IfT'! 'xfc %hi UBRARY UNIVinsiTy OF CAUfttRNU % ' > \ Id + / J ,+Asvtil HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE REVISED EDITION THOS. W. HARVEY, A. M. Civil & Mechanical Engineer. SAff FKAKCISCO, CAL. NEW-YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Harvey's Series of School Books. Graded School First Reader, $013 Graded School Second Reader, 25 Graded School Third Reader, 36 Graded School Fourth Reader, 45 Graded School Fifth Reader, 70 Elementary Grammar and Composition, Revised, 42 Practical English Grammar, Revised, . . 65 Graded School Primary Speller, .... 13 Graded School Speller, 18 First Lessons in the English language (old), 20 Elementary Grammar (old), 33 Practical English Grammar (old), ... 65 Copies mailed, postpaid, on receipt of price. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by WILSON, HINKLE & CO.. In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of Ohio. Copyright, 1878, by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG |<'s; the -f's; "Those 3's and 9's." 8. In compound words, the part which is described by the rest is generally pluralized ; as, brothers-in-law t cowrte-martial ; Yt&gon-loads, ox-carts. ETYMOLOGY—NOUNS. 35 9. Compound words from foreign languages form their plu- rals according to (1) and (2); as, tete-ct-tetes, piano-fortes, ipse-dixits, scire-f aclases. 10. Some compound words have both parts made plural ; as, man-servant, men-servants ; knight-templar, knights-templars ; ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. 11. Compound terms composed of a proper noun and a title £ may be pluralized by adding a plural termination to either the name or the title, but not to both ; as, the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown ; the Messrs. Thompson ; " May there be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science?" 12. When the title is preceded by a numeral, the name is always pluralized ; as, the three Miss Johnsons ; the two Dr. Bensons ; the two Mrs. Kendricks. 13. Some nouns have two plurals, but with a difference m meaning; as, brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society); die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (for gam- ing); fish, Jishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species); genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits); index, indexes (tables of contents), indices (algebraic signs); penny, pennies (pieces of money), pence (how much in value); pea, peas (indi- viduals), pease (in distinction from other vegetables). 14. Proper nouns, and words generally used as other parts of speech, are changed as little as possible, and usually add s only in forming their plurals; as, Mary, Marys; Sarah, Sarahs; Nero, Neros; "The novel is full of ohs, bys, whys, alsos, and nos." There is good authority, however, for using Maries, Neroes, whies, noes. 15. Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plurals, changing us to *; urn, and on to a; is to es or ides; a to ce or ata; and x or ex to ces or ices; as, calculus, calculi: arcanum, arcana; criterion, criteria; thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides ; nebula, nebulas; calix, calices ; index, indices. 28. GENERAL REMARKS ON NUMBER. 1. Abstract nouns, and names of material substances, have no plural forms; as, silver, vinegar, hemp, tar, frankness, darkness. 36 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. When different kinds of the same substance are referred to, a plural form may be used; as, sugars, vinegars, wines, oils. 2. Some nouns have no singular forms; as, ashes, assets, bellows, billiards, compasses, clothes, drawers, lees, scissors, shears, tongs. News and molasses have the plural form, but are re- garded as singular. Lungs, bowels, and a few others, have a singular form denoting a part of the whole; as, "The left 3. Some nouns have no singular forms, but are singular or plural in meaning ; as, alms, amends, corps, mumps, measles, nup- tials, odds, riches, series, suds, tidings, wages, and some others. 4. The names of some of the sciences are either singular or plural in meaning, according as they denote the science or the objects of which the science treats; as, ethics, mechanics, mathematics, optics, pedagogics, physics, etc. 5. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, vermin, couple, salmon, trout, dozen, gross, hose, yoke. 29. CASK Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words. Nouns have four cases : Nominative, Possessive, Objective, and Absolute, or Nominative Absolute. Rem. — The term case is also applied to the form of a noun or pronoun when used independently, or as a part of a Bentence. 30. NOMINATIVE CASE. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition. Ex. — " The sun is shining." " That man is a sailor." In the first sentence, " sun " is in the nominative case, because it is used as the subject of the proposition ; in the second, " sailor " is in the nominative case, because it is used as the predicate of the proposi- tion. ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS. 37 31. POSSESSIVE CASE. 1. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pro- noun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind. Ex. — Susan's book ; Gray's Botany ; the sun's rays ; boys 1 hats ; men's clothing. 2. The Possessive Case Singular is formed by annex- ing 's to the nominative; as, John's, Clarence's. 3. The Possessive Case Plural is formed by annexing the apostrophe only, when the nominative plural ends with s; as, boys'; "The Ohio State Teachers' Asso- ciation." Rem. I. — Plural nouns not ending with s, form their pos- sessive case by annexing 's; as, mens hats; children's shoes. Rem. 2. — In compound names, the possessive sign is annexed to the last word; as, "Daniel Webster's speeches:" in complex names it is annexed to the last word ; as, " The Bishop of Dublin's palace : " in a series of terms, and common possession, it is annexed to the last term; as, "Day & Martins Blacking:" in a series of terms, and separate possession, it is annexed to each term; as, "Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries." Rem. 3. — When a noun in the possessive case is limited by a noun in apposition with it, or by a descriptive phrase, the possessive sign is annexed to the noun immediately preceding the object possessed, though not always to the name of the possessor; as, "Her Majesty, Queen Victoria's government;" "The captain of the Fulton's wife died yesterday." Here "cap- tain" is in the possessive case, and "Fulton" in the objective, governed by the preposition "of." Rem. 4. — In compound words, the sign of possession is placed at the end; as, "The knight-templars costume;" "My brother-in- law s residence." Rem. 5. — " For conscience' sake," " For goodness' sake," etc., are idiomatic exceptions to the general rule for forming the possessive case singular. 38 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. Rem. 6. — The sign ['s] is a contraction of is or es; as, John's, Kings; anciently written, Johns, Kingis, or Johnes, Kinges. 32. OBJECTIVE CASE. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition. Ex. — " John studies grammar." " The book is on the table." In the first sentence, " grammar " is the object of the transitive verb " studies • " in the second, " table " is the object of the preposition " on." Rem. — A noun or pronoun used to complete the meaning of a transitive verb is called a direct object; as, "I bought a book." When added to a verb to denote that to or for which any thing is or is done, or that from which any thing pro- ceeds, it is called an indirect object ; as, " I bought him a book." In this sentence, "book" is the direct and "him" the indirect object of " bought." When an indirect object precedes the direct, the preposition should be omitted; when it follows, it should be expressed; as, "I gave him an apple;" "I gave an apple to him." 33. ABSOLUTE CASE. The Absolute or Nominative Absolute Case is the use of a noun independent of any governing word. Ex. — "John, bring me a book ; " " Your fathers, where are they ?" "Honor being lost, all is lost." Rem. I. — A noun or pronoun in this case has the same form that it would have were it in the nominative case. Hence, the case may, with propriety, be called nominative absolute — this term indicating both the form and the use of the word. Rem. 2. — A noun may be in the nominative absolute case : 1. By direct address; as, "Charles, come to me." This use is sometimes called the Vocative Case. 2. By mere exclamation; as, ''Oh, Popular Applause!'' ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS. 39 3. By pleonasm, or by placing the noun before the sentence in which an affirmation is made concerning it; as, " Gad, a troop shall overcome him." 4. With a participle; as, "The sun being risen, we pursued our journey." 5. By position; i. e., by using it as the heading of a chapter, as the superscription to a letter, etc.; as, "A Flood;" "Louis Agassiz." 34. NOUNS IN APPOSITION. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun, denot- ing the same person, place, or thing, is, by apposition, in the same case. Ex. — "Washington the general became Washington the statesman." " We visited New York, the metropolis of the United States," " In her brother Abraham's house." 35. DECLENSION. The Declension of a noun is its variation to denote number and case, EXAMPLES. Singular. Plural. Nom. Boy, Boys, Pass. Boy's, Boys', Obj. Boy. Boys. Nom. Charles, Poss. Charles's, Obj. Charles. Singular. Plural. Nom. Fly, Flies, Poss. Fly's, Flies', Obj. Fly. Flies. Nom. Goodness, Poss. Goodness', Obj. Goodness. 36. PARSING-. Parsing consists, (1) in naming the part of speech; (2) in telling its properties; (3) in pointing out its rela- tion to other words; (4) in giving the rule for its con- struction. 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37. ORDER OP PARSING. 1. A Noun, and why? 2. Common or Proper, and why? 3. Gender, and why? 4. Person, and why? 5. Number, and why? 6. Case, and why? 7. Rule for construction. 38. MODELS FOR PARSING. I. " Mary sings.'' Mary ... is a noun; it is a name; proper, it is the name of a par- ticular person ; feminine gender, it denotes a female ; third person, it denotes the person spoken of; singular number, it denotes but one ; nominative case, it is used as the sub- ject of the proposition, " Mary sings." Rule I. " The sub- ject of a proposition is in the nominative case.* II. " Horses are animals. 1 ' Animals . is a noun; common, it can be applied to any one of a class or kind ; common gender, it denotes either males or females; third person; plural number, it denotes more than one; nominative case, it is used as the predicate of the proposition, " Horses are animals." Rule II. " A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a proposition, is in the nominative case." III. " The poet Milton was blind." Milton . . is a noun; proper; masculine gender, it denotes a male; third person; singular number; nominative case, in apposi- tion with ' poet." Rule IV. " A noun or pronoun used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun, by denoting the same person, place, or thing, is in the same case." ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS. 41 IV. " Henry's lesson is learned." Henry's . is a noun; proper; masculine gender ; third person; singular number ; possessive case, it denotes possession, and modifies " lesson." Rule III. " A noun or pronoun used to limit the meaning of a noun denoting a different thing, is in the possessive case/' V. "John studies grammar." Grammar is a noun; common; neuter gender; third person; singular number; objective case, it is used as the object of the tran- sitive verb "studies." Rule VI. "The object of a tran- sitive verb in the active voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case." VI. "The book lies on the table.' 1 Table . . is a noun; common; neuter gender ; third person; singular number; objective case, it is used as the object of the prep- osition " on." Rule VII. " The object of a preposition is in the objective case." VII. ''William, open the door." William . is a noun; proper; masculine gender; second person; singular number; absolute case, it is the name of a person addressed. Rule V. "A noun or pronoun used independently, is i& the absolute case." Note. — For models for parsing participial nouns, see § 90. 39. EXERCISES. 1. The wind blows. 2. The sun shines. 3. Horses run. 4. The vessel sails. 5. Scholars study. 6. Grass grows. 7. Fire burns. 8. Liberty is sweet. 9. St. Helena is an island. 10. Lead is a metal. 11. Cicero was an orator. 12. Grammar is a science. 13. The storm's fury is past. 14. Henry's health is good. 15. The king's palace is on fire. 16. Jane borrowed Sarah's book. 17. Mr. Johnson sells boys' hats. 18, The de- feat of Xerxes' army was the downfall of Persia. 19. John 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. struck James. 20. Joseph bought the book. 21. Peter studies algebra. 22. The horse kicked the boy. 23. The man wrote a letter. 24. Samuel lives over the river. 25. Martha went with Susan. 26. James is going to Cincinnati. 27. The boy- ran by the mill. 28. " Friends, Romans, Countrymen ! lend me your ears ! " 29. " To arms ! they come ! the Greek ! the Greek ! " 30. " My daughter ! oh, my daughter ! " 31. " Your fathers, where are they?" 32. "My son, have you seen him?" Parse all the nouns in the following sentences : 1. Johnson the doctor is a brother of Johnson the lawyer. 2. Shakespeare lived in Queen Elizabeth's reign. 3. "Ah, War- wick ! Warwick ! wert thou as we are ! " 4. Temperance is a virtue. 5. "King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?" 6. The inferior animals are divided into five classes: quadrupeds, fowls, fishes, reptiles, and insects. 7. The little army fought bravely on that day. 8. Where are the Platos and Aristotles of mod- ern times? 9. I have seen Mr. Squires, the book-seller and stationer. Correct all errors in the following sentences : 1. I have two brother-in-laws. 2. There were three knight- templars in the procession. 3. Nebulas are sometimes called star-dust. 4. I saw the two Mrs. Jackson. 5. He called at Steele's the banker's. 6. The Jones' were all there. 7. The boys slate was broken. 8. The mens' wages should be paid promptly. 9. She is reading in her sister's Susan's book. 10. He studied 0. B. Pierce' Grammar. 11. He has octavoes, quartoes, and folioes, among his books. 12. There are three chimnies on that house. 13. We regard them as singular Tohenomenons. THE ADJECTIVE 40. ORAL LESSON. Here are some apples, nice for eating: what shall we call them? Ans. — JRipe apples. I have just eaten one, and it ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 43 tasted sweet: what else can we call them? Ans. — Sweet apples. They are quite soft : what else can we call them ? Ans. — Mellow apples. Write on your slates, "Ripe, sweet, mellow ap- ples." • All these words denote some quality of the apple: what shall we call them? Ans. — Quality-words. A very good Let us count the apples: one apple, two apples, three apples, jour apples. Let us also number them : the first apple, the second apple, the third apple, the fourth apple. Write these numbers on your slates, as I write them on the blackboard — one, two, three, four : first, second, third, fourth. What shall we call these words? Ans. — Number-words. When I speak of the apple nearest me, I say, "This apple;" when, of one farther from me, " That apple." Do the words this and tliat denote any quality of the apples ? Ans. — They do not. What do they do, then? Ans. — They point them out. Very well: what shall we call them? Ans. — Pointing-out-words. You see that all the words we have used, in some manner describe "apples." Some denote quality; some, number; some merely point out. What is the word "apple?" Ans. — A noun. Then they all describe a noun. What are all of these words? Ans. — Adjectives. The " quality-words " we will call Descriptive Adjectives, be- cause they describe by denoting some quality. The " number- words " and " pointing-out-words " do not denote quality. We will call them Definitive Adjectives. Write, "This is a good book." What is "good?" Ans. — An adjective. Why? Ans. — It describes the word "book." What . kind ? Ans. — Descriptive. Why ? Ans. — It denotes a quality belonging to the book. Write, "These two books ai% mine." What are "these" and "two?" Ans. — Adjectives. Why? Ans. — They describe "books." What kind? Ans. — Definitive. Why? Ans. — They define without denoting any quality. Write, "Every man can do some good.'' What are "every" and "some?" Ans. — Adjectives. Why? Ans. — They limit nouns. What kind? Ans. — Definitive. Why? Ans. — They define without denoting any quality. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41. DEFINITION. An Adjective is a word used to describe or define a nourij as, wise men, that book, three steamships, the fourth stanza. 42. CLASSES. Adjectives may be divided into two general classes: Descriptive and Definitive. 43. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 1. A Descriptive Adjective limits or describes a noun by denoting some quality belonging to it. Ex. — A round table, a square table, a sour apple, a sweet apple, a good boy, a bad boy, an Italian sunset, twinkling stars, thick-warbled songs. Rem. I. — Words commonly used as other parts of speech, sometimes perform the office of descriptive adjectives, and should be parsed as such. Ex. — A gold ring, a silver cord, the California pine, a make-believe patriot, double-distilled nonsense. "The West is as truly American, as genuinely Jonathan, as any other part of our country/' Rem. 2. — An adjective is frequently limited by a word joined to it by a hyphen. The compound term thus formed is called a Compound Adjective, and should be parsed as a single word. Ex. — A high-sounding title, an ill-matched pair. Rem. 3. — Adjectives derived from verbs are called Participial Adjectives. They are usually placed before the nouns which they modify. Ex. — We walked across a plowed field, and soon came to the flowing spring. Rem. 4. — When a descriptive adjective represents a noun understood, or not expressed, the article must be prefixed; as, "The wise are provident;" "The good are happy." Adjectives thus used should be parsed as adjectives used as nouns. ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 45 Tell which of the adjectives in the following sentences are Descriptive, and which are Compound and Participial: 1. The unfortunate man was a hard-working mechanic. 2. The fields looked beautiful. 3. English books are costly.* 4. The howling storm is passed. 5. The soil is very productive. 6. The water falls into a marble basin. 7. I prefer a New England winter to an Australian summer. 44. DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 1. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the appli- cation of a noun without expressing any of its qualities. Ex. — The Ohio, that man, three dollars, the third seal, a two-fold reference. "All men are mortal." "Each soldier received his pay." 2. Definitive Adjectives are divided into three classes: Articles, Pronominal Adjectives, and Numeral Adjectives. 45. ARTICLES. 1. "The" is called the Definite Article, because it definitely points out the object which it defines or re- stricts; as, "The book is on the table;" "The horse ran over the bridge." 2. "A" or "An" is called the Indefinite Article, be- cause it defines or restricts in an indefinite or general manner ; as, " A book is on a table ; " "A horse ran over a bridge." "An" should be used before words beginning with a vowel sound; "A," before words beginning with a consonant sound. They are spoken of as one article, because they are merely an earlier and a later form of the same word. Rem. — An article sometimes limits not a noun alone, but a noun as limited by other words; as, "The old men retired early; the young men remained until midnight." The article here 46 ENGLISH GKAMMAR limits the complex ideas "old men" and "young men." "An early spring is no sign of a fruitful season." The article here limits the complex ideas "early spring" and "fruitful season." 46. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 1. Pronominal Adjectives are definitives, most of which may, without an article prefixed, represent a noun un- derstood; as, all men, each soldier, yonder mountain. 2. They may be divided into three classes: Demon- stratives, Distributives, and Indefinites. 47. DEMONSTRATIVES. Demonstratives point out objects definitely. They are : this, that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, yon, yonder. 1. This (plural these) distinctly points out an object as near in place or time; as, "This desk and these books." 2. That (plural those) distinctly points out an object as not near, or not so near as some other object; as, "That desk and those books." 3. In speaking of two objects, that should refer to the former, and this to the latter; as, "These horses are larger than those." 4. Former and latter are used to designate which of two objects previously mentioned is referred to; as, "The cry of danger to the Union was raised to divert their assaults upon the Constitution. It was the latter, and not the former, which was in danger." 5. Both implies the one and the other; as, "Both forts were taken;" "James and Silas were both tardy." 6. Same denotes an identical object or one of like kind; as, "That is the same man we saw yesterday;" "Both tables are made of the same wood." ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 47 7. Yon and yonder denote in view, but at a distance; as, "Yon house on the hill;" "Yonder mountain is a volcano." 48. DISTRIBUTIVES. Distributives represent objects as taken separately^ There are four distributives: each, every, either, neither. 1. Each can be applied to one of two or any greater num- ber; as, "Each warrior drew his battle blade;" "Useless each without the other." 2. Every denotes all taken separately; as, "They received every man a penny;" "Every person in the room was aston- ished." 3. Either should be applied to one of two objects only; as, "Either of the two roads leads to town;" "You may have either house." 4. Neither means not either; as, "Which of the two shall I take ? both ? one ? or neither $ 49. INDEFINITES. Indefinites refer to objects in a general way, without pointing out any one in particular. The principal in- definites are : all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few, little, many, much, no, none, one, own, other, several, some, sundry, which, whichever, whichsoever, what, what- ever, whatsoever. 1. All describes objects taken together ; as, "All the men were at work in the fields;" "All men are mortal." 2. Any denotes a single one of many, or some ; as, " Have you any wheat to sell?" "Neither go into the town, nor tell it to any in the town." 3. Another, or other, mean^ not the same ; as, " He took another road;" "He will let out his vineyard to other hus- bandmen." 48 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 4, Certain denotes one or some; as, "And there came a certain poor widow, and she threw in two mites;" "And I, Daniel, was sick certain days." 5. Divers means unlike, various, numerous; as, "A prey of divers colors of needle-work;" "Divers miracles." 6. Enough denotes a sufficiency; as, "I have enough for my brother;" "Enough has been said already." 7. Few denotes a small number; as, "Many shall be called, but few chosen;" "I have & few old books." 8. Little means small in quantity, amount, or duration ; as, " A little learning is a dangerous thing." — Pope. "A little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep." 9. Many denotes a large number; as, "Many men of many minds;" "The mutable, rank-scented many. 1 ' — Shakespeare. 10. Much denotes a large quantity; as, "There is much wealth in this town;" "Thou shalt carry much seed out into the field, and shalt gather but little in." 11. No means not any, none. When used as a noun in the plural number, it means those who vote in the negative; as, "The noes have it." 12. None means not one, or not any; as, "Ye shall flee when none pursueth you;" "Thou shalt have none assurance of thy life." Use "no one" when one only is meant; "none" when more than one are referred to. 13. One corresponds to another; as, "They love one another," i. e., each person loves the other. 14. Own implies possession ; as, "My own home;" "Our own dear mother." 15. Several denotes any small number more than two; as, " Sev' eral victories." Also, single, individual; as, "I'll kiss each several paper for amends." 16. Some denotes an indeterminate number or quantity; as, "Some money;" "I have brought some books," 17. Sundry means various, divers; as, "Sundry foes;" " Fof sundry weighty reasons." — Shakespeare. ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 49 50. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 1. Numeral Adjectives are those which express num- ber and order definitely ; as, four, fourth, fourfold. 2. They are divided into three classes: Cardinal, Or- dinal, and Multiplicative. 3. Cardinal Numerals denote simply the number of objects; as, two, thirteen, fifty, a thousand. 4. Ordinal Numerals mark the position of an object in a series ; as, second, thirteenth, fiftieth, the thousandth. 5. Multiplicative Numerals denote how many fold; as, twofold, fourfold. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. When such, many, only, but, and not are followed by the indefinite article a or aw, the phrases such a, many a, etc., limit singular nouns; as, "If you repay me not on such a day;" " Many a time; " " He is but a man ; " " Not a drum was heard." These phrases may be parsed as single words. 2. When definitive adjectives are used in connection with descriptive, the former should be placed first; as, "That valu- able property;" "Ten small houses." 3. A cardinal numeral used as a noun, requires no article: an ordinal should have the article prefixed; as, "Were not ten eleansed?" "The tenth was rescued." 4. Each other and one another are sometimes called recipro- cals, because they are reciprocally related; as, "They mutually assist each other;" "They help one another" Parse "each" and "one" as adjectives used as nouns, in apposition with "they" taken distributively ; i. e., as representing a number of indi- viduals taken separately. Use "each" in referring to two in- dividuals, and " one " in referring to more than two. Parse "other" and "another" as adjectives used as nouns in the ob- jective case after the verbs that precede them. 50 ENGLISH GKAMMAB. 5. Adjectives which vary in form to denote number, should agree in that property with the nouns they limit. Say, "this sort," not "these sort." 51. COMPARISON. 1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to ex- press different degrees of quality ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; good, better, best. 2. There are three Degrees of Comparison : the Posi- tive, the Comparative, the Superlative. 3. The Positive degree ascribes to an object the simple quality, or an equal degree of the quality ; as, " A mild winter ; " " She is as good as she is beautiful." 4. The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than that ascribed to the other; as, "A milder winter than usual;" "Mary is less studious than Emma." 5. The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or low- est degree of the quality to one of more than two ob- jects; as, "The mildest winter ever known;" "The least skillful rider could do no worse." Rem. I. — The suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, etc., denote the possession of a small amount of the quality; as, bluish, rather young, somewhat uncomfortable. Rem. 2. — The words altogether, far, by far, vastly, much, very, exceedingly, a most, a little, too, very, slightly, greatly, etc., denote a high degree of the quality without implying comparison; as, very useful, exceedingly welcome, a most valuable invention. Rem. 3. — Adjectives denoting qualities which can not exist in different degrees, can not, with* propriety, be compared ; but when not taken in their full sense, they may be used in the comparative and superlative degrees. Ex. — Blind, deaf, perfect, right, level, square, straight, perpendic- ular, equal, naked, honest, sincere, hollow, empty, dead. " My sincerest regards." u Our sight is the most perfect of our senses." ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 51 52. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 1. In Ascending comparison, the comparative and su- perlative degrees are regularly formed, — 1st. By adding to the positive of monosyllables, r or er for the comparative, and st or est for the superlative; as, ivise, wiser, wisest; hard, harder, hardest. 2d. By prefixing to the positive of adjectives of more than one syllable, more for the comparative, and most for the superlative; as, honorable, more honorable, most honorable. . • Rem. I. — Most adjectives of two syllables ending in y or le, after a consonant, or accented on the second syllable, form their comparative and superlative degrees like monosyllables; as, holy, holier, holiest ; gentle, gentler, gentlest. Rem. 2. — Some adjectives of two syllables, ending in a vowel or liquid sound, form their comparative and superlative de- grees like monosyllables; as, handsome, handsomer, handsomest; narrow, narrower, narrowest. Rem. 3. — Some words are expressed in the superlative de- gree by adding the suffix most; as, hindmost, innermost. 2. In Descending comparison, the comparative is formed by prefixing less, and the superlative by pre- fixing least, to the positive; as, wise, less wise, least ivise. 3. Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, worst Rem. I. — Monosyllables are sometimes compared by prefix- ing more and most; as, "A foot more light, a step more true." — Scott Rem. 2. — Two or more adjectives modifying the same word, may be compared by prefixing more and most to the first; as, " The more nice and elegant parts ; " " Most potent, grave, and reverend seigniors . ' ' — Shakespeare. 52 ENGLISH GEAMMAR 53. ORDER OF PARSING-. 1. An adjective, and why? 2. Descriptive or Definitive, and why? 3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison. 4. Degree of comparison, and why? 5. What does it describe or define? 6. Eule. 54. MODELS FOR PARSING. I. u Every diligent boy received merited praise." Every ... is an adjective, it is a word used to describe or define the meaning of a noun; definitive, it defines without express- ing any quality; distributive pronominal, it represents ob- jects taken separately; it can not be compared, and be- longs to "boy." Eule XII. "An adjective or participle belongs to some noun or pronoun." Diligent . is an adjective; descriptive; it describes a noun by denot- ing some quality; compared, pos. diligent, comp. more dili- gent, sup. most diligent: positive degree, and belongs to "boy." Eule XII. Merited . is an adjective; descriptive; compared, pos. merited, comp. more merited, sup. most merited: positive degree, and be- longs to "praise." Bule XII. II. "Many a fine intellect is buried in poverty." Many a . . is an adjective; definitive; indefinite pronominal; it refers to objects in a general way: it can not be compared, and belongs to "intellect." Eule XII. Fine ... is an adjective; descriptive; compared, pos. fine, comp. finer, sup. finest; positive degree, and belongs to "intellect." Eule XII. III. "The first two engravings are American harvest scenes." The ... is an adjective; definitive; definite article; it can not be compared, and belongs to " engravings." Eule XII. ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 53 First » ► . is an adjective; definitive; numeral; it denotes number: ordinal; it marks the position of an object in a series: it can not be compared, and belongs to "engravings." Kule XII. Two ... is an adjective; definitive; numeral; cardinal; it denotes the number of objects: it can not be compared, and belongs to "engravings." Kule XII. American is an adjective; descriptive; it can not be compared, and belongs to " scenes." Rule XII. Harvest . is an adjective; descriptive; it can not be compared, and belongs to "scenes." Eule XII. IV. " The weather is pleasant" Pleasant . is an adjective; descriptive; compared, pos. pleasant, comp. more pleasant; sup. most pleasant: positive degree, *nd be- longs to " weather." Eule XII. 55. EXERCISES. Parse the nouns and adjectives in the following sentences : 1. A loud report was heard. 2. Fearful storms sweep over these beautiful islands. 3. Life is but a vapor. 4, These walks are quiet and secluded. 5. I feel sad and lonely. 6, The fields look green. 7. He took a twofold view of the subject. 8. Either road leads to town. 9. Each soldier was a host in himself. 10. Both horses are lame. 11. Such a law is a dis- grace to any state. 12. Repeat the first four lines in concert. 13. "My drowsy powers, why sleep ye so?" 14. "One story is good until another is told." 15. The Australian gold-fields are very extensive. 16. The floor was formed of six-inch boards. 17. None think the great unhappy but the great. — Young. 18. Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting. — Wordsworth. 19. To make a long story short, the company broke up and returned to the more important concerns of the election. — Irving. 20. Grim-visaged war hath smoothed his wrinkled 54 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. front. — Shakespeare. 21. For nine long years, session after session, we have been lashed round and round this miser- able circle of occasional arguments and miserable expedi- ents. — Burke. 22. Dim with the mist of years, gray flits the shade of power. — Byron. 23. Can storied urn, or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? — Gray. 24. "With secret course, which no loud storms annoy, Glides the smooth current of domestic joy. — Goldsmith. 25. My opening eyes with rapture see The dawn of this returning day. 26. With many a weary step, and many a groan, Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone. — Pope. 53. CAUTIONS. Caution I. — Do not use a before vocals, or an before sub vocals and aspirates. Ex. — 1. An hundred cents make one dollar. 2. Mr. Perry is an humorous person. 3. She is an heroine. 4. We traveled through a open country. 5. We are now an united people. 6. That is a his- torical fact. (Use an before h when the following syllable is ac- cented.) Caution II. — Omit the article before a word used as a title or as a mere name. Ex. — 1. A rascal formerly meant a servant. 2. He is a better mechanic than a sailor. 3. They gave him the title of a duke. 4. We shall vote for Mr. Webster as a senator. 5. What kind of a man is he ? 6. I have a sort of a misgiving about it. Caution III. — Observe that the denotes a particular one, or is used to distinguish one class or species from another, and that a denotes one, but not a particular one. Ex.— 1. The dime is the tenth part of the dollar. 