacturing in- dustry, she has become a purely agricultural country. The numerous and varied manufactures which formerly sufficed not only for the con- sumption of the empire, but also stocked the markets of the Levant, as well as those of several countries in Europe, have, in some instances, declined, and, in others, become altogether extinct. The manufactures in steel, for which Damascus was so famous, no longer exist ; the muslin-looms of Scutari and Tirnova, which in 1812 numbered two thousand, are now BRITISH INTERESTS IN TURKEY. 195 reduced to less than two hundred ; the silk looms of Salonica, numbering from twenty-five to twenty-eight in 1847, have now fallen to eigh- teen ; while Broussa and Diarbekhr, which were so renowned for their velvets, satins, and silk stuffs, do not produce a tenth part of what they yielded thirty years ago. Bagdad was once the centre of flourishing trades, especially of calico- printing, tanning, and preparing leather, pot- tery, jewellery, &c. Aleppo was still more famous, for its manufactures of gold thread, of cotton tissues, cotton and silk, silk and gold, and pure cotton called nankeens, gave occupation to more than forty thousand looms, of which, at present, there remain only about five thousand. Various causes have contributed to this decrease of manufacturing industry; and now Sheffield steel supplies the place of that of Damascus ; cloths and every variety of cottons have supplanted silk ; English muslins are preferred even to those of India, and the shawls of Persia and Cashmere have given way to those of Glasgow and Manches- ter. While, however, the manufacturing industry has thus fallen off, the producing power of the country itself has considerably increased, and Turkey is capable of supplying Europe to an in- definite extent, not only with those ordinary raw o 2 19G MODERN TURKEY. materials which form everywhere the great staples of food and manufacture, but also with those rarer articles of merchandise which can only be abun- dantly and profitably produced under conditions of special advantages as regards climate and geographical position. In the year 1860, when we wanted grain, Turkey sent us wheat, barley, and maize to the value of 3,011,277, and she now sends us cotton, silk, wool, grain, fruit, gums, drugs, madder root, olive oil, opium, sponges, tallow, tobacco, valonia, &c., &c., to the amount of six millions sterling per annum. On our side, we send Turkey cotton and woollen manufactured goods, hardware and cutlery, coal, furniture, glass manufactures, machinery, refined sugar, &c., &c., to the amount of upwards of 8,000,000. British commerce in the Levant, as I have stated, has increased considerably ; but it is far from having attained its fullest development. The growth of the external trade of the United Kingdom, as demonstrated in the returns periodically issued by the Board of Trade, is, it is true, highly gratifying to our national pride, and evidences the intensity and catholicity of our business enterprise. Not only are we keen competitors with other nations in almost BRITISH INTERESTS IN TURKEY. 197 every mart where the standard of civilization has been planted, but an incessant war is waged between our merchant princes, as the representatives of social advancement, on the. one hand, and uncivilized tribes, who strenuously resist the encroachment of modern ideas, on the other. To open new markets for the produce of our looms and furnaces is a distinct profession in the world of commerce a profession which is followed with such earnestness and devotion as, in the absence of other evidence, to induce the belief that our trade with old countries has been pushed to its utmost extent consistent with commercial safety. Such, however, is really not the case, as, not- withstanding the great increase of the trade and commerce of Turkey, the magnificent seaboard of the Levant and the various islands of the Archipelago are, comparatively, but little known to the steam navigation enterprise of England. With the exception of the direct lines of steamers from London and Liverpool, there are scarcely any steamers under the British flag to be found in Ottoman waters. The steamers of the French MessageYies, Austrian Lloyd's, and Russian Steam Navigation Company have, on the contrary, gone 198 MODEKN TUKKEY. on increasing in a most extraordinary manner, and while the trade between Great Britain and Tnrkey has, in the space of ten years, increased fifty per cent., that between France and Turkey has increased a hundred per cent., and that between Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Turkey has progressed in an equal degree. It is rather strange that, although our in- fluence should be paramount in Eastern waters, and the spirit of maritime enterprise is so peculiarly the characteristic of our countrymen, we, never- theless, permit ourselves to be outstripped by the French and Germans. Our shipowners complain, yet the carrying trade of the Levant is passing from our hands, and our merchants bewail the quietness of markets and paucity of orders, whilst our neighbours in Europe are, in many places, monopolising the trade and pocketing the profits which, by right, ought to be ours. Thus, it will be seen how important, in a com- mercial point of view, is the material interest which England has in the well-being of Turkey ; for it must be obvious that the more she is left peace- ably to manage her own affairs, and develop her internal resources, the more will the productive power of the country, and, as a natural sequence, BRITISH INTERESTS IN TURKEY. 