THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT OF TJr, ■■'illiam L, Emerson THE AECTIC VOYAGES ADOLF ERIK NORDENSKIOLD. PALOS VERDES PUBLIC LIBRARY / C IRC IIMPOLATI MAP 180 170 Xondon; Macmillan ^- CS Stardhrdi Geoq^ Estah}Xontion~ THE ARCTIC VOYAGES ADOLF ERIK NORDENSKIOLD. 1858—1879. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS. PALOS VERDES PUBLIC LIBRARY MACMILLAN AND CO. 1879. All Rhjhts Reserved. LONDON : B. CLAT, SOXS, AND TAYLOR, BREAD STREET HILL. . o TO OSCAR DICKSON OF GOTHENBURG, THE MUNIFICENT PATRON OF ARCTIC EXPLORATION AND RESEARCH, THIS VOLUME IS (by permission) 8068 2052435 PREFACE. The brilliant success which has attended the North- East Passage Expedition under the leadership of Pro- fessor Nordenskiold will naturally awaken a desire on the part of the English-speaking peoples for some account of his previous achievements in the field of Arctic exploration and research in which he has won for himself an imperishable name. Professor Nordenskiold's Arctic experience extends over a period of twenty-one years, and more than half that time has elapsed since he carried the flag of his country to the highest latitude that has been reached by a vessel in the old hemisphere. In opening up communication by sea with the great Siberian rivers he has rendered a service of incalculable value to commerce, but he would doubtless prefer that his fame should rest on the contributions which have been made to our know- ledge of the past history and present condition of our globe by his own scientific labours and those of his colleaoues. viii PREFACE. An accomplished and skilful mineralogist and geologist, Professor Nordenskiold has examined, on Spitzbergen alone, more than a thousand English miles of rock sections, and in all his expeditions he has been accompanied by a staff of naturalists and physicists who have made thorough and comprehensive scientific surveys of the regions they have visited, and by their collections have made the Swedish museums the richest in the world in objects of natural history from the North Polar Basin. "With Professor Nordenskiold's kind permission I had undertaken to prepare from the abundant materials that were available, a popular account of his Arctic voyages before the North-East Passage Expedition was planned ; and not to leave my work incomplete, I have added a sketch of the history, so far as yet known, of this memorable voyage, by which, when it is finished, the Vega will have, for the first time, circumnavigated the twin continents of Europe and Asia. The slight outline here given will, I trust, increase the reader's appetite for the fuller details of the narra- tive which the illustrious explorer will write on his return home. I have thought the *^aluable and interesting report of Dr. Envall on the hygiene of the Polar Expedition of 1872-73 deserving of a place in this volume, and the ERRATA. Page ix, line 12 from top, for " Soneu," read " Sons." 117, 119, 209, 266, 13 12 18 1.5 20 290, last line, for 290, „ ,, /or ' for ^' Geognlorjical," read "Geological.'''' , for "bodje," read "lodje." , for "says," 7-eud "say." , for "Our," read "Om." , for "guellemots," read "guillemots." ^' ociileahis," read " acnleatus." '■ Brancliiopoda,'" read " Brachiopoda." PEEFACE. ix scientific reader will find in the List of Books and Memoirs in tlie Appendix, a sort of index to the laro-e mass of printed matter, consisting of more than 6,000 pages of type and 150 plates, to which the Swedish Arctic Expeditions have given rise. It is my pleasant duty to acknowledge the valuable assistance that has been kindly rendered to me in many ways in the preparation of this volume by my friend Herr Gustaf Lindsteom, Assistant in the Mineralogical Department of the Eiks Museum, Stockholm. I am also indebted to the eminent firm of Norstedt and SoNER for the use of some of the original woodcuts, to • the proprietors of the Geogological Magazine for others, and to the proprietors of the Nya Illustrerad Tidning for the one given at page 3 GO, representing the Vega saluting Cape Chelyuskin. ALEX. LESLIE. Aberdeen, ZOth Suptemhcr, 18/9. CONTENTS. CHAPTER T. PAGES THE NORDENSKIOLD FAMILY : AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH . . 1 — 39 CHAPTER II. THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS OF 1858 AND l86l . . . 40—103 CHAPTER III. THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF 18G4 104— 127 CHAPTER IV. THE SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION OF 18C8 128 — 152 CHAPTER V. EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND 15.3—175 CHAPTER VI. THE SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION OF 1872 — 3 17G-277 PALOS VERDES PUBLIC LffiRARY CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAGES VOYAGK TO THE YENISSEJ IN 1875 AND ASCENT OF THE RIVER. 278 — 319 CHAPTER VIII. SECOND VOYAGE TO THE YENISSEJ IN 1876 320 — 342 CHAPTER IX. THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE EXPEDITION, 1878 — 79 343—387 APPENDICES. APPENDIX I. — OFFICIAL REPORT TO THE (sWEDISH) ROYAL BOARD OF HEALTH ON THE HYGIENE AND CARE OF THE SICK DURING THE SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION, 1872 — 73, BY DR. ENVALL, MEDICAL OFFICER 391 — 417 APPENDIX II. — LIST OF BOOKS AND MEMOIRS RELATING TO THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS 418 — 440 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PROCELLARIA GLACIALIS 50 LARUS EBURNEUS 57 GRAVE ON SPITZBERGEN 59 "mAGDALENA" in ICE HARBOUR (MIDSUMMER DAY) 61 " iEOLUS " IN TREURENBERG BAY 62 GROUP OF POLAR BEARS IN MUROUISON BAY 67 BEAN OF ENTADA GIGALOBIUM. (NATURAL SIZE) 73 'SAXIFRAGA FLA6ELLARIS 76 CHARLES XII.'S ISLAND AND DRABANTEN 83 REINDEER HUNTING 87 HEAD OF WALRUS 89 MAINLAND AT SMEERENBERG — GRANITE 91 DANES' ISLAND 92 IN THE INTERIOR OF KING's BAY 97 FOX AND DEAD REINDEER 103 PHOCA BARBATA 126 DRAGGING BOAT OVER ICE 127 THE " SOFIA" 131 SHARK FISHING 132 MUSHROOMS AT ADVENT BAY 138 king's bay — WESTERN SIDE 140 BEDTIME DURING A BOAT VOYAGE 141 MORMON ARCTICUS 148 THE "SOFIA" CROSSING THE ARCTIC CIRCLE, 14tII .JULY, 18G8 . . 152 INLAND ICK ABUTTING ON LAND 171 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOF. INLAND ICE EXTENDING INTO THE SEA 172 INLAND ICE ABUTTING ON THE BOTTOM OF AN ICE-FJORD .... 172 INLAND ICE ABUTTING ON A MUD-BANK 173 THE " POLHEM " 183 VIEW OF GOTHENBURG ROADS 184 THE "gLADAN" 19" GLACIER IN FAIR HAVEN 192 LAPP WITH REINDEER 198 POLHEM — WINTER STATION 199 BURIAL IN 80° N.L. DURING THF, POLAR NIGHT 212 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY 216 DREDGING UNDER THE ICE IN WINTER 217 MUSSEL BAY 220 CLEFT IN THE INLAND ICE (caNAL) 259 MATTILAS' WINTER QUARTERS AT GREY HOOK 273 NORTH POINT OF PRINCE CHARLEs' FORELAND 276 WINTER DRESS AND HUNTING WEAPONS 277 THE " VEGA " SALUTING CAPE CHELYUSKIN, THE NORTHERNMOST POINT OF THE OLD WORLD 360 MAPS. To be j)lace(l at the end of the Volume. 1. MAP OF SPITZBERGEN. 2. MAP ILLUSTRATING NORDENSKIOLD's VOYAGES TO THE YENIKSEJ IN 1875 AND 1876. 3. MAP SHOWING THE COURSE OF THE " VEGA " FROM THE MOUTH OF THE YENISSEJ TO THAT OF THE LENA. THE AECTIC VOYAGES ADOLF EEIK NOKDENSKIOLD. ^'' NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES: 1858—1879. CHAPTER I. THE NORDENSKIOLD FAMILY : AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. Adolf Erik Nordenskiold was born at Helsinfffors, the capital of Finland, on the 18th November, 1832, the third in order of seven children, four brothers and three sisters, all of whom, with the exception of a sister who died young, still survive. His parents were Nils Gustaf Nordenskiold, a well-known naturalist, chief of the mining department of Finland, and Margareta Sofia von Haartman. The race from which Nordenskiold sprang had been known for centuries for the possession of remarkable qualities, among which an ardent love of nature and of scientific research was predominant. Its founder is said to have been a Lieutenant Nordberof, who was settled in Upland about the beginning of the seventeenth century. His son Johan Erik, born IGGO, changed the name to Nordenberg. He was chief in- spector of the saltpetre manufactories of Nyland, in Finland, and was considered by the enlightened a master 2 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. in agriculture and by the common people a proficient in the black art. His only art, howevcrj consisted in a persevering study of Nature, in closely following her footsteps. In the year 1710, when he heard that the plague had broken out all over Finland, he protected himself against the ej)idemic in a very peculiar way. He loaded a vessel which belonged to him with provi- sions and other necessaries, went on board with all his family, and cruised about in the open sea for several months, taking good care to have no communication with the land. If his voyage had a certain resemblance to Noah's in the ark, it had the same successful issue. About the beginning of 1711, when the plague had o ceased, all on board landed safe on Aland. Johan Erik Nordenberg died in 1740, leaving two sons, Anders Johan and Carl Frederik, both of whom, though the latter was only lieutenant, were elected members of the Swedish Academy of Sciences when it was founded in 1739. Both were ennobled in 1751. Carl Frederik is the common ancestor of the families bearing the name of Nordenskiold now living in Sweden and Finland. One of his many remarkable sons, the third in order, Colonel Adolf Gustaf Nordenskiold, became owner of Frugord in Finland. This property, situated in a forest-crowned valley in the department of Nyland, is still in the possession of the Nordenskiolds. Here Colonel Adolf Gustaf Nordenskiold built a pecu- liar residence, the middle of which is taken up with a hall two stories high, round the upper part of which runs a broad gallery in which collections in natural history are arranged. Life in this home has always borne a certain old Norse stamp. In the surrounding I.] THE NORDENSKIOLD FAMILY. 3 park a sepulchral mound Las been thrown up, which forms the last consecrated resting-place of a portion of the Finnish members of the Nordenskiold family. In these arrangements, as in much else at Frugord, there was something uncommon, indicating a peculiar idio- syncrasy in the owner, and undoubtedly not without an influence on the youth that grew up there. Many of the Nordenskiold family were devoted to literature and scientific research. Otto Magnus Nordenskiold, a brother of Adolf Gustaf, after undertaking extensive tours in Holland, France, Germany, &c., for the purpose of studying the commerce of those countries, was the first to introduce " many-bladed " saw-mills into Finland, on an island on the coast of which he planned the foun- dation of a manufacturing town, for which he wished to secure neutrality in the wars between Sweden and Eussia. His scheme, however, was frustrated by the outbreak of the war of 1742, when the Russians burned down the only manufacturing establishment that had been erected on Fagero, a wind-driven saw-mill. Soon after, the unlucky Otto Magnus drew on himself perse- cution and threats of capital punishment both in Sweden, for beino- concerned in the surrender of Tavastehus in the war of 1742, and in Russia, for a very well-meant proposal made to the Czarina Elizabeth concerning perpetual peace between all Christian nations. He died excommunicated by the clergy of Finland. Colonel Adolf Gustaf Nordenskiold had many children, one of whom, August, was a zealous alchemist, and lal)oured with Bernhard Wadstrom for the abolition of negro slavery. He died at Sierra Leone from injuries received from the blacks during an attempt at colonisation, 4 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [giiai-. undertaken witli a view to form a free negro state. August's youngest brother, Nils Gustaf, was born in 1792. After passing his examination in mining at the University of Upsala he was for several years a pupil of Berzelius, with whom he formed the warmest friendship, which was only broken off by death. Nils Gustaf, early known as a distinguished mineralogist, w^as ap- pointed a government inspector of mines in his native country, and by means of liberal grants of public money was enabled to undertake extensive foreign tours, which brouo;ht him into communication with most of the eminent mineralogists and chemists of the day in England, France, and Germany. After three years of foreign travel he returned to Finland, and was promoted in 1824 to be chief of the mining department, and devoted thirty years of restless activity to the improve- ment of that important branch of the industry of his native land. He travelled throug^h Finland in all direc- tions in the prosecution of his untiring mineralogical and geological researches. His travels extended, as far as the Ural. He published his views, discoveries, and experiments, in many scientific periodicals and in several independent M^orks, and a large number of minerals discovered by him afford evidence of his keen research. He was made Councillor of State, and ob- tained many distinctions for his scientific services from the sovereign and from learned bodies. On the 21st of February, 1866, he ended his active life at Frugord, and was laid to rest in his father's grave. "His simple frank manner," said A. E. Arppe in his eloge on this veteran of science, "his wit and his extensive expe- rience, made his society equally agreeable and instructive. I.] NORDENSKIOLD'S BOYHOOD. 5 Tlie young, who were interested in his researches, could especially reckon on his friendship ; they enjoyed his company, and were strongly attached to him. He had the uncommon happiness of seeing one of his sons not only devote himself to the same kind of studies, but maintain with distinguished success by his scientific travels and labours the ancient honour of the family name." Frugord, wdth its old books and natural history col- lections accumulated from srenerations of nature-loving ancestors, was a fitting home for the future naturalist and explorer, Adolf Erik, who was to make the name of Nordenskiold world-famous. While yet a boy he w^as an industrious collector of minerals and of insects, and was permitted to accompany his father on his tours, acquiring thus early the keen eye of the mine- ralogist. After studying for some time with a private tutor he was sent to the gymnasium at Borgo, where, as at similar institutions elsewhere, there then prevailed, as he tells us in the autobiographical sketch which he wrote for Bejer's " Swedish Biographical Lexicon," an almost unlimited freedom, the teachers taking no oversight w^hatever of the pupils' attention to their studies. " Even in this respect," he says in the sketch already cpioted, " the gymnasium was a connecting link between the school and the university — in my opinion a for- tunate circumstance, which is now changed. It must, however, be admitted," he continues, " that the liberty was used badly enough by many. This was the case with myself, for instance, during my first year at the gymnasium, for during the fii^st term I distinguished myself, as the rector expressed it, ' only by absolute idleness.' At the close of the spring term I was not 6 KORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciiap. only not advanced, but I was marked in my certificate ' unsatisfactory ' in nearly the whole of the subjects. My parents were judicious enough not to attach any import- ance to this well-deserved mishap. Instead of breaking out in reproaches and increasing the control which my mother's presence at Borgo, and a private tutor installed for the purpose during the first year of our attendance at the gymnasium were intended to exert, the watch kept upon us was now completely removed. We ^ were boarded in very modest quarters for five silver roubles a month for board and lodging, and got full liberty to manage our studies in our own way. Self-respect was thus awakened. I became exceedingly industrious, and was soon one of those then attending the gymnasium who obtained the best reports." Among the teachers of the gymnasium at Borgo at this time was Johan Ludvig Euneberg, the distinguished poet. He held the Greek lectureship, and was greatly esteemed both by his colleagues and his pupils, which, however, did not prevent him having much unpleasant- ness during the year of his rectorship, 1848. For taking part in an unseemly brawl two of the pupils were condemned to rustication, and two others, accord- ing to the school laws, which were then new, to corporal punishment. The two former obtained a mitigation of their sentence by an appeal to the ordinary courts, but the latter had to submit to their punishment, which was inflicted with due severity by the then rector Runeberg. This vras indeed quite legal, but by no means in accordance with the old traditional freedom of the gymnasium, and it took place in the eventful ^ Adolf Erik and his elder brother. 1.] NORDENSKIOLD AT THE UNIVEESITY. 7 year 1848. Not even Runeberg's rectorsliip could prevent a revolution, which in the end led near the half of the pupils to leave the institution. Among those who did so w^ere Adolf Erik and his younger •brother Otto Nordenskiold. Nordenskiold entered the University of Helsingfors in 1849, devoting himself chiefly to the study of chemistry, natural history, mathematics, physics, and above all, of mineralogy and geology. " Already before I became a student," he writes, " I had been allowed to accompany my father in mineralogical excursions, and had acquired from him skill in recognising and collecting minerals and in the use of the blowpipe, which he, being a pupil of Gahn and Berzelius, handled with a masterly skill unknown to most of the chemists of the present day. I now undertook the charge of the rich mineral collection at Frugord, and besides, during the vaca- tions made excursions to Pitkeranta, Tammela, Par- gas, and others of Finland's interesting mineral locali- ties. By practice I thus acquired a keen and certain eye for recognising minerals, which has been of great service to me in the path of life I afterwards followed." After passing his candidate examination in 1853 Nordenskiold accompanied his father on a mineralogical tour to Ural, devoting most of his attention to Demi- doff's iron and copper mines at Tagilsk. Here he planned an extensive journey through Siberia, but the breaking out of the Crimean war put a stop to it. "After my return," says Nordenskiold, "I continued to prosecute my chemical and mineralogical studies with zeal, and wrote as my dissertation for the degree of Licentiate a paper ' On the Crystalline Forms of Graphite 8 NORDEN&KIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. and Cliondrodite/ wliicli was discussed under the presi- dency of Professor Arppe on tlie 28th February, 1855. The following summer I was employed on a work of somewhat greater extent — " A Description of the Minerals found in Finland," which was published the same autumn. Various short papers in mineralogy and molecular chemistry were printed in Acta Societatis scientiarum Fennice : I also published along with Dr. E. Ny lander 'The Mollusca of Finland' (Helsingfors, 1856) as an answer to a prize question proposed by one of the faculty. In the interval I had been appointed Curator of the Mathematico-Physical faculty, and had obtained a post at the Mining Office as mining engineer extraordinary, with inconsiderable pay, and an express understanding that no service would be required from me in return. A salary was also attached to my curatorship." " I did not, however, long enjoy these, which were my first paid appointments. Before I received my second quarter's salary I was removed from my offices in consequence of some political S23eeches made at the tavern at Tholo on the occasion of a dinner arranged by us on Friday, the 30th November, 1855. The gay circle of youth to which I belonged, instead of cele- brating our namedays and birthdays each by himself according to the usual practice, determined to combine all the separate fetes which occurred during the autumn term of 1855 in one giant entertainment with mili- tary music, floral decorations, &c. It went ofi" pleasantly, and as a fact the discussion of politics, which was common enough among us, was that day almost wholly forgotten. But we had appearances helplessly against I.] A TAVERN SPEECH. US, and justice requires the acknowledgment tliat we liad before dabbled in politics and sinned so much that our truthful account of the occurrences of that day was everywhere received with distrust." "The way in which the thing happened was this: Some time before Palmerston had made his famous speech about the taking of the Baltic fortresses. Our entertainment was opened by what we considered a well- executed parody of this speech by K. Vetterhoff, "on which followed in the course of the dinner toasts to the French wines, Crimean fruits, sardines, &c., all in heedless fun and frolic. We had all been concerned a hundred times before in affairs similar or worse, but on this occasion things were on a grander scale — and that was our misfortune. We had a band of music belonging to the Finnish navy, which played tunes to our toasts. The leader of the music thought himself obliged to make a report of the speeches to his chief, with the distinct declaration that the whole appeared merely to be a frolic. The first who were informed of the unfortunate report by the naval officer, an intimate acquaintance of most of us, were those who had taken part in the entertainment. He swore at us for not having chosen a Kussian band, which would not have understood any of our nonsense, and said that he was obliged to let the report go further. But he would delay it as long as possible, in order to give us an oppor- tunity of arranging the affliir in the meantime. This seemed at first to be very easy of accomplishment until Governor-general Count von Berg got a list of the delinquents, when, struck with surprise, he probably exclaimed, ' Ah ! these are all old acquaintances ! ' " 10 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. " Indeed most of us were previously known by name to the Count for a reason that was very unpleasant to him. On accef)ting the post of Governor-general of Finland during the war with the western powers, Count von Berg — unfamiliar as he was with the position of affairs in a country where all gave free and unreserved expression to their sentiments, but where, on the other hand, there had never been any trace of actual -conspiracy, secret societies, or anything of the sort — became much alarmed by the probably untrue and exaggerated reports which he received of the state of feeling in the country. He endeavoured to procure spies who should give him information of expressions of dissatisfaction, and the like. In this he was com- pletely unsuccessful, and he appears himself to ho.ve even come to the conclusion that the odious measure was unnecessary. He had succeeded, however, at first in getting a young student to act as his tool, who was sent to Stockholm to find out about the authors of many correspondence-articles which were sent from Finland to the Swedish newspapers, and which at that time attracted the attention of the public to a degree of which we can now scarcely form any idea. After his return he was to act as a spy among the students. An official of high position, since dead, who had a post in von Berg's office, became acquainted with the fact, and considering the odious and pernicious consequences which would follow espionage in private life, determined to bring about an unexpected disarrangement in von Berg's plans. He told some students about it, on whose silence he could rely, and suggested that they should make short work with the rascal. He did 1.] A SPY AMONG THE STUDENTS. 11 not require to say it twice. Some leading persons among the students met in a private house. The delinquent was sent for without being informed of the reason. Supposing that it related to some literary- society he made his appearance, flattered by the at- tention shown him. Scarcely had he entered when the door was fastened, and he was addressed by one of those present with the words : ' We have proof that you are a spy.' Pale as a corpse, he stammered out, after some moments, ' I must acknowledge that an offer has been made to me, but I have not accepted it.' The beginning was made, and a full confession soon followed. He was now ordered to leave the university and the town. The Grovernor- general, who was nearly out of his wits, especially because we had obtained such accurate information about the greatest secrets of his office, attempted at first to take the discovered spy under his own protection, but was soon obliged to desist. To protect a spy who has been found out is impossible, even for a nearly all-powerful Governor-general. The misguided youth, who was said to be very talented, was removed to some office in Eussia, and disappeared from Helsingfors. Von Berg kept the list of the members of the tribunal, and promised to keep them well in mind." "The Tliolo affair offered an excellent opportunity for this, as the names of those who took part in the entertainment were mostly well-known to von Berg from the former list, and possibly also from others of which we had no knowledge. The first sacrifice was the singers invited to the feast, young students who were known as eesthetic, respectable youths, little given to politics. But, fired by the speeches and wine, they had. 12 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. wliile going home tliroiigli the streets of the town, sung the Marseillaise, with offensive words added by Topelius. They w^ere all rusticated for a term, some for a longer period. I got a double dismissal without further ceremony." " We all bore our misfortune very calmly. I betook myself to two respectable persons, obtained their security, borrowed money, and went abroad by St. Petersburg to Berlin, While driving during my stay in St. Petersburg in an ' isvoschik ' in the Nevski Prospect, I quite un- expectedly encountered my father, who had returned sooner than he intended from a new journey to the Ural. He was exceedingly surprised to meet his son, but, after an explanation, quite approved of my journey, and pro- vided me with letters of introduction to the friends of his youth, the brothers Rose, Mitscherlich, &c." " I stayed at Berlin during the spring and early sum- mer of 1856, w^orking in Rose's laboratory at researches in mineral analysis. I besides made use of the oppor- tunity to make the acquaintance of several of the world- renowned men of science of the city, by whom, thanks to my father's well-known name, I was particularly well received." " During the summer of the same year I returned through Sweden to Finland. I was now asked by Pro- fessor Arppe, the dean of the mathematico-physical faculty, whether I wished to apply immediately for the newly-established professorship in mineralogy and geo- logy, or w^hether I preferred by getting some of the large travelling stipends of the university to provide myself with funds for extensive foreim travel. I chose the latter, but on my first application for ' the literary I.] MY MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE. 13 travelling grant ' I was passed over by my friend, tlic distinguished philologist Ahlquist, under the express promise, however, that I should have as an equivalent the Alexander stipend, which would be vacant some months after. The plan of travel which I gave in to the Consis- torium was for a geological excursion to Siberia, and above all to Kamschatka, The plan was abandoned for the time, but I hope now, twenty years after, to bring about a scien- tific expedition to the same regions, though on another and far grander scale than would then have been possible for me." ^ " Immediately thereafter I obtained the Alexander stipend for a tour of study through Europe. Before my departure, however, I wished to be present at the Pro- motion festival of 1857, when I was at the same time to be promoted to the degree of master (magister) and doctor, with the first place of honour among the masters and the second among the doctors. This ' promotion ' became an unexpected turning-point in my life." " At the invitation of the young men wdio were to become laureates, there was present at the ' promotion ' a deputation from the universities of Upsala and Lund, consisting of a professor and five eminent younger aca- demicians. They were received by us, and everywhere as they travelled in Finland, in the most cordial manner. Innumerable speeches were spoken in their honour, and even the older men did not weigh with any special care the words with wdiich the guests from the dear old mother-country were welcomed, all to the great provo- cation of Count von Berg, who was childish enough to consider as treason such a reception, called fortli by ^ This was written in 1877. U KORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. grand and illustrious common memories of many cen- turies' old, and a debt of gratitude for culture, freedom, national existence, which can never be forgotten. In von Berg's favour it may be mentioned that he had not 5^et been able to comprehend the peculiar Dualism which then prevailed in Finland between Eussian despotism and the habit of freedom centuries old," " At the parting festival I, who otherwise seldom appeared as a speaker, was asked to propose a toast — a request which from my position among the ' promoti,' I could scarcely decline. My speech was not long, and was naturally in the tone that prevailed during the course of the entertainments, perhaps somewhat more pointed than the others, which had the fortune to fall unnoticed into the sea of forgetfulness. I concluded with a verse by K. Vetterhoff in which he calls for a toast *to our memories all, and to the time that has been and the time that shall come, if only it does not bring Finland's fall, a toast to the days of memory that have fled and the hojDC that still remains.' " "The preceding part of my speech was a repetition of the same clearly very prudent, sensible, and resigned sentiment which the verse contained, naturally embel- lished according to use and wont to some inconsiderable extent with such flourishes as intelligent practical folk describe as ' rhetorical tropes.' It is well known that such figures of speech are as indispensable to a speaker, especially to a speaker at such an entertainment, as salt is to meat." " Either it was the case that I now ' salted ' too much, or that the temper of the guests from the long continued feasting had become more than usually recep- I.] AN AFTER-DINNER SPEECH. 15 tive of the impressions of the moment. At all events my words were received with a storm of applause from one quarter, mixed with a prudent dissent from another. The affair, however, would certainly have passed un- observed, like so many other similar effusions on such occasions, if a highly-esteemed, warm-hearted, and patri- otic academic teacher. Professor Cygneeus, had not been seized with the insane and impolitic idea of seeking, while the temper of the meeting was so heated, to counteract the unfavourable impression the behaviour of the youth might make in higher quarters by a speech directed against some verses read a short time before at a student festival at Hasselbacken, in which J. G. Carlen said of Finland : ' Soon a gilded nest of thraldom.' An historian of literature now made Carlen a representative of opinion in Sweden, and our guests ivere reproached on account of his poetical effusions. A general and well-grounded displeasure, this time I believe quite independent of all politics, broke loose : and urged by many, I went up to the speaker's chair, where Cygnseus still stood, and cried : ' He does not speak for us.' " "This occurrence attracted much attention and gave rise to much talk, and came the follo^^ng day to von Berg's ears. He had been lying in wait the whole time for an opportunity to get hold of some suitable scapegoat, and I became the scapegoat. The rector was sent for and got instructions to inquii'e into the circum- stance. He applied to me. I gave him a correct account of the whole affair. 'Now why in Heaven's name did you talk so ? ' cried he. On tliis T drew from my pocket the draft of my speech, and handed it IG NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. to ' uncle ' Rein — as all the former members of the Viborg division, of which he had been the much-liked inspector, called him." " After reading it the rector's countenance cleared. He declared that my words did not contain anything offensive, and was confident that to communicate them to the Governor-general would certainly mollify him, if he were permitted to give him a copy — a request which I considered myself bound to answer in the affirmative, although I doubted the prudence of the step he intended to take." "The written word, as is well known, has many meanings, at least when it is interpreted according to the prepossessions of the readers. Governor-general von Berg immediately declared to the good rector that what lay before him almost amounted to high treason, and took steps to have the crime punished. I treated the whole affair with contempt, and betook myself to Fruo-ord, where a couple of days after I received a communication from a Finn, one of von Berg's most intimate friends, advising me either to go abroad imme- diately, or to remain and boldly declare that the whole affair arose from mistake, misunderstanding, &c. I chose the former alternative, and crossed over to Sweden with a passport which I had taken out some months before. Soon after there came a Government missive from St. Petersburg, in which I was said to have been declared to have forfeited, not the stipend which I had, but one which I had never possessed, and to be deprived of the right of ever holding office in the university. I never obtained a complete copy of this document, al- though I made repeated application for it, quite certainly I.] REQUEST FOR A PASSPORT. 17 because tlie whole judgineiit was rash aud perhaps not quite legal. Late in the autumn of 1858 I returned to Finland, after having taken part in TorelFs first expedi- tion to Spitzbergen, and having received an offer of an appointment as successor to Mosander in the mineral- ogical department of the Eiks-Museum. On receiving a telegram that I was nominated to this post I applied for a passport in order to return to Sweden. Difficulties were raised. I got a message to call on the Governor- General. He received me at first in a friendly way, and found fault with me for having travelled on the former occasion without a passport. To this I replied that that was not quite the fact, as I had travelled with a passport which I had already taken out during the winter. 'But that passport w^as over three months old,' said von Berg. To this I answered that the pass- port regulations were completely unknown to me, and that it was the duty of his officials to see that they were complied wdth. Von Berg — 'You must at least admit that those acted wrongly who allowed you to travel with an old passport.' Nordenskiold — ' With the greatest pleasure, your Excellency.' " " This reply w^as evidently gratifying to von Berg. He now began to speak in a very judicious way, on the wliole, about the promotion catastrophe, declaring that everything could easily be made right again, and our relations be put on a better footing than before. To this I answered evasively that even if I had sinned through my speech at the festival, I had now suffered so much loss of money and annoyance on account of the affair that I thought the w^iole might be forgotten. Turning to a Finnish official who was present at our meeting 18 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. von Berg said : ' It is not enougli for a man to recognise liis errors, he should be sorry he made them.' On my replying to this, * That I shall never be ! ' von Berg answered somewhat impetuously, ' You shall have your pass, but you may say good-bye to Finland, I shall see to that.' Thus was the conversation concluded. The following day I obtained a passport, and in fourteen days had crossed the frontier." " I have been informed that von Berg afterwards formally urged in the senate my being exiled from the country, not however with reference to the occurrence at the promotion, but because I had entered foreign service without asking permission of the Government. The proposition, however, was negatived, and it was declared that I had in the circumstances only availed myself of the rights belonging to the ennobled class. Instead, he obtained an order to the Russian minister at Stockholm, forbidding him to vise my passport to Finland. A viae accordingly was repeatedly refused to me till the summer of 1862, when von Berg was no longer Governor-General. Since then 1 have been allowed to go to Finland whenever I pleased." " After having married a Finnish lady, I applied in the year 18G7 for the professorship of mineralogy and geology in the University of Helsingfors, and obtained the unanimous recommendation of the consistory for the post. Daschkoff, who was then Russian minister at Stockholm — with whose family I became acquainted through my wife, being received by them with much friendliness — asked me at an accidental meeting, some- what doubtingiy, if I really wished to have the post. When I answered that this of course was the case, as I.] SETTLE MElN^T IN^ STOCKHOLM. 19 I liad applied for it, he said he could answer for the result if only I would promise him privately not to mix myself up wdth politics in Finland. This promise I could not give, but I told him that of course I had the intention after my return of submitting with ' loyaute ' to the legally existing state of afiairs. With this, however, he was not satisfied. He afterwards, with good intentions towards me, endeavoured to reach his ol)ject through the ladies, and applied to my wife, asking her to put the matter right. He got the answer, ' But my husband is a very decided person,' and thus the negotiation was closed. I was not appointed." "After my departure from Finland in 1857, I passed the summer principally in visiting Swedish mineral localities for mineralogical purposes. The following w^inter I settled in Stockholm, where my old father also happened to be staying at the time. I employed myself in working out a couple of papers published in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences, to one of which the Lindbom prize was awarded by the Academy. At the same time I was engaged in chemical researches at the laboratory of the Caroline Institute and in practical studies in the mineralogy of Scandinavia at the mineral cabinet of the Academy of Sciences, rich in Swedish and Norwegian minerals. Here I was received with special good- will by my illustrious predecessor Mosander, a zealous mineralogist, and, though his sight was much impaired by incipient cataract, still very skilful at re- cognising the minerals of Scandinavia. Mosander was a fully developed Conservative and did not spare now and then furious attacks on the Lil^cral views of his c 2 20 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. younger colleague, which, however, did not in the least disturb the good understanding between us." "In the spring of 1858 I received an offer through Professor Sven Loven to take part as geologist in Torell's first expedition to Spitzbergen, during which the fjords on its west coast were visited and rich zoological, botanical, and geological collections made. With reference to the geological collection, it may be stated that I was successful in finding at Bell Sound a number of fossil plants belonging to the tertiary period, which were afterwards described by Professor Oswald Heer, of Zurich, and form the commencement of the comprehensive collections in this field which have been brought home by the Swedish Ai^ctic expeditions, and which in the experienced hands of Heer have yielded such important new contributions to our knowledge of the former geological history of our globe. There were obtained, besides a large number of fossils from the carboniferous and Jurassic formations, fine minerals from the limestone veins on the Norways, Cloven Cliff, &c." " Immediately after my return from my first Arctic voyage ]\Iosander died, and I was asked privately if I was willing to take his place at the Eiks-]Museum, in case the Academy should appoint me to it. When, after no little hesitation, I had declared myself willing to do so, I was appointed on the 8th December the same year Professor and Intendent of the mineralogical depart- ment of the Eiks-Museum. I was then, as has been said, in Finland, and had the conversation narrated above with the Governor-General, in connection with which it deserves to be mentioned that von Bercf I.] WORK IN MINERALS. 21 then was clearly ignorant that I had been appointed to an honourable scientific post in the neighbouring country." " I started from Helsingfors in the last days of Decem- ber, 1858, in order to return to Sweden by the Sea of Aland. I passed New Year's Eve with relatives at Bjorkboda, in Kimitto parish, and had the good fortune to make once more a remarkable mineral discovery in Finland ; for during an excursion from the works I found, at some quartz quarries the working of which had been lately resumed for the puddling furnaces situated at a place called Rosendal, a very considerable quantity of the exceedingly rare mimeral Tantalite, previously found only at two places in Finland, two in Sweden, and one in France, important as the only mineral occurring in any considerable quantity into which the simple substance Tantalum enters as a main o constituent. The passage of the Sea of Aland was exceedingly difiicult. I skated over Skiftet, and, from my impatience to get across, over such weak ice that three times on the same day I got a cold bath up to the throat." " Immediately after my return to Stockholm I entered on my new employment and began to work partly at the arrangement of the museum, partly at scientific researches which formed the subjects of several of my papers published either in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences or of the Geological Society. At Professor Mosander's death, when the rebuilding of the Academy's house had just begun, the mineralogical collection was stufi'ed into three small rooms, where there was so little space that the exhibition of the 22 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. collection could not be thought of. The new spacious apartments intended for the Riks-Museum were finished in the summer of 1865, and already by the following autumn the arrangement and removal of the collections were so far advanced that the Museum could be opened to the public. It has since been my constant endeavour to enlarge the collection not only by purchases from dealers in minerals, but mainly by visits to the most important mineral localities in Scandinavia, undertaken on account of the Museum, partly by the Intendent himself, partly by Assistant Lindstrom, or by students of mineralogy from the Universities. In consequence of the extraordinary richness of the Scandinavian peninsula in rare and remarkable minerals, the Minera- logical Museum at Stockholm, with the help of the collections, valuable in certain directions, which have existed from Mosander's time, has in this way become one of the most considerable in Europe. In the summer of 1859 I made a tour for mineralogical purposes to Jemtland and Dalecarlia, during which for a time I lay very ill of gastric fever at a peasant's house at Storsjon. The following winter I had the pleasure of receiving as collaborateur at the laboratory the friend of my youth and promotion-comrade, J. J. Chydenius, afterwards professor of chemistry at Helsingfors, and in the summer of 1860 w^e made together a pleasant and agreeable journey rich in mineral discoveries to Arendal, Brevig, Kragero, Kongsberg, and other })laces in southern Norway well known to the mineralogist. In the following year, 1861, I took part in Torell's carefully equipped polar expedition, on which occasion I had an opportunity of surveying the northern joart of Spitz- I.] MY MOTHER'S DEATH. 23 bergen and of clearing up the main points of the geognosy of the country. It was fully described by one of those who took part in it, K. Chydenius, who unfortunately died prematurely, so that it is not neces- sary for me to say anything more concerning an expedition, through which the first foundation was laid of a true knowledge of the natural history of the polar countries.'"' " After von Berg quitted the post of Governor- General there were, as 1 have said, no longer any obstacles placed in the way of my visiting Finland by the authorities. I took advantage of the fact, and passed part of the summer of 1862 in my old country, where I had the pleasure of finding my father in good health, and of undertaking a tour with him to several of the most interesting mineral localities of Fin- land, Duriuor the time when I had not been allowed to visit Finland my mother had died at Frugord, on the 26th January, 1860, without my being permitted to come across to bid her a last farewell. As my father spent a great part of his time in travelling, both at home and abroad, it was my mother who conducted and arranged our first education. Her good judgment, and her liking for employment of all kinds, and for generous, impartial, and frank behaviour, exercised a powerful influence on all within her family circle, and created a home at Frugord where singular unanimity and mutual aifection prevailed." "In the month of December, 1862, I again travelled by the difiicult and, during winter, even dangerous way of Grisslehamn and Aland to Finland, in order, at Pro- fessor Edlund's request, to make some investigations 24 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. concerning the formation of ice in the sea. After having in Finhxnd betrothed myself to Anna Manner- heim, danghter of Ex-President Count Carl Manner- heim and Eva von Schantz, I returned on 1st January, 1863, to Stockholm. On the 1st July in the same year o our marriage was celebrated at Willnaa, near Abo." " 1 had now of course abandoned all thoughts of further Arctic journeys. Circumstances, however, so arranged themselves that just from this time they were resumed by me, and on a greater scale than before. The occasion was the followine: : — " Torell's polar journey of 1861 had for its object, among other things, to carry into effect a proposal, made several years before by the President of the Eoyal Society of London, to examine how far it is possible in these high latitudes to obtain the measurement of an arc of meridian of sufficient extent. The north part of the triangulation for this measurement had been staked out during the expedition of 1861 by Dr. K. Chydenius, who took part in the expedition as physicist on board the schooner JEolus. But the plan for examining the southern part of the proposed triangulation could not be carried out, it having been impossible during the course of the summer for the other vessel of the expedi- tion, the sloop Magdalena, which was a bad sailor, and was long shut up by ice on the north coast of Spitzbergen, to reach Stor Fjord, the part of Spitz- bergen along which the southern part of the triangula- tion should lie. On this account the Royal Academy of Sciences applied for and obtained from the estates a grant of 10,000 crowns (about 550^.) to defray the expenses of an expedition on a small scale, having I.] EXPEDITION TO SPITZBERGEN. 25 for its ol>ject the completion of the survey commenced in 1861." "Originally K. Chydenius, a skilful, very energetic, and warm-hearted man, was appointed to the leadership of the expedition. But he fell so seriously ill during the winter of 1863-4 that he was unable to take charge of the necessary preparations. I was asked by the Academy to step into my sick friend's place under circumstances which scarcely left me any choice. The intention was that Chydenius, if he got better, should take part in the expedition. He died in the course of the winter."* " In his place I asked Docent N. Duner, of Lund, and Dr. Malmgren, of Helsingfors, to join me. The expedition was very pleasant, and, taking into account the limited means at my disposal, rich in results. The preliminary survey for the proposed measure- ment of an arc of meridian was completed, the southern part of Spitzbergen mapped, and important new data collected towards ascertaining the flora and fauna of that group of islands. That year the sea was very free of ice, and when, after finishing our other work in autumn, we made an attempt in our little schooner-rigged gunboat to sail far up towards the north, we might probably have been able to reach a very high latitude, if the proposed excursion had not been interrupted by a meeting with seven boats, laden with walrus hunters from three vessels which had been wrecked upon the east side of North East Land. They had to be rescued, and such a demand was made both on the room in the vessel and on our stock of provisions that I was compelled imme- diately to return to Norway. During the voyage we 26 N011DE:J^SKI0LD'S arctic voyages. [chap. had pretty good sport, and our sales covered part of the expenses of the expedition." "In 18G5 I was with my family over in Finland, in order once more to visit my old father. He had already been attacked by the illness, through whicb, on the 21st February, 1866, his active life was brought to a close. He therefore could not accompany me on the excursions which I undertook in the course of the summer to Laurinkari, Ersby, Skogbole, Kulla, and others of the most remarkable localities of Finland. The following summer I travelled in Vestmanland, Vermland, and Dalecarlia, making mineralogical researches, and took part as juryman for the department of porcelain and stone ware in the Scandinavian Exhibition, opened at Stockholm that summer. In 18G7 I visited Paris, havinsf o been commissioned, along with Professor A. J. Angstrom, to compare a normal metre and a normal kilogram, which had been made for the Swedish Government, with the prototypes preserved in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. In consequence of the regulations in force at that institution the commission could not be executed in a way that was completely satisfactory from a scientific point of view, a circumstance which had been often complained of both before and since, and these complaints finally led to the recent changes in the way of preserving the prototypes and comparing them with copies. This journey also gave me an oppor- tunity of visiting for a considerable time the great Paris Exhibition of 1867, and of making the acquaintance of several eminent scientific men there, by whom I was received in a very kind and friendly way." " It almost appeared as if no resumption of the I.] A NEAV ARCTIC EXPEDITION. 27 Swedish Arctic ExpeditioDs was to be looked for in the near future. The Diet, in voting the grant for that of 1864, deckred that no further funds for the purpose in question were to be reckoned on, and most of the leading men in Stockholm repeatedly and distinctly expressed the opinion that we had now done enough in that field. I myself, however, anxiously wished to be able to renew the attempt to reach a bigh northerly lati- tude, which was made in the autumn of 1864 after the completion of the survey for the measurement of an arc of meridian, and which was interrupted on that occasion by the rescue of the walrus hunters already referred to. After several unsuccessful attempts in other directions, I approached Count Ehrensvard, Governor of Gothenburg, a zealous friend of science, art, and literature, with a memorial setting forth the main points of my plan of a new expedition, and a request that he would endeavour to obtain in Gothenburg the con- siderable sum of money which was required to carry it out. My proposal was received with great interest by Count Ehrensvard, and in a short time the amount that was considered necessary to secure the undertaking on its economic side was collected through munificent contributions from the commercial magnates Dickson, Ekman, Carnegie, &c. The new Arctic Expedition was also received with special interest by State-Counsellor Count Platen, Chief of the Marine Department, and above all by the then powerful chief of the Kommando Office of the Navy, Commander Adlersparre. Starting with the idea, doubtless correct, that some small part of the money voted to the Koyal Navy for exercising might, with advantage both to it and the general interest, 28 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. be employed in voyages with scientific or commercial objects, Count Platen fitted out and manned from these funds a vessel belonginsj to the Post Ofiice, the iron steamer Sofia, which the Government placed at my disposal. The expedition was thus brought about by a harmonious co-operation of the Government, private persons of wealth, and several young men of science who took a lively interest in the matter, and it may serve as a pattern for such undertakings not only within our owTi land, but also in foreign countries. It was proposed to reach with the vessel as high a latitude as possible during the autumn, and to complete the researches of the foregoing expeditions in the natural history of Spitzbergen and the surrounding sea." " Rich, and, in a scientific point of A^ew, important collections were brought home, and we reached, on the 19th September, 1868, the highest northern latitude which any vessel can be proved to have attained in the old hemisphere. In this respect we have hitherto been only surpassed by Hall's American and Nares' English expe- ditions in Smith's Sound. At the third attempt to pene- trate to the northward, which was made during this voyage in the beginning of October from Amsterdam Island in the neighbourhood of the 80th degree of latitude, we should probably have been able to go much farther if the vessel had not, during a storm on the 4tli October, in 81° N. L., been dashed against a block of ice and thereby sprung so bad a leak that we could only with difiiculty get back to our former anchorage. We owe a debt of gratitude to the skill and coolness of the captain of the vessel, Baron von Otter, afterwards Counsellor of State, for our escape that day with I.] THE EXPEDITION OF 18G8. 29 our lives. The vessel Sofia, built by Carlsund for other purposes, was much too weak to encounter an October storm in 8 L° N. L., in darkness, with blocks of ice driving about. The attempt to reach a high northerly- latitude by sea deserves, however, to be resumed with a mare suitable vessel, strong, protected against icing down and provided v»'ith abundant stock of coal and provisions. During a not too unfavourable ice-year it would certainly be possible, during autumn or early winter, to reach, from the north-western extremity of Spitzbergen, which is free of ice for the greater part of the year, a far higher latitude than Sir George Nares' vessel attained durino; the last Enolish Polar Expedition." " Mr. Oscar Dickson was among those who made the most liberal contributions to the Expedition of 1868. We are told that it is characteristic of this mao^nanimous, generous, but prudent IMsecenas seldom to abandon an undertaking which he has once entered on ; and scarcely a year had elapsed after the return of the Expedition of 1868, when he offered, of his own accord, to contribute liberally to the equipment of a new expedition to the same regions. I joyfully accepted the offer, and it was determined that the new expedition should have for its ol)ject to winter on the north coast of Spitzbergen, in order thence to push northwards in sledges on the ice." "It is necessary in such sledge journeys in regions where no game can be reckoned on, in order to be able to traverse a sufficiently great distance, to employ draught animals which, during the course of the journey, may be killed in proportion as the stock of provisi(jns 30 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. becomes lighter. Two different kinds of draug-ht animals are used for sucli purposes in the most northerly inha- bited regions of the globe, viz., reindeer and dogs. The first point to determine was which of these was to be preferred? For this purpose numerous statements were collected, by the care of Mr. Oscar Dickson, from the northern parts of the kingdom, concerning the suit- ableness of reindeer for such journeys, their power of draught, the possibility of feeding them with collected moss, &c. ; and it was at the same time determined that I should go to Greenland to collect similar statements regarding dogs, and to purchase a large number of them in case I should determine on their employment during the ice journey towards the pole." " This was the occasion of my journey to Greenland in 1870, which, with Mr. Dickson's consent, was extended to a small scientific expedition, in which three young Swedish scientific men took part. The journey to Greenland yielded unexpectedly rich scientific results, among which may be mentioned the following : — The collection of new contributions to the flora of the Polar countries during several preceding geological periods of special importance for a knowledge of the history of the development of our globe. The discovery in the miocene basaltic strata of Greenland at Ovifak, on the island Disko, of the largest known blocks of meteoric iron, reo^ardino; the orio;in of which an extensive scientific controversy has arisen, and which perhaps will at 3ome future time form the starting point for quite a new theory of the method of formation of the heavenly body we inhabit. The large blocks were brought home the following year by two vessels of war I.] A WALK IN GREENLAND. 31 wliicli were sent out to Greenland for that purpose by the Swedish Government under command of Baron von Otter." " An excursion of some length was made into the wilderness of ice, everywhere full of bottomless clefts, which occupies the interior of Greenland, and which, if I except unimportant wanderings along the edge and an inconsiderable attempt in the same direction in the year 1728, by the Dane Dalager, was now, for the first time, trodden by human foot. I had here an opportunity of clearing up the nature of a formation which, during one of the latest geological ages, covered a great part of the civilised countries of Europe, and wdiich, though it has given occasion to an exceedingly comprehensive lite- rature in all cultivated languages, had never hefoye been examined hi/ any geologist. The equipment for the journey was exceedingly defective, because everybody with whom I conversed who had any knowledge of the circumstances, declared to me that such a journey was impracticable, and that in consequence my pre- parations were thrown away. It was on this account that I was compelled to return earlier than would other- wise have been the case." " Accordino- to the orio-inal distribution of work it O O was Dr. Theodore Nordstrom who should have accom- panied me in this ice journey, but after our arrival in Greenland he was still much too weak from an illness which attacked him during the voyage to be exposed to the dangers and difficulties which must be encountered during a journey on the ice. Instead I persuaded Dr. Sv, Berggrcn, who took part in the Greenland Expedition of 1870, to accompany me. He 32 NORDENSKIOLD S AKCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. began not witliout some jocular protests about the absurdity of a botanist making a dangerous excursion in the only region of the known land of the globe where he could not expect to meet with the least trace of vegetation. Berggren was, however, riiistaken, for on the inland ice itself he had the opportunity of making a very remarkable and unexpected botanical discovery. His keen accustomed eye soon observed that the inland ice was everywhere bestrewn with a scanty vegetation of microscopic algse, which, exceed- ingly minute as it is, by its dark colour certainly conduced in a high degree to limit the extension of the glaciers, and to change the ice deserts of the Ice Age into the green valleys and plains of the pre- sent period. At the same time that Dr. Berggren investigated, in a very careful way, the bryology of north-western Greenland, Docent P. Oberg made rich collections of marine animals, and I succeeded in collect- ing about 1,000 more or less perfect stone implements from the Stone Age of Greenland, &c." " With respect to the proper object of the Ex- pedition, I arrived at the conclusion that dogs could not he employed ivith advantage in long sledge journeys in the regions ivhere no game was to he had." " The same year that I went to Greenland two young Swedes, Docent H. Nathoust and Hj. AVilander visited Spitzbergen, at the expense of some men of business in Stockholm, in order to examine for technical purposes some phosphatic deposits, and see whether they could not be worked with advantage. The result was favour- able, and a company of commercial men was formed in I.] ATTEMPT TO FOUND A COLONY. 33 Stockholm and Gothenburg to work the deposits. We determined to endeavour to found a colony in Spitz- bergen for this purpose, and as the country belonged to no State in particular we petitioned the Swedish Government to take steps to obtain international pro- tection for our undertaking. This petition gave occa- sion to an attempt by Count Wachtmeister, then Foreign Minister of Sweden, to take possession of the whole of Spitzbergen for Sweden and Norway. For this purpose the necessary inquiries were made of the Powers of Europe who could have any claim in this respect. Favourable answers were received from all the States, with the exception of Eussia, where the question caused a brisk newspaper controversy, from which the Eussian Government took occasion to give a friendly answer in the negative." " An attempt at any rate was made by the company to found a colony at Cape Thorclsen in Ice Fjord. In the summer of 1872 two vessels were sent thither with some miners, a house was built, and a small railway constructed from the intended workings to the shore. The same summer, however, the enterprise was aban- doned, partly because the manager of the company considered the phosphatic deposits not rich enough for profitable working in so remote regions, partly because the share capital was too limited. The company was dissolved, after having repaid to the shareholders what remained (about 25 per cent.) of the paid-up capital." " As son of a native Swedish nobleman, I was able, soon after becoming a Swedish subject, to sit and vote in the House of Nobles. I was also present as a member of the House of Nobles at the two last meetings of the D 3-i - NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Estates, but without at any time speaking or following the business with any special interest. Naturally, how- ever, I was a zealous supporter of the views of the Liberal party, and I took an active part in the agita- tion for a change in the representation. After the introduction of the new system of representation, I repeatedly came forward as a Liberal candidate for Stockholm for a seat in the Diet. In this way, and through my taking part in the so-much-denounced ' new Liberal society,' to which I w^as introduced by August Blanche, I brought upon myself for several years much unpleasantness from the Conservative circles of the city. It was perhaps on this account that I was put up in 1869 as a candidate by the Liberal party, and after a contest, vehement in our circumstances, was elected. I thus became a representative for the capital from 1869 to 1871. With regard to the part I took as a member of the Diet, I will here only mention that, together with Hedin, Gumselius, and others, I took part in an attempt which was made in 1869 to form a Liberal Opposition Party to the Country Party in the Second Chamber, which, however, was completely unsuccessful as all the peasant representatives, who at first joined us, returned to the Country Party, when we refused to follow them in what we thought their mistaken views on the question of the national defence. Two motions were brought forward by me. In the first I proposed that the Geological Office should be placed under the Academy of Sciences, and not, as is still the case, under the Civil Department, where there is scarcely to be found that knowledge of the subject which is required for the superintendence of an office, whose work, in 1.] MY WORK IN PARLIAMENT. 35 order that it may be truly fruitful in a practical point of view, must, like all preliminary work in the present day with a technical end in view, be founded on a purely scientific basis. The motion was rejected. My second motion met a better fate. I proposed that the Diet should take the necessary steps for the appointment of a committee with a view to reconstruct the Techno- logical Institute, so as to form a technical high school (or rather a technical and military scientific faculty of a future university in the capital) by uniting with it several teaching institutions already existing in Stock- holm, as the Pharmaceutical Institute, the Institute of Forestry, the Military High School, &c. The motion was agreed to. The committee I asked for was appointed, and drew up a complete plan for the reconstruction of the Technological Institute .as a Technical High School. Part of the alterations which it recommended have already been made. Unfor- tunately, however, a number of considerations have prevented the carrying out of the reform to the extent and in the direction which I proposed." "The long prepared new Polar expedition finally started for the north in 1872. The state of the ice on the north coast of Spitzbergen was more unfavourable in 1872 than it had been at any time since the coast was frequented by the Norwegians. Three days after our reindeer were landed they made their escape. Some hours before the time when two vessels acting as tenders to the expedition, which were not provided with a sufficient stock of provisions for the winter, were to start on their return to Norway, they were shut up by ice in Mussel Bay. The stock of provisions which the D 2 36 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. expedition liad at its disposal then became insufficient. Some days after, in addition to this, we were like to have been compelled to receive and maintain a large number of shipwrecked walrus-hunters. In the end of January all our vessels were in danger of being wrecked during an exceedingly violent storm, which broke up the co\'ering of ice which had previously been on tlie surrounding sea, &c. This expedition, notwithstanding, yielded important scientific results, among which I may mention the discovery on the Polar- ice itself of a dust of cosmic origin, containing metallic nickel-iron; researches by Dr. Kjellman on the development of algse during the winter night, which at Mussel Bay is four months long ; researches on the Aurora and its spectrum by Dr. Wij- kander and Lieutenant Parent, of the Italian Marine ; researches by Dr. Wijkander on horizontal refraction in severe cold ; a complete series of meteorological and magnetic observations in the most northerly latitude where such observations had up to this time been carried on ; the discovery of numerous new contribu- tions to a knowledge of the flora of the Polar countries during former geological epochs; a sledge excursion under- taken under very difficult circumstances by Palander and myself, whereby the north part of North East Land was surveyed, and a journey, very instructive in a scientific point of view, made over the inland ice of North East Land, &c., &c." " The shutting up of the transport vessels in Mussel Bay was attended with very great expense, which had not been reckoned upon when the expedition was planned, and which was defrayed exclusively by Mr. Oscar Dickson. When the news spread at home that I.] THE EXPEDITION OF 1875. 37 three times the number of men that had been intended were compelled to winter on Spitzbergen, Dickson placed 100,000 (Swedish) crowns (about 5,500/.) at the disposal of Baron Fr. von Otter, in case he considered it pos- sible immediately (in late autumn) to relieve us. Von Otter rightly declined the proposal as impracticable." " The comparatively unsuccessful issue and the heavy expenses of the expedition of 3 872-73, by no means diminished Mr. Dickson's interest in such undertakings. On the contrary these were perhaps the reasons why he shortly after my return home declared himself willing to 'go on.' A new Arctic voyage was projected to the Kara Sea and the mouths of the Obi and Yenissej, and we started from Tromso at midsummer 1875 in a small sailing vessel. I was on this occasion successful in almost completing the programme which had been arranged before our departure, a circumstance of rare occurrence in the history of northern voyages of discovery. We came here to a new, previously untouched field of in- quiry, and succeeded in bringing home exceedingly numerous contributions to a knowledge of the flora and fauna of the region we visited. I made my way with- out difliculty in my little sailing vessel to the mouth of the Yenissej, and thus inaugurated, as I hope, a new and important route for the commerce of the world. From the mouth of the Yenissej the vessel was sent back under charge of Docent Kjellman to Norway, while, in company with Docent Lindstrom, Dr. Stuxberg, and three sailors, I ascended the river in a Nordland boat, which we had taken with us for the purpose to Dudino, where we fell in with a steamer. From this point we continued our journey by steamer to Yenisseisk, and 38 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. tlience overland by Ekaterineburg, Moscow, Petersburg, Helsiugfors, and Abo to Sweden. During this journey the Swedish savants were received in the larw cities with fete after fete in consequence of the enthusiasm with which the foremost geographical and commercial circles in Kussia hailed the prospect of a sea route between Siberia and Europe." "There were, however, many doubters who affirmed that the success of the Proven in 1875 depended only on the uncommonly favourable state of the ice, which prevailed that year in the Siberian Polar Sea. This gave occasion to the expeditions of the following year (1876), which had for their object partly to continue the interesting scientific researches of the year 1875 in the Kara Sea, and along the river valley of the Yenissej, and partly to show that the success of the preceding year did not depend on a fortunate accident. Their expenses were defrayed by Messrs. Oscar Dickson and Alexander SibiriakofF, and they were completely suc- cessful, notwithstanding that 1876 was a bad ice year. Before I started on this occasion for the Polar Sea, I took part as juryman in the department of porcelain and stone- ware in the Philadelphia Exhibition. I returned from America on the 1st July, and at Trondhjem stepped on board the vessel that had been chartered for the voyage. On the 15th August I was at the Yenissej, although I had halted at several places on the way. It had been ar- ranged that I should meet a party at the Yenissej which was to make its way by land under Docent Theel to an appointed rendezvous near the mouth of the great river. I waited there seventeen days for these comrades in vain, and then returned successfully to Europe. I.] ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE EXPEDITION OF 1878. 39 " For the present (July 1877) I am eDgaged in making arrangements on account of Mr. Sibiriakoff to send this summer to the Yenissej the steamer FraseA-, which has been purchased specially for the purpose, with a cargo of commercial goods, and with the equipment of a new expedition, having for its object to extend farther west- wards, if possible to Behrings Straits, the scientific ex- plorations in the Siberian Polar Sea commenced in 1875 and 1876. His Majesty King Oscar takes a lively personal interest in this enterprise, and has made a liberal contribution to it from his privy purse. The balance of the expenses is to be defrayed by Messrs. Oscar Dickson and Alexander Sibiriakoff, and I hope to obtain for this undertaking support from the Royal Navy like that which was extended to the Expeditions of 1868 and 1872-73." CHAPTER 11. THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS OF 1858 AND 1861. We shall now proceed to fill in with the more important details the rapid outline which Nordenskiold has sketched of those Arctic Expeditions which have re- vived the ancient glories of Sweden, and shown that the thirst for adventure, the love of the sea, and the cool, daring, and unflinching intrepidity which characterised the old Norsemen, still run in the veins of their de- scendants, and that the loVe of nature and of science still animates the countrymen of Linnaeus and Berzelius. It was with a scientific object in view that the first Swedish Arctic Expedition was projected, and the series has always retained a strongly scientific character, though practical results of the greatest importance are already visible. The credit of originating the series of expeditions by which that part of the Polar Basin, which lies to the north of Europe, has been explored, and its natural history investigated during the last twenty years with such energy, skill, perseverance, and success by Swedish men of science, must be ascribed to Otto Torell, now Chief of the Geological Survey of Sweden. The dis- covery of the Ice Age, the geological period during cir. II.] SPITZBERGEN. 