2. An eagle is the bird of prey. 3. A telephone is a modern invention. 4. The subject of his lecture was a steam engine. 5. A lion is the king of beasts. 6. A horse which you saw belongs to me. ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 55 Caution IV. — Do not use them for those, this here for this, or that 'ere for that. Ex.— 1. He bought ten of them horses. 2. I do not like this here weather. 3. What have you done with that 'ere umbrella? 4. Did you put them books on that 'ere table? 5. I wish you would write them rules on the blackboard. Caution V. — Avoid double comparatives and super- latives. Ex.— 1. He seems more cheerfuller to-day. 2. He is the most miserablest man I ever saw. 3. More sharper than a serpent's tooth is vile ingratitude. 4. That is far more preferable than to be im- prisoned. 5. Worser evils than poverty can be imagined. 6. " This was the most unkindest cut of all." Caution VI. — In most constructions, place ordinal ad- jectives before cardinals. Ex. — 1. Sing the two first and the three last verses. 2. I built the five first houses on that street. 3. Repeat the three first rules. 4. You may have cherries on the two first trees in the three first rows. Caution VII. — Do not use adverbs as adjectives. Ex. — 1. We have arrived safely. 2. I feel badly this morning. 3. The country looks beautifully in June. 4. Things now look more favorably. 5. This rose smells sweetly. 6. The relative should be placed as nearly as possible to its antecedent. Caution VIII. — Use such adjectives as express the ex- act meaning intended. Ex.— 1. I will sell either of the four boats for ten dollars. 2. Neither of my three brothers went to college. 3. He paid all of the laborers two dollars a day. 4. None of the two horses pleases me. 5. They worship both the sun, moon, and stars. 6. Every county is incident to very late frosts. 7. Such as desire may remain. 8. There were not fewer than twenty tons of sugar in the warehouse when it was burned. 9. There are less boys in school now than formerly. 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE PRONOUN 57. ORAL LESSON. Notice what I write: "John took John's hat, and put John's hat on John's desk.' : Do you think this is a correct sentence? Ans. — No, sir, we do not. What words are unnecessarily re- peated? Ans. — "John" and "hat." Write the sentence on your slates as you think it should be written. Sarah, you may read what you have written. (Sarah reads "John took his hat, and put it on his desk." The teacher writes it on the blackboard.) Now, the words used in the place of "John" and "hat" are called Pronouns, which means "instead of nouns." What shall we call all words used instead of nouns? Ans. — Pronouns. I will write again: "I write, you read, but he whispers." What are the words U I," "you," and "he"? Ans. — Pronouns. Why? Ans. — Because they are used instead of nouns. What person is "I"? Ans. — First person, because it stands for the person speaking. What person is "you"? Ans. — Second person, because it stands for the person spoken to. What person is "he?" Ans. — Third person, because it stands for the person spoken of. Those words which show by their form the person of the nouns they represent are called Personal Pronouns. What kind of pronouns are these words? Ans. — Personal Pronouns. Write this sentence : " The man who was with me is a lawyer." What is "me"? Ans. — A pronoun, What other pronoun is there in the sentence? Ans. — "Who." That is right — and what word does " who " stand for ? Ans. — Man. But "who" can be used to represent the first, second, or third person; as, "I who speak to you;" "You who listen;" "He who whispers." It does not change its form to denote per- son, but relates to some noun, and must be of the same per- son and number as the noun to which it relates. It is there- fore called a Relative Pronoun. What shall we call all simi- lar words? Ans. — Relative Pronouns. Write this sentence: "Who has lost a pencil?" The word "who ' is here used in asking a question. We will call it an ETYMOLOGY— PKONOUNS. 57 Interrogative Pronoun. What shall we call those pronouns which are used in a similar manner? Ans. — Interrogative Pronouns. Write this sentence: "That book is mine." What two words can I use instead of " mine ? " Ans. — " My book." "Mine," then, stands for both the possessor and the thing possessed. We will call it a Possessive Pronoun. What shall we call all words used in a similar manner? Ans. — Posses- sive Pronouns. 58. DEFINITION. 1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, his book, my house; "Whom did you see?" 2. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or equivalent expression, instead of which the pronoun is used. It usually precedes, but sometimes follows, the pronoun. Ex. — " The poor widow lost her only son." Here " widow " is the antecedent of "her." "True to his flag, the soldier braved even death." "Soldier" is the antecedent of "his." 3. The Antecedent may be a noun, a different pro- noun, a phrase, or a clause. Ex. — "A pupil that is studious will learn." " Pupil " is the ante- cedent of "that." "He who runs may read." "He" is the anteced- ent of " who." " He desired to pray, but it was denied him." " To pray " is the antecedent of " it." "He has squandered his money, and he now regrets it." " He has squandered his money " is the ante- cedent of "it." 4. The Antecedent may be omitted; in which case it is said to be understood. Ex. — " Who steals my purse steals trash." " The person," or " he," understood, is the antecedent of "who." 59. PROPERTIES. 1. The Properties of a pronoun are Gender, Person, Number, and Case. 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. The gender, person, and number of a pronoun are always the same as those of its antecedent, but its case depends upon the construction of the clause in which it is found. 60. GLASSES. Pronouns are divided into four classes: Personal, Pos- sessive, Relative, and Interrogative. 61. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 1. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and show by their form whether they are of the first, second, or third person. They are either Simple or Compound. 2. The Simple Personal Pronouns are i", thou, he, she, and it, with their declined forms, we, our, us, my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, its, they, their, them. 3. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to some form of the Simple Person- als; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves. 62. DECLENSION. 1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are declined as follows : FIRST PERSON. Nom. Poss. Obj. Singular. I, My or mine, Me. , Plural. Nom. We, Poss. Our, Obj. Us. ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 59 SECOND PERSON, Singular. Plural. Norn. Thou, Ye, Poss. Thy or thine, Your, Obj. Thee, You. Singular. Plural. Norn. You, You, Poss. Your, Your, Obj. You, You. THIRD PERSON. Singular. MAS. FEM. NEUT. Norn. He, She, It, Poss. His, Her, Its, Obj. Him, Her, It. Plural NEUT. OR COM Norn. They, Poss. Their, Obj. Them. 2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are declined as follows : FIRST PERSON. Singular. Norn, and Obj. Myself. Plural. Nam. and Obj. Ourselves. SECOND PERSON. Singular. Plural. Norn, and Obj. Thyself or Yourself. I Norn, and Obj. Yourselves. THIRD PERSON. Singular. MAS., FEM., AND NEUT, Himself, Nam. and Obj. -( Herself, Itself. Plural. Norn, and Obj. Themselves. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Mine and thine were formerly used before words commenc- ing with a vowel sound, in preference to my and thy. They are still used thus in poetry; as, " Thine eyes I see thee raise." 60 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 2. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, though used in the Bible, and other sacred writings, are now seldom used except in poetry and in solemn style. They may be regarded as antiquated forms. You, your, yours, and yourself are now pre- ferred. 3. You, originally plural, and still requiring a verb in the plural number, is used to represent singular as well as plural nouns. 4. We is often used in place of I, in royal proclamations, editorials, and when the speaker or writer wishes to avoid the appearance of egotism ; as, " We, George III., King of Great Britain and Ireland, do proclaim," etc. " We formerly thought differently, but have changed our mind." 5. It is sometimes used in the nominative without refer- ring to any particular antecedent; and in the objective for euphony alone; as, "It thunders;" "It seems to me;" "It is a true saying;" "Come and trip it on the green." 6. The compound personal pronouns are used in the nom- inative and objective cases only. To express emphatic dis- tinction in the possessive case, the word own is used instead of self or selves ; as, " Let every pupil use his own book ; " "Successful merchants mind their own business, not that of their neighbors." 7. The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the third person singular and common gender, usage has sane tioned the employment of the masculine forms he, his, him, for that purpose; as, in speaking of scholars generally, we say, "A thorough scholar studies his lesson carefully." 8. "When reference is made to an assemblage containing males only, or females only, the masculine or feminine forms should be used, as the case may require. 9. When pronouns of different persons are used, the second should precede the third, and the third the Jirst; as, " You, and he, and I were boys together " ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 61 63. ORDER OF PARSING. 1. A pronoun, and why? 2. Personal, and why? 3. Simple or Compound. 4. What is its antecedent? 5. Gender, person, and number? Rule. 6. Decline it. 7. Case, and why? 8. Rule. 64. MODELS FOR PARSING. I. "7 have seen him"* I is a pronoun; personal; it shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person: simple; its ante- cedent is the name, understood, of the person speaking: gender, first person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX. "Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number ; " declined, singular, nom. I, poss. my, obj. me; plural, nom. we, poss. our, obj. us: nominative case. Rule L Him .... is a pronoun; personal; simple; its antecedent is the name, understood, of the person spoken of: masculine gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: declined, sing., nom he, poss. his, obj. him; plural, nom. they, poss. their, obj. them: objective case. Rule VI II. "James, lend me your book." Me . . . . is a pronoun; personal; simple; its antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker: gender, first per- son, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: decline it; objective case, it is the indirect object of the transitive verb " lend." Rule VI. 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. III. "The soldiers helped themselves." Themselves is a pronoun; compound personal; it is formed by adding selves to one of the declined forms of a simple personal : its antecedent is "soldiers:" masculine gender, third per- son, plural number, to agree with its antecedent: Kule IX: decline it: objective case, it is the object of the transi- tive verb "helped." Rule VI. IV. "I, myself, heard him say so." Myself ... is a pronoun; compound personal; its antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker: gender, first per- son, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: decline it: nominative case, in apposition, with "I." Rule IV. 65. EXERCISES. Parse the nouns, personal pronouns, and adjectives in the following sentences : 1. He and I attend the same school. 2. She gave her sister a new book. 3. Have you seen him to-day? 4. I saw it with my own eyes. 5. You, yourself, told me so. 6. The wicked is snared in the work of his own hands. 7. I bought the book, and read it. 8. They live in our house. 9. I see them on their winding way. 10. For we dare not make ourselves of the number, or compare ourselves with some that com- mend themselves; but they, measuring themselves by them- selves, and comparing themselves among themselves, are not wise. 11. My country, 't is of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee, I sing. 12. Thou great Instructor, lest I stray, Teach thou my erring feet thy way. ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 63 e6. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, 1. Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent both the possessor and the thing possessed. They are: mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. 2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used for mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our own for ours, your own for yours, their own for theirs. Ex. — " This book is my own ; " " Stand, the ground's your own, my braves!" "Do not borrow or lend pencils: each scholar should have one of his own" » Rem. — Two sets of models are given for parsing Possessive Pronouns. The first method is to be preferred when the pro- noun can not be separated into two words, one being a per- sonal pronoun, the other the name of the thing possessed. Both methods are sanctioned by good authorities. 67. ORDER OP PARSING. 1. A pronoun, and why? 2. Possessive, and why? 3. What is its antecedent? 4. Gender, person, and number, and why? Rule. 5. Case, and why? Rule. 68. MODELS FOR PARSING-. I. "That book is hers, not yours." FIRST METHOD. Hers ... is a pronoun; possessive; it represents both the possessor and the thing possessed ; its antecedent is " book ; n neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case, it is used as the predicate of the proposition, "That book is hers:" Rule II. Yours. . . is parsed in a similar manner; equivalent to "your book." 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SECOND METHOD. Hers ... is a pronoun; possessive; it is equivalent to "her book." Parse " her " as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, according to Kule III, and "book" as predicate- nominative, according to Rule II. II. "The ground's your own." FIRST METHOD. If our Own is & pronoun; possessive; its antecedent is "ground:" neuter gender, third person, singular number ; nominative case; it is used as the predicate of the proposition, "The ground's your own." Rule II. SECOND METHOD. * Your own is a pronoun; possessive; it is equivalent to "your ground." Parse "your" as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, according to Rule III, and "ground" as the predi- cate-nominative, according to Rule IL 69. EXERCISES. Parse the possessive pronouns in the following sentences : 1. The farm is neither his nor theirs. 2. Is that horse of yours lame yet? 3. I did not hear that lecture of yours last evening. 4. He is an old friend of ours. 5. This book is not mine; it must be his or hers. 6. That carriage of theirs is a very fine one. 7. Friend of mine, why so sad? 70. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a preced- ing word or phrase, called its antecedent, to which it joins a limiting clause; as, "The man whom you saw is my father." Rem. I. — The antecedent is a word or phrase on which the relative clause depends. It may be either a definite or an indefinite object. When the object is indefinite, the relative clause stands alone; as, "Who steals my purse steals trash." ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 65 Rem. 2. — The difference between personal and relative pro- nouns is shown by the following distinctions : 1. Personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical person; as, first person, I; second person, thou or you ; third per- son, he, she, or it : the relatives do not change their form for person. 2. A personal pronoun may be the subject of an independent sentence; as, "He is well:" a relative can never be thus used; it is always found in a dependent clause; as, "Laws which are unjust should be repealed." Rem. 3. — Relatives serve two purposes in a sentence; one, to represent nouns in any relation; the other, to join a lim- iting clause to the antecedent. The first is a pronominal, the second, a conjunctive use. 2. Relative pronouns are either Simple or Compound. 3. The Simple Relatives are who, used to represent persons ; which and what, to represent things ; that, to represent both persons and things; and as, to take the place of who, which, or that, after such, many, and same. Rem. I. — What is sometimes used as a definitive adjective as well as a relative, in the same sentence: in which case it is placed before the noun it limits; as, "I send you what money I have," i. e., "I send you the money which I have." When the noun it limits is understood, what takes its place, and should be parsed, first as a pronominal adjective, and secondly as a relative. Rem. 2. — That is a relative when who, whom, or which can be substituted for it; as, "He that [who'] is slow to wrath, is of great understanding." It is a pronominal adjective when it immediately precedes a noun, expressed or understood; as, "That book is yours;" "I did not say that. 11 It is a con- junction when it joins a dependent clause to its principal; as, "I know that my Redeemer liveth." Rem. 3. — What, when a relative, can be changed into that which, or the thing which, and is called a double relative; as, "Tell me what [that which'] you know;" "I got what [the thing which] I desired." That, or the thing, should be parsed as the antecedent part of what, and which as the relative. The H. G.-6. QQ ENGLISH GKAMMAE. antecedent part, that, is usually a pronominal adjective, either limiting a noun expressed, or representing it understood. Rem. 4. — Besides being a relative, what may be an interroga- tive pronoun; as, "What did you say?" — a pronominal adjective ; as, "What book have you?" — an interjection; as, "What! is thy servant a dog, that he should do this?" — an adverb; as. "What [partly] by force, and what by fraud, he secures his ends." 71. DECLENSION. Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. Norn. Who, Nom. Which, Poss. Whose, Poss, Whose, Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. The Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever, so, and soever to the simple relatives. They are: who- ever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. Rem. — Whoever, whoso, and whosoever, are equivalent to he who, or any one who; as, "Whoever studies will learn," i. e., "Any one who studies will learn." Whichever and whichsoever are equiv- alent to any which; as, "Whichever way you may take will lead to the city," i. e., "Any way which you may take," etc. What- ever and whatsoever are equivalent to any thing which ; as, "I am pleased with whatever you may do," i. e., "I am pleased with any thing which you may do." Compound relatives are inde- clinable, and should be parsed like the simple relative what, 72. ORDER OF PARSING. 1. A Pronoun, and why? 2. Relative, and why? 3. Name its antecedent. 4. Simple or Compound? 5. Gender, person, and number, and why? Rule. 6. Decline it. 7. Case, and Rule. ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 67 73. MODELS FOR PARSING-. I. "A man toho is industrious will prosper." Who ... is a pronoun ; relative; it represents a preceding word or phrase, to which it joins a limiting clause: its antecedent is "man:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the subordinate proposi- tion " who is industrious : " Rule I. II. "I am he whom ye seek." Whom . . is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "he:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular number: Rule IX: objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb "seek:" Rule VI. III. "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom." That ... is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "man:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular number: Rule IX: nominative case; it is the subject of the subordinate prop- osition "That findeth wisdom:" Rule I. IV. " The horse which you sold me is lame." Which . . is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "horse:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular number; Rule IX: objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb "sold:" Rule VI. V. "I remember what you said." What. . . is a pronoun; relative; it is a double relative, equivalent to that which — " that " being the antecedent part, and " tvhich," the relative. Parse "that" as a "pronominal adjective used as a noun," in the objective case after "remember." Which . . is a 'pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "that:" neuter gender, third person, singular number ; objective case; object of the transitive verb "said:" Rule VI. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR VI. "That is the man whose house we occupy." Whose. . is a 'pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "man:" masculine gender, third person, singular number; Rule IX: possessive case; modifies "house:" Rule III. VII. "Whoever studies will learn." Whoever is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to he who, or any one who — " he " being the antecedent part, and " who" the relative. Parse "he" as a personal pronoun, subject of " will learn," or " one " as a " pronominal ad- jective used as a noun," subject of " will learn," and "who" as a relative, by preceding models. VIII. "Whatever purines, sanctifies." Whatever is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to that which. Parse "that" and "which" according to Model V — "that" being the subject of "sanctifies;" "which" of "pu- rifies." IX. " Whoso keepetn the law is a wise son." WhOSO. . is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to he who, or any one who. Parse according to Model VII. X. "As many as came were baptized." As .... is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "many:" simple: common gender, third person, plural number; Rule IX: nom- inative case; it is used as the subject of the subordinate proposition "as came," i. e., "who came;" Rule I. 74. EXERCISES. Parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences : 1. Those who sow will reap. 2. He that hateth, dissem- bleth with his lips. 3. They that forsake the law, praise the wicked; but such as keep the law, contend with them. 4. There is no class of persons that I dislike so much as those who slander their neighbors. 5. The house which you admire so much, belongs to the man whom we see yonder. ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 69 6. Whatever is, is right. 7. Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do. 8. He will do what is right. 9. This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 10. A kind boy avoids doing whatever injures others. 75 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what, when used in asking questions; as, "Who goes there?" "Which is yours?" "What did you say?" 2. The Subsequent of an Interrogative Pronoun is that part of the answer which is represented by it. An Interrogative must agree with its subsequent in gender, person, and number. Rem. I. — When a definite object is referred to, which and what are pronominal adjectives, limiting the name of the ob- ject inquired for; as, " Which lesson shall we learn?" "What book shall we study?" When an indefinite object is referred to, the interrogative takes its place; as, "Which is mine?" 11 What say you?" Rem. 2. — The interrogatives who and which are declined like relative pronouns. Rem. 3. — Apply Eule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing "antecedents" to "subsequents." 76. ORDER OP PARSING. 1. A -pronoun, and why? 2. Interrogative, and why? 3. Name its subsequent, if expressed. 4. Gender, person, and number. Rule. 5. Decline it. 6. Case, and why? Rule. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77. MODELS FOR PARSING-. I. "Who goes there?" Who . is a 'pronoun; interrogative; it is used in asking a question: its subsequent is indefinite: gender and 'person indeterminate: singular number, to agree with its subsequent: Rule IX: nom- inative case; it is used as the subject of the sentence "Who goes there?" Rule I. II. "Which is yours?" — The large one. Which is a pronoun ; interrogative ; its subsequent is " one : " neuter gender , third person, singular number; Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the sentence "Which is yours?" Rule I. III. "What is that man?"— A blacksmith. What . is a pronoun; interrogative; its subsequent is "blacksmith:" masculine gender f third person, singular number; Rule IX ; nominative case; it is used as the predicate of the sentence "What is that man?" Rule II. 78. EXERCISES. Parse the interrogative pronouns in the following sentences . 1. Who saw the horse run? 2. Whose house is that on the hill yonder? 3. Whom did he call? — James. 4. For whom did he inquire? 5. Which will you have, the large or the small book? 6. Whom did you take me to be? 7. What shall I do?— Wait. 8. What can be more beautiful than that landscape? 9. Which is the lesson? 10. Who told you how to parse "what"? Parse the relative and interrogative pronouns in the following sen- tences : 1. Who is in the garden?— My father. 2. I do not know who is in the garden. 3. Tell me what I should do. 4. What vessel is that? 5. Always seek for what you need the most. ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS, 71 6. "Whose house was burned last night? — Mr. Hubbard's. 7. The boy closed the shutters, which darkened the room. 8. What is his name? 9. Whoever enters here should have a pure heart. 10. I gave all that I had. Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the following sentences: 1. Virtue is the condition of happiness. 2. Ye are the light of the world. 3. That garment is not well made. 4. One ounce of gold is worth sixteen ounces of silver. 5. The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended. 6. Every man went to his own house. 7. The army is loaded with the spoils of many nations. 8. Be of the same mind one toward another. 9. He sacrificed every thing he had in the world: what could we ask more? 10. Who's here so base that would be a bondman? 11. I speak as to wise men: judge ye what I say. 12. Liberty was theirs as men: without it they did not esteem themselves men. 13. The death of Socrates, peacefully philos- ophizing with his friends, is the most pleasant that could be desired. 14. Popular Applause ! what heart of man Is proof against thy sweet, seducing charms? 15. What black, what ceaseless cares besiege our state: What strokes we feel from fancy and from fate. 16. Unveil thy bosom, faithful tomb; Take this new treasure to thy trust; And give these sacred relics room To slumber in the silent dust. 17. Thy spirit, Independence, let me share. Lord of the lion-heart and eagle-eye: Thy steps I'll follow with my bosom bare; Nor heed the storm that howls along the sky. — Smollett. 18. The gay will laugh When thou art gone; the solemn brood of care Plod on, and each one as before will chase His favorite phantom: yet all these shall leave Their mirth and their employment, and shall come And make their bed with thee. — Bryant. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 79. CAUTIONS. Caution I. — Do not omit the subjects of declarative and interrogative sentences. Ex. — 1. Am sorry you can not go with me. 2. Hope you are well. 3. Came home late last night. 4. What say? 5. Why stay here? 6. Going home late, found the door locked. 7. Read "Snow Bound ; " like it very much. Caution II. — Do not omit the sign of possession in forming the possessive case of nouns, nor use it in form- ing the possessive case of pronouns. Ex. — 1. Mr. Arter sells boys hats. 2. The girls bonnets were blown into the lake. 3. That house is her's. 4. Frances' mother is an actress. 5. Have you seen Mr. Pierce' new house. 6. Who's horse ran away? Caution III. — Do not use the objective-case forms of pronouns as subjects or predicates. Ex. — 1. Him and me study arithmetic. 2. It is me, and not her, who wishes to see you. 3. Yon, and him, and me were boys to- gether. 4. Me and the doctor were there, 5. Did you say it was me who broke the window? Caution IV. — Do not use " who " as the object of a transitive verb or preposition. Ex. — 1. Who are you talking to? 2. Tell me who you work for. 3. He is a man who I do not like. 4. Who did your sister marry? Caution V. — Do not use " which " as a relative to represent persons, or " who " to represent animals, chil- dren, or objects without life. Ex. — 1. Those which are rich should not be proud. 2. The dog whom you bought, was stolen. 3. They have found the child who was lost. 4. It was old dog Hero who was killed. 5. They which study will learn. ETYMOLOGY— VEKBS. 73 Caution VI. — Do not use improper forms of possessive pronouns. Ex.— 1. Is that book your'n or her'n? 2. I think it is her'n. 3. That book is his'n. 4. He had no team ; so he borrowed our'n. 5. You did not see his horses or our'n, did you? Caution VII. — Avoid the use of diiferent kinds of pro- nouns in the same construction. Ex. — 1. The boys lost my ax, so I borrowed thine. 2. If you will go, I will pay thy expenses. 3. I hope you will put money into thy purse. 4. I will show thee what we have, and you may take which will please you. 5. Learn thy lesson, then amuse yourself. Caution VIII. — Do not use a pronoun and its anteced- ents as subjects of the same sentence. Ex. — 1. The girls they all screamed. 2. Mr. Snell he has gone to Paris. 3. The dogs they barked, and the horses they ran. 4. Many words they darken speech. 5. Ella Jones she is my classmate. THE VERB. 80. ORAL LESSON. The teacher writes on the blackboard, "A horse runs," and asks, "What does the horse do?" Ans. — A horse runs. What else may a horse do? Ans. — A horse trots, walks, gallops, eats, drinks, etc. Write these words on your slates. Are they the names of things? Ans. — They are not: they are the names of actions. What shall we call them? Ans. — Action-words. A very good name, but grammarians call them Verbs. W^ite on your slates, "John studies." What is the subject of the sentence? Ans. — "John." What is the predicate? Ans. — "Studies." Does the sentence tell what John studies? Ans. — It does not. Write "grammar" after the verb "studies." The sentence now reads, "John studies grammar." In this sentence, the meaning of "studies" is completed by the word "grammar" What element is that word? Ans. — An objective element. 74 ENGLISH GKAMMAR A verb which requires an objective element to complete its meaning, is called a transitive verb; a verb which does not re- quire an objective element to complete its meaning, is called an intransitive verb. What is "studies" in the sentence "John studies grammar?" Ans. — A transitive verb. Why? Ans. — Because its meaning is completed by an objective element. What is "run," in the sentence "John runs?" Ans. — An intransitive verb. Why? Ans. — Because its meaning is not completed by an objective element. Write this sentence on your slates: "The fields look green." What is the subject of this sentence? Ans. — "Fields." What is the predicate? Ans. — "Green." What is the office of the word "look"? Ans. — It asserts the predicate "green" of the subject "fields." Correctly answered. Its use is copulative; and such copulative words are called copulative verbs. What is "look" in this sentence? Ans. — A copulative verb. What is "seems" in the sentence "He seems afraid?" Ans. — A cop- ulative verb. Why? Ans. — Because it asserts the predicate of the subject. 81. DEFINITION. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state; as, I am; George writes; The house stands. Rem. — The being, action, or state, may be stated abstractly or represented as belonging to a subject; as, "To write] 11 "Boys write;" "To seem; 11 "He seems discouraged." 82. CLASSES "WITH RESPECT TO USE. 1. With respect to their use, Verbs may be divided into Copulative, Transitive, and Intransitive. 2. A Copulative Verb is used to join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion; as, "Sugar is sweet;" " He seems honest." Rem. — The copula to be is the only pure copulative. The verbs become, seem, appear, stand, walk, and other verbs of mo- tion, position, and condition, together with the passive verbs is ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 75 named, is called, is styled, is elected, is appointed, is constituted, is made, is chosen, is esteemed, and some others, are frequently used as copulatives. Ex. — " The road became rough ; " " The men appeared cheerful ; " " He is styled the Czar of all the Russias ; " " Sir Walter Scott is called the Wizard of the North ; " " Gen. Washington was elected first President of the United States." 3. A Transitive Verb requires an object to complete its meaning ; as, " The hunter killed a bear ; " " The scholar learned his lesson ; " " That house has seven gables." 4. An Intransitive Verb does not require an object to complete its meaning ; as, " Flowers bloom ; " " Grass grows ; " " The wind blows furiously." Rem. I. — The action expressed by a transitive verb has refer- ence to some object external to the subject, upon which it terminates: the action expressed by an intransitive verb has no such reference, but affects the subject only. If an object is required to complete its meaning, a verb is transitive, other- wise intransitive. A verb in the passive form is transitive if its subject in the passive voice can be made its object in the active. Ex. — "That boy studies algebra." The verb "studies" is transi- tive, because its meaning is completed by the object " algebra." "That boy studies" The verb "studies" is transitive, because some word, as lesson, grammar, etc., is required to complete its meaning. " The winds blow." The verb " blow " is intransitive, because the action expressed by it affects the subject only, and does not re- quire the addition of an object to complete its meaning. "The letter was written by me," i. e., I wrote the letter. The verb "was written" is transitive, because its subject in the passive voice be- comes its object in the active. Rem. 2. — A verb which represents its subject as causing to do what the verb expresses, is said to be used in a causative sense. Ex. — " The farmer burns wood," i. e., " The farmer causes wood to burn" " The pirate sank the ship," i. e., " The pirate caused the sink- ing of the ship." The verbs " burns " and " sank " are used in a causative sense. 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Rem. 3. — Some verbs are transitive in one signification, and intransitive in another. Ex. — " It breaks my chain ; " " Glass breaks easily ; " " He returned the book ; " "I returned home ; " " The vessel ran the blockade ; " " The horses ran." Rem. 4. — An intransitive verb becomes transitive when it is followed by an object like itself in meaning. Ex. — " He lives a noble life; " " And he dreamed yet another dream ; " " Those men are playing a game of chess ; " " Grinned hor- ribly a ghastly smile." 