199 the purchasing power of the people be augmented and the larger will be the market for our mer- chandize and manufactures. The agricultural re- sources of Turkey at present are great, but those which remain dormant are so vast as to be practi- cally unlimited. The whole stretch of country be- tween the Syrian coast-range and the Euphrates is capable of cotton production to an extent hardly conceivable, except by those who are ac- quainted with the topography of the district. The uncultivated area of Asia Minor is very large, while in European Turkey, although in some places the land is so fruitful that two crops of grain are obtained from it in the year, the same state of things exists. To those, however, who take a sincere and practical interest in the fortunes of the Ottoman Empire, there is no more encouraging subject of contemplation than the vast natural, though only partially developed resources of the country. The difficulty, it is true, with which a revenue is collected sufficient to meet the outgoings of the State, is matter of every day comment; and from this the inference is easily deducible that Turkey is poor, and, consequently, as a Government, doomed to extinction. But when her rolling, untilled plains her vast, un- 200 MODERN TURKEY. trodden mountain slopes her waste of waters lazily flowing through her alluvial valleys her unhewn forests of oak, and walnut, and box, and beech her unworked minerals, and her range of climate, are weighed in the balance, the con- clusion is irresistible that Turkey is destined yet to hold a place among nations second to none in natural wealth and individual influence. No country can be really poor when coal and iron are numbered with its minerals ; no country can be divested of international importance the soil of which is capable of ministering to the prime necessities of the human race ; and that country cannot be deprived of commerial rank which pos- sesses a seaboard on three continents. The serious mistake, however, which most people commit in reference to Turkey is in for- getting that, though great the paradox, the country is still young. We must remember that it is only within living memory that the Osmanlis have fairly taken their place in the councils of the European continent. Since the reign of Mahmoud II. one Sultan only has come and gone ; but, in the interim, Turkey has progressed with rapid strides. In the army, the navy, in education, in social science, public works, and in everything which indicates the progressive BRITISH INTERESTS IN TURKEY. 201 tread of an enlightened legislation, she has made important progress, and there can be little doubt that there remains for Turkey a future of usefulness, honour, and power. 202 CHAPTER II. TURKISH FINANCES. " TT7HEN a country is overwhelmed with debt, with an enormous deficit in its budget, without power of retrenchment, and with its resources exhausted, then, indeed, the statesman and financier, however great their ability and skill, may well despair of being able to retrieve the public credit. But in a country like Turkey, whose debts do not exceed some three years' revenue, where large retrenchments may be made without injury to the public service, where taxa- tion is only oppressive by its unequal distribu- tion, and where immense resources abound on every side, a temporary deficit in the Budget, although it may be, for the moment, a source of embarrassment to the Government, cannot afford a legitimate ground for anxiety or dis- trust." The present financial position of Turkey proves the correctness of this statement which I TURKISH FINANCES. 203 made just ten years ago.* The Budget published in 1862 showed the receipts to have been 11,164,552, while the Budget now issued states the revenues, for the present year, to beT.20,637,210;f and that, too, with little or no actual increase of taxation, which amounts at present to not more than ten shillings per head a sum much less than in most countries in Europe. Notwithstanding this great increase in the revenues of Turkey, there are still habitual detractors of the Porte who decry Turkish securities, and repeat the old arguments which have so often done duty, and with damaging effect, too, before the English public learned better to estimate the value of such warnings. If a railway is to be made, some Levantine economist is sure to declare that it will never pay ; or if a loan, necessitated by an insurrection or the transformation of the country's armaments, is thought of, some alarmist at once raises the cry that new money is being borrowed to pay the interest on old debts. Frequently, also, an argument is urged against investments in Turkish loans, on the ground that the stock is quoted at terms to pay from nine to twelve * The Eesources of Turkey," 1862. t A Turkish pound may be taken as equal to 18&\ sterling. 204 MODERN TURKEY. per cent, interest, and, consequently, there must be a considerable risk. From a Threadneedle Street point of view, there may be some reason in this, but it is apparently forgotten that in Turkey the legal rate of interest is twelve per cent., while in ordinary mercantile transactions the far more common rate is fifteen and even eighteen per cent. That the Government of a country, therefore, in which these are the ruling rates of interest on the very best mercantile paper, can obtain money both at home and abroad at an average of ten per cent., is surely no argu- ment against the safety of its stock. There may be little analogy in point of absolute safety between English consols and Turkish " muttons," but if the former pay only three per cent, to investors, and the latter ten, much of the sig- nificance of the fact vanishes, when it is remem- bered that in Lombard Street money is worth only two, three, or, at most, four per cent.; while in Galata or Stamboul it can quite as readily, and on equally good security, command four times these rates. Nor should it be for- gotten that, after all, the whole public debt of Turkey is less than five years of its revenue certainly not a highly " hazardous " proportion TURKISH FINANCES. 