LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. "Received j AN 4 1893 • l8 9 Accessions No. t/QB'57 . Class No. Pupils' Edition. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 140 45 fUennett (C. W.) National Education hi Europe. Paper, I ... in Blancliard (Rufus) Tablet of United State* History, w . 3 00 Bradford (W. H.) Thirty Possible Problems in Percentage. .<>m< > % pp. si . . . 25 Brown (C. J.) Writing Portfolio. Five numbers, each 25 Brown (Josephine K.) Keble Outlines of Geography. 16mo, pp. 59 25 Brown (I. H.) Common School Examiner and Review. Pp. 371 1 00 Brownell (Herbert ) Handbook for Teachers and Trustees. A manual of School Law for Trustees, Teachers, and Parents. Leatherette, ltimo.pp.lOO 85 Buckham i Henry B.) Handbook for Young Teachers. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 152. 75 Bugbee, (A. G.) Exercises in EnglUh Syntax. Leatherette, 16mo, pp. 85.. 85 \Key to the same. Leatherette, 16mo. pp. 36 35 Bulletin Blank Speller. Boards, 5% x TJ4, round corners, pp. 40 15 Spelling Pads, 70 pages. Each 15 Book-Keeping Blanks. 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For young teachers I know of no book that contains, in the same compass, so much matter bearing directly on their work, and capable of being immediately utilized. They cannot make a better investment of fifty cents. — M. A. Newell, State Sup't, Maryland. I have never seen a book of more practical value to teachers At what rate can I procure twenty-five copies!-^. B. Snow, City Sup't, Auburn, N. Y. The " Mistakes in Teaching" has come, and I have rrad it with interest It is a useful book, and should be in the hands ol all teachers. It points out clearly those things in which nearly all of us are guilty. I hope the book may meet a ready and extensive sale.— B. M. Reynolds, Sup't Schools, Fairbault, Minnesota. Mr. Hughes evidences in this little manual the good results of careful observa- tion and a thorough study of the philosophy of instruction, and shows practical ly how to avoid the mistake* young and inexperienced teachers are liable to make. In this book he has condensed an immense amount of sound advice. We advise every teacher to invest fifty cents in the purchase of this useful vo.ume.— New England Journal of Education. It will help any teacher to read this book and find out his own mistakes with ■ view toward correcting them.— New York School Journal. All young teachers will find the book a help in their work— one of the best to be had — Educational Weekly. We know of no book containing more valuable suggestions to teachers — Central School Journal. It contains more hints of practical value to teachers than any book of its size known to us. — Ohio Educational Monthly. Clearly presented and distinctly expressed, and cannot fail to he useful to any young teacher— We Schoolmaster, London. Admirably executed. — Educational Times, London. In the elementary work of the first year in didactics, Mistakks in Tkaiiiim. has been recommended. It is believed that "the first step toward progress in any department of work is to learn to avoid the mistakes one is liable to make. Young teachers, before they begin to teach, should know the rocks that He in their course." A huudred common and almost universal errors in school man- agement, discipline, method, and manner, are here pointed out and corri-oted. — Prof. S. N. Fellows, Iowa University, in article on Normal Institutes, Iowa Normal Monthly. In accordance with the nbovt recommendat'on, more than EIGHTKEN THOUSAND copies have been ordered for the Iowa County Institute*. PREFACE "There is and there can be no teaching, where the attention of the scholar is not secured. The teacher who fails to get the attention of his scholars, fails totally." So writes a thoughtful educator, and every observant teacher knows that the state- ments are correct. The most important work of a teacher both in regard to the lea rning of school l essons and the forma- tion of proper mental habits by his pupils, is the development of the power to give concentrated and sustained attention to a subject. While fully agreeing with the opinion that natural aptitude has much to do in deciding the measure of a teacher's success, the author knows that the power of securing and retaining attention can be acquired and developed. This book has been written with a sincere desire to aid in the accomplishment of this important object. Toronto, February 2oth, 1880. CONTENTS Chap. Page. I. Kinds of Attention 5 II. Characteristics of Positive Attention 8 III. Characteristics of the Teacher in securing and retaining Attention 24 IV. Conditions of Attention - - - 30 V. How to control a class 36 VI. Method of preserving and stimulating the pupils' desire for knowledge 45 VII. How to gratify and develop the natir- ral desire for knowledge - - 57 VIII. The cultivation of the Senses - 72 IX. General Suggestions 86 f TJlTIVBRSITYj HOW TO SECURE AND RETAIN ATTENTION. CHAPTER I. KINDS OF ATTENTION. Attention may be Negative or Positive, Negative Attention. A pupil may look without seeing, listen without being con- scious of hearing, and hear without com- prehending. He may sit and dream. The mind has inner as well as outer gates. The outer gates admit merely to the courtyard of the mind. A great many pupils keep the inner doors closed to much of the teaching done by their teachers. We may perceive without receiving distinct con- ceptions. Thousands look at a store win- t) HOW TO SECURE AND dow in passing it without being able to name or even give the color of a single article in it. We may hear also without taking in the thoughts of the person speaking. How often men sit in church and hear a preach- er's voice without noting his words ! The sounds he makes gets through the gates of the castle wall, but the castle itself is shut and filled with other tenants. The tele- phonic key has not been adjusted, and direct communication has not been estab- lished. We hear various sounds — the bell of the factory or the school, the whistle of the steam engine, the song of the birds, &c. — without always being conciously im- pressed by them. Sometimes they influ- ence or arrest our lines of thought, but more frequently, unless they convey a spe- cial message to us, we allow them to pass unheeded. Negative attention consists in the outward marks of attention merely. It is a form without reality; a seed without an active germ, from which nothing of life and beauty can ever spring. RETAIN ATTENTION. 7 Positive Attention. A pupil who gives positive or active attention, is attentive not merely with his body but with his mind. He has the inner as well as the outer gates of his mind open. His mind must be will- ing to receive the thoughts his teacher has to communicate, and it must not be preoc- cupied, ox actively engaged with other thoughts. He must for a time forget his personality, and turn from thoughts of his own plays and work and all that directly interests him outside of the lesson. He must get out of his own current of thought and into that of his teacher. Positive attention stands opposed to that rambling state of mind in which the thoughts move continually from one topic to another without dwelling upon any, and also to that apathetic and listless condition of the mind in which it is not conscious of thought; or in which ideas, if they exist, leave no trace in the memory. It is the kind of attention which a teacher must have from his pupils if he wishes to im- press them. If he secures only negative, the minds of his scholars may be a thous- and miles away, whilst their bodies may occupy positions of reverent attention. CHAPTER II. CHARACTERISTICS OF POSITIVE ATTENTION I. Positive Attention may be either instinctive or controlled. Instinctive attention. Attention may be won or directed, attracted or guided. Pupils may give attention to a subject be- cause they are interested in it, or because they are convinced that they will receive benefit from so attending. We attend to many things without effort, and even in opposition to our wishes. Those things which give us either pleasure or pain de- mand and receive our attention in propor- tion to the intensity of the interest they have for us. The little child gives atten- tion because it is a delight to do so. It attends to one thing until another becomes more attractive. " Observation, attention, concentration, last so long as enjoyment POSITIVE ATTENTION. 9 lasts and no longer." The mind of the lit- tle one flies like the bee from flower to flower, and it gets something every time it alights. The child does not pass from ob- ject to object for the sake of information however, but on account of the beauty and attractiveness of the things themselves. Nevertheless it gathers the knowledge more easily and more rapidly than it does afterwards, even when the acquisition of knowledge is its direct object. The child learns more between the ages of two and a half and four years than it does during any five years afterwards. He has learned a language, and speaks it correctly both as regards grammar and pronunciation, if he has listened to good speaking. He is inti- mately acquainted with the worlds of na- ture and of art so far he has come in con- tact with them. He knows the relations of things to each other and to himself. He cannot explain, but he puts in practice the principles of philosophy. He is even capa- ble to a far greater extent than he usually gets credit for, of estimating and appreciat- ing the motives as well as the actions of the adults by whom he is surrounded. lO HOW TO SECURE AND He could not have learned thus rapidly, if it had not been for the power of instinc- tive attention, the intensity of which in a child is so great as to require but a short time to gather ideas. Teachers will do well to note carefully, not only the marvel- lous rapidity with which knowledge is ac- quired in early years, but the distinctness and permanency of ideas received in the days of childhood. Many parents and teachers complain of the flightiness of children, and their lack of continuity in giving fixed attention to a subject. If these wise grumblers would only reflect, they would find that this tendency to pay attention to whatever gives the highest degree of joy or pain is a characteristic of childhood impressed by our Creator. The results already noted clearly prove that it is not necessary to give long continued so much as oft repeated attention to a subject in order to become acquainted with it* The clearness and permanency of ideas depends on the interest and intensity of attention rather than its continuance. If the best teachers could only succeed in making children learn one half as rapidly RETAIN ATTENTION. 