83. CLASSES WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 1. With respect to their form, Verbs are either Regu- lar or Irregular. 2. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and per- fect participle by adding d or ed to the present indica- tive, or simplest form of the verb; as, love, love-d, love-d; count, count-ed, count-ed. 3. An Irregular Verb does not form its past indicative and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative; as, see, saw, seen; go, went, gone. 84. PROPERTIES. The Properties of Verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, and Person. 85. VOICE. 1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 2. Transitive Verbs have two voices: an Active and a Passive Voice. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 77 3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting upon an object; as, "John struck James ;" "The boy was studying;" "The cat caught the mouse." 4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being acted upon ; as, " James was struck by John ; " " The mouse was aught;" "The lesson was studied" 5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some form of the neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. Rem. I. — The direct object of a verb in the active voice be- comes its subject in the passive. Ex. — " The boy shut the door " (active) ; " The door was shut by the boy" (passive); "He saw the comet;" "The comet was seen by the astronomer." Rem. 2. — Certain verbs are sometimes used, with a passive signification, in the active voice. Ex. — " This stick splits easily ; " " Butter sells for forty cents ; " " This ground plows well ; " " The stone breaks readily ; " "I have nothing to wear;" "He has some ax to grind;" "He has no money to spend foolishly;" "The house is building;" "Wheat sells for one dollar a bushel." Rem. 3. — A few verbs sometimes assume the passive form, though used in an active sense. Ex. — " The melancholy days are come," i. e., have come ; " Babylon is fallen" i. e., has fallen ; " She is gone," i. e., has gone ; " The hour is arrived," i. e., has arrived ; " " He was come now," he said, " to the end of his journey." Rem. 4. — The passive voice is used when the agent is un- known, or when we wish to. conceal it and call attention to the act and its object alone; as, "The robbery was committed (by some person unknown, or known but not mentioned) in broad daylight;" "This wall was built to protect the banks of the river." When we wish to make the agent prominent, the active voice should be used; as, "The escaped convict committed the robbery in broad daylight." 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 86. EXERCISES. Tell ivhich of the verbs, in the following sentences, are in the active voice, and which in the passive : 1. Sarah loves flowers. 2. John was astonished at the news. 3. William saw a meteor. 4. A meteor was seen. 5. I have written a letter. 6. That poem was written by Saxe. 7. He should have waited longer. 8. The heavens declare the glory of God. 9. He found the money. 87. THE PARTICIPLE. 1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, par- taking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun. Rem. — The participle is so called from its partaking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun. It is the attributive part of the verb, used without assertion. It is not a verb, consequently neither mode nor tense belongs to it. It simply denotes continuance or completion of action, being, or state, relatively to the time denoted by the prin- cipal verb of the sentence in which it is found. 2. There are three Participles: the Present, the Per- feet, and the Compound. The present and the com- pound have both an active and a passive form and use. The perfect has an active and a passive use. 3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance of action, being, or state; as, loving, being loved. Rem. — The present participle always ends in ing. It may be used as an assumed attribute, or be affirmed of a subject. In the sentence, "Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to picture to myself the miseries of confinement," "leaning" depends upon or modifies "I." It is an assumed attribute. "In the sentence, "I was leaning my head upon my hand," "leaning" is affirmed of the subject "I." The present par- ticiple may also be used: ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 79 1st. As an adjective; as, "Twinkling stars." When thus used, it is called a participial adjective; and when it denotes a quality rather than an act, it usually admits of comparison; as, "A most loving companion." 2d. As a noun; as, "I am fond of reading.'' "Reading," in this sentence, is a participial noun, and is the object of the preposition "of." By some grammarians, a participial noun is called an "infinitive in ing," or a "gerund. 1 ' 3d. As a noun, with the modifications of a verb; as, "De- scribing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language." In this sentence, the participial noun "describing" is modi- fied by "events," an objective element. Participial nouns may also be modified by adverbs; as, "I am fond of trav- eling rapidly." Here, "traveling" is modified by "rapidly," an adverbial element. 4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of action, being, or state; as, seen, appointed. Rem. — This participle generally ends in d, ed, t, n, or en. It is frequently used as an adjective, but never as a noun, and is usually, but not always, found in compound forms of the verb. Ex. — " He died, loved by all ; " " Her promise, made cheerfully, was kept faithfully;" "I have written a letter;" "You should have known better ; " " That house was built in 1780." 5. The Compound Participle denotes the completion of action, being, or state, at or before the time represented by the principal verb; as, "Having written the letter, he mailed it." Rem.— This participle is formed by placing having or having been before the perfect participle; as, "Having bought the horse, he went home;" "The lessons having been recited, the school was dismissed." It may be used as a noun; as, "I am ac- cused of having plotted treason ; " " He is charged with having been engaged in the slave-trade." It is also formed by placing having been before the present participle; as, "Having been loving." 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR . 88. EXERCISES. Give the present, perfect, and compound participles of the following verbs : Rely, find, help, study, recite, inquire, answer, plow, culti- vate, join, emulate, spell, grow, paint, resemble, hope, suffer, sit, see, go, come, lay, arrive, exhaust, enjoy, write, read, learn, ventilate. Write five sentences, each containing a present participle. Model. — " Mary is studying her lesson." Write five sentences, each containing a perfect participle. Models. — " I have learned my lesson." " The army, flushed with victory, marched onward." Write five sentences, each containing a present and a perfect participle. Model. — "A boy playing on the sea-shore, found an oar lost from a boat." Write five sentences, each containing a compound participle. Model. — " The notes having been paid, the mortgage was can- celed." Write five sentences, each containing a participial adjective. Model. — "Rolling stones gather no moss." Write five sentences, each containing a participial noun. Models. — "Skating is good exercise." " Much depends upon his observing the rule." 89. ORDER OF PARSING-. 1. A Participle, and why? 2. From what verb is it derived? 3. Present, perfect, or compound, and why? 4. To what does it belong? 5. Rule. ETYMOLOGY— VEEBS. 81 90. MODELS FOR PARSING-. I. " I Heard the wolves howling in the forest." Howling is a participle: it partakes of the properties of a verb and of an adjective: it is derived from the verb "howl:" present participle; it denotes continuance: it belongs to "wolves." Kule XII. II, "Take this letter, written by myself." Written . is a participle : it is derived from the verb "write:" perfect participle; it denotes completion: it belongs to " letter." Eule XII. III. "The train having left, we returned home." Having left is a participle: it is derived from the verb " leave : " compound participle; it denotes the completion of an act before the time repre- sented by the principal verb: it belongs to "train" Rule XII. IV. " Their leader having been killed, the robbers fled." Having been killed is a participle: it is derived from the verb "kill." compound participle: it belongs to " leader." Eule XII. V. " Whispering is forbidden." Whispering is a noun; participial; it is derived from the verb "whisper:" neuter gender; third person; singular number ; nominative case. Eule I. 91. EXERCISES. Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and participles in the following sentences : 1. I have heard the bells tolling. 2. He saw the letter opened. 3. Gambling is a crime. 4. Boys like running, jump- H. G.-6. 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR ing, and skating. 5. The vessel anchored in the bay, has lost her sails. 6. Having sold my farm, I shall remove to Iowa. 7. The burning of the capitol was a wanton outrage 8. Have you not seen strong men weeping? 9. The general having been captured, the army was defeated. 10. Your remaining here would ruin us all. 11. Said but once, said but softly, not marked at all, words revive before me in darkness and solitude. — DeQuincey. 12. A man hardened in depravity would have been perfectly con- tented with an acquittal so complete, announced in language so gracious. — Macaulay. 13. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds, And the wild water lapping on the crags. — Tennyson. 14. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, Onward through life he goes, Something attempted, something done, Has earned a night's repose. — Longfellow. 92. AUXILIARIES. 1. Auxiliary Verbs are those which are used in the conjugation of other verbs. 2. They are: do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must Rem. I. — Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal verbs ; as, " He does well ; " "I am ; " " We have cares and anxieties;" "He willed me a thousand dollars." Rem. 2.— The auxiliaries were originally used as principal verbs, followed by the infinitives of what are now called the principal verbs; as, "I can [to] read;" "You may [to] go;" " He has [to] come." The sign to is now dropped, and the infinitive is regarded as the principal verb; the auxiliaries being used merely to show the relations of mode and tense. Rem. 3. — The auxiliaries, when used as such, except must, which is used in the present tense only, have two tenses: the present and the past. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 83 93. CONJUGATION OP THE AUXILIARIES. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1st person. 2d person. 3d person. 1st person. 2d person. 3d person. I Thou He We You They Am, art, is, Are, are, are, Do, dost, does, Do, do, do, Have, hast, has, Have, have, have, Will, wilt, will, Will, will, will, Shall, shalt, shall, Shall, shall, shall, May, mayst, may, May, may, may, Can, canst, can, Can, can, can, Must, must, must. Must, must, must. PAST TENSE. Was, wast, was, Were, were, were, Did, didst, did, • Did, did,' did, Had, hadst, had, Had, had, had, Would, wouldst, would, Would, would, would, Should, shouldst, should, Should, should, should, Might, mightst, might, Might, might, might, Could, couldst, could. MO 94. DEPl Could, DE. [NITION. could, could. 1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or state is expressed. 2. There are five modes: the Indicative, Subjunctivej Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive. 95. INDICATIVE MODE. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, or as actually existing; as, "The man walks;" "The house was burned." 84 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Rem. — The indicative mode may be used in interrogative and exclamatory sentences; also, in subordinate propositions, to denote what is actual, or what is assumed as actual; as, "75 he a merchant?" "The rascal has stolen my horse!" "I learn that you have removed from town." 96. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubtful, as a wish, a supposition, or a future contingency ; as, " If this be true, all will end well ; " "Had I the wings of a dove ; " "I shall leave, if you remain." Rem. I. — The subjunctive mode is so called because it is used in subjoined or subordinate propositions only. It repre- sents an ideal act, or a real act placed under a condition of more or less doubt, and is joined to the verb of the principal proposition by the subordinate connectives if, though, except, lest, that, unless, and some others. These connectives are called the signs of the subjunctive. Rem. 2. — The sign is frequently omitted, in which case the auxiliary or copula precedes the subject; as, "Had I time," i. e., If I had time; "Were I a king," i. e, If I were a king. Rem. 3. — In a subordinate proposition expressing a condi- tion or a supposition, the verb may be in either the indicative or the subjunctive mode. Use the subjunctive mode, when it is intended to express doubt or denial ; the indicative or potential mode, when the. thing supposed is a fact or is assumed to be a fact. Ex.— If I go, I shall return:" I may go, or I may not; doubt is implied. "If he were honest, he would pay me:" the supposition is that he is not honest. "If he had been there, I should have seen him:" I deny that he was there- In these sentences, the verbs are in the subjunctive mode, doubt or denial being implied. In the sentences, " If he goes, you must stay," and " If he was there, he fought bravely," "goes" and "was" are in the indicative mode, neither doubt nor denial being implied. Rem. 4. — Comparatively few modern writers observe the dis- tinction between the indicative and the subjunctive modes in stating suppositions. The directions given in Rem. 3 state the usage of the best writers. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 85 97. POTENTIAL MODE. -^ The Potential Mode asserts the power, necessity, lib- erty, duty, or liability of acting or being in a certain state ; as, " You can read ; " " He must go ; " " You may retire ; " " They should be more careful." Rem. I. — The potential mode, like the indicative, is used in interrogative and exclamatory sentences ; also, in subordinate propositions, to represent what is assumed as actual, or what has not been realized ; as, " I know that I may be disap- pointed;" "He says that I may study algebra." Rem. 2. — The signs of the potential mode are the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 1. Can or could implies power or ability within one's self; as, "He can do it," i. e., he has ability to do it without assist- ance from others. 2. May or might implies an agency without or beyond one's self; hence, possibility, probability, permission, wishing — the act being contingent on something beyond one's own will or power; as, "He may go,'* i. e., all hinderances are removed: "You may all go to the picnic," denotes permission: "O, that he might return," denotes a wish that all hinderance to his re- turn be removed. 3. Must denotes necessity; as, "We must submit to the laws," i. e., there is a necessity for our doing so. 4. Should denotes that the act or state is not dependent upon the doer's will, but on that of another; hence, duty or obligation; as, "He should pay his debts," •*. e., it is his duty, or he is under a moral obligation to pay his debts. 5. Would implies inclination, wish, or desire ; as, " He would pay his debts, if he could," i. e. } he has the inclination or the desire, 98. IMPERATIVE MODE. The Imperative Mode expresses a command, an ex- hortation, an entreaty, or a permission ; as, " Charge, 86 ENGLISH GEAMMAR Chester, charge 1 " "Do come to see us ; " "Lead us not into temptation ; " " God said, Let there be light." Rem. I. — The imperative mode may usually be known by the omission of the subject; as, "Write" [thou, you, or ye]. It denotes a command, when a superior speaks to an inferior; an exhortation, when an equal speaks to an equal; a prayer or supplication, when an inferior addresses a superior. It is used mostly in principal propositions, and is made subordinate in direct quotations only; as, "He said, l Be silent.' " Rem. 2. — The expressions "Let Ellen come," "Let him go," etc., are made up of the imperative of the verb let, and the objective case of a noun or pronoun, limited by an infinitive. They are equivalent to "Permit [thou] Ellen to go," etc. Rem. 3. — These expressions are sometimes abridged by drop- ping the verb let, changing the infinitive to the imperative, and the objective case to the nominative; as, "Come one, come all," i. e., Let one come, let all come: "Sing we to our God above," t. e., Let us sing to our God above. In such cases, the noun or pronoun should be parsed as the subject of the prop- osition, the imperative agreeing with it in number and person. This use of the imperative is not uncommon. Ex. — "Ruin seize thee, ruthless king." — Gray. "Laugh those who inay, weep those who must." — Scott. " Then turn we to her latest tribune's name." — Byron. "Proceed we therefore to our subject." — Pope. "Come the eleventh plague, rather than this should be." — Cowley. "Be it enacted." — Statutes of Ohio. "Somebody call my wife." — Shakespeare. " Hallowed be thy name." Rem. 4. — The imperative mode is sometimes used to denote a wish, a demand, a grant, a concession, or a precaution. Ex. — "Let all the earth fear the Lord." "Give me that knife." " Let it be lawful, that law do no wrong." — Shakespeare. "Let it be admitted." "Look, that he hide no weapon." — Bulwer. 99. INFINITIVE MODE. The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, being, or state, without affirming it; as, to write; to have written; "He rose to ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 87 Rem. I. — The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the verbs bid,' dare, feel, hear, help, let, make, need, see, and a few others; as, "Bid them be quiet;" "Let them come on;" "See him run." Rem. 2. — The infinitive, as an abstract noun, may be the subject or predicate of a sentence; may be in apposition with a noun ; and may be the object of a transitive verb or prepo- sition; as, "To lie is disgraceful;" "To work is to pray" "De- lightful task, to rear the tender thought;" "I love to read;" " Can save the son of Thetis from to die! 1 Although the infinitive has the construction of a noun, it may govern an object, or be modified by an adverb. It is never limited by an adjective attribute, but may have a predi- cate adjective belonging to it; as, "To converse is pleasant ;" "To suffer all this wrong is hard." 100. EXERCISES. Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sentences i 1. A great storm is raging. 2. You may go or stay. 3. Bring me some flowers. 4. Hope thou in God. 5. If he study, he will excel. 6. If he studies, it is when he is alone. 7. Were I rich, I would purchase that property. 8. Who will go with me? 9. Do let me see your book. 10. I must not be tardy. 11. Lift up your heads, O ye gates! 12. Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 13. He should have told you. 14. They dare not puzzle us for their own sakes. 15. Let us not, I beseech you, deceive ourselves longer. 16. God help us! what a poor world this would be, if this were the true doctrine. 17. If a line is parallel to a line of a plane, it is parallel to that plane. 18. If a plane intersect two parallel planes, the lines of intersection will be parallel. 19. "Could he have kept his spirit to that flight, he had been happy." — Byron. 20. Reign thou in hell, thy kingdom; let me serve In heaven, God ever blest. — Milton. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 21. Place me on Sunium's marble steep, Where nothing, save the waves and I, May hear our mutual murmurs sweep; There, swan-like, let me sing and die. — Byron. TENSE. 101. DEFINITION. 1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 2. There are three divisions of time : Past, Present, and Future. Each division has two tenses: an absolute and a relative. 3. The Absolute Tenses are the Present, the Past, and the Future. They denote indefinite or incomplete action. 4. The Relative Tenses are the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect, They denote completed action. 102. PRESENT TENSE. The Present Tense denotes present time ; as, " I walk ; " " The army is marching." Rem. I. — The present tense is used in expressing a general truth, or what is habitual ; as, " Perseverance conquers all things;" "The mail arrives at six P. M." Rem. 2. — The historical present is the present used for the past, to describe more vividly what took place in past time; as, "Tacitus describes the manners and customs of the ancient Germans;" "Ulysses wakes, not knowing where he was." — Pope. "Matthew traces the descent of Joseph; Luke traces that of Mary." ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 89 Rem. 3. — The present of the speaker or hearer is what is meant by present time. The present of the reader may not be the same as that of the writer. Rem. 4. — When preceded by a relative pronoun, or by con- junctive adverbs of time, the present tense is sometimes future in its reference; as, "He will please all who employ him;" "The flowers will bloom when spring comes." 103. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or event as past, but connected with present time; as, "I have learned my lesson." Rem. I. — Have, the sign of the present perfect tense, origi- nally denoted possession. It retains this meaning when used as a principal verb. As an auxiliary, it denotes completion; as, "The hunters have killed a wolf;" "A man has fallen from the bridge." Rem. 2. — When preceded by a conjunctive adverb of time, the present perfect tense sometimes denotes future time; as, " He will forward the goods as soon as he has received them." 104. PAST TENSE. The Past Tense expresses what took place in time wholly past ; as, " I wrote ; " " I was sailing." Rem. — The past indicative, like the present, denotes what was habitual; as, "We walked five miles every morning," In the progressive form, it denotes an act in past time, but not com- pleted; as, "He was driving furiously when I saw him." The past potential denotes (1) a duty or obligation, without reference to time ; as, " Judges should be merciful : " (2) a habit or custom; as, "He would be absent a week at a time:" (3) ability possessed in past time; as, "He could walk yes- terday:" (4) present possibility or power; as, "I could write [now] if I would:" (5) a future possibility; as, "If I should write to you [hereafter], you must answer immediately." 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 105. PAST PERFECT TENSE. The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as ended or completed in time fully past ; as, " The cars had started before we reached the depot." Rem. I.— The past is frequently used instead of the past perfect, to denote the completion of an act at or before a certain past time mentioned; as, "The boat left before mid- night." Rem. 2. — The past perfect subjunctive and past perfect potential deny the action or event ; as, M If I had started sooner, I should have overtaken you." 106. FUTURE TENSE. The Future Tense expresses what will take place in future time ; as, " I shall return soon ; " " The lion shall eat straw like the ox." Rem. I. — Shall and will are the signs of the future tense. Shall expresses the action or event (1) as a duty commanded; as, " He shall pay you ; " " Thou shall not steal : " (2) as a prediction; as, "I shall make a thousand dollars:" (3) as future; as, "I shall leave at noon." Will expresses the action or event (1) as something deter- mined upon; as, "I will go: no power on earth can prevent me;" ''The cause will raise up armies:" (2) as future; as, "You will feel better to-morrow." Rem. 2.— Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third, are usually employed to denote futurity; as, "We shall arrive there by noon;" "You will be glad to see us;" " He will be with us." Will is used, in the first person, to denote determination; and shall, in the second and third, to denote necessity; as, "I will write to you;" "I will not do it, come what may;" "Neither he nor you shall go without me." ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 91 107. FUTUBE PERFECT TENSE. The Future Perfect Tense represents an action as finished or ended at or before a certain future time; as, "I shall have finished my task at three o'clock;" " We shall have dined before you arrive." 108. TENSES IN ALL THE MODES. 1. The Indicative Mode has the six tenses. 2. The Subjunctive Mode has three tenses: the pres- ent, past, and past perfect. 3. The Potential Mode has four tenses : the present, present perfect, past, and past perfect 4. The Imperative Mode has one tense: the present. 5. The Infinitive Mode has two tenses: the present and present perfect. Rem. — Tense does not properly belong to the infinitive mode. Its tenses are mere forms, without regard to time. The present tense denotes progressive or completed action or 6tate, with reference to past, present, or future time; the present perfect, a completed action or state in an unlimited 109. SIGNS OF THE TENSES: ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, .... Simple form of the verb. Past, When regular, add ed to the simple form. Future, .... Prefix shall or will to the simple form. Present Perfect, Prefix have, hast, or has to the perfect participle. Past Perfect, . Prefix had or hadst to the perfect participle. Future Perfect, Prefix shall have or will have to the perfect participle. 92 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. If, though, except, unless, etc., placed before tense forms given in the Conjugation, are called signs of the subjunctive mode. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, .... Prefix may, can or must to the simple form. Past, Prefix might, could, would, or should to the simple form. Present Perfect, Prefix may, can, or must have to the perfect participle. Past Perfect, . Prefix might, could, would, or should have to the perfect participle. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present, .... Let, or a command. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, .... Prefix to to the simple form. Present Perfect, Prefix to have to the perfect participle. PARTICIPLES. Present, .... Add ing to the simple form. Perfect, .... When regular, add ed or d to the simple form. Compound, , . Prefix having to the perfect participle. 110. FORMS OF THE VERB. 1. Verbs have five forms, which may be considered subdivisions of the tenses: the Common, the Emphatic, the Progressive, the Passive, and the Ancient, or Solemn Style. 2. The Common Form represents an act as a custom, or as completed without reference to its progress; as, "I write;" "I shall write" ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 93 3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with em- phasis; as, "I do write;" "He did go;" " He declared that he did not do it." Rem. — This form is used in the present and past indicative and subjunctive and in the present imperative. It is formed by prefixing the present and past tenses of to do to the simple form of the verb. 4. The Progressive Form is used to denote action or state in progress; as, "I am writing;' 7 "He had been singing." Rem. — The progressive form may be used in all the modes and tenses, and is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the verb to be to the present participle of th<% principal verb. 5. The Passive Form denotes the reception of an act by its subject; as, "I am struck;" "John was pun- ished;" "I shall be loved." Rem. — The passive form is used in all the modes and tenses, and is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the verb to be to the perfect participle of the principal verb. 6. The Ancient Form, or Solemn Style, is used in the Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes in poetry and burlesque; as, "Thou art the man;" "So shalt thou rest;" "Thou art a pretty fellow." 111. PERSON AND NUMBER. 1. The Person and Number of verbs are their modifu cations to mark their agreement with their subjects. 2. A subject in the second 'person singular, generally requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in t, st, or est; as, "Thou shalt not steal;" "Thou canst read;" "Thou runnest." 94 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 3. A subject in the third person singular, generally requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in s, es, or eth; as, " Julia reads;" "The horse goes;" "God loveth us." 4. The personal terminations in the plural are the same as the first person singular, except in the verb to be. 5. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. Rem. 1. — "When two or more nominatives, differing in per- son, are taken collectively, the verb prefers the first to the second, and the second to the third. When they are con- nected by or or nor, or are taken separately, it prefers the person of the nominative next to it. Courtesy requires the first place to be given to the second person, and last place to the first Ex. — " You, he, and I have to remain ; " " You and he have to learn that long lesson;" "You or I am mistaken;" "Thou and thy friends are to make reparation." Rem, 2. — A verb must be in the singular number when its* subject conveys the idea of unity. Ex. — "'Rainfalls;" "The army is marching;" "Dombey & Son [the title of a book] was written by Dickens ; " " The ten dollars [a single sum] was duly paid •, " "Descent and fall [words alike in meaning] to us is adverse." Rem. 3. — A verb must be in the plural number when its subject conveys the idea of plurality. Ex. — " The rains descend; " " The multitude pursue pleasure ; " " Either the magistrate or the lavjs are at fault ; " " You, he, and I are here." 112. UNIPERSONAL VERBS. A Unipersonal Verb is one by which an act or state is asserted independently of any particular subject; as, " It snows ; " " It cleared off; " " It behooves us to be careful/' ETYMOLOGY— VEKBS. 95 Rem. — Meseems, meseemed, methinks, methought, may be regarded as unipersonal verbs, equivalent to it seems, it seemed to me, I think, I thought. 113. CONJUGATION. 1. The Conjugation of a verb is the correct expres- sion, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, per- sons, and numbers. 2. There are four forms of conjugation : the Regular, the Emphatic, the Progressive, and the Interrogative. 3. The Principal Parts of a verb are: the present in- dicative, the past indicative, and the perfect participle. 4. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form, through the different modes and tenses, in a single num- ber and person. 114. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO BE." PKINCIPAL PAETS. Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. Be, or am. Was. Been. SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, .... I am. Past Perfect, . I had been. Present Perfect, I have been. Future, .... I shall be. Past, I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, .... If I be. Past, If I were. Past Perfect, ... If I had been 96 ENGLISH GKAMMAR POTENTIAL MODE. Present, . , . . I may, can, or must be. Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have been. Past, I might, could, would, or should be. Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have been. REGULAR CONJUGATION. Note. — Shall, in the first person, and vnU, in the second and third, future tenses, are used to denote futurity. When will is used in the first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity, as well as futurity, is represented. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. I am, 2. Thou art, 3. He is; Plural. 1. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have been, 2. Thou hast been, 3. He has been; 1. We have been, 2. You have been, 3. They have been. 1. T was, 2. Thou wast, 3. He was: PAST TENSE. 1. We were, 2. You were, 3. They were. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 3. He had been; 1. We had been, 2. You had been, 3. They had been. 1. I shall be, 2. Thou wilt be, 3. He will be : FUTURE TENSJJrv" 1. We shall be, 2. You will be, 3. They will be. ETYMOLOGY— VEEBS. 97 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 3. If he be; 3. If they be. PAST TENSE. 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 2. If thou wert, 2. If you were, 3. If he were; 3. If they were. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been, 3. If he had been; 3. If they had J>een^ POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 3. He may be; 3. They may be. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. PAST TENSE. 1. I might be, 1. We might be, 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 3. He might be; 3. They might be. H. G.-7. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAST PERFECT TENSE. « Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been; 3. They might have been. Note. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Be, or do thou be; 2. Be, or do ye or you be. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been, PARTICIPLES. Present, Being. Perfect, Been. Compound, -Having been. 115. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." ACTIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. Love. Loved. Loved. SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, .... I love. Past Perfect, . I had loved. Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, ... I shall love. Past, I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . . If I love. Past, ... If I loved. Past Perfect, . . . If I had loved. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 99 POTENTIAL MODE. Present, ... I may, can, or must love. Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved. Past, I might, could, would, or should love. Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have loved. REGULAR CONJUGATION. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I love, 1. We love, 2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 3. He loves; 3. They love. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved ; 3. They loved. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love ; 3. They will love. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 100 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. If I love, 2. If thou love, 3. If he love; 1. If I loved, 2. If thou loved, 3. If he loved ; Plural. 1. If we love, 2. If you love, 3. If they love. PAST TENSE. 1. If we loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If they loved. PAST PEEFECT TENSE. 1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love; 3. They may love. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love; 3. They might love. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 101 IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Love, or do thou love; 2. Love, or do ye or you love. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To love. Present Perfect, To have loved. PARTICIPLES. Present, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having loved. 116. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." PASSIVE VOICE. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing, as an auxiliary, the various forms of the verb to be, to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. The tense of the verb to be determines the tense in the Passive Voice. SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, ...... I am loved. Present Perfect, .... I have been loved. Past, I was loved. Past Perfect, I had been loved. Future, I shall be loved. Future Perfect, .... I shall have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved. Past Perfect, ... If I had been loved. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, I may be loved. Present Perfect, ... I may have been loved. Past, I might be loved. Past Perfect, . , . . I might have been loved. 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. REGULAR CONJUGATION. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. I am loved, 2. Thou art loved, 3. He is loved ; Plural. 1. We are loved, 2. You are loved, 3. They are loved. PRESENT 1. I have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 3. He has been loved; PERFECT TENSE. 1. We have been loved, 2. You have been loved, 3. They have been loved. 1. I was loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 3. He was loved; PAST TENSE. J. We were loved. 2. You were loved, 3. They were loved. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved, 3. He had been loved; 1. We had been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. They had been loved. 1. I shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, 3. He will be loved ; FUTURE TENSE. 1. We shall, be loved, 2. You will be loved, 3. They will be loved. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have been loved, 2. Thou wilt have been loved. 3. He will have been loved ; 1. We shall have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 3. They will have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I be loved, 2. If thou be loved, 3. If he be loved; 1. If we be loved, 2. If you be loved, 3. If they be loved. ETYMOLOGY- VEKBS. 103 PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. If I were loved, 1. Were I loved, 1. If we were loved, 2. If thou wert loved, 2. Wert thou loved, 2. If you were loved, 3. If he were loved ; 3. Were he loved ; 3. If they were loved. Rem. — For the Past Perfect Tense, prefix if to the forms of the Past Perfect Indicative. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE, 1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2, You may have been loved, 3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I might be loved, I. We might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 2. Thou mightst have«been loved. 2. You might have been loved, 3. He might have been loved; 3. They might have been loved. Note. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Be loved, or be thou loved; 2. Be loved, or be you loved. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present, Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having been loved. 104 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 117. COORDINATE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. The Progressive, the Emphatic, and the Interrogative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. SYNOPSIS. PROGRESSIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, . - • Present Perfect, Past, . . . . Fast Perfect. Future, . . . Future Perfect, I am loving. I have been loving. I was loving. I had been loving. I shall be loving, I shall have been loving. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . If I be loving Past, If I were loving. Past Perfect, .... If I had been loving. POTENTIAL MODE. Present, I may be loving. Present Perfect, ... I may have been loving. Past, I might be loving. Past Perfect, .... I migh have been loving. INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present, . . . Be thou loving. PARTICIPLES. Present, Loving. Compound, Having been loving. THE EMPHATIC FORM. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, I do love. Past, I did love. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 105 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present, . . . Do thou love. INTERROGATIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, .... Love I? Do I love? Am I loving? Present Perfect, . Have I loved? Have I been loving? Past, Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving? Past Perfect, . . Had I loved? Had I been loving? Future, . . . . Shall I love? Shall I be loving? Future Perfect, . Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving? POTENTIAL MODE. Present, . . , Must I love? Past, . . . Might I love? Present Perfect, Must I have loved? Past Perfect, Might I have loved? 118. NEGATIVE FORMS. 1. To conjugate a verb negatively, place not after it or after the first auxiliary, but before the infinitive and the participles. Ex.— Indicative, I learn not, or, I do not learn. I have not learned. I learned not, or, did not learn, etc. Infinitive. — Not to learn. Not to have learned. Participle. — Not learning. Not learned. Not having learned. 2. To conjugate a verb interrogatively and negatively, in the indicative and potential modes, place the subject and not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary. Ex.— Learn I not? or, Do I not learn 9 jiave I not learned? Did I not learn? etc. 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119. EXERCISES. Write a synopsis of the transitive verbs write, think, row, arouse, build, conquer, command, entreat, teach, and instruct, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices. Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the following sentences : 1. He has gone. 2. I might write. 3. We had gone. 4. He had been assured. 5. If I were loved. 6. They may have been left. 7. You were seen. 8. Thou wilt have loved. 9. She will have been invited. 10. He might have built. 11. You might have been seen. 12. The vessel will have sailed. 13. We might have written. 14. They were loved. 15. If I had been loved. 16. If he is loved. 17. Though he love. 18. Though he is loved. 19. If I may be seen. 20. We can go. 21. Go. 22. Remain. 23. If he return. 24. If he returns. 120. IRREGULAR VERBS. An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present tense ; as, do, did, done ; go, went, gone. The following list contains the Principal Parts of most of the Irregular Verbs. Those marked it have also the regular forms. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. Abide, abode, abode. Become, became, become. Am, was, been. Befall, befell, befallen. Awake, awoke, R .f awaked, I awoke. Beget, ( begat, I begot, begctten, begot. Arise, arose, arisen. Begin, began, begun. Bear, f bore, • I bare, born. Behold, beheld, beheld. (bring forth) Belay, belaid, r. belaid, r. Bear (carry), bore, borne. Bend, bent, r. bent, r. Beat, beat, f beaten, *■ beat. Bereave, bereft, r. bereft, r. Beseech, besought, besought. ETYMOLOGY— VEKBS. 107 PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. Bet, bet, k. bet, R, Dream, dreamt, ] r. dreamt, R. Betide, f betided, I betid, betided, Dress, drest, r. drest, R. betid. Dwell, dwelt, r dwelt, r. Bid, {bid, 1 bade, bid, Drive, drove, driven. bidden. Eat, ate, eaten. Bite, bit, / bitten, I bit. Fall, Feed, fell, 'fed, fallen, fed. Bind, bound, bound, Feel, felt, felt. Bleed, bled, bled. Fight, fought, fought. Bless, f blessed, \ blest, blessed, Find, found, found. blest. Forbear, forbore, forborne. Breed, Break, bred, f broke, I brake, bred, broken, Forget, forgot, / forgotten, i. forgot, broke. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Bring, brought, brought, Flee, fled, fled. Build, built, R. built, r. Fling, flung, flung. Burn, burnt, r burnt, R. Fly, flew, flown. Burst, burst, burst. Freeze, froze, frozen. Buy, bought, bought. Freight, freighted, fraught, n Cast, Catch, cast, caught, : cast. R. caught, R. Get, got, fgot, \ gotten. Chide, chid, f chidden, I chid. Give, Gild, gave, gilt, r. given, gilt, R. Choose, chose, chosen. Gird, girt, r. girt, R. Cleave, [adhere r cleaved, >« \ clave, cleaved. Go, Grave, . went, graved, gone, graven, r< Cleave, (split r cleft, cleft, Grind, ground, ground. 1 clove, cloven, Grow, grew, grown. y- clave, cleaved. Hang, hung, r. hung, r. Cling, clung, clung. Have, had, had. Clothe, f clothed, I clad, clothed, Heave, hove, r. hove, r. clad. Hew, hewed, hewn, r. Come, came, come. Hear, heard, heard. Cost, Creep, cost, crept, cost, crept. Hide, hid, f hidden, thid. Crow, crew, r. crowed. Hit, hit, hit. Cut, Dare, cut, durst, r cut. dared. Hold, held, {held, I holden. Deal, dealt, dealt. Hurt, hurt, . hurt. Dig, dug, R. dug, R. Keep, kept, kept. Do, did, done. Kneel, knelt, r. knelt. Draw, drew, drawn. Knit, knit, r. knit, R. 108 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. Know, knew, known. Shake, shook, shaken. Lay, laid, laid. Shape, shaped, shapen, r. Lead, led, led. Shave, shaved, shaven, r. Lean, leant, R. leant, R. Shear, shore, r. shorn, R. Leap, leapt, R. leapt, R. Shed, shed, shed. Learn, learnt, r learnt, r. Shine, shone, R. shone, R. Leave, left, left. Shoe, shod, shod. Lend, lent, lent. Shoot, shot, shot. Let, let, let. Show, showed, shown. Lie, (recline), lay, lain. Shred, shred, shred. Light, lit, r. lit, r. Shrink r shrunk, \ shrank, shrunk, Lose, lost, lost. ► 'ill lllJtv* shrunken. Load, loaded, laden, r. Shut, shut, shut. Make, made, made. • Sit, sat, sat. Mean, Meet, meant, met, meant, met. Sing, f sang, I sung, sung. Mow, mowed, mown, r. Sink, r sank, sunk. Pay, paid, paid. I sunk, Pass, past, r. past. SOW, (scatter), SOWed, sown, r. Pen, {inclose), pent, r. pent, r. Slay, slew, slain. Plead, r plead, r t pled, plead, r. Sleep, slept, slept. pled. Sling, slung, slung. Put, put, put. Slink, slunk, slunk. Quit, quit, r. quit, r. Slit, slit, slit. Rap, rapt, r. rapt, r. Smell, smelt, smelt, r Read, read, read. Smite, smote, J smitten, I smit. Reave, reft, reft. Rend, rent, rent. Speak, spoke. spoken. Rid, rid, rid. Speed, sped, sped. Ride, rode, f ridden, I rode. Spell, spelt, r. spelt, r. Spend, spent, spent. Ring, / rang, I rung, rung. Spill, spilt, R. spilt, R. Spin, ( spun, \ span, spun. Rise, rose, risen. Rive, rived, riven, R. Spit, f spit, I spat, spit, Run, ran, run. spitten. Saw, sawed, sawn, r. Split, split, split. Say, said, said. Spread, spread, spread. See, Seethe, saw, # sod, R. seen, sodden, r. Spring, f sprang, \ sprung, sprung. Seek, sought, sought. Spoil, spoilt, R. spoilt, R. Set, set, set. Stay, staid, R. staid, r. ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 109 PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. Stand, stood, stood. Teach, taught, taught. Stave, stove, R. stove, R. Tear, tore, torn. Steal, stole, stolen. Tell, told, told. Stick, stuck, stuck. Think, thought, thought. Sting, stung, stung. Thrive, throve, r . thriven, R. Stride, r strode, I strid, stridden, Throw, threw, thrown. strid. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Strike, struck, r struck, \ stricken. Tread, trod, f trodden, I trod. String, strung, strung. Wax, waxed, waxen, r. Strive, strove, striven. Wear, wore, worn. Strow, strowed, f strowed, I strown. Weave, Weep, wove, r. wept, woven, r. wept. Swear, r swore, I sware, sworn. Wake, Wed, woke, r. wed, r. woke, r. wed, r. Sweat, sweat, r . sweat, r. Wet, wet, r. wet, r. Sweep, swept, swept. Whet, whet, r. whet, r. Swell, swelled, swollen, r. Win, won, won. Swim, ( swam, 1 swum, swum. Wind, Work, wound, wrought, wound. R. wrought, r. Swing, swung, swung. Wring, wrung, wrung. Take, took, taken. Write, wrote, written. Rem.- — The auxiliaries are all irregular verbs. Their forms may be found in the paradigm for their conjugation. 121. DEFECTIVE AND REDUNDANT VERBS. 1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of the Principal Parts. Ex. — Beware, from be and aware, used mostly in the imperative mode, but may be used wherever be would occur in the conjuga- tion of the verb to be ; as, " Beware the awful avalanche ! " " If angels fell, why should not men beware f" Ought, used in both present and past tenses; as, "I know I ought to go," (now) ; " I knew he ought to have gone," (then). Quoth, used for said; as, "'Not I,' quoth Sancho." It always stands before its subject. Quod is also used in the same sense, by old authors. Wit, in the sense of know; as, " To wit" i. e., namely. Wot, wis, wert, wist, wote, derived from wit, are found in old authors. HO ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 2. The Auxiliaries are also defective, wanting the per- fect participle. 3. Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one form for their past tense or perfect participle. Ex. — Cleave; cleft, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved. 122. ORDER OF PARSING-. 1. A Verb, and why? 2. Regular or Irregular, and why? 3. Give its principal parts. 4. Copulative, transitive or intransitive, and why? 5. Voice, and why? 6. Mode, and why? 7. Tense, and why? Inflect the tense. 8. Person and number, and why? Rule. 123. MODELS FOR PARSING. I. "Mary has recited her lesson." Has recited is a verb; it is a word which expresses being, action, or state: regular; it forms its past tense and perfect participle by adding ed: principal parts are pres., recite, past, recited, perfect participle, recited: transitive; it re- quires the addition of an object to complete its mean- ing: active voice; it represents the subject as acting: common form; it represents a customary act: indicative mode; it asserts a thing as actual: present perfect tense; it represents a past act as completed in present time: third person, singular number; to agree with its subject " Mary," according to Rule XIII : "A verb must agree with its subject in person and number." II. " I shall go if you stay." Shall go . . is a verb; irregular; it does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding ed: principal parts are go, went, gone: intransitive; common form; indicative mode; future tense; first person, singular number: Rule XIII. ETYMOLOGY— VEEBS. 1 1 1 Stay. ... o is a verb; regular; principal parts; (give them): intransi- tive; common form; subjunctive mode; it represents an act as conditional: present tense in form, but denotes future time: second person, plural number; Eule XIII. III. "He should have answered my letter." Should have answered is a verb; regular; principal parts; (give them): transitive; active voice; common form; potential mode; it represents an act as obligatory: past perfect tense; it is the form used to represent an act as com- pleted at or before some other act: third person, singular number; Eule XIII. IV. ''Bring me a glass of water." Bring .... is a verb; irregular; principal parts; (give them) : transi- tive ; active voice; common form ; imperative mode ; present tense; second person, singular number, to agree with its subject "thou" understood: Eule XIII. V. " He attempted to ascend the mountain.' To ascend . is a verb; regular; principal parts; (give them): transi- tive; active voice; common form; infinitive mode; present tense; object of "attempted": Eule VI. VI. " The letter was written yesterday." Was written is a verb; irregular; principal parts; (give them) : transi- tive; passive voice; it represents the subject as being acted upon: indicative mode; past tense; third person, singular number: Eule XIII. VII. " Liberty is sweet." Is is a verb; irregular; principal parts; (give them) : copula- tive; it is used to connect the predicate "sweet" to the subject "liberty": indicative mode; present tense; third person, singular number, to agree with its subject " lib- erty ":*Eule XIII. VIII. " He was considered rich." Was considered is a verb; regular; principal parts; (give them): passive form; copulative; indicative mode; past tense; third person, singular number: Eule XIII. 112 ENGLISH GEAMMAR IX. "The fields look green." Look .... is a verb ; regular ; principal parts ; (give them) : copula- tive; it connects the predicate "green" to the subject " fields " : indicative mode ; present tense ; third person f plural number; Eule XIII. X. "John hastened to assist us." To assist. . is a verb; regular; principal parts; (give them): transi- tive; active voice; infinitive mode; it expresses action without affirming it: it depends upon "hastened": Eule XVII. XI. "To lie is disgraceful." To lie ... is a verb; regular; principal parts; (give them) : infinitive mode; it is the subject of the sentence "To lie is dis- graceful," and is in the nominative case: Eule I. XII. "He has been reading Shakespeare." Has been reading is a verb; irregular; principal parts; (give them): active voice; progressive form ; it denotes continuance of action: indicative mode; present perfect tense; third person, singular number: Eule XIII. XIII. "That man did buy our house." Did buy . . is a verb; irregular; principal parts; (give them): active voice; emphatic form; it denotes assertion with emphasis: indicative mode; past tense; third person } singular number: Eule XIII. 124. EXERCISES. Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in the following sen- tences : 1. They commenced plowing yesterday. 2. I seldom write letters. 3. My father brought me some pine-apples when he came from the city. 4. She had gone to walk. 5. "When do you intend to return my umbrella? 6. The workmen should have been more careful. 7. Hallowed be thy name. 8. Ee- spect the aged. 9. I could not learn to do it ETYMOLOGY- VEKBS. 113 10. The weather was unpleasant. 11. He should have been more industrious. 12. Shall I assist you? 13. How many reg- iments were mustered out? 14. Have all the gifts of healing? 15. Eemember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 16. The poor must work in their grief. 17. We were speedily con- vinced that his professions were in-sincere. 18. Hear, father, hear our prayer? Long hath thy goodness our footsteps attended. 19. That very law that molds a tear, And bids it trickle from its source, That law preserves the earth a sphere, And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers. 20. Why restless, why cast down, my soul? Hope still, and thou shalt sing The praise of Him who is thy God, Thy Savior, and thy king. 21. If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. — Pope. 22. If goodness lead him not, yet weariness May toss him to my heart. — Geo. Herbert Passive Forms. 1. He was beaten with many stripes. 2. The sheep were destroyed by wolves. 3. Every crime should be punished. 4. You, he, and I were invited. 5. America was discovered by Christopher Columbus. 6. He has been elected mayor of our city. 7. The work might have been finished. Progressive, Emphatic, and Interrogative Forms. 1. He is writing a letter. 2. They should have been studying their lessons. 3. They were digging for gold. 4. I do wish you were here. 5. He did not commit forgery. 6. How do you learn so fast? 7. Why does he persist in denying it? 8. Where were you going when I met you? 125. CAUTIONS. Caution I. — General truths should be expressed in the present tense. H. G.-8. 114 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. Ex. — 1. I have always thought that dew fell. 2. He proved that the earth was round. 3. I should think it was time for the bell to ring. 4. He told me that every star was a sun. 5. I did not know that brass was made of zinc and copper. 6. Heat will radiate best from rough substances. Caution II. — Do not use the perfect participle to ex- press past time, nor the past tense form instead of the perfect participle. Ex. — 1. I come here last Saturday. 2. John done it: I seen him. 3. I have saw an old friend to-day. 4. The bridge had fell: it was broken in two. 5. The cars have ran off the track. 6. The bells ringed when we come into town. 7. The letter was wrote in haste. 8. He has went and brung some snow into the house. 9. The wind has blowed the fence down. 10. His face has wore a sad expression for some time. 11. He laid down a while. 12. Charles winned the prize. 13. The vessel springed a leak. 14. He dumb the tree and shaked the chestnuts down. 15. Have the cattle been drove to pasture? 16. The cloth was weaved beautiful. 17. The boy had swam the river. Caution III. — In the use of words in sentences, a due regard should be paid to expressed or implied relations of time. Ex. — 1. He was tardy every day this week. 2. After I learned my lesson, I took a walk. 3. They have visited us last week. 4. He was under obligations to have assisted me. 5. John was ab- sent all this afternoon. 6. I know the family more than twenty years. 7. I shall live here ten years next October. Caution IV. — Do not use is n't or aint for is not, have n't or haint for have not, 't aint for it is not, might of for might have, etc. Ex. — 1. I haint learned my lesson. 2. 'Taint right to disturb the meeting. 3. Aint you going east this summer? 4. You might of known that I aint well. 5. He could of helped you, and you should of made him do so. Caution V. — Never use will for shall, nor would for should, etc. ETYMOLOGY— ADVERBS. 115 Ex. — 1. I shall go ; no one will prevent me. 2. I should be sorry if you would be sick. 3. If I would earn money, I would save it. 4. I will not be at home to-morrow evening. 5. We will receive our pay next week. 6. Would we have a pleasant time if we should go? Caution VI. — Do not use improper passive forms. Ex.- 1. He was retired from active service. 2. He is possessed of a large amount of bank stock. 3. He was just returned from Boston when I saw him. 4. Evening was come before we reached the shore. 5. The men were all agreed on that. Caution VII. — In expressing a supposition, use the subjunctive mode to denote doubt or denial, and the indicative mode to express a fact or any thing assumed as a fact. Ex. — 1. If he was rich, he would be generous. 2. Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. 3. If it rains, I shall not go. 4. Be careful lest thou fallest into bad company. 5. If he play, he wins. 6. If he is not engaged, he will go with you. THE ADVERB, 126. ORAL LESSON. Write this sentence on your slates: "Jane sang a song** What element is "song"? Ans. — An objective element. Why? Ans. — Because it completes the meaning of the predi- cate. Write "Jane sang a song sweetly." Does "sweetly" com- plete the meaning of the predicate? Ans. — It does not. What word is modified by it, however? Ans. — "Sang." How does it modify "sang"? Ans. — It tells how Jane sang. Write this sentence: "You are very kind." What word is modified by "very"? Ans. — "Kind." What part of speech is "kind"? Ans. — An adjective. Write, "A letter, hastily writ- ten, was sent me yesterday." What does "hastily" modify? Ans. — "Written." What part of speech is "written"? Ans. — A participle. Write, "The letter was written very hastily," 116 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. What does "very" modify? Ans. — "Hastily." What does "hastily" modify? Ans. — "Was written." Those words, and all others used in a similar manner, are called Adverbs. 127. DEFINITION. An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb; as, "She sings sweetly;" "The roads are very rough;" "The ranks were quickly broken ; " " He reads tolerably well." Rem. I.— An adverb is equivalent to a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, limited by an adjective. Ex. — "He walks rapidly" i. e., He walks in a rapid manner. "He lives there," i. e., He lives at that place. " The work is intensely in- teresting," i. e., The work is interesting in an intense degree. Rem. 2. — An adverb sometimes modifies a phrase or a clause. Ex. — "He sailed nearly round the globe;" "The old man likewise came to the city." In the first sentence, nearly limits the phrase "round the globe;" and in the second, likewise modifies the entire proposition. 128. CLASSES. 1. With respect to their meaning and use, adverbs are divided into five classes : Adverbs of Time, Place, Cause, Manner, and Degree. 2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, Wlienf How longf How often f Ex. — After, again, ago, always, anon, early, ever, never, forever, frequently, hereafter, hitherto, immediately, lately, now, often, sel- dom, soon, sometimes, then, when, while, weekly, until, yet, etc. Rem. — To-day, to-morrow, to-night, yesterday, yesternight (formerly written yester day and yester night), are nouns, not adverbs. When used as modifiers, they should, in most instances, be parsed as nouns in the objective case, without a governing word. (See Eule VIII.) ETYMOLOGY— ADVERBS. H7 Ex.— "He will come to-day;" "They all left yesterday;" "We had a severe storm yesternight," 3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where f Whither f Whence f Ex. — Above, below, down, up, hither, thither, here, there, where, herein, therein, wherein, hence, thence, whence, every-where, no- where, somewhere, far, yonder, back, forth, aloof, away, aboard, aloft, ashore, backwards, forwards, first, secondly, wherever, etc. Rem. — There is sometimes used as an expletive to introduce a sentence; as, "There were giants in those days;" "Breathes there a man with soul so dead?" 4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, Why f Wherefore f Ex. — Wherefore, therefore, then, why. 5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, Howf Ex. — Amiss, asunder, anyhow, well, badly, easily, foolishly, sweetly, certainly, indeed, surely, verily, nay, no, not, nowise, haply, perhaps, perchance, perad venture, probably, etc. Rem. — Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to adjectives or participles; as, wise, wisely ; united, unitedly. 6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much? How little f Ex. — As, almost, altogether, enough, even, equally, much, more, most, little, less, least, wholly, partly, only, quite, scarcely, nearly, 'excellently, too, chiefly, somewhat, etc. 7. Adverbs which show the manner of the assertion are called modal adverbs ; as, verily, truly, not, no, yes, etc. 8. When, where, why, etc., when used in asking ques- tions, are called interrogative adverbs. 9. An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words used as a single adverb. 118 ENGLISH GKAMMAR Ex. — " In general ; " " hand in hand ; " " by and by ; " " through and through ; " " no more ; " " for the most part ; " " as usual," etc. Such combinations may be parsed as single adverbs. 10. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect sen- tences used as modifiers and the term modified. Ex. — "I shall see you again when I return;" "Go where glory waits thee ; " "I have been to Boston since I saw you last ; " " Pay your bills before you leave;" "The book remained where I left it;" " I will go as soon as I have eaten my dinner." Rem. I. — The clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb modifies some word in the principal clause; the conjunctive adverb itself modifies some word in the subordinate clause. In the sentence, "He defends himself when he is attacked," the clause "when he is attacked" modifies "defends;" "when" modifies " is attacked," and connects the two clauses. Rem. 2. — The principal conjunctive adverbs are: as, after, before, how, since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, and why. 129. COMPARISON. Many adverbs admit of comparison. 1. Derivatives ending in ly are usually compared by prefix- ing more and most, less and least to the simple form; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; firmly, less firmly, least firmly. 2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the simple form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest ; often, oftener, oftenest; soon, sooner, soonest. 3. Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better best; ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most, etc. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Some adverbs seem to be used independently ; as, yes, no, why, well, etc., in certain constructions. They may be parsed as modifying the entire proposition, the preceding sentence, something understood, or, as independent. ETYMOLOGY— ADVEKBS. 119 Ex.— "Have you my book?— No." "Wliy, that is strange." "Well, I am surprised." "Yea, the Lord sitteth King forever." 2. Certain words are used sometimes as adverbs and some- times as adjectives. They are adverbs when they modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and adjectives when they modify nouns or pronouns. Ex. — " I can remain no longer ; " " Let no man deceive you." In the first sentence, " no " is an adverb, modifying " longer ; " in the second, it is an adjective, modifying "man." 3. In such expressions as " He works for hire only'' " One man only was injured," "only" is an adjective, modifying the preceding noun. " He sells drugs and books also." Here "also" is an adverb, modifying "sells" understood. "He sells drugs, and he also sells books." 130. ORDER OF PARSING-. 1. An Adverb, and why? 2. Compare it. 3. Tell what it modifies. 4. Eule. 131. MODELS FOR PARSING-. I. " He acted wisely." Wisely is an adverb; it is used to modify the meaning of a verb: compared, wisely, more wisely, most wisely: it is an adverb of manner, and modifies "acted": Eule XVIII : " Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and adverbs." II. "Why do you laugh?" Why is an adverb; it is not compared: interrogative adverb t and modifies "do laugh": Kule XVIIL 120 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. III. "They walk hand in hand." Hand in hand is an adverbial phrase; it is a combination of words used as a simple adverb: it modifies "walk": Rule XVIII. IV. "I shall certainly recover." Certainly ... is an adverb; modal; it shows the manner in which the assertion is made: it modifies "shall recover": Rule XVIII. V. "I will go whenever you wish." Whenever . . is an adverb; conjunctive adverb; it connects two clauses, and modifies "wish": Rule XVIII. 132. EXERCISES. Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : 1. They lived very happily. 2. Why do you look so sad? 3. When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 4. How rapidly the moments fly! 5. He signed it then and there. 6. I have read it again and again. 7. He will do so no more. 8. The mystery will be explained by and by. 9. Perchance you are the maii^ 10. Whither has he gone? 11. They were agreeably disap- pointed. 12. He lives just over the hill yonder. 13. Hence- forth let no man fear that God will forsake us. 14. I saw him before he left. 15. I will not be unjust. 16. I have not seen him since I returned from New York. 17. Doubtless, ye are the people. 18. Perhaps I shall go. 133. CAUTIONS. Caution I. — Do not use adjectives as adverbs. Ex. — 1. I feel tolerable well, I thank you. 2. She dresses neat. 3. I was exceeding glad to hear from you. 4. He was that angry he could scarce speak. 5. You do not speak distinct enough. 6. You ought to read slower. 7. He was near famished. 8. We walked careful over the rough ground. 9. You ought to value his friendship higher. ETYMOLOGY— PREPOSITIONS. 121 Caution II. — Avoid the use of two negatives to ex- press negation. Ex. — 1. The train does n't wait for no one. 2. We did n't find nobody at home. 3. The boys don't want no holidays. 4. You don't look no older than you did ten years ago. 5. Nothing can't be done about it now. 6. The doctor said she would never be no better, 7, X had n't no money left when I got home. THE PREPOSITION 134. ORAL LESSON. Write this sentence on your slates: "Mr. Olds is a wealthy man." What element is "wealthy"? Ans. — An adjective ele- ment. What does it modify? Ans, — "Man," Write this sen- tence: "Mr. Olds is a man of wealth." You see that "of wealth," in this sentence, has the same meaning as "wealthy" in the other. What part of speech is "wealth"? Ans. — A noun. The word "of" connects "man" and "wealth," and shows the relation between the ideas expressed by them. In this case, the relation is that of possession: "man" possesses "wealth." Words used in this manner are called Prepositions, because they are usually placed before nouns. In the sentence "We live in London," what words tell where we live? Ans. — "In London." These words constitute what is called a phrase, and form an adverbial element. The word limited by the phrase is called the antecedent term of re- lation, and the noun following the preposition, the subsequent term, or object. The antecedent term may be any thing which can be modified, but the subsequent term must be the ob- jective case of a noun or something used as a noun. In the sentence, "I recite in the afternoon," what is the antecedent term of relation? Ans. — "Eecite." Why? Ans. — Because it is the word which is modified by the phrase " in the afternoon." What is the subsequent term, or object? Ans. — "Afternoon." Why? Ans. — Because it is the object of the preposition "va.'* 122 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 135. DEFINITION. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation be- tween its object and some other word; as, "The man of Uz ; " " Ellen is walking in the garden." Rem. I. — A preposition and its object form a separable phrase, which modifies some word or combination of words, called the antecedent term of the relation expressed by the preposition; the object of the preposition being the subsequent term. In the sentence, "The house stands on a hill," "stands" is the antecedent term of relation, and " hill " the subsequent. Rem. 2. — Two prepositions are frequently combined and used as one; as, "He came from over the sea;" "The church stands over against the school-house." In such cases, parse the two prepositions as one, calling the combination a complex preposition. Rem. 3. — Sometimes the object of a preposition is omitted, as, "The boys went out;" "The regiment marched by." In such cases, parse the preposition as an adverb. Rem. 4. — The antecedent term is sometimes omitted; as, "'From Vermont?' asked the landlord;" "'As to that,' said the dial-plate." In such cases, parse the preposition as show- ing the relation between its object and an antecedent term understood. For, in the complex phrases, "For him to lie," "For you to deceive," etc., may be parsed as an introductory preposition. Rem. 5. — When the relations between objects of thought are so obvious that they need no expression, the prepositions aqp usually omitted; as, "I came home yesterday ;" "He is worth a million;" "The bridge is a mile long." In such cases, the sub- sequent term of relation is said to be in the objective case without a governing word. 136. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. A = at, on, or in; "Be quiet, and go a-angling." Aboard ; "Aboard ships, dull shocks are sometimes felt." ETYMOLOGY— PKEPOSITIONS. 