205 for a country so rich in ascertained and easily realisable natural wealth. It cannot, it is true, be denied that the resources of Turkey are still less than half developed; that thousands of square miles of its best soil are untilled ; that its forests are unproductive, and its minerals unworked. But it is exactly because the resources of the Empire are undeveloped, because its forests are virgin, its plains untilled, and its mines unworked, that it contains and offers to capitalists all the elements of a splendid security for any money that may be spent in realising these enormous natural riches. If the country were worked out, its forests cut down, and its deposits of coal, copper, silver, and lead exhausted, the risk of lending to it might then reasonably enough be alleged ; but with the whole of these available for con- version into revenue, the security for ten times the present public debt of Turkey will be con- sidered ample by all who know the country, and are without motive for misrepresenting its condition and prospects. The cardinal error which many persons commit, is that they place the Ottoman Empire side by side with England or France, and, because the former does not come up to the financial standard 206 MODERN TURKEY. of the latter, unreasonably pronounce the Porte to be hopelessly "behind the age." No principle of comparison could be more unfair. Fifty years ago, Turkey was, in fact, as much shut out from the rest of Europe as Persia is at the present time. The social, religious, and political separatism which the dominant section of her population had carried with them four hundred years before, from the cradle of their power in Asia, remained as rigorously complete on the accession of Mahmoud II. as it was at that of Amurath I. Isolated by the geographical situ- ation of -the larger half of her territory; by the absolute unfusibility of her five or six different races, she was shut out from the influences which, by degrees, and only by degrees, raised England and France from their semi-barbarism, under Edward III. and Philip of Valois, to the pre- eminence of refinement and power to which they have now attained. Many persons, however, in England, make no allowance for this. They argue as if Turkey had all the while enjoyed the full benefits of Western civilization, and yet per- versely stood still, whilst the rest of Europe, with no greater advantages, went ahead in arts, litera- ture, finance, and social polity. The fact is that the West has had four centuries start of TURKISH FINANCES. 207 Turkey, and yet the detractors of the latter clamour because she has not been able to over- take her rivals in the race of civilization and financial development in the short space of fifty years. It is true that, while the revenues of the Empire have increased, the expenditure has also increased ; but in every branch of her administra- tion, Turkey has accomplished many improve- ments. All the paper money and a great portion of the base currency have been withdrawn from circulation. Within the past few years, she has constructed an imposing ironclad navy ; modern- ized the armament of her land and sea forces ; established at Constantinople and its neighbour- hood naval and military arsenals which, in the eyes of competent judges, compare favourably with those of other European States ; and spent, at least, five millions sterling in the construction of highways, roads, and other works of public utility. Much, however, remains to be done in reference to the proper assessment of the taxes. Most of the taxes which are exacted in the provinces are not levied in the capital; and Constantinople, considering its extent and population, could easily contribute three millions sterling a year towards 208 MODERN TURKEY. defraying the expenditure of the Empire, if it were not, as it is, exempt from all personal and land taxation. The stamp duties only yield T.200,000, and those on spirits T.244,950, while the tithes and customs' duties do not pro- duce anything like what they are capable of. The Customs' duties, for the present year, are estimated to produce T. 2,151,405 ; but Mr. Barron, Her Majesty's Secretary of Embassy at Constantinople, says, in his Report to the Foreign Office, that " considering the geographical posi- tion of Turkey, and the quantity of merchandize which passes through her ports, those duties should yield a much larger revenue than at present. A great desideratum, however, is a good system of warehousing in bond. Of this, Turkey is at present destitute, so that merchants are obliged to import from hand to mouth. A* good bonding system would encourage importa- tion, and materially aid in the just collection of the duty. The erection of docks and bonded warehouses could be readily accomplished by private enterprize, and would supply a keenly-felt want, as, at the present moment, goods to the value of 50,000 to 1 00,000 are constantly ex- posed in lighters, for weeks together, to all the risks arising from the weather." TURKISH FINANCES. 209 The tax on sheep is an important source of Turkish revenue, and is estimated to yield T. 2,049,700, an amount which might be greatly increased, could a reliable return of numbers be even approximately obtained. It would, however, be unreasonable to expect, from a country situated like Turkey, that which is found to be all but impossible in countries highly cultivated, and with systems of government thoroughly engrafted in the affections of the people. A perfect system of agricultural statistics is the aim of the Executive in every wisely-governed State ; but, whether the object has been the imposition of fiscal burdens, the better to care for the public health, or accu- rately guage the national wealth, the end has, in scarcely any instance, been attained. Turkey, however, cannot with propriety be called a settled country. In Asia, there are vast tracts of pasture land in the occupation of nomad tribes, who own no direct allegiance except to their sheikhs, and whose wandering habits render the task of Government supervision