41 which a great portion of the northern hemisphere was in the condition in which Greenland still is — covered Avlth an immense sheet of ice — had conferred on the natural conditions of the high north a special signi- ficance for Scandinavia. To the study of glacial pheno- mena, the importance of which had been first perceived by Professor Play fair of Edinburgh, by the Norwegian Esmarck, and the Swiss Venetz, and Charpentier, Otto Torell, while Adjunct in the University of Lund, de- termined to devote himself, and with that end in view to make himself acquainted with the nature of the high north by travelling. His first voyage was to Iceland. In 1857, accompanied by Olsson Gadde, he travelled for three months in various directions across the island, making observations on its glacial phenomena, and rich collections of its marine fauna along the coast. The following year he visited Spitzbergen. Spitzbergen, a group of islands, of which three are large and the others small, having a total area estimated at about 30,000 English square miles, lies 300 miles north of Scandinavia, and 325 cast of Greenland. It was discovered on the 19th June, 1596, by the famous Dutch explorer William Barentz, in the course of his third voyage to discover the North East Passage. Barentz is said to have circumnavigated Spitzbergen, but considerable doubt rests on this statement, and if it is correct the feat was not repeated until the year 1863, when it was performed by Captain Carlsen, a Norwegian walrus-hunter. The sea to the west of Spitzbergen was once a fa- vourite whale-fishing ground, to which most of the seafaring nations of Europe sent fleets of whalers ; 42 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. but the " right whale " is now extinct on its coasts, and the whale-fishing in that sea has long- since o o terminated. Spitzbergen was next visited by Russians, who built huts in all directions along the coast, and carried on fishing and hunting, their principal game being wal- ruses, foxes, bears, and seals. The visits of the Russians became less and less frequent, and about 1830 it was only some private persons and the rich monastery, Solo- vetskoj, on the White Sea, that sent any vessels. The last Russian expedition to Spitzbergen for fishing and hunting appears to have been before 1850, though the date is not exactly known. It is only the Norwegians that in our days visit Spitz- bergen in order to hunt the walrus, with the exception of a stray Englishman like Mr. Lament. According to Keilhau it was a Hammerfest merchant who, in company with a Russian, carried out the first Norwegian hunting and fishing enterprise in Spitzbergen in 17.95. Part of the crew consisted of fishing Lapps and Russians, and they passed the winter in Spitzbergen. But the now existing Norwegian fishing and hunting dates properly from the year 1819, when an English mercantile firm at Bodoe sent a galeasse, with a crew of eleven men, to Bear Island and Spitzbergen, for the purpose of ascer- taining whether fish and other animals existed in sufli- cient numbers to make fishing and hunting profitable. They returned from Spitzbergen — they had missed Bear Island — with accounts of the abundance of walrus, rein- deer, and down, on Spitzbergen. A vessel with eight men was accordingly sent out from Hammerfest, But when they reached Bear Island, and the greater part of II.] POLAR EXPEDITION FROM SPITZBERGEN. 43 the crew had landed for the purpose of hunting, a fog and a high wind made the skipper lose sight of land, and finding it impossible to regain it, he left his men behind and returned to Hammerfest. The abandoned men provisioned their boat with walrus beef, and re- turned in it to Norway. Another expedition, similar in all points to the preceding, with the same skipper, the same crew, and precisely the same result, was under- taken in 1821. In 1822 a party of Norwegians wintered on Spitzbergen at Cross Bay, and their success induced others to imitate their example, not always with the same fortunate result. The fishing and hunting is stiR carried on in these waters by vessels from Tromsoe and Hammerfest ; and these voyages, while on the whole a source of considerable profit to the owners of the vessels, have also been a school for the masters and crews in which the best qualities of a good seaman have been developed, especially those required for navigation among ice. For more than a century Spitzbergen has formed the base from w^hich a number of expeditions have endea- voured to reach the North Pole. For this it is well adapted. A branch of the Gulf Stream gives its w^est coast a much higher temperature than is due to its geographical position. The existence of land to the north of it is exceedingly probable ; and, if it does exist, it would form a very convenient stepping stone to the Pole. We shall briefly enumerate the expeditions that have endeavoured to make Spitzbergen a point of departure. In 1765 Admiral Tschitschagofi" was sent by the Czarina Catharine of Eussia with three vessels to 44 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Spitzbergeii to sail towards the North Polo. He reached the latitude of 80" 21', but found it impossible to advance farther. The following year he reached the latitude of 80° 28'. In 1773 Constantine John Phipps, . afterwards Lord Mulgrave, sailed with the Racehorse and Carcass, with a view of reaching the North Pole. He got as far as 80° 37' N. L., visited some of the Seven Islands, and mapped the north of Spitzbergen. In the beginning of August he was beset, but sawed his way through the ice, which at many places was twelve feet thick, and made his way back to England. In 1818 Captain Buchan, in the Dorothea, and Lieu- tenant (afterwards Sir John) Franklin in the Trent, attained the latitude of 80° 34' north of Spitzbergen. In 1823 Clavering and Sabine, in the ship Griper, visited Sj^itzbergen, and while Sabine carried on mag- netic observations on the inner Norway Island, Clavering went to sea and steered northwards, but did not get farther than 80° 20' N. L. In 1827 Parry, who had a short time before returned from his third Arctic voyage, which had for its object the discovery of the North- West Passage, undertook his well-known expedition in the Ilecia, and made Treuren- berg Bay the starting-point of the sledge journey, in which he reached the latitude of 82° 45' N., then and for long after the highest attained by man. The same year the Norwegian geologist. Professor Keilhau, paid a visit to Spitzbergen, of which he has given an interesting account in his attractive work, Beise i Ost og West Fimnarken. Ten years after Professor Loven^ of Stockholm, visited II.] TORELL'S EXPEDITION IN 1858. 45 Spitzbergen, dredging along its coast, and collecting organic remains from its fossiliferous strata. This visit is remarkable as the first made from Sweden to Spitz- bergen with a scientific purpose. In the following year, 1838, the French Government sent to Spitzbergen in the corvette La Recherche a scientific expedition under the leadership of P. Gaimard, and invited Scandinavian men of science to accompany it, an invitation which was accepted by several Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian naturalists. La Recherche visited Bell Sound in 1838, and Magdalena Bay in 1839. The great work in which an accoujit of this expedition is given is unfortunately incomplete. It contains, be- sides, excellent views of the regions visited ; among othe;' valuable matter, important meteorological and physical observations, and a great number of drawings of objects of natural history, made for the most part under the direction of the Danish and Norwegian members. It was in the year 1858 that Otto Torell undertook, at the suggestion of Professor Loven, a voyage to Spitz- bergen. He fitted out in Hammerfest, at his own expense, the sloop Frithiof, of about sixty-four tons burden, and sailed on the 3rd June accompanied, as has been already stated, by A. E. Nordenskiold and A. Quennerstedt. The wdnd was favourable until some leagues south of Bear Island, where it turned against them, and they encountered drift-ice, which made the island inaccessible. They now cruised for a week in the ice until they were about 30 miles west of Bell Sound, when they succeeded in making their way through a belt of ice which lay several miles from land. On the 18th June they nearcd Horn Sound, 46 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. where islands and hills were still clotlied in their white winter dress, which, however, was daily disappearing, as the melting of the snow went on with incredible speed. Excursions were made in all directions, the geognosy of the region was described, glaciers were ascended, mo- raines examined, and specimens of markings collected, and dredging was carried on at the same time with great success at different depths up to a hundred fathoms. On the 28th they sailed to Bell Sound, where, the following day, they anchored at Middle Hook. There dredging was again undertaken with abundant success, birds and mammalia were shot and prepared, a tertiary formation containing fossil plants discovered, and bota- nical collections made, particularly of mosses and lichens. On 6th July they left this anchorage to sail north- wards, but calms and head winds compelled them to seek the north harbour in the same fjord. There Nord- enskiold discovered thick vertical strata of limestone and siliceous slates rich in fossils of the genera Productus and Spirifer, and which therefore appeared to belong to the Carboniferous Formation, and found these strata over- lain by other nearly horizontal beds belonging to the same tertiary formations with impressions of leaves as he had observed at Middle Hook. On the 24tli July they ao'ain went to sea, and on the 28th anchored in Green Harbour in Ice Fjord, which they examined till the 2nd August, when they again steered northwards. On the 4th they were at Amsterdam Island, on the 7th in another harbour between the Norways and Cloven Cliff, on the 10th in Magdalena Bay, on the 13th in English Bay, and on the 16th in Advent Bay in Ice Fjord. There they remained till the 22nd, when they sailed with 11.] TORELL'S PLANS FOR A NEW EXPEDITION. 47 the view of visiting tlie Thousand Islands, but an easterly storm obliged them instead to shape their course for Hammerfest, where they landed on the 28th August with an abundant harvest of observations and collec- tions from all the different places they had visited. In 1859 Torell visited Greenland, going as far as Upernavik, the most northerly settlement. He ascended the inland ice, which covers the whole land like a single enormous glacier, and dredged along the coast to a depth of 280 fathoms. He thus accumulated rich collections and increased his experience of travelling in these remote regions. He had no sooner returned from his visit to Green- land than he began to form plans for another expedition to the Polar Sea. The Swedish Estates voted him a sum of 8,000 rix-doUars, which was supplemented by a fur- ther grant of 12,000, the total grant, 20,000 rix-dollars, being equal to about a thousand guineas. The Crown Prince, now King of Sweden, gave a contribution of 4,000 rix-dollars. It was arranged that each of the scientific men who were to take part in the expedition should pay his own expenses. During the summer of 1860 Torell visited Copenhagen and London. Carl Petersen, the experienced Danish polar traveller, who accompanied so many Arctic expeditions from Penny's to the latest one, in which he met his death, consented to take part in this, and to assist with the preparations. In London Torell's plan was received with lively interest by Sir Leopold McClintock, Captain Sherard Osborne, and by Sir Roderick Murchison, then President of the Geo- graphical Society. In the latter part of the summer Torell visited Norway, making observations on its 48 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. o-laciers, until tlie return to Tromso and Hammerfest of the Spitzbergen walrus-liunters, from whom he obtained information and assistance in making preparations for his projected expedition. During the winter Torell submitted his plan to the Sw^edish Academy of Sciences. It embraced two objects — a comprehensive survey of the geology and natural history of Spitzbergen and its coasts, and a geographical excursion still farther to the north and north-east. The latter was to be carried out by him- self, Nordenskiold, Petersen, and a number of picked men with boat-sledges and dogs, with a view to settle the question whether in the neighbourhood of the Pole there is really an open sea or not. During the absence of the party the attention of the other members of the expedition was to be taken up with geological, zoological, meteorological, and magnetic work. Observations on the tides, on marine currents and on optical phenomena were included in the plan. Preliminary surveys were also to be undertaken to determine as to the possi- bility of measuring an arc of meridian on Spitz- bergen, an undertaking that had been proposed l^y Captain (now Sir Edward) Sabine, more than thirty years before. The Academy expressed its warmest approval and made a representation to the Government, the result of which was the increased o-rant to which we o have already referred. Torell was in treaty for chartering the steamer Fox, in which McClintock had made his famous Arctic voyage, but did not succeed, so that he was obliged to be content with the j^olus and Magdalena, two small vessels, the former of about ninety- two, and the latter II.] START OF THE 1861 EXPEDITION. 49 of about eighty-two tons, the ordinary size of the craft that sail from the north of Norway to Spitzbergen, and also the handiest, because they can the more easily jjush through openings in the ice into the fjords, or between the many small islands by which Spitzbergen is surrounded. On board the jEolus, wdiich was under the command of Lieutenant Lilliehook, were Torell, the chief of the expedition ; Nordenskiold, who shared the command with him, carried out the geological sur- veys and took solar observations ; Malmgreu, zoolo- gist and botanist ; Chydenius, physicist ; and Petersen, guide. On the sloop Magdalena, under the command of Captain Kuylenstjerna, were Blomstraud, geologist and leader of the scientific work ; Duner, astronomer and physicist ; Goes and Smitt, zoologist and botanist, the former also physician to the expedition ; and von Ylen, hunter and artist. An old seaman, Anders Jakobsson, who had accompanied Torell in his visits to Iceland, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, was also attached to the expedition as assistant to the zoolo- gists. Though seventy years of age, he was still very active and much interested in it. The expedition was ready to start from Tromsoe on the 15th April, 1861, but its departure was delayed by northerly winds, accompanied by fogs and falls of snow, nntil the 7th May, when the two vessels were towed through Tromsoe Sound by the Norwegian mail steamer Aegir. After a short involuntary delay off Carlsoe the ^olus and the Magdalena put to sea. On the morning of the 10th May the voyagers lost sight of land, and by the evening of the same day they had fallen in with the first fulmar petrel {Procellaria E 5(1 NOKDENSKIOLD'« ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. (jlacialis), wliicli they looked upon as a licrald from the polar, regions. Tins bird has its home in the high north, on the Fiiro Islands, the rocky islands of Iceland, Green- land, Arctic America, Kamschatka, and Novaya Zemlya. It breeds among the highest fells in colonies of many thousand pairs, and every pair has but one egg, which is very large, and is laid in the beginning of May, PROCELLAIUA GLACIAI.IS. exceptionally in June. The fostering of the young is not finished before the middle of September. Together with the burgomaster {Lams glaucus) and the " tjufjo " {Lestris parasitica), it is the most dangerous enemy of the other birds, plundering their nests of eggs and young. The bird and the place which it inhabits have a suffocating carrionlike smell, and when taken living, it squirts from its bill a trainlike liquid of evil odour on any one that incautiously attempts to lay hands on it. " Obscenae pelagi voluci'es, foedissima ventris Proluvies, imcKque manus, et pallida sempar Ora fame." II.] DEEP DREDGING IN THE ARCTIC SEAS. 51 On the 12tli May Bear Island was sighted for the first time, and the vessels began to be surrounded continually by a great number of auks. Bear Island lies to the east of the Gulf Stream, and beyond its influence. Its climate is, in consequence, much more severe than might be supposed from its position. It is often concealed by fogs and swept by storms, and landing on it is always difiicult and dangerous. Two attempts were made on this occa- sion, but both of them were frustrated by the drift-ice that lay close packed along the shore. Leaving Bear Island on the 13 th the vessels fell in with whales ("finners") for the first time, and on the 16th they were visited by snow-buntings {Einberiza nivalis) on their way to the north ; they settled on the rigging and decks of the vessels; among them were young a year old. They appeared to be very tired, and w^ere not in the least shy. After a short rest they resumed their labo- rious flight. On the 17th and 18 th May, the wind being light and the sea calm, deep dredgings were carried on. On the first day a " Bulldog " machine took bottom at a depth of 1,000 fathoms, but did not work properly. A Brooke's apparatus, however, brought up some clay with Polythalamia from a depth of 1,320 fathoms. On the second day the " Bulldog " machine was successfully used. It brought up from a depth of 1,050 fathoms five diff'erent layers of clay containing animals, among others Annelids, and Holothuria, of which classes no species had been found at so great a depth. The delight of the naturalists at this Jind was naturally great. On the 18th the vessels were in 75° 45^ N. lat., and 12° 31' E. long. Since the 15th "finners" had been often visible, the sea had a beautiful azure blue colour, 8068 E 2 52 NOKDENSKIOLD'S ALKJilU VOYAGES. [chap. and its temperature varied between 2"5'' and 3*8° 0. Now the " finners " disappeared, the temperature fell to between 0° and I'S" C, and the sea assumed a dirty green colour, arising in great part from a number of microscopical, slimy, il] -smelling alga3 belonging to the families Diatomacece and Desmidiece. The boundary of the Gulf Stream, with its well-known blue colour, had. been passed. " Finners " were not seen again until the return of the expedition in September in 78° N. lat. The temperature of the water was then about 3 •8° C. It is probable that " finners " never live in colder water than this, and that the northern limit of their distri- bution coincides with sea of this temperature. It has to be kept in view, however, that this boundary line lies several degrees farther to the north in summer than in winter. After fallino; in amono; snow -covered drift-ice with a great number of rotges {Merguliis alle) and black guillemots {Uria gryJle) and shooting a few of them, the expedition came in sight of Spitzbergen on the 21st. Early in the morning the mountain-tops round Bell Sound and Ice Fjord were recognised from the sloop, and at 9 o'clock Prince Charles's Foreland was visible from both vessels. The land strongly resembled Norway as it had been left in its winter dress, only the pre- cipitous sea-faces of the glaciers w^ith their beautiful greenish-blue colour, indicated a much colder climate. On the 21st the vessels sailed along the Foreland and passed King's Bay and Cross Bay, and the glacier fifteen miles wide, which being here and there divided by elevated rocky ridges, is called " The Seven Icebergs." On the 22nd they passed Magdalena Hook, Danes' I.] LAND TO THE NORTHWARD. 53 Island, and Amsterdam Island, but falling in with pack- ice, which lay between the mainland, the Norways, and Cloven Cliff, and extended north and north-west as far as the eye could see, they returned and anchored off Amsterdam Island. A boat party was immediately sent off to ascertain the state of the ice. Finding it impos- sible to make w^ay in a north-easterly direction, they turned to the north-^Yest and rowed to a vessel that had been driving before a gentle breath of wind. Its skipper, the experienced Quane Mattilas, w^hom we shall often encounter in the course of this narrative, informed the Swedes that a belt of ice to the northward, visible from his " crows' nest," completely blocked the way. They accordingly returned to the vessels. During the whole voyage no birds had been seen but auks and black guillemots, on their way northwards in immense flocks to revisit their old breeding-places. The same night, however (23rd May), great numbers of barnacle geese (Anser hernicla) were seen flying towards the north-east, perhaps to some land more northerly than Spitzbergen. The existence of such a land is con- sidered quite certain by the walrus-hunters, who state that at the most northerly point hitherto reached such flocks of birds are seen steering their course in rapid flight yet farther towards the north. " We were occupied as best we might with the exami- nation of this hypothesis, the clearing up of which is reserved for futurity," says Chydenius, *' when we were interrupted by an adventure which ought not to be left untold, as it had for us the charm of novelty. Two of the crew were harpooners, and among the best walrus- hunters existing. The guns lay ready for use loaded 54 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. with pointed bullets, the polislicd lances and the care- fully coiled lines were in their places, and the harpoons hung in the fore where the harpooners sat, and, like the no less skilful steersman, eagerly looked for game." " Hitherto none had been visible, but now the steers- man said that he saw walruses in a direction which he pointed out with his hand. In this direction two small black specks were visible, which an unaccustomed eye would never have discovered at such an immense dis- tance, and it certainly could not have traced in them the least resemblance to animals. The hunters, however, stated that they were two walruses sleeping on a piece of ice ; and we rowed for a little with a view to ascertain how far in among the drift-ice the animals lay. A short consultation was held about the C[uickest and easiest w^ay of getting at them ; we resolved on going by an open channel in the ice, which extended to a fjoint which was about 200 feet from being; within rauQ-e of shot. At first the animals had the appearance of two yellowish- brown shapeless lumps. Suddenly two walruses, quite close to the boat, raised their heads above the water, wdth a pair of long white tusks projecting from each of their mouths. They lifted a part of their round bodies out of the water, looked at the boat and ducked hastily under, head foremost. After some moments they again came up, but it was thought best not to follow them for fear of frightening the others that were the first objects of pursuit. In the meantime we had come so near the latter that the harpooner stopped rowing, fixed the line to the harpoon and stuck it on its shaft. He now stood in the fore and made a sign with his hand which way the boat should be steered. Few words, ir.] A WALRUS HUNT. 55 only the most necessary, were spoken, quite silently the eight muffled oars passed through the water, and silently but speedily the boat glided over its surface. The animals did not move. Finally the boat got behind an immense block of ice, against which the sea broke furi- ously, and thus prevented the noise of the motion of the boat among the ice from being heard. The breakers, however, had to be avoided, and the boat came again in sight of the walruses. It was not long before they began to move, and one of them raised its head. That instant the boat stood still, all bent down as well as they could, and soon it was whispered 'They are lying quiet.' The harpooner placed himself with his weapon ready for a throw and a gun close beside him. A few fathoms more and they w^ere within reach, when the animals lifted up their heads, regarding us with unconcern, and raising the anterior part of the body, the thick hide on the neck lying in great folds. ' They will dive ! Shoot ! I this — you that — close behind the ear." The boat stood still, the harpoon whistled through the air^ and two shots were heard. Both walruses sank down on the ice, one motionless — the steersman's bullet had hit home — the other showinpr sig^ns of life. Duner handed his gun to the steersman. Again a report, and a stream of blood from the neck where the shot had taken effect. The animal raised itself up half its length. ' Shoot ; I cannot reach the gun,' cried Uusimaa, a skilful Quane harpooner. I fired, the beast sank clown, and a new stream of blood from the breast gave hope that it had got enough, but already part of its body was beyond the edge of the ice, and it sank and disappeared." "The boat was now pushed forward to the orlw' of thp 56 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap, low piece of ice, on wliicli we all sprang up. The re- maining walrus, a beast of ten feet in length, was stripped of its skin and a three-inch thick layer of blubber and deprived of its head with the ivory-like teeth eighteen inches long. This time the gun and not the harpoon had done the work. The ball had hit the right place behind the ear, the only place where it causes imme- diate death, for if it strikes any other part of the head it is flattened against the incredibly solid bone or passes through a part of the brain, the 2)enetration of which is not at once fatal. If it enters any other part of the body it remains harmlessly in the thick layer of blubber - — walruses are often found with balls in the blubber — or it does not cause death until the animal has reached the water, as was now the case. If a swimming walrus receives a mortal wound it sinks immediately, and there- fore the gun ought oidy to be employed to confuse it till it can be reached by the harpoon, for it and the lance are always the main weapons in this kind of hunt- ins:. We had scarce cast loose our boat when an im- mense number of gulls, that had gathered in the neigh- bourhood immediately after the death of the walrus, aligfhted in order to feast on the remains. Now, as always, the glaucous gull [Larus glaucus), which of old Martens, for its stately bearing, obtained the name of * Burgomaster,' was the most active and least shy among these guests; after it the pretty snow-white ivory gull {Larus ehnnieus), Marten's ' Councillor ' ; a kittiwake {Larus tridactylus) and a fulmar petrel or two bore them company." " When a man approaches a walrus he must, especi- ally if it is lying upon ice, make as little noise as II.] SEAL HUKTJNG. 57 possible not to frigliten it with the seal, except it be is very easily frightened, among drift ice it may be boat by whistling or other times during the voyage, water, evidently listening ; but this is not necessary close to its hole, for then it If it be in open water or enticed to come nearer the noise, as we observed several It held its head far above to the sound, went under LAEUS EBTJENEUS. wa,ter and came up in another direction. A shot frightened it only for a short time." The naturalists of the expedition employed themselves in dredging, familiarising themselves with the extra- ordinary richness of the Arctic waters in marine life, in botanisiug and geologising on Amsterdam Island, which consists of fine-grained grey granite, passing into gneiss-granite and mica-schist. The ground was still covered with snow to a depth of eight to ten feet, but on iho prof'i])it(ins moiintain sides where no snow fould 58 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap, lie there were found growing Cetraria nivalis, cucul- lata, islandica, and the black Umhilicaria arctica, the high-northern *' need-bread," on which many polar travellers have maintained life, and other lichens. On the ledges and in fissures brownish-green carpets were formed of Salix jyolaris and mosses, among which the most common were PtiUdium ciliare, Dicraiium scojjar- ium, Rhacomitrium lanuginosiim, Gymnomitrium con- cwnaUim, Hypnum cupressiforine, Polytricha, &c. Here and there stuck up Cerastium alpinwn and Cochlearia, the scurvy grass from the former year, nearly as green as in summer. After anchoring in Kobbe Bay and remaining there some days, Torell, seeing large masses of ice go drifting past before a northerly wind, determined to attempt to force a passage north of Spitzbergen. The vessels accordingly sailed on the 30th of May, but on reaching the latitude of Cloven Cliff pack-ice was found stretching to the north and north-east as far as the eye could reach. On the 31st the thermometer stood at — 6*5° C. After several days' hard work among the ice and an unsuccessful attempt to reach Brandy wine Bay, the u^olus and Magdalena came to anchor in Treurenberg Bay on the 7th June. The Swedes considered them- selves fortunate in having reached, at so early a period of the year, a harbour so far north, from which they could at the first opportunity reach the coast of North- east Land, which was still blocked up with pack and bay ice. It was from this point that Parry started on his famous polar expedition. During his absence from the 21st of June to the 22nd of August, 1827, his officers carried on extensive researches in the neighbour- PAERY'S EXPEDITION. 59 hood, which thus became one of the best known on Spitz- bergen. Near the bay there was a burying-place with about thirty stone mounds, probably dating from the time when the Dutch and other nations were drawn in thousands to Spitzbergen by the attractions of the whale GRATE ON SPIT2BEEGEX. fishery. A Dutch inscription, dated 1730, was found by the Swedes, and Parry found another dated 1690. The Swedes paid a visit to Hecla Cove, Parry's har- bour, protected from the north by Cape Crozier with its hill of quartzite. It was on this point that Parry and his lieutenant, Crozier, carried on their magnetic and as- tronomical observations, and on this height they erected a flagstaff with a copper -plate bearing an inscription to preserve the memory of their visit. Here was found a flagstaff, which, however, was only the highest portion of Parry's flagstaff, and the copper plate was cut away so that only a few small pieces remained under the heads 60 NOEDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES, [chap of tlie nails with wliich it had been fastened. Hecla Mount, about 1,720 feet high, was ascended, and from its top an extensive view was obtained of Nortli-east Land, which is very flat along the coast with rounded hills of inconsiderable height. In the interior it is covered with a continuous snow-plain of about the same or somewhat greater height above the sea than the top of Hecla Mount, and to the south of Niew Vriesland, the interior of which is also occupied by a similar unbroken snow-plateau. In the neighbourhood large masses of hyperite were found ; and to the iron which this eruptive rock contains the Swedes attributed certain irregulari- ties which appeared in the magnetic observations. In- teresting as was the discovery of this rock on the other side of the bay to the geologists, it was not so to the physicists, who found that all their magnetic observa- tions were aff"ected by its presence. Scarcely had the Swedes anchored in Treurenberg Bay than they found themselves shut in along with four other vessels that had accompanied them, and were engaged in walrus hunting. An attempt to force the ice on the 12th of June was frustrated by a calm, and on the following day the bay was filled with pack ice. Midsummer eve found the expedition still imprisoned in Treurenberg Bay, but the great Scandinavian festival was duly celebrated. The sun shone in a beautiful blue sky, but he had not been able to bring forth from the reluctant earth leaves and flowers for a garland, much less for the indispensable midsummer pole. What the land could not furnish the sea supplied. There grew luxuriant forests of seaweed, brown Laminaria, with leaves four feet in length, and stalks nearly as H.J MIDSUMMEll EVE. 61 long. With tliese a liigh pole was decked, which was raised on jEoIus' Mount, and ornamented with all the flags and standards that were available. Alongside of the pole was kindled an immense drift-wood fire, and round them were assembled the members of the expedi- tion and the crews of the imprisoned vessels, among magdalexa" in ice hakbjue. (midscmmer eat.) whom were representatives of the four northern j^eoples — Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Finns : the Lapp even not being wanting. The burning pile, the mid- summer pole, the cross of ^olus, the variegated assem- blage lighted up by the flame, the mount with the graves, the pack ice stretching as far as the eye could reach, over wliich tlie midnioht sun in the cloudless 62 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. firmament right to the north beamed mihl and hopeful — all formed a picture which, says Chydenius, " by its contrasts made an indelible impression on us all. The gayest sport and the most serious earnest contended for the mastery ; the former won, for seldom have glasses clinked more cheerfully than by the graves in Sorge Bay." During the weeks that elapsed from the imprisonment of the vessels till their release the zoologists carried on "iEOLUS" IN TREUEEXBEKG BAT. dredgings, the other members of the expedition being employed in copying charts, with a view to future ex- cursions, and in calculating observations. On board the Mollis meteorological observations were taken hourly : and measurements were made of the tides. II.] A 8PITZBERGEN SPRING. 63 At length the ice broke up, and on the 2nd of July the ships got out to sea accompanied by the Jaeu Mayen, a fishing vessel that had been imprisoned along with them. June is the spring month of Spitzbergen. The sun rose higher and higher above the horizon, and his rays were by no means powerless. The snow first became soft and water-drenched, and disappeared in spots from the ground. On the 1 1 tli June Cochlearia fenestrata, and the polar willow began to open their buds ; on the 22nd June the first expanded fiowers of Saxifraga oiyposit'ifoUa were gathered, a sign that the midsummer sun had at length won a victory over the northern winter, and on the 26th there were in flower Draha alpina, Cochlearia, Cardamine hellidifolia, and Saxi- fraga cernua, and here and there Oxijria, and the willow, and in the beginning of July Cerastium aJpinum. Small Podurce hopped about in a lively way among the snow. By the 7th June there were seen on Hecla Mount, more than 1,500 feet above the sea, a number of gnats, and on the 21st there were captured near .^olus' cross Diptera, which, however, were unable to raise their wings to a higher flight than a foot or two from the ground. Small spiders and a kind of worm, like our dew- worm, living in the already thawed ground, were found here and there. During nearly the whole stay of the expedition in Treurenberg Bay the thermometer was above the freezing point, and after the 22nd June it did not sink below it, while it once rose as high as IS"" C. {QQ° F.) in the sun. The mean temperature of the month of June, including the cold days in the beginning, when the vessels were 64 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. cruising off Red Bay, was, according to 305 observations made an the jEoIus, 1*7° C. (35° F.). The temperature of tlie water, filled as it was with colossal ice masses, also underwent a remarkable rise. Durino; the first week it had kept under the freezing point, and even fallen to — 1*5°C., but afterwards it rose as far as to + 2"6° C, while the ice fioating in it visibly melted, and thus took up heat from the water. This rise, which, of course, cannot be ascribed to the immediate action of the sun, was specially perceptible at those times of the day when the tide set in from the sea. By the end of the month the border of the fast ice was a little south of the position which it occupied on Parry's arrival, as stated by him. Snow, and on one occasion rain, fell in abundance during the first part of June, but none during the remainder. Towards the end of the month the fogs, that before had been rather troublesome, also dis- appeared. With the beginning of July summer set in with a surprising rapidity of which the inhabitants of more southerly regions can form no idea. The temperature now occasionally rose to 11'' C. (52° F.) in the shade ; the strong light was troublesome to the eyes, and the heat oppressive, when any hard work had to be done in the sun. The ice-foot, undermined by the waves, broke asunder and tumbled down, the bare patches on the fell sides, and on the level low land hourly extended themselves, and where skating had been going on shortly before rapid torrents cut deeply into the loose gravel of the terraces and slopes. " The promontory where we lay/' says Chydenius, II.] A NEW ATTEMPT TO EEACH THE NORTH POLE. 65 " raises itself terrace-wise in gentle slopes towards Hecla Mount, and the ground, deprived of its winter covering, resembled witli its loose surface of gravel and fragments of mica, liyperite, and limestone, a fallows-field sparsely overgrown wdtli Saxifrages, Drahce, Cardamine hellidifolia and Cerastium alpinum, the plebeians of the Arctic flora, now in their best flow^er. The freshwater pools were visited by small flocks of Tringa maritima in search of larvae, and here and there the beautiful Phalaropus was seen to pluck the alga Nostoc commune^ ■which is plentiful in these waters, but not yet developed. An eider or two had built here their artless nest, and had newly laid their eggs. Along the beach, and mostly near the mouths of the streams, large flocks of Larus tridactylus, which in company with fulmar petrels and terns, restless and noisy, luxuriated on Litnacince, Crus- tacea which are found in immense numbers at this season on the coast of Spitzbergen, and in the interior of the fjords where they in spring have their favourite habitat at the mouths of the glacier streams near the surface of the w^ater. The terns swarmed around in the air, and darted in swift flight down on their prey, while the fulmar petrels swam about and caught their food with little exertion." Torell proposed to repeat Parry's attempt to reach the North Pole by a sledge journey over the ice. He pointed out that though Parry concluded his account of his expedition in 1827 with the declaration that such a plan could not be carried out, yet in 1845, after many years of ripe consideration and new experience, he stated it as hia belief that if a sledge expedition could start from Spitz- bergen as early as the month of April it might be able 66 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. to reacli the pole and avoid the three main difficulties he had to contend Avith, namely the uneven nature of the ice, the softness of the snow, and the current which carried the ice towards the south. The ice would then, Parry thought, show a hard and unbroken surface. It would probably lie motionless and reindeer might be employed. The forming of depots and the sending out of returning parties were also proposed. Thus the only man who had made the attempt, but failed and declared it hopeless, came in the end after many years' considera- tion to hold the view that such a journey was possible. Admiral Wrangel was of the same opinion. He twice travelled with dog-sledges far to the north of Siberia. Torell had hoped to reach north Spitzbergen by the beginning or middle of May, as he had been informed that the walrus-hunters were sometimes at North East Land by the end of April. His plan was that Norden- skiold, Petersen, and he, with two men and three teams of the best dogs should start for the north, accompanied at first by tAvo reserve parties, one to return after four or five days and the other after nine or ten daj'S. He reckoned that without the help of depots or reserve parties five men could be out between forty and fifty days and with the help of reserve parties nine or ten days longer. He had devoted himself for a long time to the working out of the plan and to the perfecting of all the details. It had now to be abandoned because in the first place the continuance of northerly winds delayed too long the departure from Tromsoe, and in the second place during the long imprisonment in Treurenberg Bay the ice was found to be quite unsuitable for a sledge journey, and finally when the vessels could leave the A BOAT VOYAGE. 67 bay the .season was so far advanced and the ice to a yet greater extent so broken up that such a journey coukl not be thought of. Even if smoother ice might possibly have been reached after a week's work no very high latitude could have been attained. There was there- fore no alternative but most reluctantly to abandon the plan of the sledge journey northwards. It was then resolved, as indeed had been agreed upon beforehand in GROUP OF POLAR BEARS IN MURCHISaN BAY. case the first plan could not be carried out, that Torell, Nordenskiold, and Petersen should undertake a boat voyage through Hinloopen Strait, while Chydenius went northwards to carry out the preliminary survey for the measurement of an arc of meridian. The boat party started on the loth July, passing the mouth of Murchison Bay, landing first on a little island F 2 68 NORDENSKIOLD'S AKCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. ^Yllere Russian sailors had raised a fine cross with numerous inscriptions, and then on what on old majys was called North East Island but which turned out to be a projecting part of North East Land. The rock here was found to be an nnfossiliferous limestone, the strata of which were very much twisted, having been exposed to the action of the eruptive hyperite which traversed them at several places. They then proceeded down the Strait, Petersen's rifle keeping the cook well supplied with fresh rein- deer l)eef, at least after Cape Fanshawe was passed, walrus-hunting also being prosecuted occasionally. On the 13th July they ascended one of Foster's Islands. Here high mountains with steep sides bound both sides of Hinloopen Strait. At several places there are immense glaciers, one about seven miles broad and standing out into the sea with its perpen- dicular wall. Enormous flocks of auks sousfht their food amono- the ica Numbers of walruses were to be seen in the sound. The splendid illumination of the sun, which at this season does not set, and the abundance of animal life, gave the whole landscape a stamp of strangeness and grandeur which made a deep imj^ression on the spectator. South of Wahlenberg's Bay a bed containing Permian fossils in great abundance was met with. These were the first fossils found on North Spitzbergen. As the party proceeded towards South Waygat's Islands a fog came on and they found it diflicult enough to make their way with the aid of the compass among the pieces of diift-ice. Innumerable walruses tumbled about in the water, or lay crowded together on the low pieces of ice that were everywhere II.] A CROWD IN THE SEA. 69 floating about. A piece of ice was often packed so full of them that not only the ice itself but part of the bodies of the walruses were sunk under water, while others swam round and, when there was no vacant place, endeavoured by strokes of their great teeth to drive away their comrades already in possession. Once when the boat in the fog came quite close to such a low piece of ice, on which thirty or forty walruses lay close together without troubling themselves about its approach, one of the men gave a sudden cry. The walruses threw themselves immediately into the sea in great disorder and with much noise, but came im- mediately up again behind a neighbouring piece of ice, appeared very curious, and tramped the water, so that a third part of the body was raised out of the sea. With their great bodies and long teeth they were a very peculiar sjoectacle. After visiting Wahlenberg's Island where some young of the Arctic fox, Canis lagopus, were seen, the Swedes rowed amid innumerable walruses to a mountain on the south-west side of North East Land, to which as it was rich in fossils they gave the name of Angelin's Mount. During the row they harpooned a wabus, and as they were towed along by it, they were surrounded by over fifty of its companions which gathered from all quarters and swam in a half circle after the boat within shot. Even Petersen, though so familiar with the animal world of the north, was at first somewhat taken aback at this, and gave orders that all guns should be loaded. The animals, however, were moved by curiosity not revenge. They followed peaceably for a considerable distance, often raising their clumsy heads as far as possible out of the 70 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [( iiai-. water the better to view the proceedings. Even when the dead walrus was drawn up on a piece of ice to be flensed, its comrades looked on, pLashing among tlie ice that was floating about, till the blood, mixing with the water, drove them away. After collecting a large quantity of fossils at Angelin's Mount the party rowed along the shore to another mountain, 2,000 feet high, which strongly resembled it. This they named Loven's Mount. Its upper part con- sists of hyperite and with its flat, steep, and black sides strongly resembles a roof. Underlying the hyperite are horizontal lime- and sand-stone strata with nearly per- pendicular faces towards the sound, giving the whole mountain the appearance of a regular colossal building. Another rich collection of fossils was made here. The party then proceeded down the Strait, but after two hours' rowing they were met by fast ice and obliged to turn. They then rowed along the west side of the sound, taking an hour to pass a broad glacier. After it they came to another which lay like a stratum of rock on a perpendicular clifi:' of hyperite, and accordingly tumbled with its ice over the rocks into the sea. The hyperite was found to be beautifully polished and marked, and here, as at several other places, were found many signs that the ice in former times had occupied a larger area on Spitzbergen. On reaching Dym Point, a number of eider-nests were found containing some fresh eggs, which afforded a welcome means of varying the auk soup which for some time had formed the standing dish. Between Dym Point and Cape Fanshawe the Swedes passed the greatest auk-fell they had hitherto seen. "Black clifi"s, 800 to 1,000 feet high here, for a II.] AN ARCTIC GLACIER. 71 stretch of about a mile and a half, rise perpendicularly out of the sea, inhabited by millions of auks which sit close packed together in all the clefts and crevices, and we were witnesses of the literal truth of the well-known statement that the air is darkened by the number of fowl flying out of such a fell when a gun is fired, with- out it being possible to distinguish any diminution in consequence in the number of those which sit still so quietly that some, which had made their nests, could be reached from the boat and taken with the hand. Where we rowed forward there were besides great flocks upon and between the ice seeking their food." Here also was found, risinof from the sea to a height of 1,000 feet, a perpendicular wall of hyperite, everywhere split vertically into basalt-like, upright, four- or eight-sided columns, standing free or only connected with the main rock by a small corner, and sometimes crowned capital- wise by a stratum of greyish- white limestone. After passing Cape Fanshawe the party next entered Lomme Bay, on the west side of which they found the largest glacier they had yet seen on Spitzbergen. It is about ten miles wide, and projects into the sound with a curved front. The stratification of the ice is horizontal. After rowing nearly seven miles into the bay, a small sandy beach was met with, on which 'they drew up their l)oat. Near this, a little farther up tiie bay, were found some grassy terrace-like slopes. Here Petersen landed and in a, short time killed three reindeer, which the Swedes could hardly believe to be the same species of animals as those they had shot at Treurenberg Bay scarcely four weeks before. Then 72 NOEDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. tliey were so lean, as if they bad consisted entirely of skin, bone and sinew ; tbese, on tlie contrary, migbt bavc competed as fat stock at an English cattle show, for the largest rein had a layer of fat four to five inches thick on the loin. After visiting an island in the sound where a walrus-skin had been left, the party sailed with a favoural)le wind to Depot Island in Murchison Bay. The yEoliLS had sailed, but Lilliehook had left according to agreement a writing in a cairn, which they found. Lightening the boat of a sackful of fossils and other superfluous articles, they proceeded without resting to Shoal Point. The beach here is everywhere covered with an enormous mass of driftwood anion 2^ which are found pieces of pumice-stone, birch-bark, cork, poles and floats from the Lofodden fisheries, with other things which had been carried hither by currents from the south. The driftwood formed a broad line along the beach. Farther up was another line, where the water now scarcely comes even during spring tides, probably elevated by a raising of the land. In this line the driftwood was far older and undergoing decomposition. While Torell was examinino; all this, he found amonsf other things a well-preserved bean of the West Indian plant Entada gigalohium. This bean, which is upwards of an inch and a half across, floats w^ith the Gulf Stream through the Atlantic, is found not unfrequently on the coast of Norway, and being also found on North Spitzbergen, afibrds the most convincing evidence that the Gulf Stream reaches this hiofh latitude.^ Followino- o o ^ De Candolle states that one of these beans was fonnd undei- the roots of the oldest chestnut tree in Paris, and that on being planted it germinated and grew. There is another bean of the san:e kind II.] A WEST INDIAN BEAN. 73 the jEolus, tlie boat party arrived on tlie 21st July at the north side of Low Island and there fell in with Mattilas and his sloop. He informed them that Lillie- hook had sailed the night before for the Strait, and that BEAN OF ENTADA GIGALOBIUM. (nATUEAL SIZE.) from the top of the mast of his sloop he could see with his glass Chydenius' boat at the border of the fast ice that yet covered Brandywine Bay. After a rest the in the Riks-Museum in Stockholm, which was found at Tjcern, in Bohus Laen, in a peat moss thirty feet above the .'■ea level. 7 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. party determined to join Cliydenius, and hearing from him that Lilliehook intended to return soon they waited his return between Bird and Brandywinc Bay. Ascend- ing a high mountain, they came, at a height of about 1,500 feet, to a phateau ahiiost free of snow and bounded on the north by Bird Bay, towards which the rocks rise perpendicuhuiy. From this phiteau the mountain top raised itself, covered with snow, or rather loose fine- grained ice. From its highest poiat thcrc was a splendid and uncommonly extensive view in all directions which the glorious weather with which they were favoured enabled the Swedes thoroughly to enjoy. In the north the horizon was bounded by an endless ice-field, in which from this height no opening could be distinguished, and whose uniformity was broken only at some few places by the groups of islands lying north of North East Land, the Seven Islands, Walden Island, Great and Little Table Island, and the land marked on Parry's map "Distant High Land." Towards the east the view was bounded by the high desolate snow plain which occupies the whole of the interior of North East Land. In the west, notwithstanding the great distance, it was possible clearly to distinguish the contours of the mountain tops around the Norways and Cloven Cliff. In the south-west Grey Hook and Hecla Mount were visible, and to the south of the latter two isolated, very high, pointed, snow-covered summits, which were believed to be situated on the north shore of Stor Fjord. On the 23rd July the boat party rejoined their vessel which had again anchored otl" Low Island and found all well. Cliydenius in the meantime had been at work in the neighbourhood of Low Island, and with the help of II.] ^ ONE OF PARRY'S DEPOTS. 75 Parry's map had come to a clear understanding as to liow the triano-iilatiou slioiild be arranged as far sontli as the mouth of Hinloopen Strait, and the jEoIus had revisited Treurenberg Bay and there fallen in with Mattilas, who, under a heap of driftwood, had just dis- covered one of Parry's depots, containing a gun, now useless, an ammunition chest of wood, lined with lead, cartridges and loose powder, all in good preservation, and eleven hermetically sealed tins. In one of the latter, on its being opened, was found roast meat, im- bedded in jelly and fat, that tasted as well as if it had been placed there the day before. On the well-made ammunition chest the word Heola could be clearly dis- tinguished, and the wood, like all wood on Spitzbergen, w^as scarcely in the smallest degree affected by the air. Torell and Nordenskiold, on the 26"th Jidy, started again with their old crew from Low Island to examine the hitherto unexplored coast of North East Land. The JEolus was to visit Depot Island, and then lie at suitable anchorages between Foster's and South Waygat's Islands till the 24th August, afterwards in Lomme Bay, then in order at the Eussian Islands, mouth of Wijdc Bay, Eed Bay, the Norway s, and Kobbe Bay, and if the boat party did not turn up it was not to run the risk of an involun- tary wintering, but to go by degrees to the more southerly harbours of Spitzbergen, and thence to Norway. Torell and Nordenskiold were accompanied as far as Brandy- wine Bay by Lilliehook, Malmgren and Chydenius, the whole party nuinl)ering sixteen men in four boats. At Brandywine Bay, one of the boats, made of galvanised iron, was drawn up on the beach, and a depot formed. On a steep ridgi' wJiidi starts From the neighbourhood 76 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. of this point Malmgrcn made a rich collection of pLants. On the lower slopes there is a moist and soft carpet of the liveliest green, for the most part composed of mosses, Aulacomnium turgidmn and TLjpnum uncinatum, spread as a thick covering over a black layer of peat a foot thick. On this damp soil there flourished in large SAXIFKAGA FLAGELLAKIS. numbers several species of grass : Alopecurus alpimis^ Dupontia Fisheri, Poa cenisia ; and among other plants the little Ranunculus hyperhoreus distinguished itself; Oxyria reniformis, a foot high, and large-leaved scurvy grass. Cochlearia fenestrata shot up in astonishing luxuriance at the less marshy places, mixed with the stately Ranunculus sulphureus, whose golden-yellow II.] ARCTIC PLANT LIFE. 77 flowers came up to the wanderer's knees. Not to name other favourites of the Arctic soil, Saxifrages, Cerastium alpinum, Potentilla emarginata here had the fowl-fell as their home and formed a strong contrast to the stunted specimens found on the gravel wastes. Nor were the driest places without occupants ; yellow Drahoo and poppies, with Saxifrages, Cardamine hellidifolia, the dwarf willow and Dryas, alternating with reddish patches of the hitherto unknown grass Catahrosa vil- foidea, were strewn like bouquets over the greyish brown ground. Among mosses the American Pottia liyperhorea distinguished itself, and among lichens the Usnea melaxantlia, which occurs in North and South America, in the latter along the Cordilleras, and which like many other j)lants is peculiar to East Spitzbergen, being absent on the west coast ; so diflerent are the natural produc- tions of the two coasts separated only by a comparatively small extent of high land. Nor were the steep fell slopes without some, though scanty, vegetation. Torell brought down from a height of 1,500 feet several speci- mens of Ltizula hyperhorea, SteUaria Edwardsi, and Fapaver nudicaide. The locality, however, was favour- able, the slope was to the south, and sea-fowl in millions breed there. Starting from Brandy wine Bay Torell and Nordenskiold rested first at North Cape, the northernmost point of North East Land, resuming their journey on the afternoon of the 28th July, but not proceeding farther than a small island, one of two lying to the south-east of North Cape, which they named Castrens Islands. From the top of the larger island, about 1,000 feet high, an excellent view was obtained of the sea 78 NOKDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [oiiAr. between the Seven Islands and tlie mainland. The ice, which was thought to have Ijeen dispersed, was found to have collected anew, so that there appeared to be little hope of being able to force a passage through it. This, however, turned out to be practicable, and the party landed on the southern point of Parry's Island. Parry's Island is almost entirely occupied by two mountains, about 1,500 feet high, separated by a low valley. The rock is gneiss, traversed by veins of granite, in which there are to be found here and there crystals of toin*- maline. AltliouQ;li the o'eoloo;ical formation is thus the same as on North West Spitzbergen, and the difference in north latitude does not amount to a degree, the difference both in animal and vegetable life is very striking. It is probable that a cold ocean-current from the east is the cause of this state of things. In the valley the vegeta- tion is extremely poor ; even on the fell sides manured with birds' dung it is very scanty, consisting only of some few phanerogamous plants, among which are the yellow poppy of Spitzbergen, and stunted lichens. Here and there however there was a little green, and at one place there pastured three large and fat reins which were shot. Traces of foxes were visible in the sand. Up to this time the weather had been fine with few exceptions. It now changed and became rainy and foggy. Bad weather compelled the Swedes to remain on Parry's Island during the 31st of July. The following day it was only with difficulty they could make their way through the mist and the closely packed ice to Marten's Island, the most easterly of the Seven Islands. They ascended the highest summit on Marten's Island, but could see nothino- for the thick showers of snow that were II.] CHANGES OF ELEVATION OF LAND. 79 falling. The stones at the top were covered with a loosely-sitting shining cake of ice, clearly newly formed I)y the condensation of watery vapour. This cake, which was several lines in thickness, loosened at the least motion and fell down, splitting asunder with great noise into a thousand pieces. No snow- field could be discovered at a Jieight of 800 to 1,000 feet. On this island a reindeer was shot by Petersen. While hunt- ing it he discovered the nest of a beautiful little wader, Charadrius hiaticula, which was here seen for the first time by the Swedes on Spitzbergen. On August 5th they visited Phipps Island, which con- sists of several isolated mountains about 1,800 feet high, connected by a low land covered wdth driftwood and fragments of ships. Among the driftwood, there were as at Shoal Point many pieces of birch-bark, pumice- stone, and fishing-floats, often marked with Roman characters, &c. Remains of whale skeletons were found lying high above the present level of the sea, both on the low promontory on Marten's Island, and on the beach of the bay on the east side of Parry Island. All this indicates a considerable elevation of the land since the time when the Dutch whale-fishers first visited the neighbourhood. No more reins beinoj visible it was determined to return to North East Land, and on the 8th August the party reached Castrens Islands with considerable difficulty and danger through the drift-ice, which was in continual motion, and on one occasion nipped the boat so that its form was altered and water streamed in through many joints. But the soft Ame- rican elm withstood the proof, and after the water was baled out, the boat, with the exception of a trilling 80 NORDENSKIOLD 'S AECTIC VOYAGES. [chap. fracture, was as good as ever. Without mucli hope of being able to advance very far, the Swedes next day continued their row eastwards. Tlie ice, however, soon became so packed that it was impossible to proceed, and they returned to the j)oiiit which is incorrectly given in old maps as the most northerly point, and thus ob- tained the now inappropriate name of Extreme Hook. From the heights in this neighbourhood but little open water could be seen. On the 0th Aus^ust an unsuccess- ful attempt was made to force a passage eastwards. A landing was effected on the western shore of the bay between Extreme Hook and North Cape, where a view was obtained from a neiohbourinsf heio-ht of the state of the ice and the surrounding country and islands. Up to the top of this mountain peculiar shallow depressions were met with from two to three feet in diameter, wdiich completely resembled well-polished giant cauldrons (jiittegrytor). If it be taken as settled that such caul- drons have always been polished by currents of water, these showed clearly that even this mountain, which w^as at least 1,500 feet high, lay under w^ater in former days and was perhaps covered with glaciers. The following day the party landed on Scoresby's Island, where Nordenskiold had an unpleasant adventure. " AVithout being provided with any w^eapon," he writes, " I ascended the island, in order from its highest point to measure angles between the neighbouring promontories. When I had reached a distance of fifty to sixty paces from the top I saw that a bear had occupied that place before me, probably that he might thence see what prey the surround- ino- ice-fields had to offer. He had also observed me, and I did not venture to return to the boat, but w^ent straight II.] AN ADVENTURE WITH A BEAR. 81 towards liim, supposing that he would be frightened and run away, as I had always previously seen Polar bears do when a man approached them. I had miscalculated ; the bear came nearer, advancing slowly in a half circle, and we were soon so close together that I could have touched him with a stick. He stood somewhat hio^her up on a block of stone, hissing and tramping with his fore-feet ; I stood somewhat lower, crying and hooting all I was able and threw big stones at him, with little ap- parent effect. At length a big stone hit one of his fore- paws resting on a stone, and the pain or perhaps satisfied curiosity induced the animal to retreat. I followed him for a short distance till he was concealed behind a pro- jecting rock and then made my w^ay as fast as I could to the boat. I had not finished relating the adventure to Torell, when he interrupted me with the exclamation, * See, there he is ! ' and pointed to a rock about four hundred feet distant, from the top of which the white sovereign of the island was surveying us. Two of our men were sent after him, but when they approached the bear he immediately took to flight and we saw him no more." On the 11th August the party continued their east-: ward course, landing on a new point, the third of those that project from the north part of North East Land. Here they found a beach, eight to ten feet high, formed of sand and rolled stones, in which a large quantity of driftwood was imbedded, a peculiar circumstance, show- ing that in a rock formation matters that are altogether foreign to it may become incorporated. A similar phenomenon is met with in Norway, where beds of clay have been found containing, along with fossil shells of G 82 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. high northern varieties, tree stems which probably grew elsewhere than in the regions where they are now found. In the afternoon of the same day the stretch of coast marked by Parry "Distant High Land," w^as reached and named Prince Oscar's Land. The " ice-foot," which long defies the heat of summer, and like a white girdle encloses the shore long after the snow has disappeared from the heights, w^as now" at last gone, and had, where the beach consisted of sand and gravel, left behind it peculiar indi- cations. Everywhere w^ere to be seen conical depressions in the gravel four to six feet across, which had probably been formed by the ice, when it was loosened and raised by the thaw and flood-tide, carrying with it large blocks of stone of which these hollow^s were the marks. Drift- wood w^as still to be found here, but no longer any articles of Norwegian origin, only a harpoon shaft or an oar which Petersen recognised as belonging to the whale fishery. Animal and plant life w^ere here alike scanty. On August 13th another advance was made, and the party landed immediately south of Cape "VVrede, ascend- ing afterwards a mountain about 2,000 feet in height, aff"ording an extensive view. Towards the horizon two small islands w-ere seen, the one of which is high and bold, the other low and inconsiderable. They are named Charles XII. 's Island, and Drabanten (The Lifeguard). They were surrounded in all directions by impassable masses of drift-ice, but the sea between was pretty open. The boat party accordingly pushed on past Cape Platen, but finding the sea getting more and more packed with ice they resolved to return. So after making a festive meal of some preserved grouse washed down with some old wine that had circumnavigated the globe in the. II.] THEY REJOIN THE ^OLUS. 83 frigate Eugenie, wliich some Stockholm friends had sent them before their departure, the Swedes turned West- wards on the 15th August, passing Capes Platen and Wrede, and landing for the night on Scoresby's Island. They rested next at Castren's Islands, passed North Cape on the following day, and on the evening of the next day Dej)6t Point. On the 18th Brandywine Bay was explored, and found to offer a good harbour for wintering in. On the 19th the Swedes met with a Hammerfest skipper and got from him welcome news of CHARLES XII 'S ISLAND AN'D DUABAXXKX. the jEoIus. Opposite Low Island, walruses, which had not been seen on the north coast of North East Land, were now visible in numbers, and according to the harpooners were preparing to go upon land. On the 20th Depot Island was reached, and immediately ^fter our party sailed across the Strait and rejoined the jEoIus in Lomme Bay. Adjoining this bay were sjjlendid hunting-grounds, where Petersen and the harpooners killed nine reindeer. G 2 84 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Tlie yEolus liad been cruising in Hinloopen Strait during the absence of the boat party, the naturalists on board makiug observations on the temperature of the water, and carrying on daily dredgings. On the 3rd August flocks of the Greenland seal {Phoca grcenlandica) were seen for the first time in the neighbourhood of Foster's Islands. They kept together in compact herds, thirty to forty each, swimming with extraordinary sjDeed, and when they breathed, lifting their somewhat pointed heads out of the water all at the same time and ducking immediately down again to repeat, some few minutes after, the same dexterous manoeuvre, but at a considerable distance from the place where they showed themselves before. This species of seal is, in the economy of the Greenlanders, of nearly the same importance as the reindeer in that of the Lapps. It is also of great importance in commerce. Near Waygat's Islands, w^here the JEolus lay from the 8th to the 20th AuQ-ust, the divergence between the marine fauna of East and West Spitzbergen was very striking. Here were found animals exclusively belong- ing to the fauna of Greenland, seen exceedingly seldom or never on the west coast. During an excursion to the south of Hinloopen Strait, in the course of which Chydenius satisfied himself of the possibility of extending the triangulation to Stor Fjord, two " marked " reindeer were killed. " We had pre- viously met with such," says Chydenius, " and it is well known to the walrus-hunters that they are often found on Spitzbergen. They are called " marked " in common speech, but it is not meant by this that they have been marked by the hand of rnau. On the supposition, II.] " MARKED " REINDEER. 85 however, that this is the real explanation, it has been attempted to found a hypothesis that they haye strayed from the peopled regions of the mainland to Spitz- bergen, and because the country of the Samoyedes is the nearest where tame reindeer are to be found — for Novaya Zemlya, as is well known, is uninhabited — it has been supposed that the sea between Eastern Spitzbergen and the country of the Samoyedes is filled with hitherto unknown islands, between which the reins may go on the ice during winter, from one island to another until they reach Spitzbergen. This hypothesis was often the subject of our conversation. While the Mollis was off North East Land and in Hinloopen Strait, our hunters obtained at least four or five " marked " reindeer, and three skins of these animals were brought home by us to the Riks Museum. The ear-points of all of them were cropped nearly right across at the same distance from the root, but the obtuse angles of the point were not equal but somewhat knobby and rounded, and as thickly covered with hair as the other parts of the ear. All the hunters who have killed such reins steadily assert that both ears are always cropped at the same height, at a greater or less distance from the root, and during the expedition to Spitzbergen in 1864 some reindeer were obtained that were marked in the same way. On the supposition that these marks have been made with a knife by the hand of man — a supposition to which the unevenness of the ear-point does not lend any proba- bility — and that the animals at some past time belonged to a nomade household inhabiting some other country, all the " marked " reindeer hitherto shot on Spitzbcrgeu must have belonged to one owner, for the mark, at least 86 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. during the last twenty years, has been unalterably the same. . And as the number of such marked animals on Spitzbergen is so large that they certainly form a tenth of those that are yearly killed, and as the number of these may be, without exaggeration, estimated at the lowest at one thousand, some seasons up to fifteen hun- dred, the number of "marked" reindeer must have been a hundred per annum. A nomade household, that can lose a hundred reindeer yearly merely by straying, can perhaps scarcely exist for twenty years and have such considerable herds still remaining as to allow the straying still to go on on the same scale. It is to be noticed, besides, that when the northern races mark their reindeer in the ear they only cut a hack or hole in one of the ears, never in both, and it is highly improbable that any one would mark all his cattle by cropping both ears. The marked reindeer on Spitzbergen are not distinguishable from those that are not marked either by size, the branching of the horns, or in any other way ; that is to say, they all belong to the Spitzbergen race, which differs from the reindeer living on the mainland by their size being con- siderably smaller, and by other striking peculiarities, and their skin never has scars from the Oestrus larva, which are exceedingly common in the skins of the north- Euro j)ean reindeer. Finally, another more pro- bable cause of the cropped ears may be found, namely, the sharp frosts that occur in some seasons during the nights in spring while the rein-calves are yet young and their ears impatient of cold. For it is an experience obtained in Finmark and Lapland, according to the statements of trustworthy persons, and confirmed from various quarters, that there, too, in the high fell regions, II.] WHITE WHALES. 