123 About; "It was a day to be at home, crowding about the fire" Above ; "Above your voices sounds the wail of starving men." According to ; " Proceed according to law." Across; "Their way was across a stretch of open meadow." After ; "After life's fitful fever, he sleeps well." Against ; " Uplift against the sky, your mighty shapes." Along ; " I hear the waves resounding along the shore." Amid, amidst; "A lark reared her brood amid the corn." Among, amongst; "He was always foremost among them." Around ; " I hear around me cries of fear." As to; Ms to the parts of the cargo, they were already made fast." At; "She is at church;" "The bell rings at noon." Athwart; "Athwart the waste the pleasant home-light shines." Before; "Who shall go before them?" "I left before sunrise." Behind ; " We have seen the moon rising behind the eastern pines." Below ; " It was on the road to Kennebec, below the town of Bath." Beneath ; " The steps creaked beneath his noiseless tread." Beside; "I sat beside her;" "He is beside himself." Besides; "There is nothing at all besides this manna." Between ; " The town is situated between two mountains." Betwixt; "The waters roll betwixt him and the wooded knoll." -Beyond; "His thoughts turned to his home beyond the sea." But = except; "He had retained nothing but his father's belt." By ; " Strength came by working in the mines." Concerning ; " The Lord hath spoken good concerning Israel." Down ; " They wandered in throngs down the valley." During ; " He stayed at home during the war." Ere; "Nile flowed ere the wonted season." Except; "Are they all gone except you?" For; " I looked up for a moment; " " I sell for cash." From ; " He felt like a leaf torn from a romance." 124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. In ; " Late in life, he began life in earnest." Into ; " He gazed into the vast surrounding darkness." Like ; " He ran like a deer." Notwithstanding; "He is proud, notwithstanding his poverty." Of; "Tis the middle watch of & summer's night." Off; "The vessel was becalmed of Cuba." On ; " He sprang on a rock ; " "I leave on Saturday." Out of; " No one was moving, at least out of doors." Over; "The billows had rolled over him;" "He rules over us." Past; " He drove past our house this morning." Round ; "A shoreless ocean tumbled round the globe." Save ; " Silent is all save the dropping rain." Since ; " The Lord hath blessed thee since my coming." Till, until ; " Not till the next morning did the boys appear." Through ; " Then stept she down through town and field." Throughout; "There was much anxiety felt throughout the land." To ; " Let the old tree go down to the earth." Toward, towards ; " He turned me toward the moonlight." Under; "He stands erect under the curved roof." Unto; "Verily, I say unto you." Up ; " He sailed up the river." Upon ; " They were walking upon the hurricane deck " With ; " The sky was red with flame." Within; "Something of ambition and pride stirred within him." Without; "The morning broke without a sun." Rem. I. — The following prepositions, less commonly used, may be added to the foregoing list: Abaft, aloft, alongside, afore, adown, aloof aneath, aslant, atween, atwixt, despite, inside, outside, maugre, minus, plus, per, sans, under- neath, versus, via, as for, along with, despite of, from among, from be- fore, from betwixt, from off, from under, off of, over against, round about, but for; and the participial forms excepting, regarding, bating, touching, respecting, etc., when followed by objects. ETYMOLOGY-PKEPOSITIONS. 125 Rem. 2. — But, for, since, and some others, are frequently used as conjunctions; as, " I must go, for it is late." 137. ORDER OF PARSING. 1. A Preposition, and why? 2. What relation does it show? 3. Rule. 138. MODELS FOR PARSING-. I. "The horse ran over the hill.'' Over is a 'preposition; it is a word used to show the rela- tion between its object and some other word : it shows the relation between "hill" aud "ran:" Rule XIX: "A preposition shows the relation of its object to the word upon which the latter depends." II. " He came out from under the bridge." From under is a complex preposition; it shows the relation between "bridge" and "came." Eule XIX. 139. EXERCISES. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: 1. Will you go with me into the garden? 2. In my Father's house are many mansions. 3. We went over the river, through the corn-fields, into the woods yonder. 4. I am not satisfied as to that affair. 5. All came but Mary. 6. The Rhone flows out from among the Alps. 7. He went from St. Louis, across the plains, to California. 8. Light moves in straight lines, and in all directions from the point of emission. 9. They went aboard the ship. 10. Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne, In rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world. — Young. 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 140. CAUTION. Caution. — Care should be taken to select such prepo- sitions as express the relations intended. Ex. — Among, amongst, are applicable to more than two objects ? as, "He divided the estate among the four brothers:" between, be- twixt, are applicable to two objects only ; as, " He divided the estate between the two brothers." During should be used when the event continues through all the period mentioned ; as, " I have examined law papers during the day:" in, at, or within, when the event does not continue dur- ing, the whole period; as, "I alluded to that in my remarks this morning ; " " The principal must be paid within the year." Of denotes possession of a quality or thing; as, "He is a friend of mine:" to denotes that the quality or thing is directed towards something else; as, "He has been a friend to me." In or at is used before the names of countries, cities, and towns; as, " She lives in New York ; " " They reside at Glendale ; " " We stayed in London." Into should be used after verbs denoting entrance ; as, " He came into the office ; " " He put the knife into his pocket." At is generally used after to be, not followed by a predicate; as, "They are' at home;" "She is at church." When a predicate is understood, or clearly implied, to should be used; as, "I have been to Cincinnati," i. e., I have been (traveling) to Cincinnati. Of, not about, should be used after boast and brag ; as, " He boasts of his wealth ; " " He brags of his strength." Upon should follow bestow and dependent ; as, " Many favors were bestowed upon me ; " " He is dependent upon his friends." From should follow differ and dissent ; as, "I differ from you ; " " I dissent from that decision." Of should follow diminution; as, "Any diminution of expenses is impossible." In should follow confide; as, "I confide in you." Of should be used when we are disappointed in obtaining a thing; as, "I was disappointed of money:" in, when we are disappointed ETYMOLOGY— CONJUNCTIONS. 127 in the quality of a thing, or the character of a person; as, "I am disappointed in that mower ; " "I am disappointed in Mr. Johnson." With denotes an instrument ; by, a cause : with, the immediate, by, the remoter means; as, "A man is killed with a sword, and dies by violence ; " " He walks with a cane by moonlight." Correct the following exercises : 1. Divide the money among the two boys. 2. I will pay you sometime during next week. 3. Washington was a friend of his country. 4. He put the money in his pocket. 5. Where is the key to that trunk? 6. We arrived in Cleveland on Friday. 7. I differ with you on that question. 8. Never de- part out of the straight path. 9. He went out of a fine morn- ing, with a bundle in his hand. 10. I wish I had staid to home. 11. He depends on his daily labor for his support. 12. He boasted about his stand- ing in society. 13. My father and mother are to church. 14. The still, sultry morning was followed with a hail-storm. 15. He was eager of making money. 16. I can make no dim- inution in my tuition rates. 17. He has gone west, accom- panied with his wife. 18. We ought to profit from the errors of others, 19. You look different to what I supposed. THE CONJUNCTION, 141. ORAL LESSON. In the sentence, " Emma and Eva study algebra," what is the subject? Ans. — " Emma and Eva.'' Why? Ans. — Because something is affirmed of them. That is right. They are both subjects of the same predicate; and to indicate that they both sustain the same relation to the rest of the sentence, they are joined by the word "and." This is called a Conjunction, be- cause its use is to join words. It is a coordinate conjunction, because it joins elements of the same rank or name. In the sentence, "Emma will study algebra, if Eva does not," "if" is a conjunction, but it joins elements of different 128 ENGLISH GEAMMAR rank or name. It connects "will study" and "Eva does not." Those conjunctions which join elements of different rank or name, are called subordinate conjunctions. In the sentence, "Both Emma and Eva study algebra," "both" and "and" are called correlative conjunctions, because each answers or refers to the other. 142. DEFINITION. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- tences, and parts of sentences. Ex. — " The horse and wagon were captured, but the driver es- caped;" "He lives out of town, and on a farm." In the first sen- tence, " and " connects " horse " and " wagon," and " but " connects the two propositions, "the horse and wagon were captured" and "the driver escaped." In the second sentence, "and" connects the phrases " out of town " and " on a farm." Rem. — Conjunctions sometimes merely introduce sentences; as, "And it came to pass in those days;" "That the times are hard, is undeniable." 143. CLASSES OP CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Conjunctions are divided into two general classes: Coordinate and Subordinate. 2. Coordinate Conjunctions are those which join ele* ments of the same rank or name. Rem. — Coordinate conjunctions form no part of the material of which a sentence is composed — their use being to unite the material into a single sentence. They may be classified as follows : 1. Copulative, denoting addition merely; as, and 1 also, further, moreover, etc. 2. Adversative, denoting opposition of meaning; as, but, still, yet, only, however, notwithstanding, etc. ETYMOLOGY— CONJUNCTIONS. 129 3. Alternative, denoting that which may be chosen or omitted; as, else, otherwise, or, nor, either, etc. 4. Illative, implying a consequence or inference following from what has been said; as, hence, thence, then, therefore, where- fore, for, because, so, consequently, accordingly, etc. 3. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which join ele- ments of different ranks or names. Rem. — Subordinate conjunctions may be classified as fol- lows: 1. Causal, denoting effect, condition, reason, result, or pur- pose; as, that, so that, if, unless, except, as, because, since, although, though, for, whereas, inasmuch as, lest, etc. 2. Temporal, denoting time; as, ere, after, before, until, whilst, when, etc. 3. Local, denoting rest in, or motion to or from place; as, where, there, whence, thence, whither, thither, etc. 4. Of manner or degree, denoting likeness, equality, and ex- cess or deficiency; as, as, as if, how, although, than, so as, etc. Rem. I. — Correlative Conjunctions are coordinate or subordi- nate conjunctions used in pairs, one referring or answering to the other; as, both . . and, as . . as, if . . then, so . . as, notwithstanding . . yet, though . . yet, either . . or, nor . . nor, neither . . nor, etc. Ex. — 1. He is both learned and wise. 2. I am as tall as you. 3. As it was then, so it is now. 4. Though deep, yet clear. 5. If he confessed it, then forgive him. Rem. 2. — Many of the subordinate conjunctions are fre- quently used as adverbs or conjunctive adverbs. (See Sec. 128.) Rem. 3. — Certain combinations of words have the force of connectives, and should be parsed as conjunctions or conjunc- tive adverbs. They are: as if, as well as, except that, forasmuch as, but also, but likewise, notwithstanding that, not only, etc. Ex. — 1. Facts may be transmitted by tradition as well as by his- tory. 2. You talk as if you were an idiot. 130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 144. ORDER OF PARSING-. 1 A conjunction, and why? 2. Coordinate or subordinate, and why? 3. What does it connect? 4. Rule. 145. MODELS FOR PARSING. I. " He came and went like a pleasant thought." And * . . . is a conjunction ; it connects words; coordinate; it denotes addition: it connects "came" and "went." Rule XX: "Coordinate conjunctions join similar elements." II. "He learns, because he is studious." Because . is a conjunction; subordinate; it joins dissimilar elements; it connects "learns" and "he is studious." Rule XXI. III. "Neither James nor John had his lesson." Neither . . nor . . are conjunctions; correlative; one refers or answers to the other : " neither " introduces the sentence, and "nor" connects "James" and "John." Rule XX. IV. "Unto us was the gospel preached as well as unto them." As well as is a conjunction; copulative; it connects and emphatically distinguishes the two phrases, "unto us" and "unto them:" Rule XX. 146. EXERCISES. Parse all the words in the following sentences : 1. I am a poor man, and argue with you, and convince you. 2. He'd sooner die than ask you, or any man, for a shilling, i Talent is something, but tact is every thing. 4. Neither ETYMOLOGY— CONJUNCTIONS. 131 military nOr civil pomp wak wanting. 5. The truth is, that I am tired of ticking. 6. I remember a mass of things, but nothing distinctly. 7. I alone was solitary and idle. 8. Both the ties of nature and the dictates of policy demand this. 9. There was no re- ply, for a slight fear was upon every man. 10. No man more highly esteems or honors the British troops than I do. 11. The soldier marches on and on, inflicting and suffering, as before. 12. There may be wisdom without knowledge, and there may be knowledge without wisdom. 13. Not a having and resting, but a growing and becoming, is the true character of perfection as culture conceives it. — Shairp. 14. Men must be taught as if you taught them not. — Pope. 15. Essex had neither the virtues nor the vices which enable men to retain greatness long. — Macaulay. 16. How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber? — Scott. 17. Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, As to be hated needs but to be seen; But seen too oft, familiar with her face, We first endure, then pity, then embrace. — Pope. 147. CAUTIONS. Caution I. — Do not use like or with for as, but for than, that for why, or without for unless. Ex.— 1. They live in houses like we do. 2. We ought to be in- dustrious and economical, like our forefathers were. 3. The answer is the same with that in the book. 4. He reads for no other pur- pose but to pass away the time. 5. This is the reason that I staid, at home. 6. I shall not go without you go with me. Caution II. — Do not use as well as or together with for and, nor how for that, or in its stead. Ex. — 1. I, as well as my sister, were at the concert last evening. 2. Mr. Brown, together with Mr. Shriver, are opening a new coal mine. 3. He told me how that he was going to Oregon. 4. Father said how he believed he would sell his farm. 132 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. THE INTERJECTION. 148. DEFINITION. An Interjection is a word used to denote some sud den or strong emotion; as, "Hark! some one comes. ;> "Pshaw ! that is ridiculous/' The principal interjections are the following: Ah, aha, hurra, huzza; oh, alas, welladay, alack; ha, indeed, zounds; bravo; faugh, fie, fudge, pshaw; heigh-ho; ha, ha, ha {laughter); avaunt, begone; hail, all-hail; adieu, farewell, good- by; hallo, ahoy, lo, hark; hist, whist, hush, tush; avast, hold; eh? hey? Rem. I. — Interjections have no definite meaning or gram- matical construction. They occur frequently in colloquial or impassioned discourse; but are expressions of emotion only, and can not be used as signs of thought. As their name im- ports, they may be thrown in between connected parts of dis- course, but are generally found at the commencement of sentences. Rem. 2. — Other parts of speech, when used as exclamations, may be treated as interjections ; as, " What ! art thou mad ? " "My stars! what can all this be?" "Revenge! about, — seek, — burn,— fire, — kill, — slay! — let not a traitor live!" In most cases, however, words thus used may be parsed otherwise; as, " 'Mag- nificent!' cried all at once." "Magnificent" may be parsed as an adjective, the predicate of the sentence, "It is magnificent. 1 ' "Behold! your house is left unto you desolate!" "Behold" may be parsed as a verb in the imperative mode. 149. ORDER OF PARSING. 1. An Interjection, and why? 2. Eule. ETYMOLOGY— EXEECISES. 133 150. MODEL FOR PARSING. I. "O, let me live." . . is an interjection; it denotes some strong emotion: Rule XXII: "An interjection has no dependence upon other words." 151. EXERCISES. Parse all the words in the following sentences : I. Ha! laughest thou? 2. Heigh! sirs, what a noise you make here. 3. Huzza ! huzza ! long live Lord Robin ! 4. Hah ! it is a sight to freeze one. 5. Let them be desolate for a re- ward of their shame which say unto me, Aha ! aha I 6. Oh, that the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion! 7. Alas! all earthly good ctill blends itself with home! 8. Tush! tush! man, I made no reference to you. 9. Hark! what nearer war-drum shakes the gale? 10. Soft! I did but dream ! II. What! old acquaintance! could not all this flesh Keep in a little life ? Poor Jack, farewell ! I could have better spared a better man. — Shakespeare. 152. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 1. A mercenary informer knows no distinction. 2. I send you here a sort of allegory. 3, Our island home is far beyond the sea. 4. Love took up the harp of life, and smote on all the chords with might. 5. Your If is the only peace-maker: much virtue in If. 6. He is very prodigal of his ohs and ahs. 7. He looked upward at the rugged heights that towered above him in the gloom. 8. He possessed that rare union of reason, simplicity, and vehemence, which formed the prince of orators. 9. Mark well my fall, and that that ruined me. — Shakespeare. 10. The jingling of the guinea helps the hurt that honor feels. — Tennyson. 134 ENGLISH GKAMMAR 11. His qualities were so happily blended, that the re- sult was a great and perfect whole. 12. There is no joy but calm. 13. I must be cruel, only to be kind. 14. Why are we weighed upon with heaviness? 15. Now blessings light on him that first invented sleep: it covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak. — Cervantes. « i 16. Many a morning on the moorlands did we hear the copses ring. — Tennyson. 17. He stretched out his right hand at these words, and laid it gently on the boy's head. — Dickens. 18. He acted ever as if his country's welfare, and that alone, was the moving spirit. 19. The great contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns, and the beauties of the ancients. "Whilst an author is yet living, we estimate his pow- ers by his worst performance; and when he is dead, we esti- mate them by his best. — Johnson. 20. I will work in my own sphere, nor wish it other than it is. 21. As his authority was undisputed, so it required no jealous precautions, no rigorous severity. 22. Like all men of genius, he delighted to take refuge in poetry. 23. To know how to say what other people only think, is what makes men poets and sages; and to dare to say what others only dare to think, makes men martyrs or reformers, or both. 24. That done, she turned to the old man with a lovely smile upon her face — such, they said, as they had never seen, and never could forget — and clung with both her arms about his neck. — Dickens. 25. To live in hearts we leave behind, Is not to die. — Campbell. 26. But war's a game which, were their subjects wise, Kings would not play at. — Cowper. 27. Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. — Pope, 28. The Niobe of nations, there she stands, Childless and crownless, in her voiceless woe; An empty urn within her withered hands, Whose holy dust was scattered long ago. — Byron. 29. Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? Can Honor's voice provoke the sleeping dust, Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? — Gray. ETYMOLOGY— EXERCISES. 135 30. Forth from his dark and lonely hiding-place, ( Portentous sight ! ) the owlet Atheism, Sailing on obscure wings athwart the noon, Drops his blue-fringed lids, and holds them close, And hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, Cries o$t, "Where is it?" — Coleridge. 31. A thing of beauty is a joy forever; Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness. — Keats. 32. Dry clank' d his harness in the icy caves And barren chasms, and all to left and right The bare black cliff clang'd round him, as he based His feet on jets of slippery crag that rang Sharp-smitten with the dint of armed heels. — Tennyson. 33. Then came wandering by A shadow, like an angel with bright hair Dabbled in blood; and he shriek'd out aloud: "Clarence is come! false, fleeting, perjur'd Clarence! That stabbed me in the field by Tewksbury: Seize on him, furies, take him to your torments ! " — Shakespeare. 34. There are things of which I may not speak : There are dreams that can not die : There are thoughts that make the strong heart weak, And bring a pallor upon the cheek, And a mist before the eye. And the words of that fatal song Come over me like a chill: "A boy's will is the wind's will, And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts." — Longfellow. 35. These ages have no memory, but they left A record in the desert — columns strown On the waste sands, and statues fallen and cleft, Heap'd like a host in battle overthrown; Vast ruins, where the mountain's ribs of stone Were hewn into a city: streets that spread In the dark earth, where never breath has blown Of heaven's sweet air, nor foot of man dares tread, The long and perilous ways — the Cities of the Dead. — Bryant. PART III SYNTAX. 153. PRELIMINARY ORAL LESSONS. Note to teachers. — The object of these lessons is: (1) To exer- cise pupils in the construction of simple sentences; (2) To teach the uses and definitions of the elements of a sentence ; (3) To teach the analysis of sentences containing elements of the first class. Use Oral Lesson on page 29 as introductory to these. LESSON I. I hold in my hand a piece of chalk: what is its color? Arts. — It is white. It breaks easily: what else can be said of it? Ans. — It is brittle. It crumbles readily: hence, we say it is friable. Each of the words, white, brittle, friable, expresses some quality belonging to chalk: what shall we call them? Ans. — Quality-words. We will now unite these quality-words with "chalk," by the word "is," thus: Chalk is white. Chalk is brittle. Chalk is friable. Each of these groups of words is called a Sentence ; for "A Sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense." Write the definition on your slates. Now repeat it in con- cert. Each group is also called a Proposition; for "A Proposition is a thought expressed in words." Write this definition on your slates. Repeat it in concert. (136) SYNTAX— OEAL LESSONS. 137 In the proposition "Chalk is white," the noun "chalk" is called the Subject; for "The Subject of a proposition is that of which something is affirmed." " White " is called the Predicate ; for "The Predicate of a proposition is that which is affirmed of the subject." The word "is" is called the Copula; for " The Copula is a word or group of words used to join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion." In this sentence it affirms that the quality "white" be- longs to " chalk." Write these definitions on your slates. Repeat them in concert. In the proposition, "Chalk is brittle," what is the subject? Ans. — "Chalk." Why? Arts. — It is that of which something is affirmed. What is the predicate? Ans. — "Brittle." Why? Ans. — It is that which is affirmed of the subject. Affirm qualities of the following Iron, gold, silver, lead, ink, cork, sugar, vinegar, grass, books, lessons. Model. — Iron is heavy. Affirm the following qualities of appropriate subjects : Transparent, opaque, hard, round, square, good, bad, bitter, heavy, rough, smooth, red, yellow, green. Model. — Glass is transparent. LESSON II. In the sentence " Iron is a metal," is any quality affirmed of " iron ? " Ans. — There is not. That is right. The predi- cate " metal " denotes kind or class, not quality. It is a predi- cate, however, because it is affirmed of the subject "iron." 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. In the sentence "Horses are animals," what is the subject? Ans. — "Horses." Why? Ans. — Because it is that of which something is affirmed. What is the predicate? Ans. — "Ani- mals." Why? Ans. — Because it is that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula? Ans. — The word "are." Affirm class of the following subjects : Horses, oxen, coal, wood, hay, oats, wheat, ax, hoe, locomo- tive, dogs, sheep, copper, gold, apples, trees, wagons, houses. Model. — Wheat is a vegetable. Affirm qualities of the same subjects. LESSON III. Write this sentence on your slates: "Horses run." You see that the predicate " run " is affirmed directly of the subject without the use of the copula. The copula and predicate are united in one word ; for " Horses run " means the same as " Horses are running." What is the subject in this sentence: "Boys learn"? Ans. — "Boys." What is the predicate? Ans. — "Learn." Why? Ans. — It is that which is affirmed of the subject. Words which affirm any thing of subjects are called Verbs. What are the words "run" and "learn?" Ans. — Verbs. Why? Ans. — Because they affirm something of their subjects. Write sentences, using the following verbs as predicates : Walk, sing, whistle, swim, wrestle, play, write, study, plow, reap, drive, neigh, cackle, whine, snarl, gobble, quarrel, fight. Model. — Cattle walk LESSON IV. Write on your slates, and then repeat in concert: "An Element is one of the distinct parts of a sentence." The Subject and Predicate are called Principal Elements, be- cause no sentence can be formed without them. The Copula is not an element : it is used merely to join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion. SYNTAX— OEAL LESSONS. 139 Separating a sentence into its elements is called Analysis. We will now analyze some sentences according to the fol- lowing MODELS. I. "Apples are ripe." Apples . . is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed: ripe is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the subject; are is the copula. II. " Birds fly." Birds ... is the subject; (why?): fly is the predicate (why?). EXERCISES. 1. Ink is black. 2. Gold is yellow. 3. Lead is a metal. 4. Birds sing. 5. Vessels sail. 6. Trees are plants. 7. Fishes swim. 8. Elihu was tardy. 9. Mary was studious. 10. Enoch may be angry. 11. Snow falls. 12. Houses stand. LESSON V. Write this sentence on your slates: "Horses eat." While you were writing did you not think some word should be added, representing what horses eat? Ans. — We did. What word shall we add? Ans. — Oats. Write "oats" after the verb. This word completes the meaning of the verb, and is called an Objective Element, or Object. In the sentence "Pupils study arithmetic," what word completes the meaning of the predi- cate or verb? Ans. — "Arithmetic." What element is it? Ans. — An objective element. Why? Ans.— Because it com pletes the meaning of the verb. Write ten sentences, each containing an objective element. Model. — Indians hunt buffaloes. Analyze the sentences you have written, using this model: "Children love play.'' Children is the subject; (why?): love, the predicate; (why?): the predicate is modified by play, an objective element. 140 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Analyze also the following sentences : 1. Heat melts lead. 2. Men love money 3. I study botany. 4. Haste makes waste. 5. Cats catch mice. 6. Mr. Jones sells calicoes. 7. Clouds bring rain. LESSON VI. "Write this sentence on your slates r "Apples are ripe." What is the subject of the sentence? Ans. — "Apples." Why? Ans. — It is that of which something is affirmed. What is the word "apples"? Ans.— It is a noun. Why? Ans. — It is a name. What is the predicate? Ans. — "Ripe." Why? Ans. — It is that which is affirmed of the subject. Now write these words: "Ripe apples." Is this a sentence? Ans. — It is not. Why? Ans. — There is nothing affirmed. That is correct. The word "ripe" is here used to modify the meaning of "apples/' as an attribute, not as & predicate: that is, it is assumed, or taken for granted, that it belongs to "apples." All words which modify the meaning of nouns in this manner, are called Adjective Elements. Write this sentence : " Ripe apples are cheap." What is "ripe?" Ans. — An adjective element. Why? Ans. — It modi- fies the meaning of a noun. "Samuel's hat is torn." What element is "Samuel's"? Ans. — An adjective element. Why? Ans. — It modifies the meaning of the noun " hat." " Mr. Smith, the mason, is sick." What is "mason"? Ans. — An adjective element. Why? Ans. — It modifies the meaning of "Mr. Smith," a noun. What are the words "Samuel's" and "mason"? Ans. — They are nouns. Nouns, then, are adjective elements when they modify nouns. Write five sentences, limiting the subjects by adjective elements denoting quality. Models. — Gross dogs bite. Cold winter comes. Write five sentences, limiting their subjects by adjective elements de- noting number. Models. — Two boys fought. Three men left. SYNTAX— OEAL LESSONS. 141 Write five sentences, limiting their subjects by words which merely point them out. Models.— That boy is studious. This boy is lazy. Write five sentences, limiting their subjects by nouns. Models. — Eli's uncle is rich. Mr. Tod the lawyer is young. Write five sentences, limiting both subjects and objects by adjective elements. Model. — Emma's mother bought a new bonnet. Analyze, the following sentences, using these models: I. "Milton the poet was blind." MUton is the subject; blind is the predicate; "Milton" is modified by poet, an adjective element, and "poet" by the, an adjective element: was is the copula. II. "Evil communications corrupt good manners." Communications is the subject; corrupt, the predicate; "commu- nications " is modified by evil, an adjective ele- ment; "corrupt," by manners, an objective ele- ment ; and " manners," by good, an adjective element. EXERCISES. 1. Sarah's book is lost. 2. Mrs. Elkins the milliner found Sarah's book. 3. Old people love quiet. 4. Young children love play. 5. I like ripe cherries. 6. You have found my pencil. LESSON VII. Write this sentence on your slates : " Birds sing sweetly." Does "sweetly" denote what the birds sing? Ans.— It does not; it tells how they sing. That is right. "Sweetly" does not complete the meaning of "sing," like an objective ele- ment; but it modifies its meaning in another way. All words used in such a manner are called Adverbial Elements. Words which modify adjectives are called adverbial elements also. 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. In this sentence, " The storm rages violently," what is the subject ? Ans. — " Storm." What is the predicate ? Ans. — "Rages." What is "violently"? Ans. — An adverbial element. Why? Ans. — It modifies a verb, but does not complete its meaning. In the sentence, " Very large vessels were seen," what is modified by "very?" Ans.—" Large." What is "large?" Ans. — An adjective. What element, then, is " very ? " Ans. — An adverbial element. Why? Ans. — It modifies an adjective. Adverbial elements also modify other adverbial elements. Write ten sentences, modifying the verbs by adverbial elements. Model. — The wind blows furiously. Write ten sentences, containing adjective elements modified by adverbial elements. Model. — James recited a very long lesson. Analyze the following sentences, using these models : I. " The wind blows violently." Wind . is the subject; blows, the predicate; "wind" is modified by the, an adjective element; "blows" is modified by violently, an adverbial element. II. " Emma has a very severe headache." Emma is the subject; has, the predicate; "has" is modified by headache, an objective element ; " headache " by a and severe, adjective elements; and "severe" by very, an ad- verbial element. EXERCISES. 1. A sluggard sleeps soundly. 2. The horses were much fatigued. 3. Very loud reports were heard. 4. That boy spends his money foolishly. 5. You may go now. 6. He then left the country. 7. The river rose rapidly. 8. The troops marched forward. 9. Their parents live there. 10. How far did the horses run? 11. He acted wisely. 12. Mr. Mason is a truly good man. 13. He will be heard from presently. 14. The men were very much fatigued. 15. The doctor will be here immediately. SYNTAX— DEFINITIONS. 143 154. DEFINITIONS. 1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 2. A Sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense. Ex.— Birds fly. Man is mortal. " The great throat of the chinv ney laughed." "When the farmer came down in the" morning, he declared that his watch had gained halt an hour in the night." 3. A Proposition is a thought expressed in words. Ex.— The weather is pleasant. The boy seems frightened. Rem. — The term sentence is applied to any assemblage of words so arranged as to make complete sense; proposition, to the thought which those words express. 4. Propositions are either Principal or Subordinate. 5. A Principal Proposition is one which makes com- plete sense when standing alone. 6. A Subordinate Proposition is one which does not make complete sense when standing alone, but which must be connected with another proposition. Ex. — "'The man that does no good, does harm." Here "the man does harm" is the principal proposition, for it makes complete sense when standing alone: "that does no good" is a subordinate propo- sition, for it does not make complete sense when standing alone. 7. A Phrase is an assemblage of words forming a single expression, but not making complete sense. Ex.— Till lately; rn haste; since then; year by year; little by little; to see; to have seen; to be seen. 8. A Discourse is a series of sentences on the same subject, arranged in logical order. 9. A Paragraph is a series of sentences on the same branch of a subject. 144 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 10. An Element is one of the component parts of 9 sentence. 11. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements. 12. Synthesis is the construction of sentences from words. SENTENCES. 155. CLASSIFICATION WITH RESPECT TO USE. 1. With respect to use, sentences are divided into four classes : Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex- clamatory. 