1 1 during school days as they did in their homes or in the fields and woods before school life began, they would have great reason to congratulate themselves. Why do children not continue to mani- fest the same degree of interested or in- stinctive attention through life, that they showed in early years ? Is the change due to an altered mental nature, or is it caused by improper methods of teaching ? Partly to both, but mainly to the latter. Profes- sor Payne says, "It is certain, that there are processes of so-called education in vogue amongst us which, by the assiduous cultivation of mere rote memory, convert teaching into a mechanical grind of words, and thus defeat the very aim of true edu- cation, which is to store the mind with ideas, and only to recognize words as far as they minister to this end. The lament- able results of such methods which make much provision for feeding and none for digestion is to ruin irreparably the appetite for knowledge — the knowledge which con- sists in ideas not words. Hence it is that we see children, who in their earliest years 12 HOW TO SECURE AND were distinguished for mental ability transformed into dunces at school — a con- sequence obviously due to what is mis- called their education; for the number of children really stupid by nature is proba- bly not at all greater than that of those born blind, or deaf and dumb." There is one fundamental difference be- tween the natural method and the school method of teaching, which is worthy of careful thought by teachers. Before school the learning has not been the direct object aimed at. It has been incidental. The child was attracted by something and he watched it, or handled it, or used it, in order to add to his happiness. He was not attending to lessons merely, but he learned them thor- oughly, as the result of his doing. School work cannot all be done on this principle, but it should be done so as far as possible. vThere will be enough "drudgery" under the most favorable circumstances to serve for mental discipldA^' Frcebel in his Kindergarten system has sought to utilize the instinctive attention of children to the fullest extent. He recog- RETAIN ATTENTION. . 13 nizes the immense rapidity and value of tl?e development of even the infant mind, and sets to work with the idea of systema- tizing the child's work without^any sense curtailing his enjoyment. He consequent- ly brings him in contact with a carefully graded series of objects and occupations which are most attractive to him, and at the same time are admirably suited to the growth of his observant and reflective powers. He also allows him to have ample opportunity for unrestrained but directed play. There are some who, having merely glanced theoretically or practically at the surface of Kindergarten work, wisely ex- press the opinion that it is "only play." It is scarcely honest for a man to give oracular decisions with such a small amount of investigation. There would not be much gold in the Kindergarten system, if a casual and unprofessional observer could find it all in a few minutes. The truth is that the Kindergarten system, by extending the period of instinctive, involun- tary attention, has done a great deal towards the bridging over of the great gulf between 14 * HOW TO SECURE AND the home and the school. What is needed in addition is the strengthening and com- pletion of the bridge at its school end. In some subjects the Kindergarten system should be carried out even in universities. Controlled Attention. Bain says, "The beginnings of knowledge are in activity or in pleasure, but the culminating point is in the power of attending to things in them- selves indifferent" It must not be forgotten that while instinctive or attracted attention is the most effective kind in gaining knowl- edge, controlled or directed attention is of "^more importance as a mental discipline. All studies cannot be made so attractive that students will prosecute them with ardor on account of the delight they afford. Different minds are fond of studying dif- ferent subjects. Study may be a species of mental dissipation. As children grow older, therefore, they should be introduced gradually to those subjects which are less attractive. The mistake that is too often made in both public and Sunday schools is to expect young children to attend to RETAIN ATTENTION. *r the teaching of subjects to which theyare indifferent. To do this requires the exer- cise of a will power which they do not possess. Dr. Carpenter expresses himself very clearly on this point. He says,. " Those strong-minded teachers who object to these modes of 'making things pleasant' as an unworthy and undesirable ' weak- ness ' are ignorant that in the stage of the child-mind, the witty that is the power of self control, is weak, and that the primary object of education is to encourage and strengthen, not to repress that power * * To punish a child for the want of obedi- ence which it has not the power to render, is to inflict an injury which may almost be said to be irreparable." It will not do on the other hand to allow the child to grow up with the idea that none of the problems of life arenninviting vC in themselves. The teacher should fit his pupils for grappling with and mastering difficulties, even with what is distasteful. One of the most important of all the men- tal powers is the will; and it must be called into action in fixing the attention 10 HOW TO SECURE AND to these subjects that cannot be made attractive. " God has given us the power or capacity to direct the mind to any given object — that is, of directing, controlling, and in any way using the several mental faculties of which we are possessed: just as we.have a like power over the various members of the body." Let this power be developed, but let the teacher carefully avoid depending upon compulsory atten- tion as a snbstitute for good teaching." 2^ Positive attention is a " result of good teaching rather than a condition on which the power to teach well de- pends." Those effeminate or fossilized teachers who weakly say " Oh, dear ! if my pupils would only give me their atten- tion, I could teach them so well," should honestly say, " If I taught better, my class would attend to my teaching." 3. Positive attention cannot be se- cured by demanding it, or by coaxing, scolding, commanding, threatening, or reasoning. The maxim, u One man may lead a horse to the water, but ten men can- RETAIN ATTENTION. 17 not make him drink," applies with great force here. Negative attention may be se- cured by compulsion, positive cannot be forced. ^Nz can force order, and submis- sion, but not active attention. It must be willingly givem) He who demands sorae- thing entirely beyond the limits of his con- trol, demonstrates his own weakness and presumption. Coaxing, scolding, com- manding and threatening very soon lose their influence, and, if indulged in after that point has been reached, they secure for the teachers who use them the disre- spect of their pupils. Even reasoning with pupils cannot permanently secure attention. It will certainly be of service for the teacher to show his pupils clearly the necessity for attention, and the benefits arising from it. This will produce in them a mental attitude favorable to attention, and will thereby make it easier for them to do their part; but it does not relieve the teacher of his responsibility for sustaining the interest in the lesson. 4. Positive attention should be undi- vided. Some children have difficulty in l8 HOW TO SECURE AND concentrating their attention. Their minds do not merely pass rapidly from one thing to another; two or three subjects of an en- tirely different nature will occupy them at the same time. It is possible for a man to give his attention to two things at once, but the attention given to one of them is taken from the other. It is one ot the highest duties which a teacher owes to his pupils to train them to be able to fix their undivided attention on one subject. The extent to which a man can rivet his atten- tion, and control the working of his own mind, decides the standard of his intel- lectual power. The force of a stream be- comes resistless as its channel becomes restricted. The genial rays of the sun when brought to a focus have intense burning power. The mind which admits various subjects at the same time, and as a result becomes confused and full of but instinct ideas, might, if all its energies were directed to the investigation of only one subject, mount with majestic tread from height to height in original investi- gation. RETAIN ATTENTION. 19 It is a difficult matter, however, even for adults to concentrate their attention on the one subject in hand. How often the thoughts which we hear expressed, or which we read, make no deeper impres- sions on our minds than the " shadows of the passing clouds do upon a landscape.'' A teacher should pe patient when he finds some active brained boy or girl is in " wonderland," when he is supposed to be revelling in the delights of complex frac- tions. It is often injurious to a very young child to startle it from its reveries. Men- tal links may thus be broken which will never be re-united. This remark should, however, be noted by parents and teachers of individuals, rather than by teachers of classes.. 