for revenue purposes a practical nullity. In such a case as this, it is in the power of individuals to enter into compacts which the Government could not undertake without derogation of dignity ; and the farming of such a tax may, therefore, be p 210 MODERN TURKEY. considered the best available mode of obtaining its collection. This, however, does not apply with the same force to European Turkey, where the inhabitants are more localized, and the same difficulties in the way of direct collection, as in the Asiatic division of the Empire, do not exist. The tax upon sheep may with truth be denomi- nated a quit-rent, which the proprietors of the flocks pay to the State ; but, although the tax is small and seems to be easily borne, it is question- able whether the Government would not derive a larger income from a small rental on large tracts of land, parcelled put in similar fashion to our own Australian sheep-runs. The average of grass required for a given number of sheep is a known quantity ; and it would be more satis- factory, both to the Government and the flock- masters, if this revenue were raised in a manner about which there could not be any dispute, either as regards the mode of collection or the amount returnable. The ushur, or tithe, is a tax of one-tenth on all agricultural produce raised in the country, and is estimated to yield, for the present year, T.7,495,675, but it might be made to yield at least 50 per cent. more. Such an impost, if levied with fairness, and with a due regard to the TURKISH FINANCES. 211 interests of the cultivator, would, in a country like Turkey, not be an objectionable mode of recruit- ing the public purse; but when the State, anti- cipating the revenue, sells the probable produce of the tax by public tender, handing thereby the entirety of the agricultural population over to the mercies of ordinary speculators, the 1 impost, which might otherwise be easily borne, is, in too many instances, converted into an insufferable burden. The loss, besides, to the State is mani- fold, as it cannot, of course, hope to receive any- thing like the amount which the tax might be fairly expected to produce. The tithe of a whole district is usually sold to one individual, or one company of contractors, who first split up the district into divisions, and then sub-let them at a considerable profit. In this way the process of sub-division continues, until the tax is vested in the parties who collect the proceeds. On each of these sales and sub- sales, profits have been made, until the ultimate proprietor holds the dimes at a price very diffe- rent from that paid to the Government, the profits so made constituting in reality so much revenue diverted from the public Treasury. As the actual ushurd/jee, too, always calculates the price he is willing to pay on the basis of 30 per p 2 212 MODERN TURKEY. cent, for collection, and 20 per cent, minimum profit for himself, the enormous loss to the State can be readily imagined. Moreover, should a season prove unfavourable, and the gross result fall short of the expected amount, it is not un- usual for the contractors to plead force majeure in mitigation of their payments ; while, should the value of the tithe be affected by any sudden fall in the produce markets, the estimation for the ensuing season will be proportionately low : and, although there may be every indication of an abundant harvest, the Government must submit to a heavy discount on the price of the previous year. Thus, looking at the monetary aspect of the case alone, the system is a losing one as far as the Porte is concerned, the only persons who really derive benefit being the ushurdjees* * Mr. Barren, Her Majesty's Secretary of Embassy at Con- stantinople, says in his official Eeport: " This tax, the tithe, is not collected directly by Government ; but the right of collecting it is sold annually to the highest bidder during the course of the Spring. The speculators who purchase the tithes are called " multeziin," i.e., " appaltators," or farmers. One of these, after having bought a whole " sandjak," will sell his bargain in lots to others, who will again sub-divide their lots into " nabiyes" and villages. On each of these sales and sub- sales profits must be made, so that the State sells that for fifty which finally produces one hundred. The profits made in this TURKISH FINANCES. 213 Apart, however, from what may be termed the Treasury aspect of the question, the Govern- ment suffers in the diminished attachment of the population to the institutions of the country, consequent upon its abnegation of direct action in such an important matter as the collection of the public revenue. Love of country is happily everywhere a sentiment of indigenous growth ; but loyalty, to certain institutes of government, is easily enfeebled when the fulfilment of incum- bent public duties is delegated to individuals way by the higher contractors are known to be enormous, and have been the foundation of the largest fortunes in Turkey. " The tithe is the only practicable land-tax in a country like Turkey. It is, moreover, recognised by the religion of Islarn, and, combined with the sheep tax, itself a kind of tithe, was the only tax regularly enforced in the Arab and Turkish Empires To remove all the abuses attendant on this or any other tax would be impossible. The object of a statesman should be to reconcile together the dictates of equity, the interests of the Treasury, and the national habits. On this principle the best expedient would seem to be an extensive application of the system of com- pounding for tithe. The system might be applied to whole " kazas," to communes, and even to single farms, either for one or several years in advance, and by a free consent of both parties. This would act as a powerful protection to the cultivator, as an incentive to improvement, and ultimately as a remunerative measure to the Treasury, though, perhaps, at a temporary loss. This system would tend to increase the taxable material, while the present mode of levying the tithe is like cutting down the tree to gather the fruit. 