87 the young reincalves in the cold spring nights have theiu ears frozen, which never regain their normal form, but appear in the full-grown animal as if cropped." In Lomme Bay, the rendezvous of the boat parties, there is abundance of animal life. Reindeer pastured near its shores, and eleven were killed. A brood of beautiful Arctic ptarmigan, which is very uncommon REINDEER HUNTING. elsewhere in Spitzbergen, was seen here. The white whale. Beluga catodoii, tumbled about in the water, and one was captured. These beautiful animals, over fourteen feet long, are inhabitants of the Polar Sea proper. They live, like other dolphins, in shoals, and are so shy that they are only taken with difficulty. The Norwegians catch them with a peculiar harpoon, cnlled a shottel, different from that used in the whale 88 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. fishery. The white whale is frequently found in the neighbourhood of glaciers, wdiere the water is often turbid with the fine rock-powder which the glacier srrinds down while in motion, and which is carried out into the sea before it. In such water the white whale cannot see the harpooner and his boat. At a distance it strongly resembles a seal in the water. When fully-grown the animal is milk-white, and ex- ceedingly beautiful. Its young, on the other hand, are dark in colour. If the water is clear it is possible to get near them, but they always go down so fast that they cannot be taken. When they used to visit these regions, the Russians caught them in a strong net, in the same way as is usual in Greenland, where several hundred are taken yearly. The white whale occurs along the shores of the Polar Sea, and the east coast of Asia as far down as 52° N., and on the coast of America it is taken in St. Lorenzo Bay. It often ascends rivers for great distances to hunt fish, and it is found in the Amoor river upwards of 250 miles from the sea. The j^olus weighed anchor on the 24th August, and after steering first to north-west then to north reached 80° 30' N., the highest point attained during this voyage. The intention to anchor in Brandywine Bay was given up for fear of being shut in by ice if the wind should be unfavourable. Dredging was next carried on in deep water ofi" Treurenberg Bay, after which the jEotus anchored on the west side of Muffin Island where dredging was resumed, and Nordenskiold, Malmgren, and Chydenius landed to make observations. This low, flat island, which rises only six feet above II.] WALRUS KILLING. 89 the sea-level, is a favourite resort of the walrus, when the ice melts on the sea and it is obliged to go on land. Here our party met with a sight so sad that it could never pass from their recollection. A long way off they could distinguish something white, which at a distance resembled a limestone rock. The whole HEAD OF WALRUS. white mass consisted of walrus skeletons heaped on each other by hundreds, or rather by thousands, and it was evident that many of them had been killed merely for the sake of their tusks, and otherwise left untouched to be destroyed by wind and weather. Tlie walrus-hunters choose the opportunity when the walrus 90 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. goes on laud, steal after tliem, kill with their lances those. lying nearest the sea, and thus form a rampart against the animals lying farther up, which then in desperation endeavour to roll themselves over the bodies of their comrades down the sloping beach, and in the tumult sufifocate or cut each other in pieces. The first attack requires a high degree of courage and bold- ness, but is more a wild slaughter than hunting, for of several hundreds which are killed in this manner, not nearly the whole fall by the hunter's hand. The vessel is now filled with skins and blubber, and when no more can be taken on board, the tusks are hewn from the heads of those remaining, and the bloody field of slaughter, from which the traces of the savage hunt are not attempted to be removed, for years frightens away other walrus herds from the region. Thus for a long period the hunting-ground is destroyed. This mode of walrus-hunting, profitable as it is, ought to be put a stop to, if it were possible to introduce any order or rule into the hunting on Spitzbergen, where every living thing that has any money value — eider, or other fowl, walrus, seal, reindeer, and Polar bear — is now recklessly destroyed out of sheer greed, with the idea, " If I don't kill it, another will." Otherwise there is a strong probability, that in a few decades the walrus will be extirpated on all the accessible parts of the coast of Spitzbergen, as it has been on Bear Island, or that it will become as rare as it now is on the west coast of Spitzbergen, and that the same fate will soon overtake the other animals. Up to this time ice had been constantly seen in the north, but now the sea was clear, and neither II.] SMEERENBEEG. 91 ice nor ice-blink was visible, and tlie Swedes would fain have sailed northwards, thinking it probable that they might be able to reach the latitude of 82°, but the seamen and Petersen withheld their approval of such an attempt on the ground that the yEolus was not a good sailer, and if a storm should come on she might not be able to avoid the drift-ice, and might be beset for the winter. The project was therefore given up, and the jEoIus sailed for the west coast, visiting Smeerenberg, perhaps the best harbour MAINLAND AT PMEEEEXBEEG— GRAXITE. of Spitzbergen, which used to be full of shippino- during the flourishing period of the whale fishery, and was said to have been visited during a single summer by as many as 18,000 men. Large train-boiling establishments were erected here by the Dutch, but almost the only traces remaining from that period are, as at many other places on Spitzbergen, the graves which indicate how large a number of men must once have sojourned on its coasts. On the 31st August, Chydenius went to Norway Island, searched for the place where Sabine made his famous 92 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. observations, and found the inclination there to be 80° 34' 7". It was 81° 11' when Sabine was there. The snow still lay on a mountain-top on Danes' Island. To judge by the eye it had a position typical for these regions, and Chydenius found by angular measurement that the border of it lay 900 feet above the sea. On the 3rd September, the JEolus weighed anchor with the view of (Toino: southwards to meet the Magdalena, but after cruising oft' tlie coast for some DAXES ISI.AXD. days, as the barometer indicated a coming storm, she came to anchor again in Kobbe Bay. During the 7th, 8th, and 9th Septeml)er, a furious S.S.E. storm raged with heavy showers of snow and high sea. Autumn had commenced in earnest. The fowl-fells were deserted, and their numerous inhabit- ants had drawn southwards. The ground was bare, except on the highest fells and in the deepest clefts, where it was still covered with hardened snow, in 11.] MEETING OF THE SHIPS. 93 many places coloured red by a microscopic plant, Protococcus nivalis, which has given occasion to " red snow" being spoken of both in the Polar lands and on the highest summits of the Alps. A fresh- water lake, that was covered with ice six feet thick in the end of May had, during the three months that had since elapsed, become ice-free, but its temperature at the surface was only 1*2° C. and at the bottom 2 '2° C. It was occasionally visited by a black-throated diver or two, and some Spitzbergen geese. A boat was carried to it, but dredging yielded no new result. Excursions were made in the region, and magnetic observations continued. At last the Magdalena was seen entering the bay with all sail set on the morning of the 9 th September. When the ^olus parted company with the Magda- lena on the 9th June, the latter vessel was endeavourinof to make her way through the pack past Grey Hook towards the west. While the ice still closed the way, Aldert Dircks's Bay and AVijde Bay were explored by boat parties. The eastern side of Wijde Bay was found to be one of the best hunting-grounds on Spitz- bergen. The hunting-boat once returned from a three days' excursion with no fewer than twenty-four reindeer in pretty good condition. Here was found by the side of a fresh-water lake, a dried specimen, three inches long, of the young of the Salmo alpinus. Blomstrand and Duner made an excursion into the interior of Wijde Bay, and there observed the tem- perature in the shade as high as 16° C. (61° F.), the highest during the whole summer. On the 18th a southerly breeze cleared the sea of ice, and enabled the 94 NOKDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cuap. Magdalena to leave Wijdc Bay. 'Jlie Norways were next . visited, to ascertain whether tliey were suitable as a starting-point for the triangulation along the west coast. The western Norway Island is well known as a place where the eider breeds in large colonies. The eider lives in great flocks, always on islands where it may be safe from the monntain fox, and there is seldom any bird in company with it except the glaucous gull or the brent goose. The tern also keeps by itself, only single pairs of Tringa maritima^ or Phalaropus fulicaimis being permitted to build beside it. The eider when it has not more than one or two eggs in its nest, places a shell, Buccinum glaciale beside them. After various excursions had been made the Mag- dalena sailed from the Norways on the 25th, and after passing Kobbe Bay and South Gat, the sound between Danes' Island and the mainland, anchored in Magdalena Bay. Here, at a height of 2,300 feet above the sea, the following plants were found growing, Cochlearia fene- strata, Cerastium alpinum, Luzula hyperhorea, and several saxifrages : lower down, small soft tufts of the Arctic willow, Alsine hi/lora, and several grasses. Out of the gravel there rose nearly a foot high here and there the micommon Saxifraga hieracifolia and Pedi- cidaris hirsuta with its reddish head, alternating with yellow Ranunculi and bright red patches of the grace- ful Silene acaulis, of which, however, a flow^er here and there had begun to pale under the powerful rays of the sun, which had already caused several Drahce and the here uncommon Arahis alpina to go to seed. High up on the fell grew the beautiful Erigeron uniflorus. By the side of the small streams that flowed from II.] A FERN IN SPITZBERGEN. 95 the top to the bottom of the mountain were mosses, Saxifraga rivularis, SteUaria Eduardsi, and two species of Poa. It is remarkable that the vegetation diminishes quite inconsiderably with the height above the sea, so that almost all the plants that grow near the beach thrive as well at a height of two thousand feet. The continual sunlight and the insignificant difference in temperature are undoubtedly the causes of this. The large granite blocks and broken stones, of which is formed the peculiar beach by which the fells are here almost always separated from the sea, are quite concealed by the most luxuriant moss and lichen vege- tation. The grey covering, often six inches thick, is for the most part composed of lichens : Sphcerophoron fragile and Cladonia gracilis, Stei^eocaulon pa^chale, Cetraria islandica — Iceland moss — Bryopogon jubatum, Alectoria thidensis, Umhilicaria arctica, Solorina cro- cea and many others ; and among mosses of Racomi- trium lanuginosu'tn, with stalks nine inches long, Enca- lypta rliaptocarpa, Gymnomitria and BrycB, Polytiichum alpinum and Dicranum fuscescens, &c. While the sloop lay in Magdalena Bay Cape Mitre was visited, a promontory which Scoresby ascended one of the few times he landed on Spitzbergen. When he had reached the summit, he was obliged to sit astride the ridge in order to keep his place. On the 31st of July the Magdalena again put to sea, and the same day anchored in Cross Bay. In this neighbourhood the fii'st known fern on Spitzbergen was found — Cystopteris fragilis. Cross Bay is remarkable for an immense glacier in the bottom of its north-western arm. From this glacier 96 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. large blocks of ice are unceasingly detached, having not unfrequently a height above the water of 40 to 50, and a length and breadth of 150 to 200 feet. They may reasonably be considered veritable icebergs, with which the masses of ice that break off from the con- siderable glaciers in Wijde Bay, Magdalena Bay, the seven glaciers, &c., cannot stand the remotest com- parison. The reason of this clearly is the greater depth of the fjord where the glacier enters the sea. When they enter the sea most of the glaciers of Spitzbergen rest on the sea-bottom, as on a firm foundation ; on which account, for evident reasons, only comparatively small pieces can be broken off. If the water, on the contrary, is so deep that the front of the glacier is entirely borne up by it, very much larger masses may break off at once, the glacier wanting the cross-fractures which are apt to occur under such circumstances. In this way are produced the enormous icebergs which float out to sea from the deep fjords of Greenland, and those, in some degree comparable with them, which are to be found in and off Cross Bay, the depth of which was measured by the zoologists of the expedition up to two hundred and fifty fathoms. That icebergs proper are so seldom heard off from this reg-ion of the hioh north, is thus, perhaps, caused less by the glaciers being small and the inland ice inconsiderable, than quite simply by the water round the coast being too shallow. The larijer masses from Cross Bay probably never reach the open sea as they are too deep in the water to get over the coast shallows. They are stranded here and there on the shores in the form of ground-ice. In the neighbourhood of King's Bay, where the II.] THE OLD ARCTIC WORLD. 97 Magdalena next aiicliored, Blomstrand found a seam of coal, together with impressions of leaves and other parts of plants, showing that there was a period in the development of the globe when spreading forests, com- posed, it would appear, chiefly of broad-leaved trees, resembling our maples, everywhere covered the valleys IN THE INTEHTOR HF KTX(; S HAY. and mountain-slopes, where now, if they be not entirely filled with thick beds of ice, the Arctic willow, creeping inch high along the ground, is the only representative of plants of the nature of trees. The Magdalena being detained in King's Bay by contrary winds and calms, Blomstrand and von Ylen started in a boat for Ice Fjord, which they reached on H 98 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. the 23rd, finding Mattilas in Green Harbour, by wliom they were hospitably entertained. Ice Fjord is, with tlie exception of Stor Fjord, which is to be regarded as a sound, without question the hirgest fjord on Spitzbergen, and with its widely- extended water surface, without taking into account the surrounding mountains, it offers a truly splendid prospect. With a breadth of thirty or forty miles it runs deep into the land, with a number of arms — Green Harbour, Coal Bay, Advent Bay, and the yet larger Sassen Bay on the south ; and finally with two, Nord Fjord and Klaas Billen Bay, separated by a high mountain ridge. While Blomstrand and von Ylen were examining Ice Fjord the Magdalena left King's Bay on the 23rd of August, and arrived at Advent Bay on the 27th. The mountains exhibited the peculiar forms of immense temples and buildings which distinguish the interior of the fjord. " Here and there a rich green on their dark slopes met the eye, and as we steered towards evening into Advent Bay we were agreeably surprised by the vegetation, lively for Spitzbergen, which clothed to their tops the hills of the western shore, and grew luxuriantly in the valleys. Nearest the beach was a field of stone and fragments of slate sparingly mixed with mould with Stellaria humifusa and the modest strand plant Cochlearia fenestrata. The green and yellow carpet upon the hills was watered by small streams from the glacier spots on the higher hills, and oftered the botanist a special interest in its varied com- position, as at least two-thirds of the phanerogamous flora of Spitzbergen were to be found there. There grew 11. ] ADVENT BAY. 99 luxuriant grasses — Poa 2^)'citensis, cenisia, and stricta ; Aira alpina, Alopecurus alpinus, Calamagrostis stricta, and Trisetum subspicatum, witli the here large-flowered Polygonum viviparum, Andromeda tetragona, Dryas octopetcda and broad yellow bands of Saxifvctga liircidus and fiagellaris, together with Potentdla emarginata, Ranunculus sidphureus ; and besides the whole multi- tude of the plebeians of the Arctic flora, Draha alpina and hirta, Salix polans, Luzula liyperhorea, Juncus higlumis, Fjriopliorum capitatum, with many others. The moist places were occupied as usual by mosses, Polytrichum alpinum, Pottia latifolia, &c., and among them stuck up Chrysosplenium tetrandrum, and our childhood's acquaintance, Cardamine p>ratensis, cer- tainly somewhat altered in size and form, yet easily recognisable." Advent Bay is one of the best harbours on Spitz- bergen, affording protection both from the swell from the sea and from all winds. It is about eight English miles long by five broad. While sailing into its mouth, which is about two and a half English miles wide, it is necessary to avoid going too near the projecting low ground on both sides, which extends some distance as reefs under water, but when the point on the western shore with the Kussian hut on it is passed the vessel may be steered along the low ground towards the mouth of a mountain stream, which falls into the bay between the low ground and the bold rocks which lie to the south. Three cable lengths from the land there is excellent anchorage in six to ten fathoms water. The bottom is quite different from the other fjords, where it H 2 1(10 N01lDEN8IvI0LD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [vuav. is nearly everywhere newly formed of mud from gla- ciers, still in action. Such is not the case here, where the glaciers have in great part disappeared, and the bottom gets only a slight addition of inorganic matter from the mountain streams ; it is, so to say, old, and its dark grey colour and muddy appearance are caused by the large quantity of decomposed organisms which it contains. Here a luxuriant if also somewhat mono- tonous animal and plant life has been developed — Mussels — Carch'iun, Astarte, Tellina, Crenella, and Uni- valves — Natica and Tritonium, here reach a compara- tively colossal size, and an incredible abundance, and such was the case also with the other lower animal groups and witii the algpe, among which are to be found an uncommon number of high northern fishes of the families Cottiis and Lumpenus, together Avith the young of Gadiis ceglefiuus and Drepanopsetta plates- soides. The surface of the water swarmed with the high northern Beroe and Cydippe, exhibiting a beauti- ful play of colour. Towards autumn they attain com- pleteness in size and colouring, and with them are found a multitude of smaller forms. The naturalists of the Magdcdena after making a survey of Ice Fjord would gladly have examined Bell and Horn Sounds, but time did not permit. The Magdalena sailed for Kobbe Bay, where the jEolus was found at anchor, having arrived some days before. Preparations were now made for the homeward voyage, which was commenced on the 12th September. In the course of it deep dredgings were carried on. Torell had previously dredged at depths of from 1,500 to II.] DREDGING IN THE ARCTIC SEAS. lul 1,700 feet in the mouths of Omeiiak and Upernavik Fjords, on the coast of Greenland, where, in a bottom of fine mud produced by the action of glaciers on the rocks of the mainland and carried into the sea by the glacier streams, he found a fauna, so rich that no dimi- nution of the number of animals with the increase of depth could be observed, and at the same time full of variety, embracing all the different classes of inverte- brate animals. He had found also at Omenak and Upernavik two faunas very difierent with respect to species at the same depth and on a bottom where no difi"erence could be perceived. He had made careful pre- parations for the dredgings he now proposed to carry on, and had got a "Bulldog" machine constructed, with some improvements by Chydenius. After two unsuc- cessful attempts with Brooke's apparatus the Bulldog- machine struck bottom at a depth of 8,400 feet. The temperature in the middle of mass of matter brought up by the machine was found to be 0*3° C. The tem- perature at the surface oi the sea at the time was 5° C. (41° F.), and of the air 0-6° C. At this considerable depth, where the temperature is always near the freezing-point, where the only motion of the sea is a flowing from the pole towards the equator, where the pressure of the water on every point is more than the weight of 200 atmospheres, where light is absent, but where the air and salt contained in the water are probably the same as at the surface, there was found on the few square inches acted on by the scoops a number of animals as large and rich in species as could have been expected at a smaller depth ]02 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. on tlie same kind of bottom. Tlie bottom was found to be covered with a fine sediment, greasy to the touch, of a yellowish-brown or grey colour, which, with the exception of some few and small fragments of stone and grains of sand, consists of finely- divided remains of microscopic calcareous shells of Polythalamia or siliceous parts of Radiolaria, diatoms, and sponges. The section of the raised mass, sixty-four cubic decimal inches, showed five layers of different thicknesses, from two inches to one-third of an inch, clearty distinguishable by difference of colour, perhaps a sign that periods probably of lengthened duration succeeded each other in the motions of the currents and other circumstances determining the progress of the deposit, and perhaps also in some degree in the conditions of animal life. In this mass there lived Radiolaria and numerous Poly- thalamia, among them many very large and well de- veloped specimens of Glohigerina, Biloculina, Dentalina, Nonionina ; of Annelids, a Spiochetopterus and a Cir- rdtulus ; of Crustacea, a Cuma ruhicunda, Lilljeborg ; an Apseudes ; of Mollusca, a Cylichna ; of Holothuria, a fragment oi Myriotrochus Rinhi Steenstrup, and an allied form, apparently a new species ; of Gephyrea, a Sipun- culus, like S. margariticus, Sars ; finally a Spongia, in which were found three species of Crustacea. The success with which the dreclgino; was carried on awak- ened a strong desire to prosecute it, but the wind rose and water got scarce and Torell determined in consequence to return to Tromsoe where the j^olus anchored on the 23rd and the Magdalena on the 27th of September. COST OF THE EXPEDITION. 103 The expenses of the expedition (not including the travelling expenses of the members to and from Tromsoe) amounted to 51,967 rix-dollars and 63 ore/ which were defrayed thus : — Eix- dollars. Grant by the Swedish Government . . . 12,000 Additional grant by the Swedish Estates . 8,000 Gift by His Royal Highness Prince Oscar . 4,000 Baron S. Adelsvard 1,000 Contributions from members of the Expedition 5,400 Sale of remaining effects, &c 4,210.83 Supplementary grant by the Swedish Estates 17,356.80 51,967.63 About £2,887 sterling. vox AND DEAD liEIXDEEK. CHAPTER III. THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF 18G4. The preliminary survey to ascertain the possibility of measurinp- an arc of meridian havins; been left unfinished by the Expedition of 1861, the Swedish Academy of Sciences made a representation to the Government of the desirableness of completing it, and the Estates, on the proposition of the Government, voted a sum of 10,000 rix-doUars (about £550) for this purpose. The new expedition was placed under Nordenskiold's leader- ship. Chydenius was to have accompanied him, but he died a few weeks before the departure of members of the expedition from Stockholm, and Duner, who had also taken part in the work in 1861, was appointed in his stead. In order that the opportunity of studying the botany and zoology of the polar regions might not be lost. Count B. von Platen provided funds to enable a naturalist to accompany the expedition ; Dr. Malmgren from Finland acted in that capacity. All the members 2 X O -I 212 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciiAr. Christmas or Yule Eve, as it is called in Scandinavia, was celebrated by ol)serving the customary festivities. A Christmas tree, " Yule fir," or rather " Yule pine," grandly decorated, with the Swedish, Norwegian, and Italian flags in fraternal combination occupying its top, and nearly overloaded with the " yule gifts " that hung from its branches, was the principal object of attraction. BURIAL IN SO" N.I.. DUIUNG THE PliLAU NIGUT. The yule gifts consisted of knives, brushes, books, pieces of tobacco, cigars, pieces of soa^, &c. Lotteries were held for their distribution, every person having three or four lots, and as many prizes, the lotteries causing the greatest excitement. The Lapps, who had never seen the like before, and who honoured the occasion by appearing in VI.] CHRISTMAS AND l^EW YEAR'S EVE. 213 lioliday attire of variegated colours, were beside them- selves with gratification at what had fallen to their share. After this came supper with the national " lutfisk," and the " julgris," which was eaten by most with good appetite, notwithstanding its strong train oil flavour. After the merriment was over and silence had succeeded the merry din, the thoughts of all went home to Sweden, to the comrades and friends in whose company Christ- mas eve was wont to be spent, and whom they knew to be full of concern for the disaster that had overtaken them. Christmas was observed with due solemnity, as was also the second day of Christmas, according to the national custom. New year's eve was celebrated with a supper on land, to which the officers of the Gladan and the Onkel Adam were invited. When it was over some fireworks were let off, and a parting salute was fired to the year 1872, which had been so eventful to the members of the expedition. Meanwhile the men were employed Ijuilding a bath house with material furnished by a Russian hut at some distance, but this turned out to be insufficient, and the house was never completed. Then an exercise house was to be built of the bags of moss, but as often as it neared completion some alteration required to be made and the nearly finislied house had to be pulled down and l)egun anew. It was next determined to inclose the building with a wall of snow, and it was soon found to be superior as a building material to moss sacks. Several snow houses were afterwards built, one of which, called the crystal palace, from the splendour of its architecture, was long used as a second magnetic observatory. 214 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. During the whole winter the dredgings earned on without intermission, sometimes in open water, sometimes under the ice, gave sufficient occupation to Christian and the four Lapps. Without doubt the constant employment in which all thus shared contributed greatly to keep them in good spirits, and to prevent them from suffering so much from the reduced rations as might have been expected. The repeated outbreaks of scurvy, amenable as it was to treatment, showed that if the Norwegians had been obliged to join the expedition the result would, in all probability, have been that the greater number, if not the whole, would have found their graves on the desolate shores of Spitzbergen. For the insufficiency of rations must be considered the main cause of scurvy breaking out so early and attacking so many members of the expedition, although great weight ought also to be given to the depressing effect of the long darkness and the predisposing influence of the Arctic regions. On the 8th January the thermometer rose in the morning from— 30° and —32° up to -7°C., and soon after a violent S.E. storm beo^an to blow, which in a few hours cleared Mussel Bay of ice and set the vessels free. Preparations were now made for the Polhem going north- wards to find out where the edge of the ice was, but before they could be comj)leted a N.W. storm came on and the vessels were ao-ain frozen in. During the rest of January the cold was inconsiderable, the wind mostly from the south, and the ice in the bay was breaking up. It was now settled that as soon as the vessels were free they should all leave Mussel Bay, the Polhem to go north- wards, the other vessels to return home. On the 29th January the whole of the bay was free of ice, and the VI.] THE RETURN OF THE SUN. 215 evening of that day was fixed for tlie departure, but tlie wind rose to sucli a height that it had to be deferred. On the 30th the storm continued and increased in violence. The Polhem, Gladan and OnJcel Adam were all like to drive on land, the Polliem actually running aground on a sandbank but being got off without much difficulty. Soon the storm subsided and the members of 'the expe- dition congratulated each other on their escape from the dangers that had threatened them, the greatest of which was the loss of the provisions that were on board the vessels. For if the vessels had stranded, the greater part of the provisions would, in all probability, have been lost or damaged, and the Swedes would thus have become a prey to starvation and to deatli. On the 6th February lamp light could first be dis- pensed with at noon, but only for a short time. It was not until the 13th March that the sun was visible. On the 20th February the cold reached its maximum, the mean temperature of the day being — 36°, the minimum — 38° C. This was welcome to Wijkander, who intended to make observations on refraction at a very low tem- perature. Preparations had been made for them, and the instrument stood waiting the opportunity that now offered. Fortunately the cold was accompanied with a calm and clear atmosphere. Wijkander remained whole nights in his observatory bravely defying the cold and patiently overcoming the many difiiculties attending astronomical observations made in such circumstances. In the cold weather the work out of doors was not stopped and the dredgings still went on, it being of great importance to ascertain whether the severe cold and the long darkness exercised any special influence 21fi NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cnAP. upon tlie marine animal and vegetable world. The sea Wcis now covered with ice as far as we could see, and the ice in Mussel Bay increased in thickness every day. On the ord March, however, the arrival of some glaucous gulls led to the. supposition that there was open water at no great distance. This was rendered ASTEOSOAfTCAI. OBSEHVATOKT. more probable during the following days by a heavy swell in Mussel Bay, and on the 4tli a small bow-formed, open channel was seen from a neighbouring height stretching from the mouth of Hinloopen Strait to the little Muffin Island, and from that down to the Norways. Another lane went from Hinloopen along the west (-oast VI.] FRESH MEAL. 217 of North East Land towards Low Island and Brandy- wine Bay. The same day the Lapps went np on the western fells to look for ptarmigan. They also saw open water and found ptarmigan, but could not shoot any. They saw besides- a not inconsiderable number of ^ek-- '■ '-J: «-^ ^ ^ — 4i, .- A 1 ^^ ^■^ =*^ -^ ,t ,^^= -■3 i:^-^£^^I*&£bA^a^^^^^^^^' 5 DREDGING UNDER TUK ICE IN WINTEE. (^laucous otHs and guillemots hovering about the tops of the rocks and settling on the ledges. On the 6th IMarch a large polar bear was shot, and his flesh afforded a welcome change of diet to the Swedes who had been so long confined to the tasteless preserved provisions. It was hoped that another bear would soon make his appearance, but none came. 218 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. About the lUth March it was determined that two parties should start on the 16th, one led by Nor- denskiold and Palander to Giles' Land, the other headed by Von Krusenstjerna and Parent to explore North East Land. Fate, however, seemed to be set against the expedition, for by the 16th a violent storm, accompanied by snow, had come on from the S.E., and it was impossible to start. The weather for a long time was bad. It stormed and snowed almost daily, and was comparatively very cold, between - 25° and - 35" C. Before any alteration of the weather took place the greater part of March w\as past, and it was too late to carry out the plan that had been formed, because the polar journey proper was to be begun in the middle of April. On the 3rd April a snow-bunting made its appear- ance, and was welcomed as the messenger of spring. The sun now remained so long above the horizon that there was in fact no more night. Short but pleasant and invigorating the time was felt to be during which night and day succeeded each other. During the first part of the " dark time " a nearly unconquerable sleepi- ness had been experienced. Men felt as if they could sleep without difficulty the whole twenty-four hours. Towards the end of the " dark time " sleeplessness succeeded, and it was difficult for almost all to obtain the needed rest. The sun returned, and the interchange of day and night began. Now all fell asleep the moment they went to bed, slept undisturbed till morn- ning, and rose refreshed and strong. With the unbroken polar day the sleeplessness returned, but not in the same degree as before. VI.] THE ICE JOURNEY TO THE NORTTE. 219 In the end of March part of the sea off Mussel Bay- was open, but during the cold days about the middle of April all the ice-free places froze again, so that as far as could be seen from the island on which the house was situated, the sea was covered after the 15Lh April by a continuous sheet of ice. The month of April was occupied by preparations for the ice journey towards the north, of which we shall now give an account in the words of Professor Nordenskiold. *' The situation of Mussel Bay is exceedingly un- favourable for an expedition in which sledge journeys northwards are proposed to be undertaken. Although partly in consequence of this, partly on account of the greatly diminished strength of our men from the insuffi- ciency of their rations during the winter, and finally on account of the unfortunate accident of the escape of the reindeer, we had given up thoughts of reaching so high a degree of latitude as we had previously reckoned upon, we were unwilling to let our abundant sledge equipment remain altogether unemployed. Independ- ently of the latitude that could be reached, a sledge journey northwards was of great interest, because only in this way could we obtain a knowledge of the state of the Polar ice during this season of the year, founded on actual observations. My intention was, if possible, to arrange that the main party should be attended by two smaller ones, of which one should bring with it pro- visions to the Seven Islands and then return, and the other the same, after coming some distance to the north of this group of islands. With the help of three Lapps (the fourth had fallen very ill, as it afterwards appeared, of scurvy, just as the expedition started), two 220 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Norwegians hired for the ex2:)editioii at Tromsoe, and a volunteer, Christenson, a mate from the Onhil Adam, the main party and the returning party, which was to accompany it farthest towards the north, coukl be manned from the Polhem. The third party the com- mander of the Gladan had promised to organise from the vessel under his command. MUS.'EL BAY. " The departure was fixed for the 23rd April, but had to be postponed till the following day, because one of the sledges broke down immediately after it was set in motion. We started, therefore, on the 24th April with tliree sledges, each provided with its boat. We went over the chain of hills, about 1,000 feet high, which divides Mussel Bay from the entrance to Treurenberg VI.] OUR SLEDGES BREAK DOWN. 221 Bay. At the beginning nearly all the men who were in good health helped to draw the sledges np the high l)ut gently sloping acclivities wherewith the chain of hills sinks towards the starting-point of our journey. Notwithstanding the acclivities and the heavy loads on our sledges, we accordingly made pretty rapid progress. At the summit our companions left us, and we continued our joui-ney down the hill, which here slopes pretty gently towards Verlegen Hook. "During our downward journey, however, a new misfortune befell us, inasmuch as the sledge which was set apart for the main party was smashed, and when farther forward we met with Yon Krusenstjerna who had taken another way over the hills, we received the unwelcome intelligence that one of the men belonging to his party had fallen ill, on which account he con- sidered himself obliged immediately to return. One of our own men, too, complained of what afterwards appeared to be a pretty severe attack of scurvy. Everything thus appeared to be in league against us. " In any case it was our intention immediately to proceed with the two parties from the Polhem, after havino; exchano;ed the broken sledo-e for that which was intended for Von Krusenstjerna's party; but on a close examination that too was found to be broken. It was now clear that our sledges, made with the greatest care at Copenhagen after patterns from England, were not sufficiently strong to bear upon rough ice or uneven ground the heavy loads (2,000 to 3,000 lbs.) which were here required, and that it would be necessary, in case we made another journey, to provide new sledges, or sufficiently strengthen the old ones, with the materials 222 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. available at our winter station. For this purpose Palander and part of the men returned to the Polliem. "It was of course unnecessary that all the men should return, and I accordingly determined to employ the time required for getting ready the new sledges in forming a depot as far on our way northwards as we could, consistently with the possibility of allowing the necessary number of men to meet at Verlegen Hook. For without the help of a portion of the men whom I required for this expedition, the equipment of the prin- cipal party left behind at Verlegen Hook could not be brought on. " Accompanied by ten men I started on the 24th April from our encampment at Verlegen Hook, going- over Hinloopen Strait towards Shoal Point. The smallest boat was carried by four men on their shoulders, the provisions, the tent, and other equipments were loaded on two sledges and a pulka (reindeer sledge), to which our sole remaining reindeer was attached, which was accompanied and observed by me with a quite special interest, chiefly to obtain a knowledge fully to be depended on and grounded on experience, of the fitness of this animal for such journeys as these. I can safely say that it surpassed our expectations. The reindeer drew, although the Lapps declared it was not one of the best, upwards of 200 lbs. (a good reindeer draws 300 lbs.), tvas quiet and easily managed as an old ivork-horse, ate ivith relish the 7noss we brought ivith us, and when slaughtered, after the moss ivas finished, afforded excellent flesh. With forty such draught animals and Parry Island for a starting-point, we might certainly have reached a very high latitude, VI.] FOG AND SNOW. 223 even with so unfavourable a state of the ice as pre- vailed this year north of North East Land. "The distance from Mussel Bay to Verlegen Hook was, reckoning by the circuitous route we had taken, nearly two Swedish (about thirteen English) miles. So far had we advanced the first day, notwithstanding that a height of about 1,000 feet had to be passed. On the other hand, on account of the extremely unfavour- able state of the ice, I required three days to cross Hinloopen Strait, which, at the place where I passed it, is at most eighteen miles broad. The weather was at first favourable, but by the second day there descended, over the mouth of Hinloopen an ice fog, which made it impossible for us to choose a way for our sledges among the fields of rough ice. This fog, however, was speedily dispersed by an easterly and south-easterly wind, which swept before it along the ground a stream of driving snow, consisting of fine ice-needles glittering in the sun, which in a few minutes filled a hole more than six inches deep in the snowdrifts so that no trace of it was left. The rest of the sky was still indeed cjuite clear, so that not only the sun, but also numerous fine mock-suns and halos, produced by the refraction of the solar rays by the ice-crystals, were visible. On the other hand, all near the horizon was concealed in an impenetrable mist. The mountain tops, surrounding Treurenberg and Lomme Bays, lying at a distance of several Swedish miles, showed contours so clear and sharp, that they seemed close at hand, while objects near the ice or ground at a distance of only a few hundred paces, either could not be distinguished at all, or appeared, when the wind and driving snow 224 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cnAr. lessened for a few moments, as hio-li snow-covered mountain ranges, looking as if they lay at a mueli greater distance than the mountains at Lomme and Treurenherg Bays. These circumstances, so different from those to which we are accustomed at home, gave occasion to the only accident accompanied by loss of human life which the expedition has to record. *' Before referring to this I shall, in a few words, give an account of the beautiful halos produced by the ice- fogs, which were constantly visible at this time. Un- fortunately I had already, the day after we left Verlegen Hook, in consequence of my imprudence in not im- mediately using snow-shades, been attacked by incipient snow-blindness, so that even the slightest strain on the eyes was attended with the most severe pain. It was therefore impossible for me to carry out any measure- ments, and I can consequently only give here a de- scription of these beautiful phenomena, without a statement of the angles, which is indispensable for their complete explanation. " The halos appeared, as has been said, almost con- stantly, but of variable brightness and extent. Some- times they consisted only of a single ring with faint mock-suns, but occasionally it was j)ossible to follow the phenomenon round the whole horizon. Even when it was brightest the halos were coloured only at the part of the horizon lying towards the sun. They did not consist of circles, but of beautiful curves of very various forms, which to a certain extent also underwent variation in their relative position. Thus, the one nearest the sun was of a pear-shaped form, pointing downwards. In its border three mock-suns were visible, VI.] HALOS. 225 two particularly fine at the same height as the sun, and another less developed below. When the sun was on the horizon the lower mock-sun was not visible. When up on the inland ice I observed it touching the horizon on the 7th June at 6 o'clock p.m. We were then in the latitude of about 79° 50', from which it is possible to calculate the angle between the sun's centre and the lower point of the pear-shaped halo of 22|-°. AVhen the halo was complete, the pear-shaped figure was surrounded by two others, the inner like an Q, and the outer bell- shaped, the latter at its uppermost point being touched by an arc of a basin-shaped rainbow. " Of these two outer halos, however, there were com- monly visible only the bows which touched the inner pear-shaped halo, and that just referred to which touched the outer one at its highest point. A line drawn through these two points of contact by no means always corresponded with the vertical plane, but oscillated, often within a short time, and, as I believe, with the wind, which probably had a very considerable influence on the position of the ice-crystals, now to the right, now to the left. All the lines wdiich have been described were coloured with the colours of the rainbow, which were sometimes intense, but generally only faint. Through the sun and the two horizontally placed mock- suns there w^ent a band of light, which, though faint, was continued round the wdiole horizon with clearly- marked brighter points of light here and there. The halos visible opposite the sun consisted of circle-like or pear- shaped curves of the same dimensions as the pear-shaped figure already described. Eight opposite the sun, upon the other side of the horizon, two such HCNTING MEAPDXS. CHAPTER VIL VOYAGE TO THE YENISSEJ IN 187j AND ASCENT OP'' THE RIVER. Spitz BERGEN having now been pretty tliorouglily ex- plored, Professor Nordenskiold turned his attention to that part of the Pohar basin which lies to the north of Siberia. The Sea of Kara, lying to the east of Novaya Zemlya, had long been considered impenetrable, an " ice cellar," as von Baer called it ; but this had been shown to be a mistake by the voyages of Johannesen, Carlson, and other Norwegian walrus-hunters who had circum- navigated Novaya Zemlya, sailed into the Kara Sea, and even pushed their way beyond White Island, at the mouth of the Gulf of Obi. The natural history of this sea and its shores was still completely unknown, and this Professor Nordenskiold proposed to investigate. It also formed part of his plan to penetrate to the mouth of Yenissej — thus solving a commercial problem of the first importance — and to ascend that river. The Proeven, a little Norwegian sloop of only about 70 tons burden, 55 Norwegian feet long, and manned by 12 Norwegian walrus-hunters, all of whom had pre- viously taken part in voyages in the Arctic seas, had been fitted out at Tromsoe for the expedition of 1875, at the cost of Mr. Oscar Dickson, of Gothenburg, who cu. VTT.J OUR START FOR THE YENISSEJ. 279 defrayed all the expenses of the expeditioD. Professor Nordenskiold was accompanied by two botanists, Dr. F. R. Kjellman and Dr. A. N. Lundstrom ; and two zoologists, Dr. H. Theel and Dr. A. Stuxberg. "After the Proeye/i had been towed out from Tromsoe free of cost by a little steamer of the same name/' says Professor Nordenskiold, " we were compelled by con- trary winds to lie at anchor for five days in the sonnd between Carlsoe and Renoe. At length, on the 14th, we were able to weigh anchor and get to sea through Fugloe Sound. The course was then shaped past North Cape, which was p>assed on the 17tli, for the southern part of Novaya Zemlya. " During spring and the early part of summer the w^est coast of this double island is surrounded a little from the land by a compact ice-girdle, impassable at most places, wdiicli disappears later in the season, and in which, according to the experience of the walrus-hunters, two sounds are early formed, which are only covered with thinly-scattered navigable drift-ice, and through which the ice-free belt of w^ater along the coast is placed in communication with the open sea westwards. One of these open channels is commonly to be found off Matotschkin Schar, and is caused by the strong currents which j^revail in that sound ; the other is near the latitude of Severo Gusinnoi Mys (North Goose Cape.) The latter was chosen by me for the Froeveii, and passed without any special difficulty on the 22nd June. Seven days after leaving Carlsoe the Proeven thus anchored for the first time on the coast of Novaya Zemlya, in a little ill-protected bay immediately north of North Goose Cape. 280 NORDENSKIOLD S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. *' During the voyage sounding and dredging had been carried on when the weather permitted ; tlic surface of the sea was examined for animal and diatom life, and the temperature was observed at different depths. The reward of our labours was often abundant, showing tliat in this sea rich harvests in natural history are to be reaped. We also made repeated trials at different depths of an instrument for taking specimens of the bottom, constructed for the expedition by Dr. Wiberg, which proved very suitable for its purpose, and easily managed. " After remaining two days at our first anchorage, we sailed northwards, anchoring here and there along the coast Avhere opportunity offered : from the 25th to the 28th June in Little Karmakul Bay ; from the 2nd to the 6 til July in Besimmenaja Bay ; from the 7 th to the 13tli at different places in Matotschkin Schar. To this point the sea along the coast was nearly free of ice ; but north of this sound, which connects the Kara Sea with the sea between Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen, the ice extended to the land, so that, at least for the present, it was impossible to sail along the coast north- wards, as was the original plan of the expedition. Instead, the ice in the western part of Matotschkin Schar being broken up, it appeared at first as if we w^ould soon be able to sail through this sound eastwards. After having penetrated into it for this purpose as far as Tschirakina, I w^ent thence in a boat towards the in- terior to examine the state of the ice. Lundstrom at the same time ascended a neighbouring mountain, from which he had an extensive view, and at the top of which he placed a minimum thermometer. It now appeared VII.] UNDER SHELTER. 281 that the eastern part of the sound was still covered with an unbroken sheet of ice, which was thought strono- enough to defy for a considerable time longer the influ- ence of the Polar summer. I therefore did not consider it advisable to await the possibility of a passage here ; and as any advance in a northerly direction was also for the time out of the question, I determined to try my fortune at one of the two sounds, the Kara and Jugor Straits, which on l)oth sides of the Great Waygats Island lead into the Kara Sea. " We left Matoschkin Scliar on the 13th of July, and arrived after having anchored on the 14th at Skodde Bay, where w^e made a rich collection of Jurassic fossils ; on the 16th at North Goose Cape, on the 18th at South Goose Cape, on the 21st at Kostin Schar, and during storm at the Kara Gate on the 25th. The strait was completely blocked with ice, and the wind was too violent for us to endeavour to anchor here. I sailed on therefore, and was fortunate enough to find, during the furious north-east storm, which raged in these regions from the 26 th to the 30th July, protection for the vessel on the south-west coast of Waygats Island, where we anchored on the 26th of July off Cape Grebeni. The storm was now so violent, that although we lay at anchor quite close to and in lee of the land, we could not until the 30th July put out a boat for the purpose of landing on the island. Here we made a rich collection of Upper Silurian fossils, resembling fossils from Gotland, and therefore of special interest to Swedish geologists. Here we met for the first time with Samoyedes, who, when they saw the vessel, drove down to the beach in peculiar high sledges intended for 282 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. use ill summer as well as in winter, and drawn by three or four reindeer. They let us know immediately that they wished to come onboard, whither they accompanied us, and wdiere they soon after were very hospitably enter- tained. " During our stay on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya we were of course continually engaged in examining the geology, fauna and flora, &c., of the regions visited by us, and the great number of places along the coast where we landed made it possible for the scientific staff of the expedition to bring together a large mass of materials relating to their natural history. On the other hand, in consequence of the high nortJi-east winds which had been blowing lately, and wdiich, as we had reason to suppose, had driven the ice down to the southern part of the Kara Sea, there appeared to be little probability of our being able to push forward in an easterly direction this year. Notwithstanding this, I determined as soon as possible to make an attempt in this direction, and therefore again weighed anchor on the olst July, in order to sail into Jugor Sound. I was, however, compelled by a calm to anchor the Proeven right in the mouth of it, in the neighbourhood of a place where a large number of Russians and Samoyedes from Pustosersk are accustomed to live during summer for fishing and hunting, and which on this account is called ' the Samoyede town.' The day after I rowed in a boat farther into the sound, having ordered the vessel to follow as soon as possible. On the very next day, the 2nd of August, the Proeven weighed anchor, and with the help of a gentle breeze and a favouring current sailed over to my encampment on the other shore. I VII.] SALT-WATER FISH IN FRESH WATER. 283 immediately went on board, and, carried forwaixl almost entirely by a strong south-westerly current, we advanced towards the Kara Sea. The sound was passed success- fully, and on our entering the Kara Sea we found it completely free of ice. The course was shaped towards the middle part of the peninsula which separates the Kara Sea from the Gulf of Obi, and which is called by the Samoyedcs Yalmal. The wind was exceedingly light, so that we only went forward slowly, a circumstance which certainly tried our patience severely but had this good result, that while navigrating; these waters, visited for the first time by a scientific expedition, we could daily undertake dredgings, hydrographic work, &c. The dredgings yielded an unexpectedly rich and various harvest of marine animals, among which I may here specify some colossal Isopoda, peculiar Ciimacea, masses of Amphipoda and Copepoda, a large and beautiful Alecto, uncommonly large Ophiurida, finely marked Asterida, innumerable Mollusca, &c. The peculiar circumstance occurs here that the water at the surface of the sea, which, in consequence of the great rivers debouching in these regions, is nea,rly free of salt, forms a deadly j)oison for the animals which live in the salt water at the bottom. Most of the animals brought up from the bottom therefore die in a few moments if placed in water from the surface of the sea. "Here also, when opportunity offered, there were made, as on the wTst coast of Novaya Zemlya, determinations of the temperature of the sea, not only at the surface, but also at different depths under it, with thermo- meters by Negretti and Zambra and Casella. These researches yielded a specially interesting result, and 284 NORDEKSKIOLDS ARCTIC Y0YAGE8. [( hap. may be considered as settling a number of questioi^s mucli . disputed of late years regarding the marine currents in these regions, the direction of whidi, in tlie absence of other data, it was sought to determine by the indications of the surface-temperature of the water. By numerous observations along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya from INIatotschkin >Schar to Jugor Sound, thence past Cape Grebeni to 75^° N. Lat., and 80° E. Long, and on to the mouth of Yenissej, 1 have obtained indisputable proofs that the temperature of the surface w^ater of this sea is exceedingly variable and de- pendent on the temperature of the air, on the neighbour- hood of ice, on the flowing of warm fresh water from Obi and Yenissej, but that the temperature of the w^ater at a depth of only ten fathoms is nearly quite constant, between — 1° and + 2° C. There are thus no deep marine currents here. An excej^tion to thisw^as observed in Matotschkin Schar itself, where the w^ater near the bottom at a depth of seven to fifteen fathoms was about 4- 5° C. Possibly the southern part of an arm of the Gulf Stream here strikes Novaya Zemlya, and even passes through Matotschkin into the Kara Sea. A large num- ber of sjDecimens of deep water have been taken with Professor Ekman's apparatus, wdiich is excellently con- structed for the purpose, and I am convinced that at the bottom the salinity is also constant. " On the 8th of August we landed for a few hours on the north-west side of Yalmal to take an astronomical observation. Traces of men, some of them barefooted, and of Samoyede sledges, w^ere visible on the beach. Close to the beach "was found a sacrificial altar, consisting of about fifty skulls of the Polar bear placed in a heap, bones of vn] THE MOUTH OF THE YENISSEJ. 285 walrus, reindeer, &c. In the middle of the heap of bones there stood erect two images roughly-hewn of driftwood roots newly besmeared on the eyes and mouth with blood, and two hooked sticks, from which hunor bones of the rein- deer and bear. Close by was a fireplace and a heap of rein- deer bones, the latter clearly the remains of a sacrificial meal. After some hours' stay at this place I sailed farther north until unnavio-able masses of laro;e level ice-fields ill 75° 35' N. Lat. and Td" 30' E. Long, prevented farther progress in that direction. Afterwards I followed the edge of the ice towards the east, and finally shaped the course for the north side of the mouth of the Yenissej, where the Swedish flag' was hoisted and the anchor let d-q on the afternoon of the 15 th. We had now attained a goal which great seafaring nations had for centuries striven in vain to reach. " Already during our approach to the harbour a bear was seen pasturing along with some reindeer close to the shore. The bear, an aged male, however, soon after slowly departed from the reins and finally laid himself to sleep on the beach quite near to. our anchorage. Before the anchor fell Dr. Theel w^ent out in a boat to try to kill him. Having reached the shore, Theel approached the reclining bear, which in a few moments became aware of his approach and immediately rushed forward, as was supposed, to attack him. He was, however, soon hit right in the face by a Remington ball discharged at a distance of twenty jjaces, which, however, did not pene- trate the skull but cut a deep and long channel right between the eyes along the face. The bear now sought to take to flight, but fell immediately after to a new shot which pierced the lung and the upper part of the heart. I 286 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. consider tliis a good omen tliat the many thousand years', reign of the bear in these regions will speedily come to an end, and that numerous vessels will here carry on communication between Europe and the colossal river territory of the Irtisch, the Obi, and the Yenissej." The place where Nordenskiold anchored on his arrival at the month of the Yenissej he named Dickson Har- bour. It affords very good anchorage. Here prepara- tions were made for an ascent of the Yenissej by Nor- denskiold, Lund Strom, and Stuxberg, and three walrus- hunters, in a Nordland boat which had been specially built for the purpose in Norway. The Proeven returned to Tromsoe under the charge of Dr. Kjellman, who en- deavoured to sail round the northern extremity of Novaya Zemlya but found the ice impassable to the north of Ca23e Middendorff. He therefore sailed southwards to Matotschkin Schar, which he reached on the 4th of September after various delays by calms. The passage through the sound was protracted by storms, calms, headwinds, and the unfavourable current. At leiigth on the 10th of Sej)tember the western entrance was reached, and on the following day the Proeven left Matotschkin and steered her course homewards, meet- ing with fearful gales on the wa}^, and reaching Ham- merfest on the 26th of September and Tromsoe on the 3rd of October. The Anna, as the boat was named, in which Norden- skiold and his companions were to ascend the Yenissej, left Dickson Harbour on the 1 9th of August, sunk almost to the gunwale with the provisions and equipment with which she was laden, and not in a condition to stand any heavy swell. " I must, therefore," writes Nordenskiold, VII.] THE THREE BEARS. 287 *' consider it a very fortunate circumstance that durino- O our sailing up the mouth of the Yenissej we had always a sufficiently strong wind from the land. " The course was taken along the shore inside the numerous low, bare, rocky islands which, to the north, bound the Gulf of Yenissej, and are marked in the Russian maps with the long name Severo-Vostotschnoi-Ostrov (North-East Islands). The Sound between those islands appears to be sufficiently deep even for large vessels, though perhaps rendered foul by rocks. With a favour- able wind and smooth water we sailed on, without any long rest, in forty-two hours to Cape Schaitanskoi, where we arrived on the night before the 21st, wet through, and worn out by want of sleep. On the way we landed only at two places, the first a point near Jevremov Kamen, the last rocky promontory on the eastern bank of the Yenissej, for a distance of nearly 600 miles. " Jevremov Kamen itself is merely a peculiarly formed dolerite rock fifty to sixty feet in height. In the neighljourhood of the place where we landed three Polar bears were seen peacefully pasturing among the rocks, not allowing themselves to be disturbed by the log-fire which we made in their proximity, or, as we hoped, to be attracted towards us by curiosity. We had no time for hunting, and after drinking the cofiee we had made ready at our immense log-fire, we sailed on. At the beach we collected still, but for the last time during our journey up the Yenissej, true marine animals ; Ajppendicula7'ia, Clio, large Beroidce, various Medusce, &c. A land excursion here yielded a Harpalus, two species of Staphylinidce, two species of spiders, a number of Acaridce and Podtiridce, a Lumhricus, and, as at the vessel's anchorage, vegetation 288 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. had a character differing greatly from that of Novaya Zemlya. Large bushes, even dwarf birch, were still completely wanting, and the ground was not covered by any carpet of grass. " The second place where w-e lauded was Krestovskoj, a now deserted simovie (place inhabited both summer and winter), but which, to judge by the number of the houses and the style in which they were fitted up, must at one time have had its prosperous period. Three houses with flat turf-covered roofs still remained, each by itself forming a veritable labyrinth of rooms — living- rooms, bake-rooms, bath-rooms, store-room for blubber, with lono- trouo'hs for blubber hollowed out of immense tree-stems, cisterns for blubber, with remains of white fish, &c., all in one. All household articles were taken away, and literallv there was no*t to be found a nail in the wall, a sio-n that the inhabitants had not died out but removed. We learned at Dudinka that this had taken place some years ago, and was caused by the difficulty of procuring meal in that remote situation, otherwise well adapted for fishing. Now, since the traffic on the Yenissej has increased, a new settlement is said to be under consideration. The vegetation in the neighbour- hood of the place was extraordinarily luxuriant, the grass and other plants rendering walking difficult, an effect, without doubt, of the quantity of animal manurial substances which had been collected during the former fishing period of the history of the place. " Two miles and a half from Krestovskoj a sandbank shoots out far into the river, on which account we were compelled to keep fiirther from the side and sail between some small islands occurring here, between which the VII.] THE TUNDRAS. 289 river had a depth of five to six fathoms. Taken over- head, the north-eastern side of the Gulf of Yenissej does not appear to be rendered particularly foul by shallows. The depth a little from the shore reaches six to eight fathoms, sometimes even twelve and upwards. " The surface temperature of the water was, on our arrival at the mouth of the Yenissej, 7°'8 C, but sank during the storm of the following days to 1°*5 C. At Jevremov Kamen it was 2° "5 C, but rose afterwards, in the neighbourhood of Krestovskoj, to 11°, a temperature which it retained afterwards during nearly the whole of our boat journey. The water w^as of a brown colour, but was often, near the banks, coloured by muddy streams. ** A little south of Jevremov Kamen the eastern bank of the Yenissej is occupied by sand-banks having a height of about twenty or thirty feet, and a steep slope towards the river. From the river bank stretches the tundra, an endless, slightly undulating plain, full of low marshes and small shallow pools, and overgrown with a scanty vegetation, the fiowerinof season of which was now almost concluded. We found instead, at our first night-quar- ters (Cape Schaitanskoi), masses of ripe cloudberries, the taste of which, in itself delightful, was on this occasion heightened by the circumstance that they were, for us, the first of the summer's fruit. The red and bog- whortleberry are also found here, if in small quantity. Cape Schaitanskoi was the most northerly point on the Yenissej, where we found dwarf birch, and at the same place also Dr. Stuxberg found a species of Physa which had been found previously by Middendorff" as ihr nortli as 73° 30'. " After having rested at Cape Schaitanskoi we sailed u 290 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. chap. on with a favourable breeze to Sopotscbruija Korga, where the high wind, and a sand-bank lying off it, — th extent of which we could not make out duriuo- the dusk of the night, — compelled us to lie to earlier than we otherwise intended. " Sopotschnaja Korga (the toe of the boot) forms a low promontory projecting far into the Yenissej, which, as numerous remains of buildings show, was formerly in- habited, but now^ stands deserted. Fishermen and hunters, however, still settle here occasionallv, to judge by the numerous fox- traps still in good order which are found everywhere along the banks. We found one of these traps set. The place is the least agreeable I have seen on the banks of the Yenissej. For a great part the promontory is occupied by masses of driftwood, immense stems with branches and roots broken off, piled over each other in an endless chaos, amonoj which it was only with difficulty and care that any progress could be made. The logs that lie nearest the sea are c[uite fresh. Others, lying farther from the strand, and cast up thither decades or centuries ago, are in all possible intermediate stages between fresh and decayed wood. Between the logs are often deep holes full of black, stinkinof water. Similar masses of driftwood, thougrh jDcrhaps not so extensive, are found nearly everywhere farther down nearer the mouth of the river, but higher up there occur only scattered pieces of driftwood, and at some places even these are almost completely wanting. The promontory was strewn besides with a large number of other fresh-water pools, more or less grown up with w'ater mosses and swarming with a small species of fish {Gasterosteus oculeatus), Branchiopoda and other sweet- VII.] SHOALS AND '^SIMOVIES." 291 water Crustacea, and yielding to the botanist various Carices not observed farther north ; and water phmts [Carex cho7-dorrhiza, Hippuris vulgaris, Junciis castaneus dc). Higher up on the drier phices the ground was sparingly covered with Empetrum nigrum and Andromeda tetragona, and on the steep slopes inwards from the promontory there was a luxuriant vegetation of grass and herbaceous plants a couple of feet high. On the other hand, the place was exceedingly poor in mammalia and birds, as well as in insects, and even the holes and paths of the lemming, with which the coast land of Novaya Zemlya is crossed in all directions, are found here only to a limited extent. " Hard gales and a high sea compelled us to remain at this place nearly two days. But on the afternoon of the 23rd Augjust we were at last able to sail on. The course was shaped for Goltschika, which for the present is the most northerly inhabited simovie on the eastern bank of the Yenissej, but as we approached the bank where we supposed the simovie was situated, ^ under the darkness of night we came with a pretty high sea on an extensive shoal, over which we did not consider it advis- able to row forward in the darkness. I therefore shaped the course with a fresh breeze towards Sverevo on the west bank of the Yenissej, where a simovie is still inhabited, but on arriving at the western shore, we could not distin- guish in the darkness any dwelling-houses here cither. We sailed therefore again across the river, in order, when the day dawned, to find a more convenient land- ing place farther up. While wc thus sailed along the strand, looking for houses, in a very high and rough sea, we found ourselves suddenly among furious breakers. u 2 292 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ohai'. After several unsuccessful attempts to row tlie boat back against wind and sea, during wliich it nearly foundered, we had no other resource left us than again to hoist the sail and shape the course right through the dangerous surf Fortune favoured us. Just at the shallowest place the boat was lifted over a high breaker and w^e found ourselves again in deep water. We soon saw a little hut on the bank which we supposed to be inhabited, without however being able, as I wished, to lie to there on account of the heavy swell. We sailed on therefore, till at last we succeeded in finding a suitable landing-place in the neighbourhood of Mesenkiu, a little river falling into the Yenissej on the right bank. " During the excursions which were undertaken in all directions immediately after our landing at Mcsenkin, we observed two persons, who, attended by a large number of dogs, searched for cloudberries on the bogs. At first they appeared to wish to avoid us, but in the end approached and informed us that they were Russians in the employment of a merchant from Yenisseisk, who had a hunting station at Goltschika. After a little conversation I proposed to the younger of them, a Cossack, Feodor, who appeared to be well acquainted with the region, to accompany us to Dudinka as guide, a proposal which he, after a little negotiation, agreed to on condition of receiving fifty silver roubles and obtain- ing the permission of his master who was settled at Goltschika, thirty versts farther north. In order to procure this permission he started immediately, promis- inor to return the followino^ evenins;, *' The delay was of course employed by us to the best of our ability in examining the natural history of the vTi.] ALDER THICKETS. 293 place, in taking solar observations, &c. It appeared thereby that our resting-place was situated only about twenty-five miles to the south of our former landing- place. The low river valley of the Mesenkin is however far better protected from the winds of the Polar sea than the low promontory at Sopotschnaja, and the influence of this is plainly apparent in the vegetation beino; much richer. " What immediately strikes one on landing is the dark green thickets about four feet high, which appear to consist of alder (Alnusfructicosa). Between the alder bushes and protected by them our botanists found a number of well-grown herbaceous plants : Sanguisorha, Galium, Delphinium, Hedysarum, Neratrum, &c. The Salix bushes too were taller here than before, the turf finer, and the slopes of the sandy hills in the interior of the country were now adorned with a number of new forms : Alyssum, Dianthus, Oxytropis, Saxifraga, Thymus, &c. " As I have stated previously, we found at the places we visited on Jalmal neither small stones nor sub-fossil shells ; in the fine sand east of the mouth of the Yenissej the sand is coarser, and contains both sub-fossil shells and stones large and small. The sub-fossil shells, according to information obtained at Dudinka, occur in some places in such masses as to form true shell-banks. At the places which we visited, the shells however were not found in proper beds, but only scattered in the sand. Immediately at the first glance it appeared that the shells collected by us here belonged in preponderating numbers to species with which in the living state we had before become acquainted in our dredging,^ in the Kara and Obi -yenissej Sea. 2l»4 NOKDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. '' A collection of specimens of the stones wliich occur in the sandy layers of the tundra was always to be found along the river bank, where they lay still, after the lighter particles of the sand-bank had been washed away, and we could here obtain many important con- tributions to a knowledge of the way in which the tundra is formed, and the nature of the rocks w^hich yielded the material of the masses of sand here col- lected. No erratic blocks, comparable in size with those found in Sweden, occur here, a circumstance which I look upon as a proof that the sand-beds of the tundra, at least in these regions, are not of glacial origin. I ousjht however to observe that on some small blocks of stone there are to be seen scratches and grooves quite like those found on moraine blocks. But in this case these grooves must have been formed either by the slipping of the earthy layers or through the agency of river ice.