5. Positive attention should be in- tense. The permanency of impressions made upon the mind by the teacher or by circumstances depends upon the intensity of the attention given. Some single events have burned their impress upon the tablets of our memory, so that they can never be forgotten. It matters not whether the cir- 20 -HOW TO SECURE AND cumstances have caused intense joy or pain, if the sensations they caused have been acute, their remembrance remains vivid. There are few who would not for- get some things, if they could. Why is it that we cannot torget some things ? Sim- ply because they interested us so much. We walk through the streets of a city and we look into the faces of thousands of strangers. Why is it that of all these per- haps but one is photographed indelibly in our remembrance ? Because it reminded us of some other person closely connected with our lives by the links of love or hate, or because for some reason it strongly attracted or repelled us. We look at and admire the beautiful flowers which bloom around our pathway as we ramble in the woods or gardens in the early summer time. We perchance may gather boquets of those we deem most exquisitely beauti- ful. A month afterwards we may not remember the varieties we collected or the precise localities in the woods or gardens from which we plucked them. Let a com- panion who has roused in us a strong deep RETAIN ATTENTION. 2 1 feeling either of love or respect, pick and present one blossom to us, and we remem- ber exactly its hues and shape, as well as the very spot on which the presentation took place. Numerous other illustrations might be given, were they necessary to show that when the attention is interne, the impressions made are distinct and lasting. Teachers should therefore strive to se- cure a large degree of intensity of atten- tion on the part of their pupils. This may not be possible in every part of every les- son, but there should at least be some partf > of every lesson which will arrest the invol- i>^ untary attention of every pupil. If only one flower be clearly pictured in the mem- ory, that one serves to recall the ramble and its pleasures. If some salient or cul- minating point in a lesson be illustrated, or presented in an impressive or even startling manner so as to condense the attention on it, it will form a magnet around which the other facts taught will group themselves. Bain says, " Intensity of sensation whether pleasing or not is a power." Of course it would be unwise to 2 2 HOW TO SECURE AND try to keep the attention constantly strained to too great an extent. The effects of such a course both physically and mentally would be disastrous. 6. Positive attention should be fixed. Startling a class to make them attend is not a wise course. Some teachers try an- explosive method of securing attention. They first helplessly allow the class to drift into a state of disorder and confu- sion, and then suddenly comes a thunder- clap; the desk is struck violently with a ruler, or the floor is stamped upon heav- ily. Attention may be gained in such a way, but only of a temporary kind. The noise of the pupils yields for a time, but very soon it reasserts itself. Attention to be valuable must be fixed. Teachers should, of course, never forget that giving fixed, active attention is an exhaustive exer- cise, and that relaxation in some form — music, free gymnastics, or both combined — should be given to pupils at frequent intervals. The attention which the teacher should try to secure should therefore be: RETAIN ATTENTION. 2J 1. Active. 2. Instinctive or Controlled ; if pos- sible the former. It should be won rather than forced. 3. Willingly given. 4. Undivided. 5. Intense. 6. Fixed. CHAPTER III. y CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEACHER ESSEN- TIAL IN SECURING AND RETAIN- ING ATTENTION. 1. Cheerfulness. Unless the teacher be cheerful and kind in manner he cannot secure the sympathy of his pupils thor- oughly, and without it he cannot obtain proper attention. The pupils insensibly associate the teacher with the subjects taught, and unless attracted by the former they are not likely to be interested in the latter. 2. Earnestness. The teacher's manner will influence his pupils for good»more than his precepts or advice They may laugh at his logic, they cannot resist his personal power. If a man is not in earn- est his pupils will not be zealous. He jus- ENTHUSIASM. 2$ tifies inattention, if he does not speak and act in such a way as to show that he re- gards his subjects to be of great import- ance. 3. Enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is well directed energy: not mere excitement or assumed animation. Enthusiasm must spring from a genuine fervent desire for the accomplishment of a well understood purpose. Enthusiasm in teaching must grow from a love for the work, a thorough acquaintance with the subjects to be taught, and a deep conviction of the great value of education in forming the charac- ters and securing the success of his pupils. Some one says, " Enthusiastic men are narrow." Perhaps they are to a certain extent, but narrowing a man's energies to his legitimate work is the most essential foundation for his success. The teacher should widen his mental range, and conce?i- trate his energies and his emotional nature. " Enthusiasm is not a reckless zeal with- out knowledge ; neither is it that overplus of feeling oc action that OF THK to 17 EE SIT \ />. oar 40 HOW TO SECURE AND It is very desirable that the class should be saved from interruptions by the teacher himself. The interruptions referred to are the worst possible, for they not only cause loss of time and distraction of attention, but they lead the whole class to believe that inattention is a very common, and therefore not a very grave offence. 3. By calm, fixed, fearless, deter- mined, patient "will power." Every teacher should exercise "willpower" in relation to his class. It should never be exercised haughtily or tyrannically, but always kindly and naturally. Wilfulness and self-will are very different from " will power." " Will power " simply means the ability to proceed undeviatingly to a de- sired end, and bring others along with you. The following are the characteristics which " will power " should possess: i. // should be calm. Obedience on any terms is better than disobedience, but wil- ling obedience must be secured by the teacher if he wishes to benefit his pupils. If "will power" is exerted in a noisy or violent manner it is offensive; if it is of the RETAIN ATTENTION. 41 fussy kind it excites ridicule. It must be calm if it would secure control, beneath the placid surface of which no rebellion lurks in ambush. 2. It should be fixed. Some teachers are intermittent in their exercise of " will power." They are fully charged with energy and force one day, but seem to have lost connection with their character batteries on the next. Steady, even, regu- lar, uniform control is the kind required. In the schoolroom and in the yard the teacher's influence should be supreme, whether he is present or absent. He must never be a tyrant, he should always be a governor. 3. // should be fearless. No one can con- trol a pupil if he fears him or his parents. The teacher should carefully study his proper social and legal relationship to the pupils, their parents, and the school author- ities.* He should stand on a foundation of solid rock, and be ready for prompt action in cases of emergency. Promptness and *Bardeen's " Common School Law for Common School Teachers," 50 cts., Is the standard authority, and covers the ground completely. 42 HOW TO SECURE AND deliberation should go hand in hand* Promptitude and haste or excitement are not synonymous. Hesitation and timidity on the part of a teacher often stir to life germs of rebellion which might otherwise have been left to die for lack of nutriment, 4. // should be determined. While a teach- er should always pay due respect and atten- tion to the advice of friends, he should never allow either the counsel of his friends or the opposition of foes to make him deviate from the course which he knows to be the right and just one. Many men fail because when a wave of opposi- tion meets them they feebly yield to its power and aimlessly drift with it; when if they had met it bravely and remained firm it would soon have passed them and left them better for its washing. The teacher may yield many times with profit to his school and to himself if he does it grace- fully, but he can never do so when the question of control is at stake. He must then assert his " will power " in a most de- RETAIN ATTENTION. • 43 termined manner, without making himself offensive or being tyrannical. 