2. A Declarative Sentence is one used to affirm or deny something. Ex. — Fishes swim. Fishes do not walk. Rem. — Direct Discourse is telling what somebody thinks or says, by using his own words; as, "Our teacher said, 'Be frank, honest, and truthful! " Indirect Discourse is giving the substance of what somebody thinks or says, but not using his own words; as, "Our teacher said, that we should be frank, honest, and truthful." 3. An Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask a question. Ex. — Are you angry? Where does that man live? Rem. — A Direct Question is one which can be answered by yes or no; as, "Has the money been paid?" An Indirect Question is one which can not be answered by yes or no; as, "Who paid the money?" 4. An Imperative Sentence is one used to express a command or an entreaty. Ex. — Bring me that book. Do not strike me. \ SYNTAX— SENTENCES. 145 5. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclama- tions, or in the expression of strong emotion. Ex. — Oh, how glad I am to see you ! 156. EXERCISES. Tell to which class each of the following sentences belongs : Model. — "The dews bring their jewels." This is a declarative sentence; it is used to affirm something. 1. The. days are calm. 2. How many quarts are there in a gallon? ^"3. The winds bring perfumes. 4. Study diligently. 5. He waved his arm. 6. And the fellow calls himself a painter! 7. He deserved punishment rather than pity. 8. 0, how careless you are! 9. What was the Eubicon? •j 10. How brightly the sun shines! 11. Alas for the man who has not learned to work! 12. Bring forth the prisoner now. 13. I had a dream which was not all a dream. — Byron. 14. A plague of all cowards, still say I. — Shakespeare. 15. Attend to the duties I have assigned you. 16. Many fell by thy arm: they were consumed in the flame of thy wrath. 17. When shall it be morn in the grave, to bid the slumberer awake? 18. The Commons, faithful to their system, remained in a wise and masterly inactivity. — Mackintosh. 157. CLASSIFICATION "WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 1. With respect to form, sentences are divided into three classes: Simple, Complex, and Compound, 2. A Simple Sentence consists of a single proposition. Ex. — Flowers bloom. Who is he? Tread lightly. How glad I am! 3. A Complex Sentence is one some element of which contains a subject and a predicate. 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ex. — Flowers bloom when spring returns He who is diligent shall be rewarded. I hear that you have sold your farm, and that you are going to California. Rem. — The propositions in complex sentences are called Clauses. They are named and numbered according to the order of their subordination. Ex. — " I believe that he is honest." In this sentence, " I believe " is the principal clause, and " that he is honest " is the subordinate. 4. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple or complex sentences, joined by coordinate con- junctions. Ex. — Spring comes, and the flowers' bloom. " I go, but I re- turn." "Though Truth is fearless and absolute, yet she is meek and modest." Rem. I. — The simple or complex sentences, of which com- pound sentences are composed, are called Members. They are numbered according to their place in the sentence. Ex. — " Every man desires to live long ; but no man would be old." In this sentence, "every man desires to live long" is the first member, and " no man would be old " is the second. Rem. 2. — The clauses of complex sentences are connected by relative pronouns, conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. The members of compound sentences are connected by conjunc- tions. Rem. 3. — The connectives are sometimes omitted; as, "I thought [that] he was absent;" "Talent is power, [but] tact is skill." Rem. 4. — A sentence whose members are complex, is a com- pound-complex sentence. 158. MODELS FOR CLASSIFICATION. I. "The nights are tranquil." This is a sentence; it is an assemblage of words making com- plete sense: declarative; it is used to affirm something: simple; it consists of a single proposition. SYNTAX— SENTENCES. 147 II. "Shall I return the book which you lent me?" This is a sentence; interrogative ; it is used to ask a question: complex; it is composed of a principal and a subordinate prop- osition: "Shall I return the book" is the principal proposition, and "which you lent me," the subordinate, limiting "book." "Which" is the connective. III. "She counseled him, that when he arose in the morning, he should beat them without mercy." — Bunyan. This is a sentence; declarative; complex; "She counseled him" is the principal proposition ; " that he should beat them with- out mercy" the first subordinate, modifying "counseled"; and "when he arose in the morning" the second subordinate, modi- fying "beat." "That" and "when" are connectives. IV. "Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden; but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope." — Johnson. This is a sentence; declarative; compound; it is composed of two propositions, joined by a coordinate connective: "Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden" is the first member, and "Dry- den certainly wanted the diligence of Pope" is the second. "But" is the connective. 159. EXERCISES. 1. Thy feet are fetterless. 2. Level spread the lake before him. 3. He waved his broad felt hat for silence. 4. A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers. 5. It sank from sight before it set. — Whitticr. 6. Ye softening dews, ye tender show- ers, descend! 7. None will flatter the poor. 8. Ye are the things that tower. 9. The house was wrapped in flames. 10. Hope and fear are the bane of human life. 11. The village all declared how much he knew. — Goldsmith. 12. He that refuseth instruction despiseth his own soul. 13. Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings? 14. How dreadful is this place, for God is here! 15. He dares not touch a hair of Catiline. 16. What can compensate for the loss of character? 17. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. 18. Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope. 19. All were sealed with the seal which is never to be broken 148 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. till the great day! 20. God, we are but leaves on thy stream, clouds in thy sky. 21. Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached it. 22. It was now the Sabbath-day, and a small congregation of about a hundred souls, had met for divine service, in a place more magnificent than any temple that human hands had ever built to Deity. — Wilson. 23. I know thou art gone where the weary are blest, And the mourner looks up and is glad. 24. What matter how the night behaved? What matter how the north wind raved? — Whittier. 25. Bird of the broad and sweeping wing, Thy home is high in heaven, Where the wide storms their banners fling, And the tempest clouds are driven. — Percival. ELEMENTS 160. PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 1. The Principal Elements of a proposition are those which are necessary to its construction. They are the Subject and the Predicate. 2. The Subject of a proposition is that of which something is affirmed. Ex.— "Time is precious." "Time" is the subject; it is that of which "precious" is affirmed. 3. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is affirmed of the subject. Ex. — "Time is precious." "Precious" is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the subject. Rem. — In these definitions, the term "affirm" is meant to include say, ask /or, command, entreat, or exclaim. SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 149 4. The subject may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. Ex. — Winter is coming, if is a letter. To steal is base. "Pay as you go" is a good rule. "Why will he persist?" is often asked. Rem. — The subject of a proposition may be known by its answering the question formed by using Who? or What? with the predicate. Ex. — "John is careless." Who is careless? Ans. — "John." "John," therefore, is the subject. "To be sick is disagreeable." What is dis- agreeable? Ans. — "To be sick." "To be sick," therefore, is the subject. 5. The Copula is some form of the verb to be (is, was, might be, etc.), or of some other copulative verb. Its office is to affirm the predicate of the subject. Ex. — "Silence is impressive." "Is" is the copula, and "impress- ive" the predicate. "Gold is a metal." "Is" is the copula, and " metal " the predicate. " He may have been injudicious." " May have been " is the copula, and " injudicious " the predicate. " The fields look green." "Look" is the copula, and "green" the predicate. 6. In affirming action, being, or state, the copula and predicate are generally united in one word, or one form, called a verb. Ex. — Pupils study. I am. The house stands. Eain is falling. Letters are written. 7. The copula is sometimes followed by the infinitive of the verb to be or of some other copulative verb ; as, " The boy seems to be sick ; " " The detective was to appear inattentive. " The infinitive depends upon the copula, and is an adverbial element; the entire expres- sion is called a strengthened copula. 8. The Predicate may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. Ex. — Horses gallop. Wheat is a vegetable. The sun was shining. "To obey is to enjoy." He seems honest. My desire is, that you attend school. 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rem. — The predicate is sometimes erroneously called the attribute of a proposition, and the copula and predicate, taken together, the predicate. 161. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. I. "Birds sing." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Birds is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed; sing is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the subject. II. "Scholars should be studious." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Scholars is the subject; studious is the predicate; should be is the copula. 111. " Franklin was a philosopher." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Franklin is the subject; philosopher is the predicate; was is the copula. IV. "He was considered responsible." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. He is the subject; responsible is the predicate; was consid- ered is the copula. V. "Be truthful." This is a sentence; imperative; simple. Thou or you, understood, is the subject; truthful is the predi- cate; be is the copula. 162. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1. Children play. 2. Virtue ennobles. 3. Spring has come. 4. Winter has departed, 5. You may go. 6. Mary might SYNTAX— ELEM ENTS. 151 have sung. 7. Horses can run. 8. Flowers are blooming. 9. Money may be loaned. 10. Books will be bought. 11. Stars were shining. 12. John should have been studying. 13. Glass is brittle. 14. Water is transparent. 15. Savages may be merciful. 16. Men should be just. 17. Samuel should have been obedient. 18. Geography is interesting. 19. Job was patient. 20. I will be industrious. 21. They have been successful. 22. Iron is a metal. 23. Flies are insects. 24. Napoleon was a general. 25. Ostriches are birds. 26. "Men would be angels; angels would be gods." 27. They may have been tru- ants. 28. Howard was a philanthropist. 29. He might have been a lawyer. 30. George had been a captain. 31. John looks cold. 32. I feel aguish. 33. Ants appear in- dustrious. 34. Washington was elected president. 35. Avarice has become his master. 36. He seems dejected. 37. He be- came wealthy. 38. It was deemed inexpedient. 163. ARRANGEMENT OP ELEMENTS. 1. Arrangement is the correct placing of elements. 2. Elements are arranged in Natural or Inverted order. 3. The Natural order of arrangement is that which is most customary. 4. The Inverted order of arrangement is any de- parture from the natural order. Rem. — In inverted order, the elements are said to be trans- posed. 5. The Natural order of arrangement is: In Declarative Sentences: 1. Subject . . . Predicate; as, "Winds blow." 2. Subject . . . Copula . . . Predicate; as, "Chalk is white." 3. Subject . . . Auxiliary . . Predicate; as, "You may go." 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. In Interrogative Sentences: 1. Copula . . . Subject . . . Predicate; as, "Is he wise?" 2. Auxiliary . . Subject . . . Predicate; as, "May I go?" 3. Predicate . . Subject; as, "Say you so?" 4. Subject . . . Predicate; as, "Who remained?" In Imperative Sentences: 1. Predicate . . Subject; as, "Go thou." 2. Copula . . . Subject . . . Predicate; as, "Be ye merciful." In Exclamatory Sentences, the arrangement is the same as in declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences. 6. The Inverted order is used when the predicate is made emphatic. Rem. — Inversion occurs in declarative and exclamatory sen- tences. The usual order of arrangement is: Predicate . . Cop- ula . . Subject; as, "Great was our wonder;" "Known unto God are all his works." 164. EXERCISES IN SYNTHESIS. Affirm actions of the following subjects : Winds, waters, stars, fire, light, acorns, sheep, rabbits, fishes, men, women, boys, girls, children, thunder, lightning, storms, nobles, kings, merchants. Models. — Winds blow. Storms rage. Affirm quality of the following subjects: Apples, cherries, peaches, fruit, books, desks, winter, spring, summer, autumn, sugar, quinine, vinegar, grammar, writing, evenings, darkness, chemistry, geography. Models. — Apples are ripe. Quinine is bitter. Ascertain all the distinguishing properties of five substances. Affirm them of the substances to which they belong. Models.— Chalk is white; chalk is opaque; chalk is brittle; chalk is incombustible, etc. SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 153 Affirm class or kind of the following subjects : Oranges, horses, hens, flies, Henry, Washington, ships, gold, silver, sharks, water, air, table. Models. — Oranges are fruit. Henry is a clerk. 165. SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 1. A Modifier is a word, phrase, or clause joined to a term to limit or restrict its meaning or application. Ex. — A wealthy man. Chairs to mend. A man who is wealthy. 2. Subordinate Elements are those which modify other elements. They are distinguished as Objective^ Adjec- tive, and Adverbial. 166. OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. An Objective Element is a word or group of words which completes the meaning of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of its participles. It is usually called the object. Ex. — Heat melts metals. Men love money. I wish to be quiet. Alice knew that we were not at home. Him they sought. Rem. I.— The objective element answers the question formed by using Whom? or What? with the predicate, or with the sub- ject and predicate. Ex. — "John writes letters." Writes what? Ans. — " Letters " = the object. " Brutus killed Csesar." Brutus killed whom? Ans. — " Caesar " = the object. Rem. 2. — By "completing the meaning of a verb" is meant restricting its application, by stating that on which its action terminates. In the sentence "John writes," the predicate "writes" is taken in its most general sense: what John writes is not mentioned. In the sentence " John writes letters," the application of the predicate is restricted to the single act of writing letters. "Letters" being the object on which the act of writing terminates, it is called the objective element. 154 v ENGLISH GKAMMAR. Rem. 3. — Some verbs are followed by two objects: one de- noting a person or thing; the other, the rank, office, occupa- tion, or character, of the person, or the species of the thing. Ex. — They elected Charles captain. He called him a scoundrel. He makes the sea his home. They declared self-government a delusion. Rem. 4. — Another class of verbs is followed by two objects: one denoting a person or thing; the other, that to or from which the act tends. The former is called the direct, the latter the indirect object. (See, also, Sec. 32, Rem.) Ex. — He taught me arithmetic. He sold me a horse. I gave him money. They sent John a telegram. 167. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. VI. "Columbus discovered America." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Columbus is the subject; discovered is the predicate. The predicate is modified by America, an objective element. VII. "Whom did you see?" This is a sentence; interrogative; simple. You is the subject; did see is the predicate. The predicate is modified by whom, an objective element. VIII. "Bring me flowers." This is a sentence; imperative; simple. Thou or you, understood, is the subject; bring is the predi- cate. The predicate is modified by me, an indirect, and by flowers, a direct objective element. IX. "They have chosen Mr. Ames speaker." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. They is the subject; have chosen is the predicate. The predicate is modified by Mr. Ames, a direct objective ele- ment, and by speaker, an objective element, denoting office. SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 1 55 168. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1. He examined the books. 2. Silas studied geology. 3. They watched the storm. 4. You must obey the laws. 5. We earn money. 6. Merchants sell goods. 7. Engineers run lo- comotives. 8. Blacksmiths shoe horses. 9. Farmers sow grain. 10. Give me music. 11. They chose him. 12. We have chosen him director. 13. Bring him a book. 14. Whom did you call ? 15. I sold him a horse. 16. He taught me algebra. 17. Henry gave Eli his velocipede. 18. The teacher has appointed John monitor. 19. God called the light day. 20. They made him their leader. 169. EXERCISES IN SYNTHESIS. Sentences containing objective elements are arranged as follows: Declarative; Subject . . Predicate . . Object; as, "I found it." Interrogative; 1. Object . . Predicate . . Subject; as, "What see you ? " 2. Object . . Auxiliary . . Subject . . Verb ; as, "What did you see?" Imperative; Predicate . . Object; as, "Practice economy." Rem. I. — In inverted order, the arrangement of declarative sentences is: Object . . Subject . . Predicate; as, "Him they found." Write sentences containing an objective element, using the following words as subjects : Men, boys, heat, lightning, horses, locomotives, scythe, knife, shears, clerks, merchants, blacksmith, tailor, mason, doctors, lion, oxen, eagles. Models. — Men drive horses. Boys fly kites. Merchants sell Write sentences containing two objects, using the above or any other nouns. Models. — Charles calls doctors physicians. Frank calls a sleigh a cutter. I consider William a genius. 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Write sentences containing a direct and an indirect object, using the following verbs : Ask, buy, bring, do, draw, deny, find, get, leave, make, pass, pour, promise, provide, present, sell, send, show, refuse, teach, tell, throw, write. Models. — Emma asked me a question. He bought Charles a pony. Change each of the verbs, in the sentences written last, into the passive voice, making either object the subject. Models. — I was asked a question. A pony was bought for Charles. Analyze the sentences you have written. 170. ADJECTIVE ELEMENT, An Adjective Element is a word or group of words which modifies a noun or any expression used as a noun. Ex. — A good man. Mr. Myers, the banker. Friend Hiram. "If you can: a sensible if." "Done gone," a vulgarism, is frequently heard. My hook is on Ellen's desk. A letter, written in haste. She came, laughing. Rem. I. — An adjective element is a definitive or descriptive term used to modify the meaning of a noun or its substitute. The relation which a predicate attribute sustains to the subject is affirmed: the relation which an adjective element sustains to the term it modifies is assumed, or taken for granted. Ex. — " That man is wealthy." The predicate " wealthy " is affirmed to belong to "man." "A wealthy man." The attribute "wealthy" is here assumed to belong to "man," and is an adjective element. Rem. 2. — An adjective element, containing a single word, may be: 1. An Adjective ; as, "Ripe apples." 2. A Participle; as, "Hats made to order." 3. A Noun in Apposition; as, "Powers, the sculptor." 4. A Possessive; as, "Eli's pen." "His hat." SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 157 171. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. X. "Small lakes are abundant." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Lakes is the subject; abundant is the predicate; are is the copula. The subject is modified by small, an adjective element. XI. "The steamship Hibernia has arrived." This is a sentence : declarative ; simple. Steamship is the subject; has arrived is the predicate. The subject is modified by the "and Hibernia, both adjective ele- ments. XII. "My brother broke Stephen's slate." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Brother is the subject; broke is the predicate. The subject is modified by my, an adjective element. The predicate is modified by slate, an objective element, and "slate" is modi- fied by Stephen's, an adjective element. XIII. " The old man, laughing, said ( Yes.' ' This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Man is the subject; said is the predicate. The subject is modified by the, old, and laughing, adjective elements. The predicate is modified by Yes, an objective element. 172. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1. A large house was burned. 2. I wrote a long letter. 3. This land is government property. 4. Many hands make quick work. 5. A wise son maketh a glad father. 6. Man's necessity is God's opportunity. 7. Mr. Hodge, the farmer, hired Mr. Olds, the mason. 8. Great wits jump. 9. He is a vain, conceited blockhead. 10. I want the larg- est apple. 11. Mary has chosen the better part. 12. Carlo's barking wakened the family. 13. I saw six swans. 14. This is my fortieth birthday. 15. Every man received a penny. 158 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 173. EXERCISES IN SYNTHESIS. Adjectives and possessives are usually placed before, and participles and nouns in apposition, after the nouns they modify. Write seven sentences, limiting the subject by one of the following ad- jectives : Round, square, oval, rough, smooth, transparent, translucent, white, green, sour, sweet, old, young, new, wise, foolish, lucky, unlucky, careful, careless. Models. — A round table was purchased. A square box was found. Write seven sentences, limiting both subject and object by an adjective. Model. — A stout horse draws heavy loads. Write seven sentences, limiting the subject or object by the possessive case of one of the following nouns : Elephant, swan, hawk, sparrow, summer, winter, father, mother, uncle, aunt, John, Samuel, Celia, Harriet, Jackson, teacher, doctor, pupil, merchant. Models. — An elephant's tusks are white. A swans movements are graceful. Write seven sentences, limiting the subject or object, or both, by a noun in apposition. Models. — Mr. Sledge, the blacksmith, is sick. Wilson, the burglar, robbed Wilson, the banker. Analyze the sentences you have written. 174. ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. An Adverbial Element is a word or group of words used to modify a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb. Ex. — The stranger was very kind. The wind blows fiercely. Come here. Who goes there t SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 159 Rem. I. — Adverbial elements, when they modify the mean- ing of verbs, usually denote some circumstance of time, place, cause, degree, or manner. Ex. — He calls frequently. There is no night there. Why are you angry? The teacher labored faithfully. Rem. 2. — Adverbial elements, which modify the manner of the assertion, and not the predicate itself, are called, modal adverbs. Ex. — He has not come. Perhaps I shall go. He was absent, prok ably. He will certainly resign. 175. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. XIV. "He is strictly honest." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. He is the subject; honest is the predicate. The predicate is modified by strictly, an adverbial element. XV. "The sun shines brightly." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Sun is the subject; shines is the predicate. The subject is modified by the, an adjective element; the predicate by brightly, an adverbial element. XVI. "He is not handsome." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. He is the subject; handsome is the predicate. The copula is is modified by not, an adverbial element. 176. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1. The birds sing sweetly. 2. We struck the vessel just amidships. 3. I now demand your votes. 4. He formerly lived here. 5. The fire went out. 6. He seems very sad. 7. The boy wrote the letter carelessly. 8. They have been long absent. 9. I shall certainly defend you. 160 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 177. EXERCISES IN SYNTHESIS. In the natural order of arrangement, the adverbial element is placed after the word or group of words it limits. Ex.— He denied the charge vehemently. Rem. — In inverted order, the adverbial element is placed between the subject and predicate, or at the head of the sentence. Ex. — He vehemently denied the charge. Vehemently did he deny the charge. Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element of manner. Models. — She writes rapidly. He does his work thoroughly. Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element of place. Models. — He lives there. Where do you live? Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element of time. Models. — I was very happy then. When will you come? Write seven sentences, limiting the predicates by an adverbial element of cause or degree. Models. — Why are you sad? The work is scarcely com- menced. Write seven sentences, limiting the copulas by a modal adverb. Models. — He is certainly insane. James is not a truant. Write seven sentences, containing adjectives modified by adverbial ele- ments. Models. — That tree is very tall. It is a remarkably fine gem. Analyze the sentences you have written. SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 161 178. ATTENDANT ELEMENTS. Attendant or Independent Elements are words or ex^ pressions not used as principal or subordinate elements of the sentences in which they are found. They are: 1. Nouns and pronouns in the nominative absolute ease; as, "Children, obey your parents;" "Home, her glory has departed;" "He having arrived, we returned." 2. Interjections and nouns used in broken exclamations; as, "Pshaw, what nonsense!" "Wretched man that I am!" 3. Expletives, and words used to introduce sentences in a peculiar way; as, "Now, Barabbas was a robber;" "There is no report of any disaster;" "It is a shameful thing to tell a lie." 4. All phrases and clauses which have no perceptible con- nection with the rest of the sentence. Rem. — Attendant elements should be omitted in the analy- sis of the sentences containing them. They have no gram- matical connection with other words, except ir certain con- structions in which they are used as antecedents of pronouns. Sometimes the entire group of words of which they form a part has the force of an adverbial element. Ex. — "Gad, a troop shall overcome him." The attendant element "Gad," is the antecedent of the pronoun "him." "They having left, order was restored." The attendant element " they," is con- nected with "having left," and the combination has the force of the adverbial clause "after they left." 179. WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES. 1. Elements are divided into three classes: Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 2. An element may consist of a single word, Ex. — "A careless boy seldom learns his lesson." In this sentence, all the elements are single words. H.G.— 1L 162 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 3. An element may consist of a phrase, which may be an infinitive or a preposition and its objects. Rem. — There are two kinds of phrases: Separable and Insep- arable. A Separable Phrase is one whose words should always be parsed separately; as, "He rode in a wagon." The three words composing the phrase "in a wagon," should be parsed sepa- rately — "in" as a preposition; "a" as an adjective; "wagon" as a noun. An Inseparable Phrase is one whose words need not be sep- arated in parsing; as, "I will come by and by;" "He labors in vain." The phrases "by and by" and "in vain" may be parsed as single words. All the forms of the infinitive mode are in- separable phrases. 4. An element may consist of a clause, or subordi- nate proposition. Ex. — "A man who is indolent will not prosper ; " " I learn that you are out of employment." The subordinate propositions " who is indo- lent" and "you are out of employment" are clauses. 180. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. SINGLE WORDS. XVII. "Tumultuous murder shook the midnight air." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Murder is the subject, shook is the predicate. The subject, "murder," is modified by tumultuous, an adjective element; the predicate "shook" is modified by air, an objective ele- ment; "air" is modified by the and midnight, adjective ele- ments. 181. EXERCISES. 1. Thou hast uttered cruel words. 2. Every heart knows its sorrows. 3. Gratitude is a delightful emotion. 4. This SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 163 generous bounty was well bestowed. 5. The best men often experience disappointments. 6. A disposition so amiable will secure universal regard. 7. His brother's offense will not condemn him. 182. PHRASES— ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. XVIII. "A life of prayer is a life of heaven." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Life is the subject; life is the predicate; is is the copula. The subject, " life," is modified by a, an adjective element, and by the phrase of prayer, an adjective element. The pred- icate, "life," is modified by a, an adjective element, and by the phrase of heaven, an adjective element. 183. EXERCISES. 1. Black crags behind thee pierce the clear blue sky. 2. Vi- cissitudes of good and evil fill up the life of man. 3. He had a remarkably good view of their features. 4. lie shakes the woods on the mountain side. 5. The fate of gods may well be thine. — Byron. 6. He had endured three months of nights. — Ware. 7. His architecture has become a mere framework for the setting of delicate sculpture. — Buskin. 184. PHRASES— ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. XIX. "Many actions apt to procure fame, are not conducive to our ultimate happiness." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Actions is the subject; conducive is the predicate; are is the copula. The subject, " actions," is modified by many and apt, adjective elements; "apt" is modified by the phrase to pro- cure, an adverbial element, and "to procure," by fame, an objective element. The copula, " are," is modified by not, a 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. modal adverbial element; and the predicate, "conducive," by the phrase to happiness, an adverbial element, and "happi- ness," by our and ultimate, adjective elements. XX. "I will go to-morrow." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. I is the subject: will go is the predicate. The predicate, " will go," is modified by the phrase [ ] to-morrow, an adverb- ial element — to-morrow being a noun in the objective case without a governing word. (See Sec. 219, Rule VIII.) Rem. — The symbol " [ ] " is to be used in written analysis only. It indicates a relation usually represented or expressed by a preposition. In oral analysis, the pupil should pay no attention to this symbol, but use the form of words given in the model. 185. EXERCISES. 1. I bow reverently to thy decrees. 2. Heaven burns with the descending sun. 3. The panther's track is fresh in the snow. 4. His home lay low in the valley. 5. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance. 6. The horses ran two miles without stopping. 7. We sailed south four days. 8. See what a grace is seated on his brow. — Shakes- peare. 9. There is a very life in our despair. — Byron. 10. Eternal sunshine settles on his head. — Goldsmith. 11. Heaven first taught letters for some wretch's aid. — Pope. 186. PHRASES-INFINITIVES. XXI. " To love is to obey." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. To love is the subject; it is a phrase: to obey is the predi- cate; it is a phrase: is is the copula. SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 165 XXII. " He wishes to go to the house." This is a sentence; declarative ; simple. He is the subject; wishes is the predicate. The predicate, " wishes," is modified by the phrase to go, an objective ele- ment; "to go" is modified by the phrase to the house, an adverbial element, and "house" by the, an adjective element. XXIII. "Clarence seemed to be their leader." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. Clarence is the subject; leader is the predicate; seemed to be is the strengthened copula. The predicate, " leader," is modified by ''their," an adjective element. "Seemed" is mod- ified by the phrase "to be," an adverbial element. 187. EXERCISES. 1. To doubt the promise of a friend is a sin. 2. He has gone to his office to write a letter. 3. How pleasant it is to see the sun. 4. Not to know me argues yourselves un- known. — Milton. 5. 'Tis not in mortals to command success. — Addison. 6. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast.— Congreve. 7. I was not hardened enough to venture a quar- rel with him then. — Oowley, 8. A thousand years scarce serve to found a state, — Byron. 188. CLAUSES. XXIV. " The credulity which has faith in goodness, is a sign of goodness." This is a sentence; declarative; complex. "Credulity is a sign of goodness " is the pr ncipal clause, and " which has faith in goodness," the subordjjaate. Credulity is the subject of the principal clause; sign is the predicate; is is the copula. The subject, "credulity," is modi- ied by the, an adjective element, and by the clause which ias faith in goodness, an adjective element; "sign," the predi- 166 ENGLISH GBAMMAR cate, is modified by a, an adjective element, and by the phrase of goodness, an adjective element. Which is the subject of the subordinate clause; has is the predicate. The predicate, "has," is modified by faith, an objective element, and by the phrase in goodness, an adverbial element. XXV. " I thought, when I saw you last, that I should never see you again." This is a sentence; declarative; complex. "I thought" is the principal proposition; "when I saw you last" and "that I should never see you again," are subordinate propositions. I is the subject of the principal proposition; thought is the predicate. The predicate, "thought," is modified by the clause when 1 saw you last, an adverbial element, and by the clause that I should never see you again, an objective element. I is the subject of the objective clause; should see is the predicate; " should see " is modified by you, an objective element, and by never and again, adverbial elements. I is the subject of the adverbial clause; saw is the predicate; "saw" is modi- fied by you, an objective element, and by when and last, ad- verbial elements. When and that are connectives, joining the clauses they introduce to "thought." 