^ ''In the north part of the tundra I could never distinguish among the stones washed out from the sand any blocks of granite or gneiss. For the most part they consisted of different kinds of basalt with numerous cavities containing calcspar and zeolites. Besides, there occurred especially at Cape Schaitanskoi a not inconsiderable number of blocks of marl and sand- stone containing fossils, partly of marine origin, partly containing tree-stems more or less carbonised or petrified. Pieces of brown and common coal were also found here in considerable numbers. ^ Nordenskiiild is of opinion that Siberia, during the European Glacial neriod, had about the same climate as at the present time, and that the former great extension of the glaciers in Europe depended only on local circumstances. vii] LIFE ON THE TUNDRA. 295 " On the 26tli August, early iutlie moruing, our future pilot arrived, accompanied by five other Russians settled in that quarter. Naturally the guests were entertained immediately in our tent as best we could, and the con- versation was lively. They informed me that at Goltschika there lived a 'prikaschik' together with three labourers for hunting and fishing, and at Sverevo only an old man and his son ; the old simovies farther to the north were now abandoned. Natives (Samoyedes, Dolganes, Yakuts,) on the other hand often come down from the tundra to the strand, but their numbers had of late years been considerably diminished by a severe small-pox epidemic, which raged especially among the Samoyedes. " After talking for a while with our guests, who were friendly and exceedingly interested in our journey, we went on, the weather being calm and exceedingly fine, to Cape Gostinoi, where we halted at noon. While sailing alono' we observed, for the first and last time clurino; our voyage up the Yenissej," a remainder of the winter's enormous snow-covering in a deep cleft cut out of the tmidra near the strand. At our resting-place was found the first granite block among those washed from the sandy stratum of the tundra. The bush vegetation on the banks of a river debouching here was specially luxuriant, and among the bushes was found a raspberry leaf (Ruhns Arcticus) and plants of Anyelica, Cortusa, &c., four feet high. " Having rested for a while at this place we Sailed on, and after various deviations in the darkness and fog of the night landed on a low promontory near the mouth of the Jakovieva river. A close mist compelled us to pass the night here, although the place was nearly bare of 296 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. vegetation, and driftwood was found in so limited quantity that the wood required for cooking could scarcely be found. To judge by the quantity of rem- nants of fish found on the strand, an abundant catch of sturgeon appeared to have been lately made by the inha- bitants of the neighbouring simovie Jakovieva, which was said to be inhabited by two Russians and two Samoyedes. " We halted next at a specially attractive fishing station on a small sound among the Briochovski Islands, the most northerly in the island labyrinth which occupies the channel of the Yenissej between 6 9 J" and 70 J° N.L. The fishing was, however, finished for the season, and the place accordingly deserted. But two small houses and several huts, all in good condition, stood on the bank, and, together with a number of large boats and wooden vessels intended for salting fish, gave evidence of the employment that had been carried on here. "On the 28th of August we rowed on between a number of islands, covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and commonly ending towards the river with a bold escarpment from which large masses of peat had tumbled down here and there. At such places it could be seen that the island originally formed a sand-bank thrown up by the river, which in course of time was covered first with masses of driftwood, and afterwards with a luxuriant vegetation which gradually gave rise to a thick layer of peat not yet completely decayed, of w^hich the part of the island lying above the surface of the water is for the most part formed. "Towards evening we lay to at the Nikandrovska I-ilauds near a fiahina;-station still occupied, the inhabi- VII.] THE FISH OF THE YENISSEJ. 297 tants of which were engaged in drawing a net as best they could. For a silver rouble I bought here nine fat muksuns and tschirs, weighing together 25 lbs., yet the price demanded of a foreigner was naturally twice as great as the common one. The Yenissej is famous for its richness in large eatable varieties of fish, and 1 was much disappointed that my own and my comrades' complete unacquaintance with the art of fish culture prevented us from bringing to Sweden, as I wished, impregnated roe at least of the giant-like Njelma of the Yenissej, probably the largest and finest of its family. During our voyage up the Yenissej I caused specimens of all the varieties of fish I could obtain to be carefully placed in a barrel filled with spirits. " Like most of the dwellers on the lower course of the Yenissej the inhabitants of the Nikandrovska fishing- station kept a number of dogs, which appeared to be of the same race as those used in Greenland for draught. The dogs are used in summer to tow boats along the banks up the river, and during winter for general trafiic. The dog, however, is considered, for reasons already stated in the introduction to Middendorfi"'s Siherische Reise, quite useless for long journeys over uninhabited tracts if no opportunity of fishing or hunting occurs in the course of the journey. In such cases reindeer are always employed. " Early next day we sailed, or more correctly, rowed on, the weather being'calm and very fine. AVe halted at noon at a now deserted simovie on the southern part of the island Sopotschnoj. Thence we proceeded first to Cape Maksuninskoj, where we visited a Samoyede family who had here set up their skin tent in order to collect the 298 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. necessary winter stock of fisli, then to Tolstoj Nos, a still inliabited, well hiiilt simovie, where the people re- ceived us in a very friendly manner and with great interest and surprise informed themselves regarding our journey. About two miles north of the settlement there was a beautiful chapel-like monument over one of the many who during the last century had been exiled hither for political reasons. He had, according to the inscrip- tion, first been hauged in the neighbourhood of the place where he lies buried, by the order of the authorities, but was afterwards declared innocent. This memorial was, singularly enough, the first indication which met us of a class of society which is so important in Siberia in all social respects. " We were informed here that the last steamer had passed the place five days previously, and was now lying some leagues farther up the river. I was therefore com- pelled to go on without delay, and after twenty-six hours sailing and rowing, interrupted only by short visits to land, at length on the 31st of August, at nine o'clock in the morning, we came up with the steamer, Alexandei', which Ave had been eagerly pursuing for the previous two days. Of this steamer the merchant, Ivan Michailovitsch Jar- meniefi", was master, and we were received by him with all conceivable good will, as indeed We were during the whole of our Siberian journey continually by all classes, high and low alike. " We were yet far to the north of the Arctic circle, and as many perhaps imagine that the little known region we were now travelling through, the Siberian tundra, is a desert wilderness covered either by ice and snow, or by an exceedingly scanty moss vegetation, it VII.] PASTUKES NEW. 299 perhaps may not be unsuitable to state that this is by no means the case. On the contrary, we saw snow, as has been mentioned before, during our journey up the Yenissej only at one place, in a deep valley cleft some fathoms in breadth, and the vegetation, especially on the islands which are overflowed during the spring floods, is distinguished by a luxuriance to which I have seldom seen anything comparable. " Already had the fertility of the soil and the immea- surable extent and richness in grass of the pastures drawn forth from one of our walrus-hunters, a middle-aged man^ who is owner of a little patch of ground among the fells in northern Norway, a cry of envy at the splendid land our Lord had given ' the Eussian,' and of astonishment that no creature pastured, no scythe mowed, the grass. Daily and hourly we heard the same cry repeated, and in even louder tones, when some weeks after we came to the grand old forests between Yenisseisk and Turuchansk, or to the nearly uniuhaljited plains on the other side of Krasnojarsk covered with deep tcherno-sem, (black earth) ; equal without doubt in fertility to the best parts of Scania, and in extent surpassing the whole Scandinavian peninsula. This judgment formed on the spot by a genuine though an illiterate agriculturist is not without interest in forming an idea of the future importance of Siberia. '' In the summer of 1875 three different Eussian expe- ditions traversed Siberia Vith the view of inquiring into the possibility of an improved river communication within the country. These expeditions have, according to unofficial communications made to me in Yenisseisk, arrived at the result that it is possible for an aggregate 300 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. sum of 700,000 roubles to render the Angara, a tributary of the Yenissej, the navigation of which is rendered difficult by cataracts, or more correctly rapids, navigable to the Baikal Lake and to connect the Obi with the Yenissej and the Yenissej with the Lena. How great an extent of territory the river communication thus pro- vided would embrace may be seen from the fact that according to the calculation of the academician von Baer the Obi-Irtisch and the Yenissej drain an area larger than the combined river territories of the Danube, the Don, the Dneiper, the Dneister, the Nile, the Po, the Ebro, the Rhone, and all the rivers which flow into the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmora and the Mediterranean. Part of the territory in question indeed lies to the north of the Arctic circle, but here too there are to be found the most extensive and the finest forests on the globe ; south of the forest region proper, level, stone-free plains covered with the most fertile soil stretch away for hundreds of leagues which only wait for the plough of the cultivator to yield the most abundant harvests, and farther south the Yenissej and its tributaries flow through regions where the grape ripens in the open air. As I write this, I have before me a bunch of splendid Siberian grapes. " The steamer Alexander was neither a passenger nor a cargo boat, but formed a movable warehouse pro- pelled by steam, the master of which was not a seaman, but a friendly merchant, who clearly did not take much concern with navigation, but more occupied himself with goods and trade, and was also seldom styled by the crew captain [kapitan), but generally master (hosain.) The equipment of the vessel itself corresponded to this state of things. The whole fore-cabin was fitted up as a VII.] A YENISSEJ STEAMER. 3Ul store, with shelves for the goods along the walls, a common desk, &c. The after-saloon was employed as a counting-house, writing and bedroom for the master, arid was besides also over-filled with various kinds of goods, spirit casks, &c. There was thus no place for passengers, and at the first instant, after we lay along- side the steamer, with the Swedish flag hoisted, the * master's ' reception of us was by no means specially friendly. At the beginning he was even not disposed to take us along. But I had scarcely succeeded in explain- ing to him, by the help of our pilot, Feodor, and a Swedish-Eussian dictionary, what sort of people we were, and what journey we had made, before all was completely altered, and from that moment we had in our ' master ' the most agreeable and accommodating host we could desire. In order to make ready a place for us on board, a cabin before the wheel-house was emptied and arranged as a room for passengers. Its extent, however, was by no means great. At night we could, for instance, with difficulty lie across it on a bed made of boards, which took up nearly the whole cabin. Our walrus- hunters at first found room where they could in the engine-room, and they were well taken care of by the engineer. Afterwards we obtained another somewhat more roomy cabin, and our walrus- hunters got that which we had at first. " The nautical command on board was in the hands of two mates of stately and original appearance, clad in long caftans, who each during his watch sat on a chair at the wheel, generally smoking a cigar, and, with the most careless appearance in the world, exchanging jokes with people descending the stream. A man stood 302 NORDENSKIOLD'S xVRCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. continually in the fore trying the depth with a long pole. For in order to avoid the strong current of the deep main stream, the course was never taken on the deepest part of the river, l)ut as near the bank as possible, often so near that it was almost possible to jump ashore, and that our Nordland boat, which was towed by the side of the steamer, was occasionally drawn over land. The Alexander had besides in tow at first one, afterwards two, lodje, almost of the same size as the steamer itself, intended for the reception of the fish bought during the voyage, which generally were salted and prepared on board. The whole way between Yenisseisk and the sea there was not a single jetty, and therefore both steamer and lodje had in tow a number of large and small lio^hters and boats intended for communication wdth the land. " Siberia, and especially the river territory of the Yenissej, possesses rich coal-seams, which probably ex- tend under a great part of the Siberian plain, but as yet are not worked, and are little valued. Like all the other steamers on the Siberian rivers, the Alexander on that account was fired not with coal, but with wood, of which, if I recollect right, 180 measures went to the voyage up the river. The steamer could, however, carry but a small part of this quantity at one time, for which reason frequent halts became necessary, not only for trade, but also for taking fuel on board. The weak engine too, notwithstanding the safety-valves were, when necessary, overloaded with lead weights, was often enough unable to take all it had in tow up the stream, which at some places was very rapid, and in the en- deavour to find water without a current near the banks VII.] ' PLANTS ON THE YENISSEJ. 3(3 we often went too near land, and ran aground, notwith- standing the steady ' hiduo ' cry of the poling pilot posted in the fore. Onr advance was therefore so slow, that it was only after the expiry of a whole month that we reached the steamer's destination, the town of Yenisseisk, • situated about 1,000 English miles from Dudino. "Under such circumstances most steamboat passengers would have been impatient and annoyed. To us, on the contrary, the delay was welcome, inasmuch as we thereby had an opportunity of extending our exami- nation of the flora and fauna of the Yenissej river valley beyond the 60th degree of latitude. It is easy to see that part of these researches will be of practical interest ; for instance, those made by Dr. Lundsfcrom on the flora of northern Yenissej. " Oar knowledge of it is founded hitherto on observa- tions made by scientific men (Middendorfl", Schmidt, &c.) who have visited these regions for other purposes, and had opportunities of directing their attention to the flora only in passing. Dr. Lundstrom's main object, on the contrary, was exclusively botanical (he had pre- viously made himself familiar with the Arctic plant world by tours in Lapland, and in his native district Norrland), and as during the journey up the river he came from the northerly regions, poor in species, to the southerly, rich in sj^ecies, it was easier for him than for one who travelled in an opposite direction to fix the limits of a large numl)er of species of general occur- rence, common to Siberia and Scandinavia. Abundant botanical and climatolooical material has been collected in this way, and when it is worked out it is easy to 304 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. see what new light a comparison of the distribution of plants towards the north within our own cultivated land and the desert regions of Siberia will spread over the question of the possibility of cultivating the latter country. I may here be permitted to state that, con- trary to what might have been supposed beforehand, the northern limit of many plants in Siberia is situated farther to the north than in Sweden. To a certain extent this may indeed depend on the transport of seeds with the great river from more southerly regions ; but it shows too that the severe winter of Siberia has by no means any specially unfavourable influence on the summer's growth. " Immediately after we came on board, the steamer weighed anchor and steamed to the church village Dudino, situated some leagues farther up the river at the mouth of the tributary Dudinka. The village con- sists of some few houses, inhabited by an influential merchant, Sotuikoff, two priests, a magistrate (s^notritel) , a couple of exiles, some labourers, and natives. Sotui- koff carries on an extensive and profitable trade with the natives in the whole of the surrounding district, bartering grain, cloth, tea, sugar, iron goods, powder,, lead, brandy, &c., for furs, fish, and mammoth tusks, &c., which are afterwards sent by steamer first up the Yenissej and afterwards, by difl"erent means of com- munication, to China, Moscow, Petersburg, &c. He is much praised by the academician Schmidt in his well- known account of his expedition for the exhumation of a mammoth found near the mouth of the Yenissej, for the liberal and energetic way in which he furthered the work of the expedition. Even to us the simple, VII.] YENISSEJ INTERIOES. 305 straightforward merchant was particuhirly accommo- dating and hospitable, and I must add iliat we met with the same reception from all the other notabilities of the place. The frieiidly clergyman, who was much interested in our journey, even performed a short thanksgiving service on board the steamer for the successful issue of our expedition, without accepting any special honorarium. "As in the simovies situated farther to the north, the houses in all the villages on the Yenissej are built of logs in much the same style as the dwellings of the well-to-do peasants in Russia, pretty close together, with the richly- carved gable to the street or lane. Except for the cockroaches that crawled round everywhere, the interiors of the houses were very clean, and the walls were adorned w^ith numerous, if not very artistic, photographs and engravings, for the most part of the imperial family, remarkable Eussian notabilities, often in generals' uniform, scenes from Russian history, &c. Richly decorated sacred pictures were always found placed in a corner, and before these there hung some small oil-lamps or little wax-lights, which were lighted on festivals. Sometimes the floor, at least in the principal room, was covered with furs. The bedstead was generally formed of a couch near the roof, so large that it occupied a third part or a lialf of the room, and so high from the Hoor that a man could go upright under it. Food was cooked in large ovens which were fired for that purpose daily, and at the same time warmed the houses. Fresh bread was to be had every day, and even for the household of tlie poor a large brass tea-urn was a necessary house- X 306 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. hold article. One was certain to meet with a hearty and friendly reception wherever he stepped over the threshold, and if he stayed a short time he generally had to drink a glass of tea with his hosts, whatever time of day it might happen to be. The dress was everywhere somewhat similar to the common Eussian dress ; for the well-to-do, for instance, wide velvet trousers stuck into the boots, a shirt grandly em- broidered with silver in the breast and a wide caftan often trimmed with fur ; for the poor, provided they were not too ragged, the same cut, but inferior, dirty, and torn materials. In winter, however, we were informed that for going out of doors the Samoyede pesk was common to high and low, Russian and native, settled and nomad. " At present there are only very few in these regions who have been exiled thither for political reasons, but there are many exiled criminals, and among them also some few Finns and even a Swede, or at least one who, according to his own statement in broken Swedish, had formerly served in the King's Guard at Stockholm. Security of person and j)roperty was in all cases complete, and it was remarkable that there appeared to be no proper distinction of caste between the Kussian-Siberian natives and those who had been exiled to these regions for breaches of the law. Little interest appeared to be taken in finding out what crimes had caused the exile. On making inquiry on this point I commonly got the sufficiently elastic reply, 'for bad behaviour.' " I have already stated that mammoth tusks here form an important article of commerce. They appear VII.] MAMMOTH FINDS. 307 also to occur in great numbers on the tundra, though the badness of the communications often renders their removal impossible. Though this is the proper mam- moth region, it is believed that large pieces of the skeleton are very uncommon, especially such as still have the flesh, hide, and hair upon them. It was for instance on the peninsula between the Obi and the Yenissej that the famous Trofimoff" mammoth Jind was made, and in the neighbourhood of the same place was found the mammoth which gave occasion to Schmidt's expedition. It is besides probable that the nomad native here has the same indisposition to inform the Tchinownik (ofiicial) of a large mammoth Jind as the Swedish peasant had in former times, and still has in certain districts, to give information of the discovery of a supposed vein of ore. " On the 4th September, the weather being splendid, the Alexander again weighed anchor and steamed southw^ards. " The landscape now began l)y degrees completely to alter its character. On most maps indeed the limit of trees is drawn at that considerable bend which the Yenissej makes immediately west or north-west of Dudino, and here for the first time are found numerous pines, seldom more than twenty feet high. They covered the heights with a scattered and by no means specially striking vegetation which completely lacked the luxuriant character which marked the willow and alder thickets farther to the north. Some few leagues to the south of Dudino, however, the pine-forest was already magnificent, although the place is north of the Arctic circle. It is here that the forest proper X 2 308 NORDEN SKI OLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. commences, tlie most extensive forest in the world, stretching with few" interruptions across the whole of Siberia, in one direction from Ural to the Sea of Ochotsk, in the other south of the 58th or 59th degree of latitude and north of the Arctic circle ; indeed at several places, for instance at the rivers Chatanga and Lena, beyond it or to the neighbourhood of 72° N. Lat., that is, to the mouths of the Chatanga and Lena, more than sixty miles to the north of the North Cape. "During our boat and steamer journey up the Yenissej w^e had hitherto only landed either on the eastern bank of the river, which was everywhere high, or on some of the numerous islands wdiich at certain places occur in the river where it widens almost to a lake. On the 7th September we had an opportunity of landing on the w^estern bank of the river which, like the w^estern bank of most of the rivers running from south to north, consists of ground almost on a level with the water, and of low-]ying tracts overflowed in spring. This meadow land was now covered partly with an extraordinarily luxuriant carj)et of grass, of coui'se un- touched by the scythe, partly by an exceedingly peculiar bush vegetation of equal height, among which w^e found a great number of herbaceous plants known in Sweden, here from six to eio^ht feet hio-h. Close thickets of a beautiful straight- stemmed willow often alternated with even turf of a lively green, and one small stream of water fell into the Yenissej in such a way that the whole had the appearance of a very beautiful park carefully kept and watered. On the eastern bank again the ancient forest proper commenced at the river bank. Here nature had a quite different character — grand and VII.] DANGERS OF THE FOREST. 309 gloomy. The forest consisted mainly of pines already, from a point north of the Polar circle, often of the most colossal dimensions^ — but in such cases many times grey and half withered by age. Between these the ground was so covered with fallen branching stems, some of them fresh, others half rotten or wholly changed into mould, held together only by the bark, that one could only force a way with difficulty, and with the danger of breaking his legs, in the thicket of logs. Besides, the fallen stems were everywhere covered, many times even concealed, by an uncommonly luxuriant moss vegetatio]!, while lichens occurred only very sparingly, in consequence of which the pines wanted the shaggy covering common in Sweden, and the bark on the birches which were visible here and there among the pines had an uncommon blinding whiteness. When one goes into this unvaried forest a little way from the river he ought to see that he has a correct knowledge of the points of the compass — a mistake here might carry him in a direction where for a distance of a hundred, perhaps two hundred leagues, there is no chance of meeting with an inhabited place. In speaking of the vegetation of those regions it may be mentioned that in the north forest region along; the river bank there is great abundance of wild currants, both red and white, exceedingly well-tasted and of dimensions exceeding even the largest varieties of cultivated fruit I have had the opportunity of seeing. " Ever since we left Jevremov Kamen, near the mouth of the Yenisscg, we had seen no solid rock, but on the 8th we saw, on the eastern bank, rocks in situ. Here, as at a number of the other places where we landed, 310 NORDENSKIOLD'SARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. we made a rich collection of land MoUusca. By these collections, which have been handed over to he worked out by our skilful molluscologist Dr. C. A. Westerlund, at Ronneby, the known Mollusc-fauna of northern Siberia will be considerably increased, and many erroneous views concerning the geographical distribution of this interest- ing animal group rectified. The same holds good of various other land or fresh-water vertebrates, of which considerable collections were made, which have been handed over to specialists to be worked out. " After halting at about ten different simovies, or fishing-places, for a longer or shorter time, we came, on the 12th September, to a simovie — Silivanskoj, exclu- sively inhabited by Skoptzi. The Russian orthodox Church is, as is well-known, tolerant towards foreigners of other religions — Lutherans, Catholics, Jews, Mahom- medans, Buddhists, Schumans, &c., but, on the other hand, persecutes, quite in the same way as was formerly done in the Protestant world, sectaries Avithin its own pale with temporal punishments on earth, and with threaten- iugs of eternal suffering in another w^orlcl. Especially in past times have a large number of sectaries been sent to Siberia ; and here, accordingly, are sometimes to be found thriving settlements inhabited exclusively by a certain sect. Such is the Skopt settlement at Silivanskoj, w^here, however, it may be remarked that the nature of the religious delusion in this case brings upon them the severity of the law or the administration. For on the ground of a text in the gospel of Matthew, interpreted in a surprising way, all Skoptzi subject themselves to a self-mutilation, in consequence of which the sect can only exist by new proselytes ; and remarkably enough vii.] THE SKOPT SETTLEMENT. 311 these fonatics, in spite of all persecution, or perhaps just on account of it, still, in flict, find followers. A number of the Skoptzi are natives of Ingermanland, and so I could, without difficulty, converse with them. They informed me that they had, 'for righteousness' sake,' been torn from their homes, imprisoned, flogged, and sent to Siberia. Here they had, by industry and perseverance, succeeded in attaining a certain degree of prosperity, were hospitable and friendly, and bore their hard fate with resignation, assured that, in another life, they w^ould have a rich compensation for all their sacrifices, suffer- ings, and misfortunes here below. They did not them- selves kill any warm-blooded animal, ' for it was a sin to kill what the Lord had created ; ' but this did not prevent them from killing and eating fish, nor from selling to us- — who in any case were lost beings — for eighteen roubles a fine fat ox, on condition that our own people should slaughter it. Their dislike to animal food had, besides, the good result of inducing them to cultivate the soil. Eound the huts, therefore, were to be found patches of land with potatoes, turnips, and cabbao;es, althouo;h the settlement was situated in the latitude of Avasaxa, that is to say under the Arctic circle. " Later in the day we came to the Troit monastery, in former times renowned and rich, but now inhabited by a single monk, the prior himself. He was an aged and venerable man, and received us in a hospitable and friendly manner. The guest-house was adorned with many paintings of Siberian bishops. There was a portrait of a Russian czar in powdered hair and scanty military uniform, with blue grand-cross riband. It was 312 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [giiai\ a likeness of Czar Paul, but, by some mistake, the Skoptzi had got it in tlicir heads that the picture repre- sented their holy prophet, Czar Peter III., whose history the Skoptzi had completely altered in accordance with their idea of the world. An educated man, who belonged to this sect, and was on this account banished to North Yenissej, informed me in all seriousness, that Czar Peter III. was not murdered, but was knouted, and sent to Siberia, all on account of his holiness ; and it happens as a result of all this that the portrait of Czar Paul in the Troit monastery has l)ecome a sacred picture to which prayer is offered. " I have already referred to the rich abundance which the Yenissej yields of uncommonly fine varieties of fish, and stated that we made as complete a collection of them as possible during our river journey. The slow voyage of the steamer in search of fish was besides utilised by me in collecting statements regarding the names, selling price to the steamer, and size of the most important varieties of fish. These are to be found in the followino; table : — Njelma Tschir I Species of Omul f Coregonus, Muksun / Salmon (Taimen) . . . Sterlet Sturgeon Silj (young of Coregonus) Common Greatest Weight. Weight. 13 lb. 50 1b. 6 „ 25 „ H.. 3 „ 4 ,, 12 „ 16 „ 80 „ 3 „ 30 ,, 1 16 „ 280 „ 1 — — Price. 80 kop. per pood. 10 2 9 each. 150 kop. per pood. 40 „ VII.] THE SAMOYEDES. 313 " The trade is carried on so that tlie goods which are to be bought are valued in money, but payment is made in goods after the merchant's valuation, on which account the true price is perhaps considerably lower than that here given. "After the numerous crew of the Alexander and the lodje had with great devoutness attended divine service in the church of the monastery and in a neighbourino- chapel, where the holy founder's dust is preserved, after we had seen various remarkable things belonging to the monastery, among them an exceedingly well preserved Slavonic Bible from the sixteenth century, and after I had paid a visit, along with the captain, to an old cripple, who in his youth had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, we steamed on. As was usual, we went ahead only slowly in consequence of the strong current and the frequent delays, which of course were taken advantage of by us for making excursions, talking with the natives, &c. These consisted partly of Russian settlers, partly of natives, 'Asiatics,' who, some on their own account, others in the service of Russians, had settled here for the summer to fish in the rivers. In such cases they lived in tents of quite the same form as the Lap]3 Kota. The Samoyede tent is commonly covered with reindeer skins, the Ostiak tent with birch bark. There is always to be found in the neighbourhood of the tent a large number of dogs, which are employed in winter for general purposes, and in summer for tracking boats against the current, a means of pro- pulsion on water which highly surprised our walrus- hunters. For this purpose a sufficient number of dogs arc harnessed to a long line, one end of whicli is 3U NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES [chap. fastened to the stem of tlie boat. The closfs then go forward on the level strand, where veritable dog-paths are formed in this way, and the boat, which is not deep in the water, is kept afloat at a sufiicient distance from the bank, and is managed by a person sitting in the stern. The boats are often hollowed out of a sinHe tree-stem, and may be nevertheless, thanks to the dimensions of the v.'ood in those regions, of very beautiful form and very large. The dogs have a strong resemblance to the Eskimo dogs in Greenland, which are also employed as draught animals. The fact perhaps may be regarded as a proof that the same climatic relations and similar ways of employing a species of animal produce similar races. We are informed that at the present time most of the natives who come in contact with the Russians profess Christianity. That many heathenish customs still survive is shown for instance by the following incident. At a simovie, where we landed for several hours on the 16th September, we found as usual a burying-place in the wood near the houses. The bodies were placed in large cofiins above ground, with a cross nearly always erected beside them. At one of the graves a sacred picture was afiixed to the cross, which must be regarded as a further proof that a Christian reposed in the coffin. Notioithstanding this, some clothes ivliicli had belonged to the deceased were found hanging on a hush at the grave, together with a bundle containing food, principally dried Jish. At the graves of the well-to-do natives we learn that the survivor even places some rouble notes beside the food, that the departed may not be altogether devoid of ready money on his entrance into the other world. But that VII.] RIVER SOUNDINGS. 315 grand clothes are not looked upon as any special recom- mendation by St. Peter is evidenced by the exceedino-ly dirty, ragged, and mended condition of the garments hung up at the grave. " Hitherto during our voyage up the river from Dudino we had had very fine, often warm, autumn weather. The first frost south of Saostrovskoj occurred on the night before the 20tli September, and from that day the temperature of the nights was generally under the freezing-point. The days, however, were still warm and fine. The fall of rain was slio;lit. " On the 20th we anchored at the mouth of one of the largest tributaries which the Yenissej receives from the east, namely the Podkammenaja Tunguska. Im- mediately below a welcome opportunity offered of making soundings right across the river which was here somewhat over a kilometre in breadth. A short distance from the western bank the lead gave four fathoms, the depth then diminished to two and a half fathoms, but afterwards increased to seven fathoms. At many other places soundings were made which appear to confirm the statement of the pilots, that the depth of the river up to Yenisseisk is sufficient even for vessels of con- siderable draught. In order to establish this with full o certainty, however, and to ascertain the most suitable course for navigation, there are wanted far more compre- hensive hydrographical surveys than those which we had the opportunity of making in passing. " As I have already stated, luxuriant patches of potatoes and cabbage were met with at the Skopt colony north of the Arctic circle, and the farther south we came the more did such patches increase in number and size. 310 NOKDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. There is no proper cultivation of grain at present until WQ come to Sj^kobatka, situated in the sixtieth degree of latitude, but without doubt in the future, when the ivoods and mosses are diminished, a profitable agricul- ture may be carried on much farther to the north. Already from this point, where cultivation is now carried on to the southern boundary of Siberia, or more correctly to the steppe lands of Central Asia, we have at most places more than six hundred miles, and if we consider that a belt of land of this breadth, for the most part covered with splendid, easily cultivable soil, stretches right across the whole of Asia from Ural to the Pacific, we may form an idea of the extensive field of conquest for the plough to be found in these regions, and the future which, some time, ought to open for them. " Immediately south of Sykobatka we passed the church village of Nasimovskoj and a now deserted gold washing ' residence ' situated right opposite to it, called after the first conqueror of Siberia, Jermakova. It ori- ginated from the discovery of sand-beds rich in gold in a pretty extensive territory situated on an eastern tribu- tary of the Yenissej, which before the discovery of Cali- fornia was said for a short time to be the richest gold country in the world. Here, within a limited period many colossal fortunes were made, and the stories of the hundreds of poods which were washed one year or an- other, and the fast, reckless life led by those to whom the great prizes of the gold- washing lottery fell, still form a favourite topic of conversation in the region. Many of the once rich gold- washers have been ruined in the struggle to win more, and others who succeeded in retaining their gold ' pood,' — that is the mint unit gold- VII.] INLAND NAVIGATION. 317 washers prefer to use in conversation — have removed to Paris, Petersburg, Moscow, Omsk, Krasnojarsk, &c. All the ' residences,' therefore, are now deserted, and on the eastern bank of the river form a row of half-decayed wooden edifices surrounded with young trees, after which, soon enough, only the tradition of the former period of prosperity will be left standing. In one respect, however, these gold-washers have exerted a powerful in- fluence on the future of the country. For it is by them that the first pioneers have been scattered in the wilder- ness, the first seeds sown of the cultivation of the region. " At many places along the river there is to be seen besides another peculiar memorial, dating chiefly from the time when workmen by thousands were yearly assem- bled at the gold- washing places — colossal flat-bottomed boxes formed of logs, here called ' barks,' which lie drawn up on the banks in a state more or less decayed. They have been employed for the transport along the river of the necessaries of life from southern Siberia — and one may get an idea of the quiet flow of the Siberian rivers so suitable for water communication, from goods having been carried in this way as far as to the most northerly simovies on the Yenissej along the main river from re- gions lying south of Minusinsk, near the Chinese frontier, and along its tributary the Angara from the Baikal Lake — indeed from beyond it, for even the river Selenga, which falls into it from the south, is navigable for a good part of its course. In order to render the river navigable from Yenisseisk there are required, however, as I have already stated, some operations, inconsiderable in com- parison with the importance of the object, for clearing the channel. ' Barks ' of medium size, buiJt in Minusinsk 318 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. for the transport of grain, cost 300 roubles, load 130 tons, and are managed during their passage down the river by fifteen men. After reaching their destina- tion they are sold, if a buyer can be found, for a few roubles. Notwithstanding their awkward form they are very suitable for the river traffic in question — and they would be still more so if twenty or thirty such craft were formed into a train and towed by a small tug like those employed in the archipelago of Stockholm. In this way the number of the crew on each ' bark ' mig;ht be dimi- nished one-third — and the cost of transport, already low, be further reduced. " Since the 20ih September night frosts had often occurred, which naturally diminished the collections made during excursions from the halting-places. We were therefore more impatient than before to reach our nearest destination. The rapid current and the frequent halts, however, still delayed our journey, so that the anchor could not be let go at the town, Yenisseisk, until the 31st September. Here we stayed several days for the purpose of getting news from Europe, inspecting some fine collections in natural history made in the neighbourhood by an exile, Herr M. Marks, settling our affairs, &c., in connection with which I ought to mention Herr Balangin, the owner of the Alexander, who declined to receive any fare for our long voyage in his steamer, so that I, instead, handed over to him and the excellent captain, Herr Jarmenieff, as a memorial of it, the Nord- land boat in which we had begun our river journey and w^hich had afterwards been brought along in tow. " Our home journey was afterwards continued over land by Krasnojarsk, Tomsk, Omsk, Tjumen, Ekaterine- VII.] HOME BY THE YENISSEJ. 319 burg, Tagilsk, Perm, Kasan, Nischni-Novgorod, Moscow, Petersburg, and Helsingfors to Abo, and thence by steamer to Stockholm." For this voyage, from Norway to the mouth of the Yenissej, whereby a sea route to Siberia was inaugurated, Nordenskiold received in January, 1876, the thanks of the Russian Government. CHAPTER VIIL SECOND VOYAGE TO THE YEXISSEJ IN 1876. The success of Nordenskiold's expedition to the Yenissej in 1875 was complete, but there were some who urged that it was dependent on an unusually favourable state of the ice. Nordenskiold endeavoured to meet this objection by a reference to the voyages of the Norwegian walrus- hunters, of the brothers Palliser in 1869 and of Wio-ains in 1874 in the Kara Sea. As it was the case however that the Yenissej had only been reached by a single vessel, and as besides it was desirable to carry on the scientific researches which had been commenced both in the Kara Sea and in the valley of the Yenissej, it was resolved to send out in 1876 two expeditions, one by sea and the other by land, the latter to descend the Yenissej and meet the former near the mouth of the river. Nordenskiold gave the charge of the land expedition to Dr. Hjalmar Theel, who was accompanied by two botanists. Rector M. Brenner of Helsingfors and Docent H. W. Arnell of Upsala, and by two zoologists. Dr. J. Sahlberg of Helsingfors and Candidate F. Trybom of Upsala. For the sea voyage the Ymer, a strong cargo steamer, built of oak, of 40 horse-power and 400 tons burden, was chartered. In order practically to open this new CH. viii.] THE YMER SETS SAIL. 321 commercial route, some goods were taken on board, chiefly samples of Swedish manufacture, suitable for North Siberia. The expenses of the expeditions were defrayed by Mr. Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg, and Mr. Alexander Sibiriakoff, a wealthy Siberian. Nordenskiold was accompanied in the Ymer by Decent F. Kjellman and Dr. A. Stuxberg, both members of the expeditions of 1875, and the former of that of 1872-3. The Yiner left Tromsoe on the 25th July going within the archipelago past Hammerfest to Masoe, a commercial settlement situated some few leagues to the south-west of North Cape. Besides the merchants and some half- score of fisher families, there is here a church, an hospital chaplain, and a medical man, and the place thus forms the farthest outpost of European civilisation towards the north. Here Dr.' Kjellman was landed, in order that during the voyage of the Ymer to Yenissej he might commence an examination of the marine algae of noTth-eastern Norway, which had become highly desirable on account of the similar work which the same observer previously carried out in 1872-3 on Spitzbergen and in 1875 on the coast of Novaya Zemlya. The Ymer remained here only as long as was necessary to land Dr. Kjellman, his travelling eftects and scien- tific equipment, and then steamed on through Mageroe Sound towards the east. The course was shaped for Pervoussmotrennaja Gora, a mountain two to three thousand feet high, situated on the west coast of Novaya -Zemlya in 73° N.L., visible far 'out at sea. By the hunters from the plains of Northern Russia it was con- sidered for some centuries back, and perhaps is still Y 322 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. considered, the forepost of the world's highest mountain- chain, and it obtained its distinctive name, " the first seen mountain," more tlian half a century ago, from the famous Russian Polar traveller, Admiral Count Liitke. " With a favourable wind, a calm and completely ice- free sea," "WTites Nordenskiold, " we sighted this moun- tain three days after passing Nordkyn. Immediately after, however, we were detained some hours by a thick fog, which on the 30th dispersed so much that we could enter Matotschkin, the long, narrow, but deep sound which intersects Novaya Zemlya from east to west, im- mediately to the north of the seventy-third degree of lati- tude. Near the western mouth, directly opposite the river Tschirakina, two Russian vessels lay at anchor on our arrival. We halted a few moments in order — as is usual at such meetings in the Polar sea — to have a talk about the state of the ice, hunting, &c. The Russian hunters informed us that they were engaged in the capture of white fish, reindeer, and salmon, of which the last occurs at the mouths of the rivers of Novaya Zemlya in extraordinary abundance, and has occasionally been the object of a profitable fishery. Hitherto, how- ever, their success had been inconsiderable. For they had taken only a few salmon, of which they gave us two in token of welcome — a gift which was of course imme- diately returned. As we had not succeeded during the former year's expedition in obtaining from Novaya Zemlya any full-grown specimens of this noble fish so variable in its types, the gift was specially welcome to the zoologist, and it fell accordingly to his spirit-cisterns and not to the kitchen. " We soon steamed on to the eastern part of the sound, VIII.] WE MEET THE ICE. 323 where we anchored in Bjeluscha Bay, which is situated on the north side and is well protected from winds. We remained here nearly a day getting the coal out of the hold into the bunkers, the naturalists of the expedi- tion employing the time as usual in dredging, geological excursions, &c. " The anchor was weighed on the afternoon of the 31st July. Two hours thereafter the Ymer left Matot- schkin and steamed into the Kara Sea. We had up to this time met with only a few pieces of ice which were driven hither and thither by the current in the eastern part of the sound, but in the offing the Kara Sea was free of ice as far as the eye could reach. It appeared as if we could still reckon on open water. The course was therefore shaped right eastw^ard. Within a short time, however, we saw in this direction the usual sign of ice — a white streak of lio-ht in the stratum of air nearest the horizon — and some hours afterwards we fell in with loose pieces of ice, which increased in number until the whole sea at length was so covered with closely-packed drift-ice that it was no longer advisable to force our way farther in that direction. I now endeavoured to go round the mass of ice in a southerly direction, but here, too, the Yme7^ soon met with unnavigable ice. It was therefore necessary to turn and wait at some convenient place near the eastern mouth of Matotschkin for a more favourable state of the ice. " In order to be in as favourable a position as possible for observing the position of the ice, T anchored on the inner side of the promontory which projects from the southern shore of the sound, about half way between its mouth and.Gubin Bay. There is to be seen here a v 2 321 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. ruined Russian hut, and tlie place is marked on the map as Rossmyslov's winter station 1768-69. " The sea is here rich in varying animal types, the land bleak and poor. The mountains for the most part consist of black clay-slates, probably pre-Silurian, and grey dolomite beds, in which I searched for fossils with- out success. The slates, on the other hand, were full of quartz veins with numerous drusy cavities whose glitter- ing crystalline contents gave occasion to the statement of the unfortunate Tschirakin, that he had found here a l)lock of stone set full of the most beautiful and valuable precious stones — an account for which after his death he was bitterly reproached by his chief Rossmyslov, who sought in vain for the supposed treasure. " In one respect this part of Novaya Zemlya is of great geological interest. For here are to "be seen no fewer than seven distinctly-marked beaches, situated at different heights above each other and showing that the land here has risen during the latest geological period at least 500 feet. With the exception of Greenland, where during the latest centuries a considerable sinking of the land has taken place, a similar raising of the land has been observed in most other Arctic regions, and this elevation has without doubt played a very important part in the great geological clianges which have occurred on the surface of the globe since the close of the Tertiary period. For us Swedes the phenomenon is of special interest, because attention was first drawn to it in our country more than a century ago, and it then gave occasion to a violent controversy well known in the history of science. " Oji the 5th August at 4 a.m. we again weighed viif.] ICE AND FOG. 325 anclior to steam into the Kara Sea. As there had been no strong westerly or south-westerly winds during the days preceding our departure^ there was still no prospect of finding open water right eastward. A broad ice-free belt of water had in the meantime been formed along the east coast. I determined to make use of this in order to endeavour to find a way farther south over the sea, which this }'ear was thought to be fuller of ice than usual. Most of the ice-fields w^ere, however, already quite wasted away, and it was clear that they would be entirely melted during the remaining part of the summer. "Favoured by splendid calm weather the Ymer steamed raj^idly forward along the coast, so that on the 6th Auo'ust the latitude of the Kara Gate was reached. O A new attempt was made to sail right across the sea ; but this time too our advance was soon hindered, partly by ice, partly by a thick mist which rendered naviga- tion amongr the ice-fields exceedinirly difficult. I was often compelled to let the Ymer lie still in the fog several hours on end, and these delays afi"orded excellent opportunities for carrying on the zoological and hydro- graphical work. When the fog lightened a little, we steamed on, following the edge of the ice as far as possible. This soon drew to the east, and if the weather had been clear we would probably have been able to reach the opposite shore the following day. Now four days were rec^uired for this, so that we first sighted Cape Bjeluscha on the west side of Yalmal on the 10th August. " The sea along the coast was covered with ice-fields very much wasted, which at first were so scattered that they did not hinder our progress in any noteworthy 326 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. degree. At many places, however, more compact bands of ice extended from the coast, and the navigation was still rendered difficult by a fog more or less dense, which made it impossible to distinguish the extent and distri- bution of the floes from the vessel. In the attempt to force a passage through such a belt of only a few hun- dred fathoms' breadth, the Ymer, at noon of the 10th, was beset among some pieces of thick old ice which lay among the thin rotten year's ice. After being beset about twenty-four hours, we again got free, not on the north, but the south side of the ice-belt, however, which therefore still formed an obstacle to our progress. A mist, besides, made it impossible to judge of the extent of the belt from the ship, and thus to sail round it, w^hich would not, jDrobably, otherwise have been attended with any difiiculty or great loss of time. " At noon of the 12th the ice-belt lying before us had at last broken up — so much that we could steam on. The sea became more and more ice-free, so that we could continue our course without any deviations caused by ice, round White Island, past the Gulf of Obi, to the mouth of the Yenissej. " We sighted land here on the 15th, thus exactly a year from the time when the rocks at Dickson Harl^our were first seen from the Proeven. It was some hours earlier than the dead reckoning promised which at first was ascribed to the influence of an easterly current in the part of the Kara Sea in which we had been sailing during the previous days. When w^e came nearer I was surprised to see before me a plain uninterrupted by any ridges (osar), though I knew, from the former year's experience, that an elevated ridge (bergos), low indeed, VIII.] AN ISLAND AT THE RIVER MOUTH. 327 but distinctly marked, runs across the tundra towards Jevremov Kamen. Neither could we discover any of the numerous rocky islands that distinguish Dickson Har- bour. In the meantime we continued our course up the river along the shore, and after the lapse of four or five hours, obtained a highly unexpected explanation of the circumstances just mentioned ; for it appeared that the gulf at the mouth of the Yenissej, which is about seventy miles wide, is divided in two by an island above thirty miles long, which appeared to have been unknown both to the Russian map-makers and to the natives. That it has not hitherto been observed probably arises from the fact that it is not visible from the river bank, along which the few boats which traverse this part of the river appear always to have kept. The navigable water on both sides is deep and free from shallows. This large new island ought clearly to be of advantage to navigation in these regions, forming, as it does, a welcome protection from north- westerly winds and sea for the vessels in the mouth of the river. I intend to name it Sibiriakoff"'s Island, after the zealous and generous patron of all the Siberian expeditions of the present year. " During our voyage up the river we steamed in the forenoon of the 16th between Sverevo and Sopotschnaja where the mouth of the river, for the first time, narrows Korga, to a breadth of about thirteen miles. Soon after we anchored at Goltschika, the nortliernmost simovie at present inhabited on the eastern bank of the Yenissej. The commercial agent settled there immediately came on board. He informed us that during the course of the summer the place had been visited by three river steamers which had taken away the wares collected during .^28 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. summer, and had furnished his modest store with a new stock. lie had been told that SidorofF had fitted out a vessel to convey a cargo of graphite to Eurojoe^ and that some foreigners had been in Yenisseisk, whence they intended to undertake a journey down the river to its mouth. Nothing more, however, had been heard of this journey. " Impatient to meet with my comrades as soon as possible, I again weighed anchor and steamed to Me- senkin, in the near neighbourhood, the place which, for the reasons stated below, had been appointed a ren- dezvous with Theel's party. " When I travelled up the river the year before T was incidentally informed by the natives that parts of the skin of a mammoth had been washed out of the tundra near our halting place at the mouth of the Mesenkin, which I had left some days before. Unfortunately, however, it was too late to make an examination, as the season w^as so far advanced, and it was only by the utmost exertion that I could get up with the last steamer that left Dudino for Yenisseisk in the autumn of 1875. But of course I wished instead to avail myself of the opportunity which this year's expedition offered to gain some addition to our knowledge regarding one of the most interesting C[uestions of geology, and to obtain for our museums one of those much talked-of remains of a former period preserved from destruction in the frozen soil of Siberia. It was accordingly included in the plan of the expe- dition that Theel should endeavour to reach Mesenkin in time enough to make excavations at the place indi- cated. A further reason for fixing the rendezvous so far to the north was the uncertainty of finding water VIII.] WE SAIL UP THE RIVER. 329 sufficiently deep for the Ymer farther south without soundings, which Theel's party were to carry out during their boat journey down the river. " A couple of hours after leaving Goltschika I anchored at Mesenkin, where some Eussians — among them Feodor, my attendant from the previous year — and a number of natives happened to be assembled. We, however, did not meet with our comrades, and none of the inhabitants had heard anything of them." Nordenskiold made an excursion to the place where the mammoth hide was said to have been found, and succeeded in digging out of a newly-formed sancl-bank a couple of large and a number of small pieces of hide which appeared to have been recently washed by the spring floods to the place where they were found from some point higher up the valley. He also got from the natives some pieces of hide and two fragments of bone, the only parts of the skeleton that had been discovered. On the morning of the 17th August the Ymer started in order to proceed farther up the river. In the neigh- bourhood of Jakovieva the depth, which up to this point had been from five to twelve fathoms, began to diminish. A dense fog rendered navigation very difficult, and after running aground several times in the search for a deeper channel, and being warped off again without damage, the Ymer returned to. the former anchorage off the Mesenkin. Nordenskiold now determined to await the arrival of Theel's party at the appointed rendezvous, and to em- ploy the time in discharging the Ywer'i- cargo at the simovie Korepovskoj, situated a little to the south of the Mesenkin, and to leave them under charge of the guide 330 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Feodor, who lived there, and was considered trustworthy. It was necessary to do this because the last steamer for the season had already gone up the river. The lauding of the goods was commenced on the 21st and finished on the evening of the 23rd August, There being no return cargo to be had, the Ymer was again ready to sail on the 25th, and dropped down the river to the mouth of the Mesen- kin. Not finding the overland party there Nordenskiold made another attempt to ascend the river but did not get so far south as before, anchoring between Orlovskoj and Gostinoi. " I chose this place," he writes, " on account of some hone Jinds, which during a preceding excursion had been made in a valley on the tundra near by. The following days were devoted to excursions which yielded interest- ing information regarding the geology of the tundra, and an exceedingly rich collection of sub-fossil shells which were found in the tundra sand. " By the word tundra are denoted, as is well known, the immense plains in Russia and Siberia lying between the limit of trees and the Polar sea. The ground at least in the northern portions of the Siberian tundra is constantly frozen at a limited depth, but it bears during summer a vegetation of low bushes, mosses, and grass, which yields summer pasture to numerous herds of rein- deer, some wdld, others tame, which wander about here. " On the eastern bank of the Yenissej the tundra forms a level or slightly-rolling plain sloping towards the river with an escarpment 50 to 100 feet high. In tiie interior the plain is not interrupted by any considerable heights, but on the contrary is intersected at many places by deep river A^alleys, whose precipitous sides ofi"er beautiful VIII.] ORIGIN OF THE TUNDRA. 331 sections of the earthy strata. Od a cursory examina- tion it is evident that they consist for the most part of enormous masses of sand and mud washed down by the rivers of Siberia. The tundra is, however, by no means a common delta formation. Numerous marine shells imbedded in the sand show that the tundra plain in former times lay under the surface of the sea, and that therefore a considerable elevation of the land has taken place during the latest geological periods. For the shells imbedded in the tundra sand all belong to living types, the most of which have been dredged up by us from the Kara Sea, and are to be found in the post-glacial shell-banks of Udde valla and Christiania Fjord, and the Crag formation of England. All this show^s that the tundra has been formed under climatal conditions very similar to the present, which is further confirmed by the geognostic formation of the strata. It has therefore long been difficult of explanation for the geologist that just in those sandy strata is found a large number of remains of mammoths, rhinoceroses, &c., that is to say, of animal types which for the present live only in tropical or subtro- pical climates.^ This evident contrariety has indeed ob- tained an explanation through the researches of Midden - dorf, Schmidt, and Brandt, the Petersburg academicians. But there still remains much to clear up, and collections from those regions have a peculiar interest from the re- markable circumstance that in the frozen soil of the tundra are found, not only skeletons, but also the flesh, hide, hair, and entrails of animal-forms which died out many ^ The mainuLoth, for instance, is believed to be the progenitor of the now living Indian elephant, but a progenitor considerably lai-gerthan the descendant, and provided with an abundant covering of hair. 332 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. thousand centuries ago. I therefore availed myself with delight of the opportunities which offered themselves for excursions in the neighbourhood of the places where the vessel was anchored. Among our collections may be mentioned large pieces of mammoth hide found along with some few fraa;ments of bone where the Mesenkin falls into the Yenissej, the skull of a musk ox, remark- able for its size, found along with fragments of mammoth bones in another tundra valley south of Orlovskoj, a very rich collection of sub-fossil shells found principally between Orlovskoj and Gostinoi, Various interesting observations regarding the geological formation of the tundra were also made. " During our stay on the Yenissej a close mist with rain was often prevailing, but otherwise we were favoured, as the following table shows, with warm, summer-like weather: — Table showing the temperature of the air and the direction of the wind at the northerly simovies of the Yenissej fi'om IQth August to 1st September, 1876. Minimuin. Maximum. Wind. August 16 13-6° C. 20-4° C. E.S.E. )j 17 11-0 12-6 S.E. >) 18 11-5 14-9 S. J) 19 7-8 9-9 s.w. jj 20 9-5 14-4 E. ,, 21 11-4 15-6 S.E. ! J 22 11-9 140 S.E. J> 23 10-3 18-7 Calm, N.N.W. )) 24 7-9 10-0 KW. )) 25 9-3 11-8 N. 5> 20 9-0 16-4 N. 1> 27 11-3 12-9 Calm. J5 28 11-8 12-5 S. }) 29 2-2 7-6 S.W. >) 30 5-2 58 N.W. >) 31 1-3 5-:) N. Sei pt. 1 3-0 7-0 N.N.E. VIII.] OUR COMRADES. 333 " The ground was quite free of snow, and in many places, particularly in the tundra valleys, adorned with a variegated carpet of flowers. The natives stated, however, that the first part of the summer had not been so fine in those regions, and that the previous winter had been exceedingly severe. The temperature of the river water at the surface was almost constantly 12° to 13° C, and even at a depth of nine fathoms the deep- water thermometer showed ll°'l C. " It had been settled before leaving Stockholm that in case the Ymer did not succeed in reaching the Yenissej, Theel should in no case remain on the northern part of Yenissej so long as to run any risk of missing the last steamer of the year to Yenisseisk. I had now been in- formed by the natives that the last river steamer was to start from Saostrovskoj about the 7th September (new style). The distance from this place to Mesenkin is about 165 English miles, to traverse which in a boat up the river seven or eight days are considered necessary under ordinary circumstances. It was not to be supposed that Theel would continue his boat journey beyond Saostrovskoj in case it appeared that Mesenkin could not be reached before 1st September. I therefore did not consider it necessary to remain with the Ymer in those regions after the end of August, and not at all advisable, as in any case there was no certainty that the large quantity of ' year's ice ' which we met with in the Kara Sea in the first week of August would be so completely melted away before new ice was formed, that there would be no danger of being beset if our return were too long delayed. For these reasons it was determined to start on the 1st September, however 334 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. unpleasant it might be to return without the members of the Siberian land expedition, and without bringing with us the very large collections they certainly had made. Before starting, however, I sent off a messenger in a boat for a heavy payment (reindeer were not now to be had) to Saostrovskoj with a letter to Theel informing him of our intention to start for Norway on the day that we had fixed." This letter reached Theel, who with his party bad by the 11th August got as far north as the Briochovski Islands, but found it impossible to get boats and rowers to convey them and their collections farther down the river. Theel's party accordingly returned overland. The Ymer started on her return voyage on the 1st September at seven o'clock a.m., reached Dickson Harbour on the 2nd, and the weather being favourable proceeded without stopping in the direction of Cape Middendorff. The sea was at first completely free of ice, but as Novaya Zemlya was approached in 75^° N.L. a very compact belt of ice was met with which extended along the coast towards Matotschkin, which was reached on the evening of the 7th September. The Ymer remained there until the 13th for the purpose of filling the coal bunkers and takinor on board water and ballast. The o weather being fine, Nordkyn was sighted on the 16tb, and Tromsoe reached on the 22nd September. '' Of all the expeditions," writes Nordenskiold, " which have gone to Novaya Zemlya and the surrounding sea there were only three, before the two last Swedish ones, that concerned themselves with researches in natural history. These were von Baer's expedition in VIII.] MISCONCEPTION AS TO THE KARA SEA. 335 1837, Heuglin's in 1871, and the Austro-Hungarian in 1872-74. " AYith reference to zoological researches Baer brono-ht home from his journey about seventy invertebrate animals, Heuglin has increased our knowledge of the number of species in some groups, and the Austro-Hungarian ex- pedition in others. But all those collections were from the south-west, west, and north-west coasts of Novaya Zemlya. Of the nature of the animal life in the Kara Sea there was no real knowledo^e until the summer of 1875. There v/as also a current tradition amons; zoo- logists, grounded on the knowledge of the immense mass of fresh water carried down yearly by the Obi and the Yenissej, perhaps also on some originally loose expressions in literature which afterwards took the form of an axiom, that the Kara Sea is exceedingly poor in animal life. "The Swedish expedition of 1875 dissipated this misconception, as it also brought from the west coast of Novaya Zemlya and Waygat's Island a collection many times richer in species than their predecessors. But in any case the collections made durino- a sino-le summer could not be supposed to yield a complete idea of animal life in those regions such as is requisite not only for a com- parison with the existing fauna of other Arctic lands, but also for a complete exhibition of its relation to the fauna in the deposits of the Siberian tundra. It was for this reason that I gave Dr. Stuxberg, a zoologist, an opportunity of accompanying the expedition for the purpose . of continuing the zoological researches. His success has been very great, as will appear from the following short sketch communicated by him : — " During the voyages to the Kara Sen and back in 336 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. 1875 and 1876 dredgings have been carried on at fifty places and at different depths from the beach down to 200 fathoms, and good and comprehensive collections of animals have been made in this way. A very large number of species occur locally and in quite incredible numbers. Others again are found at nearly every dredg- inir, but in far smaller numbers. The occurrence of the latter is more uniform, consequently distinctive for the fauna area in its entirety. To these belong first of all two species of the family Idothea {Id. Sohi7iei and Id. Entomon), both strongly developed, and it may with reason be said that this family is characteristic of the Kara Sea. It is the province of the Idotheae. To the animal types, again, which are local in their occurrence, belong various species of Mollusca, HydvoiinediiscB, and Bryozoa, but in the first place all the known representa- tives of Echinodermata from the Kara Sea. Their abundance is often truly surprising, and, what is more singular, when a species occurs in any considerable number it lives almost alone— almost to the exclusion of all others. This is the case, for instance, with species of the families Crihella, Siichaster, Ctenodiscus, &c., which are found here in large and well-developed types. Not unfrequently the swab brought up at the same time hundreds of individuals of the same species. Of the beautiful crinoid Alecto Eschrichtii there were obtained many very fine specimens. " But rich as is the Kara Sea in Asterida and Ophiu- rida, it is equally poor in Echini. These are there sought for everywhere in vain, except possibly close to the east coast of Novaya Zemlya. This is so much the more surprising, as along the whole west coast a species of the vrii.] TWO NEW CREATURES. 