5. It must be patient. This is the great requisite. The quality of " will power " is of great importance, the quantity of it at a teachers disposal is of far more conse- quence. It must wear well. There is a dignity and a- majesty in the patient asser- tion of the right and ability to control, which never "fails to command respect. It is well, especially when taking charge of a new class, not to try to compel absolute order too suddenly. So long as pupils are really trying to do what the teacher wishes, he will, if a reasonable man, Over- look slight offences until good conduct has become a habit. Control asserts itself chiefly through the lip, the tongue, and the eye. They should be used in the inverse order to that in which they are named. The eye should be the exclusive medium of control, so far as possible; the tongue may be called to its aid in cases of emergency; the lip should be used very sparingly. The lip expresses firmness, combined with scorn or conn 44 POWER OF THE EYE. tempt, and these are sure to stir up active antagonism, rather than submission. A pupil may be, and often is, forced to yield without full obedience. The eye alone can convey a message of power and con- ciliation at the same time, and these are the elements of genuine control. However good a teacher's control may be, he must not think that he has secured the attention of his class merely on that account. CHAPTER VI. METHODS OF PRESERVING AND STIMULATING EDGE. Some one calls a child an " Interroga- tive machine." Truly the appetite for knowledge with which nature endows him is a keen one, and difficult to satisfy. Some ^writers ma]ntahijjtialjt_^tjhe_^ty of the school to set the child going mentally, that he may be self-educative when he leaves school. If pupils left school in as self- educative a condition as they enter it, there would be less ground for complaint than at present. The boy begins to " go " when very young, and for a few years he continues to develop at a very rapid rate! Very few children are dull when very young. Most children make remarkable 46 HOW TO SECURE AND progress until they go to school. Then too often comes a period of stagnation from which many never emerge. Improper methods are too often the cause of the dis- couraging change. The following are points deserving consideration by teach- ers of primary classes. 1. The transition from the home to the school should be less sudden. The child on entering an ordinary school, passes from comparative freedom to confinement and restraint; from bound- ing activity to wearisome quiet; from ac- tual things to uninteresting abstractions; from living flowers, and birds, and pets, to mere black marks called letters, in which for themselves he can have no active inter- est; from play to work; from instinctive to compulsory attention; from fresh air and sunshine to bad ventilation and im- perfect and often injurious lighting; from the mossy bank to the hard and ill-formed seat. Where the Kindergarten can be intro- duced it serves to made the steps gradual in the change from the home to the school. RETAIN ATTENTION. 47 The school should learn many lessons yet from the home and the Kindergarten. Teachers must study the child more before he enters school, and they should continue in school more closely, the methods of self- education practiced by him, while he was at liberty to follow nature's guidance. 2. Knowledge should be used as it is acquired. Children delight in coming in contact with things which they can use. They care for what a thing does. This shows itself very early in life. The baby learning to talk, names the domestic ani- mals according to the sounds they make. He calls the dog "bow-wow," and the cat " meow." This is true whether the name of the animal is more or less difficult to say than the sound made. While they have been making such rapid strides in learning and mental development at home,, they were doing so by handling tne things around them arid by using their knowledge as quickly as they gained it. What a change comes when they go to school ! Many even of the thoughtful class of teachers deliberately reverse this plan. 48 HOW TO SECURE AND J They reason somewhat in this manner: " These children can not do much actual work yet and so we may as well save time by making them do the drudgery of school work now." They are therefore set to learn all the' letters, before they begin to read, all the tables before they put them to any practical use etc. It is probable that the letters and the multiplication ta- ble have done more to stupefy boys and girls than any other causes. Girls and boys can work better, but become familiar with the elements of work they may be using. Even if the worst of all methods of teaching the names of words, the alpha- betic, be used, no letters should be taught at first but those used on the first page or tablet of reading in the primer. The child should use the multiplication table, for in- stance as he learns it, and he will thus pleasantly learn it as he uses it. {Jsing and learning go hand in hand. Practical application is the higest and most effective style of review. A pupil will learn the "Two "line as far as »* twice 4 " in four minutes, but he will probably forget it in RETAIN ATTENTION. 49 an hour, unless he is allowed to apply the knowledge he has gained. Why not teach him the procees of multiplying at once in five minutes more and set him at work ? " Oh, the child should never multiply un- til he knows his multiplication table!" says some driller. Does the study of the mul- tiplication table qualify a child for the comprehension of the multiplying process? Certainly not. Then again, the child who has been taught as far as " twice four " does know the multiplication table, so far as he is required to put it in practice. His teacher can assign several examples with no other multiplier but 2, and no figures in the multiplicand but 1, 2, 3, and 4. It will do him great good to work the very same examples over a second or third time. Next day advancement should be made in the table and much practice given on both lessons, and so on to the end. This method will not prove a source of hor- ror to pupils, but will delight them because they usje the information as they get it. If an apprentice on entering a machine shop, were compelled by the foreman to 50 HOW TO SECURE AND spend months in learning the names of the various machines, and their different parts, their relations to each other, their uses, etc., would such a course fit him to take charge of even one of the machines ? The probability is, that long before the expira- tion of the time specified his work of learn- ing, at first fascinating to him, would be- come loathsome, and from loss of interest, he would be to a large degree incapaci- tated for the highest degree of success in his work. He. should, a'nd in charge of a practical man in any department of work he does, begin with the simplest of all the tools or machines, and he learns how to use it by using it. Others are entrusted to his charge when he is ready for them. Teachers should also be reasonable in familiarizing their pupils with the tools they have to use. The letters, the tables, rules in grammar and other subjects, are merely the tools with which the child should be taught to educate himself, and they should be given to him .only as he is able to use them. 3. The work of school should afford RETAIN ATTENTION. 51 pleasure. If the desire for knowledge is to be kept alive and vigorous, if it is to survive through the early years of school life, school life must be made attractive. Herbert Spencer says that of all the educa- tional changes taking place, "the. most significant is the growing desire to make the acquirement of knowledge pleasurable rather than painful — a desire based on the more or less distinct perception that at each age the intellectual action which a child likes is a healthful one for it; and conversely. There is a spreading opinion that the rise of an appetite for any kind of knowledge implies that the unfolding mind has be- come fit to assimilate it, and needs it for the purposes of growth; and that on the other hand, the disgust felt towards any kind of knowledge is a sign either that it is prematurely presented, or that it is pre- sented in an indigestible form. Hence the efforts to make early education amus- ing, and all education interesting. * * As a final test by which to judge any plan of culture, should come the question — Does it create a pleasurable excitement in the 52 HOW TO SECURE AND pupils? " Discard any system of primary instruction, however time honored or in accordance with theory it may be, unless it makes lessons attractive. With the older children the step from instinctive to con- trolled attention must be gradually taken. It is very desirable that teachers should avoid any course of action which will tend to make learning distasteful. If men are to be self-educative when they leave school, they should have a love for knowledge; certainly they must not have an aversion to it. Lessons should never be assigned as a punishment. Pupils may be com- pelled to do after school or at home, work which they have neglected to do at the right time. This is not a punishment for the neglect however, but the performance of a duty which ought to have been done before. 4. School exercises should be varied as much as possible. Of course the pro- gramme of studies should be fixed, and. the time table adhered to regularly. The plan of presenting a subject should be changed, however. Some new element RETAIN ATTENTION. 53 should be introduced each day. In teach- ing Geography, for instance, the map may be used one day, blackboard and slates the next, and the sand-box the next; to-day the teacher may point to the places he wishes to have remembered and the pupils find their names, tu-morrow he may give the names and they find their positions on the map. The plan should be varied dur- ing a single recitation, to a certain extent. So long as variety does not dissipate the attention, there can not be too much of it. Freshness stimulates mental activity, rou- tine deadens it. 5. The child's curiosity should ha kept alive. Some pupils are on the tip- toe of expectation. The teacher who can secure such a condition in his class, is cer- tain to have attentive scholars. Natural aptitude in the teacher has something to do in stimulating the curiosity of pupils. The power to sustain it, however, must be acquired Pupils will not long seek to be fed with chaff. The teacher must be prepared v to gratify the appetite which he aims to develop. He must be familiar with the subjects he 54 HOW TO SECURE AND has to teach; he should keep well acquaint- ed with all that relates to them in connec- tion with current events. Hart aptly says: vi " To real, successful teaching, there must be two things, namely, the ability to hold the minds of the children, and the ability to pour into the minds thus presented sound and seasonable instruction. Lack- ing the latter ability, your pupil goes away with his vessel unfilled; lacking the former, you only pour water on the ground." 