189. EXERCISES. 1. Soon rested those who fought. 2. All said that Love had suffered wrong. 3. He builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall. 4. It was now a matter of curiosity who the old gentleman was. 5. The fires of the bivouac complete what the fires kindled by the battle have not consumed. 6. To- wards night, the schoolmaster walked over to the cottage where his little friend lay sick. 7. Until you become lost to all feeling of your true inter- est and your natural dignity, freedom they can have from none but you. — Burke. 8. The sound of the wind among the leaves was no longer the sound of the wind, but of the sea. — Longfellow. 9. These are follies on which it would be greater folly to remark. — Landor. SYNTAX— ELEMENTS. 167 10. I am now at liberty to confess that much which I have, heard objected to in my late friend's writings, was well founded. 11. One of his favorite maxims was, that the only way to keep a secret is never to let any one suspect that you have one. 12. How his essays will read, now they are brought together, is a question for the ^publishers, who have thus ven- tured to draw out into one piece his "weaved-up follies." — Lamb. 13. Examples may be heaped until they hide The rules that they were made to render plain. 4. Merciful wind, sing me a hoarse, rough song, For there is other music made to-night That I would fain not hear. 15. Woe worth the chase ! woe worth the day ! That cost thy life, my gallant gray. — Scott. 16. The mountain arose, with its lofty brow, While its shadow was sleeping in vales below. — Clark. 190. EXERCISES IN SYNTHESIS. Write seven sentences, limiting their subjects by an adjective phrase. Models. — Love of display is a sin. Greed of gain is wrong. Write seven sentences, limiting their subjects by an adjective clause. Model. — The house which you see yonder, belongs to my father. Write seven sentences, limiting their predicates by an objective phrase or clause. Models. — I wish to remain. He says that he can not walk. Write seven sentences, limiting their predicates by an adverbial phrase or clause. Models. — I study to learn. I will come when you call me. Write seven sentences, introducing attendant elements. Model. — I think, my dear friend, that you are mistaken. Analyze the sentences you have written. 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR KINDS OF ELEMENTS. 191. SIMPLE ELEMENTS. 1. A Simple Element is one which is not restricted by a modifier. Ex. — "A rich man ; " "A man of wealth; " "A man who is wealthy.' 1 The word "rich," the phrase "of wealth," and the clause "who is wealthy," are simple adjective elements. 2. The Grammatical Subject is the simple subject. 3. The Grammatical Predicate is the simple predicate. Rem. — The same distinction may be made in the other ele- ments. 192. MODELS FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS. XXVI. "To err is human." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. To err is the grammatical subject; human is the gram- matical predicate; is is the copula. XXVII. "I am in danger." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. I is the grammatical subject; am is the grammatical predi- cate. The predicate, " am," is modified by the phrase in. danger, an adverbial element. 193.. EXERCISES. 1. Banners were waving. 2. To forgive is divine. 3. It is pleasant to read. 4. Stars have been shining. 5. Weapons were procured. 6. To covet is sinful. 7. To quarrel is dis- graceful. 8. To rob is to plunder. 9. Vessels are in sight. SYNTAX— CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 169 194. COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 1. A Complex Element is one which contains a lead- ing element, restricted in meaning by one or more mod- ifiers. 2. The leading element is called the basis. Ex.- -"A very rich man." "Kich" is the basis of the adjective element, and is modified by " very," an adverbial element. "A man faithful when others were faithless." " Faithful " is the basis of the adjective element, and is modified by the clause "when others were faithless." Rem. — The basis of an element need not be pointed out or mentioned in analysis. 3. The Complex or Logical Subject is the simple sub- ject taken with all its modifiers. Rem. I. — The simple subject, when a noun, may be modified: 1. By an adjective; as, "Loud reports followed." 2. By a participle; as, "The hour appointed has come." 3. By a possessive; as, "Georges plan succeeded.' 4. By a noun in the same case; as, "Gay the poet is dead." 5. By a phrase; as, "A storm of applause followed." 6. By a clause; as, "Money which I earn is my own." Rem. 2. — A subject may have all the preceding modifica- tions in the same sentence. Rem. 3. — When the simple subject is a pronoun, it may have all the modifications of a noun, except that made by a noun or pronoun in the possessive case. Rem. 4. — An infinitive or participial noun, used as a subject, may be modified (1) as a noun, by a word, phrase, or clause in the nominative case, in apposition with it; (2) as a verb, by the modifiers of a verb. 4. The Complex or Logical Predicate is the simple predicate taken with all its modifiers. [70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rem, I. — The simple predicate, when a verb, may be modi- fied: 1. If transitive, by an object; as, "He saves money." 2. By an adverb; as, "The horse runs swiftly." 3. By & phrase; as, "He lives in Troy;" "He studies to learn" 4. By a clause; as, "He knows where the mushrooms grow." Rem. 2.— When the predicate is an adjective, a participle, a noun, or any thing used as a noun, it may have all the modifi- cations of the part of speech with which it is classed. Rem. 3. — The copula is usually, but not always, modified by modal adverbs and adverbs of time. Rem. 4. — A predicate may have all the modifications given above in the same sentence. 5. A Complex Objective Element is the simple object taken with all its modifiers. Rem. — A complex objective element may be: 1. A word, modified by words, phrases, or clauses; as, "We found much gold;" "He owns the house on the hill;" "I love those who are frank." 2. A phrase, modified by single words, phrases, or clauses; as, "He desires to learn rapidly;" "He desires to learn to write;" " He desires to repeat what he has heard." 3. A clause, some part of which is modified by another clause; as, "I said that he was present when the assault was made." 6. A Complex Adjective Element is the simple adjec- tive element taken with all its modifiers. Rem. — A complex adjective element may be: L An adjective, modified by an adverb; as, "A very large lot." 2. A participle, with all the modifiers of a verb; as, "The young man was seen clandestinely entering a dram-shop." 3. A noun or pronoun, with the modifications of a noun or pronoun; as, " The Carpenter Elder's house;" "Thompson, the faithful guardian of our cousins; " " Our own dear native land." SYNTAX— CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 171 4. A phrase, modified by a word, phrase, or clause; as, "A time to make friends ;" "A time to learn to write;" "A time to re- peat what you have learned." 5. A clause, some part of which is modified by another clause; as, "A man who is angry whenever his views are con- troverted." 7. A Complex Adverbial Element is the simple ad- verbial element taken with all its modifiers. Rem. — A complex adverbial element may be: 1. An adverb, modified by a single word, phrase, or clause; as, "We rode very rapidly;" "It is too badly done to last;" "He spoke so indistinctly that we could not tinder stand him." 2. A phrase, modified by a single word, phrase, or clause; as, "I am ready to begin the work;" "I shall be ready to com- mence work by daylight ; " " I am ready to go wherever duty calls me." 3. A clause, some part of which is modified by another clause; as, " He is afraid that you will not return before he leaves." 195. MODELS FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS. XXVIII. "A lad, made orphan by a winter shipwreck, played among the waste." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. "A lad, made orphan by a winter shipwreck," is the logical subject, and "played among the waste" is the logical predicate. Lad is the grammatical subject; played is the grammatical predicate. The subject, "lad," is modified by a, a simple ad- jective element, and by made orphan by a winter shipwreck, a complex adjective element. "Made orphan" is modified by the phrase by a winter shipwreck, an adverbial element: "ship- wreck" is modified by a and winter, adjective elements. The predicate, "played," is modified by the phrase among the waste, an adverbial element, and "waste" by the, an adjec- tive element. " Made orphan " is an abridged proposition, equivalent to "that was made an orphan." (See Sec. 206.) 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR XXIX. " He who does as he lists, without regard to the wishes of others, will soon cease to do well." This is a sentence; declarative; complex. "He will soon cease to do well" is the principal proposition: " who does as he lists, without regard to the wishes of others," the complex subordinate proposition. " He who does as he lists, without regard to the wishes of others," is the logical subject, and " will soon cease to do well," the logical predicate. He is the grammatical subject of the principal proposition; will cease is the predicate. The subject, "he," is modified by the clause who does as he lists, etc., a complex adjective ele- ment. Who is the subject of this dependent proposition; does is- the predicate; "does" is modified by the clause as he lists, an adverbial element; of which as is the connective, he is the subject, and lists is the predicate; also by the phrase without regard to the wishes of others, a complex adverbial element, of which regard is modified by the phrase to the wishes of others, a complex adjective element. Wishes is modified by the, an adjective element, and by the phrase of others, an adjective element. "Will cease," the predicate, is modified by soon, an ad- verbial element, and by the phrase to do well, a complex ob- jective element; of which to do is modified by well, an ad- verbial element. 196. EXERCISES. 1. God's balance, watched by angels, is hung across the sky. 2. My eyes pursued him far away among the honest shoulders of the crowd. 3. Nothing is law that is not reason. 4. Vice itself lost half its evil by losing all its grossness. 5. There is a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue. 6. If ye love me, keep my commandments. 7. Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 8. Unless he reforms soon, he is a ruined man. 9. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 10. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he weary of thee, and so hate thee. 11. I am quite sure that Mr SYNTAX— CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 173 Hutchins rode through the village this morning. 12. He never has a lesson, because he is too lazy to study. 13. Do not forget to write when you reach home. 14. Even by means of our sorrows, we belong to the eternal plan. 15. The gentleman who was dressed in brown-once-black, had a sort of medico-theological exterior, which we afterward found to be representative of the inward man. 16. Every art was practiced to make them pleased with their own condition. — Johnson. 17. The man that blushes is not quite a brute. — Young. 18. My soul is an enchanted boat, Which, like a sleeping swan, doth float Upon the silver waves of thy sweet singing. — Shelley. 197. COMPOUND ELEMENTS. A Compound Element consists of two or more inde- pendent simple or complex elements, joined by coordi- nate conjunctions. Ex. — The moon and stars are shining. You may go or stay. Rem. — All the elements of a sentence may be compound. 198. MODELS FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS. XXX. "Industry, honesty, and economy generally insure success." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. "Industry, honesty, and economy" is the logical subject; 41 generally insure success" is the logical predicate. Industry, honesty, and economy is the compound grammati- cal subject; insure is the grammatical predicate. The subject is not modified. The predicate, " insure," is modified by gen- erally, an adverbial element, and by success, an objective ele- ment. 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. XXXI. " The charities that soothe, and heal, and bless, Are scattered at the feet of man like flowers." — Wordsworth. This is a sentence; declarative ; complex. Name the principal and the subordinate clause. " The charities that soothe, and heal, and bless " is the logical subject: "Are scattered at the feet of man like flow- ers" is the logical predicate. Charities is the grammatical subject of the principal propo- sition; are scattered is the grammatical predicate. The sub- ject, "charities," is modified by the, an adjective element, and by the clause that soothe, and heal, and bless, an adjective ele- ment; of which that is the subject, and soothe, and heal, and bless is the compound predicate; and being the connective. The predicate, " are scattered," is modified (1) by the phrase at the feet of man, a complex adverbial eleme"ht; of which "feet" is modified by the, an adjective element, and by the phrase of man, an adjective element; (2) by the phrase like flowers, an adverbial element. 199. EXERCISES. I. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 2. Youth is bright and lovely. 3. He is neither old nor in- firm. 4. He is not angry, but excited. 5. They wash, iron, cook, eat, and sleep in the same room. 6. 1 want to be quiet, and to be let alone. 7. The book which I loaned you, and which you lost, was a present from my father. 8. To live in a fine house and drive fast horses is the height of his ambition. 9. All the girls were in tears and white muslins, except a select two or three, who were being honored with a private view of the bride and bridesmaids, up stairs. 10. There was another tap at the door — a smart, potential tap, which seemed to say, "Here I am, and in I'm coming." II. Not a truth has to art or to science been given, But brows have ached for it, and souls toiled and 3fcriven. Lytton. SYNTAX— CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 175 200. CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 1. Complex elements and abridged propositions are sometimes called phrases. Rem. — The basis of the element, the manner in which it modifies, the connective, or the leading word, determines the name of the phrase. 2. Phrases may be: 1. Appositive; as, " Washington, the father of his country." 2. Adjective; as, "A man, tenacious of principle." 3. Adverbial ; as, " He lives just round the corner. 1 ' 4. Prepositional ; as, " We walked on the bank of the river." 5. Infinitive; as, "He hoped to receive a telegram." 6. Participial; as, "Being unwell, he remained at home." 7. Absolute; as, "He being sick, I remained." 8. Independent; as, "O my ducats!" Rem. I. — The infinitive, or participial phrase, when used as subject, is called the Subject Phrase: when used as predicate, the Predicate Phrase. Rem. 2. — The absolute phrase is an abridged proposition. It usually modifies the predicate of the sentence of which it forms a part, but may modify the subject and predicate com- bined. 201. CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. Clauses are classified with reference to their use or position in sentences. They are: 1. The Subject Clause: a proposition used as the subject of a sentence; as, "How the accident occurred, is not known." 2. The Predicate Clause: a proposition used as the predi- cate of a sentence; as, "The question is, How did he obtain the money f " 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. The Relative Clause: a dependent proposition introduced by a relative pronoun ; as, " The vessel which you see yonder, is a sloop." 4. The Appositive Clause: a proposition put in apposition with a noun; as, "The question, Are we a nation? is now an- swered." 5. The Interrogative Clause: a proposition introduced by an interrogative word; as, "Who said so?" "What vessel is that?" "Where do you live?" 6. The Objective Clause: a proposition used as an objective element; as, "The chairman declared that the motion was lost." 7. The Adverbial Clause: a proposition used as an adverbial element; as, "I will pay you when I receive my week's wages. 1 ' Rem. I. — Subject, predicate, and objective clauses are used as nouns. Rem. 2. — Belative clauses are either restrictive or explanatory. If restrictive, the antecedent is usually modified by a, the, or that; as, "The vessel which capsized, was a bark." If explana- tory, the antecedent is not so modified; as, "Steamships, which are a modern invention, make quick voyages." A proposition introduced by a compound relative is fre- quently equivalent to an adverbial element; as, "He will suc- ceed, whoever may oppose him" Rem. 3. — Interrogative clauses may be introduced by inter- rogative pronouns, interrogative adjectives, or interrogative adverbs. Rem. 4. — Adverbial clauses may be classified as follows: 1. Temporal: dependent clauses denoting time; as, "I was absent when the accident occurred." 2. Local: dependent clauses denoting place; as, "Go where duty calls thee." 3. Causal: dependent clauses denoting cause; as, "He is be- loved, for he is good." 4. Final: dependent clauses denoting a purpose or a result; as, "We came that we might assist you;" "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." SYNTAX— CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. 177 5. Comparative: dependent clauses expressing comparison; as, "He is older than I [am];" "Men generally die as they live." 6. Conditional : dependent clauses modifying propositions containing deductions or conclusions ; as, " He will be ruined, unless he reform;" "I would pay you, if I could." 7. Concessive : dependent clauses denoting a concession or admission; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." Rem. 5. — Two clauses which mutually qualify are called cor- relative ; as, " The deeper the well, the cooler the water." 202. EXERCISES. Classify the phrases and clauses in the following sentences : I. No one came to his assistance. 2. He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. 3. I would that ye all spake with tongues. 4. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 5. Launch thy bark, mariner! 6. He made them give up their spoils. 7. Go quickly, that you may meet them. 8. Voltaire, who might have seen him, speaks repeatedly of his majestic stature. 9. The French, a mighty people, com- bined for the regeneration of Europe. 10. Not many genera- tions ago, where you now sit, circled with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in the wind, and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. — Sprague. II. Very few men, properly speaking, live at present: most are preparing to live another time. 12. I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came. 13. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 14. Study nature, whose laws and phenomena are all deeply interesting. 15. Its qualities exist, since they are known, and are known because they exist. 16. At ten o'clock, my task being finished, I went down to the river. 17. Some say, that ever 'gainst that season comes Wherein our Savior's birth is celebrated, This bird of warning singeth all night long: And then no spirit dares stir abroad; The nights are wholesome : then no planets strike, No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm, So hallowed and so gracious is the time. — Shakespeare. H. G.-12. 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CONTRACTED SENTENCES. Sentences are contracted by ellipsis, abridgment, or by substituting a different expression. Rem. — The object of contraction is to secure conciseness of expression by means of brevity in the construction of sentences. 203. ELLIPSIS. 1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of a sentence. The words omitted are said to be understood. Rem. — If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted must be supplied. 2. A Simple Sentence is contracted by omitting all, or nearly all, but the most important part. 1. The subject may be omitted; as, " Come " = Come thou, or do thou come. 2. The predicate may be omitted; as, "Who will go? He [will go]." "I'll \_go~\ hence to London;" "Ye are Christ's [disciples']. 1 ' 3. Both subject and predicate may be omitted; as, "Water!" =Give me some water; " Forward !" = March ye forward. 4. The object may be omitted; as, "Whose book have you? Johns" = I have John's book. 5. The verb to be, in all its forms, may be omitted; as, "Where now [are] her glittering towers?" "A professed Cath- olic, he imprisoned the Pope " = Being a professed Catholic, etc.; "England's friend, Ireland's foe"=To be England's friend is to be Ireland's foe. 6. Prepositions and conjunctions may be omitted ; as, " Build [for] me here seven altars;" "Woe is [to] me;" "I know [that] you are honest;" "Each officer, [and] each private did his duty." Rem. A complex sentence, whose subject or predicate is a prop- osition, may be contracted by changing the proposition to an SYNTAX— CONTKACTED SENTENCES. 179 infinitive or participial phrase; as, "That I may remain here, is my desire "=To remain here is my desire; "My desire is, that I may remain here" = My desire is, to remain here." 3. A Compound Sentence may be contracted by unit- ing the parts not common to all its members, and using the common parts but once. Ex. — " Exercise strengthens the constitution, and temperance strengthens the constitution " = Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. "Behold my mother and behold my brethren ,7 = Behold my mother and my brethren. 204. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. XXXII. "Kest." This is a sentence; imperative; simple. Thou, understood, is the subject; rest is the predicate. XXXIII. "Build me here seven altars." This is a sentence; imperative; simple. Thou, understood, is the subject; build is the predicate. The predicate, " build," is modified by altars, an objective element, which is modified by seven, an adjective element. "Build" is also modified by here and the phrase for mej adverbial elements. XXXIV. " He spake as one having authority." This is a sentence; declarative ; complex. "He spake" is the principal clause; "as one having au- thority speaks," the subordinate clause. He is the subject of the principal clause; spake is the predicate. The predicate, "spake," is modified by the clause as one having authority speaks, an adverbial element. One is the subject of the subordinate clause; speaks is the predi- cate. The subject, " one," is modified by having, an adjec- tive element, which is modified by authority, an objective ele- men. As is the connective. 180 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. XXXV. "He is worth more than you." This is a sentence; declarative; complex. "He is worth more" is the principal clause; "than you are worth," the subordinate clause. He is the subject of the principal clause; worth is the predi- cate; is is the copula. The predicate, "worth," is modified by the phrase [] more, an adverbial element, "more" being an' adjective used as a noun in the objective case without a gov- erning word. "More," as an adjective in the comparative de- gree, is modified by the clause than you are worth, an adverbial element. You is the subject of the subordinate clause; worth is the predicate; are is the copula. Than is the connective. 205. EXERCISES. 1. Advance. 2. Up, comrades, up. 3. Quick, quick, or we are lost. 4. Honest, my lord? 5. Impossible! 6. This done, we instantly departed. 7. Thou denied a grave! 8. What would content you? Talent? 9. How, now, Jenkinson? 10. A rope to the side! 11. Kather he, than I. 12. The orphan of St. Louis, he became the adopted child of the Eepublic. 13. Seest thou a man wise in his own conceit? There is more hope of a fool than of him. 14. Are you fond of skat- ing? Somewhat. 15. Horace is older than I? 16. That build- ing is as large as the capitol. 17. Multitudes of little floating clouds, Ere we, who saw, of change were conscious, pierced Through their ethereal texture, had become Vivid as fire. — Wordsworth. 18. Then here's to our boyhood, its gold and its gray! The stars of its winter, the dews of its May ! And when we have done with our life-lasting toys, Dear Father, take care of thy children, the Boys! — O. W. Holmes. 19. Wisdom, judgment, prudence, and firmness were his predominant traits. 20. Rural employments are certainly nat- ural, amusing, and healthy. 21. He had a good mind, a SYNTAX— COMPLEX SENTENCES. 181 sound judgment, and a vivid imagination. 22. He is a good, faithful, and generous boy. 23. Man is fearfully and wonder- fully made. 24. To love God and to do good to men are the leading purposes of every Christian. 25. Education expands and ele- vates the mind. 26. Learn to labor and to wait. 27. I am not the advocate of indolence and improvidence. 28. During our voyage, we whiled away our time in reading, in writing a journal, and in studying navigation. 29. That the climate of the northern hemisphere has changed, and that its mean temperature nearly resembled that of the tropics, is the opinion of many naturalists. — Lyett. 30. The writings of the sages show that the best empire is self-government, and that subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 31. The chastity of honor, which felt a stain like a wound, which inspired courage while it mitigated ferocity, which en- nobled whatever it touched, and under which vice itself lost half its evil by losing its grossness, is gone. — Burke. 32. When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when great interests are at stake and strong pas- sions excited, nothing is valuable in speech further than it is connected with high intellectual and moral endowments. — Webster. 206. ABRIDGMENT. 1. Complex Sentences are often changed into simple sentences by abridging their subordinate clauses. 2. Contracted clauses are called abridged propositions. Ex. — "We came that we might assist 2/ow"=We came to assist you. "I believe that he is honest" = 1 believe him to be honest. Rem. — There is an essential difference between a sentence shortened by ellipsis and an abridged proposition. In the former, the omitted .words are clearly implied, and must be restored before the sentence can be analyzed or parsed; in the latter, an equivalent expression is substituted for an en- tire proposition. The predicate is always retained, but is used as an assumed attribute, the assertion being wholly omitted. 182 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 3. To abridge a subordinate clause: 1st. Drop the subject, if it be already expressed in the principal clause; if not, retain it — changing its case to the possessive, objective, or absolute. 2d. Drop the connective, and change the copula or princi- pal verb to a participle, a participial noun, or an infinitive. Rem. I. — In abridging a proposition, when the copula or principal verb is changed to the infinitive mode, a noun or pronoun used as subject or predicate must be changed to the objective case. Ex.— 1. " I knew that it was he W =I knew it to be him. 2. " The merchant ordered that the goods should be shipped "=The merchant ordered the goods to be shipped. When the copula or principal verb is changed to a par- ticipial noun, the subject is changed to the possessive case; but a noun or pronoun used as the predicate, remains un- changed in the nominative. Ex. — 1. "I was not aware that it was he"=I was not aware of its being he. 2. "That he was a farmer promoted his election "— His being a farmer promoted his election. When the copula or principal verb is changed to a par- ticiple, the subject is put in the nominative case absolute with it. Ex. — 1. "The fair was not held, because the weather was unfa- vorable " = The weather being unfavorable, the fair was not held. 2. "When the sun rose, we pursued our journey " = The sun being risen, we pursued our journey. Rem. 2. — Sometimes an infinitive is an abridged proposition, the subject being omitted because it is contained in the prin- cipal clause, Ex.— "I told him to go;" equivalent to, I told him that he should go. In this sentence, to go is the direct object of told, and him the indirect object. The expression " him to go " resembles an abridged proposition in form only. Rem. 3. — The abridged form of an adjective clause is a par- ticipial, infinitive, or prepositional phrase. SYNTAX— ANALYSIS. 183 Ex. — " Our friends who live in the city " = Our friends living in ike city = Our friends in the city. "A book that may amuse you " = A book to amuse you. Rem. 4. — The abridged form of an adverbial clause is a par- ticipial, infinitive, prepositional, or absolute phrase. Ex. — "When we heard the explosion, we hastened to the spot" = Hearing the explosion, we hastened, etc. ; " I attend school that I may learn" = I attend school to learn; "If he be economical, he will become rich " = He will become rich by being economical; "When the soldiers arrived, the mob dispersed " = The soldiers having arrived, etc. Rem. 5. — The abridged form of an objective clause is a noun or pronoun modified by an infinitive phrase. Ex. — " We wish that you would stay " = We wish you to stay. " I thought that he was a merchant" = 1 thought him to be a merchant. 207. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. XXXVI. "I know him to be a sailor." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. I is the subject; know is the predicate. The predicate is modified by the abridged proposition him to be a sailor, equiv- alent to "that he is a sailor," an objective element. Him is modified by the phrase to be a sailor, an adjective element; sailor by a, an adjective element. XXXVII. "I was aware of his being my enemy." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. I is the subject; aware is the predicate; was is the copula. The predicate, "aware," is modified by the abridged proposi- tion of his being my enemy, an adverbial element, equivalent to, " that he was my enemy." Being is modified by his, an adjective element; enemy, by my, an adjective element. XXXVIII. "The shower having passed, we resumed our journey." This is a sentence; declarative; simple. We is the subject; resumed is the predicate. "Resumed" is modified by journey, an objective element, which is modi- 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fied by our, an adjective element. "Resumed" is also modi- fied by the abridged proposition the shower having passed, equivalent to "when the shower had passed." "Shower" is modified by the and having passed, adjective elements. 208. EXERCISES Analyze the following sentences, giving equivalent clauses for the abridged propositions : 1. Caesar having crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle. 2. Having accumulated a large fortune, he retired from business. 3. Being but dust, be humble -and wise. 4. Judging from his dress, I should pronounce him an artisan. 5. I believe him to be an honest man. 6. There is no hope of his recovering his health. 7. There is no prospect of the storm's abating. 8. Having been detained by this accident, he lost the opportunity of seeing them. 9. Having annoyed us thus for a time, they began to form themselves into close columns, six or eight abreast. — Jane Taylor. 10. My story being done, She gave me for my pains a world of sighs. — Shakespeare. 209. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. SENTENCES. I. In analyzing: 1. Read the sentence. 2. Determine, from its form and use, whether it is declara- tive, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 3. Determine whether it is simple, complex, or compound. 4. Arrange all the parts in natural order. 5. If necessary for analysis or parsing, supply all ellipses. II. If it is a simple sentence: 1. Point out the logical subject and logical predicate. SYNTAX— ANALYSIS. 185 2. Point out the grammatical subject and grammatical pred- icate. 3. Determine whether the subject is simple, complex, or com- pound; and when complex, point out and classify its modifiers with their qualifications. 4. Determine whether the predicate is simple, complex, or compound; and when complex, point out and classify ( 1 ) its objective modifiers, (2) its adverbial modifiers, with their qualifications. 5. Point out the attendant elements, and all the connect- Ill. If it is a complex sentence: 1. Analyze the principal clause as in II. 2. Analyze the subordinate clause or clauses as in II. IV. — If it is a compound sentence, each member should be analyzed as a simple or complex sentence, as in II or III. ELEMENTS. V. — 1. If an element is a single word, it is completely reduced. 2. If an element is a phrase or a clause, determine: a. The connective, and the parts it joins. b. In a phrase, determine the antecedent and subsequent terms of relation of the preposition. c. In a clause, point out the subject and predicate. 3. If an element is complex : a. Eeduce it to simple elements. 4. If an element is compound: a. Separate it into its component simple elements. b. Point out and classify the connective which joins them. c. Dispose of each element separately, as in 1 and 2 above. Rem. — The sentence being reduced by analysis to the parts of speech of which it is composed, let the teacher select such words as should be parsed, and instruct his pupils how to dispose of them according to the "models for parsing." 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 210. MODEL FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS. XXXIX. " The patriot, whom the corrupt tremble to see arise, may well feel a grateful satisfaction in the mighty power which heaven has delegated to him, when he thinks that he has used it for those purposes only which heaven ap- proves." This is a sentence; declarative; complex. It is composed of six clauses. The principal clause is : The patriot may well feel a grateful satisfaction in the mighty power. The subordinate clauses are: 1. Whom the corrupt tremble to see arise; 2. Which heaven has delegated to him; 3. When he thinks; 4. That he has used it for those purposes only ; 5. Which heaven approves. "Patriot" is the subject of the principal clause; " may feel" is the predicate. The subject, "patriot" is modified (1) by "the" an adjective element, and (2) by the clause "whom the corrupt tremble to see arise" an adjective element; of which "whom" is the connects ive, "corrupt" is the subject, and "tremble" is the predicate. "Corrupt" is modified by "the" an adjective element; "tremble" is modified by the phrase "to see" an adverbial element; which is modified by " whom" an objective element, and "whom" is modified by the phrase " [to~] arise" an adjective element. The predicate, "may feel" is modified (1) by "well" an ad- verbial element; (2) by "satisfaction" an objective element; which is modified by "a" and "grateful" adjective elements; and (3) by the phrase "in the mighty power which heaven has delegated to him" an adverbial element. "Power" is modified (1) by "the" and "mighty" adjective elements; (2) by the clause "which heaven has delegated to him" an adjective element; pf which "which" is the connective, "heaven" is the subject, SYNTAX— EXEKCISES. 