337 family Echinus is one of the most abundant and most frequently occurring animal forms. " In two respects the zoological work of this summer has been very profitable for our museums. First of all, it has added something new in all groujjs to the exceedingly rich collections of the previous summer. It has, for example, increased the collection of Crustacea by twenty per cent, new species, and a large number of forms of JEchinodermata has, by oft-repeated swabbing, been obtained in an extraordinary number of individuals. Further, the swab has brought up from the depths of the Kara Sea two animals specially remarkable and important in a systematic resj^ect, one belonging to the Echinoder- mata, the other to the PennatulidcB. The former was swabbed uj) during the expedition of the previous sum- mer not far from the eastern mouth of Matotschkin Schar. Only a few specimens were then found ; now we have brouoht too-ether a considerable number. It is a hitherto unknown holothurioid, which is distinguished from most others of the same group l)y its exceedingly perfect bilateral symmetry, but differs from all in its habit and anatomical formation and is unique in its kind, as it combines in itself characteristics from different classes of animals. It has of late been exhaustively described and delineated in detail by Dr. Theel, its first discoverer. The other remarkable animal is one of the greatest rarities within the animal world. It is an Umhellula^ ^ Two specimens of the family Umhellvlaria, the first of whicli we have any knowledge, are said to have been found on tlie coast of Greenland before the middle of last century. The animal was registered by Linmeus in the year 1758 in his Systema Naturiv, under the appellation Isis encrinus, after a description first given by Ellis and .Mylius. What became of the original speciincns is Z 338 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. of about a foot and a half in lengtli. It was found in 130 fathoms south of Cape Middendorff and north of the seventy-fifth degree of nortli Latitude. " From the collections made during the Swedish ex- pcditi(^n it appears that the Kara Sea, far from being so poor as was supposed, is really distinguished by an animal life very rich both in individuals and in types, equal to any that Spitzbergen, Greenland, Iceland, or the Arctic reo;ions of North America can show. And it would appear as if a nearly uniform marine fauna stretches round the north pole along the whole coast of Siberia and the Polar archipelago of North America. The mass of fresh water which the great Siberian rivers carry down determines in no small degree the composi- tion of animal life at the bottom of this Polar sea. " Until the various groups have been worked out by specialists it is difficult to state for certain the number of the lower animal types of the Kara Sea, but it may be approximately reckoned at nearly five hundred species — ■ unknown. The " goat-like animal form " of the descriptions was the subject of many interpretations until Dr. J. Lindahl, during the Swedish expedition to Greenland, succeeded in dredging up in Baffin's Bay two specimens of it, and desci-ibed its inner formation in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences (Vetenskaps Acade- miens Handlingar). After this time individuals of the same family were found first by the English Challenger expedition of 1873 between Portugal and Madeira, and by the same expedition between Prince Edward's Island and Kerguelen's Land, and possibly at some other places in the Antarctic Ocean, afterwards by the Austrian- Hungarian expedition of 1873 between Novaya Zemlya and Franz Joseph's Land, also dui'ing the pre;-ent summer (1876) by the Norwegian Atlantic expedition off the west coast of Norway, and now last of all by us in the Kara Sea. It is thus an animal type extensively distributed but of very infrequent occurrence. viii.j THE WEALTH OE SIBERIA. 339 a very considerable number for a sea whicli was formerly considered as poor in species as the Baltic. This fact, with the addition of about a hundred species of insects from Novaya Zemyla, from whicli only seven were pre- known, and an extended knowledge of the vertebrate world of the same lands, is the main zoological result of the surveys of the two latest Swedish expeditions in those regions." By these voyages of Nordenskiold to the Yenissej there was inaugurated a sea-route from the Atlantic destined to be of incalculable importance for the de- veloj)ment of the resources of Northern Asia and for the commerce of the world. Siberia has been declared by M. Ferdinand de Lesseps to be the richest country of the whole world in respect of the j^roduce of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Nor will this estimate appear much overdrawn when we consider the abundance and variety of the wares which Siberia is capable of supplying — gold, silver, copper, iron, graphite, and coal, fossil ivory, timber from boundless forests, wheat and other vegetable produce from illimitable plains of the most fertile soil, in course of time even wines from the warm southern regions, furs from the cold region, wool, tallow, and meat from the grassy prairies, the meat preserved fresh by simple exposure to the severe cold of winter, and finally fish of the finest quality in extra- ordinary numbers. A week after Nordenskiold had left the mouth of the Yenissej it was entered l)y the steamer Thames, commanded by Captain Joseph Wiggins, who had made great personal sacrifices in attem[)ting to o[)en up z 1 310 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciiAr. communication with Siberia by sea. lie ascended the Yenissej as far as the Kurejka, where he laid his vessel lip for the winter and returned overland. Going back in spring he found his steamer completely covered with ice and snow. After getting her in proper trim by the expenditure of a great deal of labour, he had the mis- fortune to run aground on a shoal, and was in conse- quence obliged to abandon his vessel. Herr Bojling had undertaken to transport the goods landed by the Ymer to Yeniseisk, and, to make himself independent of the river steamers, had built a peculiar vessel — river-boat or lighter — for the purpose of getting the goods up the river, but comino' to an arrang^ement with one of the river steamers, he found his newly-built vessel super- fluous, and sold it to Mr, Seebohm, the well-known English ornithologist, who wished to sail in it down the river and join Wiggins in order to carry on his researches in his company. Seebohm was successful in finding AViggins, whom he accompanied until he was obliged to abandon his steamer. In 187(3, while Nordenskiold, was seeking to pene- trate to the Yenissej, a Russian captain, Schvananberg, was endeavouring to make his way down the river with a cargo of graphite belonging to Herr Michael Sidoroff, a member of the Russian Geographical Society. Schvan- anberg sailed from Yeniseisk, where his schooner had been Ijuilt, but, meeting with several delays, he was compelled to leave his vessel at the Briochovski Islands under charge of his mate and four men. He then travelled overland to St. Petersburg to make arrangements for next year's voyage. In his absence the schooner was wrecked and the cargo of graphite lost. VIII.] ESCAPE OF A RELIEF PARTY. 341 The five meu were saved, aud took up tlieir residence in a hut on the river-bank, where they died of scurvy, one after the other, with the exception of the mate. In the spring, Schvananberg sent a relief party to his vessel, who found it wrecked, and took up their cpiarters in the hut with the survivor, waiting an o|)portunity of re- turning to Yeniseisk. The spring inundations now came on, and the party in the hut were compelled to take to the roof, where they spent eight days, surrounded by the river now widened to a sea. In the meantime "Wiggins and Seebohm with their men had betaken themselves to the river-boat which Seebohm had bouo-ht o from Bojling ; and AYiggins, who is a brave seaman, pro- posed that in this craft, unfit as it was to encounter the dangers of the sea and of navigation among ice, they should sail down the river, across the Kara Sea, and endeavour to reach some European port. The sailors, however, refused to accompany their captain on such a voyage, and Schvananberg making his appearance at this juncture the river-boat was sold to him. Undis- mayed by his previous failure, Schvananberg named his purchase the Zaria {Daivn), and though it was a mere lighter, fifty feet long by fourteen feet wide, flat-bottomed, and drawing only two and a half feet of water, he succeeded in reaching Vardoe on the 30th August, and Cronstadt on the 19th October, 1877. As Schvananberg sailed out of the Yenissej on the 21st August he met a steamer entering the mouth of the river. This steamer, the Fraser, had been purchased by Sibiriakoff in Nor- denskiold's name, and, laden with sugar, tobacco, a steam -pump, and other goods, had sailed from Bremen on 25th July under the command of Captain Dallman, 342 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cii. viii. who had gained his experience of ice navigation in the Arctic waters at Behring's Straits and in the South Polar Sea. Schvananberg informed Dallman tliat Sil)iriakoff had a cargo of wheat in readiness for him, but, after Dalhnan had landed his goods and waited till the 11th September without hearing an5^thing more of the wheat carsfo, he considered it unadvisable to delay longer, and accordingly commenced his return voyage, leaving the mouth of the Yenissej on the 14tli September, Not reckoning a delay of two days at Matotschkin Schar, the Fraser steamed the whole distance from the Yenissej to the first Norwegian light- house near Hammarfest in six days eight hours. The steamer Luise, 170 tons, 60 h.p.. Captain C. Dahl, started from Lubeck on the 23rd June, 1877, and after touching at London and Hull, reached Tromsoe on the 28th July, and the southern extremity of Novaya Zemlya on the 2nd August ; and having steamed up the OI)i and its affluent the Irtisch for more than a thousand miles, arrived at Tobolsk on the 20tli September. Thus not without difficulty, but with the mingled success and failure which attend the commencement of all enterprises, is Siberia, with its boundless prairies, its endless forests, its immense expanse of inexhaustible " black earth," its rich mineral treasures, and the fmest grain-producing soil known, being opened to the commerce of the world. CHAPTER IX. THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE EXPEDITION, 1878-1879. More than three centuries have passed since the first North- East Passage Expedition was fitted out. It con- sisted of three ships, equipped under the direction of Sebastian Cabot by the Company of Merchant Adven- turers, afterwards called the Muscovy Company, and placed by them under the command of the ill-fated Sir Hugh Willoughby, who, having attempted to winter on the coast of Russian Lapland, was found frozen to death along with his crew, while his more fortunate com- panion Chancelor made his way to Moscow and laid the foundation of our commerce w^ith Russia. Willoughby 's expedition sailed in 1553. In 1556 the Muscovy Com- pany, without waiting for the return of Chancelor, whom they had sent out on a second voyage, in the course of which he was shipwrecked and drowned, fitted out a small vessel, the Search-thrift, for the purpose of making discoveries in the north-eastern seas, Stephen Burrough in command of the Search-thrift passed between Novaya Zemlya and Waigatz Island, and entered the Kara Sea, but was stopped by fog and ice. In 1580 Arthur Pet was sent out by the Muscovy Company in command of the George, forty tons, and 34-4 NORDENSKTOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Charles Jackman in commnnd of tlic William, twenty- tons. Pet discovered the straits between Waigatz Island and the mainland, and the vessels passed through it, but found it impossible to penetrate the heavy pack- ice which filled the sea beyond. The Dutch sent out three expeditions — in 1593, 1595, and 1596 — under Barentz, who during the last of these was imprisoned by the ice on the coast of Novaya Zemlya, along with his crew, and died before the return of spring. Henry Hudson was equally unsuccessful in three voyages which he undertook for the discovery of a north-east passage. The first was in 1607, in a small vessel with ten sailors. In the second he reached Novaya Zemlya in 1608. The third voyage, in 1609, from Amsterdam, was at the expense of the Dutch East India Company. In 1653 the Danes made an attempt in the same direction with no better success. At last, after the return of Captain John Wood from Novaya Zemlya in 1676, and mainly in consequence of the descriptions, partly true, partly overdrawn, which he gave of the natural obstacles to be encountered, the search for a north-east passage was given up in despair by the great seafaring nations. It was now, however, taken up by the Kussian government, and from time to time no fewer than eighteen difierent expeditions were sent out from that country for the purpose of surveying Novaya Zemlya, the Kara Sea, and the Siberian coast lying to the east- ward. During these expeditions the attempts to navi- gate the Kara Sea either totally failed or only partially succeeded under very unfavourable circumstances. Admiral Liitke's voyages, 1821-1824, seemed to j)rove tlip impossibility of forcing a passage through this sea ; IX.] THE XORTH-EAST PASSAGE EXPEDITIOX. 345 tlie academician von Baer expressly declared after his return in 1837 that it was an " ice-cellar," and Pach- tusov, who started in 1832 with the intention of pene- trating to the Olji and the Yenissej, returned after wintering on Novaya Zemlya with his object unaccom- plished. It was natural that, when the Kara Sea had been explored, and the possibility of reaching the mouths of the great Siberian rivers placed beyond a doubt by the voyages of 1875 and 1876, Nordenskiold should turn a longing eye to the vast expanse of unexplored sea that skirts tlie northern coast of Asia, and that the old enter- prise of effecting the north-east passage, which in past centuries had so uniformly ended in failure, should be again entertained. The new expedition was planned on a larger scale than any of the preceding. It was to cost £20,000, of which sum Mr. Oscar Dickson contributed £12,000, the King of Sweden £2,200, and Mr. Alexander Sibiriakoff a similar sum. Mr. Dickson bought for the expedition the steam- whaler Vega, built in the years 1872-1873 at Bremen, of oak, with an ice-skin of greenheart. The Vega measures 299 register tons, and loads about 500 tons, has a length of keel of 130 Bremen feet, overdeck of 150 feet, the greatest breadth is 29 feet, and the depth in the hold 16 feet. The engine is of 60 horse- power. The Vega is fully rigged as a bark, and is con- sidered a good sailer. The Swedish Diet, on the pro- position of the government and of Herr AVsern, the president of the Swedish Merchant Navy Society, voted grants for equipping and provisioning the Vega, and for the pay of the medical officer. The government also ;UG NOPvDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [.hai'. promised those officers and men of the Swedish navy who shoukl volunteer for service on board the Vega the same pay and other advantages as they are entitled to in the case of man-of-war expeditions to distant waters. With this new expedition in view Nordenskiold had made an exhaustive study of all the attempts that had been made to sail along the coast of Siberia from the mouth of the Yenissej to Behring's Straits. The results of this study he embodied in a memorial addressed to the Sw^edish government. An English translation of this memorial has been printed, from which we extract the following statement of the conclusions at which Nordenskiold arrived. " From what I have thus stated it follows : — " That the ocean lying north of the Siberian coast from the mouth of the Yenissej to Tschaun Bay has never been ploughed by the keel of any proper sea- going vessel, still less has been traversed by any steamer specially equipped for navigation among ice. " That the small vessels with which it has been attempted to navigate this part of the ocean never ventured very far from the coast. " That an open sea with a fresh breeze was as destruc- tive for them, indeed more destructive, than a sea covered wdth drift-ice. " That they almost always sought some convenient winter harbour just at the season of the year when the sea is freest of ice, namely late summer or autumn. '• That although the sea from Cape Chelyuskin to Behring's Straits has Ijeen repeatedly traversed, none has yet succeeded in traversing the whole extent at once. IX. 1 POSSIBILITY OF MAKING THE PASSAGE. 347 " That the covering of ice formed during winter along the coast, but probably not in the open sea, is every summer broken up, giving origin to extensive fields of drift-ice, which are driven, now by a northerly wind to- wards the coast, now by a southerly wind out to sea, yet not so far but that it comes back to the coast after some days of northerly wind, whence it appears probable that the Siberian Sea is, so to speak, shut off from the Polar Sea proper by a series of islands, of which for the present we know only WrangeFs Land and the islands which form New Siberia. " I consider it probable that a well-equipped steamer would be able, without meeting with, too many obstacles from ice, to force a passage this way during autumn in a few days, and thus that it would be possible not only to solve a geographical problem of several centuries' standing, but also, with all the means now at the disposal of the man of science in carrying on researches in geography, hydrography, geology, and natural history, to survey a hitherto almost unknown sea of enormous extent. " I am also fully convinced that it is not only possible to sail along the north coast of Asia, provided circum- stances are not too unfavourable, but that such an enterprise will be of incalculable practical importance, by no means directly as opening up a new conmiercial route, but indirectly by the impression which would thereby be communicated of the practical utility of a communication between the ports of North Scandinavia and the Obi and Yenisscj on the one hand and between the Pacific Ocean and the Lena on the other. " Should the expedition, contrary to expectation, not succeed in cnrrvino: out tlie proQ-ramme wliich lias l)een 348 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC YOYACES. [oiiai'. arranged in its entirety, it ought not to be looked upon as having failed. In such a case the expedition will remain for a considerable time at places on the north coast of Siberia, suitable for scientific research. Every mile beyond the mouth of the Yenissej is a step forward to a complete knowledge of our globe, an object which some time or other must be attained, and towards which, it is an affair of honour for every civilised nation to contribute in its proportion. " Men of science will have an opportunity in these hitherto unvisited waters of answerino^ a number of questions regarding the former and present state of the Polar countries, of which more than one is of sufficient weight and importance to lead to such an expedition as the present. I may be permitted here to refer to only a few of these. " If we except that part of the Kara Sea which has been surveyed by the two last Swedish expeditions, we have for the present no knowledge of the vegetable and animal life in the sea that washes the north coast of Siberia. We shall certainly here, in opposition to what has been hitherto supposed, meet with the same abund- ance of animals and j)lauts as in the sea round Spitz- berofen. In the Siberian Polar Sea the animal and vegetable types, so far as we can judge beforehand, exclusively consist of survivals from the Glacial period which next preceded the present, which is not the case in the Polar Sea where the Gulf Stream distributes its waters and whither it thus carries types from more southerly regions. But a complete and exact knowledge of which animal types are of Glacial and which of At- lantic origin is of the greatest importance not only for IX.] THE MAMMOTH PERIOD. 349 zoology and tlie geography of animals, but also for the geology of Scandinavia, and especially for the knowledge of our loose earthy strata. " Few scientific discoveries have so powerfully capti- vated the interest both of the learned and unlearned as that of the colossal remains of elephants, sometimes well preserved with flesh and hair in the frozen soil of Siberia. Such discoveries have more than once formed the objects of scientific expeditions and careful re- searches by eminent men, but there is still much that is enigmatical with respect to a number of circumstances connected with the Mammoth period of Siberia, whicli jyerhajjs was contemporaneous with our Glacial period. Specially is our knowledge of the animal and vegetable types, which lived at the same time as the mammoth, exceedingly incomplete, although we know that in the northernmost parts of Siberia, which are also most in- accessible from land, there are small hills covered with the bones of the mammoth and other contemporaneous animals, and that there is found in that region so-called Noah's wood, that is to say, half petrified or carbonised vegetable remains from several diflerent geological periods. " Taken overhead, an investigation as complete as possible of the geology of the Polar lands, so difficult of access, is an indispensable condition for a knowledge of the former history of our globe. In order to prove this I need only point to the epoch-forming influence which has been exerted on geological theories by the discovery, in the rocks and earthy layers of the Polar countries, of beautiful fossil plants from widely-separated geological epochs. In this field, too, an expedition to the north 350 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. Iuiap. coast of Siberia may expect to reap abundant harvests. There. are to be found, in Siberia, strata which have been deposited ahnost contemporaneously with the coal- bear- ing formations of south Sweden, and which therefore contain animal and vegetable petrifactions, wdiich just now are of quite special interest for geological science in our own country with reference to the discoveries of splendid fossil plants, which have of late years been made at several places in Sweden, and give us so lively an idea of the subtropical vegetation w^hich in former times covered the Scandinavian peninsula. ** Few sciences perhaps will yield such important prac- tical results as meteorology is likely to do at some future date ; a fact, or rather an already partially realised expec- tation which has won general recognition, as is shown by the considerable sums which in all civilised countries have been set apart for establishing meteorological offices, and for carryiiig on meteorological researches. But the state of the weather in a country is so dependent on the temperature, wind, pressure of the air, &c., in very remote regions, that the laws of the meteorology of a country can only be ascertained by comparing observations from the most distant countries. Several international meteorological enterprises have already been started, and we may almost consider the meteor- ological institutions of the different countries as separate departments of one and the same office distributed over the whole world, by whose harmonious co-operation the object in view is one day to be reached. But besides the places from which daily series of observations may be obtained, there are regions, hundreds of square miles in extent, from which no observations, or only scattered IX.] SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS OF THE EXPEDITION. 351 ones, are yet to be had ; and here, nevertheless, we must seek the key to many meteorological phenomena, other- wise difficult of explanation, within the civilised countries of Europe. Such a meteorological territory, unknown but of the greatest importance, is formed by the Polar Sea lying to the north of Siberia, and the land and islands there situated. It is of great importance for the meteorology of Europe and of Sweden, to obtain trust- worthy accounts of the distribution of the land, of the state of the ice, the pressure of the air, and the tempera- ture in that little -known part of the globe ; and the Swedish expedition will have in this a subject for investi- gation of direct importance for our own country. " To a certain extent the same may be said of the contributions wdiich may be obtained from those regions to our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism, of the aurora, &c. There are, besides, the examination of the flora and fauna of those countries hitherto unknown in this respect, ethnographical researches, hydrographical work, &c. " I have of course only been able to notice shortly the scientific questions which will meet the expedition during a stay of some length on the north coast of Siberia ; but what has been said will perhaps be sufficient to show that the expedition, even if its geographical object be not attained, ought to form a worthy continuation of similar enterprises which have been set on foot in this country, and which have brought gain to science and honour to Sweden. ''Should the expedition however be able to reach Behring's Straits with little hindrance and in a com- paratively short time, in that case, the time on the way 8068 352 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. wliicli can be devoted to resoavcLes in natural history will be quite too short for solving many of the scientific questions I have mentioned. But without reckoning the world-historical navigation problem which will then be solved, extensive contributions of immense importance ought also to be obtainable regarding the geography, hydrography, zoology, and botany of the Siberian Polar Sea ; and beyond Behring's Straits the expedition will meet with other countries liavino- a more luxuriant and varied nature, where other questions which perhaps con- cern us less, but are not on that account of less importance for science in its entirety, will claim the attention of the observer, and yield him a rich reward for his labour and pains." With such motives and views was the plan of the expedition tliat was to achieve the North-east Passage arranged. In this memorable expedition Nordenskiold is accompanied by Lieutenant A. A. L. Palander, com- mander of the Vega, Lieutenant E. C. Brusewitz, second in command. Dr. F. E. Kjellman, l)otanist. Dr. Ant. Stuxberg, zoologist, Dr. Ernst Almquist, medical officer and botanist, Lieutenant Giacomo Bove, of the Italian navy, acting as sailing master, having charge of the chronometers and taking the necessary astronomical observations. Lieutenant Andreas Hovgaard, of the Danish navy, and Lieutenant Oscar Nordquist, of the Imperial Eussian fjimily's battalion of sharpshooters, acting as interpreter and zoologist. The crew consists of eighteen seamen of the Swedish navy, selected from 200 who volunteered their services, and three Norwegian walrus-hunters. The Vega w^as ]')rovisioned for two years, and provided with a plentiful supply of anti- IX.] THE START. 353 scorbutics, including cranberry juice, preserved cloud- berries, horse-radish, pickles, and lime-juice. During winter a cubic inch of the last-named article entered into the daily ration. The Vega was accompanied part of her course by three other vessels ; as far as the mouth of the Yenissej by the steamer Fraser, Captain Nilsson, and the sailing vessel Express, Captain Gundersen ; and as far as the mouth of the Lena by a small steamer of the same name, of 100 tons, built at Motala of Bessemer steel, commanded by Captain Johannesen. The Express had taken on board in an English port 350 tons of coal for the use of the expedition, and along with the Eraser was to carry on Herr Sibiriakoff's account about 40,000 pood wheat, 500 pood tallow, and some oats from the Yenissej, where they were laid up at a simovie near the mouth of the river. Besides coal the Expj7''ess had on board a small quantity of salt, intended for the fisheries on the Yenissej. The Lena's cargo con- sisted of sixteen months' provisions and coal. The Eraser, laden with tobacco and iron, and having the Express in tow, sailed from Vadsoe on the 13th July, and arrived at Jugor Straits on the 20th of the same month, having towed the Express the whole way, as there was no w^ind. The Vega sailed from Gothenburg on the 4th, and from Tromsoe on the 21st July, accompanied from the latter port, where Nordenskiold joined the expedition, by the Lena. The vessels were delayed by a storm and head wind at Masoe until the 25th, when they weighed anchor, shaping their course through Mageroe Sound, past NonJkyn, for Goose Cape. By this detour it was A A 354 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. intended to avoid tlie drift ice wliicli is generally to be encountered far into the summer in the bay between the west coast of AVaigatz Island and the mainland. On this occasion the precaution was unnecessary, as Jugor Straits were reached without a trace of ice being seen. Novaya Zemlya was sighted on the 29th July, and on the 30th the Vega, having steamed along the coast to Jugor Straits, anchored at a Samoyede village called Chabarova, in the neighbourliood of which the Fraser and Express had been lying at anchor since the 20th. On the 31st the Lena came in sight, and the little squadron was complete. The stay at Chabarova, while the Vega and the Lena replenished their stocks of coal from the cargo of the Express, was turned to account by the naturalists of the expedition. Lieutenant Palander took photographs and Lieutenant Hovgaard magnetical observations. Lieu- tenant Nordquist endeavoured to collect contributions to the exceedingly scanty insect fauna of the region, and Dr. Almquist tested by Holmgren's method the colour sense of the Samoyedes, which was found to be in general well developed. Solar altitudes were taken by Lieutenant Bove and Nordenskiold. The latter pur- chased dresses, household articles, &c., of the Samoyedes, and succeeded, after some difficulty, in persuading an old woman to sell him some of the idols which are still worshipped by the tribe, although they are professedly Christians, and take part in Christian worship. The idols were all different in appearance. One consisted of a stone, which by the help of brightly-coloured patches had been made into a sort of doll ; another was a similar doll with a piece of copper plate for a face ; and a third IX.] SAMOYEDE IDOLS. 355 was a little skin doll ornamented with earrings and pearls. These idols, which are still regarded with reverence by the Samoyedes, in general resemble the rag dolls which peasant children make for themselves without the help of the toy-shops of towns. On the 31st July Nordenskiold, accompanied by Dr. Almquist, Lieutenant Hovgaard, Captain Nilsson of the Fraser, and a Eussian who had entertained them to tea the preceding afternoon, visited a sacrificial altar on which were placed, among a number of reindeer horns still fast to the skulls, a newly-killed bear's skull and paws, and alongside upon a stone two lead bullets which had been used, and with which probably the animal had been killed. The following day the vessels of the expedition weighed anchor and sailed or steamed through Jugor Straits into the Kara Sea. The weather being still calm the Fimser towed the Express, and the Lena steamed in advance to White Island, where Dr. Almquist and Lieutenants Hovgaard and Nordquist landed and remained thirty-six hours, and then pro- ceeded to Dickson Harbour. Till now no ice had been seen, but on reaching tlie latitude of White Island an extensive field of drift ice was encountered, which, however, was so rotten and so open as not to obstruct navigation. East of White Island the ice entirely dis- appeared, and on the 6th of August all the vessels with the exception of the Lena were anchored in Dickson Harbour. On the following day that small steamer joined her comrades. On the morning of the 9th August the Fraser and Express proceeded up the river to Saostrovskoj, arriving there on the 20tli and discharging their cargoes. A A 2 356 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. The Express remained there to load, and the Frascr ascended the river to Dudinskoj, about 500 miles from its mouth, where a full cargo of wheat, rye, and tallow was taken on board, returning to Saostrovskoj on the 2nd September. After some days' delay here both •vessels started on their homeward voyage, and arrived on the 9tli September at Tolstonosovski where they fell in with the steamer Moskiua, Captain Dahlman, from Bremen. On board the Moshwa the Swedes were in- formed that her consort, the Norwegian steamer Zaritza, had stranded at the mouth of the river on the 2nd September, and had been abandoned on the 4th by her crew who had gone on board the Moshwa. The Fraser and Expy^ess took the Zaritzas crew on board and proceeded down the river where they found the vessel afloat but with six and a half feet of water in the hold. Men were put on board to pump her dry, and put the engine in repair, which they succeeded in doing so that the Zaritza could go to sea under the Erasers escort. In the Kara Sea very little ice was seen during the return voyage. North of North Cape the vessels parted, the Express sailing southwards, and the Eraser calling at Hammerfest and Tromsoe, arriving at the latter port on the 29th September. After a day spent in surveying Dickson Harbour the Vega and the Lena on the 10th August resumed their eastward voyage, shaping their course for the Kamenni Islands, lying off" the mouth of the river Pjasina, and on the 11th fell in with ice which, however, as it moderated the high sea w^hicli had before prevailed, was not unfavourable to navigation. The ice consisted almost exclusivelv of bav ice, so rotten that it was IX.] FAUNA OF THE COAST. 357 rather a sort of continuous slush than veritable ice. It was evident that in a few clays it would have entirely disappeared. Notwithstanding the frequent fogs and the numerous islands along the coast that were not laid down on the chart, the Vega did not once run aground. As the distance from the Yenissej increased the salinity, which had at first been inconsiderable, began to increase and the temperature to fall. Organic life at the sea- bottom became simultaneously more plentiful. On the night between the 13th and 14th of August, while the Vega lay tied to a floe, Dr. Stuxberg brought up a large number of fine purely marine types, for instance, large specimens of the remarkable Crinoid Alecto Eschrichtii, a number of Asterids (Asteyias Linchii and panopla), Pycnogonids, &c. Dredging near land also began to yield to Dr. Kjellman several of the larger marine algse. On the other hand the higher plant and animal life on land was still so poor that the coast here forms a complete desert in comparison with the rocky shores of Spitz- bergen and West Novaya Zemlya. Sea fowl were few in number. Only snow-buntings, six or seven species of waders, and some varieties of geese were found on land in a,ny considerable numbers. If there be added a ptarmigan or two, an Arctic owl, and a species of falcon, the whole bird fauna of the region is enumerated, as far at least as it could be investigated on this occasion. Two walruses and some seals (Fhoca harhata and hispida) were seen, and fish appeared to be abundant. While the Vega lay anchored to one of the few pieces of ice which were large and strong enough to carry half a score of men, Nordenskiold went on the ice, accom- panied by Lieut. Nordquist, to search for traces of the 358 NORDENSKIOLD'S AKCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. cosmic dust wliicli lie liad found in 1872 on the north coast of Spitzbergen. His search was not attended with success, but his attention was drawn by Nordquist to some yellow specks on the snow, which Nordenskiold at first supposed to consist of diatoms, and handed over to the botanists, but which on examination proved to be a coarse-grained sand, formed exclusively of very beau- tiful crystals up to two millimetres in diameter. These Nordenskiold with the limited time at his disposal could not identify with any common terrestrial mineral, but thought they might perhaps consist of matter crystal- lised from the sea-water during the severe cold of winter. From the 14th to*" the 18th August the Vega and the Lena lay at anchor, waiting for clear weather, in a splendid harbour, situated in the strait between Taimyr Island and the mainland, which Nordenskiold named Actinia Haven from the number of Actinia which the dredge brought up from the bottom. The land was free of snow and covered with a grey- green vegetation, consisting of grasses, mosses, and lichens. The number of species of phanerogamous plants was exceedingly small, that of mosses and lichens on the other hand was abundant enough. The reindeer pasture was much better than in the valleys where these animals are numerous on Bell Sound, Ice Fjord, and Stor Fjord on Spitzbergen, but here they were both scarce and shy, which Captain Johannesen ascribed to the presence of wolves, having fallen in with the carcase of a reindeer that had been killed by a wolf. Nordenskiold recommends Actinia Haven as a suitable place for a meteorological station, if such a station can- IX.] ACTINIA HAVEN. 359 not be established at Cape Chelyuskin itself. The haven is well sheltered from all winds and possesses good anchorage. Although the fog still continued, the Vega and the Lena weighed anchor on the 18th to prosecute their voyage towards Cape Chelyuskin, and steamed along the western shore of Taimyr Island, the northern extremity of which was found not to be so far north as shown in the charts. The ice that was met with was only bay ice so broken up that scarcely a piece could be seen strong enough to carry a couple of men. Taimyr Bay was nearly ice-free. On the ] 9th the vessels continued their course along the coast of the Chelyuskin Peninsula, the fog being still exceedingly close, though occasionally lightening so that the contours of the land could be distinguished. In the course of the day they steamed past an extensive field of unbroken ice occupying a bay on the western side of the Chelyuskin Peninsula. It appeared, however? on close inspection that this fast ice was nearly as rotten as that which they had met with at sea. The fog was so dense that Nordenskiold feared that Cape Chelyuskin would be so closely enveloped in it that it would be impossible to land. Soon, however, an ice-free promontory again glinted out in the north-east, and the Vega and Leiia soon after anchored in a little bay, open to the north and ice-free, that cuts the pro- montory in two. Flags were hoisted, and a salute fired from one of the small cannon carried by the Vega. The fiist object of the vo3^age had been attained— the northernmost point of the old world, variously called Cape Chelyuskin, Cape Severo, and North East Cape. cu. IX ] CAPE CHELYUSKIK 361 The air had cleared and the cape hay before them lighted up by the sun and free from snow, A large Polar bear was seen parading the beach with eyes and nose turned towards the bay to inspect the new arrivals. Frightened by their salute it took to flight and escaped the balls of the Swedes. The Vega and the Lena remained here until noon of the 20th in order to fix the position of the cape by an astronomical observation and to give the naturalists an opportunity of making ex- cursions. Cape Chelyuskin forms a low promontory, divided into two parts by the bay in which the vessels had anchored. More elevated land with gentle slopes runs parallel with the coast from the eastern shore towards the south. The western promontory was found to be 77° 36' 37" N. Lat, and 103° 25' 39" E. Long, from Greenwich, The eastern is a little farther to the north, viz., 77° 41'' N. and 104° 1' E. Inland the mountains appear to rise gradually to a height of 1,000 feet. Both the plains and the high land were nearly free of snow, but the icefoot still remained at the beach in most places. The plains consist of clay-fields, of which some are nearly Ijare and split up into more or le?s regular six- sided figures ; some are covered with a mixture of grass, moss, and lichens, resembling that found at the places where landings had j^i'^'^'io^^'^ly been effected. The rock here was not granite, but upright unfossiliferous strata of slate, full of pyrites, and crossed at the outer pro- montory by thick quartz veins. Of phanerogamous plants Dr. Kjellman could only discover twenty-four species, most of them marked by a disj)osition to form compact, half-globular tufts. Dr. Almquist found the 362 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. lichen vegetation monotonous, tliongli luxuriant. It almost appeared as if the plants of the Chelyuskin Peninsula had tried to migrate farther north, and when they encountered the sea had stood still on the outer- most promontory. For here in very small compass were found nearly all the plants, both phanerogamous and cryptogamous, which the land had to offer, and mauy of them were sought for without success farther up the plain. Animal life on land was equally meagre. Of birds there were seen ouly a number of sand-pipers, some species of Tringa, a large flock of brent geese, a few eider ducks, and the remains of an Arctic owl. In the sea, now nearly ice-free, a single walrus, two shoals of white whales, and a few seals were observed — and it was evidently poor in warm-blooded animals. On the other hand the dredge brought up various large Algse [Laminaria Agar did, &c,) and a number of minute animals, among them very large speciuiens of Idothea entomon. At noon on the 20th the Vega and Lena left their anchorao-e and steered in an eastward direction in the hope of meeting with a continuation of the new Siberian islands. Drift-ice was soon met with which was at first very open, but consisted of larger floes than had been previously encountered. Navigation was rendered difficult by a dense fog. After having sailed through a pretty compact ice-field during the previous nio^ht, the Swedes found on the 22nd that no further progress could be made. The course was accordingly altered to a more southerly one, but without better success. After lying-to for some time anchored to ice-floes, and searching in vain for a navigable channel leading to the IX ] MOUNTAIN SCENERY. 363 soiitli or east, the Vega and Lena worked themselves out of the ice by the way tliey entered. This occupied a whole day, and l^y the evening of the 23rd they were again in open water. The depth, which had varied be- tween 33 and 35 fathoms, now beo-anto diminish, and the north-eastern extremity of the Taimyr Peninsula, situated in 76° 30' N. and 130° E., was sighted the same evening. The air had cleared, and a fresh breeze carried the vessel rapidly along without the aid of steam over a perfectly smooth sea. Soon the cliffs along the shore became high and of that peculiar s]3lit-cone formation which marks the eastern bank of the Yenissej between Mesenkin and Jakovieva. Picturesque mountains, at least 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, were seen a short distance inland. These were free of snow to their highest summits, though some small collections of ice and what were thought to be small glaciers could be observed. Animal life now became very rich. While the vessels lay anchored to the floes Dr. Stuxberg had dredged up from a depth of thirty-five fathoms an unexpected variety of marine animal tyj)es, among which were three specimens of a crinoid, probably young individuals of Alecto Eschriclitii, which besides was found full grown in excessive abundance, masses of sea-stars, the extremely rare Alolpadia horealis, two cuttle-fish, a colossal Pycnogonid of 180 m.m. diameter, &c. At a less depth the lower animal life was not less rich, though the types were partly diff'erent. All the animals found here were clearly of pure Arctic types, without any migration whatever from southern seas, as is doubtless the case with the fauna of Spitzber- gen. The collections will therefore be of great scientific 364 NORDEXSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chai'. interest in connection witli the researches which have for a long time back been carried on by the naturalists of the North concerning the glacial animal forms, living and fossil, found on the shores of Scandinavia, and which touch questions of great importance for a know- ledge of the latest era of the history of our globe. Often now no trace of ice could be seen from the vessels and, as they before encountered land where sea was shown on the nia^DS, they now sailed over regions marked as land on the maps. At 11 a.m. on the 24lh August land, was sighted, which was identified with Preobraschenski Island, at the mouth of the Chatauga. Landing here, Nordenskiold found the island to beloni:^ to the chalk formation, and its strata were shown by the only fossil discovered (a belemnite) to be contemporaneous with those which occupy extensive portions of the plains of north-western Siberia. After the 23rd. the weather was magnificent, and the sea completely ice-free. The depth- of water during the rest of the voyage to the mouth of the Lena was from five to eight fathoms. The temperature of the water at the surface was ascertained six times a day, and the temperature and salinity at different depths once or twice daily. It was found that if the depth reaches thirty metres the temperature at the bottom varies between —V and — 1°'4 C. The specific gravity of the water amounts there to from 1'02G to 1'027, the salinity being little less than that of the Atlantic. At the surface the temperature was exceedingly variable. Thus for instance it was +10° C at Dickson Harbour, + 5°"4 a little south of Taimyr Straits, -fO''"8 among the drift-ice immediately ofi" this strait, +3^ ofi" Taimyr Bay, IX.] A WAEM SURFACE CURRENT. 365 ~0°*1 at Cape Chelyuskin, +4° off Chatanga Bay, and + 1°'2 to S^'S between the Chatanga and the Lena. The salinity of the surface water in a broad channel along this part of the coast never exceeded 1'023, and was generally below 1"01. The latter figure corresponds to a mixture of one part of sea water with two parts of river water. These figures show incontestably that a warm and only slightly salt surface-current runs from the mouths of the Obi and the Yenissej along the coast in a north- easterly direction, and afterwards, under the influence of the earth's rotation, in a more easterly course. Other similar currents proceed from the Olenek, Lena, Jana, Indigirka, and Kolyma, which all pour their waters, more or less warmed during the hot summer of Siberia, ioto the Polar Sea, and make it, during a short season of the year, nearly ice -free along the coast. It was a correct apprehension of these facts which led Norden- skiold to draw up the programme of this expedition. It was his intention to anchor off the mouth of the Lena, but a favourable wind and an open sea offered so splendid an opportunity of continuing his voyage that he did not consider himself justified in neglecting it. The Vega and the Lena accordingly parted on the night between the 27th and 28th August, the former to sail direct to Fadeyev, one of the New Siberian Islands, where Nordenskiold intended to remain some days, the latter to ascend the river of the same name. A pilot had been engaged to descend the Lena and wait the arrival of the small steamer of the same name, but Captain Johannesen could discover no flag- staff or signal-tower, which, according to the contract 366 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. tliat had been entered into, ought to liave been visible from Cape Olenek. Left to his own resources, Captain Johannesen, after considerable difficulty, from the shal- lowness of the water, made his way through the delta of the Lena, and on the 7th September entered the river, where navig-ation was less difficult. Yakutsk was safely reached on the 21st September. Despatches from the Vega were sent on to Irkutsk, and a telegram from that town on the 16th October announced to the civi- lised world the successful accomplishment of the first part of the programme of the expedition — the rounding of Cape Chelyuskin and the navigation of the Lena by a steamer from the Atlantic. Nordenskiold, when parting from the Lena, hoped, if he should meet with no extraordinary delay from ice, to reach Behring's Straits by the end of September. He was then to make his way to Yokohama. Weeks and months passed, however, without further news, and it became probable that he had been caught in the ice, the rather because American whalers reported 1878 a bad ice year north of Behring's Straits. At length, on the 11th December, the Neio York IIe7Xild published a telegram from San Francisco, dated the previous day, in which it was stated that two American whalers, who had newly returned from St. Lawrence Bay, in the neighbourhood of Behring's Straits, had been informed by two trustworthy natives that they had seen a Eussian war- ship frozen in north of East Cape, at a distance of forty English miles from land.^ This vessel, ^ Other accounts placed the vessel at a distance of only ten miles from the coast in a bay between an island and the mainland west of 1.x .] THE VEGA FEOZEX IK 3C7 supposed by the natives to be Russian, was immediatelj' identified as tlie Vega, and a lively concern for tlie safety of tlie expedition, without any proper justifica- tion from the facts of the case, was generally felt. Again months passed without further intelligence, and the trustworthiness of the native reports began to be doubted, when, in the middle of May, after Mr. Alex- ander Sibiriakofl' had despatched a steamer, named after Nordenskiold, and built expressly for the purpose, to his relief, despatches were received from the expedition, from which it appeared that the Vega was lying frozen in near Serdze Kamen, a cape situated at a distance of only 100 nautical miles from Behring's Straits, and visited almost yearly by whalers from the Pacific. Later despatches enable us to give the following details. After parting from the Lena, the Vega steered in a North-Easterly direction towards the most Southerly of the New Siberian Islands. These islands are very remark- able in a scientific point of view, being very rich in the remains of the mammoth and other animals of the same period, which are found in greater abundance among them than in the tundra of the mainland. Some of the sand-banks on their shores are so full of the bones and tusks of the mammoth that the ivory collectors who for a series of years travelled nearly every year from the mainland to the islands in dog-sledges, used to return in autumn, when the sea was again covered with ice, with a rich harvest. According to Hedenstrom, the only educated person who has examined these islands in East Cape, and in the neighbom-hood of a native village, which, in case of need, would aii'ord shelter and subsifctence to the members of the expedition. 368 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. summer, there are besides in the interior hills which are covered with the remains of the mammoLli, the rhino- ceros, horse, aurochs, bison, sheep, &c. In consequence of the inaccessibility of the region, no thorough scientific examination of these remains has yet been undertaken. Nordenskiold, knowing the importance of even a super- ficial inspection, wished to lie-to at one of the islands or at least to cruise between them. The air was calm, but the sky for the most part over- cast ; the temperature as high as + 4° C, and the sea free of ice. Rapid progress accordingly was made. But after Semenoffski and Stolbovoj, the most westerly of the New Siberian Islands, had been sighted on the 28th August, the shallowness of the sea, which was for loner stretches only three and a half to four fathoms deep, and some very rotten ice, or rather sludge, that was met with, prevented the Vega from going at full speed. On the 30th Liachoff's Island was reached, and Norden- skiold wished to land, but had to give up the idea on account of the rotten ice which surrounded the island and the danger to which the vessel would have been exposed in such shallow w^ater if a sudden storm had come on. In order to ascertain the distribution of the land at the close of the Tertiary Period, to obtain a knowledge of the mammalia that were coeval with the appearance of man on the olobe, to collect new contributions to a solution of the difficult problem — how it was possible for the progenitors of the Indian elephant to live in the ice- deserts of Siberia, to get some more extended knowledge of the nature of the Siberian Polar sea — a point which now appears to be of great importance for na^dgation — IX ] AN IMPOSSIBILITY OVERCOME. 369 a thorough scientific survey of all the islands which lie to the north of the Siberian mainland ought, remarks the Professor, to be carried out as soon as possible. And for such a survey he considers the little steamer Lena the most suitable vessel, on account of its light draught of water, the tough Swedish Bessemer metal of which it is built, and the steam-saw with which it is provided. The sound w^hich separates the most southerly of the New Siberian Islands from the mainland is only 30' broad. On the south side it is bounded by a promontory which, like many other points on the north coast of Russia which are rounded with difficulty, is called Svjatoi Nos (the Sacred Point). In 1736 the undaunted Arctic explorer Laptjeff declared that it was impossible to sail round this promontory, because according to the unanimous averment of all the Yakuts who lived in that quarter the masses of ice which surround it never melt. Three years after, however, it was rounded by Laptjeff himself — one of the many instances, says Nordenskiold, of how possible many " impossibilities " are, in fact, found to be. The same feat was performed in 1761 in what appears to have been pretty ice-free water, by the Siberian merchant SchalavrofF. Nordenskiold believes that the sea here is navigable every year not only by a steamer, but also by a common fishing sloop provided it be manned by able seamen. On the 31st August the weather was calm and fine, and the Vegci sailed through the sound, which was free of ice, without difficulty. The land in the neighbourhood was also free of snow. Eastward from this point there was an open channel along the coast. The water was slightly salt, and had a temperature rising to + 4° C. Up to 1st September B B 370 KOEDENSKIULD'S AllCTrC VOYAGES. [chap. the weather continued fine witli the wind in tlie south, the temperature of the air in the shade at noon being + 5°'G. On the followino: nidit the wind became northerly and tlie temperature fell to — T. Next night there was a heavy fall of snow, so that the deck and the Bear Islands, which were reached at noon of the 3rd, were covered with snow. These are several rocliy islands lying off the coast in 71" lat. and IGO" long. E. fmni Greenwich, about 3G0' from the southern extremity of LiachofF's Island. This distance was traversed in three days, at the rate accordingly of 120' per diem, a fact wdiich, if the time which was lost in dredging, taking soundings, and determining the temperature and salinity of the water at different depths, and the caution that had to be observed in navio-atino; unknown waters bo taken into consideration, shows how little the progress of the Vega was hindered by ice. A few pieces of ice were met with, and further to the north continuous ice- fields were visible which prevented Nordenskiold from carrying out his plan of sailing northward from the mouth of the Kolyma to ascertain if land or islands could be found between Liaclioti''s Island and Wrano'el's Land. An attempt to steer right eastward to Cape Schelagskoj from the most easterly of the Bear Islands had also to be given up because the course was barred 40' to 50' east of the Bear Islands by impenetrable masses of ice; Nordenskiold accordingly was obliged to betake himself to the narrow open channel along the coast, but that became narrower and narrower. He was compelled to keep closer and closer to the shore though the de})th went on diminishing to an extent that was rather unpleasant. There were, however, no serious IX.] A MEETING WITH THE NATIVES. 371 delays. The Vega passed the mouth of Tschaun Bay during the night before the 6th September, and Cape Schelagskoj was reached at 6 o'clock the next morning. The nishts now became so dark and the sea so full of ice, that the Ve(ja had to lie-to during the night anchored to a laro;e ground-ice. AVhen it dawned on the mornino- of the 6th, the Swedes found themselves so surrounded by ice, that it was impossible to advance farther in a due easterly direction. It was necessary to seek opener water either to the northward, or in the still nearly ice-free but shallow channel along the coast. The latter course was chosen. But on this occasion there was no little difficulty in penetrating the masses of ice that surrounded the vessel. The Vega had scarcely neared the land before two boats were seen of the same build as the "umiaks "of the Eskimo. They were full of natives, the first that had been fallen in with since the vessel had left Chabarova at Jugor Straits. A halt was made to allow them to come on board. They met with a friendly reception, but unfortunately none of them could speak Russian or any other language intelligible to the Swedes. Only one boy could count ten in English, a circumstance which shows that the natives have more communication with American whalers at Behrinir's Straits than with Russian merchants. Since then the Swedes have been in daily communication with the natives along the coast, but they have not in a single instance found one of the pure Tchuktches who travel far and wide capable of expressing themselves intelligibly in any European tongue. Lieutenant Nord- quist devoted himself to a study of the language, and Nordcnskiold set free Jonscn, one of the walrus-hunters, li B 2 372 NORDENSKIOLD'S AECTIO VOYAGES. [chap. from all otlier employment so as to enable liim to live as much as possible among the natives and to become acquainted with their customs and language. The Tchuktche still partly uses implements of stone and bone, and his features have an unmistakable resemblance both to those of the Mongolians of the old world, and those of the Eskimo and Indians of the new. Beyond Cape Schelagskoj the Vega steamed on during the 6tli and 7th September in a narrow open channel along the coast, and on the following night was anchored as usual to a ground-ice-floe. The hempen tangles and the trawl-net were used with good effect. Next morning the progress was found to be impossible, and Nordenskiold and his comrades landed at the invitation of the natives. The beach is low and sandy, running between a small lagoon and the sea ; farther from the sea the land gradually rose to bare hills free of snow, or only thinly covered with it from the snow-fidl of the last few days. Lagoon formations of the same kind as were here met with for the first time are distinctive of the coast of north-eastern Siberia. The villages of the Tchuktches are commonly situated on the beach which separates the lagoon from the sea. The dwellings consist of large roomy tents, which inclose one or two sleeping-places. These form as it were a special inner tent of warm reindeer-skin, which is heated and lighted by a train-oil lamp. In summer, but not in winter, a wood fire is kept up in the middle of the exterior tent, an opening being made in the top of it for the escape of the smoke. The Swedes were received in a very friendly manner, and offered whatever the dwelling contained, the supplies IX ] ABSENCE OF ERRATIC BLOCKS. 373 of food being then abundant. In one tent reindeer- flesh was boiling in a large pot of cast-iron. In another tent, an old woman was employed in extracting from the paunch of newly-killed reindeer, the green, spinach- like contents, and stuffing them into a sealskin sack, evidently to be preserved during the winter as a stock of vegetable matter. Other sacks of sealskin were seen filled with train-oil. These sacks are both air and water-tight. They consist of the whole skin with the exception of that of the head, which is cut off at the neck. Children were met with in great numbers. They were well treated. They all appeared to be very healthy. They were often carried on the shoulder both by men and women, and were so wrapped up that they almost resembled skin balls. In the interior of the tent, on the other hand, they were completely naked, rind they might be seen sometimes to run out amonof the tents on the frost-covered ground, at a temperature below the freezing-point, without shoes or other clothing. Fog rendered further progress impossible until the 10th September, a number of land excursions being made in the interval. The beach is sandy, and immediately above hiorh- water-mark is covered with a luxuriant carpet of grass. Further inland a very high range of hills was visible, and beyond it, at a considerable distance from the coast, snow-covered mountain-toj)s. The low land consists of layers of sand and clay, evidently raised above the sea-level at a very recent date. It is remark- able that the erratic blocks, which form so remarkable a feature of the loose earthy layers of northern Europe and northern America, are here completely wanting, a circumstance which appears to show that 374 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. during the latest geological periods, glacieis Lave not played any great part in tins })ortion of the northern hemisphere. Nor, to judge from the complete absence of erratic blocks from the present seashores, does there now exist in the sea to the northward any such glacial land as Greenlund. At some places the solid rock runs out to the coast and there forms precipitous cliffs fifty to sixty feet high, which consist of magnesian schists, limestones more or less silicious, and silicious schists. The strata run from north to south, and are nearly vertical, but contain no fossils. They yielded Dr. Almquist numerous con- tributions to the hitherto completely unknown lichen flora of this region. In consequence of the advanced season of the year, the higher land plants collected were few, and Dr. Kjellman dredged in the sea for alga3 without success. Animal life was scanty — in the sea were seen only a walrus and some seals, on land no mammalia were visible, but holes and paths of the lemming, crossing the land in all directions. Among birds a species of Phalaropus was seen. In the neighbourhood of the place where the Vega was anchored there are for the present no dwellings, but at many places along the beach old foundations of houses were visible. At one place at the mouth of a rivulet. Dr. Stuxberg discovered a large number of graves with burned bones. The burning had been so complete that onl}^ a few of the remaining fragments of bone could be recognised by Dr. Almquist as human. After the burning, the remains of the bones and the ash had been gathered into the hole and covered first with turf, and then with small flat stones. IX. j BARTER WITH THE NATIVES. 375 This was the first time a vessel had lain off this coast. The arrival of the Vega was evidently a very remarkable occurrence for the natives, and tlie report of it must have spread rapidly. Though there were no tents in the neighbourhood, the Swedes received many visits. The correspondence between the house- hold articles of the Tchuktches and tlie Greenlanders was remarkable. This correspondence often exists in the most minute particulars. The wares most in request with the natives were sewing and darning needles, knives, preferably large ones, axes, saws, boring and other tools of iron, shirts of wool and linen, preferably of bright colours but also white, neckerchiefs, and tobacco. Of course brandy also was in demand — an exchano'eable article of which Nordenskiold had a supply, but which he did not think it rio'ht to use. For this the natives will offer anything. Otherwise they are shrewd and cal- culating men of business, and have been accustomed to it from childhood throuoh the barter which is carried on between America and Siberia. Many a beaver-skin that comes to the market at Irbit be- longs to an animal that has been caught in America, whose skin has since gone from hand to hand among the wild men of America and Siberia, until it has at length reached the Russian merchant. For this barter a kind of market is held on the island Ilir in Behring's Strait. Ilir however is only one of the intermediate stations. At the most remote markets in Polar America, according to the Russian traveller Dittmar, a beaver- skin is sometimes exchanged for a single leaf of tobacco. Tobacco is here in universal use. All the men, and 376 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. the women too when tbey get an oj)portunity, smoke peculiar pipes, and the men always cany a tinder-box and tobacco-pouch. The pipes are exceedingly small. The material emjDloyed for smoking is sometimes to- bacco, at other times some substitute, of which samples were taken. For producing fire there were used steel, agate, and tinder formed of woody filjre, by chewing some suitable kind of tree or bush. Tobacco and its substitutes are also chewed. The chewed tobacco is placed behind the ear to dry, and is then used for smoking. Salt is not in use, but all are very fond of sugar. They do not care for coffee unless with a very large quantity of sugar, but they are fond of tea. Dr. Almquist examined the colour-sense of a large number of the natives, and found that nearly all had normal vision. In order to induce them to submit themselves to this test, he offered the examined at the close of the examination a little brandy, amounting at first to a cubic inch and a half. TJiis made many of them slightly intoxicated, cheerful, merry, unsteady on their legs, but not quarrelsome. Some bore small amulets on the neck, which they would not part with. One carried a Greek cross on the neck. He appeared to have been baptized, but his Christianity did not come to much. He crossed himself to the sun with much zeal in our presence. This was the only trace of religion or religious obser- vance that we could discover. The men's dress consists of one or more " pesks " of reindeer-skin, resembling those of the Lapps. Upon the " pesk " is worn in rainy or snowy weather a shirt of gut, or for show IX ] NATIVE CUSTOMS. 377 of cotton cloth, which is called by the natives " calico." The main head-dress consists of a close-fitting pearl- ornamented cap, but both men and women generally go bare-headed. The shoes consist of mocassins with soles of walrus-skin, in winter sometimes of bear- skin, in the latter case with the hair outwards. The dress of the women consists of " pesks " which are very wide, not open below, but sewed together, so as to form wide trousers, which go to the knees, in addition to which an outer pesk, resembling the men's, is worn during winter. The lower part of the arm of this garment is wide and open, as was the fashion with ladies at home some decades ago. In the inner tent the women go quite naked with the exception of a narrow girdle, probably a reminiscence of the dress the people wore when they lived in a milder climate. They wear their hair long, parted at the top and plaited. The men generally have the hair shaved off or clipped to the root with the exception of the outer margin, which is left inch-Ions;, and is combed over the face in front. The same custom was so prevalent among the Indians in the interior of North America two hundred years ago, that the famous missionary Hennapin could put himself on good terms with the Indian women and obtain food by combing their children's locks. Most of the men carry pearls or other showy articles in the ears. The women are tattooed with two dark-blue lines bent inwards on either side of the face from the eye to the chin, four lines on the chin converging towards the mouth, and some peculiarly formed markings on the cheek. The men are sometimes, but not always, painted with a black right-angled cross placed obliquely on 378 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. the cheek-bone, or with some reddish browu colouring matter. During the night before the 10th September the sea was covered with a very thick crust of newly formed ice. The drift-ice appeared to have broken up somewhat. The Vega therefore proceeded on her voyage, but was soon brought up by a belt of old ice so firmly bound together by the ice that had been formed during the course of the night that a channel had to be cut through it. Beyond this belt the sea was pretty open, but the fog became so dense that the Vega had to lie-to beside a ground-ice. On the nth the Vega continued her voyage, and on the 12th having passed Irkiapi or North Cape a good way, fell in with ice so compact that it was impossible to penetrate further. It was only with great difficulty that she could force her way towards land. She was at length anchored on the inner side of a ground- ice stranded near the extreme point of the pro- montory. Close to the promontory the sea is very deep, but a violent storm drove the ice-floes in the neigh- bourhood backwards and forwards with such force that it became necessary to remove the Vega to a little bay formed by two rocky points projecting towards the north. Here the vessel had to lie till the 18tli September waiting a change in the state of the ice. For the name North Cape, given to this promontory because it was the most northerly point of the mainland of Siberia seen by Cook during his voyage north of Behring's Straits, ought, says Nordenskiold, to be suljstituted the native nanie Irkiapi, to prevent it IX.] THE ONKILON RACE. 379 from being confouuded with other capes which have a better title to the name. Ou this promontory there is a vilhige, consisting of eighteen tents. There are also the ruins of a large number of dwelling's which belonged to a race which formerly lived in these regions, and several hundred years ago was driven by the Tchuktches, according to their statement, to islands lying at a great distance in the Polar Sea. Wrangel says the peoj^le were called Onkilon, and he narrates several very interesting traditions of their last battles, which are said to have been fought out on tJiis bold headland. Lieutenant Nordquist and Dr. Almquist made ex- cavations at the dwelling-places of the Onkilon tribe, and collected several old implements of stone and bone. The houses were in groups. They were, at least partly, built of whales' bones and driftwood, covered with earth, and were connected by long pas- sages with the open air and with one another. Probably their method of building resembled that of the Indian race the Indgeletes at Norton Sound described by F. Whymper in his travels in Alaska. The kitchen-middens in the neighbourhood of these old dwellings contain bones of the whale, w^alrus, seal, reindeer, bear, dog, fox, white-whale, and several species of birds, together with stone and bone implements. Though they had lain in the earth for 250 years, there were stone implements still fast in their wooden handles, and the thongs with wdiich they had been bound were still remaining. To these old inhabitants, as to the present, the tusks of the walrus furnished a material which in case of need could rej)lacc iron in the 380 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. manufacture of lance-points, arrows, fisli-liooks, ice- axes, &c. Wlialcs' bones, and perhaps mammoth bones, ^\'ere used on a great scale. The former were found in abundance. Several of the old Onkilon dwellings w^ere used by the Tchuktches to keep blubber in, and at others excavations appeared to have been made in the kitcliGii- middens in search of walrus-tusks. At the top of the stony debris at Irkiapi there were found two old dwellings. These were probably built during the conflicts which preceded the expulsion of the Onkilon tribe. At several places on the slopes of the mountain were seen great collections both of laro^e numbers of lichen- covered bears'-skulls laid in rino-s with the nose inwards ; and of reindeer, bear, and walrus skulls mixed together in a less regular circle, at the centre of which reindeer horns were piled up. Along with the reindeer horns w^ere found the skull and part of the horns of the elk or some other large species of deer. Beside the other bones lay heaped together innumerable temple bones of the seal, which had evidently formed part of sacrificial offerings. As no human bones were found, and the remains were said by the natives to be those of the Onkilon tribe, these were probably old sacri- ficial places. The prevailing rock in this region is of a plutonic nature, somewhat resembling gabbro. On the west side of Irkiapi it is intercalated with a black schist containing traces of fossils, possibly graptolites. Kj ell- man was successful in obtainino^ some algge with the dredge, but the collections of the zoologists were scanty on account of the unfavourable nature of the bottom. From a hill 400 feet hioh Nordenskiold had an IX. J ,_ THE YEGA AGROUND. 