6. The lessons given and the subjects taught ought to he adapted to the ad- vancement of the pupils. If lessons are too difficult a child will naturally turn from them, first in disappointment, after- wards with dislike. The subjects should be presented in a manner suited to the ages of the pupils taught. Some of the most interesting studies are rendered per- manently obnoxious by improper methods of teaching them to children at first. In teaching grammar, for instance, dry, diffi- cult, and uninteresting rules, with puzz- ling exceptions to the genera/ rule, are memor- RETAIN ATTENTION. 55 ized and recited, and the teacher (in addi- tion to this outrage) actually deceives the unfortunate and long-suffering pupils by allowing them to believe that such weari- some drudgery is learning grammar. They, ot course, in most cases, associate the unpleasant feelings they receive in school with study and learning in the ab- stract, and therefore get a distaste for knowledge itself. Let the methods and the subjects be appropriate for the ages of the pupils, and their love of learning will con- tinue. 7. The steps in learning should not he too great. If a desire for knowledge is to be maintained, the pupil must be able to see clearly how one portion of a subject is connected with another. The step to be taken should be based on those already established, and the teacher should remem- ber that what appears but a mole-hill to him may be a mountain to his pupils. He is the best teacher who can most clearly remember his own early difficulties in learning. 56 BRIEF LESSONS. 8. Lessons must not be too long. This is true, both as regards lessons at school and those assigned for home preparation. \ Long-continued lessons in school weary \ the mind; long lessons learned at home tire both mind and body. When learning becomes a " task " it necessarily ceases to be attractive in itself. It should not be surprising that under such circumstances children lose their natural eagerness for knowledge. If the suggestions given be carried out in the right spirit, boys and girls will continue to be '' interrogative machines * throughout their whole lives. CHAPTER VII. HOW TO GRATIFY AND DEVELOP THE NA- TURAL DESIRE FOR MENTAL . ACTIVITY. Activity is one of the instincts of child- hood. It is not happy unless its mental or physical powers or both are engaged. *' Productive activity " is the corner stone of the delightful and truly philosophical sys- tem of Frcebel. Give a child work to do of a character suited to his age, let it call his mental faculties and manual abilities into play, and he will be attentive, not merely because he is occupied, but because his occupation gives him delight. Fellen- berg says: " Experience has taught me that indolence in young persons is so directly opposite to their natural disposition to ac- tivity, that unless it is the consequence of 58 HOW TO SECURE AND bad education, it is almost invariably con- nected with some constitutional defect." Hailman says : " Perhaps attention and activity of the mind are convertible terms; for we observe that the mind is never attentive, unless it is aroused to action by some external cause (such as a wonderful object, an exciting scene, a thrilling nar- rative, a deep sorrow), or by an internal cause — the will." It is important, there- fore, in order to secure attention, that every means be taken to awaken and satisfy the child's mental activity. To do this it will be found necessary to attend to the follow- ing:— 1. Do as little telling as possible when teaching. Of course, the teacher should not try to teach everything by ex- periment, as he would waste time in doing so. The accumulated knowledge of the ages is a store from which the pupils ought to be allowed to draw largely without making all the necessary discoveries and progressive steps themselves. But when- ever the teacher can lead his pupils in the development of a subject he should do so. RETAIN ATTENTION. 59 He should not allow them to wander in search of the gold mines of knowledge, neither should he dig the gold and coin it for them. The word for " schoolmaster " in the Welsh language has a very sugges- tive meaning. The word for school is " Ysgol," which conveys the meaning at once of progression in learning being step by step, commencing at the lowest rung and going upwards. The Welsh name for schoolmaster is " Ysgolfeister," the full significance, being " One that teaches to climb." The teacher should not merely climb himself and throw down to his pu- pils the treasures which he finds. He should teach each pupil to climb for him- self, so that as he goes higher he may grow stronger. " This need for perpetual ^£ telling is the result of our stupidity, not the child's. We drag it away from the facts in which it is interested, and which it is actively assimilating for itself; we put be- fore it facts far too complex for it to un- derstand, and therefore distasteful to it; finding that it will no^ voluntarily acquire these facts, we thrust them into its mind by force ot threats and punishment; by 60 HOW TO SECURE AND thus denying it tjie knowledge it craves, and cramming it with knowledge it cannot digest, we produce a morbid state of the faculties, and a consequent disgust for knowledge in general; and when, as a re- sult partly of the stolid indolence we have brought on, and partly of still continued unfitness in its studies, the child can un- derstand nothing without explanation, and becomes a mere passive recipient of our instruction, we infer that education must necessarily be carried on thus. Having by our method induced helplessness, we straightway make the helplessness a reason for our method."* 2. Give the pupils their rightful share in the work of study. Too much dependence is placed on eye teaching by many teachers. The observant faculties are certainly of great importance, and the teacher who develops them to a high de- gree will be well repaid for his trouble. Pupils may see a great deal without receiv- ing fixed impressions however. Seeing does not require intensity of attention. ♦Intellectual Education.— Herbert Spence' . K RETAIN ATTENTION. 6l The teacher cannot always be certain that the looking child is thinking about the sub- ject in hand. He may look at the teacher, or the blackboard, or an object and yet be thinking about his last fishing experience. To require each pupil to do for himself, is the only way of absolutely compelling him to attend. It is not receiving knowl- edge that fixes it in the minds of pupils, but reproducing it. If it can be repro- duced by the hand in a visible form, the attention is necessarily most continuous. The mind must attend, if it has to guide the hand. Each pupil should do for himself the map his teacher draws on the board, he must do the correction of his own mis- takes; and if he is made to do work with his hands in learning any subject by even writing down the statements made con- cerning it, the impressions made will be more permanent than in any other way. The inattention so lamentably noticeable in most Sunday Schools, and many Public Schools, is due to the facts that pupils are mere recipients of information and not active participators in the process of learning. They are hearers,whentheys.hould be doers • 62 HOW TO SECURE AND 3. Do not weary the minds of the pu- pils. A proper amount of physical exer- cise produces beneficial effects on the mus- cular system; beyond a certain point it is exhaustive. So a judicious amount of mental exercise strengthens and develops the mental powers, but study after the " fa- tigue point " has been reached has a de- bilitating effect. The moderate use of the physical powers gives pleasure, and in- creases the longing for exertion; so the judicious application of the mind awakens greater desire for study, and gives addi- tional power to investigate the problems which may be presented for thought. Pro- fessor Pillans held that, "where young people are taught as they ought to be, they are quite as happy in school as at play, seldom less delighted, nay, often more, with the well-directed use of their mental energies, than with that of their muscular powers." 4. Bo not overload the minds of th& pupils. The carrying power of a child's mind is frequently over estimated by teach- ers. Many brilliant boys are made to carry RETAIN ATTENTION. 63 such large loads of knowledge during their schooldays, that they become mentally paralyzed to a certain extent, and never recover their full vigor of thought. This partly accounts for the fact that so many clever school boys turn out to be only me- diocre men. Over-eating causes dyspep- sia and destroys the appetite for food. There are mental dyspeptics. 5. Have matches in the various school subjects. Who does not remem- ber the enlivening effects of the spelling matches of his boyhood? So intensely was their attention concentrated upon the subject in hand, that grown men remem- ber distinctly the very words missed by themselves and others in some remarbable contests. Such matches may just as well be conducted in reviewing the other school subjects as in spelling, and their effects in inspiriting classes will always be found to be very beneficial. They should not be held at stated times, or conducted in a for- mal and indifferent manner by the teacher, or they will lose their interest. 