214 MODERN TURKEY. whose interests are opposed to the equitable exercise of their functions. The policy of the State should be to levy only such contributions on the population as may be requisite for the efficient upholding of its sovereignty, the ad- ministration of justice, and the general promo- tion of the public weal ; and it is, moreover, the interest of the State to see to the equitable character of its incidence. The interest of the farmer of the revenue is, on the contrary, to enhance by every means in his power the value of the privilege which he has purchased, irre- spective of any consideration affecting either the rights or well-being of the population. The tithe of such a country as Turkey is too important a branch of revenue to be dissipated by mismanagement, and no more deservedly popular act could be credited to the Porte than the collection of the dimes in cash, by the agents of the State, for the sole benefit of the Treasury. If the farming of the tithe in Asia Minor and Syria were abolished in favour of direct collection, an addition to the revenue would be secured of so substantial a character as to compensate for any temporary inconvenience which might arise by the non-receipt of the usual early instalments from the contractors. The tithe of European TURKISH FINANCES. 215 Turkey might be similarly treated in the following year ; after which, other branches of revenue could be subjected to the same process. Turkey, in relation to her population and area, is the most lightly taxed country in Europe. The mode in which these taxes are collected is the objectionable part of the system, although they may, perhaps, fall heavily on certain districts, and on certain classes of the people. By the substitution of direct collection for farming, the Treasury would be largely benefited, while a check would be put on the petty tyranny which is often practised in the realization of the taxes by the usTiurdjee. The government of a State cannot be too much en rapport with the people. Many an evil is corrected, and many a wrong redressed, through their simply coming under the observation of a subordinate official; and, although the visits of an officer of revenue are not as a rule considered agreeable, experience teaches that his appearance is welcome in com- parison to that of a neighbour who may be called upon to supplant the regular officers by collect- ing a tax in consideration of receiving a per- centage on the proceeds. All considerations of public policy, therefore, point to the direct collection of revenue by the State, not the least 216 MODERN T3RKEY. of which is the pecuniary advantage that would necessarily result to the Government itself. Several other taxes, such as the verghi or property tax, the pig tax, and the receipts arising from the State forests, the post-office, &c., might be increased considerably in amount ; while the revenue derived from mines is so trifling that the royalty from the working of one or two copper-mines in England, yields a larger annual revenue to the proprietor of the soil than that which the Ottoman Government derives from the whole of its vast mineral treasure. 217 CHAPTER III. THE STOCK EXCHANGE. A REFORM which, in point of actual ne- ** cessity, occupies a foremost place in the business wants of Constantinople is the re- organization of the local Bourse on a system in accordance with the modes prevailing in the great financial centres of Europe. There is, it is true, a so-called Bourse at Galata, with a nominal committee of management, and there are so- called rules for the government of the place; but, in reality, the committee exists little more than in name, and the rules, even if suitable, remain without either authority or application. The disadvantage to the credit of the Govern- ment, as well as to the general interest of the country, caused by the want of such an institu- tion, must be obvious to anyone who considers the large aggregate to which Turkish securities of all kinds have now attained. The consolidated debt and foreign loans of the Government amount 218 MODERN TURKEY. to 93,465,636 ; the paid up capital in banking and financial establishments is upwards of 7,000,000 ; while the various shares and deben- tures of the railway, mining, and gas companies (not including the bonds of the Roumelian rail- ways), represent a sum exceeding 5,500,000 ; making a total of upwards of one hundred and six millions sterling, viz. : Stock. 6 per cent. 1854 4 6 6 6 6 6 5 6 TURKISH STOCKS. Original Issue. . . . 3,000,000 . . . . 5,000,000 . . . . 5,000,000 . . . . 2,070,000 , . . . 8,000,000 , . . . 8,000,000 . . . 6,000,000 , 1855 .... 1858 .... 1860 .... 1862 .... 1863-4 . . . 1865 .... 1865 General Debt 36,363,636 1869 22,222,220 1871 5,700,000 Amount of Loan Unredeemed. . . 2,230,000 . . 4,167,900 . . 4,156,600 . . 1,700,000 . . 6,130,000 . . 6,277,000 . . 4,979,500 . . 36,363,636 , . 21,761,000 . . 5,700,000 Total BANKS, &C. Capital Subscribed. Imperial Ottoman Bank . . 4,050,000 Credit General Ottoman . . 2,000,000 SociSte' Gen. de 1'Empire Ottoman 2,000,000 Banque de Constantinople . 1,000,000 Austro-Ottoman Bank . . . 2,500,000 Crddit Austro-Turque . . . 2,000,000 Bank of Roumania .... 1,000,000 93,465,636 Capital. Paid up. 2,025,000 1,000,000 800,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 800,000 400,000 Total 7,025,000 THE STOCK EXCHANGE. 219 RAILWAYS. Ottoman (Smyrna to Aidin) Shares . 892,000 Debentures 892,000 1,784,000 Smyrna and Cassaba, Ordinary Shares 414,160 Preference 150,000 Debentures 235,840 800,000 Varna . . . 2,158,957 Danube and Black Sea, Ordinary Shares .... 323,740 Preference Shares . . . 75,000 8 per cent. Mortgage Bonds 100,000 30 59,563 558,303 5,301,260 Eoumelian Eailways. Nominal Capital . . . 