381 extensive view of the sea, which was everywhere covered with the unbroken pack with the exception of the narrow channel along the shore, .which liowever was also at many places interrupt etl in an ugly way hy belts of ice. Up to the 18th September the state of the ice was unchansjed. But if a winterino- was to be avoided it vras not advisable to delay longer. The Vecja ac- cordingly steamed along the coast in the open channel, the depth of the water varying from three and a half to four and a half fathoms. The Vegas draught of water is from sixteen to seventeen feet. After forcing her way with great difficulty through a belt of ice, the vessel ran aground on aground-ice foot, and, as the tide was ebbing, she was only got off the following morning after a con- siderable part of the ground-ice had been cut away with ice-axes. Some attempts to blast the ice with gun- powder w^ere unsuccessful, and Nordenskiold suggests that dynamite, as being a much more powerful ex- plosive than gunpowder, should be carried on vo37ages in the course of which it may be desirable to blast a way through belts of ice. During the 19th the Vecja continued her course in the same manner as before through smooth and for the most part shallow water along the coast between high blocks of ground-ice which often had the most picturcscpie forms. No true icebergs were to be found here. Later in the day very low ice that had been formed in rivers or narrow inlets of the sea was met with, and the Vega sailed in water which was only slightly salt and whose temperature was over the freezing point. The following- day the Vega continued her course cdmost exclusively 382 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. between low, dirty ice, wliicli liad not been 8u])jected to much pressure during the preceding winter. It has less depth in the water than the blue ground-ice and therefore drives nearer the coast — a ffreat incon- venience for a vessel so deep in the water as the Vega. A point was soon reached where the depth of water was only from twelve to fifteen feet. The Vega accordingly had to lie-to to wait for more favourable circumstances. The wind had now chano-ed from AV. to N. and N.W. o The temperature became milder and the weather rainy, a sign that there must have been great stretches of open water to the north and north-west. Durinor the night before the 21st it rained heavily with the wind N.N.W. and a temperature of + 2° C. An attempt was made to find a place where the pack that was pressed against the coast could be broken throuofh but it was unsuc- cessful, probably on account of the very dense fog which prevailed. On the 21st Nordenskiold and Palander took soundings to tlie eastward and discovered a channel through which the Vega continued her voyage on the 23rd among very close drift-ice, often so near land that there was only a foot of water under the keel. The land here forms a grassy plain, still free from snow, rising to gently-sloping hills or eminences. On the beach there was a considerable quantity of drift- wood, and here and there were to be seen remains of Onkilon dwellings. On the night before the 2Gth the Vega lay-to near a pretty large opening in the ice-field, which unfortunately closed during the night, so that it was not until the 26th that further progress could ])e made, at first witli difficulty but afterwards in pretty open water, to a point called on the maps IX.] THE VEGA FROZEN-IN. 383 Cape Oilman, and to Avliicli the natives that came on board gave the same name. The ice met with here was larger bluish-white, not dirty. On the £7th the eastern side of Koljutschin Bay- was reached. The following night was calm and the temperature sank backto — 2°C. Notwithstanding the limited degree of cold, the sea was covered with newly formed ice, which indeed in the opener places could only delay, not hinder, the progress of the ship, but which bound together the ice-floes lying off the coast so firmly that a vessel, even with the help of steam, could with difficulty force her way. On the following- day when the Vcr/a had sailed past the point that bounds Koljutschin Bay on the east the narrow channel along the shore became too shallow, and it being found impossible to advance in any other direction the ship was made fast to a ground-ice, the Swedes hoping to get loose and traverse the few miles that separated them from the open water at Behring's Straits, the more con- fidently because whalers several times had not left the place until the middle of October, This hope was to be disappointed. For at least a month after the 28th September, a north wind blew, at first with violence, but afterwards more gently, heaping up greater and greater masses of ice along the coast, and by degrees bringing down the temperature to - 26° G. By the 2.5th November the newly formed ice was nearly two feet thick, and there was no longer any hope of getting free before next summer. The Fc^^a'.s- winter harbour was situated at the northern- most part of Behring's !*^traits in the neighbourho(jd of the tent village Yintlen, a mile from land and only 384 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cuAr. 115' from tlie point where Beliring's Straits open into the Pacific. " When we were frozen in," writes Norden- skiold, " there was ice-free water some minutes farther east. A single hour's steaming of the Vega at full speed had probably been sufficient to traverse this distance, and a day earlier the drift-ice at this point would not have formed any serious obstacle to the advance of the vessel. " Tliis misfortune of being frozen in so near the goal," he continues, " is the one mishap during all my Arctic journeys that I have had most difficulty in reconciling myself to, but I console myself with the brilliant result, almost unexampled in the history of Arctic exploration, that has been already won, with our excellent winter harbour, and with the prospect of being able to continue our voyage next summer. A winter's meteorological and magnetical observations at this place and the geological, botanical, and zoological researches which our being frozen in will give us an opportunity of prosecuting, are besides of sufficient interest to repay all the difficulties and troubles which a winterino- involves." " Now that the ice has become so thick," wrote Lieutenant Palander on the 25th November, " I con- sider the Vega perfectly safe from ice pressure. From our southerly position we suffer little from darkness. To-day we have seven hours' daylight, and even on the 21st December we shall have no less than five hours. The temperature is uniform and falls slowly. The minimum to date is - 28° C. The average temperature of the month of November is nearly - 20° C. The wind durinof the two months we liave been here xr.] THE TCHUKTCHES. 385 lias blown steadily between N.E. and N.W., mostly from N.N.W. "We have erected on shore a house of ice-blocks, intended for a Magnetic Observatory. The instruments have been mounted and the observations beg;in to- morrow. All the way from Cape Chelagskoj the coast is thickly studded with, villages, consisting each of from five to fifteen tents, inhabited by Tchuktches, a tribe doubtless descended from the Eskimo of Greenland. The Tchuktche has black hair and eyes, a brownish- yellow skin, and is small of stature. He is very friendly and serviceable, especially if he gets ' kakau,' a common expression for all kinds of food. He wnll do almost anythiug for a drop of brandy. During summer a number of American vessels come here and carry on barter wdth the Tchuktches. These vessels introduce annually large quantities of spirits, notwith- standing the prohibition of the Hussian Government. AYe have made it a rule never to use brandy in barter ; only a drop is given them sometimes to encourage them. In our immediate neio-hbourhood are three villa^'es, Yentlin, Pitlekaj, and Irgonouk. The natives live by fishino- includino; whale-fishino-, and huntinor the seal and walrus. They are dressed in reindeer-skins, with w^hich they also cover their tents, procuring them by barter w^itli the nomad portion of the population of the Tchuktch Peninsula, the so-called Eeindeer-Tchuktches, w^ho carry on the breeding of reindeer and wander from place to place. During w^inter, when fishing is impos- sible, the coast Tchuktches travel along the coast with dog-sledges and carry on barter with the natives of other villages." c c 386 KORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [(iiat. Christmas and New Year's Day were celebrated with the usual festivities, the temperature outside being — 35° C. The cold was very disagreeable, especially when it was accompanied by a strong wind. The wind con- tinued to blow between N.W. and N.E. except on two occasions, when a southerly and a south-westerly storm brought warm air along with them. On the 30th December the temperature for several hours was as high as + 2" C. During both these storms the ice opened at a distance of several English miles. The average tempera- ture of October was — 5"2°C., of November — 16"6°, of December —22*8°, and of January -25'1°. The minimum temperature to the end of January was -46°a During their imprisonment the members of the expe- dition enjoyed good health and spirits. The time was spent in busy scientific work and in intercourse with the friendly Tchuktches, who supplied the party with bears and reindeer. Game was abundant and spring brought numbers of wild fowl. The dreaded scurvy was absent, thanks to the thorough precautions taken for its prevention, and in some degree no doubt to the circumstance that there was no dark period, the upper limb of the sun beinor visible on the shortest dav. There was little sickness and no death amono; the members of the expedition. At lenoth after 264 davs' detention in the ice the Vega was released on the 18th July and passed East Cape, Behring's Straits, on the 20th, having thus been the first to accomplish the North-East passage. Skirting the Asiatic coast the Vega entered St. Law- rence Bay, then crossing to the American shore visited ix] ARRIVAL AT YOKOHAMA. 387 Port Clarence, and recrossed to Komian Bay, dredging carefully all the while, the sea-bottom being particularly interesting on account of the meeting of currents from the Arctic and Pacific oceans. After touching at St. Lawrence Island Nordenskiold next visited Behring's Island, and discovered there the fossil remains of the gigantic marine animal Rhijtiiia stelleri. Leaving the island on the 19th August, the Vega had a pleasant voyage till the 21st, when she encountered a severe gale during which lightning struck the vessel, splitting the maintop and slightly injuring several persons. At length at 10.30 p.m. on the 2nd September she cast anchor in the harbour of Yokohama, and in a short space of time the telegraph spread the news of her arrival over the civilised world. Professor Nordenskiold considers the voyage from Europe to the east coast of Asia certain of accomplish- ment and safe with a little more experience. He believes that all the northern seas from Japan to the Lena present no difficulty to skilful navigators, and looks forward to a large prospective trade with Central Siberia. After a fortnight's stay at Yokohama the Vega pro- ceeds on her memorable voyage, in the course and at the conclusion of w^hich the illustrious leader of the expedi- tion and his distinguished comrades will be welcomed with universal acclamations as worthy sons of the old Vikings, and as men w^ho have made their names im- mortal by breaking the line of innumerable defeats by a splendid and bloodless victory, achieved by human skill and daring over the powers of Nature and the rigours of the Icy Seas. c c 2 APPENDICES. APPENDICES. APPENDIX I. OFFICIAL REPORT TO THE (sWEDISH) ROYAL BOARD OF HEALTH ON THE HYGIENE AND CARE OF THE SICK DURING THE SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION, 1872-3, BY DR. A. ENVALL, MEDICAL OFFICER. Appointed, as a volunteer medical officer on the steamer Polhent during the Arctic Expedition, 1872 — 1873, I now proceed to report to the Royal Board of Health concerning the hygiene and care of the sick during the expedition. Eor this expedition the Government had granted the use of two vessels, the mail steamer 7^o//;e«i, and the brig Gladan as tender, the latter only for the summer months, though from unforeseen occur- rences it had to winter. The Polhem is, as is well known, quite a small iron steamer, only 110 fret long. For this voyage the vessel had been completely covered in by building over the deck from fore to aft, which was of extra- ordinary utility, particularly in bad weather. No other arrange- ments had been made, as it was not intended that we should pass the winter on board, but should live on land in a house made in Gothenburg. The brig Gladan, as has been already mentioned, also stood at the disposal of the expedition, for the purpose of con- veying, to the place where it was to winter, the house and other necessaries. Besides these two vessels, the expedition was obliged to charter a third, the Onkel Adam, which brought us coal, forty reindeer, and i-eindeer moss for them. The Folhertis crew consisted in all of twenty-nine persons, count- ing in the chief, the medical officer, and three scientiHc men, but it 392 APPENDIX I. was intended that during winter this number should be reduced to twenty-two, inasmuch as one of the scientific men and six of the crew were to return with the brig Gladan. Its crew consisted of two sviperior and two inferior officers, and twenty one men, in all twenty-five. On the Onkel Adam there were thirteen persons, counting in the master and mate. One was a woman acting as cook. The number of those who wintered through the shutting in of both the other vessels in the ice was sixty-seven, in place of twenty-two as had been originally intended. Of these sixty-seven, twenty-nine lived in the house erected on land, twenty-five on board the Gladan, and thirteen on board the Onkel Adam. On board the Gladan, which was not intended to winter, as has just been stated, various arrange- ments were made for protection against the much dreaded Arctic winter, and to endeavour to maintain a good sanitary state. The whole deck from fore to aft was covered with a tent of sails, so that one could very comfortably take exercise in the open air, protected from bad weather and cutting winds. It was unfortunate that this tent required several times to be moved, in order that the vessel might be navigated during the breaking up of the ice, which repeatedly happened during bad weather. The officers and an inferior officer lived aft in berths which were warmed by a good stove in the little cabin. They protected themselves from draughts from the colder hold below them, by reindeer hides laid on the cabin floor, and the walls were made pretty tight by felt and extra boarding. The crew and an inferior officer lived in the " trossbolten," which for so little a vessel was very roomy, but for the present number of inhabitants, namely, twenty-two, and under these circumstances must be con- sidered too confined, inasmuch as for every man there were only 80 — 90 cubic feet of space. It was warmed partly by a stove, partly by the galley which stood there, and a comparatively very good ventilation was obtained, partly by the opening downwards, and partly by the opening above the galley. In order to avoid draughts and damp, and make the " trossbotten " as healthy as pos- sible, the tross deck was covered with felt, the deck with boards between the beams of the deck, the floor with tarpaulins and reindeer skins over them, and all iron was covered over with oakum and grease ; one of the store cabins was arranged as an excellent sick cabin, and aft the galley a large and roomy washing cabin was fitted up, the latter, in my opinion, a very good arrangement whereby a great deal of damp and dirt was avoided in the lest of the APPENDIX I. 393 " trossbotten." Besides these airangements, for which the officers of the vessel desei-ve all praise, a stove was also, on my proposal, placed in the hold, where fire was kept up day and night. The temperature could there in general be maintained without difficulty many degrees above the freezing point, and even up to 10° C. and higher. The advantage of this was that the crew, whether employed, or in their leisure moments, did not require to live in the confined " trossbotten," but could remain in that large and airy apartment, whereby the detei'ioration of the air in the " trossbotten" was in no small degree diminished. On board the Onkel Adam the master, inferior officers and cook, five persons in all, lived aft in a cabin with berths, the others in a very dark and confined forecastle. Extraordinai-y arrangements, similar to those on the Gladan, were also made here for protection against the storms and the cold of winter, and the hold, which was placed in communication with the forecastle by a door, was kept warmed by an iron stove. The temperature here, however, could not in general be maintained many degrees over the freezing point. The cubic contents of the forecastle were 640 cubic feet, or eighty cubic feet per man. Both these crews were thus in this respect under more disadvantageous circumstances than those who lived on laud, where the cubic contents of the men's room were 2,772 cubic feet, or divided among eighteen men, 1.54 per man. PROVISIONS. In this respect the same regulations were in force as during the expedition of 1868, namely, that the ordinary rules for men-of-war being set aside, the chief, in consultation with the medical officer, was entitled to make suitable arrangements for the dietary. In the light of the experience obtained during preceding expeditions, both English and Swedish, two such dietaries were framed, one for summer, the other for winter. I annex these together with the dietary with reduced rations, which required to be drav/n up in consequence of the unforeseen increase of the personnel, and for the sake of comparison, the dietary that was in force for the Sofia in 1868. From 1st October, 1872, to 1st July, 1873, we lived on rations reduced almost to two-thirds, a circumstance which could not have other than an injurious influence on the state of health, of which more below. The Polhein was provisioned for twenty-two men for eighteen months, and the Gladan for twenty-five men for 394 APPENDIX I. six months. The steamer Onkel Adam, wliich arrived at Spitzbergeu on the 13th August, had then only provisions for some few weeks, but, with a praiseworthy foresight, the master purchased from the Ice Fjord Company, then in course of being broken up, about six months' provisions. The provisions for the Folham and the GJadan had been bought in Copenhagen from the well-known purveyor, Beauvais, and taken overhead ; the provisions were of excellent quality. Some remarks, however, I must make, which perhaps will affect the dietaries as much as the purveyors. The preserved meat, — that of Beauvais consisted of meat and soup together, — like all preserved foods, does not, in my opinion, fully replace the fresh, though from a theoretical point of view the meat at least ought to do that. It soon becomes quite tasteless, so that one gets disgusted with it, and this effect on the taste probably has an influence on the nutrition, and thereby indirectlj'- on the nutritive value of the food. This may appear a somewhat bold hypothesis, but according to my experience, and as far as I have been able to form an impartial judgment, fresh and preserved meat do not appear to me to have quite the same nutritive value. The soup which accompanied the meat was, on the contrary, palatable in a high degree, but I will not say on that account that its nutritive value was particularly great. I have tested preserved provisions from several firms, and to a certain extent this holds good of them all. 8uch meat as has not had soup made with it is of course much better, and for such journeys only this kind of preserved meat ought to be used, and the soup taken separately. Besides, perhaps, a little variety of beef, mutton, and veal, were useful, such as the Englishmen had in their Arctic expeditions ; one then tildes of it less speedily. The preserved vegetables, which consisted mainly of roots in thin dried slices, were of great service as an addition to the soup, but could not be used for other purposes. With respect to them, it is still more problematical in what degree they replace fresh vegetables. Among the preserved foods it was the potatoes which we had in the form of dried slices and meal, which in the opinion of all best served the purpose of replacing the fresh. All the salt meat and pork, as well as the biead, was from Copenhagen, and the quality was such that no fault could be found with it. Fi'om 1st October, 1872, to 1st July, 1873, fresh bread was baked daily by the employment of leaven. Potatoes, in which, as is well known, there is a substance capable of passing into fermentation, were u.'-ed in preparing it. After being well boiled and kneaded, APPENDIX I. 395 the potatoes were mixed with a small quantity of warm water, and left over-night in a moderately warm place. After ten to twelve hours, common fermentation had begun in this mixture, and by the addition of flour, an excellent leaven was obtained, which afterwards could be used an indefinite number of times, by adding as much flour every time a portion of the leaven was taken away, to raise the dough. In this way, well fermented and well tasted bread was daily obtained. Various other methods were also tried among others, one with yeast powder from Copenhagen, but they were all more or less unsuccessful, while on the contrary, the above described method was quite certain and reliable. With more or less attention directed to scurvy, there had been placed in the dietary, pepper, vinegar, mustard, extract of meat, sour-krout, raisins, prunes, currants, and dried fruit, and more directly for medical purposes there were stocks of preserved milk, pickles (a large sort), and horse-radish preserved in vinegar. I think we ought not to ascribe to extract of meat any special anti-scorbutic properties, though according to current views of the nature of scurvy, these ought to be very great ; in practice this did not appear to be the case. With respect to the dried fruit, I will only remark that there would have been no harm if the quantity had been somewhat greater. Of pi'eserved milk we had several kinds ; two of Norwegian manu- facture were exceedingly bad, one of them, adulterated with flour, when dissolved in water, yielded a deposit which gave a leaction with iodine. That obtained for the vessel was from Beauvais, and was also very bad. The best of all the sorts which I have tested, both now and during previous expeditions by sea, is the Swiss. The horse-radish preserved in vinegar might doubtless with great advantage have been replaced by the fresh root from Sweden. The pickles, considering their low cost, were exceedingly good and serviceable for those attacked by scurvy, as was also the lime-juice, which is considered indispensable for such expeditions, and of which of course we had a supply. Besides the ordinary dietary the gunroom personnel had provided themselves with better preserved provisions, some wine, and other extras. Among these I may specially mention 2,000 eggs, preserved with aseptine by Herr Gahn, in Upsala, but of which scai'cely 100 could be used. According to my experience, gained in a foregoing sea- voyage t ) warmer countries, aseptine is not a suitable means for preserving eggs. 396 APPENDIX I. Chocolate was drunk instead of coffee twice a week, and I con- sider it to be specially suitable in the Arctic regions, although it was not much relished, especially in the beginning, but the taste is far from pointing out always what is most useful. I believe spirituous liquors to be of great use in small and moderate quanti- ties, but exceedingly mischievous and pernicious in the case of the least excess. They consisted of brandy and concentrated rum, the latter specially ordered from London for the ice journeys, and of only middling flavour. For the ice journeys which were projected, and which also were carried out, there had been provided 10001b. pemmican — artificially dried meat, mixed with fat, some currants and sugar, and placed in hermetically sealed tins. Of the excel- lence of this food for such journeys there cannot be two opinions. Some, howevei', have a dislike to it. We were unable to obtain any great increase to the stock of pro- visions during the first summer, because we lay for a long time at a place quite unsuitable for hunting, and during the remainder of the season were too much engaged with preparations for the winter, Two reindeer that were shot in September had uncommonly fine and savoury flesh. They were, however, at that time rather fat, having under the skin a layer of fat nine to ten centimetres in thickness. Those that we obtained earlier in the summer from the walrus- hunters were not so fat, and therefore better. In October vv^ere shot about 150 ptarmigan, which formed a welcome delicacy. Several seals were also killed and their flesh eaten under the form of beef- steaks, by most with lelish and appetite. The same was the case with the flesh of a bear that was shot during winter under our windows. Of the many sea-fowl that visit Spitzbergen during summer, it is without doubt the Alca BriinnicM Avhich has the most savoury flesh. Next in order, perhaps, comes Mergulus Alle, though it is exceedingly small, so that a great number of them are required to make a meal for the crew of a vessel. Besides the rest — as black guillemots and eiders — were not neglected, especially both in spring when we were quite tired of preserved meat, and in winter when we had no superabundance of provisions. We had not taken any gx-eat stock of beer because we did not think it could be kept fresh and good any great length of time. Experience, however, showed that this was not the case, for in the gunroom there was a little private stock, of which there remained some in April which was then excellent. Some other little luxuries, as preserved whortleberries, and other APPENDIX I. 397 preserves of different kinds, fruit juice, dried apples, prunes, and so-called " drops," had been taken along by private members, and Avere all in great request. CLOTHING. The expedition was as well provided in the way of clothing as in that of provisions, partly from the stoies of the Crown, partly through purchase, although the abundant stock was also in this case reduced by the unforeseen occurrences. On board the Gladan underclothing was made from felt taken from the naval stores, and it answered the purpose very well, though it was not very strong in wear. Besides, as much of the stock intended for the Polhem was handed over as could be spared. I believe none of the man-of- war's men had reason to complain that they needed to freeze. The case perhaps was different with the crew of the Onkel Adam, of whom I found some very poorly clad ; but after my remarks on this point to the master, the matter was amended iir one way or other. In summer other clothes are not required on Sj)itzbergen than what are commonly worn in Sweden in spring and autumn. In winter some increase is of course required. With complete woollen underclothing, and the common thick sailor's clothes, sea- boots, and skin-cap, the men got on commonly veiy well. During the coldest time there were dealt out to the crew so-called "skallar," a sort of shoes, made of the skin of the reindeer's head, in which was placed a certain kind of dried glass. These shoes are exceed- ingly warm, and with them a man can defy the severest cold. For the cold season the men had a soit of overcoat of canvas, lined with wool. Under ordinary circumstances, and with constant exercise, no furs were required. There were mittens both of wool and skin in quantity. Besides, for the ice journeys were used " peskar," reindeer-skins with the hair outwards, sewn, together both behind and before, so that when put off or on they requiied to be drawn over the head like a shirt, " biillingar," a sort of over- trousers, also of reindeer-skin, canvas boots, and " komager," or tine boots of soft leather, also with hay inside. Next the foot, over the stocking, were used, during the ice journeys, foot-cloths, about two feet in length, with which the foot was draped above the stocking before it was inserted into either the " skallar " or "komager" above described. The excellence of this foot covering 398 APPENDIX I. is best evidenced by the fact that not a single case of frost-bite occurred in the case of those who used them. During the ice journeys too, gutta-percha mattresses, which could be inflated with air, formed part of the equipment. In this way the damp, which otherwise would have arisen from the action of the heat of the body on the snow and ice, was wholly avoided. ROUTINE AND DISCIPLINE. A well-arranged routine and proper discipline are, without doubt, of the very greatest importance for the hygiene during a winter in the Arctic regions. Besides the sorrowful fact that seventeen Norwegian walrus-hunters at one place, and two at another, who at the same time with us braved the dangers of the Arctic winter, succumbed, and without doubt just through this want of discipline, the difference in the state of health that prevailed on the two Government vessels on the one hand, and the commercial ship on the other, showed, in my opinion, the effect of this uniform routine and discipline. On board the Polhem, or more correctly on land, the time was divided in the following way: — 6.30 a.m., general awakening; 8, muster, after which free gymnastics for ten to fifteen minutes, and breakfast ; from 9 to 1 2, work ; from 12 to 1 , mid-day rest ; from 1 to 5, work, after which the men had leave to employ themselves as they had a mind; 7.30, supper, and 10, to bed. None was allowed to sleep by day without special reason or permission. On the Gladan the ordinary routine of a man-of-war was observed. On the Onhel Adam, on the contrary, the master was less strict in maintaining proper discipline, and as he himself neglected or trans- gressed what was useful in this way, the crew also fell into habits of indifference and laziness, and on board great disorder prevailed ; and, notwithstanding my injunctions, the men were not kept to cleanliness and neatness. MEDICAL STORES. These consisted of the common complete equipment of vessels belonging to the navy, consisting of bandages and instruments, linen, kc. With attention specially directed to the sujiposed severity of the winter, there were bought in Gothenburg thii teen resj)irators, which however did not come much into use. APPENDIX I. 399 There were also purchased twenty-four so-called "goggles," and they were not only of great use, but absolutely indispensable. As the stock of them was not sufficient, the carpenters had to make such spectacles as the Eskimo and Greenlanders use. They were of wood, and were not so good nor so convenient to go with as the proper spectacles. Of the latter, the soot-coloured are the best, the blue do not diminish the intensity of the light, only change the colour, and are theiefore not so reliable for the prevention of snow- blindness. Neither are green or blue veils, which were tried during the English Arctic expeditions, and by several during our expedition, so much to be relied on. Those who use the soot coloured spectacles certainly escape snow-blindness. The stock of medicines was specially large, because we were to be completely shut out from the rest of the world, and thus, if any- thing had been wanting, there would have been no possibility of procuring it. From Medical Councillor Herr Dr. Edholm, I obtained a collec- tion of Professor Almen's Gelatince medicatce in lamellis, which he wished to have tested for their practical utility ; I had also bought a quantity as medical stores for the projected ice-journey, when the weight and bulk of the equij^ment were of so great importance, and the yelatince therefore appeared to me to be of great utility. Through a very extensive employment of them, I have had opportunities of making observations of their practical utility, during sea expeditions especially, and of their great practical value in general. Excepting that some, as Gel. acetatis plumbici, and Gel. tartratis stibicokalici, had a fine crystalline powder on the surface, they all, after the fifteen months the expedition lasted, showed themselves unaltered both in their outward appearance and in their therapeutic action. In order to ascertain if difl'erent ways of keep- ing them would affect them differently, they were kept in dry and moist, cold ( - 30° to - 38° C), and warm (15° to 30° C.) places, and I have here only to remark a certain disposition to the formation of mould in those that were exposed to damp, and in two Gel. lactatis ferrosi, and Gel. yummi guftce aloetico', which lay in a warm place, a certain brittleness and fragility, doubtless caused by a too small addition of glycerine. For military medical officers and others who are obliged to act as apothecaries, they are on account of the facility of dispensing, so convenient and of so great utility' as to be far above my praise. 400 APPENDIX I. They ought also to be of great use and practical importance for hospitals and similar institutions, partly for the reason already stated, partly because they appear to remain unaltered nearly for any length of time, and thus what is not consumed on one occasion may be used another time, and long after with advantage, which is not the case with medicines in the form of infusions and decoctions, or even of powders and pills, not to speak of some other common modes of dispensing. Another thing which makes the gelatince so useful and practical, is the ease with which medicine in this form can be taken by the patient, without his being in the least annoyed by its taste or smell. He takes only the small capsules of gelatine (one or more) into his mouth with a few drops of water and swallows them, and the medicine is carried without the least inconvenience into the stomach, and I have seen patients who said they had the greatest difficulty in taking even the least disagreeable medicines, who could with ease take them in the form of gelatince. That gelatine preparations act at least as certainly and speedily as medi- cines under other forms when taken inwardly, I have never had reason to doubt. An advantage of the gelatince so easily understood that I need not waste any words upon it, is the ease with which one in very small bulk, as in his pocket-book, note-book, or otherwise in his pocket, can carry a very large collection of medicines. Their cheapness, as compared with other forms of dispensing, is also of great importance. In short the utility and practical value of gelatince are so evident that Ave can only be astonished at their not having come into general use, to which it has j^erhaps conduced in some degree that they have not been placed in the list of medicines. In Tromsoe there was purchased a large vessel containing 130 lbs. preserved cloudberries {Ruhus Chamce morns), which, according to the medical men there, are a good antiscorbutic. As such we had besides from Copenhagen, as above stated; two kegs of large pickles, twenty bottles of horse radish finely sliced, preserved in vinegar, and from England, fifty kannor (nearly thirty gallons) lime-juice. There were besides, for hospital use, 200 tins of presei'ved milk. To the hospital equipment also belonged several articles taken from the naval stores at Carlskrona ; mattresses, woollen nightshirts, English hammocks, &c. APPENDIX I. 401 CLIMATE AND DISEASES. The climate of Spitzbergen during the summer months is very good and healthy ; the variations of temperature are not very great. As summer we cannot reckon more than the half of June, July, August, and part of September. According to oui' experience, which concerns the latter half of one summer and the first half of the succeeding, August and the half of September, as well as the latter half of June and the whole of July, were very fine and pleasant. Yet I believe the weather is very changeable at different places on Spitzbergen. During our stay at the Norway s, the north-west corner of Spitzbergen, where cold and warm winds often meet, there was a great deal of fog and violent gusts of wind, now from one direction, now from another. The temperature was sometimes a couple of degrees under the freezing point, but averaged in general from 2° to 4° C, and even rose to 7° C Rain and snow, though not in considerable quantities, were not uncommon. The first half of September at Mussel Bay, where we were compelled, by obstacles presented by the ice, to settle instead of at Parry Island, as had been intended, was the finest season we had during our stay on Spitzbergen, but the sun was now no longer circumpolar, and the nights began to be dark. In the middle of the month violent snowstorms commenced, and the temperature sank hastily. On the 16th September the vessels were shut in by masses of drift ice. In the last days of the month we had already a temperature of -29° C, not a very good outlook for the winter. During the first four months, however, it was not of any uncommon severity ; on the contrary, it was sometimes very mild, as 3° C. in the month of January, at the 80th degree of latitude. The temperature v/as during this period subjected to many frequent and sudden changes ; a rise or fall of 10° C. in an hour was not uncommon. In the same way the variations of the barometer were sometimes very great. The sun, which dis- appeared on the 22nd October, was replaced only in an inconsiderable degree by the moon and the frequently recurring aurora. Frequent storms raged particularly during November and January, and drift- ing snow and fog combined to make the darkness yet more impene- trable. During the darkest period, from the middle of November to about the middle of January, one could not take long walks. The depressing infiuenco of darkness on the spirits was too evident D D 402 APPENDIX T. to escape any one of ordinary powers of observation. There were some persons, indeed, who declared that the darkness did not in any way afiect them ; the same persons, however, complained, like others, of the difficulty of sleeping at night, S:c. Over the most came a certain indisposition to exertion, coupled with a peculiar irritability of temper, and when in February light began to return the countenances also lightened, and the spirits became better and gayer, the difficulty of sleeping at night disappeared when the dis- tinction between day and night returned, to show itself again in some cases when the sun became circumpolar and there was no longer any night. February and March, and even a part of April, were the winter months proper. In order to avoid repetition, I refer to the tables of tempei'ature in the Appendix. During these months the air was calm and often clear, though fogs of ice-crystals also hung over the ground, and thick snow showers were not absent. During April and May a very severe cold still continued, and few or almost no signs of spring showed themselves. Towards the end of May, and during the month of June, milder weather commenced, the temperature by day being a few degrees above the freezing point, and by night a few degrees under it. The summer climate of Spitzbergen is, as we have said, without doubt very good, and even healthy, but we must remember that here, as at most other places, one summer is probably very different from another. Of the "continual sunshine," and the "weather always calm and fine," we did not enjoy too much. In this respect we were perhaps unfortunate, as in so many others. Thick fogs often con- cealed the sun, and rain and sleet with a raw and damp atmosphere greatly preponderated over the clear and glorious days of sunshine, of which so much is said in foregoing accounts. Either some dif- ference in this respect must in fact have been exjDerienced, or it may perhaps be explained by the disposition in the narrators to remember better the pleasant days than the chilly ones ; but with the notes before me I must leave the facts as they ai-e without any poetic colouring one way or the other. It must be allowed that when the weather was fine it was so indeed ; although the temperature was not high, the sense of enjoyment surpassed all description. One breathed so easily the clear tx'ansparent air then ; in fact, it appears to be, as a colleague has previously expressed it, " more respirable," and I cannot find any more suitable expression. The winter climate, which is far from equalling in severity that of Siberia or the APPENDIX I. 403 Archipelago of North America, perhaps on the contrary ought to be considered as less salubrious, both on account of the long continued low temperature, the frequent storms, and the sudden changes of weather, the great variations of temperature within short spaces of time, and above all, the intolerable darkness. Their effect was exhibited somewhat differently in different individuals. As has already been stated, there occurred in some a disposition to sleep, an indisposition to exertion, and a feeling of indiffex'ence ; in others an occasional irritability, with a generally deep dej)ression ; some complained of sleeplessness by night and great fatigue by day, and all were in a more or less distinctly marked chloro-anaemic con- dition. On the return of the sun the colour of the face was a pale yellowish green, as of plants reared in darkness, or with an in- sufficient supply of light. Another effect of the long Arctic winter, which ought perhaps to be ascribed indii-ectly to the dark- ness, and more directly to the antemic condition, was a generally prevailing dyspepsia, a sort of want of tone in the organs of digestion. During the winterings of the English in the Arctic regions, I have found this often remarked. To the general loss of flesh, which occurred with very few exceptions, and in a very great degree, the darkness may also have conduced to some extent, but mainly both the quality of the food, and above all its in- sufficiency in a quantitative respect. For the sake of comparison I annex a table showing the nutritive value of the rations consumed dui'ing several expeditions and in different circumstances. For the figures in this table I do not of course claim any absolute value, but having been calculated according to the same analytical tables, they ought to be sufficiently exact for a comparison. The rations on the Onhel Adam were nearly the same as on the vessels belonging to the navy, but an unfavourable circumstance was their containing a larger quantity of salt meat. It is exceedingly difficult to say on what the purity of the air on Spitzbergen depends. But with the increasing knowledge of gei"ms, and their i-elation to a number of diseases, one is very much inclined to suppose that if they are not entirely absent there, they occur under other forms, or to a considerably smaller extent, than elsewhere, a supposition which gains support in the highest degree from several phenomena, as the way in which putre- faction takes place there, the complete absence of some diseases, and the relatively limited number of others, which are either certainly known or are believed to be dependent on these germs. D D 2 404 APPENDIX I. The life- conditions of those disease-producing organisms must there be very unfavourable on account of the low temiierature, but wherever men settle and dwell they may bring with them germs, and favourable conditions for their development may also arise. I did not consider that I had sufficient experience to settle the question regarding germs, but I naturally had my attention always fixed on all circumstances which might have a bearing on it. Eemarkable indeed is the small number of catarrhs in the respi- ratory passages which occurred, and of how mild a nature the cases were, and how one might expose himself to chills without bad effects. There was scarcely a single individual who did not during the cold season make acquaintance to a greater or less extent with cold water, and in no single case did any injurious consequences follow the cold bath. Only two cases of bronchitis have been regis- tered in the sick journal, and even these were not of any special intensity. Very many exc^edingly mild attacks of catarrh in the respiratory passages indeed occurred besides these. (Joryza oc- curred in not so few cases, but only one or two were of a fully- developed nature. I believe, however, there is no good ground for the proposal to send consumptive patients, and persons liable to repeated catarrhs, to Spitzbergen. A hired Norwegian with chronic bronchitis had, both dui'ing summer and winter, several very acute attacks of it, and returned no ways improved in health. One case, of course, does not prove much. The state of things was quite different with disturbances of the digestive organs ; acute and chronic gastric catarrhs, indigestion, and occasional diarrhoeas were exceedingly common. During the ice journeys, when Lieutenant Palander had the care of the sick on his hands, equipped principally with gelatine capsules, it was diarrhcea that gave most trouble — scarcely any one escaped. They were relieved with ease by a capsule or two of opium or Dover's powder ; but it recurred after a day or two, to be again removed in the same way. During these laborious marches the men were very thirsty, and drank eagerly, and Palander, in his notes, is in- clined to believe that this was the cause of the diarrhoea. But during a couple of days when Palander and his men were obliged to halt on the inland ice on account of a snowstorm — and it is mentioned in his notes that a very small quantity of water was drunk — diarrhoea occurred. I am inclined to believe that the APPENDIX I. 405 diarrhaa was caused by the pemmican with the large quantity of fat, the sugar, and the dried meat, almost free of water, which it contained. Eheuniatic affections, mainly in the form of muscular rheumatism, were as common as the disturbances of the digestive organs. Only five cases are noted in the sick list, but besides these, there were a great number of mild attacks. Of three cases of articular rheumatism, two of them in the same person, one was complicated with both pericarditis and pneumonia, and it was only with great exeitions that I succeeded, after several months, in getting the man well. Two attacks of pleuritis, both in the same person, of which the second was without doubt a complication of scurvy, have occurred. Here, indeed, were wanting both the affection of the gums and the common pvirple spots ; but the indistinct rheumatoid pains, the profuse repeated bleedings at the ntise, the cedema over the ankles, the brawny effusions in the connective tissue over the left ankle, the thrombosis of the ve'ns of the ankle, and the copious effusion in the right pleural sac, found on a 'post-'tnortem examination, appear to me sufficient evidence of scurvy. Pneumonia in the other lung occurring at the same time, with rapidly-increasing pulmonary cedema, brought this patient's life to a close. There occurred in all twenty-eight attacks ef scurvy, of which twelve were on board the Onkel Adam, or 92 '3 per cent, of the crew; ten on board the Gladan, or 40 per cent. ; and six among the Polhem's n:en, or 20*6 per cent. These dift'erent percentages appear to me conclusive evidence of the different effects produced by the circumstances in which the crews were placed. As unfavourable for the Onhd Adam's men we must consider both their having more salt meat than the others, the inferiority of their quarters, and the comparative absence of order and cleanliness which prevailed there ; and for the Gladan the confined space in which the men lived ; and besides, for both these vessels' crews the psychical effect of finding themselves quite unexpectedly compelled to winter in these desolate and gloomy legions. Por the Polhem's men all these circumstances, as has been pointed out above, were much more favourable. For all the three there is an additional etiological consideration of great im- portance with respect to scurvy, namely, the reduced rations. That the Arctic regions specially predispose to the development of scurvy is a fact so generally known that I need not further refer to it. Add to this so inij)()rtant a consideration as the insufficiency of 400 APPENDIX I. food, and we have only to congratulate ourselves that we were so fortunate as to lose but a single patient. In the month of June, however, the condition of the sick was such that I am almost certain that if the Englishman, Mr. Leigh Smith, had not kindly presented the expedition with a large quan- tity of preserved provisions, fx'esh potatoes, and other refreshments, we should not have got off with less than one or more deaths in addition. The effect of these supplies was very evident ; in the course of a week or two all were improving, a number of small ailments were, as it were, blown away, and the anaemic and reduced condition that prevailed with most of us had almost completely disappeared. The psychical depression among the men, which was caused by the news that no vessel was coming from Sweden to our assistance, had, I believe, great influence on the deteiiorated condition which began in Jime. It was as if the hope of relief from home, which now all at once came to an end, had hitherto kept them up. Among the principal symptoms of scurvy were the rheumatoid pains, which occvirred very early, and might easily mislead the in- experienced in the diagnosis, and the anaemic and reduced condition. The affections of the gums were wanting in many cases. Large and ffetid soi*es in the palate and gums were not uncommon. In many cases the teeth were loose and movable in their holes. Bleedings at the nose and effusions in the connective tissue, the latter showing themselves under the form of hard infiltrations under the skin, with or without violet discolouration s of it, oc- curred in the largest number of cases. These infiltrations, which generally were as hard as bone, and were from the size of a walnut to that of the closed fist, were sometimes painless, sometimes tender and painful. Occasionally they extended over the whole leg, from the groin to far below the knee, and again from the toes to above the knee, with all the varieties of colour which are caused by a serious contusion. The leg in such cases was always stiff at the knee, and could not be bent, and the patients were thus obliged to use crutches. The infiltrations were considerably more common in the leg than in the arm, and in the latter only occurred to a limited extent ; they were never found in the trunk. The small purple spots, which are so characteristic, were absent only in two cases ; fcdema over the ankle was also seldom absent in the developed cases. Of the \vho\e person7iel 41*7 percent., and of the different age-classes under 20, 50 per cent. ; 21 to 30, 43*7 per cent. ; 31 to APPENDIX I. 407 40, 36-3 per cent. ; above 40, 44*4 per cent. — were attacked by -scurvy ; but no inference can be drawn from these figures, they are quite accidentah The disease attacked both those who had the worst bodily constitution and those who were strongest and healthiest. Some who had a dislike to the preserved provisions, and exclusively or mainly lived on salt meat, were first attacked. With respect to treatment, I place first a well-arranged dietary, excluding salt provisions as much as possible ; further, the greatest cleanliness and exercise in the fresh air, and regular work, as good for the spirits. Among pharmaceutical means I have with great advantage employed iron and quinine, and specially value the former as antagonistic to, and curative of, the anaemia. Vege- tables and the juice of fruits of all kinds have been considered very useful, and certainly with good ground. Lime-juice is, with- out doubt, also a good means of preventing and curing this disease. Best of all, in my opinion, are cloudberries ; they were given in quantities of 125 grammes, or three to four large dessert spoonfuls daily. I had several opportunities of observing the difference between such patients as got cloudberries and those to whom I did not at first, for the sake of experiment, prescribe them. The im- provement of the former began very soon, and made great progress, while the latter remained nearly at the same point till they got the same treatment as the others, after which they also speedily began to improve. I do not doubt, but am much inclined to believe, that some, and perhaps most other preserved berries, have a similar good effect. I had only opportunity in a single case to try whortle- berries (Vaccinium Vitis IcIceo), and their action was good. Both the pickles and the horse-radish also acted well, and the preserved milk was not without value. According to the view that this disease is caused by a diminution of the potash-salts in the blood, the extract of meat ought to have been specially effective. It was consumed in larger quantities, but I could never perceive any good effect it had. It may be urged, on the other hand, that if we had not had it, the disease would have raged to a greater extent. Only of the greatest necessity did I permit a scurvy patient to lie still and keep within doors ; if they could not walk crutches were made for them, and they had to go out into the fresh air a couple of hours daily. As a local application I employed princi- pally camphorated spirits, which were highly valued by the patients as relieving the pain in the infiltrations already mentioned. The shoi-test period nny scurvy patient was under treatment was 408 APPENDIX I. 1-i clays, and tlio longest 132 days. This total number of days during wliicli the scurvy patients were under treatment amounted to the considerable sum of 1,900, or on an average 67 days for each patient. Of eye diseases there were some cases of simple conjunctivitis, and seven attacks of snow-blindness, not including the cases, also seven in number, which occurred during the ice journeys, some of which are said to have been very intense. They always occuried in the case of those who did not use glasses, some from obstinacy, others because they thought them inconvenient to walk with. None who properly used glasses were attacked, though on the other hand many who went without them also escaped. This disease, so common in the Arctic regions, arises in working or marching out upon the snow-fields, where the eye has not a single dark spot to rest upon. The attack was very sudden ; to the patient all appeared as if wrapped in mist, and he was unable to go forward alone. Soon after pain commenced, in most cases very sud- denly, and after some hours, five to ten, there was the most intense conjunctivitis, the conjunctiva, and even the eyelid, being much swelled. Tears streamed in floods over the cheeks, and the patient complained like a child of the pains, which he described as feeling deep in the eye, and in the forehead over the eyebrow, and in the head. In most cases there was tenderness over the ciliary tract, and sooner or later there was developed a superficial keratitis with a clouding, commonly diffuse, of the whole cornea. In these cases the intolerance of light was raised to the uttermost, and th^e eyelids were kept spasmodically closed. Some cases which I examined with the ophthalmoscope only showed hyperpemia in the fundus of the eye. By using cold compresses, and prescribing calabar, and, in the cases in which there was pain in the forehead, atropine, the treat- ment was over in a couple of days, and no sign remained of what the patient had suffered. I cannot give any distinct indication for calabar, but it is certain that, in the cases where I employed it early, the disease was sooner overcome than in those in which I delayed or altogether omitted its use. Lieutenant Palander also valued the use of calabar in the attacks of snow-blindness which occurred during the ice-journeys. I had always considered snow-blindness as a hypersesthesia of the nerves of the eye, and a blinding whereby the patient lost the power of vision, and from this point of view I looked upon calabar as APPENDIX I. 409 useful, and this turned out to be the case. Except in the accounts of the Englishmen's and Americans' journeys in the Arctic regions, I had nowhere eeen snow- blindness described in detail. They, how- ever, appear to have registered under this name various diseases of the eye. Their treatment was very simple, consisting in dropping in "wine of opium." This I have also tried in two cases, and cannot deny that it was attended with very good results — calabar, however, shortened the treatment. In two cases the pains were so intense that it was only by the use of atropine and injections of morphia, and an artificial leech, that I could arrest them. In the general sick list I have placed them under the head of kerato- conjunctivitis, though that perhaps is not quite exact. Of external injuries there have only occurred some trifling in- cised wounds and contusions. During the summer, and so long as we were on board, every injury, even the most inconsiderable, the least scratch in the skin, showed a disposition to go on to suppura- tion, which, however, I do not ascribe as any peculiarity to Spitz- bergen ; but it occurs, in my experience, also in common sea- voyages in cold weather, and perhaps is caused by contact with salt water. Of injuries by frost there were some quite mild cases on the ears and nose, and above all around the palms of the hands. I cannot omit to state here the composition of the salve I used in such cases with great success, and the value of which I learned many years ago, how I do not lemember. I consider it deserving of recom- mendation. Pvc. Chloret. hydrargyric. corrosiv. . . grm. 1. 01. Eicini gtt. 40. Aetherol. terebinth, depur. . . . gtt. 60. Collodii grm. 50, A man was lost during the ice-journeys by going astray on the ice among the drifting snow. He was probably frozen to death when overcome by fatigue. Besides the care of the sick belonging to the expedition, I had several opportunities of giving medical advice to the Norw egian walrus-hunters, who during the summer visit Spitzbergen in gieat numbers. The diseases which principally occvirred among thcra were catairhs in the alimentary tract. An attack of gonorrhcra, one of spennatorrhcea, and some external ailments — among these a case of inllannuation in a finger from a neglected panaritium — also 410 APPENDIX I. occurred. The finger was amputated, and this was the only- operation during the whole period. Two persons with gunshot wounds, one on an English vessel, the other on a Norwegian, sought my assistance. In the former case a rifle-ball had passed through the muscular part of the forearm without damage either to the bone or to any large blood-vessel ; in the latter the gun had exploded, and the pieces had badly wounded the man's left hand, from the muscles of the thumb of which a small splinter of iron was extracted. Both these wounds were dressed with carbolic acid without permanent injury. That none of the Norwegians who wintei'ed in Ice Fiord survived may appear wonderful, as they were as well provided with food as the Swedes, in other respects even better, and in no respect worse. But when one is informed how they passed the time in the most complete inactivity, lived like bru.tes in the most abominable filth and disorder, and that there was none to exercise authority over them or warn them of the danger of such inactivity and such a way of living, there is no ground for surprise that the scurvy took the upper hand, and that all succumbed to it. The advice and information they obtained from me during my visit to them, partly for some occasional ailments that then occurred among them, partly for possibly impending attacks of scurvy, they appear completely to have forgotten. The corpses of two men who wintered at Grey Hook were examined by me, and showed evident and strong signs of scurvy. Those at Ice Fiord were already buried at the time of our visit, but that they too fell a sacrifice to scurvy I believe cannot be doubted. For further particulars I refer to the sick list. Note. — In a communication addressed to the writer. Professor Nordenskiold draws special attention to the fact that during the journey over the inland ice (see pages 220 — 263) no lime juice was used, the whole stock having been thrown away when .it was found necessary to reduce the equipment of the exploring party. APPENDIX I. 411 Bkiary adopted till the \st October, 1872. Morning. Noon. Evening. No. 1. Grm. Butter . . .25-5 Coffee. . . . 31-875 Sugar. . . . 31-875 Grm. Smoked bacon or dried fish 32i-0 Sourkrout . . . ,321-0 Preserved 23otatoes . 51-0 Preserved vegetables 26-4 Extract of meat . . 6-35 Brandy or rmn 60 cub. cm. or beer . 350 ,, „ Grm. Butter 25-5 Sugar. 32-0 Tea . 6-35 No. 2. Same as No. 1. Grm. Preserved meat . .491*0 Preserved potatoes . 51-0 Preserved vegetables 26-4 Extract of meat . . 6-35 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 ,, Same as No. 1 No. 3. Grm. Butter . . . . 25%5 Chocolate . . .32-0 Sugar . . . .32-0 Grm. Salt pork .... 425-0 Peas 197-0 Barley 406 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 „ Same as No. 1 No. 4. Same as No. 1. Grm. Salt meat .... 425-0 Peas 197-0 Extract of meat . . 6-35 Barley 40-6 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 „ Same as No. 1 No. 5. Grm. Butter .... 25-5 Cheese . . . . 51-0 Bread .... 212-5 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 „ Same as No. 2. Grm. Butter 25-5 Cheese 51-0 Per day : Bread 531-0, tobacco 106 grm. Per week : Salt 90:0, mustard 30'0, pepper 12-5 grm., vinegar 60 c.c.m. Of tlie different dietaries, No. 1 was in force 1 day ; No. 2, 3 days ; No. 3, 2 days ; No. 4, 1 day ; No. 5, on extraordinary occasions. 412 APPENDIX I. Dietary intended to he adopted from ^st October, 1872, Morning. Noon. Evening. Grm. Smoked bacon or drit J fish 3210 No. 1. Sourkrout . . . .321-0 Grm. Butter 25-5 Cxi-m. Preserved potatoes . 51 '0 Butter . . . 25-5 Preserved vegetables 26-4 Sugar . .32-1 Tea . . . 6-35 Coffee . . . Sugar . . . 32-0 320 Extract of meat . . 6'35 Rice 210-0 Raisins or currants . 21-0 Bi-andy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer .350 ,, Grm. Preserved meat . .292-0 No. 2. Preserved potatoes . 51-0 Preserved vegetables 26-4 Same as No. 1. Same as No 1. Extract of meat . . 6-35 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer .350 ,, Grm. No. 3. Salt pork .... 425-0 Grm. Peas 196-6 P)Utter . . . Chocolate . 25-5 320 Extract of meat . . 6 3 5 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 ,, Same as No. 1. Sugar . 32-0 Gi-m. No. 4. Salt pork .... 425-0 Fruit soup ... 1 portion Same as No. 1. Same as No 3. Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or bter . 350 ,, Per day: Bread 531-0, tobacco 106 srm., lime-juice 15 c.c.m. Per week: Flour 425-0, butter 125-0, salt 900, mustard 30, pepper 12-5 grm., vinegar 60 c.c.m. Of the different rations No. 1 is in force 1 day ; No. 2, 4 days ; No. 3, 1 day • and No. 4, 1 day a week. APPENDIX I. Dietary adopted during tie Winter 1872-73. 413 Mornmpf. Noon. No. 1. Butter Sugar Cottee Gim. 21-0 25-5 21-0 No. 2. Same as No. 1. No. 3. Same as No. 1. Grm. Smoked bacon or dried fish 300 Sourkrout . , . .210 Preserved potatoes . 42*5 Extract of meat . . 6-35 Rice 1420 Currants . , . . 4 '20 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beir . 350 Grm. Preserved meat . . 194-6 Preserved vegetables 26-4 Extract of meat . . 6 '35 Brandy or rum 30 c.c.m. or beer . 350 ,, No. 4. Gnu. Salt meat . . . .265-6 Preserved potatoes . 42-5 Sago 8-5 Barley 20-3 Eaisins 17-0 Prunes 4*25 Dried fruit . . . 12-5 Brandy or rum 30 c.c.m. or beer . 350 Grm. 1 Butter . . 21-0 Chocolate . . 21-0 Sugar . . 25-5 Grm. Salt pork . . . .265-6 Preserved potatoes . 42 5 Peas 145-2 Brandy or rum 30 c.c.m. or beer . 350 ,, Evening. Butter Sugar Tea . Gim. 210 27-6 4-25 Same as No. 1. Same as No. 1. Same as No 1. Per day : Bread 425 grm. (two-thirds wheat, one-third rye), Tobacco 5-95 grm. Per week : mustard 19-1 grm., vinegar 60 c.c.m , pepper 8-5 grm., salt 38 grm. No. 1 Sundays, No. 2 Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, No. 3 Saturdays, No. 4 Tue.sdays and Thursdays. From 1st January to 1st May 15 c.c.m. lime juice. From 1st Feliruar}- S5 grm. ohee.^e per week, and 51 grm. flour per day. 414 APPENDIX I. Dietary on hoard the Sofia, 1868. Morning. No. I. Ib.i Butter . . 0-05 Coffee . . 0-07 Suirai* . 0075 Noon. lb, Smoked bacon . . 0'75 Extract of meat . 0001 3 Preserved potatoes 0'12 Preserved vegetables 0*055 Pvice 0-5 Raisins or currants. 005 Brandy or rum 2 cub. in. No. 2. Same as No. 1. No. 3. lb. Butter . 0-05 Chocolate 0-064 Sugar 0-075 No. 4. Same as N 0. 3. lb. Preserved meat . . 0-596 Preserved potatoes . 0-12 Extract of meat. .0-0013 Preserved vegetables 0055 Brandy or rum 2 cub. in. Evening. Salt pork . . 0-75 lb. Peas . . .7-5 cub. in. Extract of meat 0.0013 lb. Brandy or rum 2 cub. in. Salt meat . .10 lb. Presei^ved potatoes -12 1b. Groats .... 2 cub. in. Preserved vegetables 0.0551b. Brandy or rum . 2 cub. in. lb. Butter . 05 Tea . . 0-014 Sugar . . 0-075 Same as No. 1. Same as No. 1. Same as No. 1. Per day : Breid 1-25 (half rye, half wheat), 45 cub. in. lime- juice. Per week: Butter 0*3, mustard 0-03, pepper 001, salt 0-12, vinegar 1 cub. in., wheat-flour 1-0, tobacco 0-135. Sourkrout when it is given out, 0-5. No. 1 Sundays, No. 2 Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, No. 3 Tuesdays and Thursdays, No. 4 Saturdays. 1 1 Swedisli lb. = 937133 lb. avoirJupois. APPENDIX I. 415 Table showing the Mean Height of the Barometer, and the Mean, Maximum and Minimum Temperatiires during the Sivedish Polar UxjMdition 1872-1873. Months. Mean Height of Mean Maximum Minimum the Barometer. Temperature. Temperature. Temperature. August, 1872 760-40' + 2-P + 7-5° - 3-0'' September „ 755-44 - 6-7 + 8-7 - 29-6 October ,, 756-70 - 12-6 - 0-6 - 27-2 November „ 756-09 - 8-2 + 2-6 - 19-5 December „ 757-28 - 14 5 - 3-4 - 26-6 January, 1873 750-63 - 9-9 + 3-6 - 32-4 February „ 753-08 - 22-7 - 0-0 - 38-2 March „ 756-72 - 17-63 - 0-4 - 38-0 April „ 762-42 - 18-12 + 0-2 - 32-6 May 770-77 - 8-2 + 3-6 - 19-4 June „ 1 755-01 + 1-11 + 9-4 - 3-9 2\Me of the Nutritive Value of various Rations during various Ex2)editions?- Swedish Man-of-war Swedish Merchant-ship... English Arctic Expedi- tions McClure's reduced ra- tions (f) Sofia.ims Polhem, 1872 till 1 Oct. „ the intended win- ter ration „ from 1 Oct., 1872, till 1 May, 1873 „ 1873, from 1 May to 1 July Onhel Adam, from Oct., 1872 Albumen. Gelatine. Gram. 162-43 196-81 Gram. 144-63 - 96-42 137-23 139-26 5-35 5-87 134-49 7-21 89-79 2-37 91-54 4-19 117-38 0-59 Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Gram. 87-1 52-42 27-43 18-28 70-35 65-65 77-38 49-25 50-13 36-63 Gram. 431-57 G04-63 422-72 281-81 444-7 380-iJ9 414-02 305-13 358-83 265-9 Extractive Matter. Gram. 4-57 101 5-57 3-7 5-1 5 29 5-83 2-8 4-02 6-98 1 All per man pei' day. 416 APPENDIX I. Sich List of the Swedish Polar Expedition, 1 87 2- 1873. Broght. forwd. t a >. o u '3 I O J. > 1 o 1 1 i 1-5 1 6 g < t-n' s S Q o O < H O ►J < o H a "2 > O o o § 13 Officers and Staff of the Expedition 1 1 L 1 1 1 1 Inferior Officers, &c. - 1 11 4 16 3 4 1 1 7 16 16 - 16 Carpenters - - 2 2 4 1 2 - - 1 4 4 - 4 Sailors and Apprentices . . . - 12 2 - 14 - 4 4 1 5 14 14 - 14 Boatmen - 12 17 1 30 1 13 4 — 12 30 28 2 30 Cooks (one female) - 2 - - 2 1 - - - 1 2 2 - 2 Private and Hired 2 11 - 2 15 5 6 - 1 3 15 15 - 15 Total 2 38 33 9 82 1130 9 3 29 82 80 2 82 There were on board the Polhevi : officers and staff of the expe- dition, 4 ; inferior officers, &c., 4 ; carpenter, 1 ; sailors and boat- men, 12; hired men, 6 : total, 29, Gladan : officers, 2; inferior officers, 2 ; carpenter, 1 ; sailors and boatmen, 20 : total, 25. Oiikel Adam: master and inferior officers, 4; cook, 1 ; crew, 8 : total, 13. Total of the whole, G7. Number of days of treatment. — For the PoIJieui, 513 ; Gladan, 969 ; Onhel Adam, 1,051. Average of sick per day. — On board the Polhem, 1*13; Gladan, 2*23 ; Otikel Adam, 3*1. Cost of medicines. — For the Polhem and Gladan, 443-85 rix- dollars rixmynt (about £24 12s.). APPENDIX I. 417 List of the Diseases. ' Brot foiwd. 30 =5 Dis ases 3 \ cc' cS 1 •2 M '5 &. 1 •^ CO p. a 1 u = S> ►j J 1 1 ^ J iJ •f T T 1 < S si >> •o g :P < 5 I CM i .5 < H 1-5 9 < 13 ►^ 6 28 ^28 Q 28 Scorbutus 2 14; 8 4 28 Chloro-ansemia — 1 — — 1 — — — — 1 1 1 — 1 Melancholia — — 1 — 1 — — 1 — — 1 1 — 1 Neuralgia supraorbitaHs ... — 1 1 — 2 — — — — 2 2 2 — 2 Conjunctivitis simplex — 1 3 1 5 2 — 1 1 5 5 — 5 Keratoconjunctivitis ^ — 3 4 — 7 — 7 — - — 7 •7 — 7 Otitis externa -1 1 — — 1 — 1 — — — 1 1 — 1 Angina tonsillaris — 2 1 1 4 — 1 — 2 4 ! 4 — 4 Pericarditis — — 1 — 1 — — 1 — — 1 i 1 — 1 Bronclntis acuta — 1 1 — 2 — — — 1 2 1 2 -^ 2 Pneumonia ... — 1 1 — 2 — — — _ 2 2 1 2 — 2 Pleuritis exsudativa — 2 — — 2' — — 1 - 1 2 - 1 1 2 Catarrh, ventric. acutus ... — 4 2 — 6 1 — 2 2 6 6 — 6 „ ventric. chron. ... — 2 3 — 5 — 2 — - 3 5 : 5 — 5 „ gastro-iutestiual... — 2 1 3 — 2 — — 1 ■3 3 — 3 Tj'phlitis stercoral is — — — .1 — — — — 1 1 1 — 1 Eheum. muscularis — 2 2 5 — 1 — 3 5 5 — 5 Rheum, articularis acutus... — 2 — 3 — 1 — 1 3 3 — 3 Synovitis genu ... — 1 1 3 — 1 — — 2 3 3 — 3 Distorsio — 1 — 1 — — 1 1 — 1 Contusio — 1 — — — 1 ] 1 — 1 Vulnus contusum — 2 1- 3 — — 3 — - 3 3 — 3 Congelatio et perniones — 1 2 1 4 1 3 — — — 4 4 — 4 Ulcus ~ — 1 — 1 — — 1 — — ] 1 — 1 Panaritium - 2 2 — — 2 - — 2 2 — 2 Carbunculus — — 1 — 1! — — 1 — — 1 1 1 — 1 Furunculus — 1 — ' — 1 — — — - — . 1 ! 1 — 1 Accident - — — 1 — 1 ll — 1 — — — 1 — 1 1 Totals 2 47 3810 1 1 ' 97 16 34 13 3 31 97 1 95 2 97 ' Snow-blindness. 2 Lost in a snowstorm during the ice-journey. E E APPENDIX II. LIST OF BOOKS AND MEMOIRS RELATING TO THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. GEOGRAPHY. 1. Toi-ell, O. — Bief om Island. (Letter on Iceland.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 18-57, pp. 325-332. 2. Chydenius, K. — Svenska expedition en till Spetsbergen 3,r 1861, under ledn'ng af Otto Torell. (The Swedish Expedition to Spltzbergen in the year 1861, under the direction of Otto Torell.) Stockholm, 1865. 8vo, pp. 489, 1 map, 16 pi. Translated, see No. 4. 3. Svenska expeditionen till Spetsbergen och Jan Mayan, ut- fcirda under i^ren 1863 och 1864, af N. Duner, A. J. Malmgren, A. E. Nordenskiijld, och A. Quennerstedt. (The Swedish Expedi- tion to Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen, carried out during the years 1863 and 1864 by N. Dunor, A. J. Malmgren, A. E. Nordenskiold, and A. Quennerstedt.) Stockholm, 1867. Svo, pp. 268, 1 map, 7 pi. Translated, see No. 4. 4. T>.e schwedischen f]xpeditionen nach Spitzbergen und Beren- Elland, ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1861, 18G4 und 1868, unter Leitung von 0. Torell und A. E. Nordenskiold. Aus dem Schwe- dischen Ubersetzt von L. Passarge. Jena, 1869. 5. Grad, Ch. A. — Esquisse physique des iles Spitzbergen et du Pole Arctique. Paris, 1866. 8vo, pp. 164, 1 map. 6. Fries, Th. M. — Pvesultaterna af de Svenska expeditionerna till Spetsbergen, af e , (Results of the Swedish Expedi- tions to Spitzbergen.) Svensk litteratur-t'dskrlft, edited by C. R. Nyblom. 1868, pp. 216 240. APPENDIX II. 419 7. Nordenskiold, A. E. — 1868 ars Svenska Polarexpeditionen under ledning af A. E. Nordenskiold och Fr. v. Otter. (The Swedish Polar Expedition of 1868 under the leadership of A. E. Kordenskiold and Fr. von Otter.) Framtiden, edited by C. v. Bergen. 1869, pp. 612-657. Translated, aee No. 4. Petermann, Mittheil., 1868, pp. 298-304. ,, London, R. Geogr. Soc. Proc, Vol. 13, pp. 1-51-165. „ London, R. Geogr. Soc. Journal, Vol. 39, pp. 131-146. ,, Paris, Soc. de la Googr. Bulletin, 1869, pp. 357-378. 8. Fries, Th. M. and ISTystriim, C. — Svenska Polarexpeditionen Sr 1868 med Kronoangfartyget fSofia. Eesesklzzer. (The Swedish Polar Expedition of 1868 with the Ptoyal steamer Sofia. Sketches of the Voyage.) Stockholm, 1869. 8vo, pp. 237, 1 map, 4 pi. 9. Heer, Osw. — Ueber die neuestenEntdeckungen in hohen Norden. Vortrag gehalten den 28 Januai', 1869, auf dem Rathhaus in Ziirich. Ziirich, 1869. 8vo, pp. 28. A Swedish translation was pub- lished at Stockholm in 1869. 10. Nordenskiold, A. E. — Redogorelse for en expedition till Gronland ar 1870. (Narrative of an Expedition to Greenland in the year 1870.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1870, pp. 973-1082, 4 pi. Translated, see No. 34, 51. GeoL M.ig., Vol. IX. 1872. „ Paris, Soc. de la Geogr. Bulletin, 1873, pp. 318-325. 11. Fries, Th. M. — Gronland, dess natur och innevanare ; efter aldre och nyare fcirf at tares skildringar samt egen erfaranhet teck- nade. (Greenland, its nature and inhabitants ; delineated after the sketches of old and recent writers and the author's own expe- rience.) Upsala, 1872. 