64 HOW TO SECURE AND 6. Let pupils question each other. The contests which will awaken the high- est degree of mental activity on the part of pupils are those conducted by themselves. Confine them to the work actually taught and give them due notice, and such exer- cises will produce the most satisfactory results. No other plan will set pupils to work for themselves more earnestly and intelligently. It is a good plan in some subjects to prepare a series of questions for the pupils covering the work to be learned. These should not be given that the pupils may merely prepare answers to them, to be recited in a parrot-like manner. They should simply guide to the golden thoughts. They may be of use also to the pupils in preparing for the contests recom- mended. Professor White, of Oberlin Col- lege, says: " The pupils of a certain high school failed to be instructed in ' The Sci- ence of Government,' in which weekly exercises had been given to them for nearly a whole term. In despair the prin- cipal wrote carefully 200 questions, cov- ering the whole work. These he placed in the hands of each pupil, and divid- RETAIN ATTENTION. „ 65 ing the whole school into two sides, allowed each in turn to question the other side till he obtained a satisfactory answer, while he sat by to watch the ' slaughter of the innocents.' The first exercise was a failure, seeming merely to arouse the school; the second was successful, and~the fifth was brilliant." 7. Question while teaching. Some teachers ask questions only while review- ing. This is a serious mistake. To test knowledge is certainly one of the func- tions of questioning, but it is a subordinate one. Socratic, Instructive, Teaching, or Developing questioning is the most effica- cious mode of teaching. It does not sim- ply give information; it arouses the minds of pupils to activity, guides the active minds in the acquisition of knowledge, and sets the stored minds upon the plan of using the information obtained. It devel- ops not only receptive> but productive activity. " He who gives knowledge to the human mind is a benefactor; but far greater is he who by giving knowledge quickens into activity and productiveness the mind upon 66 HOW TO SECURE AND which he works. The true teaching pro- cess involves the power of intellectual quick- eningy which is that process by which the teacher excites the intellectual powers of his pupils to self-activity in the line of his teaching; and to be really effective it must also lead to the courses ot thought, feel- ing, purpose, and action, which are the proper products of the truth taught." Teachers should talk and tell less, and draw out more. Questioning from the known to the unknown welds the links in the chain of knowledge as they are formed, so that when completed they are not merely isolated facts. It gives a pupil a conscious power to show him that he can overcome difficulties for himself. 8. Use illustrations. There are sev- eral kinds of illustrations. The following should be largely used in teaching: i. Blackboard illustration. 2. Picture, map, and chart illustration. 3. Model illustration. 4. Object illustration. 5. Illustration by experiments. 6. Dramatic illustration. RETAIN ATTENTION. 6f Blackboard illustration is of more use than any or perhaps all other kinds of illustration. Every teacher can use it; no teacher should try to teach without it. Its superiority over other methods of illustra- tion consists chiefly in the fact the work grows in the presence of the pupils. They see it made and help to make it, either by actually handling the crayon, or by mak- ing suggestions step by step as to what should be done next. The teacher who presents a finished illustration to his class weakens its effect by at least one half. It is nearly as bad to do the whole illustra- tion, even in the presence of the pupils, without explanation to them, or assistance from them at every step. Some teachers work the complete solution of a prob- lem on the board, when illustrating a new rule in arithmetic or algebra without speaenftg or even looking at the class until they have finished it. Then they turn round and give the explanation in the ste- reotyped question, " Do you see ? " They would have interested their pupils a great deal more, and have educated them nearly as much, by tossing a copper for " heads or 68 HOW TO SECURE AND tails." The following rules should be practised in blackboard illustration: 1. Let the work done be simple in its character. 2. Avoid symbolism, rebuses, &c. 3. Arrange the steps in the process of thought in logical order. 4. Number the various steps either by figures or letters. 5. The steps in the illustration should be done as the process of thought is devel- oped. 6. When illustrating distinctive charac- teristics, peculiarities of growth or con- struction, &c, in teaching botany, zoology, natural philosophy, &c, it is well to exag- gerate the special parts to which attention should be directed. 7. In solving a problem, making a dia- gram, drawing a map, explaining the con- struction of a machine, in fact in all kinds of blackboard work, every pupil ought to do on slate or paper what the teacher does on the board, and usually part by part after him. RETAIN ATTENTION. 69 2. Picture, map, and chart illustra- tion may be used in conjunction with blackboard illustration, both preceding and following it, to give a correct idea of things as wholes, and to show in some cases the coloring, &c. They ought to be used too in testing the accuracy of the work done by the teacher and pupils. For instance, when a map has been sketched it should be compared in its leading out- lines with the actual map to see whether the great features bear their proper rela- tions to each other; whether Florida ex- tends further south than California, &c. 3. Model illustration is used by some teachers very successfully by cutting out the shapes of things or their parts trom brown paper, &c. Models of machines, of the parts of the human frame, &c, may be obtained, which will be of great use in teaching some subjects. Good teachers, howerve, usually try to make most of their own models. 4t. In Object illustration the pupils should not merely look at the things used. 70 HOW TO SECURE AND They should take them in their hands and examine them. This will enable them to get additional ideas through the sense of touch, and will clearly define those re- ceived by looking at the object at a dis- tance. It will also give them a deeper in- terest in the object to be permitted to han- dle it. It is sometimes well to state the nature of the information desired before passing an object around, but frequently the pupils should be required to examine specimens with the view of finding out as as much as possible about them. This will make them independent observers. 5. Illustration by experiment should as far as possible be conducted on the same principles as object illustration. It. produces its highest results when every student performs for himself the experi- ments described by the teacher. If this cannot be done, the pupils, unless the class be too large, should assist the teach- er, each taking some, part in preparing for the experiment. 6. Dramatic illustration means repre- RETAIN ATTENTION. 71 sentation by action. The living, energetic teacher uses this method of illustration very largely, and if appropriate it always aids greatly in communicating knowledge. It is of much use in giving ideas of shape, size, direction, motion, action of machines, etc. Any one who has ever seen a deaf mute address an audience by signs, must have realized to what an extent action may be even substituted for speech. A good teacher always uses his hands and arms to emphasize, and illustrate what he says to his class. In all kinds of illustration it is well to keep the pictures, charts, maps, models r objects, apparatus, etc., out of sight as much as possible until the time arrives for using it. This stimulates the curiosity of the pupils and prevents the distraction of their attention. To show pictures at once, or to present the spectacle of a table cov- ered with apparatus is a capital method of gaining attention to the pictures or appar- atus. It may make it all the more diffi- cult, however, on this account to get the attention concentrated on the lesson itself. CHAPTER VIII. CULTIVATION OF THE SENSES. " Attention to the external is called ob- servation, to the internal reflection. " It is of the highest importance that the senses be trained so that they may be able to per- form properly the various functions re- quired of them through life. We should not aim at an impossible standard, or strive only to develop acuteness of the senses. Alertness is also required. Sharp- ness of vision will be of no service if the eyes are kept closed; acuteness of hearing will do little good unless the mind is in a receptive attitude. The telephonic circuit must be established before the hearing produces impressions on the brain. Pes- talozzi held that, "Observation is the basis of all knowledge. The first object, then, in education, must be to lead the child to observe with accuracy." I RETAIN ATTENTION. 73 We should aim, then, to make the senses Attentive, Acute, Alert, Accurate. How can this be done ? 