20,000,000 Subscribed. Paid up. Constantinople Tramways . . . 400,000 160,000 Ottoman Gas. Capital .... 50,000 Debentures . . . 13,950 63,950 Imperial Ottoman Mining Co. . . 50,000 43,000 Thus, the amount of financial business that might be locally transacted in Turkish stocks and shares, if a well-ordered Bourse existed, would fairly raise Constantinople to at least a third rate position among the exchanges of Europe; whereas, at the present moment, it holds no rank at all and has little or no financial authority whatever. Of 220 MODERN TURKEY. the local investments, I have mentioned, the only dealings are in shares of the Societe Gen 6* rale, o the Credit Ottoman, Roumelian railway bonds, and Constantinople Tramways; while, of the public debt of the empire, the only transactions are in consolides, which to say the least, are con- ducted in a spirit of speculative gambling that, although profitable to the habitues of Khaviar Khan, undoubtedly results in the depreciation of the Government funds, and impaired confidence in their security as an investment on the part of the public. For any other local stocks or shares, including the various Turkish loans, a would-be investor must go to the London, Paris, or other foreign markets, or he must find out an individual holder with whom he can conclude a bargain. This, however, is a sort of transac- tion which is not likely to occur very frequently, as few men will seek after an article that, apparently, possesses no marketable value. Be- sides, confidence is not a plant of rapid growth ; the soil in which it takes root must be cul- tivated, and the atmosphere in which it grows must be genial, otherwise suspicion is engendered that retards and ultimately destroys the com- munity of interest with which alone financial transactions can be safely conducted. It is for THE STOCK EXCHANGE. 221 this reason, therefore, I urge the importance of establishing a well-organised Bourse on the model of those in London, Paris, and Vienna, wherein business shall be carried on with regularity, and by means of which the stagnant portable wealth of the country shall, in time, be brought into circulation for the common benefit of the Govern- ment and the people. Another obvious disadvantage to the general prosperity of the country and the development of its various resources, which results from the want indicated, consists in the fact that the vast hoarded wealth of the country has thus no channels for safe and profitable investment. Unhappily, for a long series of years, the subjects of the Porte have, not perhaps without some cause in the past, looked with distrust on State securities as a means for investing their savings. Money, instead of being put out at interest, has been, and still is locked up in gems and costly jewellery, or in other ways still more profitless. This accumulated wealth, is useless and unproductive because it does not circulate, and the country, to all appearance, remains poor while it actually has within it a store of hidden riches sufficient to make it great and prosperous. The Government is obliged to sink its credit by asking foreign 222 MODERN TURKEY. capitalists to supply its moneyed wants, and pro- moters of schemes for the public good are com- pelled to find the necessary capital in Western Europe, while millions of hoarded money exist in the country, and industry languishes for want .of the very wealth which is sedulously kept out of sight. Thus, financial and commercial enterprises are retarded, as a great objection naturally meets the introduction of any Turkish project on the foreign markets if it has not been first taken up, partly at least, in the country itself. From this cause, the project, be it either a public loan, a bank, railway, or other enterprise of public utility, is at once discredited, the market price immediately lowered, and its ultimate success seriously imperilled. This is not, however, the only injury which the indicated want entails ; for if the people were educated, so to speak, as they might be into confidence in the local securities, not only would they be in receipt of large interest for their money from the Imperial Ottoman Bank and kindred institutions, but they would enjoy their eight, ten, or twelve per cent, from the public debt of the Government ; while the large amount paid to foreigners in interest and bonus on annual drawings would remain in and enrich the country. On the other hand, in addition THE STOCK EXCHANGE. . 223 to those advantages, there would be the no lesser one, that by the initiative being taken in the capital, an increased impulse would be given, and renewed facilities obtained for the successful floating of other enterprises calculated to benefit and develop the still hidden resources of the empire. CHAPTER IV. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OP THE EMPIRE, &C. territorial area of the Turkish Empire is esti- mated at 1,836,478 square miles ; but, as it is difficult to ascertain the limitations of the tributary provinces in Africa with any degree of exactness, and the boundaries of those portions of Arabia over which Turkey claims the right of sovereignty are rather indefinite, the statement of square mileage must be taken only as an approximate estimate. Turkey in Europe comprises Thrace, Tbessaly, Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia, the Herzegovina, Roumelia, Servia, Roumania, and the Ottoman Archipelago. This division of the empire is watered principally by the Danube, the Maritza, theKoralu, the Iris, theVojussa, and the Xarenta, and has a seaboard on the Adriatic, the ^Egean, the Marmora, and the Black Sea. Turkey in Asia consists of Anatolia, Armenia, Syria, Kur- distan, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. The GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OP THE EMPIRE. 