8vo, pp. 180, 11 pi. 12. Heer, Oswald. — Die schwedischen Expeditionen zu Eiforsch- ung des hohen Nor dens vom Jahr 1870 und 1872 auf 1873. Zurich, 1874. 8vo, pp. 14. 13. Nordenskicild, A. E. — Redogorelse fur den Svenska Polar- expeditionen ar 1872-1873. (Narrative of the Swedish Polar Expedition, 1872-1873.) K.V.A. Trans. App., Part 2, No. 18, pp. 118, 1 map, 1 pi. E E 2 420 APPENDIX IT. Translated, Petermaun, Mittheil., 1873, pp. 444-453. 14. Kjellinan, Fr. — Sv'euska Polarexpeditlonen, 1872-1873. (The Swedish Polar Expedition, 1872-1873.) Stockholm, 1875. 8vo, pp. 355, 1 map, 1 pi. 15. Lindhagen, D. G. — Geografiska ortbesfammelser p^ Spets- bergen af Prof. A. E. Nordeuskiold ; beraknade och sammanstallda. (Geographical determinations of places on Spitzbergen, by Prof. A. E. Nordenskidld : calculated and collected.) K.V.A. Handlingar, Part 4 (1861-1862), Ko. 5, pp. 47. Transl., Petermann, Mittheil., 1864, pp. 127-135. 16. Nordenskiuld, A. E. — Geografisk och geognostisk beskrif- ning ofver nordcistra delarne af Spetsbergen och Hinloopen-Strait. (Geographical and geognostic description of the north-eastern parts of Sp'tzbergen and Hinloopen Strait.) K.V.A. Handlingar, Part 4 (1861-1862), No. 7, pp. 25, 1 map. Transl., Petermann, Mittheil., 1864, pp. 127-135, 208-215. 17. Duner, N., and Nordenskiold, A. E. — Anteckningar till Spetsbergens geografi. (Notes on the Geography of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Handlingar, Pait 6 (1865-1866), No. 5, pp. 15, 1 map. Transl., Explanatory Remarks in ilkistration of a map of Spitzbergen. Translatsd from the Transactions of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Stockholm, 1865, 18. Nordenskiold, A. E., and v. Otter, F. W.— Karta ufver hafvet emellan Spetsbergen och Gronland utvisande angfartyget Sofias kurser under den Svenska Polarexpedition, 1868, iifvensom dritisens liige u.nder olika tider af §,ret, loduingar m.m. (Map of the sea betwe?n Spitzbergen and Greenland, showing the courses of tlie steamer Sofia during the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1868, also the position of the drift ice at different seasons of the year, soundings, kc ) Stockholm, 1869. Fol. 19. Petermann, A. — Das Relief des Eismeer. Bodens bei Spitz- bergen. Nach den Tiefsee-Messungen der Schwedischen Expedi- tion untsr Nordenskiold und v. Otter, 1868. Petermann, Mittheil, 1870, pp. 142-144, 1 map. 20. Nordenskiold, A, E. — Astronomiska ortbestamningar under Svenska Polarexpe litionen, 1868. (Astronomical determinations of places during the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1868.) K.V.A. Ofver.s, 1870, pp. 569-580. APPENDIX II. 421 21. Daa, L. K. — Oin Spitsbergens Russiske navn Grumant. (On Grumant, the Kussian name of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1870, pp. 899-907. 22. Jiiderin, E. — Geografiska ortbestamningav under Svenska expeditionen till Grlinland, 1870. (Geographical determinations of places during the Swedish Expedition to Greenland in 1870.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 925-940. 23. Wijkander, A. • — • Astronomiska observationer under den Svenska aictiska expeditionen, 1872-1873. 1. Tidsoch ortbe- stiimningar. K.V.A. Handl'ingar, Vol. 13 (1874), No. 9, 24. Chydenius, K. — Om den Svenska expeditionen till Spets- bergen ar 1861 fciretagna undersokning af en gradmiitnings utforbarhet derstades. (On the explorations undertaken during the Swedish Expedition to Spitzbergen in the year 1861, with the view of ascertaining the practicability of measviring an are ol mei'idian there.) KV.A. Ofvers, 1862, pp. 89-111, 1 map. Transl., Petermann, Mittheil., 1863, pp. 24-27. 25. Torell, O. — Explorations in Spitzbergen, undertaken by iho Swedish Expedition in 1861, with the view of ascertaining tlie practicability of the measurement of an arc of meridian. London, Royal Society's Proceedings, Vol. 12 (1862-1863), pp. 658-662. 26. Torell, O. — Extract of a Letter to General Sabine, dated from Copenhagen, Dec. 12, 1863. London, Eoyal Society's Proceedings, Vol. 13 (1863-1864), pp. 83-84. 27. Skogman, C. — Complet'on of the preliminary survey of Spitzbergen, undertaken by the Swedish Government with the view of ascertaining the practicability of the measurement of an arc of the mei'idian. In a letter addressed to Major-General Sabine, dated Stockholm, Nov. 21, 1864. London, Royal Society's Proceedings, Vol. 13 (1863-1864), pp. 551-553. 28. Duner, N., and Nordenskiold, A. E. — Furberedande under- sokningar rcirande vitforbarheten af en gradmatning pS, Spets- bergen. (Preliminary surveys with a view to ascertain the practicability of measuring an arc of meridian on Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Handl., Vol. 6 (1865-1866), No. 8, pp. 19, 1 map. 422 APPENDIX TL 151.^ Arnell, W.— Journey to Siberia. Eevne bryologique, 1877, pp. 32—41. I."i2. Berggren, Sv. — Ett ishctnckt land i lioga norden. (An ice- covered land in the high north.) Lasning for folket, 1872, Nos. 50, 52. 153. Fries, Th. M. — De ^enaste polar fiirderna. (The latest Polar Expeditions.) Svensk Tidskr. f. literatur, politik och ekonomi, 1876, pp. 60- 104, 132-162. 154. Jjiderin, E. — Geografi.ska ortbestamningar under Svenska expeditionen till Novaja Semlja och Kariska hafvet ar 1875. (Geographical determinations of places during the Swedish Expe- dition to Novaya Zemlya and the Kara Sea in the year 1875.) Ofvers, af K.V.A, Handlingar, 1876, No. 2, pp. 39-56. 155. Kjellman, F. R. — Kedogiirelse for Proven's fiird fran Dick- sons hamn till Norge samt for Kariska hafvets viixt och djurverld. (Narrative of the voyage of the Proven from Dickson's Harbour to Norway, with an account of the vegetable and animal world of the Kara Sea.) Eeprinted from No. 158. 156. Lundstrom, A. N. — Expedition Polaire Suedoi.'e, sous la direction de M. le Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold, 1875. De Dickson's -Hamn a Stockholm a travers la Siberia. Le Tour du Monde, No. 848, pp. 209-224. Paris, 1877. 157. Nordenskiold, A. E. — On the former Climate of the Polar Eegions. The Geological Mag., Nov., 1875, pp. 525-532. 158. Nordenskiold, A. E. — Svenska fjirden till Novaja Semlja och mynningen af Jenissej, sommaren 1875. (1 he Swedish Ex- pedition to Novaya Zemlya and the mouth of the Yenissej in tlie summer of 1875.) Gothenburg, 1875 (error of the press for 1876). 8vo, pp. 58. 159. Nordenskiold, A. E.^ — Eesplan for en expedition till Jenissej §r 1876 utrustad af Heriar O. Dickson och Alex. Sibiriakoff. (Plan of an Expedition to the Yenissej in the year 1876, fitted out by Messrs. O. Dickson and Alex. Sibiriakoff.) Gothenburg, 1876. 8vo, pp. 3. 1 This and the following numbers are taken from a later list. APPENDIX II. 423 160. Norckni-kiiJld, A. E.— Berjittelse om Jenii^sej-Expeditioiien hr 1876. (Eeport of the Yenis?ej Expedition in the year 1876.) Gothenburg, 1876. 8vo, pp. 6. 161. ISTorden^kicild, A. E.- — Eedogbrelse for en expedition till mynningen af Jenifsej och Siberien 1875. (Narrative of an expe- dition to the mouth of the Yenissej and Siberia, 1875.) Appendix to K.V. A. Transactions. Stockholm, 1877. Svo, pp. 114. 162. Nordenskiold, A. E. — Programme de I'expedition de I'annee prochaine (Juillet, 1878) a la mer glaciale de Siberie. Comptes Rendus, 1877, pp. 658-662. 163. Nordenskiold, A. E. — Framstallning rorande 1878 ars Is- hafsfard. Inlagd till H. M. Konungen. Gothenburg, 1877. Svo, pp. 23. (Memorial concerning the Arctic Expedition of 1878.) Gothenburg, 1878. Translated into Banish in Geogr. Tidskrift, 1878, into German in Petermann's Geogr. Mittheil., 1878, and into French in Bull. Soc. Geogr. 1878. 164. Nordenskiold, A. E., and Theel, Hj. — Expeditions Suedoises de 1876 au Yenissei. Upsala, 1877. Svo, pp. 106. 165. Nordenskiold. A. E., and Thcel, Hj. — Eedogorelser for de Svenska expeditionerna till mynningen af Jenissej ar 1876. (Nar- ratives of the Swedish Expeditions to the mouth of the Yenissej in the year 1876.) Appendix to K.V. A. Handlingar, Stockholm, 1878. Svo, pp. SI, 1 map. 166. Parent, Eugenic. — Breve Eapporto sui procedimenti della Spedizione polaire artica svedese dall' agosto 1S72. Estratto dalla Rivista Marittima del mesa di Agosto. Anno VI. Ease. VIII., 1873. Svo, pp. 48. 167. Stuxberg, A. — Erinringar fran Svenska expeditionerna till Novaja Semlja och Jenissej 1875 och 1876. (Reminiscences from the Swedish Expeditions to Novaya Zemlya and the Yenissej in 1875 and 1876.) Stockholm, 1S77. Svo, pj). 112. 168. Thc'el, Hj. — Exp('dition Polaiie Sucdoise, sens la direction de M. le Prof. A. E. Nordenskiind, 1S75. 424 APPENDIX 11. De la Norwege au Yenissei'. Le Tour du Monde. No. 846 and 8-47. Paris, 1877. 169> Berattelse oni Landt — Expeditionen till Jenissej ur 1876. (Report of tlia Land Expedition to the Yenissej in the j'ear 1876.) Gothenburg, 1877. 8vo, j)p. 36. PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 29. Agai'dh, J, G. — Om den Spetsbergska drif-vedens ursprung. (On the origin of the Spitzbergen drift-wood.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1869, pp. 97-119. 30. V. Otter, F. W.- — Finnes det uppet vatten vid Nordpolen ] af. F. V. O. (Is open -water to be found at the North Pole t ) Carlskrona, K. Orlogsmanna-SalLsk. Tidskrift, 1870, j^p. 47- 58, 121-L37. 31. Johannesen, E. H. — Ob^ervationer, Isforholde og Dybde under Fangstreisen pa ISTovasemlia i sommeren, 1869. Uddragen af Journalen ombord i Skonnerten JVordland, (Observations, state of the ice and soundings dui'ing a walrus-hunting excursion on Novaya Zemlya in the summer of 1869. Extracted from the Log of the schooner JS^ordland.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1870, pp. 111-115. Transl. Petermann, Mittheil., pp. 870, 194-199, map. 32. Johannesen, E. H.— -Hydrografiske iaktagelser under en Fangsttour, 1870, rundt om Novaja-Semlia. (Hydrographical observations during a walrus-hunting tour round Novaya Zemlya in 1870.) K.Y.A, Ofvers, 1871, pp. 157-1G8, map. Transl Petermann, Mittheil., 1871, pp. 35-36, 230-232. 33. Meteorologiska^ iaktageli-er anstallda ,pS, Beeren-Eiland vintern 1865-6, af skeppaien Sievert Tobiesen, och in om Norra Polarhafvet sommaren 1868 af Kaptenen Friherre Fr. von Otter och Lojtnant L. Palander. Meddelade af A. E. Nordenskiuld. (Meteorological obi-ervations made on Bear Island in the winter of 1865-1866. by skipper Sievert Tobiesen, and in the North Polar Sea in the summer of 1868 by Captain Baron Fr. von Otter and Lieut. L. Palandei'. Communicated by A. E. Nordenskiiild.) APPENDIX II. 425 K.V.A. Trans., Vol. 8(1869), No. 11, pp. 28. Transl. Peter- mann, Mittheil., 1870, pp. 249-254. 34. Nordenskiold, A. E. — Temperatur von Omenak, "VVestgron- lancl. Wien, Osterreich. Ges. f. Meteorol. Zeitschr., red. v. Jelinek u. J. Ilann. 1872, pp. 114-142. 35. Wijkander, A. — Observations mete'orologiques de I'expcdition arctique Suedoise, 1872-73. K.V.A. Handl., 1873, No. 3. 36. Nordenskibld, A. E. — Foredrag vid K. Vet. Akad.'s arshogtid 31 Mars, 1875 (Om det forna polarklimatet). (Address at the Anniversary meeting of the Royal [Swedish] Academy of Sciences, 31st March 1875.) (On the former climate of the Polar lands.) Aftonbladet, 1875. No. 82. 37. Chydeniiis, K. — Bidrag till kiinnedomen om de jordmagne- tiska for hallandena vid Spetsbergen, samlade under den Svenska expeditionen fir 1861. (Contributions to a knowledge of the rela- tions of terrestrial magnetism on Spitzbergen, collected during the Swedish expedition in the year 1861.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1862, pp. 271-300. 38. Lcmstrum, K. S. — Magnetiska observationer, under Svenska Polarexpeditionen ar 1868. (Magnetical observations during the Swedish Polar expedition of 1868.) K.V.A. Trans., Vol. 8, 1869, No. 8, pp. 47. 39. Observationer pa luftelektriciteten och polarljuset under 1868 &rs Svenska Polarexpedition. (Observations on atmospheric elec- tricity and the aurora during the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1S68.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1869, pp. 663-688. 40. Duner, N. C. — Magnetisk inclinations-bestiimningar pa Spets- bergen. (Determinations of magnetic inclination on Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1870, pp. 581-596. Transl. Archiv. des Sc. phys. et nat. Nouv. pei'. 1871, pp. 147- 165. De la Rive, A., Quelques remarques a I'occasion du memoire de j\f. Lemstrom. lb. pp. 165-168. 41. AVijkander, A. — laktagelser ijfver luftelektriciteten under den Svenska Polarexpeditionen, 1872-73. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1874, pp. 31-40. Transl. Archiv des Sc. phys. et natui\ Nouv. per. Vol. 51, pp. 31-42. 426 APPENDIX II. 42. "NVijkandei-, A. — Om KoiTskenets, spektrum. (On the spec- trum of the aurora.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1874, pp. 41-45. Transl. Archivdes Sc. phys. et nat. Nouv. per. Yol. .51, pp. 25-30. 43. Wijkander, A. — Observations magnetiques pendant I'expedi- tion arctique suedoise en 1872-1873. K.V.A. —Yol. 13 (1874), No. 16. 170. Wijkander, A. — Ueber die magnetischen Storungen und ihre Zusammenhang mit dem Nordlichte. Zeiti^chr. der oesterr. meteorol. Gesellschaft. Bd. XII. No. 11. 171. Wijkander, A:— Sur hi pc'riodicite des perturbations de la declinaison magnttique dans la Scandinavie septentrionale. Lunds Univ. Arsskrift, Tom. xii. pp. 1-9, 172. Wijkander, A. — Observations magnetiques, faites pendant Texpi'dition arctique suedoise en 1872-1873, II. K.Y.A. Trans., Yol. 14 (1874), No. 15 173. Wijkander, A. — Bidi-ag till kiinnedom om vindforhallen- dena i de Spetsbergen omgifvande delarne af Norra Ishafvet. (Contributions to a knowledge of the relations of the winds in the parts of the North Polar sea surrounding Spitzbergen.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1875, No. 8. GEOLOGY AND PALiEONTOLOGY. 44. Torell, O. — Bidrag till Spitsbergens mulluskfauna. Jemte en allmiin cifversigt af arktiska regionens naturfb hallendena och forntida utbredning. (Contributions to the mollusc-fauna of Spitz- bergen. Together with a general view of the natural relations and former extent of the Arctic Eegions.) Stockholm, 1859- 8vo, 154 pp. 2 pi. Transl. Petermann, Mittheil., 1861, pp. 49-67. 45. Nordenskicild, A. E. — Geografisk och geognostisk beskrifning ofver nordiJstra delarne af Spetsbergen och Hinloopen-Strait. (Geographical and geognostic elescription of the noith-oastern parts of Spitzbergen and Hinloopen Strait.) See No. 16. 46. Blomstrand, C. W. — Geognostika iakttagelser under en resa till Spetsbergen ar 1861. (Geognostic observations during a journey to Spitzbergen in the year 1861.) APPENDIX II. 427 K.V.A. Trans., A^ol. 4 (1861-02), No. 6, pp. 46, 2 pi. Transl. Petermann, MittheiL, 1865, p. 191-195. 47. Nordenskicild, A. E.— TJtkast till Spetsbergens geologi. (Sketch of the Geology of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Vol. 6 (1865-66), No. 7. i^p. 35, 2 maps. English Translation. Stockholm, 1867, 48. Lindstrom, G. — Analj^ser pa bergarter fran Spetsbergen. {Analyses of i-ocks from Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1867, pp. 671-674. 49. Nordenskiuld, A. E. — Foredrag, pa K. Vet. Akad. Srshiigtid 31 Mars 1871 (Om Gronlands inlandsis). (Address at the Anni- versary meeting of the Poyal [Swedish] Academy of Sciences). (On the inland ice of Greenland.) Stockholms Dagblad, 1871, No. 104. 50. Nordenskiuld, A. E. — Utkast till Isfjordens och Belsounds geologi. Stockolm, Geol. Fciren, Forhandl., 1875, pp. 243-260, 301-322, 356-372, map. Transl. Geol. Mag., 1876. 51. Nordenskiuld, A. E. — Der Eisenfund bei Ovifak in Gronland. Tschermak, Mineral. Mittheil., Bd. 1 (1871), pp. 109-112 (Extracted from No. 10). 52. Nordstrom, Th. — Kemisk undersokning af meteorjern fran Ovifak pS. Gronland. (Chemical examination of meteoric iron from Ovifak in Gieenland.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 453-462. 53. Meteoric iron from. Gieenland. Geol. Mag., 1871, pp. 570-571. 54. Nauckhoff, G. — Om forekomsten af meteorjern i en basaltgano- vid Ovifak i Grijnland. Geognostisk och kemisk undersokning. (On the occurrence of meteoric iron in a basalt vein at Ovifak in Greenland. A geognostic and chemical examination.) K.V.A. Transl. Appendix. Vol. 1, No. 5. pp. 38. Transl. Tschermak, Mineral. Mittheil., 1874, pp. 109-126. 55. Nordenskiuld, A. E. — Remarks on the Greenland meteorites. London, Geolog. Soc. Quarterly Journ., Vol. 28 (1872), pp. 44-46. 56. Daubroe, G. A. — Examen des roches avec fer n;i,tif, decou- vertes en 1870, par M. Nordtnskicild, au Groinland. Paris, Acad, des Sc, Comptes Pvendus, T. 74 (1872), pp. 1541-1549. 4l'8 appendix II. 57. Daubrc'e, G. A. — Examen des meteorites d'Ovifak iGroenland), ail point de vue du caibone et des sels solublt s qu'ils renferment. Palis, Acad, des Sc, Compt. Bend., T. 75 (1872), pp. 240-246. 58. "WoLler, F. — Analyse des Meteoreisens vonOvifak in Giiailand. Naclitragliche Eemerkungen. Gottingen, K. Ges. d. Wiss., Nachricliten, 1872, pp. 197-204, 499-501. 59. Nordenskiold, A. E. — Furedrag pA K. Vet. Akad. hiigtids- dag, 5 April, 1872 (Om meteorjernet fran Ovifak). (Address at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal [Swedish] Academy of Sciences, oth April, 1872.) (On the meteoric iron from Ovifak.) Stockholms Dagblad, 1872, No. 107. Transl. Revue scientifique de la France et de I'etranger, 1872, pp. 128-131. 60. Steenstrup. J. — Oplysninger om de Gronhxndske Jernmasser. (Information about the Gieenland iron masses.) Copenhagen, Naturhist. Foren. Videnskab. Meddelelser, 1872, p. 11, 61. Das gediegene Eisen von Ovifak in Griinland. (The native Iron at Ovifak in Greenland.) Der Natuiforscher. Hr.sg. v, "W. Skla- ek, 1874, pp. 473-475. 62. Flight, W, — A chapter in the history of meteorites, — Mete- oric iions found August, 1870. — Ovifak (or Uigfak) near Godhavn, Kekertarssuak or island of Disko, Greenland. Geol. Mag., 1865, pp. 115-123. 63. Tschermak, G, — Der Meteoritenfund bei Ovifak in Griinland. Tschermak, Mineral og. Mittheil,, 1874, pp, 165-174. 64. Nordenskiold, A. E. — (Lettre contenant des observations sur les poussieres charbonneuses, avec fer mctallique, qu'il a observe dans la neige; communiquee par M. Daubree.) Paris, Acad, des Sc, Compt, Rend,, T, 77 (1873), pp. 463-465. 65. Nordenskicild, A, E. — Om kosmiskt stoft, som vid neder- bilrden faller till jordytan, (On cosmic dust which falls Avith rain [or snow] to the sui-face of the earth,) K,A^A, Of vers, 1874, No, 1, pp, 3-12, Transl, Poggendorf, Annalen, 1874, pp, 154-165. „ Archiv, des, Sc. phys. et nat. Nouv., 1874., pp. 282-284. Philos. Mag., Ser. 4, Vol. 48 (1875), pp. 456-457, 66. Eindstrom, G.— Om Trias och Juraf orstenningar fran Spet.s- bergen. (On Triassic and Jurassic fos.sils from Spitzbergen.) APPENDIX II. 429 K.V.A. Trans,, Vol. G (1S65-66), No. G. pp. 20, 3 pi. Transl. Geol. Mag., 1868, p. 29-30. 67. Hulke, J. W. — Memorandum on some fossil vertebrate remains collected by the Swedish expeditions to Spitzbergen in 1864 and 1868. K.V.A. Handl. Appendix, Vol. 1 (1873), No. 9, pp. 11. Heer, Osw. — Flora fossilis arctica. Die fossile Flora der Polarlander. Bd. 1-3, Zurich, 1868-75. 68. Bd. 1. — Die in Nordgronlaud, auf der Melville Insel, im Banksland, am Mackenzie, in Island und in Spitzbergen entdeckten fossilen Pflanzen. Mit einem Anhang liber versteinerte Holzer der arctischen Zone. Von Carl Cramer, pp. 199, 1 map, 50 pi. 69. Bd. 2 : 1. — Fossile Flora der Biiren Insel. Enthaltend die Bes-chreibung der von den Herrn A. E. Nordenskiold und A. J. Malmgren im Sommer 1868 dort gefundenen. Pflanzen. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 9 (1870), No. 5, pp. 51, 15 pi. 70. Bd. 2 : 2. — Flora fossilis Alaskana. Fossile Flora von Alaska. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 8 (18G9), No. 4, pp. 41, 10 pi. 71. Bd. 2 : 3. — Die miocene Floi-a und Fauna Spitzbergens, Mit einem Anhang iiber die diluvialen Ablagerungen Spitzbergens, K.V.A. Handl., Vol. 8 (1869), No. 7, pp. 98, 16 pi. 72. Bd. 2 : 4. — Contributions to the Fossil Flora of North Greenland. 73. Bd. 3 : 1. — Beitriige zur Steinkohlen Flora der arctischen Zone. K.V.A. Handl., Vol. 12 (1873), No. 3, pp. 11, 6 pi. 74. Bd. 3 : 2. — Die Kreide-Flora der arctischen Zone, gegrun- det auf die von den Schwedi.schen Expeditionen von 1870 and 1872 in GriJnland und Spitzbergen gesammelten Pflamnzen. K.V.A. Handl., Vol. 13 (1874), No. 2, pp. 138, 38 pi. 75. Bd. 3 : 3. — Nachtriige zur miocenen Flora Gronlands, ent- haltend die von der Schwedischen Expedition im Sommer 1870 gesammelten miocenen Pflanzen. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 13 (1874), pp. 29, 5 pi. 76. Bd. 3 ; 4. — Uebersicht der miocenen Flora der arctischen Zone. Ziirich, 1874, pp. 24. 430 APPENDIX 11. 77. Heer, Osw.— Om de af A. E. Nordenskibld ocli C. W. Blom- strand pi^ Spetsbergen upptackta f ossila viixter. (On the Fossil Plants discovered by A. E. Nordenskiold and C. W. Blomstrand, on Spitz- bei'gen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1866, pp. 149-155. 78. Heer, Osw. — Utdrag ur ett bref af Prof. Oswald Heer rbrande fossila vaxter frSn nordvestra Amerika, insamlade af Berg- miistare Hj. Furuhjelm. Meddeladt af A. E. Nordenskiiild. (Extract from a letter from Pi'of. Oswald Heer, concerning fossil plants from nortb-western America, collected by Mining Inspector Hj. Furuhjelm. Communicated by A. E. Nordenskiold.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1868, pp. 63-68. 79. Heer, Osw. — On the miocene flora of the Polar Regions. Two lectures given at the annual meeting of the Natural History Society of Switzerland, on the 9th and 11th September, 1867, at Eheinfelden. (Transl. by Edward John Lee.) Geol. Mag., 1868, pp. 273-280. 80. Heer. Osw. — TJeber die meiocane Flora d&r Polarregionen. Das Ausland, 1868, pp. 277-280. 81. Stur, O. Heer. — Flora fossilis arctica. "Wien. k.k. geol. Eeichsanstalt, Verhandl., 1868, pp. 179-181. 82. Heer, Osw. — Die miocene Flora von Spitzbergen. Vorgetra- gen den 23 August. 1869, bei der Versammlung der schweiz. naturf. Gesellschaft in Solothurn. Schweiz. Natui-f. Ges. Verhandl., 1869, pp. 156-168. 83. Heer, Osw. — La fiore miocene du Spitzberg. Arch, des Sc. phys. et nat. Nouv. per., 1869, pp. 289-300. 84. Heer, Osw. — Forutskiekade anmarkningar ofver Nordgron- lands kritflora, grundade pa den Svenska expeditionens upptackter, 1870. (Preliminary remarks on the Cretaceous Flora of North Greenland, founded on the discoveries of the Swedish Expedition of 1870.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 1175-1184. 85. Heer, Osw. — On the Cai-boniferous Flora of Bear Island. London, Geol. Soc. Quart. Journ., 1872, pp. 161-169, 86. Dawson, J. W. — Note on the relations of the .supposed Car- boniferous plants of Bear Island, with the Pala?ozoic Flora of North America. Geol. :\rag., 187.3, p. 43. APPENDIX II. 431 87. Hter, Osw. — Om Je mioceua vaxter, som den Svenska expe- ditionen 1870, hemfort fr&n Gronland. (On the Miocene plants which the Swedish Expedition of 1870 brought home from Green- land.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1873, No. 10, pp. 5-12. 88. Heer, Osw. — Anmiirkningar ufver de af Svenska Polarexpe- ditionen 1872-73 upptackte fossila vaxter. (Remarks on the fossil plants discovered by the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1872-73.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1874, No. 1, pp. 25-32. 174. Chydenius, J. L. — Undersokning af fossilt hartz fr'm Gron- land. (Examination of fossil resin fi'om Greenland.) Geologiska Foreningens Stockholm Forhandl., 1875, pp. 549- 551. 175. Daubree, G. A. — Observations sur la structure interieure d'une des masses de fer natif d'Ovifak. Comptes Rendus, T. 74 (1877), pp. 66-70. 176. Heer, Osw. — Flora fossilis arctica. Die fossile Flora der Polarlander. Bd. IV., Zurich, 1877. 1. Beitrage zur fossilen Flora Spetsbergens. Gegriindet auf die Sammlungen der Schwedischen Expeditionen vom Jahre 1872 auf 1873. Mit einem Anhang : Uebsrsicht der Geologic des Eisf jordes und des Eellsundes von Prof. A. E. Nordenskibld. K.V.A. Handl, Bd. 14, No. 5 (1876), pp. 141, 32 pi. 177. Oberg, P. — Om Trias-forsteningar fran Spetsbergen. OSn Trlassic fossils from Spitzbergen.) K.Y.A. Handl., Bd. 14, No. 14 (1877), pp. 19, 5 pi. ZOOLOGY. 89. Quennerstedt, A. — Nagra anteckningar om Spetsbergens daggdjur och foglar (Akad. afhandl.). Some notices of the Mam- malia and Birds of Spitzbergen (Academic treatise). Lund, 1862. pp. 33. 90. Anders(^n, C. H. — Om Spetsbergsrenen, Cervus tarandus, forma Spetsbergensis. (On the Spitzbergen reindeer, Cervus tarandus, forma Spetsbei'gensis.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1863, pp. 457-461, 91. Malmgren, A. J.- -Jakttagelser och antcchningar till 432 APPENDIX II. Finniarkens och Spetsbergens daggcljursfauna. (Observations and notes regarding the Mammalia Fauna of Finmarkand Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1863, pp. 127-155. Transl. Zeitschr. f. d. gesammt. Nat. wiss. von Giebel n. Siewart. Bd. 24 (1S64), pp. 454-458. Pt'termann, ISIittheil., 1865, pp. 112-114. 92. Malmgreu, A. J. — -Om tandbyggnaden hos Hvalrossen (Odobcenus rosmanis, L.) och tandombytet hos bans of odda unge. (On the formation of the tooth of the Walrus [Odobcenus rosinarus, L.], and on the change in the teebh in its unborn young.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1863, pp. 505-522. 93. Malmgren, A. J.^Anteckningar till Spetsbergens fogel fauna. (Notes on the Bird Fauna of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1863, pp. 87-126. 94. Malmgren, A. J. — Nya anteckningar till Spetsbergens fogel fauna. (New notes on the Bird Fauna of Spitzbergen.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1864, pp. 377-412. 95. Newton, A. — Notes on the Birds of Spitzbergen. The Ibis, 1865, pp. 199-219, 496-525. 96. Malmgren, A. J. — Zur Yogelfauna Spitzbergens. Auf Anlass von Mr. Alfred Newton's " Notes on the Birds of Spitzbergens " in "The Ibis," 1865. Journal fiir Ornithologie, 1865, pp. 385-400. 97. Newton, A. — Zur Yogelfauna Spitzbergens. Auf Anlass von Dr. A. J. Malmgren's Aufsatz im Journal fiir Ornithologie, 1865. Journal fiir Ornithologie, 1867, pp. 207-211. 98. Sundevall, C. J. — Spetsbergens foglar med hufvudsakligt avseende pa dem som blifvit funna und:'r Prof. Nord^nskicilds resor dit ai-en 1868 och 1872-73. (The Birds of Spitzbergen with special reference to those found during Prof. Nordenskicild's journeys thither in the years 1868 and 1872-3.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1874, No. 3, pp. 11-25. 99. Malmgren, A. J. — Om Spetsbergens fisk-fauna. (On the FJ.sh Fauna of Spitzbergen.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1861, pp. 489-539. Transl. Petermann., Mittheil., Erganz., 1865, pp. 34-39. 100. Boheman, C. H. — Bidrag till kannedomen om Spetsbargens insekt-fauna. (Contributions to the knowledge of the Insect Fauna of Spitzbergen.) APPENDIX IL 433 Forliandl. vid de Skand. Natui-forsk. nionde mJte i Stockholm, 1863, pp. 393-399. Transl. Petermann, Mittbeil, 1866, pp. 181-183. 101. Boheman, C. H. — Sp3tsb8i-gens ins3kt-fauna. (The Insect Fauna of Spitzbergen.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1865, pp. 563-577. 102. Holmgren, A, E. — Bidrag till kannedomen om Beeren Eilands insekt-fauna. (Contributions to the knowledge of the Insect Fauna of Bear Island.) K.Y.A. Handl., Bd. 8 (1869), No. 5, pp. 56. 103. Holmgren, A. E, — -Insekter fran Nordgrtinland samlade af Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold ar 1870. Granskade och beskrifna. (Insects from North Greenland collected by Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold in the year 1870. Examined and described.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1872, No. ti, pp. 97-105. 104. Thorell, T. — Om Arachnider fran Spetsbergen och Besren- Eiland. (On Arachnids from Spitzbergen and Bear Island.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 68.3-701. 105. Thorell, T. — Om nagra Arachnider fran Grtinland. (On some Arachnids from Greenland.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1872, No. 2, pp. 147-166. 106. Goes, A. — Crustacea decapoda podophthalma marina Suecise, interpositis speciebus norvegicis aliisque vicinis, enumerat A. Goes. K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1863, pp. 161-180. 107. Goes, A. — Crustacea amphipoda maris Spetsbergiam alluentis, cum speciebus aliis arcticis, enumerat A. Goes. K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1865, pp. 517-536. 108. Sars, G. 0.^ — Cumacear fra de store Dybder i Nord'shavet, insamlede ved den Svenske Arktiske Expeditioner Aarene 1861 eg 1868, (Cumacea from great depths in the North Polar Sea, col- lected by the Swedish Arctic Expeditions in the years 1861 and 1868.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 797-802. 109. Lilljeborg, W. — De under Svenska vetenskajDliga expedi- tionen till Spetsbergen 1872-1873 derstades samlade Hafs- Entomostraceer. (The Marine Entomostracea collected during the Swedish Scientific Expedition to Spitzbergen in 1872-73.) K.Y.A. ()fvers, 1875, No. 4. 43i APPENDIX 11. 110. Loven, S. — Om Mollusksliigtet PilitUuui MicU. (On the Mollusc Tribe, Pilidiutn Midd.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1859, pp. 119-120. Torell, O. — Bidrag till Spstsbergeus molliisk-fauna. (Contribu- tions to the Mollusc-Fauna of Spitzbergen.) See No. 44. 111. Murch, O. A. L. — Catalogue des mollusques du Spitzberg recusillis jjar le Dr. II. Kroyer, pendant le voyage de la corvette La Recherche en juin 18.38. (Contains matter relating to the niollusoa collected by the Swedish Expedition.) Bruxelles Soc. Malacol. de Belgique, Aunales, T. 4 (1869). 112. Lindahl, J. — Om Pennatulid-slagtet Umbellula, Cuv. (On the Pennatulid tribe, Umbellula, Cuv.) K.Y.A. Hand., Bd. 13 (1874), No. 3, pp. 22, 3 pi. 113. Smith, F. A. — Kritisk forteckn'ng ofver Skandinaviens Hafs-Bryozoer 1-5. (Critical List of the ^Marine Bryozoa of Scandinavia.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1865, pp. 116-142, 1 pi.; 1866, pp. 39.5-533, 11 pi.; 1867, pp. 279-429, 5 pL ; 1867, appendix, pp. 230, 5 pi.; 1871, pp. 1115-1134 2 pi. 114. Smith, F. A. — Bryozoa marina in regionibus ar>..-ticis et borealibus viventia recensuit F. A. S. K.V.A. 1867, pp. 443-487. 115. Malmgren, A. J. — Nordiska Hafs-Ann.iLiter. (Marine Annulata of the North.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1865, pp. 51-110, 181-192, 355-410, 20 pi. 116. Malmgren, A. J. — Annulata polych?eta Spetsbergije, Gron- landije, Islandije et Scandinavire hactenus cognitte. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1867, pp. 127-235, 14 pi. Also published in Swedish at Helsingfors, 1867. 117. Tht'el, H. — Borst- och Stjernmaskar, tagna i grann.skapet af 80 degraden under Svenska expeditionen 1872-73. (Annelids taken in the neighbourhood of 80° N.L., during the Swedish expedition in 1872-73.) 118. Ljungman, A. — Ophiuroidea viventia hue u-^que cognita enumerat A — L — . K.V.A. Ofvers, 1866, pp. 303-336. 119. Loven, S. — Till fragan om Ishafs faunans fordna utstriick- nirg iifver en del af Norden fast land. (On the question of the APPENDIX II. 435 former extension of tbe fauna of the Polar Sea over a part of tie mainland of the North.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, pp. 463-468. 120. Loven S. — Om resultaten af de af den Svenska Spetsbergs- expeditionen 1861 utforda djupdraggningar. (On the results of the deep dredgings carried out by the Swedish expedition to Spitz- bergen in 1861.) Forh. vid de Skand. Naturf. nionde mote, Stockholm, 1863, pp. 384-386. 121. Malmgreu, A. J. — Om furekomstea af djurlif pa stora hafsdjup. (On the occurrence of animal life at great depths in the fea.) Helsingfors, Finska Yet. See. Ofvers, 12 (1869-70), pp. 40-49. 122. Quennerstedt, A. — Anteckningar om djurlifvet i Ishafvet mellan Spetsbergen och Grbnland. (Notes on animal life in the Polar Sea between Spitzbergen and Greenland.) K.V.A. Handl., Ed. (1867) No. 3, pp. 35, 3 pi. 123. V. Goes. — Om Tardigrader, Anguillula? m.m. fran Spets- bergen. (On Tardigrada, Anguillula?, &c. from Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1862, pp. 18. 178. Eisen, G.^ — On the Oligochotsfi collected by the Swedish expeditions to the Arctic Eegions, under the diiection of Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold. K.V.A. Handl., 1877, Bd. 15. 179. Eisen, G. — Eedogorelse for Obligochister samlade under de Svenka expeditionem till arktiska trakter. (See No. 178.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1878, No. 3. 180. Holmgren, A. E. — Novaja Semljas insekt fauna. (In preparation.) 181. Koch, L. — Arachnider frSn Novaja Semlja och Siberitn, (Arachnida from Novaya Zemlya and Siberia.) (In preparation.) 182. Leche, V. — Ofversigt ofver de af de Svenska expeditionerna % till Novaja Zemlja och Jenissej 1875 och 1876 insamlnde Hafs- 2 Mollusker. (Eeview of the Marine Mollusca collected by the Swedish fj expeditions to Novaya Zemlya and Yenissej in 1875 and 1876.) ^ K.Y.A. Handl., 1877, Ed. 16. ^ 183. Lilljeborg, W, — Synopsis cru.staceorum snecicoium Oid'nis Q P)rfinchiopo(loriiiii ot Suboi-dinis Plivll'^ijiodoi niii. w y p 2 436 APPENDIX II. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sc. Ups. Ser. III. vol. extra ordinem editum. Upsala, 1877, pp. 20, 4to. 184. Miiklm, Fr. W. — Diagnoser iifver nrigra nya sibeiiska insekt-arter. (Descriptions of several new Siberian species of insects.) 185. Sars, G. 0. — Om Cumaceer fni de store Dybder i Nordis- havet. (On Cumacea from great depths in the North Polar Sea.) K.V.A. Handl., Bd. II., No. 6, pp. 12, 4 pi. 186. Smitt, r. A. — Recensio systematica animalium Biyozoorum, qu£e in itineribus ad insulas Novaja Semlja et ad ostium fiumiuis Jenissej, duce Professore A. E. Nordeuskilild, invenerunt Doctores A. Stuxberg et H. Theel. K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1878, No. 3. 187. Stuxberg, A. — ^Myriopoder fran Sibirien och Waigatsch on samlade under Nordenskioldska expeditionen, 1875. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1876, No. 2, pp. 11-38, 2 pi. On the Myriopoda, fi-om Siberia and "Waigatsch Island, collected during the expedition of Prof. Noi-denskiold, 1875. Ann. and Magazine of Natural Histoiy, 4th series. Vol. 17, pp. 306-318, London, 1876. 188. Stuxberg, A. — Crustacea malacostraca fran Murmanska och Kariska Hafven. (Crustacea malacostraca from the Mux^man and Kaia Seas.) K.V.A. Handl., Appendix, Bd. 5. 189. Stuxberg, A. — Echinodermer fi-an Novaja Semljas haf samlade under Nordenskioldska exjjedionerna 1875' och 1876. (Echinodermata fi'om the sea of Novaya Zemlya collected during Prof. Nordenskiold's expeditions in 1875 and 1876.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1878, No. 3. 190. Thcel, Hj. — Etudes sur les Gephyriens inermes des Mers de la Scandinavie, du Spitzberg et du GriJenland. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 3, No. 6, pp. 30, 4 pi. Compare Journal de Zoologie, 1875, pp. 366-390, 475-488. 191. Thcel, Hj. — Nagra bidrag till Novaja Semljas fogel-fauna. (Some contributions to the Bird Fauna of Novaya Zemlya.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1876, No. 5, pp. 43-53. Note sur les oiseaux de la Nouvelle Zemble. APPENDIX IT. 437 Ann. Sci. naturelles, 6me Ser. (zoologie), Tome IV., Art. No. 6, pp. 1-7. 192. The'el, Hj. — Note sur I'Elpidia, genre nouveau du groupe des Holothuries. K.Y.A. Handl., App., Bd. 4, No. 4, pp. 7. 193. Theel, Hj. — Memoire sur I'Elpidia, nouveau genre d'Holo- thuries. K.Y.A. Handl., Bd. 14, No. 8. Stockholm, 1877. pp. 30, 5 pi., 4to. 194. Theel, Hj. — -Note sur quelques Holothuries des Mers de la Nouvelle Zemble. Nova Acta Beg. Soc. So. XJps., Ser. [II. Vol. extra ordinem editum. Upsala, 1877, pp. 18, 2 pi., 4to. 195. Theel, Hj. — Les Annelides Polychetes des Mers de la Nouvelle Zemble. (In preparation.) 196. Trybom, F. — Dagfjiirilar insamlade a£ Svenska expedi- tionen till Jenissej 1876. (Diurnal Lepidoptera collected by the Swedish Expedition to the Yenissej in 1876.) K.Y.A. Of vers, 1876, No. 6, pp. 35-51. 197. TuUberg, T. — Collembola borealia. Nordiska Collembola. K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1876, No. 5, pp. 23-47, pi. 8 to 11. 198. Westerlund, C. A. — Sibiriens Land- och Sotvatten-Mol- lusker. (The Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Siberia.) K.Y.A. Handl., Bd. 14, No. 12. Stockholm, 1877, pp. Ill, 1 pL, 4to. BOTANY. 124. Malmgren, A. J. — Ofversigt af Spetsbergens fanerogam- flora. (Eeview of the Phanerogamous Flora of Spitzbergen.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1862, pp. 229-268. Ti-anslated, Peteimann, Mittheil., pp. 47-53. 125. Anderson, N. J. — Bidrag till den nordiska floran. 1. Ett hittils obeskrifvet gras fran Sjetsbergen. (Contributions to the Flora of the North. 1. A hitheito undesciibed giass fiom Spitz- bergen.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1866, pp. 121 124, 1 pi. 438 APPENDIX II. 126. Fries, Tli. M. — Tilliigg till Spetabergens fanerogam-iloia. (Additions to the Phanerogamous Flora of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1869, pp. 121-141, 1 pi. 127. Fries, Th. M. — Om Beeren-Islands fanerogam- vegetation. (On the Phanerogamous Vegetation of Bear Island.) K.V.A. 1869, pp. 145-156. 128. Fries, Th. M. — Plantse vasculares insulaium Spetsbei'gen- sium hactenus lectte. Plantte vasculares in insula " Beeren-Eiland " repert£e. Upsali*, 1871, fol., pp. 2. 129. Berggren, S. — Bidrag till kannedom om fanerogmafloran vid Diskobugten och Auleitsivik-fjorden pa Gronhinds vestkust. (Contributions to a knowledge of the Phanerogamous Flora at Disko Bay and Auleitsivik Fjord on the West Coast of Greenland.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 853-897. 130. Kjellman, F. Pt. — Niigra tilliigg till kiinuedomen om Spets- bergens Plantse vasculaies. (Some contributions to the knowledge of the Plantse vasculares of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1874, No. 3, pp. 31-42. 131. Lindberg, S. 0. — Mossor ar 1858 p§, Spetsbergen insamlade af Professor A. E. Nordenskiuld. (Mosses collected on Spitzbei'gen in 1858, by Professor A. E. Nordenskiold.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1861, pp. 189-190. 132. Lindberg, S. O. — Forteckning of ver mossor, insamlade under de Svenska expeditionerna till Spetsbergen 1858 och 1861. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1866, pp. 535-561. 133. Berggren, S. — Musci et Hepaticfe Spetsbei'genses. K.V.A. Haudl., Bd. 13 (1874), No. 7. 134. Berggien, S. — Undersokning af mossfloran vid Diskobugten och Auleitsivikfjorden. (Examination of the Moss Flora at Disko Bay and Auleitsivik Fjord.) K.V.A. Handl, Bd. 13 (1874), No. 8. 135. Agardh, J. G. — Om Spetsbergens alger. (On the AlgM of Sj)itzbei'gen.) Univ. Prcgr. Lund, 1862, fob, j^p. 4. 136. Agardh, J. G. — Bidrag till kannedomen af Spetsbergens alger, jemte Tilliigg. (Contributions to the knowledge of the Algaj of Spitzbergen, with an addition.) APPENDIX II. 4 39 K.V.A. Haiidl., Bd. 7 (1867-1868), No. 8, pp. 49, 3 pi. 137. Cleve, P. T. — Diatoniaceer fian Spetsbergen. (Diatoms from Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1867, pp. G6 1-669, 1 pi. 138. Eerggren, S. — Alger from Gri5nlands inlandsis. (Algte from the Inland Ice of Greenland.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 293-296, 1 pi. 139. Agardh, J. G. — Bidrag till kiinnedomen af Gronlands La- minareer och Fucaceer. (Contributions to the knowledge of the Laminaria and Fucacea of Greenland.) K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 10 (1871), Xo. 8, pp. 31. 140. Nordstedt, 0.— Desmidiacete ex insulis Spetsbergensibus et Beeren Eiland in expeditionibus 1868 et 1870 suecanis collectse. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1872, No. 6, pp. 23-24, 2 pi. 141. Lagerstedt, N. G. W. — Sotvattens-diatomaceer frtin Spets- bergen och Beeren Eiland. (Fiesh water Diatoms from Spitzbergen and Bear Lsland.) K.V.A. Handl., Bih., Bd. 1 (1873), No. 14, pp. 52, 2 pi. 142. Cleve, P. T.— On Diatoms from the Arctic Sea. K.V.A. Handl., Bih., Bd. 1 (1873), No. 13, pp. 28, 4 pi. 143. Kjellman, F. E. — Om Spetsbei'gens marina klorofyllforande Thallophyter. (On the Marine Chlorophyll-bearing Thallophytes of Spitzbergen.) 1. Floridese. K.V.A. Handl., Bih., Bd. 3. 144. Fries, Th, M. — Lichenes Arctoi Europse Groenlandiseque hactenus cogniti. Collegit, examinavit, disposuit Th. M. F. Up.sala, R. Soc. So. Ups., Nova Acta Ser. III., Vol. III. (1861), pp. 103-398. 14-5. Fries, Th. M. — Lichenes Spetsbergenses deteiminavit Th. M. F. K.V.xi. Handl., Bd. 7 (1867), No. 2, pp. 5.3. Translated, Petermann, Mittheil., 1868, pp. 62-64. 146. Karsten, P. A. — Fungi in insulis Spetsbergen et Beeren Eiland collect!. Examinavit, enumerat P. A. K. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1872, No. 2, pp. 91-108. 199. Kjellman, F. R. — Om Spetsbergens marina kloropbyll- fijrande Thallophyter. II. (On the Marine Chlorophyll-bearing Thallophytes of Spitzbergen.) 4 to . APPENDIX 11. K.V.A. Handl. Bih., Bd. 4, No. 6. Stockholm, 1877, pp. 61, 5 pi. 200. Kjellman, F. R. — Bidrag till kaiinedomen af Kariska hafvets algvegetation. (Coutributions to the knowledge of the Algpe of the Kara Sea.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1877, No. 2, pp. 3-30, 1 pi. 201. Kjellman, F. E. — XJeber die Algen vegetation des Mur- manschen Meeres an der West KUste von Novaja Semlja und Wajgatsch, Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sc. Ups., Ser. III., Vol, extra ordinem editum. Upsala, 1877, pp. 86, 1 pi., 4to. 202. Lundstrom, A. N. — Kritiscbe Bemerkungen liber die Weiden Nowaja Semljas und ihren genetischen Zusammenhang. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sc. Ups., Ser. III., Yol. extra ordinem editum. Upsala, 1877, pp. 44, 1 pi., 4to. HYGIENE. 147. Nystrcim, C.^ — Om den sista Svenska Spetsbergs-expedi- tionens utrustnirfg och hygien. (On the equipment and hygiene of the last Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen.) Upsala, Lak.-F6ren. Farhandl., Bd. 4 (1868-69), pp. 419-439. 148. Nystrom, C.^ — Om jasnings- och forruttnelseprocesserna pa Spetsbergen, (On the processes of fermentation and putrefaction on Spitzbergen.)' Upsala, Liik.-Foien Forhandl., Bd. 4 (1868-69), pp. 551-571. 149. FrRn Spetsbergs-expeditionen.^ — Bref fran Axel Envall, (Yinterquarteret Polhem i Mossel Bay d. 16 Juni 1873.) (From the Spitzbergen expedition. — A letter from Axell Envall.) (The winter-qviarters PolJiem in Mussel Bay, 16th June, 1873.) Hygeia, Bd. 35 (1873), pp. 408-412. 150. Envall, A. — Rappoit till kongl. Sundhetskollegium ofver hygienen och sjukvarden under den Svenska Polarexpeditionen 1872-73. (Report to the Royal [Swedish] Board of Health on the hygiene and care of the sick during the Swedish Polar Expe- dition of 1872-73.) Stockholm, Sv. Lakare- Siillsk., Nya Handl., Ser, II., D, 5, 3, pp. 87-122. sp-11'; w jw'' 'C'^/j. ■danobict i 4'^ (Sigi \:)^o^ TO ILLU YEN 60 [ do ]E.:^lanation s . TfuMxp 7-s fviuide/i partb. en eld Bussiart Quxrts ixnd. <7T^ 6bser\axuiis durcng the/ Xaust decade ty Johcjcnriesen/'^^preatt^^afhjSiDomttiCiaTi^jtar^ an jistranomicai observatums and/imasur cm^tu dicrcng -^le- Swedish/ Zjqo&diitime 1875 anci 187G. The ccmrse- of '01C Frcverv, 1876. The course of the'^ncr _ 1876 + AstratumaaiL OoservaUans ly Jhrdjenskuilci. 20 30.100 Def/thiTv^itfLcms- o J)redgvn^ f-av ■Ou'Sarou Secu.) i .9ia«Aria aw'^J^tal/'SS. aianng Croa SV I.uii.1,.11, Moeiaillan & Co. ^ INDEX. INDEX. ACAUIDiE, 287 Actinia Haven, 358 Advent Bay, 46, 98, 99 Mollis, 48," 92, 93, 102 Aira, 98 Aldert Dircks's Ba)-, 93 Alecto, 283 Aledo eschrichtii, 336, 357, 363 Alectoria, 95 Alga on inland ice, 163 Alnus fructicosa, 293 Alopecurus, 76, 98 Alsine, 94 Amphipoda, 283 Amsterdam Island, 46, 53 Andromeda, 99 Andromeda tetragona, 291 Angelica, 295 Angelin's Mount, 69 Annelids, 51, 102 Anser lernida, 53 Anser hracltyrhynclucs, 109 Appendicularia, 287 Apseudes, 102 Arabis, 94 Arctic current, 118 Arctic fox, 68 Arctic willow, 94 Arnell, Decent H. W., 320 Astarte, 100 Asterida, 236, 357 Auks, 51, 53, 109 Aulacomnium, 76 Aurora, 208 B Bear pasturing, 285 Bear Island, 51, 10-1, 128, 133 Bear Islands, 370 Bears, 235 Beaver skins, 375 Bell sound, 45, 46, 52, 100, 114 Beluga catodon, 87 Berg, Governor-general Count von, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 Berf'gren, Dr. Sven, 31, 131, 155 Beroe, 100 Beroidffi, 287 Biloculina, 102 Birch, dwarf discovered on Spitzbergen, 186 Bird Bay, 74 Birkbeck, Mr E., 113 Blomstrand, 49, 97 Bove, Lieut. G., 352 Brachiopoda, 290 Brandywine Bay, 58, 84, 88, 141, 233 Brenner, Eector M., 320 Brookes' apparatus, 51 Brown, Dr. E., 157 Bruzewitz, E. C., 352 Bryae, 95 Bryopogon, 95 Eryozoa, 336 Buccinirin glaciale, 94 Buchau, Captain, 44 " Bulldog " machine, 51, 101, 146 C. Calamagkostis, 98 Calamites, 136 Canals in the Inland Ice of Spitzbergen, 253 Cape Boh em an, 109 Cape Chelyuskin passed, 359 Cape Crozier, 59 Cape Fanshawo, 70 Cape Mitre, 95 Capo riateii, 241 Cape Sclu'lagsk.ij, 371 Cape Severo, 359 Cape Thordsen, 33, 274 444 INDEX. Cape Wrede, 82 Cardamine, 63, 65, 77, 99, 186 Cardium, 100 Carca- chordorrhiza, 291 Castren's Islands, 77, 79, S3 Catabrosa, 77 Cathaiine, Czarina, 43 Cerastium, 58, 63, 65, 76, 94 Cetraria, 58, 95 Chabarova, 354 Charadriiis hiaticula, 78 Charles XII.'s Island, 82 Chydenius, K., 49, 74, 84, 92, 104 Clirysospleuium, 99 Cirratulus, 102 Cladonia, 95 Clavering, 44 Clio, 287 Cloudberries, 289 Cloven Cliff, 46, 53 Coal, 96, 302 Cochlearia, 58, 63, 76, 94, 98 Copepoda, 149, 283 Cortusa, 295 Cosmic dust, 36, 1 87 Cottus, 100 Crenella, 100 Crevasses, 251 Cribella, 336 Cross Bay, 52, 95 Crozier, Lieut., 59 Crustacea,102, 337 Ctenodiscus, 336 Cuma, 102, 149 Cumacea, 283 Cydippe, 100 Cylichna, 102 Cjnjrina Islandica^ 139 Cystoptcris, 95 D. Dank.s' Island, 52, 92 Deevie Bay, 119 Deep dredginff, 148 Delphinium, 293 Dentalina, 102 Desmidieffi, 52 Dianthus, 291 Diatomaceaj, 52, 102 Dickson, Mr. Cscar, 29, 30, 36, 37, 177, 278, 345 Dickson Bay, 140 Dickson Harbour, 286, 326, 355 Dicrauum, 58, 95 Diptera, 63 Down Islands, 115 Draba, 63, 65, 77, 94, 99, 134 Drepano]isetta, 100 Dryas, 77, 99 Dunder Bay, 1 ] 4 Diiner, 49, 104, 112, 114, 121 Dupoutia, 76 Dym Point, 70 EciiiNt, 336 Ecliinodermata, 336, 337 Ehrensviird, Count A., 128 Eider, 94, 109, 115, 201 Emheriza nivalis, 51 Empetrum nigrum, 291 Encalypta, 95 English Bay, 46 Entadci gigalohiiom, bean of, 72 Envall, Dr. A., 183; report on hygiene of expedition of 1872-3, 391 Erigeron, 94 Eriophorum, 99 Erratic blocks, absence of, on Siberian coast, 373 Extreme Hook, SO, 233 F. Eeodor, 292, 329 "Finners," 51, 52 Forests, Siberian, 308 Foster's Islands, 68 Franklin, Sir John, 44, 146 Fries, Th. M., 131 Frugord, 2, 5, 7, 16, 23 G. Gadus, 100 Galium, 291 Gastcrosteus acideatus, 290 Gephyrea, 102 Giles, Commander, 123 Giles' Land, 150, 245 Gladan, 175 Glaucous gulls, 216 Globigerina, 102 Goes, 49 Gold diggings on the Yenissej, 316 Green Harbour, 97, 137 Greenland, Norden.skiold's journey to, 30, 153 Grey Hook, 93 Guillemots, 202 Gulf stream, 51, 118, 131 Gymuomitriurc, 58, 95 H. Halo.s, 224 Harpalus, 287 Hecla Cove, 59 Hecla Mount, 60, 65 Hedysarum, 293 Hear, Prof. Uswald, 151 INDEX. 445 Helis Sound, 122, 124 Hinloopen Strait, 68, 83, 84 Hippuris vulgaris, 291 Holmi^ien, A. E., 131 Holothuria, 51, 102 Hope Island, 119 Horn Sound, 100 Horn Soiinds Tinder, 1 ] i Hoogaard, Lieut. A., 352 Hydromedusse, 336 Hypnum, 58, 76 I. Icebergs, formation of, 122 Ice-crystals, large, 210 Ice, the crystalline form of, 22ij ; showers of, 255 Idothea Sabinei and entomon, 336, 362 Inland Ice of Greenland, 159, 171 Irkiapi, 378 Isopoda, 283 Ivorv gull, 202 J. JoHANNESEN, Captain, 358, 365 Juncus, 99 ; J. castancus, 291 Kara Gate, 281 Kara Sea, 37, 38, 323 Keilhau, Prof., 44, 135 King Carl's Land, 246 King of Sweden, 47, 345 King's Bay, 52, 96, 140 Kjellman, Dr., 36, 37, 183, 186, 279, 321, 352, 357 Kobbe Bay, 58, 94 Kryokonite, 163 Kuylenstjerna, Captain, 49 LiacliofF's Island, 368 Liefde Bay, 142 Lilliehook, 49 Limacina, 65 LovL'U, Professor, 44 Lumlirieus, 287 Lumjienus, 100 Lundstroni, Docent, 37, 279, 303 Luzula, 77, 94, 99 M. Mack Fritz, 272 McClintock, Sir Leopold, 47 Magdalena Bay, 45, 46 Magdalena Hook, 52 Magdalena, the, 48, 92, 93, 97, 100, 102 Malmgren, A. J., 49, 75, 104, 110, 114, 121, 131 Mammoth tusks, 306 "Marked" reindeer, 84 ilarten's Island, 79 Matotschkin Schar, 2/9, 280, 281, 322 Mattilas, 53, 73, 97, 126, 195 ; death of, 268, 272 MedusK, 287 Mergulus albe, 52 Meteoric iron, discovery of, 174 Middle Hook, 46, 114 MoUusca, 102 MoljKidia borealis, 363 Mormon, arcticiui, 147, 148 Mosander, Professor, 19, 20 Mount Miserj--, 106, 133 Muffin Island, 88 Murchisou Bay, 67, 72 Murcliison, Sir Roderick, 47 JMurder discovered and punishetl, 117 Mussel Bay, 35, 36, 191 Myriotrodius liinki, Steenstkur, 102 Mytilus eduHs, 139 L. Laminaria, 60 Laminaria Agardhi, 362 Lament, Mr., 124 Lapps, games of the, 204 Laptjefl; 369 Larus eburncus, 56 Lams glauciis, 50, 56 Larus tridadylus, 56, 05 Lee's Foreland, 120 Leigh Smith, Mr., 189, 269, 274 Lemstrijm, S., 131 Lena, voyage of the, 36 5 Lepidodendra, 136 Lcstris parasitica, 50 N. Nathorst, Docent II., vi.sits Spitz bergen, 32 Natica, 100 Nauckholi; G., 131 Neratrum, 293 New Siberian Lslands sighted, 368 Nicw Vriesland, 60 Nonionina, 102 Nord Fjord, 109 NordenskiiJld, Adolf Erik, his liirth and parentage, 1 ; education, 5 ; university studies, 7 ; fust jjublislied works, 8 ; disinis?a! from bis ollices, 12; visit to Berlin, 12; leaves 446 INDEX. Finlnnel, 16 ; refused iicnnission to revisit Finland, 18 ; niiplies lor the prol'e.ssorship of ininemlogy and geology in the University of llel- biugfors, 1 8 ; takes part in Torell's iirst Expedition to Spitzbergcn, 20 ; appointed successor to Mosander, 20 ; makes a tour through Jenitland and Dalecarlia, 22 ; takes part in Torell's second expedition, 22 ; visits Fin- land, 23 ; jiroposes a new Arctic Exjiedilion, 27 ; reaches the highest latitude attained hy a vessel in the old lieniisphere, 28 ; visits Green- laud, 30 ; sits in the House of Nobles, 34 ; is elected a representa- tive of Stockholm in the Diet, 34 ; starts on a new Polar Expedition, 35 ; sails to the mouth of the Yenissej and ascends the river, 37 ; returns to the Yenissej, 38 ; accom- panies Torell in his first expedition to Spitzbergen, 45 ; shares with Torell the command of the second Expedition to Spitzbergen, 4'J ; makes a boat voyage through Hin- loopeu Strait, 67 ; has an adventure with a Polar bear, 81 ; leader of the F.xpedition of 1864, 104 ; of 1868, 128 ; goes to Greenland, 153 ; starts on the Expedition of 1872, 183 ; holds a Council, 197 ; starts on a journey over the inland ice of Spitz- btfl'gen, 220 ; starts on a voyage to the Yenissej in 1875, 278 ; receives the thanks of the Russian govern- ment, 319 ; starts on a second voyage to the Yenissej, 320 ; his programme of the North-East Pas- sage Expedition, 346 ; joins the Expedition ; passes Bchrings Straits, 386 ; arrives at Yokohama, 387 Nordenskiold family, the, 1 Nordquist, Lieut. O., 362, 3o7 Noi'dstrom, Dr. Theodor, 31, 155 North Cape, 378 North-East Cape, 359 North-East Land, 58, 74, 75, 243, 248 Norways, the, 46, 53, 93 Aostoc commune, 65 0. Oberg, DocEKT P., 32, 155 Obuk, Mr., 157 Onkilon race, the, 379 Oi)hiurida, 283, 336 Osborne, Captain Sherard, 47 Otter, Baron Fr. von, 37, 145 Oxyria, 76 Oxytropis, 293 Palandicu, Lieut., 3i), 138, 183, 352, 382, 384 Palliser, the brothers, 138 Papaver, 77 Parent, Lieut, 36, 183 Pa-ry, 44, 58, 64, 65 Parry Island, 78, 150, 235 Peat moss, 139 Pedicularis, 94 PennatulidiB, 357 Permian fossils, 68 Petermann, 245 Petersen, Carl, 47, 49, 68, G'.\ 71, 79, 82, 83, 91 Plialaropas, 65, 94 Phipps, Constantine John, 44 Phipps' Island, 78 Phoca grocnlayidica, 84 Phos[)horescent Crustacea, 209 Physa, 289 Poa, 76, 9% 98 Podurre, 63, 144 Podurid;e, 287 Polar bear, 80, 144; its flesh, 124 Polar Expedition of 1868, 128 ; of 1872-3, 175 Polar night, 207 Polar willow, Qc,, 133 Pole, routes to the, 153 Polygonum, 99 Polythalamia, 51, 102 Polytricha, 58, 95, 99 Potentilla, 76, 99 Pottia, 77 Prince Charles' Foreland, 52 Productus, 46 Proevcn, the, 279 Pteropoda, 149 Ptilidium, 58 Pycnogonids, 357, 363 R. Radiol A.RIA, 102 Raised beaches, 324 Ranunculus, 76, 94, 99, 133 Red Bay, 64 Reindeer as a draught animal, 176 ; ([uantity of flesh yielded by, 182 ; killed, 222 Reindeer moss as food, 203 Reindeer Valley, 139 Rhacomitrium, 58, 95 Rink, Mr., 157 Rockfolds, 247 Rotge, 116 Rub us arcticus, 295 Runeberg, J. L., 6. INDEX. 447 s. Sabine, Sir Edward, 44, 1S7 Safe Haven, 108, 114 Sagani, 134 Sablberg, Dr. J., 320 Salix, 58, 99 Samoyedes, 281, 313, 354 Sassen Bay, 110 Saurian JMouutains, 139 Saurie Hook, 109 Saxifraga oppositifolia, 270 Saxifraga rivularis, 266 Saxiifrages, 63, 94, 99, 134 Schalavroir, 369 Sclivaiiauberg, 340 Scoresby, 145 Scoresby's Islaml, 80, 82 Scurvy, an attack of, 211 Sea, temperature of, 364 Seals floating, 125 Seebobm, Mr., 340 Seven Icebergs, 52 Seven Islands, 74, 77, 141, 143, 150 Shark fishing, 132 Siberia, its fertility, 299 Sibiriakoff, Herr Alex., 38, 39, 321, 345, 353, 367 Sibiriakoff 's Island, 327 Sidoroff, Herr M., 340 Sigillaria, 136 Silene, 94 Sipunculus, 102 Skoi)tzi, 310 Smeerenberg, 91 Smitt, F. A„ 49, j31 Snow Bunting, 218 Sofia, 130 ; springs a hak, 151 Solorina, 95 Sotnikoff, 304 South Cape, 118, 119, 136 South Gat, 94, 149 Sphsero]ihorou, 95 Spiders, 63 Spirifer, 46, 109 S]>itzbergen, 41 ; land north of, 53 ; change of its climate, 139 Stans Foreland, 48 Staphylinidfe, 287 Starat'schin, 112, 137 Stellaria, 77, 98 Stichaster, 336 Stor Fjord, 74, 84, lO.j, 108, 119 Stuxberg, Dr., 37, 279, 321, 352 Summer, a])j)roach of, 265 Sutton, Mr. Graham Manners, 113 Svjatoi, Nos, 369 T. TcHUKTCUKS, 372 ; barter with, 375 ; dress and manners of, 377, 3S5 Tellina, 100 Temple Mount, 111 Terns, 94, 114 Thecl, Dr. Hj., 279, 285, 320, 337 Thousand Islands, the, 47, 118 Thumb Point, 123 Thymus, 293 Tofieldia borealis, 277 Torell, Otto, 40, 45, 47, 48, 49, 100 Treurenberg Bay, 58, 60 Triassic strata, 110, 139 Tringa maritima, 65, 94 Tritorium, 100 Trybom, F., 320 Tundra, the, 294, 320 U. UjIBELLrLA, 337 Umbilicaria, 53, 95 Uria grtiUe, 52, 53 Usnea, 77 Uusimaa, 55 Van Keui.en Bay, 114 Van Mejeu Bay, 114 Vega, the, 345 ; irozen in, 383 ; re- leased, 386 ; i)asses Behrings Straits, 383 ; arrives at Yokohama, 384 Von Yhlen, 49, 97 W. "WaCHTMEISTER, COITNT, 33 AVagstaffe, Dr. W. W., 113 AVahlenberg Bay, 68, 261, 262 Walden Island, 74 "Wabrushunt, 54 ; hunting, 89 AV alter, Thymen's Strait, 120 AVaygatz Islands, 84 AV hales Bay, 118 AVhales Head, 120 AVhales Point, 118, 119, 120 AVhite Island visited, 355 AVhite Mount, 122 AVhite whale, 87, 137 AVhortleberry, 289 AVhyrnper, Mr., 157, 379 AViggin.s, Ca|)tain Joseph, 339 AVijile Bay, 93 AVijkander, Dr., 3«, 183, 186 AVilander, Hj., visits Spitzbergen, 32 AVorm, 63 A^almai,, 283, 293 Yenissej, t!ie 37, 38; reached by sea, 285 ; ascent of, 286 ; the fish of, 2.:(7, 312; a steamer on,- 301; coal seams near, 3m2 Ymn-, the, 320 LONDON : n, CLAY, SONS, AND TAYL'>B, PRINTERS BREAD STREET HILL. Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.C. December, 1879. Macmillan 5r Co:s Catalogue of Works in the Departments of History, Biography , Travels, Critical and Litej^ary Essays, Politics, Political and Social Econoniyy Law, etc.; and Works connected with Lan- guage. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY. TRAVELS, &c. Albemarle. — fifty YEARS OF MY LIFE. By George Thomas, Earl of Albemarle. With Steel Portrait of the first Earl of Albemarle, engraved by Jeens. Third and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. "js. 6d. ^^ The book is one of the most amusing of its class. . . . These remi' niscences have the charm and flavour of personal experience, and they bring us into direct contact with the persons they describe." — EDINBURGH Review. Anderson. — MANDALAY to MOMIEN ; a Narrative of the Two Expeditions to Western China, of 1868 and 1875, under Colonel E. B. Sladen and Colonel Horace Browne. By Dr. Anderson, F.R. S.E., Medical and Scientific Officer to the Ex- peditions. With numerous Maps and Illustrations. 8vo. 2ij. ''A pleasant, useful, carefully-written, and important work."" — ATHEN/EUM. Appleton. — Works by T. G. Appleton :— A NILE JOURNAL. Illustrated by Eugene Benson. Crown 8vo. 6s. SYRIAN SUNSHINE. Crown 8vo. ds. Arnold (M.) — ESSAYS IN CRITICISM. By Matthew Arnold. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo. gj. Arnold (W. T.)— THE ROMAN SYSTEM OF PROVIN- CIAL ADMINISTRATION TO THE ACCESSION OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. Beina: the Arnold Prize Essay for 1879. By W. T. Arnold, B.A. Crown 8vo. 6s. 5,000.12.79. A 2 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Atkinson. — an art TOUR TO NORTHERN CAPITALS OF EUROPE, including Descriptions of the Towns, the Museums, and other Art Treasures of Copenhagen, Christiania, Stockholm, Abo, Helsingfors, Wiborg, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kief. By J. Beavington Atkinson. 8vo. 12s. Bailey.— THE succession to the English crown. A Historical Sketch. By A. Bailey, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. Crown 8vo. ^s, 6d. Baker (Sir Samuel ^A^.)— Works by Sir Samuel Baker, Pacha, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. :— CYPRUS AS I SAW IT IN 1879. With Frontispiece. 8vo. 12s. (yd. ISMAILIA : A Narrative of the Expedition to Central Africa for the Suppression of the Slave Trade, organised by Ismail, Khedive of Egyi^t. With Portraits, Map, and fifty full-page Illustrations by ZwECKER and Durand. New and Cheaper Edition. With New Preface. Crown 8vo. 6j. 'M book which ivill be read with ve^y great interest. " — Times. " IVeil written and full of remarkable adventures." — Pall Mall Gazette. ^^ Adds another thrilling chapter to the history of African adventure." — Daily News. "Reads mo7-e like a rotnance . . . . inco7nfarably more entertaining than books of Afncan travel usually are." — Morning Post. THE ALBERT N'YANZA Great Basin of the Nile, and Explora- tion of the Nile Sources. Fifth Edition. Maps and Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6j. " Charmingly written;" says the Spectator, "full, as might be expected, of ijicident, and free frojn that wearisoine reiteration of useless facts which is the drawback to almost all books of Africaji travel.'''' THE NILE TRIBUTARIES OF ABYSSINIA, and the Sword Hunters of the Hamran Arabs. With Maps and Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo, (>s. The Times says : "'It adds inuch to our information respecting Egyptian Abyssinia and the different races that spread over it. It contains, more- over, S07ne notable instances of English daritig and enterprising skill ; it abounds in animated tales of exploits dear to the heart of the British sportsman ; and it will attract even the least studious reader, as the author tells a story well, ajid can describe nature with uncotmnon pozver." Bancroft. — the history of the united states OF AMERICA, FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CON- TINENT. By George Bancroft. New and thoroughly Re- vised Edition. Six Vols. Crown 8vo. 54^. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 3 Barker (Lady). — Works by Lady Barker :— A YEAR'S HOUSEKEEPING IN SOUTH AFRICA. With Illustrations. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. " We have to thank Lady Barker for a very amusing book, over which we have spent viany a delightful hotir, and of which we will not take leave without alluding to the ineffably droll illustrations which add so very much to the enjoyment of her clear and sparkling descriptions. " — Morning Post. Beesly. — STORIES from the history of ROME. By Mrs. Beesly. Extra fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d. " A little book for which roery cultivated and intelligent mother will be grateful for. " — Examiner. Bismarck_IN THE FRANCO-GERMAN war. An Authorized Translation from the German of Dr. Moritz Busch, Two Vols. Crown 8vo. iSs. The Times says : — " The publication of Bismarck'' s after-dinner talk, zuhether discreel or not, will be of priceless biographical vahle,- and English- men, at least, 7vill not be disposed to quarrel with Dr. Busch for giving a picture as true to life as Boswell's ' yohnson ' of the foremost practical genius that Germany has produced since Frederick the Great. ^^ Blackburne. — biography of the right hon. FRANCIS blackburne, Late Lord Chancellor of Ireland, Chiefly in connexion with his Public and Political Career. By his Son, Edward Blackburne, Q.C. With Portrait Engraved by Jeens. 8vo. \2.S. Blanford (W. T.)— GEOLOGY and ZOOLOGY of ABYSSINIA. By W. T. Blanford. 8vo. 2Ij. Bronte. — CHARLOTTE BRONTE. A Monograph. By T. Wemyss Reid. With Illustrations. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 6j. Brooke. — the RAJA of SARAWAK : an Account of Sir James Brooke, K.C.B., LL.D. Given chiefly through Letters or Journals. By Gertrude L. Jacob. With Portrait and Maps. Two Vols. 8vo. 25J. Bryce. — Works by James Bryce, D.C.L., Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford : — THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo. 7^. 6^. '•/^ exactly supplies a want: it affords a key to ?nuch which men read of in their books as isolated facts, but of which they have hitherto had no connected exposition set before them.'" — Saturday Review. a 2 4 '^A CMILLA bPS CA'IALOGUE OF WORKS IN Bryce. — continued. TRANSCAUCASIA AND ARARAT: being Notes of a Vacation Tour in the Autumn of 1876. With an lUustration and Map. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 9^. "Mr. Bryce has written a lively and at the same time an instructive description of the tour he jnade last year in atid about the Caucasus. When so tuell-inforjned a jurist travels into regions seldom visited, and even walks up a fiiounlaifi so rarely scaled as Ararat, he is jtistijied in think- ing that the impressions he brings home are worthy of being communicated to the world at large, especially when a terrible war is casting a lurid glow over the countries he has lately surveyed." — Athen^um. Burgoyne. — POLITICAL AND military episodes DURING THE FIRST HALF OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. Derived from the Life and CoiTespondence of the Right Hon. J. Burgoyne, Lieut. -General in his Majesty's Army, and M.P. for Preston. By E. B. de Fonblanque. With Portrait, HeHotype Plate, and Maps. 8vo. l6s. Burke. — EDMUND burke, a Historical Study. By John MoRLEY, B.A., Oxon. Crown 8vo. ^s. 6d. Burrows. — WORTHIES OF ALL SOULS ; Four Centuries of English History. Illustrated from the College Archives. By Montagu Burrows, Chichele Professor of Modern History at Oxford, Fellow of All Souls. 8vo. 14J. "A most amusing as well as a most instructive book. — Guardian. Cameron. — our future highway. By v. Lovett Cameron, C.B., Commander R.N. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. {Shortly. Campbell. — log-letters from the "challenger." By Lord George Campbell. With Map. Fifth and cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. "A delightful book, which we heartily commend to the general reader." —Saturday Review. " We do not hesitate to say that anything so fresh, so picturesque, so generally delightful, as these logdetters has not appeared among books of travel for a long time." — Examiner. Campbell. — my circular notes : Extracts from Journals ; Letters sent Home ; Geological and other Notes, written while Travelling Westwards round the World, from July 6th, 1874, to July 6th, 1875. ^y J- F. Campbell, Author of "Frost and Fire." Cheaper Issue. Crown 8vo. 6^. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. Campbell.—TURKS and greeks. Notes of a recent Ex- cursion. By the Hon. Dudley Campbell, M.A. With Coloured Map. Crown 8vo. 3^-. ()d. Carpenter. — life and work of mary carpenter By the Rev. J. E. Carpenter. With Portrait engraved by Jeens. Crown 8vo. S^Shortly. Carstares William CARSTARES : a character and Career of the Revolutionary Epoch (1649 — 171 5). By Robert Story, Minister of Rosneath. 8vo. 12s. Chatterton : a biographical study. By Daniel Wilson, LL.D., Professor of Histor>' and English Literature in University College, Toronto. Crown 8vo. ds. dd. Chatterton : a story of ^THE year 1770. By Professor Masson, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 5^. Clark. — memorials from journals and letters OF SAMUEL CLARK, M.A., formerly Principal of the National Society's Training College, Battersea. Edited with Introduction by his Wife. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 7^. dd. Clifford (W. K.)— LECTURES AND ESSAYS. Edited by Leslie Stephen and Frederick Pollock, with Introduction by F. Pollock. Two Portraits. 2 vols. 8vo. 255. The Times of October 22, 1879, says: — ^^ Many a friend of the author on first taking tip these volumes and remembering his versatile genius and his keen enjoyment of all realms of intellectual activity must have trembled lest they should be found to consist of fragmentary pieces of work, too disconnected to do justice to his powers of consecutive reasoning and too varied to have any effect as a whole. Fortunately those fears are groundless .... It is not only in subject that the various papers are closely related. There is also a singular consistency of viezv and of method throughout .... ft is in the social and metaphysical subjects that the richness of his intellect shows itself most forcibly in the variety and originality of the ideas zuhich he presents to us. To appreciate this variety, it is necessary to read the book itself, for it treats, in some form or other, oj nearly all the subjects of deepest interest in this age of questioning^' Combe. — the life of GEORGE COMBE, Author of "The Constitution of Man." By Charles Gibbon. With Three Portraits engraved by Jeens. Two Vols. 8vo. 325. "^ graphic and interesting account of the long life and indefatigable labours of a very remarkable man." — Scotsman. 6 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF. WORKS IN Cooper. — ATHENE CANTABRIGIENSES. By Charles Henry Cooper, F.S.A., and Thompson Cooper, F.S.A. Vol. I. 8vo., 1500—85, \%s.; Vol. II., 1586— 1609, i8j. Correggio.— ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA CORREGGIO. From ;the German of Dr. Julius Meyer, Director of the Royal Gallery, Berlin. Edited, with an Introduction, by Mrs. Heaton, Con- taining Twenty Woodbury-type Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Cloth elegant. 3IJ. dd. Cox (G. V.)— RECOLLECTIONS OF OXFORD. By G. V, Cox, M.A., New College, late Esquire Bedel and Coroner in the University of Oxford. Cheaper Editio7i. Crown Svo. 6j. Cunynghame (Sir A. T.) — my command in SOUTH AFRICA, 1874 — 78. Comprising Experiences of Travel in the Colonies of South Africa and the Independent States. By Sir Arthur Thurlow Cunynghame, G.C.B., then Lieutenant- Governor and Commander of the Forces in South Afi-ica. Third Edition. Svo. \zs. 6d. The Times says :—"It is a volume of great interest, .... full of incidetits 'uhich vividly illustrate the condition of the Colonies and the character and habits of the natives It contains valuable illus- trations of Cape zoarfare, and at the present moment it cannot fail to cof7imand '<.oide-spread attention. " " Daily News." — the daily news' correspond- ENCE of the War between Germany and France, 1870 — i. Edited with Notes and Comments. New Edition. Complete in One Volume. With Maps and Plans. Crown Svo. 6s. THE DAILY NEWS' CORRESPONDENCE of the War between Russia and Turkey, to the fall of Kars. Including the letters of Mr. Archibald Forbes, Mr. J. E. McGahan, and other Special Correspondents in Europe and Asia. Second Edition, enlarged. Cheaper Edition. Crown Svo. 6^. FROM THE FALL OF KARS TO THE CONCLUSION OF PEACE. Cheaper Edition. Crowni Svo. 6s. Davidson. — the life of a Scottish probationer; being a Memoir of Thomas Davidson, with his Poems and Letters. By James Brown, Minister of St. James's Street Church, Paisley. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, with Portrait. Crown Svo. Js. 6d. Deas. — THE RIVER CLYDE. An Historical Description of the Rise and Progress of the Harbour of Glasgow, and of the Im- provement of the River from Glasgow to Port Glasgow. By J. Deas, M. Inst. C.E. Svo. loj-. 6d. HISTORY, BIOGRAP HY, TRA VELS, ETC. 7 Denison.— A history of cavalry from the ear. LIEST TIMES. With Lessons for the Future. By Lieut. -Col. George Denison, Commanding the Governor-General's Body Guard, Canada, Author of " Modern Cavalry." With Maps and Plans. 8vo. iSj-. Dilke. — GREATER BRITAIN. A Record of Travel in English- speaking Countries during 1866-7. (America, Australia, India.) By Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, M.P. Sixth Edition- Crovv^n 8vo. 6j. ^'' Many of the subjects discussed in these pages" savs the Daily News, " are of the tuidest interest, and such as no man who cares for the future of his race and of the world can afford to treat with indifference." Doyle.— HISTORY OF AMERICA. By J. A. Doyle. With Maps. i8mo. ^. 6d. '■^ Mr. Doyle's style is clear and simple, his facts are accurately stated, and his book is meritoriously free from prejudice on questions where partisanship runs high amongst ns." — Saturday Review. Drummond of Hawthornden : the STORY OF HIS LIFE AND WRITINGS. By Professor Masson. With Por- trait and Vignette engraved by C. H. Jeens. Crown 8vo. 10s, 6d. Duff. — Works by M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P., late Under Secretary of State for India : — NOTES OF AN INDIAN JOURNEY. With Map. 8vo. loj-. 6d. MISCELLANIES POLITICAL AND LITERARY. 8vo. los. 6d> Eadie. — life of JOHN EADIE, D.D., LL.D. By James Brown, D.D., Author ot " The Life of a Scottish Probationer." With Portrait. Second Edition. Crovv^n 8vo. 7^'. 6d, ^' An ably written and characteristic biography," — Times. Elliott. — LIFE OF HENRY VENN ELLIOTT, of Brighton. By JosiAH Bateman, M.A. With Portrait, engraved by Jeens. Extra fcap. 8vo. Third and Cheaper Edition, ts, Elze. — ESSAYS ON SHAKESPEARE. By Dr. Karl Elze. Translated with the Author's sanction by L. Dora SCHMITZ. 8vo. 12S. English Men of Letters. Edited by John Morley, A Series of Short Books to tell people what is best worth knowing as to the Life, Character, and Works of some of the great English Writers. In crown 8vo. Price 2s. 6d, each. 8. MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN English Men of Letters. — contifmed. I. DR. JOHNSON. By Leslie Stephen. ' ' The new seru's opens wdl with Mr. Leslie Stephen^ s sketch of Dr. Johnsott. It could hardly have been done better ; and it will convey to the readers for whom it is intended a jnster estimate of Johnson than, either of the ttvo essays of Lord Macaulay " — Pall Mall Gazette. II. SIR WALTER SCOTT. By R. H. Hutton. " The tone of the vohime is excellent throughout." — Athen^UM. ' ' We could not ivish for a more suggestive introduction to Scott and his poems and novels." — Examiner. IIL GIBBON. By J. C. MoRisoN. '^ As a clear, thoughtful, and attractive record of the life and works of the greatest atnong the worWs historians, it deserves the highest praise." — Examiner. IV. SHELLEY. By J. A. Symonds. " The lovers of this great poet are to be congtatulated on having at their command so fresh, clear, and intelligent a pi-esentmettt of the subject, written by a man of adequate and 7vide culture." — Athen^um. V. HUME. By Professor Huxley. "It may fairly be said that no 07ie noiu living cotdd have expounded Hu7ne iviih more sympathy or ivith equal perspicuity." — Athen^UM. VI. GOLDSMITPI. By William Black. " Mr. Black brings a fine sympathy and taste to bear in his criticism, of Goldsmith' s writings as well as in his sketch of the incidents of his life." ATHEN/EUM. VII. DEFOE. By W. Minto. ' ' Mr, Mitito's book is careful and accurate in all that is stated, and faithftd in all that it suggests. It will repay reading more than once.''* Athen.'Eum. -' VIII. BURNS. By Principal Shairp, Professor of Poetry in the University of Oxford. '^ It is hnpossible to desire fairer criticism than Principal Shairp'' s on Bums'' s poetry .... None of the series has given a trtier estimate either of character or of genius than this little volume .... and all who read it will be thojvughly grateful to the author for this monument to the genius of Scotland' s greatest poet." — Spectator. IX. SPENSER. BytheVeiy Rev. the Dean of St. Paul's. '^ Dr. Church is 7naster of his subject, and writes akvays with good taste." — Academy. X. THACKERAY. By Anthony Trollope. '^ Mr. Trollope' s sketch is excellently adapted to fufil the purpose of the series in which it appeals." — AtheN/EUM. XL BURKE. By John Morley. ^^ Perhaps the best critiusm yet published on the life and character of > \_In preparation^ HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 9 English Men of Letters. — continued. Burke is contained in Mr. Morley' s compendious I'iograpliy. His style is vigorous and polished, and both his political and personal judgviatt, and his literary criticisms are Just, generous, subtle, and in a high degree interesting. " — Saturday Review. MILTON. By Mark Pattison, \yust ready.'] HAWTHORNE. By Henry James. SOUTHEY. By Professor Dowden. CHAUCER. By Professor Ward. COWPER. By Goldwin Smith. BUNYAN. By J. A. Froude. WORDSWORTH. By F. W. H. Myers. Others in preparation. Eton College, History of. By H. C. Maxwell Lyte, M.A. With numerous Illustrations by Professor Delamotte, Coloured Plates, and a Steel Portrait of the Founder, engraved by C. H. Jeens. New and cheaper Issue, wath Corrections. Medium 8vo. Cloth elegant. 