187 and "has delegated" is the predicate: "has delegated 11 is modi- fied (1) by "which, 11 an objective element; (2) by the phrase "to him, 1 ' an adverbial element; of which "to 11 is the con- nective, and "him 11 is the object. "May feel 11 is modified (4) by the clause "when he thinks 11 etc., an adverbial element; of which "when 11 is the connective, "he 11 is the subject, and "thinks 11 is the predicate. "Thinks 11 is modified by the clause "that he has used it, 11 etc., an object- ive element; of which "that 11 is the connective, "he 11 is the subject, and "has used 11 is the predicate. "Has used 11 is modi' fied (1) by "it, 1 '' an objective element; (2) by the phrase "for those purposes only 11 etc., an adverbial element. "Purposes 11 is modified (1) by "those 11 and "only" adjective elements; and (2) by the clause "which heaven approves 11 an adjective element; of which "which 11 is the connective, "heaven 11 is the subject, and "approves 11 is the predicate. "Approves 11 is modified by "which 11 an objective element. 211. BRIEF METHOD OP ANALYSIS. "Patriot 11 is the subject; "may feel 11 is the predicate. The subject, "patriot 11 is modified (1) by "the 11 an adjective element, and (2) by the clause "whom the corrupt tremble to see arise 11 an adjective element. The predicate, "may feel 11 is modified (1) by "well 11 an ad- verbial element, denoting manner; (2) by "a grateful satisfac- tion, 11 a complex objective element; (3) by the phrase "in the mighty power which . . . him 11 a complex adverbial element; and (4) by the clause "when he thinks . . . approves 11 a com plex adverbial element, denoting time. 212. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 1. Hypocrisy is a sort of homage that vice pays to virtue. 2. The gods have set a price on every real and noble pleasure. 3. He was a very young boy; quite a little child. 4. It has all the contortions of the sibyl, without the inspiration. — Burke, 188 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 5. "Well, what is it?" said my lady Brook. 6. Suddenly the watch gave the alarm of "A sail ahead!" 7. He saw a star shoot from heaven, and glittering in its fall, vanish upon the earth. 8. Sweet are thy murmurs, stream! — Ossian. 9. Their slumbers are sound, and their wakings cheerful. 10. This were a wicked pretension, even though the whole family were destroyed. — Cowley. 11. And behold there came a voice unto him, and said, What dost thou here, Elijah? — Bible. 12. I passed the house many successive days. 13. He wore an ample cloak of black sheep's wool, which, having faded into a dull brown, had been refreshed by an enormous patch of the original color. His countenance was that of the faded part of his cloak. — Bryant. 14. The line which bisects the vertical angle of a triangle, divides the base into segments proportional to the adjacent sides. 15. He is so good, he is good for nothing. 16. The clouds are divided in heaven: over the green hills flies the inconstant sun: red, through the stony vale, comes down the stream of the hills. — Ossian. 17. The accusing angel flew up to Heaven's chancery with the oath, and blushed as he gave it in. And the recording angel, as he wrote it down, dropped a tear on the word, and blotted it out forever. — Sterne. 18. In the awful mystery of human life, it is a consolation sometimes to believe that our mistakes, perhaps even our sins, are permitted to be instruments of our education for immor- tality. 19. Even if his criticisms had been uniformly indul- gent, the position of the nobles and leading citizens, thus subjected to a constant, but secret superintendence, would have been too galling to be tolerated. — Motley. 20. No ax had leveled the giant progeny of the crowded groves, in which the fantastic forms of withered limbs, that had been blasted and riven by lightning, contrasted strangely with the verdant freshness of a younger growth of branches. — Bancroft. 21. The sun was now resting his huge disk upon the edge of the level ocean, and gilding the accumulation of clouds SYNTAX— EXEECISES. 189 through which he had traveled the livelong day; and which now assembled on all sides, like misfortunes and disasters around a sinking empire and falling monarch. — Scott. 22. It is, therefore, a certain and a very curious fact, that the representative, at this time, of any great whig family, who probably imagines that he is treading in the footsteps of his forefathers, in reality, while adhering to their party names, is acting against almost every one of their party principles. — Lord Mahon. 23. Kivers will always have one shingly shore to play over, where they may be shallow, and foolish, and childlike; and another steep shore, under which they can pause, and purify themselves, and get their strength of waves fully together for due occasion. — JRuskin. 24. I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. — Newton. 25. "We 're nettles, some of us, And give offense by the act of springing up. — Browning. 26. The twilight deepened round us. Still and black The great woods climbed the mountain at our back. . 27. May God forgive the child of dust Who seeks to know where Faith should trust. — Whittier. 28. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. — Pope. 29. Better far Pursue a frivolous trade by serious means, Than a sublime art frivolously. 30. With grave Aspect he rose, and in his rising seemed A pillar of state; deep on his front engraven, Deliberation sat, and public care; And princely counsel in his face yet shone, Majestic, though in ruin. — Milton. 190 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 31. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, And still where many a garden flower grows wild, There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, The village preacher's modest mansion rose. A man he was to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds a year. — Goldsmith. 32. As when upon a tranced summer night Those green-robed senators of mighty woods. Tall oaks, branch-charmed by the earnest stars, Dream, and so dream all night without a stir, Save from one gradual, solitary gust, Which comes upon the silence, and dies off, As if the ebbing air had but one wave : So came these words, and went. — Keats. 33. When Freedom, from her mountain height, Unfurled her standard to the air, She tore the azure robe of night And set the stars of glory there. She mingled with its gorgeous dyes The milky baldric of the skies, And striped its pure, celestial white, With streakings of the morning light. — Drake. RULES OF SYNTAX. Rule I. — The subject of a proposition is in the nom- inative case. Rule II. — A noun or pronoun, used as the predicate of a proposition, is in the nominative case. Rule III. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is in the possessive case. Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. SYNTAX— EULES. 191 Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used independently, is in the nominative absolute case. Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb, in the active voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case. Rule VII. — The object of a preposition is in the ob- jective case. Rule VIII. — Nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the objective case without a governing word. Rule IX. — Pronouns must agree with their anteced- ents in person, gender, and number. Rule X. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in the singular, connected by and, must be plural. Rule XI. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be sin- gular. Rule XII. — An adjective or a participle belongs to some noun or pronoun. Rule XIII. — A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. Rule XIV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, connected by and, must be plural. Rule XV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be sin- gular. • Rule XVI. — An infinitive may be used as a noun in any case except the possessive. [92 ENGLISH GEAMMAR Rule XVII. — An infinitive not used as a noun, de- pends upon the word it limits. Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par- ticiples, and adverbs. Rule XIX. — A preposition shows the relation of its object to the word upon which the latter depends. Rule XX. — Coordinate conjunctions join similar ele- ments. Rule XXI. — Subordinate conjunctions join dissimilar elements. Rule XXII. — An interjection has no dependence upon other words. 213. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. Rule I. — The subject of a proposition is in the nom- inative case. Rem. I. — Any thing that may be used as a noun, may be the subject; as, "A is a vowel:" "To lie is base;" "What time he took orders doth not appear." Rem. 2. — The subject generally precedes the predicate, but is placed after it, or the first auxiliary, (1) When a wish is expressed by the potential; as, "May you prosper: (2) When if or though, denoting a supposition, is suppressed; as, "Had they been wise, they would have listened to me:" (3) When the verb is in the imperative mode, or is used interrogatively; as, "Rest ye;" "Why do you persist?" Rem. 3. — The subject of the imperative mode is usually omitted; as, "Depart!" "Shut the door." It is also omitted after while, when, if, though, or than, when the verb is made one of the terms of a comparison; as, "He talks while [he is] writing;" "He is kind when [he is] sober;" "I will come, \f [it be] possible;" "They are honest, though [they are] poor;" "He has more knowledge than [he has] wisdom." SYNTAX— RULES. 193 EXERCISES. To be corrected, analyzed, and parsed : 1. Him and me study grammar. 2. I never saw larger horses than them are. 3. Me and John sit together. 4. Whom be- sides 1 do you suppose got a prize? 5. I am as tall as he, but she is taller than him. 6. Whom do you suppose has come to visit us? 7. We sorrow not as them that have no hope. 8. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just: and him. but naked, though locked up in steel, whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 9. Who wants an orange? — Me. 10. No other pupil is so studious as her. 11. He is older than me. 12. I know not whom else are expected. 13. None of his com- panions is more beloved than him. 214. PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. Rule II. — A ngun or pronoun, used as the predicate of a proposition, is in the nominative case. Rem. I. — The predicate-nominative denotes the same person or thing as the subject; and must agree with it in case, and usually in gender and number. It may be any thing that may be used as a noun; as, "That letter is B;" "To work is to pray;" "The command was, 'Storm the fort at daybreak.'" Rem. 2. — In questions, and when the predicate is emphatic- ally distinguished, the subject and predicate change places; as, "Who is that man?" "Are you the ticket agent?" "His pavilion round about him were dark waters and thick clouds ot the sky." Rem. 3. — The neuter pronoun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun of any person, number, or gender, as predi- cate; as, "It is I;" "It was you;" "It is Sarah." EXERCISES, To be corrected, analyzed, and parsed: 1. It is me. 2. It was her and him who you saw. 3. If I were him, I would go to Europe. 4. Whom do you say they were? 5. I do not know whom they are? H. G.-13. 194 ENGLISH GBAMMAR, 6. It was not me nor him who played truant. 7. It is not them who are to blame. 8. I disbelieve it to be he. 9. 1 have no doubt of its being them. 215. POSSESSIVE CASE. Rule III. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is in the possessive case. Rem. I. — The possessive term is always an adjective element. It may limit a noun of any class or form; as, "Our houses;" "O my ducats!" "Our country's welfare;" "All their dearest hopes were blasted;" "His being a foreigner should not in- duce ui, to underrate him." Rem. 2. — The relation of possession may be expressed by the preposition of, with the objective; as, "My friend's house " = The house of my friend. This form should be used when two or more nouns in the possessive would otherwise come to- gether; as, "My friends father's house " = The house of my friends father. Rem. 3. — The limited noun is sometimes omitted; as, "This house is the doctor's [house]." "We visited St. Paul's [church]." "This is a farm of my father's [farms]." Rem. 4. — The limited noun need not be plural because the possessive is plural; as, "Their judgment is good;" "Our do dsion is made;" " The women's hope failed." Rem. 5. — When a noun is put in apposition with a noun or pronoun in the possessive case, the sign may be omitted; as, "This was Webster's opinion, the most eminent lawyer in the country." Rem. 6. — In some compound words, formed from the pos- sessive and the word limited by it, both the hyphen and sign of possession are omitted ; as, hogshead, cats head, etc. SYNTAX— RULES. 195 EXERCISES. To be corrected and parsed : 1. The boys story was believed. 2. He wore the knight' s- templar's costume. 3. The goods were sent by the Merchants Union Express. 4. That book is his'n. 5. The Bishop's of Dublin's palace. 6. My fathers health is not good. 7. My book is larger than your's. 8. The mistake was the teacher, not the pupil's. 9. The general's aids horse was killed. 10. No one could prevent him escaping. 11. I purchased this at Penfields', the bookseller's. 12. Some people regret the King of France's, Louis XVI., being beheaded. 13. He bought a hog's head of sugar. 14. William's and Mary's reign was prosperous, 15, It was John, not Emma's fault. 216. APPOSITION. Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. Rem. I. — A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and a sentence with a noun ; as, "/ resolved to practice temperance — a resolution I have ever kept." M Remember Franklin's maxim : 'God helps them that help themselves. 1 " Rem. 2. — A noun in apposition sometimes precedes the noun it identifies; as, "Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer, comes." Rem. 3. — Though a noun or pronoun usually agrees with the noun it identifies, in number and gender, it is not necessary that it agree with it in any thing else than case; as, "My lunch — fried oysters and crackers — was soon eaten." Rem, 4. — When possessives are in apposition, the sign of possession is used only with the one next to the noun limited by the entire possessive term; as, "Peter the Hermit's elo- quence." 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rem. 5. — Sometimes the noun in apposition is separated from the limited noun by as, denoting rank, office, or capacity; as, M Mr. Jones, as my attorney, sold the land ; " " My son sails as supercargo." Equivalent terms are sometimes introduced by or; as, "The puma, or American lion, is found in South America." Rem. 6. — A noun or pronoun repeated for emphasis, or for the purpose of arresting and fixing the attention, is frequently an appositive; as, "There was another tap at the door — a smart, potential tap ; " " He, he alone, can do this." A com- pound personal pronoun is also sometimes in apposition with a simple personal pronoun which precedes it; as, "I, myself, told you so." EXERCISES. To be corrected, analyzed, and parsed: 1. Will you discard me; I who have always been your friend ? 2. What was the General ; him you wished to see ? 3. I bought it of Mrs. Wilson; she who keeps the milliner's shop. 4. Ira Jacobs, him who you punished, was not to be blamed. 5. Whom shall we praise? — They who do their duty. 6. My watch was lost near Wilkins's, the blacksmith's. 7. They are the lovely, them in whom unite Youth's fleeting charms, with virtue's lovely light. 217. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE CASE. Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used independently, it In the nominative absolute case. Rem. I. — For the five forms of the absolute case, see Sec. 33. Rem. 2. — The nominative absolute with a participle is gen- erally equivalent to an adverbial clause, commencing with if, because, since, when, or while; as, "He being rich, they feared his influence " — They feared his influence because he was rich. "The sun being risen, we pursued our journey" = When the sun had risen, we pursued our journey. SYNTAX— EULES. 197 Rem. 3. — In mottoes and abbreviated sayings, and frequently in exclamations, nouns in the nominative absolute case seem to have relation to something understood ; as, " Laird's Bloom of Youth " =Use Laird's Bloom of Youth; "Confidence" (a motto) =This is a token of confidence; "A rat! a rat!"=7%er•], a short sound, as in ndt; the Dieresis [••] separates two vowels into two syllables, as aeriform. XIV. The Acute Accent ['] commonly denotes a sharp sound; the Grave Accent [*], a depressed sound; the Circumflex Accent [ v or "7 ], a broad sound. Rem. — In most works on elocution, the acute accent denotes the rising inflection; the grave accent, the falling inflection; the circumflex, a union of the acute and the grave. EXERCISES. Note to Teachers. — Exercises in punctuation may be selected from the Readers in general use. Require pupils to give rules or cite remarks for the use of all the points they may find. Select, also, passages from good authors, and pronounce the words in con- secutive order, slowly and distinctly, as in a spelling lesson, with- out indicating the grammatical construction by tone or inflection. Require pupils to write these as pronounced, and to separate them into sentences and parts of sentences by the proper points. Punctuate properly the following examples, and observe the rules for the use .of capitals : What tubero did that naked sword of yours mean in the battle of pharsalia at whose breast was its point aimed what was then the meaning of your arms your spirit your eyes your hands your ardor of soul what did you desire what wish for I press the youth too much he seems disturbed let me re- turn to myself I too bore arms on the same side cicero presently my soul grew stronger hesitating then no longer sir said I or madam truly your forgiveness I implore but the fact is I was napping and so gently you came rapping and so faintly you came tapping tapping at my chamber door that I scarce was sure I heard you here I opened wide the door darkness there and nothing more poa PART IV PROSODY 252. DEFINITIONS. 1. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of accent, and of the laws of versification. 2. A Verse is a line consisting of a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables, disposed accord- ing to metrical rules. 3. Versification is the art of metrical c6mposition. 4. Discourse is written either in Prose or Verse. 5. Prose is discourse written in language as ordina- rily used, having reference, mainly, to a clear and dis- tinct statement of the author's meaning. 6. Poetry is discourse written in metrical language. Its aim is to please, by addressing the imagination and the sensibilities. 7. Poetry is written either in Rhyme or Blank Verse. 8. Rhyme is a correspondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines, succeeding each other immediately, or at no great distance. Ex. — "Onward its course the present keeps; Onward the constant current sweeps." (258) 254 ENGLISH GKAMMAR Rem. I. — Perfect rhymes require, (1) that the syllables be ac- cented, and that the vowel sounds be the same; (2) that the sounds following the vowels be the same; (3) that the sounds preceding the vowels be different. Ex. — Talk and walk, town and crown, are perfect rhymes. Breathe and teeth, home and come, are imperfect rhymes. Rem. 2. — A single rhyme is an accented syllable standing alone at the end of a line; as, mind, refined. A double rhyme consists of an accented syllable, followed by an unaccented one; as, dreaming, seeming. A triple rhyme consists of an ac- cented syllable, followed by two unaccented ones; as, fearfully, cheerfully. Rem. 3. — A couplet, or distich, consists of two lines rhyming together. A triplet consists of three lines rhyming together. Rem. 4. — Middle rhyme is that which exists between the last accented syllables of the two sections of a verse or line. Ex. — " We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea." — Coleridge. 9. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 10. A Stanza is a group of Hues forming a division of a poem. 253. POETIC FEET. 1. A Foot is a certain portion of a line in poetry, combined according to accent. 2. Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable of a word or foot. Rem. I. — In Greek and Latin, verse is made according to the quantity of syllables; i, e., the relative time employed in pronouncing them. A long syllable requires twice the time in uttering it that a short one requires. In English, verse is composed wholly according to accent. An accented syllable is considered long; an unaccented sylla- ble, short. Rem. 2. — In poetry, monosyllables receive accent. Ex. — "And to' | and fr<(5-)-au. List 7 to the | mourn 7 ful tra- | di 7 tion still | sung 7 by the ) pines 7 of the | for'est. Rem.— A dactylic verse rarely ends with a dactyl. It is sometimes catalectic, or ends with a trochee; sometimes hy- permeter, or ends with a long syllable. Ex. — Brightest and | best 7 of the | sons 7 of the | morn 7 ing, Dawn 7 on our | dark 7 ness, and | lend 7 us thine | aid 7 . 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 260. AMPHIBRACH MEASURES. 1. Amphibrach Monometer . . . . u au. Hearts beaming, Tears starring, At meeting; At parking. 2. Amphibrach Dimeter . . . . u a u X 2. O would 7 I | were dead 7 now, Or up 7 in | my bed 7 now. 3. Amphibrach Trimeter . . . . u a u X 3. A breath 7 of | submission | we breathe 7 not; The sword 7 we | have drawn 7 , we | will sheathe 7 not. 4. Amphibrach Trimeter Catalectic . . . . u a u X 3 — . Ye shep 7 herds | so cheerful | and gay 7 , "Whose flocks 7 nev- | er care 7 less- | ly roam 7 5. Amphibrach Tetrameter . . . . u a u X 4. The flesh 7 was | a pict 7 ure | for paint 7 ers | to stud 7 y, The fat 7 was | so white 7 , and | the lean 7 was [ so rud 7 dy. 6. Amphibrach Tetrameter Catalectic . . . . u a u X 4 — . But hang 7 it, — | to po 7 ets | who seFdom | can eat 7 , Your vei^y | good mut 7 ton's | a vej/y | good treat 7 . 261. MIXED VERSE. Different measures are frequently used in the same poem. Tell what feet compose each line of the following example: Merrily swinging on briar and weed, Near to the nest of his little dame, Over the mountain-side or mead, Robert of Lincoln is telling his name, Bob-o-link, Bob-o-link; Spink, spank, spink; Snug and safe is that nest of ours, Hidden among the summer flowers. Chee, chee, chee. — Bryant. PKOSODY. 263 262. POETIC LICENSE. Poetic License is an indulgence in the use of peculiar Words, forms, and expressions, allowed to poets by com- mon consent. Rem. I. — Poetic license permits the use of antiquated words and phrases, foreign words and idioms, common words short- ened, lengthened, or changed in pronunciation, and any ellip- sis that will not destroy the sense. Ex. — Eke, erst, eyne, eve, beweep, evanish, albeit, fount, trow, hight (called), vastly, wis, ween, wight, etc. "A train-band captain eke was he ; " " The peace rejected, and the truce retained; " " His timeless death beweeping ; " " [ He] Who steals my purse, steals trash ; " "Like [a] shipwrecked mariner on [a] desert coast." Rem. 2. — It permits a transitive use of intransitive verbs. Ex. — They lived the rural day, and talked the flowing heart. Rem. 3. — Poets make use of an inverted order of arrange- ment more frequently than prose writers. Ex. — "Sunk was the sun;" "The rattling crags among." 263. SCANNING. Scanning is an analysis of versification. To scan a line is to divide it into the feet of which it is composed. EXERCISES. 1. Sweet day! so cool, so calm, so bright, The bridal of the earth and sky; The dews shall weep thy fall to-night; For thou must die. — Herbert. 2. Under the greenwood tree Who loves to lie with me, And tune his merry note Unto the sweet bird's throat,- Come hither, come hither, come hither! Here shall he see no enemy But winter and rough weather. — Shakespeare. 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Nature, attend ! join, every living soul, Beneath the spacious temple of the sky; In adoration join ; and, ardent, raise One general song ! To Him, ye vocal gales, Breathe soft, whose Spirit in your freshness breathes; Oh. talk of Him in solitary glooms, Where, o'er the rock, the scarcely waving pine Fills the brown shade with a religious awe. — Thomson. 4. With fruitless labor, Clara bound And strove to stanch the gushing wound: The Monk, with unavailing cares, Exhausted all the church's prayers : Ever, he said, that, close and near, A lady's voice was in his ear, And that the priest he could not hear, For that she ever sung, " In the lost battle, borne down by the flying, Where mingles war's rattle with groans of the dying I " So the notes rung. — Scott. 5. Bird of the wilderness, Blithesome and cumberless, Sweet be thy matin o'er moorland and lea! Emblem of happiness, Blest is thy dwelling-place, — Oh to abide in the desert with thee ! — Hogg. 6. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 7. Thou art! — directing, guiding all, — Thou art! Direct my understanding, then, to Thee; Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart; Though but an atom midst immensity, Still I am something fashioned by thy hand! I hold a middle rank 'twixt heaven and earth, On the last verge of mortal being stand, Close to the realms where angels have their birth, Just on the boundaries of the spirit land. — Derzhaven. DIAGKAMS. 265 DIAGRAMS. 264. EXPLANATION. 1. In the following diagrams, the subject, the predi- cate, and the copula of each principal proposition are placed above a horizontal base-line. 2. The subject is separated from the predicate or the copula by a vertical line drawn across this base-line. (See Diagrams I and II.) 3. The copula is separated from the predicate by a colon. (See Diagrams I and II.) 4. The objective element and the term which it mod- ifies are separated by a vertical line drawn to the hori- zontal line below them. (See Diagrams IV, XXIX, and XXXIV.) 5. An indirect object is placed on a horizontal line above a direct object. (See Diagram X.) 6. An object denoting a person or thing is placed above one denoting the rank, office, or character of the person or the species of the thing. (See Diagram XI.) 7. A noun or an adjective following the infinitive or participle of a copulative verb is separated from it by a dash. (See Diagrams XXXIV and XLVII.) 8. An adjective or adverbial element is placed below the term which it modifies, and in the angle formed by a vertical and a horizontal line. Several elements of the same kind may sometimes be placed in the same angle. (See Diagrams XIII and XIV.) 9. Coordinate conjunctions are printed in italics. They should be underscored in written diagrams. (See Diagrams XX, XXIV, and XLI.) 266 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 10. Subordinate conjunctions, when not used as con- junctive adverbs, are enclosed by curves. (See Diagrams XXXV and XXXVI.) 11. Conjunctive adverbs are printed in italics and enclosed by curves. (See Diagram XXXIX.) 12. Expletives and other attendant elements are placed on horizontal lines not connected with lines in the diagrams. (See Diagrams IX and XVIII.) 13. Words supplied are enclosed by brackets. (See Diagrams XXXI and XXVII.) SIMPLE SENTENCES. I. Glass is transparent. II. John looks cold. Glass | is : transparent John | looks : cold I I III. Birds sing. IV. Farmers sow grain. Birds | sing Farmers | sow 1 grain I I V. The steamship Hibernia has arrived. VI. My brother broke Eli's slate. steamship | has arrived brother | broke | slate The | |_My | | Eli's Hibernia VII. The sun shines brightly. VH1. He is not handsome. sun shines He | is : handsome | The | | brightly , ) | not IX. King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? X. My father gave me a good book. King Agrippa ; i me thou | believest \ prophets father | gave | book the | My | good Note. — The places which direct and indirect objects should occupy in diagrams are indicated in Diagram X. The indi- rect object "me" is placed above the direct object "book," and a line is drawn between them. DIAGBAMS— SIMPLE SENTENCES. 267 XL They have chosen Mr. Ames speaker. XII. He was elected president. They [ have chosen I/ Mr. Ames He [ was elected : president speaker XIII. A life of prayer is a life of heaven. life | is : life of prayer of heaven XIV. Many actions apt to procure fame are not condu- cive to our ultimate happiness. actions | are : conducive I Many J | not | to happiness apt | to procure | fame our ultimate XV. I will go to-morrow. XVI. That is worth while. I | will go That \ is : worth | | [] to-morrow [ [] while XVII. There was much grass there. XVIII. Clarence seemed to be their leader. There Clarence | seemed to be : leader I was I their | much | | there Note. — "Seemed to be" is a complex or strengthened copula. "To be" is an adverbial element modifying "seemed." (See page 165, Model XXIII.) XIX. Industry, honesty, and economy generally insure success. % XX. I alone was solitary and idle. Industry sty \ | insure 1 success I | was : /solitary and /\ | generally | alone j N. ^ e economy/ > 268 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. XXI. He came and went like a pleasant thought. 1. He | came and went like thought 2. He | came and went like thought pleasant a pleasant XXII. My father owns a factory and a steamboat. father | owns | factory and steamboat "Llfi Ei \JL XXIII. I want to be loved and to be lovely. XXIV. Give me neither poverty nor riches. I | want I /to be loved — j — — ( and ' \to be — lovely , m( v^ neither [thou] 1 Give \ / poverty "\ nor riches Note. — "Neither" introduces the compound direct objective element; "nor" connects the two nouns "poverty" and " riches." XXV. The soldiers fought bravely and successfully. soldiers | fought | The | | bravely and successfully. XXVI. To give an affront, or to take one tamely, is no mark of a great mind. To give 1 affront or to take | one | an | tamely is : mark no of mind XXVfl. Build me here seven altars. XXVIII. The pupils were forbidden the premises. me [ye] 1 Bu ild | altars here | | seven pupils j were forbidden | The | \ [] premises 1 the DIAGKAMS— COMPLEX SENTENCES. 269 XXIX. The king ordered the page to read the letter, page king | ordered' 1 the to read The | letter the COMPLEX SENTENCES. XXX. The credulity which has faith in goodness, is a sign of goodness. credulity is : sign The | which | has | faith of goodness | | in goodness, XXXI. That the earth is round was not then believed. (That) earth | is : round the | was believed not then XXXII. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. ye shall perish all | likewise (Except) ye | repent, XXXIII. The charities that soothe, and heal, and bless, Are scattered at the feet of men like flowers, charities Are scattered The that | soothe, and heal, and bless, at feet the of men like flowers XXXIV. The gentleman who was dressed in brown-once- black, had a sort of medico- theological exterior, which we afterwards found to be representative of the inward man. gentleman | had | sort The who | was dressed of exterior in brown- once-black medico- theological we | found | which | afterw ards | to be — representative | of man the inward 270 ENGLISH GKAMMAR XXXV. He spake as one having authority. He | spake | (as) one | [speaks] having | authority XXXVI. He is worth more than you. He | is : worth ]] more | (than) you [ [are : worth]. I Note. — In this sentence "more" is an adjective used as a noun. As an adjective, it can be modified by the adverbial element introduced by " than." XXXVII. He who does as he lists, without regard to the wishes of others, will soon cease to do well. XXXVIII. The more I see him, the better I like him. He | will cease | to do I | like | him [ soon | wel] who | does I shes better | the I (as) he | lists without regard I | see | him | | more | to wi | The the of others XXXIX. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, And still where many a garden flower grows wild, There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, The village preacher's modest mansion rose. mansion rose modest | preacher's The village Near copse yonder garden | smiled ws : wild | the | once [where] And flower 1 gro There * 1 many a | 1 garden still (where) shrubs | disclose | place a | (where) | the few torn DIAGRAMS— ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 271 XL. He was a man to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds a year. He I was : man a dear, And rich | to country jail 1 the passing with pounds 1 forty 1 [] year La COMPOUND SENTENCES. XLI. Every man desires to live long; but no man would be old. man [ desires [ to live man | would be : old | Every | long | no | XLII. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain's top. candles I are burnt Night's out Day | Stands j jocund | [on] tiptoe on top | mountain's XLIII. Talent is power ; tact is skill. | the | misty Talent | is : power [but] tact | is : skill i i ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. XLIV. I know him to be a sailor, him I | know | to be — sailor I Note. — The abridged proposition, "him to be a sailor," is the object of "know." Instead of a rule, apply the first part of Rem. 1, page 182, in parsing "him" and "sailor." XLV. I was aware of his being my enemy. I | was : aware I | of being — enemy his | my 272 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. XLVI. The shower having passed, we pursued our journey. we | pursued | journey | shower | our The having passed Note. — "The shower having passed" is an abridged propo- sition modifying "pursued." It is equivalent to "when the shower had passed," (See page 184, Model XXXVIII.) XLVII. His being an outlaw was not known to his com- panions. being — outlaw | His [an was known 1 not to companions XLVIII. Having been detained by this accident, he lost the opportunity of seeing them. he | lost | opportunity the of seeing | them ( Having been detained | I by accident | this Note. — Teachers are referred to Irish's " Grammar and Analysis Made Easy and Attractive by Diagrams," published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., for a further exposition of the use of diagrams in connection with analysis. "■ > V"' 4 V i *> 4 m 36457