225 principal rivers are the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Orontes, and the Jordan ; but the country is also watered by a considerable number of smaller streams having their outlets in the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Turkey in Africa is composed of Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, with an immense extent of seaboard on the Medi- terranean, Egypt being watered by the Nile and its tributaries. The population of the Ottoman Empire may be estimated at forty million souls, distributed in the following proportions : Turkey in Europe 17,000,000 Asia 18,000,000 Africa 5,000,000 and is composed of Osmanlis, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Sclaves, Rou mains, Albanians, Tartars, Arabs, Syrians, Chaldeans, Druses, Kurds, Turko- mans, and Gipsies. As regards religion, the Mussulmans are numerically dominant, forming more than half the population of the Empire, then follow the Greeks, Armenians, and Catholics;* * The term Catholic is applied to the disciples of all the Eastern churches which acknowledge the authority of the See of Kome, although there are amongst them numerous differences in matters of discipline and ceremonial. Of these Eastern Catholics there are : Q 226 MODERN TURKEY. the Jews constituting a very insignificant minor- ity, probably not more than 150,000. The topographical and geological characteristics of the Ottoman Empire are eminently suited to the successful pursuit of agriculture. Hill and dale are pleasantly alternated, whilst the climatic range is so varied as to include the products of both the temperate and torrid zones. In Europe, the first mountain ranges are the Balkans and Carpathians ; and in Asia, the Taurus and Lebanon. They are mostly of volcanic origin, and enclose valleys un- surpassed not only for their fertility, but also with the exception of the vast prairies of the western hemisphere for their extent. The up- lands, both in Roumelia, and Asia Minor abound in fine pasturage for sheep and goats. The wools of Roumelia, the goats' hair of Anatolia, the silk of the Lebanon, have all world- wide repu- tation. Egypt is one vast hotbed for the produc- tion of grain and cotton, which are also produced 1. Latins, or Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Croats, &c., to the number of 640,000 2. United Greeks .... 25,000 3. United Armenians .... 75,000 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans . 20,000 5. Maronites (with a Patriarch at Kanobin, on Mount Lebanon) . 140,000 260,000 900,000 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OP THE EMPIRE. 227 abundantly in Asia Minor, Syria, Roumelia, and the islands of the Archipelago. The fine-flavoured tobaccos of Syria and European Turkey are held in high estimation, whilst Asia Minor is the home par excellence, of the opium of the Pharmacopoeia, and is equally celebrated for its tanning sub- stances, dye-stuffs, and fruits. It is quite impos- sible to form an exact estimate of the agricultural capabilities of the Turkish Empire, the only certain information we possess being that success has at all times crowned well-directed efforts in new fields of agricultural industry. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, however, and the equability and variety of climate with which the country is fa- voured in fact, owing probably to the very exist- ence of these blessings ignorance of husbandry, rudeness of implements, and dislike of innovation are still characteristics of the Turkish farmer. In the majority of cases, besides, he holds his land from middle-men, on uncertain tenure; borrows the money wherewith to defray the cost of cultivation, and surrenders an inordinate proportion of his pro- duce as an equivalent for the advantage he enjoys, a system which naturally results in the enrich- ment of the proprietor and the impoverishment of the cultivator. The tenure by which land is held in Turkey is Q 2 228 MODERN TURKEY. of a complicated character. The general principle upon which all tenure is based being that the land belongs to God, whose vice-gerent on earth, the Sultan, exercises a deputed authority to administer it for the benefit of the State : the occupiers being simply tenants, either for life or at will. This abstract doctrine as to title has largely influenced the whole of the legislation on the question of land tenure. The Osmanlis divided the lands, which became subject to their rule by right of conquest, into three categories. The first was bestowed upon the church for the support of re- ligion and education ; the second upon individuals as recompense for their services in the field ; and the third or remaining portion was vested in the State, which was considered the de facto owner of the entire freehold. The ecclesiastical tenure or vacouf includes all those lands originally appro- priated to the use of the state church, as well as land bequeathed to it for pious purposes, and nominally held by it for the benefit of others. Like many other institutions, the tenure of vacouf, which, in its origin, was the expression of one of the worthiest sentiments in our nature, has be- come, in course of time, so overloaded with abuses as to constitute a real grievance both to the State and the community. The vacoufs, are free from GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE EMPIRE. 