21^. " We are at length presented with a work on England's greatest public school, worthy of the subject of which it treats. . . . A really valuable and authentic history of Eto7i College." — Guardian. European History, Narrated in a Series of Historical Selections from the best Authorities. Edited and arranged by E. M. Sewell and C. M. Yonge. First Series, crown 8vo. 6^. ; Second Series, 1088-1228, crown 8vo. ds. Third Edition. " We know of scarcely anything," says the Guardian, of this volume, "which is so likely to raise to a higher level the average standard of English education." Faraday. — MICHAEL FARADAY. By J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S. Second Edition, with Portrait engraved by Jeens from a photograph by J. Watkins. Crown 8vo. 4^^. 6^. PORTRAIT. Artist's Proof. 5^. Forbes.— LIFE and letters of JAMES DAVID FORBES, F.R.S., late Principal of the United College in the University of St. Andrews, By J. C. Shairp, LL.D., Principal of the United College in the University of St. Andrews ; P. G. Tait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh; and A. Adams-Reilly, F.R.G.S. 8vo. with Portraits, Map, and Illustrations, i6j. Freeman. — Works by Edward A, Freeman, D.C.L.,LL.D. :— HISTORICAL ESSAYS. Third Edition. 8vo. \os. 6d. Contents — /. " The Mythical and Romantic Elements in Early English History;" II. ''The Continuity of English History ; ^^ IIL "The Relations between the Croivns of England and Scotland ; IV. lo MACMILLAJSrS CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Freeman — conthmed. " St. Thomas of Canterbury and his Biograthers ;" V. " The Reign oj Edward the Third:" VI. ''The Holy Roman Empire;'' VII. ''The Franks and the Gauls;" VIII. "The Early Sieges of Paris;" IX. "Frederick the hirst, King of Italy ;" X. " The Emperor Frederick the Second;" XI. "Charles the Bold ;" XII. " Presidential Government. HISTORICAL ESSAYS. SECOND SERIES. 8vo. los. ed. The principal Essays are: — "Ancient Greece and Mediirval Italy:" "Mr. Gladstones Homer and the Homeric Ages:" "The Historians of Athens:" "The Athenian Democracy:" "Alexander the Great:" "Greece during the Macedonian Period:" "Mo7nmsens History of Rome:" "Lucius Cornelius Sulla :" " The Flavian Ccesars." HISTORICAL ESSAYS. Third Series. 8vo. 125. Contents : — " First Lnprcssions of Rome" " The Illyrian Emperors and their Land." "Augusta Ireverorum." "The Goths at Ravenna." "Race and Language." "The Byzantine Empire." "First Impressions of Athens." "Mediirval and Modern Greece." "The Southern Slaves." "Sicilian Cycles." "The Normans at Palermo. " COMPARATIVE POLITICS.— Lectures at the Royal Institution. To which is added the " Unity of History," the Rede Lecture at Cambridge, 1872. 8vo. 14?. THE HISTORY AND CONQUESTS OF THE SARACENS. Six Lectures. Third Edition, with New Preface. Crown 8vo. 3^-. 6d. HISTORICAL AND ARCHITECTURAL SKETCHES: chiefly Itahan. With Illustrations by the Author. Crown 8vo. lOj-. dd. HISTORY OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, from the Foun- dation of the Achaian League to the Disruption of the United States. Vol. I. General Introduction, History of the Greek Federations. 8vo. 21s. OLD ENGLISH HISTORY. With Five Coloured Maps. Fourth Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo., half-bound. 6s. " The book indeed is full of instruction and interest to students oj all ages, and he must be a well-informed man indeed who will not rise from its perusal with clearer and 7Jiore accurate ideas of a too much neglected portion of English history." — Spectator. HISTORY OF THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF WELLS, as illustrating the History of the Cathedral Churches of the Old Foundation. Crown 8vo. 3^. ^d. " The history assumes in Mr. Frecfnan''s hands a significance,"^ and, we may add, a practical value as suggestive of %vhat a cathedral ought to be, which make it well worthy of mention." — Spectator. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. il Freeman — continued. THE GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES. Crown 8vo. 5^. Third Edition, revised. GENERAL SKETCH OF EUROPEAN HISTORY. Being Vol. I. of a Historical Course for Schools edited by E. A. Freeman. New Edition, enlarged with Maps, Chronological Table, Index, &c. i8mo. 3^. (>d. "It supplies the great want of a good foundation for historical teach- ing. The scheme is an excellent one, and this instalment has been accepted in a way that promises much for the volumes that are yet to appear." — Educational Times. THE OTTOMAN POWER IN EUROPE : its Nature, its Growth, and its Decline. With Three Coloured Maps. Crown 8vo. "Js. 6d. Galileo. — the private life of GALILEO. Compiled principally firom his Correspondence and that of his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, Nun in the Franciscan Convent of S. Matthew in Arcetri. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 7^. 6d. Geddes. — the problem of the homeric poems. By W. D. Geddes, LL.D., Professor of Greek in the University of Aberdeen. 8vo. 14^-. Gladstone — Works by the Right Hon.W. E. Gladstone, M.P.:— JUVENTUS MUNDI. The Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. Crown 8vo. cloth. With Map. los. 6d. Second Edition. " Seldom," says the Athen^um, '■'■out of the great poems themselves, have these Divinities looked so majestic and respectable. To read these brilliant details is like standing on the Olympiaji threshold and gazing at the ineffable brightness within." HOMERIC SYNCHRONISM. An inquiry into the Time and Place of Homer. Crown 8vo. 6s. " It is impossible not to admire the immense range of thought and inquiry which the author has displayed." — British Quarterly Review. Goethe and Mendelssohn (1821— 1831). Translated from the German of Dr. Karl Mendelssohn, Son of the Composer, by M. E. Von Glehn. From the Private Diaries and Home Letters of Mendelssohn, with Poems and Letters of Goethe never before printed. Also with two New and Original Portraits, Fac- similes, and Appendix of Twenty Letters hitherto unpublished. Crown 8vo. 5^. Second Edition, enlarged. 12 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN " . . . Every page is full of interest, not merely to the musi- cian, but to the general reader. The book is a very charming one, on a topic of deep and lasting interest.''^ — Standard. Goldsmid. — telegraph and travel, a Narrative of the Formation and Development of Telegraphic Communication between England and India, under the orders of Her Majesty's Government, with incidental Notices of the Countries traversed by the Lines. By Colonel Sir Frederic Goldsmid, C.B., K.C.S.I., late Director of the Government Indo-European Telegraph. With numerous Illustrations and Maps. 8vo. 2\s. " The merit of the work is a total absence of exaggeration, which does not, however, preclude a vividness and vigour of style not always character- istic of similar narratives." — STANDARD. Gordon. — last letters from EGYPT, to which are added Letters from the Cape. By Lady Duff Gordon. With a Memoir by her Daughter, Mrs. Ross, and Portrait engraved by Jeens. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. gs. " The intending tourist who wishes to acquaint himself with the country he is about to visit, stands embarrassed amidst the riches presented for his choice, and in the end probably rests contented with the sober usefulness of Alurray. He will not, however, if he is well advised, grudge a place in his poi-t7nanteau to this book." — Times. Gray. — china, a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the People. By the Venerable John Henry Gray. LL.D., Archdeacon of Hong Kong, formerly H.B.M. Consular Chaplain at Canton. Edited by W. Gow Gregor. With 1 50 Full-page Illustra- tions, being Facsimiles of Drawings by a Chinese Artist. 2 Vols. Demy Svo. 32J. ^^ Its pages contain the most truthful and vivid picture of Chinese life which has ever been published." — Athen^UM. " The only elaborate and valuable book we have had for many years treating generally of the people of the Celestial Empire." — Academy. Green. — Works by John Richard Green: — HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. Vol. I.— Early England — Foreign Kings — The Charter — The Parliament. With 8 Coloured Maps. Svo. i6s. Vol. II. — The Monarchy, 1461 — 1540; the Restoration, 1540 — 1603. Svo. 16^. Vol. III. — Puritan England, 1603 — 1660; the^ Revolution, 1660 — 1688. With 4 Maps. Svo. i6s, {Vol. IV. in the press. ^^ Mr. Green has done a work which probably no one but himself could have done. He has read and assimilated the results of all the labours of students during the last half century in the field of English history, and has given them a fresh meaning by his own independent study. He has fused together by the force of sympathetic imagination all that he has so HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 13 Green , — continued, collected, and has ^iven us a vivid and forcible sketch of the march of English history. His book, both in its aims and its accomplishments, rises far beyond any of a similar kind, and it will give the colouring to the popular view to English history for some time to come." — Examiner. A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. With Coloured Maps, Genealogical Tables, and Chronological Annals. Crown 8vo. %s. 6d. Sixty- third Thousand. " To say that Air. Greenes book is better than those which have pre- ceded it, would be to convey a very inadequate hnpression of its merits. It stands alone as the one general history of the country, for the sake of which all others, if young and old are wise, will be speedily and surely set aside." STRAY STUDIES FROM ENGLAND AND ITALY. Crown 8vo. Sj'. dd. Containing : Lambeth and the Archbishops — The Florence of Dante — Venice and Rome — Early History of Oxford — The District Visitor — Capri — Hotels in the Clouds — Sketches in Sunshine, iSrc. " One and all of the papers are eminently readable.^'' — AtheNjEUM. Guest. — LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By M. T- Guest. With Maps. Crown 8vo. 6j-. " 77?^ book is pleasant reading, it is full of information, much of it is valuable, most of it is correct, told in a gossipy and intelligible way." — Athen.^um. Hamerton. — Works by p. G. Hamerton:— THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE. With a Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, etched by Leopold Flameng. Second Edition. Crown IOJ-. (yd. 8vo. ' ' We have read the whole book with great pleasure, and we can re- commend it strongly to all who can appj-eciate grave reflections oft a very important subject, excellently illustrated frorn the resources of a mina stored with much reading and much keen obseivation of 7-eal life." — Saturday Review. THOUGHTS ABOUT ART. New Edition, revised, with an Introduction. Crown 8vo. %s. 6d. "yi manual of soufid and thorough criticism on artP — STANDARD. Hill. — THE RECORDER OF BIRMINGHAM. A Memoir of Matthew Davenport Hill, with Selections from his Correspondence. By his Daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport-Hill. With Portrait engraved by C. H. Jeens. 8vo. ids. 14 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Hill.— WHAT WE SAW IN AUSTRALIA. By Rosamond and Florence Hill. Crown 8vo. \os. 6d. ''^ May be recommended as an intcresthig and tndhful pichire of the condition of those lands -which are so distant and yet so rmich like ho?ne." — Saturday Review. Hodgson.— MEMOIR OF REV. FRANCIS HODGSON, B. D., Scholar, Poet, and Divine. By his Son, the Rev. James T. Hodgson, M.A. Containing numerous Letters from Lord Byron and others. With Portrait engraved by Jeens. Two Vols. Crown 8vo. iSj, " A hook that has added so much of a healthy tiatiire to our knoiuledge of Byron, and that contains so rich a store oj delightful correspondence.'''' — Athenaeum, Hole. — A GENEALOGICAL STEMMA OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. By the Rev. C. Hole, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge. On Sheet, is. A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Compiled and Arranged by the Rev. Charles Hole, M.A. Second Edition. l8mo. 4^^. dd. Hooker and Ball. — marocco and the great ATLAS: Journal of a Tour in. By Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I., C.B., F.R.S., &c., and John Ball, F.R.S. With an Appendix, including a Sketch of the Geology of Marocco, by G. Maw, F.L.S., F.G.S. With Illustrations and Map. 8vo. zxs. " It is long since any moj'e interesting book of travels has issued from our press," — Saturday Review. " This is, "without doubt, one of the most interesting and valuable books of travel published for many years." — Spectator. Hozier (H. M.) — W^orks by Captain Henry M. Hozier, late Assistant Military Secretary to Lord Napier of Magdala : — THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR ; Its Antecedents and Incidents. New and Cheaper Edition. With New Preface, Maps, and Plans. Crown 8vo. 6j. THE INVASIONS OF ENGLAND : a History of the Past, with Lessons for the Future. Two Vols. Svo. 28^. Hiibner. — a ramble round the world in 1871. By M. Le Baron Hubner, formerly Ambassador and Minister. Translated by Lady Herbert. New and Cheaper Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6s. *^ It is difficult to do ample justue to this pleasant narrative of travel . ... it does not contain a single dull paragraph." — Morning Post. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 15 Hughes. — Works by Thomas Hughes, Q.C, Author of "Tom Brown's School Days." ALFRED THE GREAT. New Edition. Crown 8vo. ds. MEMOIR OF A BROTHER. With Portrait of George Hughes, after Watts. Engraved by Jeens. Crown 8vo. 5^. Sixth Edition. " The boy who can read this book without deriving from it sotne addi- tional impulse toivards honourable, manly, and independent conduct, has no good stuff in him" — Daily News. Hunt. — HISTORY OF ITALY. By the Rev. W. Hunt, M.A. Being the Fourth Volume of the Historical Course for Schools. Edited by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. i8mo. y. " Mr. Hunt gives us a most compact but very readable little book, con- taining in st?iall cotnpass a vety complete outline of a complicated and perplexing subject. It is a book which may be safely recommended to others besides schoolboys." — ^JOHN Bull. Irving.— THE ANNALS OF OUR TIME. A Diurnal of Events, Social and Political, Home and Foreign, from the Accession of Queen Victoria to the Peace of Versailles. By Joseph Irving. Fom-th Edition. 8vo. half-bound. \bs. ANNALS OF OUR TIME. Supplement. From Feb. 28, 1871, to March 19, 1874. 8vo. 45. dd. ANNALS OF OUR TIME. Second Supplement. From March, 1874, to the Occupation of Cyprus. 8vo. 4^-. 6d. " We have before us a trusty and ready gu'de to the events of the past thirty years , available equally for the statesman, the politician, the public writer, and the general reader." — Times. James. — Works by Henry James, Jun. FRENCH POETS AND NOVELISTS. Crown 8vo. 8j-. dd. Contents:— Alfred de Alusset ; Theophile Gautier ; Baudelaire; Honore de Balzac ; George Sand ; The Two Amperes ; Turgenieff, &^c. Johnson's Lives of the Poets.^ — The Six Chief Lives^Milton, Dryden, Swift, Addison, Pope, Gray. With Macaulay's " Life of Jolmson." Edited, with Preface, by Matthew Arnold. Crown 8vo. 6^. Killen. — ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF IRELAND, from the Earliest Date to the Present Time. By W. D. Killen, D.D., President of Assembly's College, Belfast, and Professor of Eccle- siastical History. Two Vols. 8vo. 25^. " Those who have the leisure will do well to read these two volume'. Thev are full of interest, and are the result of great research. . . . We i6 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN have 110 hesitation in reconii7iending the work to all who wish to improve their acquaintance with Irish history J" — Spectator. Kingsley (Charles). — Works by the Rev. Charles Kingsley, M.A., Rector of Eversley and Canon of Westminster. (For other Works by the same Author, see Theological and Belles Lettres Catalogues. ) ON THE ANCIEN REGIME as it existed on the Continent before the French Revolution. Three Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution. Crown 8vo. ds. AT LAST : A CHRISTMAS in the WEST INDIES. With nearly Fifty Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo. ts. Mr. Kingsley' s dream of forty years was at last fulfilled, when he started on a Christmas expedition to the West Indies, for the ptirpose of becoming personally acquainted with the scenes which he has so vividly described in " Westivard Ho !" These two volumes are the journal of his voyage. Records of natural history, sketches of tropical landscape, chapters on education, vieius of society, all find their place. " We can only say that Mr. Kingsley'' s account of a ' Christmas in the West Indies ' is in every way zaorthy to be classed among his happiest productions,^^ — Standard. THE ROMAN AND THE TEUTON. A Series of Lectures delivered before the University of Cambridge. New and Cheaper Edition, with Preface by Professor Max MiJLLER. Crown 8vo. ds. PLAYS AND PURITANS, and other Historical Essays. With Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh. New Edition. Crown 8vo. bs. In addition to the Essay inentioned in the title, this volume contains other two — one on "Sir Walter Raleigh and his Time," and one on Froud^s '■^ History of England." Kingsley (Henry). — TALES OF OLD TRAVEL. Re- narrated by Henry Kingsley, F.R.G.S. With Eight Illus- trations by HuARD. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo. 5^. " We know no better book for those tvho want knowledge or seek to refresh it. As for the '■sensational,^ most novels are tame compared with these narratives^ — Athen^um. Lang. — CYPRUS : Its History, its Present Resources and Future Prospects. By R. Hamilton Lang, late H.M. Consul for the Island of Cyprus. With Two Illustrations and Four Maps. Svo. li^. " The fair and impartial account of her past and present to be found in these pages has an undoubted claim on the attention of all intelligettt readers.''' — Morning Post. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 17 LaOCOOn. — Translated from the Text of Lessing, with Preface and Notes by the Right Hon. Sir Robert J. Phillimore, D.C.L. With Photographs. 8vo. \2s. Leonardo da Vinci and his Works. — Consisting of a Life of Leonardo Da Vinci, by Mrs. Charles W. Heaton, Autlior of "Albrecht Diirer of NUrnberg," «S:c., an Essay on his Scientific and Literary Works by Charles Christopher Black, M.A., and an account of his more important Paintings and Drawings. Illustrated with Permanent Photographs. Royal 8vo, cloth, extra gilt. 31^. dd. Liechtenstein. — HOLLAND HOUSE. By Princess Marie Liechtenstein. With Five Steel Engiavings by C. H. Jeens, after Paintings by Watts and other celebrated Artists, and numerous Illustrations drawn by Professor P. H. Delamotte, and engraved on Wood by J. D. Cooper, W. Palmer, and Jewitt & Co. Third and Cheaper Edition. Medium 8vo. cloth elegant. i6j-. Also, an Edition containing, in addition to the above, about 40 Illustrations by the Woodbury-type process, and India Proofs of the Steel Engravings. Two vols, medium 4to. half morocco elegant. 4/. 4^. Lloyd. — THE AGE OF PERICLES. A Histor)' of the Arts and Politics of Greece from the Persian to the Pe'oponnesian War. By W. Wat kiss Lloyd. Two Vols. 8vo. 2\s. " No such account of Greek art 0/ the best period has yet been brought together in an English work Air. Lloyd has pi educed a book of unusual excellence and interest. " — Pall Mall Gazeite. Loch Etive and the Sons of Uisnach,— with Illus- trations. 8vo. 14s. " A^ot only have we Loch Etive of the present time brought before us in colours as true as they are vivid, but stirring scenes zahich happened on the borders of the beautiful lake in setni-myihical times are conjured up with singular skill. Nowhere else do we remember to have met with such a well-written account of the invasion of Scotland by the Irish.''^ — Globe. Loftie.— A RIDE IN EGYPT FROM SIOOT TO LUXOR, IN 1879 ; with Notes on the Present State and Ancient History of the Nile Valley, and some account of the various ways of making the voyage out and home. By the Rev. W. J. Loftie. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. \os. 6d. " IVe prophesy that Mr. Loftie' s little book will accompany many travellers on the Nile in the coming lointcrs.'" — Times. B 1 8 M ACM I [.LAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Lubbock. — ADDRESSES, POLITICAL AND EDUCA- TIONAL. By Sir JOHX Lubbock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. 8vo. Zs.U. Macdonell. — FRANCE SINCE THE FIRST EMPIRE. By James M.\cdonell. Edited with Preface by his Wile. Crown Svo. \Sho)ily. Macarthur.— HISTORY OF SCOTLAND, By Margaret Macarthur. Being the Third Volume of the Historical Course for Schools, Edited by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. Second Edition. iSmo. 2s. ^^ It is an excelleftt summary, unimpeachable as io facts, and putting them in the clearest and most impartial light attainable." — Guardia.n. " No previous History oj Scotland of the same bulk is a7iything like so trustivorthy, or deserves to be so extensively used as a text-book.'^ — Globe. Macmillan (Rev. Hugh).— For other Works by same Author, see Theological and Scientific Catalogues. HOLIDAYS ON HIGH LANDS ; or. Rambles and Incidents in search of Alpine Plants. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Globe Svo. cloth, ds. ^^ Botanical knoxvledge is blended with a love of natuie, a pious en- thusiasm, and a, rich felicity of diction not to be met tvith in any works of kindred character, if zve except those of Hugh Miller." — TfiLEGRArit. Macready. — MACREADY'S REMINISCENCES AND SE. LECTIONS FROM HIS DIARIES AND LETTERS. Edited by Sir F. Pollock, Bait., one of his Executors. With Four Portraits engraved by Jeens. Nev.- and Cheaper Edition. Crown Svo. 7 J. 6d. " As a careful and for the most part fust estimate of the stage durino a very brilliant petiod, the attraction of these volumes can scarcely be surpassed. .... Readers 'who have no special interest in theatrical matters, but enfoy miscellaneous gossip, 'mil be allured from page to page, attracted by familiar names and bv observations upon popular actors and authors." — Spectator. Mahaffy. — Works by the Rev. J. P. Mahaffy, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin : — • SOCIAL LIFE IN GREECE FROM PIOMER TO MENAN- DER. Third Edition, revised and enlarged, with a new chapter on Greek Art. Crown Svo. 9--. " // should be in the hands of all -who desire thoroughly to understand and to enjoy Greek literature, ami to get an intelligent idea of the old Greek life, political, social, and religious." — Guardian. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 19 M ah a ff y . — continued. RAMBLES AND STUDIES IN GREECE. With Illustrations. Crown Svo. \os. 6d. New and enlarged Edition, with Map and Illustrations. "A sinqutai^y instructive and agreeable volume." — Athen/EUM. ♦' Maori." — SPORT and WORK ON THE NEPAUL FRON- TIER ; or, Twelve Years' Sporting Reminiscences of an Indigo Planter. By "Maori." With Illustrations. Svo, i^. " Every day's advent uj-es, zvith all the joys and perils of the chase, are told as only a keen and cunning sportsman can tell them." — Standard. Margary.— THE JOURNEY OF AUGUSTUS RAYMOND MARGARY FROM SHANGHAE TO BHAMO AND BACK TO MANWYNE. From his Journals and Letters, with a brief Biographical Preface, a concluding chapter by Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B., and a Steel Portrait engraved by Jeens, and Map. Svo. lOJ-. 6i/. " There is a manliness, a cheerful spirit, an inherent vigour whiek was never overcome by sickness or debility, a tact which conquered the prejudices of a strange and suspicious population, a quiet self-reliance, ahvays combined zuith deep religious feeling, unalloyed by either priggish- ness, cant, or superstition, that ought to cojnmend this volume to readers sittuig quietly at home who feel any pride in the high estimation accorded to men of their race at Yarkand or at Khiva, in the heart of Africa, or on the shores of Lake Seri-hul."—S.\TV kvay Review. Markham. — NORTHWARD no: By Captain Albert H. MARKH.\>r, R.N., Author of "The Great Frozen Sea," &c. Including a Narrative of Captain Phipps's Expedition, by a Mid- shipman. With Illustrations. Crown Svo. 10s. 6d. " Captain Markha)ii' s interesting volume has the advantage of being ivritten by a man who is practically conversant with the subject." — Pali, Mall Gazette. Martin.— THE HISTORY OF LLOYD'S, AND OF MARINE INSURANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN. With an Appendix containing Statistics relating to Marine Insurance. By Frederick Martin, Author of " The Statesman's Year Book." Svo. i^s. Martineau. — biographical sketches, 1852— 1875. By Harriet Martineau. With Additional Sketches, and Auto- biographical Sketch. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo. 6j-. MaSSOn (David).— For other Works by same Author, see Philo- sophical and Bf.lles I.kttres Catalogues. 20 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Masson (David). — continued. CHATTERTON : A Story of the Vear 1770. By David Masson, LL. D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. Crown 8vo. 5^. THE THREE DEVILS : Luther's, Goethe's, and iClilton's ; and other Essays. Crown Svo. ^s. WORDSWORTH, SHELLEY, AND KEATS; and other Essays. Crown 8vo. ^s. Mathews.— LIFE OF CHARLES J. MATHEWS, Chiefly AutobiographicaL With Selections from his Correspondence and Speeches. Edited by Charles Dickens. " Oni of the phasanteit and iiust readable books of the season. From first to last these i7ao volumes are alive with the inimi'able artist and comedian. . . . The whole book is full of life, vigour, and wit, and even through some of the gloomy episodes of volume ixvo, will repay most careful study. So complete, so varied a picture of a mans life is rarely to be met with.^' — Standard. Maurice. — the FRIENDSHIP OF BOOKS; AND OTHER LECTURES. By the Rev. F. D. Maurice. Edited with Pre- face, by Thomas Hughes, Q.C. Cio\ra 8vo. los. dd. Mayor (J. E. B.)— works edited by John E. B. Mayor, M.A., Kennedy Professor of Latin at Cambridge : — CAMBRIDGE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Part IL Autobiography of Matthew Robinson. Fcap. Svo. 5^. dd. LIFE OF BISHOP BEDELL. By his Son. Fcap. Svo. 35. dd. Melbourne. — memoirs OF the rt. HON. william, SECOND VISCOUNT MELBOURNE. By W. M. Torrens, M.P. With Portrait after Sir. T. LawTence. Second Edition. 2 Vols. Svo. 32J. " As might be expected, he has produced a book which will command and reward attention. It contains a great deal of valuable matter and a great deal of animated, elegant 7i/riting."—QVAKTERl.Y Review. Mendelssohn.— LETTERS and recollections. By Ferdinand Hiller. Translated by M. E. Von Glehn. With Portrait from a Drawing by Karl Muller, never before pub- lished. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 7^. 6d. " This is a very interesting addition to our knoivledge of the great German composer. It reveals him to us under a new light, as the rvarm- hearted comrade, the musician whose soul was in his work, and the home- loving, domestic man." — STANDARD. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 21 Merewether.— BY SEA AND BY LAND. Being a Trip through Egypt, India, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, and America — all Round the World. By Henry Alworth Mere- wether, one of Her Majesty's Counsel. Crown 8vo. 8^^. bii. Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; Sculptor, Painter, Architect. The Story of his Life and Labours. By C. C. Black, M.A. Illustrated by 20 Permanent Photographs. Royal 8vo. cloth elegant, 3[j'. 6d. " The story of Michael Aiigelo s life remains intei-esting 7vhafer'cr be the manner of telling it, and supported as it is by this beautiful series of photo- graphs, the volume must take rank anwfig the most splendid of Christmas books, fitted to serve and to outlive the season." — Pall Mall Gazette. Michelet— A SUMMARY OF MODERN HISTORY. Trans- lated from the French of M. MiCHELET, and continued to the present time by M. C. M. Simpson. Globe 8vo. 4^. 6a. Milton. — LIFE OF JOHN MILTON. Narrated in connection with the Political, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History of his Time. By David Masson, M.A., LL. D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in the University of Edinburgh. With Portraits. Vol. L I'is. Vol. IL, 1638— 1643. 8vo. i6j-. Vol. IIL 1643 — 1649. 8vo. i8j-. Vols. IV. and V. 1649— 1660. 32 j. Vol. VI. concluding the work in the press. This work is not only a Biography, but also a cofitintious Political, Eccle- siastical, and Literary History oj England through Milton's whole time. Mitford (A. B.)— tales OF OLD japan. By A. B. MlTKORD, Second Secretary to the Bntish Legation in Japan. With upwards of 30 Illustrations, drawn and cut on Wood by Japanese Artists. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. " I hese very original volumes will always be interesting as tneinorials of a most exceptioncd societv, tvhile regarded simply as (ales, they are sparkling, sensational, and dramatic." — Pall Mall Gazette. Monteiro. — ANGOLA AND THE RIVER CONGO. By Joachim Monteiro. With numerous Illustrations from Sketches taken on the spot, and a Map. Two Vols, crown 8vo. 2iJ-. Morison. — THE LIFE AND TIMES OF SAINT BERNARD, Abbot of Clairvaux. By James Cotter Morison, M.A. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. Moseley. — notes by a naturalist on the chal- I.ENGER : being an Account of various Observations made during the Voyr.ge of II. M.S. Challenger, Round the World, 22 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN in 1872-76. By H. N. MoSELEY, F.R.S., Member of the ScieiUific Staff of the Challenger. 8vo. with Maps, Coloured Plates, and Woodcuts. 215. " This is certainly the most interesting and sugge.tive book, descriptive of a naturalist's travels, ivhich has been publishtd since Mr. Darwin's 'Journal of Researches ' appeared, more than forty years ago." — NATURE. " IVe cannot point to any book of travels in our day more vivid in its powers of description, more varied in its subject nuxtttr, or more attractive to every educated reader."— Satvrvay Review. Murray. — round ABOUT FRANCE. By E. C. Grenville Murray. Crown 8vo. "js. 6d. " These short essays area perfect mine of information as to the present condition atui future prospects of political parties in France. . . . It is at once extremely interesting and exceptionally instructive on a subject on 'cuhieh feu> Etiglish people are 7vell informed." — SCOTSMAN. Napier.— macvey napier's selected corre- spondence. Edited by his Son, Macvey Napier. 8vo. 145. The Times says : — •'// is replete with useful material for the bio- graphers of many distinguislied writers of tlie generation which is passing away. Since reading it we understand several notrworthy men, and Brougham in particular, far better than we did before." " It would be useless to attempt within our present limits to give any adequate idea of the abundance of interesting passages which meet us i)i the letters of Macaiilay, Brougham, Carlyle, Jeffrey, Senior, and many other well-knotvn turiteis. Especially piqtiant are Jeffreys periodical criticisms on the contents oj the Bevie7ii -which he hai formerly edited."— VAhi. Mali, Gazette. Napoleon. — the history of napoleon l By r. Lanfrey. a Translation with the sanction of the Author. 4 vols. 8vo. Vols. I. II. and III. price 125. each. Vol. IV. 6s. The Pall Mall Gazette savs it is " one of the most striking pieces of historical composition of zvhich France has to boast, " and the Saturday Review calls it '^an excellent translation of a work on every ground deserving to be translated. It is unquestionably ajtd immeasurably the best that has been produced. It is in pact the only work to which 'we can turn for an accurate and trustworthy nar7-ative of that extraordinary career. . . . The book is the best and ittdeed the only trustworthy history of Napoleon which has been written." Nichol. — TABLES OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE AND history, a.d. 200—1876. By J. Nichol, LL.D., Professor of English Language and Literature, Glasgow. 4to. 6^. 6r/. TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY, B.C. 1500 — A. P. 200. By the same .Autliur. 410. 4% 6d. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 23 Nordenskiold's Arctic Voyages, 1858-79. — wiih Maps and numerous Illustrations. 8vo. ids. " A volume of great iiilercst and iniich scientific vahie." — Naturi:. Oliphant (Mrs.).— THE MAKERS OF Florence : Dante Giotto, Savonarola, and their City. By Mrs. Oliphant. With numerous Illustrations from drawings by Professor Delamotte, and portrait of Savonarola, engraved by Jeens. Second Edition. Medium 8vo. Cloth extra. 2\s. " We are grateful io Mrs. Oliphant for her eloquent and leautifnl sketches of Dante, Fra Angelica, and Savonarola. They are fi-ctnresque, full of life, and -rich in detail, and they are charmingly illustrated by the art of the engraver." — SPECTATOR. Oliphant.— THE DUKE AND THE SCHOLAR; and other Essays. By T. L. Kington Oliphant, 8vo. 7^-. dd. " This volume contains one of the most beajtlifd biographical essavs we have seen since Macaulafs days." — Standard. Otte.— SCANDINAVIAN HISTORY. By E. C. Otte. With Maps.' Extra fcap. 8vo. ds. Owens College Essays and Addresses. — By Pro- FESSORS AND LECTURERS OF OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER. Published in Commemoration of the Opening of the New College Buildings, October 7th, 1873. 8vo. 145. Palgrave (R. F. D,)— THE HOUSE OF COMMONS ; Illustrations of its History and Practice. By Reginald F. D. Palgrave, Clerk Assistant of the House of Commons. New and Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. Palgrave (Sir F.) — HISTORY OF NORMANDY AND OF ENGLAND. By Sir Francis Palgrave, Deputy Keeper of Her Majesty's Public Records. Completing the History to the Death of William P.ufus. 4 Vols. 8vo. 4/. 4f. Palgrave (W. G.)— a NARRATIVE of a year's JOURNEY THROUGH CENTRAL AND EASTERN ARABIA, 1862-3. By William Gifford Palgrave, late of the Eighth Regiment Bombay N. I. Sixth Edition. With Maps, Plans, and Portrait of Author, engraved on steel by Jeens. Crown 8vo. 6^. " He has not only written one of the best books on the Arabs and one of the best books on Arabia, but he has done so in a manner that must command the respect no less than the admiration of his fellow-country- men." —Y uKVUlGHn.Y Review. 2\ MACMILLAX'S CATALOGUE OP WORKS IN 'PBXgVdiVQ..— continued. ESSAYS ON EASTERN QUESTIONS. By W. Gifford Palgrave. 8vo. ioj. 6(/. " These essays are full of aneedote and interest. The book is decidedly a valuable addition to the stock of literature on -which men inusi base their opinion of the difficult social and political problems sug- gested by the designs of Russia, the capacity of Mahometans jor soz'ereignty, a?td the good governi?ient and retention of India." — Saturi'ay Review, DUTCH GUIANA. With Maps and Plans. 8vo. 9^. "i%- pages are nearly exhaustive as far as facts and statistics go, while they' are lightened by graphic social sketches as -well as sparkling descriptions of scenery.''^ — Saturday Review. Patteson.— LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOHN COLERIDGE PATTESON, D. D., Missionary Bishop of the Melanesian Islands. By Charlotte M. Yonge, Author of " The Heir of Redclyffe." With Portraits after Richmond and from Photograph, engraved by Jeens. With Map. Fifth Edition. Two Vols. Crown 8vo. \2s. *^ Miss Yonge' s work is in one respect a model biography. 'It is made up almost entirely of Patteson' s aiun letters. Aware that he had left his home once and Jor all, his correspondence took the form of a diary, ana as we read on rve come to knaiv the man, and to love hi?n almost as if we had seen him." — Athen^UM. ''Such a life, -with its grand lessons oj unselfishness, is a blessing and an honour to the age in which it is Uvea ; the bwgraphy cannot be studied without pleasure and profit, and iiuleed we should think little of the man who did not rise from the study of %t better and wiser. Neither the Church nor the nation which produas such sons need ever despair of Us future." — SATURDAY Review. Pauli. — PICTURES OF OLD ENGLAND. By Dr. Reinhold Pauli. Translated, with the approval of the Author, by E. C. Otte. Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. (>s. Payne. — a HISTORY OF EUROPEAN COLONIES. By E. J. Payne, M.A. With Maps. i8mo. 4;. dd. The Times says: — " IVe have seldom met with a historian capable oj forming a more comprehensive. Jar-seeing, and unprejudiced estimate oJ events and peoples, a7id we can commend this little ivork as one certain to prove of the highest interest to all thoughtful readers." Persia. — eastern Persia. An Account of the Journeys of the Persian Boundary Commission, 1870-I-2. — Vol. I. The Geo- graphy, with Narratives by Majors St. John, Lovett, and Euan Smith, and an Introduction by Major-General Sir Frederic GoLDSMiD, C.B., K.C.S.I., British Commissioner and Arbitrator. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 25 With Maps and Illustrations. — Vol. 11. The Zoology and Geoloey. By_W. T. Bi.ANFORD, A.R.S.M., F.R.S. With Coloured Illus- trations. Two Vols. 8vo. 421. " 77^1? volumes largely increase our store oj information about countries with which Ens^lishmejt ought to be familiar They throiu into the shade all that hitherto has appeared in our tongue respecting the local features of Persia, its scenery, its resources, even its social condition. Thev contain also abundant evidence of English endurance, dating, and spirit." — Times. Prichard. — the administration of INDIA. From 1859 to 1868. The First Ten Years of Administration under the Crown. By T. T. Prichard, Barrister-at-Law. Two Vols. Demy 8vo. With Map. 21^. Raphael. — RAPHAEL OF URBINO AND HIS FATHER GIOVANNI SANTT. By J. D. Passavant, formerly Director of the Museum at Frankfort. With Twenty Permanent Photo- graphs. Royal 8vo. Handsomely bound. 31^. 6d. The Saturday Review says of them, " IVe have seen not a ftu elegant specimens of Mr. Woodbury s neiu process, but we have seen none that equal these." Reynolds.— SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS AS A PORTRAIT PAINTER. AN ESSAY. By j. Churton Collins, B.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Illustrated by a Series of Portraits of distingiushed Beauties of the Court of George III. ; reproduced in Autotype from Proof Impressions of the celelirated Engravings, by Valentine Green, Thomas Watson, F. R. Smith, E. Fisher, and others. Folio half-m.orocco. £^ 5^. Rogers (James E. Thorold). — HISTORICAL GLEAN- INGS : A Series of Sketches. Montague, Walpole, Adam Smith, Cobbett. By Prof. Rogers. Crown 8vo. ^. 6d. Second Series. Wiklif, Laud, Wilkes, and Home Tooke. Crown 8vo. 6s. Routledge.— CHAPTERS IN THE HISTORY OF POPULAR PROGRESS IN ENGLAND, chiefly in Relation to the Freedom of the Press and Trial by Jury, 1660 — 1820. With application to later years. By J. Routledge. 8vo. i6s. " The volume abounds in facts and information, almost always useful and often curiotisT — Times. Rumford. — COUNT RUMFORD'S COMPLETE WORKS, with Memoir, and Notices of his Daughter. By George Ellis. Five Vols. 8vo. 4/. 14^. 6- characters as true as the recollec- tions of the faces brought back by the two excellent portraits which adorn the book ; while to those who kneiu them not, we commend it as containing the record of tico noble Christian lives, which it will be a pleasure to them to contcmti^ate and an advantage to emulafe." — Times. Thomas. — the life of JOHN THOMAS, Surgeon of the "Earl of Oxford" East Indiaman, and First Baptist Missionai^ to Bengal. By C. B. Lewis, Baptist Missionary. 8vo. loj-. 6d. Thompson. — HISTORY OF ENGLAND, By Edith Thomp- son. Being Vol. II. of the Historical Course for Schools, Edited by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. New Edition, revised and enlarged, with Maps. i8mo, 2s, 6d. '^ Treedom f-om prejudice, simplicity of style, and accuracy of state- ment, are the charactti-istics of this volume. Ic is a trustworthy text-book, and likely to be generally serviceable in schools." — PALL Mall Gazette. " In its great accuracy and correctness of detail it stands far ahead of the general run of school man?mls. Its arrangeme7it, too, is clear, and its style simple and straightjonvai'd." — Saturday Review. Todhunter. — the conflict OF studies ; and OTPIER essays ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH EDUCATION. By Isaac Todhunter, M.A., F.R.S., late Fellow and Principal Mathematical Lecturer 01 St. John's College, Cambridge. 8vo. lOJ'. 6d. Trench (Archbishop).— For other Works by the same Author, see Theological and Belles Lettres Catalogues, and page 30 of this Catalogue. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS IN GERMANY, and other Lectures on the Thirty Years' War. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Fcap. 8vo. 4^. PLUTARCH, HIS LIFE, HIS LIVES, AND HIS MORALS. Five Lectures. Second Edition, enlarged. Fcap. 8vo. y. dd. LECTURES ON MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. Being the substance of Lectures delivered in Queen's College, London. Second Edition, revised. 8vo. I2j. 28 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Trench (Maria).— the life OF ST. TERESA. By Maria Trench. With Portrait engraved by Jeens. Crown 8vo, cloth extra. %s. 6ii. " A book of rare interest." — John Bull. Trench (Mrs. R.)— REMAINS OF THE LATE MRS. RICHARD TRENCH. Being Selections from her Journals, Letters, and other Papers. Edited by Archbishop Trench. New and Cheaper Issue, with Portrait. 8vo. ds. Trollope. — a history of the COMMONWEALTH OF FLORENCE FROM TPIE EARLIEST INDEPENDENCE OF THE COMMUNE TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC IN 183 1, By T. Adolphus Trollope. 4 Vols. 8vo. Half morocco. 21s, Uppingham by the Sea.— a narrative OF THE YEAR AT BORTH. By J. H. S. Crown 8vo. y. 6s. 6d. Whewell. — WILLIAM WHEWELL, D.D., late Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. An Account of his Writings, with Selections from his Literary and Scientific Correspondence. By I. ToDHUNTER, M.A., F.R.S. Two Vols. Svo. 25^. White. — THE NATURAL HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF SELBORNE. By (iiLBEKT White. Edited, with Memoir and Notes, by Frank Buckland, A Chapter on Antiquities by Lord Selborne, Map, &c., and numerous Illustrations by P. H. Delamotte. Royal Svo. Cloth, extra gilt. Cheaper Issue. 2is. Also a Large Paper Edition, containing, in addition to the above, upwards of Thirty Woodburytype Illustrations from Drawing-j bv Prof. Delamotte. Two Vols. 4to. Half morocco, elegant. 4/. 4^. " ikr. Delamoltis charming illustrations are a worthy decoration of so dainty a book. They bring Selborne before us, and really help us to understand why White's love for his native place ncver grew cold." — Times. Wilson.— A MEMOIR OF GEORGE WILSON, M. D., F.R.S. E., Regius Professor of Technology in the University of Edinburgh. By his Sister. New Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. Wilson (Daniel, LL.D.) — Works by Daniel Wilson, LL.D., Professor of History and English Literature in University College, Toronto : — PREHISTORIC ANNALS OF SCOTLAND. New Edition, with numerous Illustrations. Two Vols, demy Svo. 36.?. " One of the most interesting, learned, and elegant works we have seen for a long time."— ^'^?>Tyi.itiS-VKK K-E-Vi-E-W. PREHISTORIC MAN : Researches into the Origin of Civilization in the Old and New World. New Edition, revised and enlarged throughout, with numerous Illustrations and two Coloured Plates. Two Vols. Svo. Z^s. 30 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF Wilson. — contiiuicd. "A valuable work pleasatitly wriltfii and wdl worthy of attention both by students and general readers." — Academy. CHATTERTON : A Biographical Sludy. By Daniel Wilson, LL. D., Professor of History and English Literature in University College, Toronto. Crown 8vo. 6s. bd. Yonge (Charlotte M.)— Works by Charlotte M. Yonge, Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe," &c., &c. : — A PARALLEL HISTORY OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND : consisting of Outlines and Dates. Oblong 4to. 3j-. 6d. CAMEOS FROM ENGLISH HISTORY. From Rollo to Edward II, Extra fcap. 8vo. Third Edition. 5^. Second Series, THE WARS IN FRANCE. Extra fcap. 8vo. Third Edition. 5^. Third Series, THE WARS OF THE ROSES. Extra fcap. 8vo. 5^. '■^Instead of dry details," says the NoNCOts'FORMlST, " we have living pictures, faithful, zwvid, and striking." Fourth Series. Reformation Times. Extra fcap. Svo. 5^'. HISTORY OF FRANCE, Maps. i8mo. y.6J. \_Historieal Course for Schools. WORKS IN POLITICS, ETC. 31 POLITICS, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ECONOMY, LAW, AND KINDRED SUBJECTS. Anglo-Saxon Law.— essays in. Contents : Law Courts —Land and Family Laws and Legal Procedure generally. With Select cases. Medium 8vo. iSj. Arnold.— THE ROMAN SYSTEM OF PROVINCIAL ADMIN- ISTRATION TO THE ACCESSION OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. Being the Arnold Prize Essay for 1S79. By W. T. Arnold, B.A. Crown 8vo. (>s. Ball.— THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE BAR. By Walter W, Ball, M.A., of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at- Law. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. " The student will here find a clca?- statement 0/ the several steps by luhich the degree of barrister is obtained, and also usejul advice about the advantages of a prolonged course of ''reading in Chambers.'" — Academy. Bernard.- FOUR lectures on subjects connected WITH DIPLOMACY. By Montague Bernard, M.A., Chichele Professor of International Law and Diplomacy, Oxford. Svo. 9J-. '■'■Singularly interesting lectures, so able, clear, and attractive." — Spec- tator. Bright (John, M.P.)— Works by the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P, speeches on questions OF PUBLIC POLICY. Edited by Professor Thorold Rogers. Author's Popular Edition. Globe Svo. 3^'. 6d. "Mr. B right's speeches will always deserve to be studied, as an apprenticeship to popular and parliamentarv oratory ; they will form materials for the history of our time, and tnany brilliant passages, perhaps some entire speeches, 7vill really become a part of the liinnq litera- ture of England." — Daily News. LIBRARY EDITION. Two Vols. Svo. With Portrait, 2%s. PUBLIC ADDRESSES. Edited by J. Thokolu Rogers. Svo. 32 MACMILLAISPS CATALOGUE OF Bucknill, — HABITUAL DRUNKENNESS AND INSANE DRUNKARDS. By J. C. Bucknill, M.D., F.R.S., late Lord Chancellor's Visitor of Lunatics. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. CairneS. — Works by T- E. Cairnes, M. A., Emeritus Professor ot Political Economy in University College, London. ESSAYS IN POLITICAL ECONOMY, THEORETICAL and APPLIED. By J. E. Cairnes, M.A., Proiessor of Political Economy in University College, London. 8vo. los. 6d. POLITICAL ESSAYS. 8vo. los. U. SOME LEADING PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY NEWLY EXPOUNDED. 8vo. 14^. Contents : — Part I. Value. Part II. Labour and Capital. Part HI. International Trade. " A work which is perhaps the most valuable contribution to the science made since the publication, a quarter of a century since, of Mr. AliiPs ' Principles of Political Economv' " — DAILY News. THE CHARACTER AND LOGICAL METHOD OF POLI- TICAL ECONOMY. New Edition, enlarged. 8vo. Js. 6d " These lectures are admirably fitted to correct the slipshod generahza- tions which pass current as the science of Political Economy'' — TiMES. Cobden (Richard). — SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF PUBLIC POLICY. By Richard Cobden. Edited by the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P.; and J. E. Thorold Rogers. Popular Edition. 8vo. 3^. dd. Fawcett. — ^Vorks by Henry Fawcett, M.A., M.P., Fellow of Trinity Hall, and Professor of Political Economy in the University of Cambridge : — THE ECONOMIC POSITION OF THE BRITISH LABOURER. Extra fcap. 8vo. 5^. MANUAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. Fifth Edition, with New Chapters on the Depreciation of Silver, etc. Crown 8vo. 1 2 J. The Daily News says: "It forms one of the best introductions to the principles of the science, and to its practical applications in the problems of modern, and especially of English, government and society." PAUPERISM : ITS CAUSES AND REMEDIES. Crown 8vo. 5J-. 6d. The Athen^UM calls the work "a repertory of interesting and well digested infor7nation." SPEECHES ON SOME CURRENT POLITICAL QUES- TIONS. 8vo. \os. 6d. " They will kelp to educate, not perhaps, parties, hut the educators of parties." — Daily News. WORKS IN POLI TICS, ETC. 33 Fa W Ce 1 1 . — continued. FREE TRADE AND PROTECTION: an Inquiry into the Causes which have retarded the general adoption of Free Trade since its introduction into England. Third Edition. 8vo. 7^. Sd. *' No greater sei-vice can be rendered to the cause of Free Trade than a dear explanation of the principles on which Free Trade- rests. Pro- fessor Fawcett has done this in the volume before us with all his habitual clearness of thought and expressioti." — Economist. ESSAYS ON POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SUBJECTS. By Professor Fawcett, M.P., and Millicent Garrett Fawcett. 8vo. ioj. 6d. " They will all repay the perusal of the thinking reader." — Daily News. Fawcett (Mrs.) — Works by Millicent Garrett Fawcett. POLITICAL ECONOMY FOR BEGINNERS. WITH QUES- TIONS. New Edition. i8mo. 2s. 6d. Tlie Daily News calls it ^'clear, compact, and comprehensive ;" and the Spectator says, ^^Mrs. Fawcett" s treatise is perfectly suited to its purpose." TALES IN POLITICAL ECONOMY. Crown Svo. 3J-. " The idea is a good one, and it is quite womierjul ivhat a mass of economic teaching the author manages to compress into a small space... The true doctrines of International Ttade, Currency, and the ratio between Prcduction and Population, are set before us and illustrated in a masterly vianncr." — Athen^um. Freeman (E. A.), M.A., D.C.L.— comparative POLITICS. Lectures at the Royal Institution, to which is added " The Unity of History," being the Rede Lecture delivered at Cambridge in 1872. Svo. 14^. " We find in Mr. Freeman'' s neiu voluvie the same sound, careful, comprehensive qucdilies -which have long ago raised him to so high a place amongst historical ivriters. For historical discipline, then, as well as historical information. Air. FreematHs book is full of value," — Pall Mall Gazette. Goschen. — REPORTS and speeches on local taxa. TION. By George J. Goschen, M. P. Royal Svo. 55. " The volume contains a vast viass of information of the highest value." — ATHEN/EUM. Guide to the Unprotected, in Every Day Matters Re- lating to Property and Income. By a Banker's Daughter. Fourth Edition, Revised. Extra fcap. Svo. 3J-. dd, c 34 xMAC MILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF "Many an unprotected female will bless the head which planned and the hand which compiled this admirable little manual. . . . This booh 7c'as veiy much wanted, and it could not have been better done." — Morning Star. Hamilton. — money and value : an Inquiry into the Means and Ends of Economic Production, with an Appendix on the Depreciation of Silver and Indian Currency. By Rowland Hamilton. 8vo. 12s. " The subject is here dealt with in a luminotts style, and by presentino it from a new point of vieiv in connection with the nature and functions of mo7iey, a genuine serz'ice has been rendered to commercial science.^' — British Quarterly Review. HarwOOd. — DISESTABLISHMENT : a Defence of the Principle of a National Church. By George Harwood, M.A. 8vo. 12s. Hiil. — OUR COMMON LAND : and other Short Essays. By OCTAVIA Hill, Extra fcap. 8vo. 3^. 6^/. .1 Contents : — Our Common Land. Dist7-i^t Visiting. A More Excellent Way of Cfiarity. A Word on Good Citizenship. Open Spaces. Lffectual Charity. The Future of our Commons. Historicus. — LETTERS ON SOME QUESTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. Reprinted from the Times, with considerable Additions. 8vo. "js.'Od. Also, ADDITIONAL LETTERS. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Holland.— THE treaty relations of RUSSIA AND TURKEY FROM 1774 TO 1853. A Lecture dehvered at Oxford, April 1877. By T. E. Holland, D.C.L., Professor of Inter- national Law and Diplomacy, Oxford. Crown 8vo. 2s. Hughes (Thos.)— THE OLD CHURCH : WHAT SHALL WE DO WITH IT? By Thomas Hughes, Q.C. Crown 8vo. 6s. Jcvons. — Works by W. Stanley Jevons, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in University College, London. (For other Works by the same Author, see Educational and Philo- sophical Catalogues.) THE THEORY OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. Second Edition, revised, wdth new Preface and Appendices. 8vo. los. 6d. ' 'Professor Jnions has done in7'aluable serz'ice by courageously claiming political econorny to be strictly a branch of Applied Mathematics." — Westminster Review. PRIMER OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. i8mo. \s. WORKS IN POLITICS, ETC. 35 Laveleye. — primitive property. By Emile de Laveleye. Translated by G. R. L. Marriott, LL. B., with an Introduction by T. E. Cliffe Leslie, LL.B. 8vo. I2r. " It is almost impossible to over-estimate the value of the ■wcU-digi sted knowledge which it cotUains ; it is one of the most learned books that have been contributed to the historical department of the literature oj economic science.'''' — Athen^um. Leading Cases done into English. By an Apprentice OF Lincoln's Inn. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. ' ' I/ere is a rare treat for the lovers of quaint conceits, luho in reading this charming little book will find enjoyment in the varied metre and graphic language in zvhich the several tales are told, no less than in the accurate and pithy rendering of some of our most familiar ' Leading Cases.' " — Saturday Review, Lubbock. — ADDRESSES, POLITICAL AND EDUCA- TIONAL. By Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., &c., &c. 8vo, pp. 209. Ss. bd. The ten speeches given are (i) on the Imperial Policy of Great Britain, (2) on the Bank Act of 1844, (3) on the Present System of Public School Education, 1876, (4) on the Present System of Elementary Education, (5) on the Income Tax, (6) on the National Debt, (7) on the Declaration of Paris, (8) on Marine Insurances, (9) on the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, and (10) on Egypt. Macdonell.— THE LAND QUESTION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. By John Macdonell, Barrister-at-Law. 8vo. \os. Gd. Marshall. — the economics of industry. By A. Marshall, M.A., Principal of University College, Bristol, and Mary Paley Marshall, late Lecturer at Newnham Hall, Cambridge. Extra fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Martin.— the STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK: A Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the Civilized ^Vorld, for the year 1880. By Frederick Martin. Seventeenth Annual Publication. Revised after Official Returns. Crown 8vo. los. 6d. The Statesnian' s Year-Book is the only -work in the English language which furnishes a clear and concise account of the actual cotidition of all the States of Europe, the civilized countries of Amei-ica, Asia, and Africa, and the British Colofiies and Dependencies in all parts of the Ivor Id. The new issue of the work has been rezised and corrected, on the basis of official reports received direct from the heads of the leading Govern- ments of the world, in reply to letters sent to them by the Editor. Through the vahtablc assistance thus given, it has been possible to collect an amount ■ 36 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF of information, political, statistical, and conunercial, of the latest date, and of unimpeachable trustworthiness, such as no publication of the same kind has ever been able to furnish. ^'As indispensable as Bradshaw." — Times. Monahan. — the method of LAW: an Essay on the Statement an:l Arrangement of the Legal Standard of Conduct. IJy J. H. Monahan, Q.C. Crown 8vo. 6s. " ll^ill be found valuable by careful law studen's 'who have felt the importance of gaining clear ideas regarding the relations betiveen the parts of the complex organism they have to study." — BRITISH QUARTERLY Review. Paterson. — the liberty of the subject and the LAWS OF ENGLAND RELATING TO THE SECURITY OF THE PERSON. Conmientaries on. By James Paterson, M.A. , Barrister at Law, sometime Commissioner for English and Irish Fisheries, etc. Cheaper issue. Two Vols. Crown 8vo. 2\s. ' ' J wo or three houj's' dipping into these volumes, not' to say reading them through, will give legislators and stump orators a knoivledge of the liberty of a citizen of their country, in its principles, its fulness, and its modi- fication, such as they probably hi nine cases out of ten never had before." — Scotsman. Phillimore. — private law among the Romans, from the Pandects. By John George Phillimore, Q.C. 8vo. i6.r. Rogers.— COBDEN and political opinion. By J. E. Thorolp Rogers. 8vo. ioj-. 6d. " Will be found most useful by politicians of every school, as it forms a sort of handbook to Cobden's teaching." — Athen.-eum. Stephen (C. E.)— the service of the poor; Being an Inquiry into the Reasons for and against the Establish- ment of Religious Sisterhoods for Charitable Purposes. By Caroline Emilia Stephen. Crown 8vo. 6j-. 6d. * ' The ablest advocate of a better line of work in this direction that we have ever seen." — Examiner. Stephen.— W^orks by Sir James F. Stephen, K.C.S.I., Q.C. A DIGEST OF THE LAW OF EVIDENCE. Third Edition with New Preface. Crown 8vo. 6j. A DIGEST OF THE CRIMINAL LAW, (Crimes and Punishments.) 8vo. lbs. " l-Ve feel sure that any person of ordinary intelligence who had never looked into a laiv-book in his life might, by a fetv days' careful study of WORKS IN POLITICS, ETC. 37 Stephen. — condnncd. this volume, obtain a viore accurate tindcrstanding oj the criminal laju, a vtore pei-fect conception of its diffei-ent bearings, a more thorough and intelligent insight into its snares and pitfalls, than an ordinary practitioner can boast of after years of study of the ordinary text- books and practical experience of the Courts unassisted by any competent guide." — Saturday Review. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE CRIMINAL LAW OF ENG- LAND. Two Vols. Crown 8vo. \_IVew edition in the press, Stubbs.— VILLAGE POLITICS. Addresses and Sermons on the Labour Question. By C. W. Stubrs, M.A., Vicar of Granborough, Bucks. Extra fcap. 8vo. 3^. dd. Thornton. — Works by W. T. Thornton, C.B., Secretary for Public Works in the India Office : — ON LABOUR: Its V/rongful Claims and Rightful Dues; Its Actual Present and Possible Future. Second Edition, revised, 8vo. I4r. A PLEA FOR PEASANT PROPRIETORS : With the Outlines of a Plan for their Establishment in Ireland. New Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 7^-. (yd. INDIAN PUBLIC WORKS AND COGNATE INDIAN TOPICS. With Map of Indian Railways. Crown 8vo. 8j. 6^. Walker. — Works by F. A. Walker, M.A,, Ph.D., Professor of Political Economy and History, Yale College : — THE WAGES QUESTION. A Treatise on Wages and the Wages Class. 8vo. \\s. MONEY. 8vo. 165, " It is painstaking, laborious, and states the question in a clear ana very intelligiljle form. . . . The volume possesses a great value as a sort of encyclopctdia of knowledge on the subject T — ECONOMIST. MONEY IN ITS RELATIONS TO TRADE AND INDUSTRY. Crown 8vo. \Shortly, Work about the Five Dials. With an Introductory Note by Thomas Carlyle. Crown 8vo. 6j-. 'M book%vhich abounds with wise and practical suggestions!'' — Pall Mall Gazette. 38 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKSCONNECTED WITH THE SCIENCE OR THE HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. Abbott.— A SIIAKESPERIAN GRAMMAR: An Attempt to illustrate some of the Differences between Elizabethan and Modem English. By the Rev. E. A. Abbott, D.U., Head Master of the City of London School. New and Enlarged Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6^. ^'■Valuable not only as an aid to the critical study of Shakespeart, but as tending to familiarize the reader with Elizabethan English in general. " — Athen^UM. Breymann. — a FRENCH GRAMMAR BASED ON PHILO- LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. By Hermann Breymann, Ph.D., Professor of Philology in the University of Munich late Lecturer on French Language and Literature at Owens College, Man- Chester. Extra fcap. 8vo. 4^^. dd. Ellis.— PRACTICAL HINTS ON THE QUANTITATIVE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN, FOR THE USE OF CLASSICAL TEACHERS AND LINGUISTS. By A. J. Ellis, B.A., F.R.S., &c. Extra fcap. 8vo. 4^. bd. Fleay. — a SHAKESPEARE MANUAL. By the Rev. F. G. Fleay, M.A., Head Master of Skipton Grammar School. Extra fcap. 8vo. 4^. 6i/, Goodwin. — Works by W. W. Goodwin, Professor of Greek Literature in Harvard University. SYNTAX OF THE GREEK MOODS AND TENSES. New Edition. Crown 8vo. bs. 6d. AN ELEMENTARY GREEK GRAMMAR, Crown 8vo. 6s. " It is the best Grtek Grammar of its size in the English language." — AtHEN/EUM. Hadley. — essays philological and critical. Selected from the Papers of James Hadley, LL.D., Professor of Greek in Yale College, &c. 8vo. i6j-. Hales.— LONGER ENGLISH POEMS. With Notes, Philo- logical and Explanatory, and an Introduction on the Teaching of English. Chiefly for use in Schools. Edited by J. W. Hales, M.A., Professor of English Literature at King's College, London, &c. &c. Fifth Edition. Extra fcap. 8vo. \s dd. WORKS ON LANGUAGE. 39 Helfenstein (James).— a comparative grammar OF THE TEUTONIC LANGUAGES : Being at the same time a Historical Grammar of the English Language, and com- prising Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Early English, Modern English, Icelandic (Old Norse), Danish, Swedish, Old High German, Middle High German, Modem German, Old Saxon, Old Frisian, and Dutch. By James Helfenstein, Ph.D. 8vo. i8.f. Masson (Gustave).— a COMPENDIOUS dictionary OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE (French-English and English- French). Followed by a List of the Principal Diverging Deriva- tions, and preceded by Chronological and Historical Tables. By Gustave Masson, Assistant-Master and Librarian, Harrow School. Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. Half-bound. 6s. "A book ^vhich any student, whatever may be the degree of his ad- vancement in the la^is^uage, wotdd do well to have on the table close at hand while he is reading."— Saturday Review. Mayor.— A bibliographical clue to LATIN LITE- RATURE. Edited after Dr. E. Hubner. With large Additions by John E. B. Mayor, M.A., Professor of Latin in the Univer- sity of Cambridge. Crown Svo. 6^-. 6d. "An extremely useful volume that shoidd be in the hands of all scholars. " — Athen^um. Morris. — Works by the Rev. Richard Morris, LL.D., Member of the Council of the Philol. Soc, Lecturer on English Language and Literature in King's College School, Editor of " Specimens of Early English," etc., etc. : — HISTORICAL OUTLINES OF ENGLISH ACCIDENCE, comprising Chapters on the History and Development of the Language, and on Word-formation, Sixth Edition. Fcap. Svo. ds. ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN HISTORICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, containing Accidence and Word-formation. Third Edition. iSmo. 2s. 6d. Oliphant. — the OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH. By T. L. Kington Oliphant, M.A., of Balliol College, Oxford. A New Edition, revised and greatly enlarged, of " The Sources of Standard English." Extra fcap. Svo. gs. "Mr. Oliphant' s book is to our mind, one of the ablest and most scholarly contributions to our standard English we have seen for many jj/mrj-."— School Board Chronicle. "The book comes nearer to a history of the Engnsh language than anything we have seen since such a history could be written, without ccnjusion and contradictions^ — Saturday Review. 40 MACMILLAJVS CATALOGUE OF Peile (John, M.A.)— AN INTRODUCTION TO GREEK AND LATIN ETYMOLOGY. By John Peile, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, Third and revised Edition. Crown 8vo. los. 6d. "The book may be accepted as a very valuable cotttribution to the science of language." — Saturday Review. Philology. — THE JOURNAL OF SACRED AND CLAS- SICAL PHILOLOGY. Four Vols. 8vo, 12s. 6d. each. THE JOURNAL OF PHILOLOGY. New Series. Edited by John E. B. Mayor, M.A., and W. Aldis Wright, M.A. 4^^. 6d. (Half-yearly.) Roby (H. J.)— A GRAMMAR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE, FROM PLAUTUS TO SUETONIUS. By Henry John RoBY, M.A., late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. In Two Parts. Second Edition. Part I. containing : — Book I. Sounds. Book II. Inflexions. Book III. Word Formation. Ap- pendices. Crown 8vo. 8j. ()d. Part II. — Syntax, Prepositions, &c. Crown 8vo. ioj. 6d. "The book is marked by the clear and practical insight of a master in his art. It is a book zuhieh rvould do honour to any country. ^^ — Athen.^um. "Briitgs before the student in a methodical fortn the best results oj modern philology bearing on the Latin language. " — Scotsman. Schmidt. — the rythmic and metric of the CLASSICAL languages. To which are added, the Lyric Parts of the "Medea" of Euripides and the "Antigone" of Sophocles; ^ith Rhythmical Scheme and Commentary. By Dr. J. H. Schmidt. Translated from the German by J. W. White, D.D. Svo. los. 6d. Taylor. — Works by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, M.A.:— ETRUSCAN RESEARCHES. With Woodcuts. Svo. ij^. The Times says: — " The learning and industry displayed in this volume dese7~ue the most cordial recognition. The ultimate verdict of science zue shall not attempt to anticipate ; but we can sajely say this, that il is a learned book which the unlearned can enjoy, and that in the de- scriptions of the tomb-builders, as well as in the maniellous coi)tcidences and unexpected analogies brought together by the author, readers of every grade may take delight as well as philosophers and scholars." WORDS AND PLACES ; or. Etymological Illustrations of History, Ethnology, and Geography. By the Rev. Isaac Taylor. Third Edition, revised and compressed. With Maps. Globe 8vo. ts. GREEKS AND GOTHS : a Study on the Runes. Svo. 9^. WORKS ON LANGUAGE. 41 Trench. — Works by R. Chenevix Trench, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. (For other Works by the same Author, see Theological Catalogue.) SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Eighth Edition, enlarged. 8vo, cloth. 12s. "i% is," the Athen^UM says, "a guide in this department of kncnvledge to whom his readers may entrust themselves with confidence." ON THE STUDY OF WORDS. Lectures Addressed (originally) to the Pupils at the Diocesan Training School, Winchester. Seventeenth Edition, enlarged. Fcap. 8vo. 5^-. ENGLISH PAST AND PRESENT. Tenth Edition, revised and improved. Fcap. 8vo. ^s. A SELECT GLOSSARY OF ENGLISH WORDS USED FORMERLY IN SENSES DIFFERENT FROM THEIR PRESENT. Fifth Edition, enlarged. Fcap. 8vo. 5^. Vincent and Dickson.— a HANDBOOK TO MODERN GREEK. By Edgar Vincent and T. G. Dickson. Extra fcap. 8vo. 5j. Whitney.— A compendious German grammar. By W. D. Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit and Instructor in Modern Languages in Yale College. Crown 8vo. bs. "■^ After careful exa?)tination we are inclined to pronounce it the best oraminar of modern language we have ever seen." — SCOTSMAN. Whitney and Edgren. — a compendious German AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY, with Notation of Correspon- dences and Brief Etymologies. By Professor W. D. Whitney, assisted by A. H. Edgren. Crown Svo, 7^. 6d. The GERMAN-ENGLISH Part may he had separately. Price 5^-. 'onge — HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. By Char- lotte M. Yonge, Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe." Cheaper Edition. Two Vols. Crown Svo. 12s. Now publishing, in crown 8vo, price 2s. 6d, each. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS. Edited by JOHN MORLEY. A Series of Short Books to tell people what is best worth knowing to the Life, Character, and Works of some of the great English Writers. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.-JOHNSON. By Leslie STEPHEN. " The new series opens well with Mr. Leslie Stephen's sketch of Dr. Johnson. It could hardly have been done better, and it will convey to tlie readers for whom it is intended a juster estimate of Johnson than either of the two essays of Lord Macaulay." — FaU Mall Gazette ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— SCOTT. By R. H. Hutton. " The tone of the volume is excellect throughout." — Athemvum. " We could not wish for a more suggestive introduction to Scott and his poems and novels," — Exaniina-. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— GIBBON. By J. C. MOKISON. "As a clear, thoughtful, and attractive record of the life and works of the greatest among the world's historians, it deserves the highest praise. " — Examiner, ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS— SHELLEY. By J. A. SYMONDS. " The lovers of this great poet are to be congratulated on having at their command so fresh, clear, and intelligent a presentment of the subject, written by a man of adequate and wide culture." — Athenaum. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— HUME. By Professor HUXLEY. " It may fairly be said that no one now living could have expounded Hume with more sympathy or with equal perspicuity." — Athenajun. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS. — GOLDSMITH. By WILLIAM BLACK. "Mr. Black brings a fine sympathy and taste to bear in his criticism of Goldsmith's writings, as well as in his sketch of the incidents of his life." — Athenaum. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— DEFOE. By W. Minto. "Mr. Minto's book is careful and accurate in all that is stated, and faithful in all that it suggests. It will repay reading more than once." — AtJuruemn. ENGLISH MEN OF imm-Con^inued. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— BURNS. By Principal SHAIRP, Professor of Poetry in the University of Oxford. " It is impossible to desire fairer criticism than Principal Shairp's on Burns's poetry None of the series has given a truer estimate either of character or of genius than this little volume. . . . and all who read it will be thoroughly grateful to the author for this monument to the genius of Scotland's greatest poet." — Spectator. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.-SPENSER. By the Very Rev. the Dean of St. Paul's. " Dr. Church is master of his subject, and writes always with good taste. " — Academy, ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— THACKERAY. By ANTHONY TROLLOTE. "Mr. Trollope's sketch is exceedingly adapted to fulfil the purpose of the series in which it appears. " — Atkeiiceinn. ENGLISH MEN OF LETTERS.— BURKK By John MORLEY. ' ' Perhaps the best criticism yet published on the life and character of Burke is contained in Mr. Morley's compendious biography. His style is vigorous and polished, and both his political and personal judgment and his literary criticisms are just, generous, subtle, and in a high degree interestmg." — Sattirday Review. ytist ready. MILTON. By Mark Pattison. In frefai-atioji. HAWTHORNR By Henry James. SOUTHEY. By Professor DowDEN. CHAUCER. By Professor Ward. COWPER. By GoLDwiN Smith. BUNYAN. By J. A. Froude. WORDSWORTH. By F. W. H. Myers. Others in preparation. MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON, / * R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTESS. BREAD STREET KILL. 11 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ^ Kc NOV 26 1969 Form Ly-Sei'ies 444 •-^ V •f .,.s UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 037 592 3 l/f iM «,''v-,$?:i^::p>>|?T^?pi^-5-^^ 1