1. By Object Lessons. The three rules for the development of the senses are, ist exercise them, 2d, exercise them, 3d, exercise them. Well conducted object lessons will give an opportunity for the required exer- cise better than any other school subject. Unfortunately what are called "object les- sons " are commonly used merely for the purpose of giving information, rather than to develop the power ofacquiring it. Ob- ject lessons should not be statements of facts concerning the objects used The information may be valuable, but in true object teaching it occupies a secondary or incidental place. The ,great aim, indeed the only aim of the teacher should be to present a well selected system of objects to the pupils, about which they may exer- cise their senses. Lessons on "common things " may be taught, and if taught they 17 EE SIT T 74 HOW TO SECURE AND should as far as possible be taught object- ively, but lessons on "common things" are no more true "object lessons" than les- sons in Geography, History or Grammar. Arithmetic, Geometry, Natural Philoso- phy, Chemistry, Natural History and Bot- any when properly taught are true object lessons. Lessons on common things in- tended to convey information, concerning the source, growth, production, etc., of the things used in every-day life are not ob- ject lessons. However valuable or prac- tical the information may be, if the teacher contents himself with merely storing his pupils' minds with it he is lamentably fail- ing to perform his true duty. However able the teacher may be, the shortness of the time during which most children at- tend school, prevents his giving informa- tion in regard to the greater portion of the vast field of knowledge. Hailman says: "There must be a systematic Maying up' of positive information, but this is of sec- ondary importance, compared with learning how to form and express ideas. One is the ability to work, the other the result of the work, one is an essential the other a conse- RETAIN ATTENTION. 75 quence, one is constant, the same at all times and under all circumstances,the latter must change with time and circumstances. " The teacher's duty is to continue the educa- tive process begun by nature before the school period, and to send a pupil to the world again at the conclusion of his school life fully prepared to continueunderall cir- cumstances and at all times the process of self-education. The faculties which the child has on entering school should not merely be filled with information, they should be nourished and strengthened. The teacher's aim in teaching should be first to devel op, second to store the mind with knowledge. This is true of all sub- jects, but especially of object lessons. Ob- ject lessons should be given in teaching nearly every subject, however. The name "Object Lesson" is misleading, as it re- stricts broad principles to one compara- tively unimportant department of school work. Many speakers on educational top- ics speak as though developing or intuition teaching was only to be practised while teaching object lessons. No greater error could be made. But even in "giving" j6 HOW TO SECURE AND an object lesson many teachers seem to re- gard the giving of mere facts as the great aim to be kept in view. Perhaps the most ridiculous feature of such object teaching is the fact, that teachers usually select for their lessons some common objects, with which the pupils are quite as well ac- quainted as they are themselves. It is right to select common objects for proper "object lessons," but not for information exercises. The books on object teaching are to blame for much of the misunderstanding in reference to this subject. They are mere compendiums of information. They give mattaiJUQl method. "The intention of object lessons is not so much to commun- icate information as to put children in the way of collecting information for them- selves; to sharpen and direct their senses; to teach them to see things, instead of merely looking at them, and to decom- pose the confused aggregateof impressions which things at first make upon the mind ; to get them to classify and connect simple phenomena with their antecedents and consequents; to exercise their reason; and RETAIN ATTENTION. 77 to do this in Nature's own way, by bring- ing the learner, as far as possible into di- rect contact with things, and satisfying his own instinctive needs." In teaching object lessons the following rules should be observed: 1. Let every pupil have the opportunity of examining the object. 2. Let the pupils examine first with a view of finding out as much as possible about the object themselves. 3. Let them, if necessary, then inspect it for specific results named by the teacher. They should be independent of the teacher in making their observations, as they will have to depend upon themselves after they leave school, therefore the first method of instruction should be most reg- ularly used. 2. Reading. By true Object lessons all the senses may be developed. The two senses which teachers should specially aim to cultivate are hearing and seeing. "The defects in organization are not within the power of the preceptor; but we may ob- serve that inattention and want of exercise 78 HOW TO SECURE AND are frequently the causes of what are mis- taken for natural defects; and, on the con- trary, increased attention and cultivation sometimes produce that quickness of eye and ear, and that consequent readiness of judgment, which we are apt to attribute to natural superiority of organization or capacity. For rendering the hearing acute and alert there is no subject on the school programme of such importance as reading, if it is prop- erly taught. There is a great deal of telling done im- properly in the teaching of reading. When a pupil has finished his reading the teacher usually at once proceeds to tell him the mistakes he has made. " You should say re-cess', instead of re'-cess, catch instead of ketch, get instead of git ; you should not pause after in ; you should pause after March ; you should emphasize dying, etc., ■etc." That this is a mistake will at once be seen, when it is remembered that cor- rect reading and speaking depend upon •earcultivation more than on anything else. The great majority of people do not per- ceive, when they hear a word pronounced RETAIN ATTENTION. 79 in a manner different from the way in which they are accustomed to pronounce it themselves. Unless some one calls at- tention to their errors, they go on mispro- nouncing words, which they hear pro- nounced correctly every day. This result should be expected if pupils are corrected in the above manner throughout their school life. When a mistake is made in pronuncia- tion, accent, emphasis, pauses, intonation, etc., the teacher should give the correct reading himself, or get one of the best pupils to do so, and call on the pupil who made the error to state the difference be- tween his reading and that of his teacher. If he cannot do so, it is useless to ask him to " read it again " as is frequently done. The teacher should read the sentence, or that portion in which the error is made, in both the correct and the incorrect way, emphasizing the error slightly if neces- sary, until the pupil can distinguish the one method from the other. In this way the ear will be quickened and attentive, and the pupil will become self-educative 80 HOW TO SECURE AND in this respect, as he should be in all others, when he leaves school. The seeing power may also be devel- oped in a high degree by reading. The vision must be acute to read well. Every letter in every word must be looked at, and yet the perceptions must be sharp and clearly defined. To many pupils when learning the words appear indistinct, as they look to one reading in a faint light. This must be remedied by practice. It will not help the pupil to see accurately if.the mis-named words are corrected by the teacher. If the pupil, for instance, reads verily, very, and the teacher merely says, as most teachers do, " Call that word very?' the pupil's vision is not rendered more sharp. When mis-calling words is the only mistake made or the special one to be corrected, the best method- the teacher can adopt is to say, "Read again carefully." The pupil can correct his own mistakes in this case, and he should be made to do so. 3. Spelling. While both the eye and the ear can be developed by means of RETAIN ATTENTION. 81 spelling, it is mainly through the former that we must teach this subject. Good spelling depends on the " memory of the eye." The London Times once said, " Spell- ing is learnt by reading, and nothing but reading can teach spelling." Spelling de- pends on the intensity of the attention with which pupils look at words and their parts while reading them. If teachers can suc- ceed in developing the habit of close and accurate scrutiny of the letters in the words during reading lessons, they will have lit- tle bad spelling. Careless readers are in- accurate spellers. The eye has to look at each individual letter on a page as it is read. Attention then cannot be sustained, as the glance at each letter must be instan- taneous. It should, however, be intense, and, as most words recur frequently, it will be oft repeated. On the intensity and and repetition of attention depend the ac- curacy and permanence of impressions, so that if they can be secured the best results must follow in teaching any subject. In regard to spelling, the teacher has only to secure the intensity, except in the case of words that but rarely appear in print. If 82 HOW TO SECURE AND the necessary interest cannot be*aroused in reading to secure a sufficient degree of attention to the words as they are read, the teacher must have recourse to other meth- ods which will compel the required at- tention. The best way of doing is to make pupils write out the spelling lessons. It is surprising that many pupils will at first make mistakes even in transcription. As they can be held responsible for the use of their eyes, however, they will soon learn by practice to see accurately and copy correctly. When a pupil is required to write several times a word which he has mis-spelled, it is not with a view of mak- ing him think how the word is spelled, but to help him to see the letters it contains, and how they are arranged. The practice is based upon the sound principle that actual doing is the best means of compel- ling attention to any subject. 