229 taxation, are inalienable, and have been estimated to include three- fourths of the landed property of Turkey. Doubtless, the amount is greatly exag- gerated, but the fact is indisputable that an in- equitable portion of the land in private hands is enabled, by means of this title, to obtain immunity from state burdens, and even from ordinary legal process ; whilst the loss to the government by the vacouf administration is as nearly as possible double the income derived from them in every shape. The whole system, as it at present exists, is opposed to public policy, and, notwithstanding the protecting influence of the Ulema, cannot be much longer upheld in its integrity. '' Man hath nothing to expect save from the fruit of his labour." " The husbandman is re- warded by God." So saith the Koran, and the followers of the Prophet, wherever they may be found, are generally tillers of the soil ; while the practice of husbandry has always been held in honour. Farming, however, in Turkey partakes more of the character of a pastime than of physi- cal labour. The richness of the soil, and the geniality of the climate, demand from the cultiva- tor a minimum of experience, and do not entail the forethought, practical knowledge, and expense for implements and enriching substances, which 230 MODE UN TURKEY. is the inevitable burden of the western agricul- turist. The natural advantages enjoyed by Turkey are possessed by very few countries in the world. The ordinary products which form every- where the great staples of food and manufacture are, as I have already said, raised in abundance, but, in addition, there are few of the rarer and more valuable articles known in commerce that do not find a congenial home in some part of her ex- tensive territory. Some things there are which Turkey alone produces, and which are essential to the industrial populations of the West ; whilst there are other other articles in the economic production of which she is competing with nearly every other country in the world possessing a similarity of climate. It may, therefore, be important to take some notice, however brief, of those products which enter more specially into her export trade. 231 CHAPTER V. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. RAIN. The soil of Turkey has been remark- able for fertility from the earliest times. Mesopotamia was so admirably adapted for the cultivation of corn that it seldom produced less than from two hundred to three hundredfold. " The ear of the wheat as well as the barley," says Herodotus, " is four digits broad, but. the immense height to which the cenchrus and sesamum stalks grow, although I have witnessed it myself, I dare not mention, lest those who have not visited the country should disbelieve my report." At the present day, the soil in European Turkey is not less fruitful, for, according to Beau- jour, the yield of corn in some parts of Macedonia rarely amounts to less than three hundredfold. There are some places, also, where the land is 232 MODERN TURKEY. so fertile that two crops of grain are obtained from it in the year. At the village of Velvendos, in the district of Charshuraba, about eighteen hours from Monastir, barley is sown in September and cut in May. Indian corn is then planted, which is gathered in the September following. It is impossible to obtain accurate agricul- tural statistics in Turkey. In 1847, however, the value of the agricultural produce exported from Macedonia, by Salonica alone, amounted to upwards of 800,000, of which cereal productions formed an item of 600,000. In 1848, the quantity of corn exported from Bulgaria and Roumelia exceeded 4,440,000 bushels. In 1855, Galatz and Ibraila exported upwards of 2,000,000 imperial quarters of grain, while the annual produce of corn in Anatolia, in 1858, was estimated at 25,000,000 Turkish kilos., equal to .25,473,250 bushels. In 1860, Turkey exclusive of Egypt, exported wheat, barley, and maize to Great Britain alone, to the value of 3,011,277. WOOL. Turkey has always been celebrated for the quality of her fleeces, and the original stock (or!* (d-it's) from which our sheep are descended, is still found in a wild state on some parts of the mountains of Asia Minor. Thrace produces annually AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 233 about six million pounds ; Macedonia, Tliessaly, and Albania combined, a like quantity ; the pro- duce of the Dobrutscha being estimated at about four million pounds. The wools of Anatolia and Upper Asia are highly esteemed, but it is im- possible to arrive at even an approximate idea of the weight annually produced a remark which applies equally to Syria. Roumelian wool usually contains sixty per cent, of white, twenty per cent, of first quality black, and twenty per cent. of second quality grey. The supply of Turkish wool in the English market is by no means steady as regards quantities, values on the spot ranging, at times, so high as to preclude its purchase. In 1869, Smyrna alone, exported 16,300 bales, valued at 290,000. MOHAIR is the fleece of the Gapra angorensis, a goat which inhabits the plains of Angora and its neighbourhood. The fleece is locally called tiftik, and has a staple averaging five inches in length, of a white colour and a fine silky texture. Angora hair was formerly spun into yarn by the natives and exported in that state, under the general impres- sion that the mechanical structure of the hair ren- dered it unfit for spinning by machinery. But since the great improvements which have been made, particularly at Bradford, in the spinning and niauu- MODERN TURKEY. facture of the article, the hair is now exported in bales, and the manufacture of the yarn has almost ceased to be a local industry. The goats are clipped in April and May, the finest quality being obtained from the female animal ; but the fleeces from both sexes are usually mixed for export. In sorting the hair, about seventeen per cent, is thrown out as being too short in the staple for combing, and, with the other refuse, is sold for various purposes of local manufacture. The long hair is extensively used in this country as a mixing material in the production of light fabrics for ladies' dresses, tailors' trimmings, and light clothes for gentleman's Summer wear. It also enters largely into the composition of some descriptions of lace shawls, Utrecht velvet, and a great variety of articles of utility. The annual production at Angora is estimated at three million pounds, but the exports from Turkey, vi