4. Drawing. Drawings are executed with the hand, the hand is guided by the brain, and the brain receives its impres- sions about the lines to be drawn through the senses. This is an explanation of the RETAIN ATTENTION. 83 general principle laid down in the last paragraph, that doing with the hand com- pels attention. If the sense impressions are inaccurate the hand can not be defi- nitely guided. In most kinds of drawing- the eye is the medium through which the mind obtains the ideas which the hand is to reproduce on paper. The eye therefore has two functions in regard to this subject : 1. To receive exact impressions of the copy or object to be drawn. 2. To inspect the drawing as it is beings executed to see that it is correctly done. There is no subject on the school pro- gramme which compels attention on the part of all pupils to a greater extent than Dictation drawing. The terms used are so definite in their meaning that the slightest misconception of the teacher's language, when dictating forms and their combina- tions, will show itself in an incorrect pic- ture. Every pupil must therefore give close attention in this subject or his negli- gence will be detected. 5. Writing. The remarks made about the use of the eye in drawing from copies -84 HOW TO SECURE AND on paper, on the blackboard, or from ob- jects, apply also to writing, if it is properly taught The eye should carefully analyze the letter to be written, and inspect the written letter with the view of finding out by comparison with the copy what its de- fects are. Unfortunately too many teach- ers prevent this inspection by the pupils by pointing out the errors made, instead of merely directing attention to them, so that the pupils might discover their nature for themselves and thus become in this, as they should ultimately become in all sub- jects, independent of the teacher. 6. Hints. There are some special ex- ercises for the development of the ability to see and hear. For instance a picture may be shown for only a tew seconds to a •class and then each pupil allowed to de- scribe something that he saw in it ; or var- ious noises may be made by striking differ- ent substances and otherwise, in the hear- ing but not within the sight of the pupils, that they may form opinions as to the •causes of the various sounds produced. Notes on a musical instrument should RETAIN ATTENTION. 85 be sounded at random until each pupil could recognize them unerringly as they are given. Other exercises of a similar nature will suggest themselves to teachers. They may take the form of games to re- lieve the wearisomeness or the monotony of school work. CHAPTER IX. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. i 1. Get the sympathy of your class. If your pupils are interested in you, they can be more easily interested by you in their lessons. The love of approbation is a strong motive, if the teacher is liked by the pupils. The desire to please a kind teacher will lead to great efforts to con- centrate the attention on the subject he teaches. Teachers should strive to be cheerful, kind, courteous, polite, and dis- criminating in all their intercourse with their pupils in and out of school. "Good mornings " are easily given, but not easily forgotten. 2. Get the confidence of your class. Let them see not merely that you regard the subjects you teach as of great import- RETAIN ATTENTION. 87 ance, but also that you arouse no inquir-* ing interest whose questions you cannot answer. Be prepared with your work. Acknowledge frankly your lack of infor- mation in regard to any question which comes up unexpectedly and which you have not before considered. If you do so your pupils will have implicit faith in you, when you assume to speak definitely. 3. Be magnetic. It is not enough to \/ merely attract a pupil's attention, it must be held. The teacher's manner has a good deal to do with holding the attention of his class. He should for the time make the pupils forget their individual personality and become one in aim and purpose with himself. How can this be done ? 1. The teacher must understand his sub- ject and have his lesson arranged so that he is not conscious of mental strain in teaching it. 2. He must believe his lesson to be im- portant. 3. He must be earnest and enthusiastic, **" in order to stir up a corresponding zeal on the part of his pupils. 58 HOW TO SECURE AND 4. He must not be listless, cold, formal, or mechanical in his teaching. 4. Appeal to the natural instincts of a child. The following should be used as incentives to attention : — 1. Curiosity. The desire to know, the in- quisitive faculty that worries busy mothers, and, in too many homes and schools, dies from a lack of exercise and nourishment. J 2. Love of activity. Mental activity gives quite as much delight to a healthy child as physical exercise. Neither affords pleasure, if it degenerates into drudgery. There are few boys who appreciate very highly the privilege of digging ditches day after day. Mental ditching is no more attractive to them. 3. Sympathy. This leads to unity of pur- pose and co-operation between teacher and pupils. They should get out of their own channels of thought and into his, for the time being. It is clear that the broad- er and deeper his channel is, the more easily his pupils may get into it, and the more rapid will be their progress in it. 4. Love of praise. If the pupil has the RETAIN ATTENTION. 89 proper amount of respect for his teacher, he will be very desirous of earning his ap- probation Teachers should not be too sparing in their commendation of earnest efforts. Praise for honest work. 5. Fear of offending. The pupil who loves his teacher will endeavor to avoid causing him annoyance, and will be glad to learn his lessons or give attention, if he can save his teacher pain by doing so. 6. Emulation. While too great a rivalry is likely to produce evil results that may outweigh the good done, it is well to use, as a motive power, as much of the spirit of emulation as wili awaken increased interest, and arouse to energetic work. 7. Appreciation of resulting benefits. As pupils grow older they should be led to take an interest in study for its ultimate aims, developing character and fitting for usefulness in the various walks of life. 5. Think out each lesson for your- self. Do not merely memorize lessons, or depend upon those prepared by others, however good they may be. Let the les- ion become your own by a careful process 90 HOW TO SECURE AND of thought, let this process be repeated until it has become fixed, and your person- al, magnetic power will be increased very largely. There is as much difference in the personal influence of a teacher whose lesson has been thought, and that of one whose lesson has been learned by rote, as there is between the attractiveness of an orator who speaks without notes, and the man who reads his sermons or speeches. The one teacher can give his attention to his class, and the other must attend to his lesson, lest he may forget it. The difference in the effect produced by the two ways of teaching is much greater with children than with adults. 6. Use the pupils' eyes. If the interest is beginning to flag, show the pupils some- thing. Illustrate the work in some way, even if you have to change the designed order of your lesson to make the illustra- tion appropriate. The teacher who only talks to his class uses only half of his teach- ing power, and employs less than half of the receptive power of the pupils. It is often a good way to begin with an illuslra- RETAIN ATTENTION. 91 tion, so as to concentrate the attention at once upon the subject in hand, and drive out the thoughts which have been occupy- ing the minds of the scholars. 7. Give occasional rests. Giving fixed and intense attention is x an exhaust- ive effort. Rest does not necessarily mean cessation from effort. Relief may be giv- en to one faculty by the exercise of another. Variety is in many cases equivalent to rest. 8. Do not distract attention. It is wrong to stop the work of a whole class to scold one pupil for inattention, or even to notice his listlessness in such a way as to disconcert others. A question will be sufficient to arrest and reprove him. Extra Numbers 21. Letter-Writing, ^^fi Quizzism. QuirJ A Quiz Booty Starkweath* 50 10 Straight (P. Swett (JX/1 .ie book, cloth, $1.00. Book-Keeping; 23. ..-•: 10 - Quarters. 16mo, pp. 25. . . 25 ^— - , 12mo, pp. 220 1 00 ' Grammar. 16mo, pp. 216 75 ication. Paper, 8vo, pp.12 15 -:V"ch, 12mo, pp. 300, nu 1 50 .cation. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 330 1 50 , Cards 5x8 inches. Per hundred 2 00 ■ , • 10 ^jegrees. - Paper, 16mo, pp. 40 15 ■PSHP|MHPHPHHP@ream8 of a Schoolmaster. 16mo, pp. 328. . . 1 25 Thousand Questions in U. S. History. r!loth, 16mo, pp. 200 1 00 Tillinghast (Wm.) The Diadem of School Songs.' Boards, 4to, pp. 160. ... 50 Underwood (L. M.) Systematic Plant Record. Manilla, 7x8^PP- 52 80 fUniform Examination Questions, New York. All Questions from the beginning, with Answers, are published in ttie School Bulletin as follows: School Law in June, 1888; Arithmetic, in July; Geography, in Aug. The Grammar will appear in October, the Physiology in November, the American History in December, and the Civil Government in January, 18^9. Prioe of each number 10 Valentine (S. Louise.) Numbers Made Easy. In box, with Key. 50 Van Wie (C. B.) Outlines in U. S. History. Paper, lfimo.pp. 40 and map 15 Welch (Emma A.i Intermediate Arithmetic Problems. Cloth, l6mo, pp. 172 75 Key to the above, Cloth, 16mo, pp. 30 50 Williams (Geo. A.) Topics in American History. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 50 — 50 * Any of the above not starred sent post-paid on receipt of price. I C. VV. BARD KEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.