A 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 81 
 4! 
 
 2' 
 
 2 \ 
 
 5: 
 
 Issued September 12, 1911. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. BULLETIN 141. 
 
 A. D. MELVIN, CHIEF OP BUREAU. 
 
 E IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 BY 
 
 HARRY M. LAMON AND CHARLES L. OPPERMAN, 
 
 Junior Animal Husbandmen, Animal Husbandry Division. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1911.
 
 Issued Hfptomber 12, lull. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. BULLETIN 141. 
 
 A. D. MELVIN, CHIEF OF BUREAU. 
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 BY 
 
 HARRY M. LAMON AND CHARLES L. OPPERMAK 
 
 Junior Animal Husbandmen, Animal Husbandry Division. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1911.
 
 THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 Chief: A. D. MELVIN. 
 
 Assistant Chief: A. M. FARRINGTON. 
 
 Chief Cleric: CHARLES C. CARROLL. 
 
 Animal Husbandry Division: GEORGE M. ROMMEL, chief. 
 
 Biochemic Division: M. DORSET, chief. 
 
 Dairy Division: B. H. RAWL, chief. 
 
 Inspection Division: RICE P. STEDDOM, chief; R. A. RAMSAY, MORRIS WOODEN, 
 
 and ALBERT E. BEHNKE, associate chiefs. 
 Pathological Division: JOHN R. MOHLER, chief. 
 Quarantine Division: RICHARD W. HICKMAN, chief. 
 Zoological Division: B. H. RANSOM, chief. 
 Experiment Station: E. C. SCHROEDER, superintendent. 
 Editor: JAMES M. PICKENS. 
 2
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, 
 
 Washington. D. f ., May 29. 1911. 
 
 SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript 
 entitled "The Improvement of the Farm Egg." l>y Harry M. Lamon 
 and Charles L. Opperman. of the Animal Husbandry Division of 
 this bureau, and to recommend its publication as a bulletin in the 
 bureau series. In 1908 a careful survey of the conditions surrounding 
 the egg trade was made and published as Circular 140, u The Egg 
 Trade of the United States," wherein it was shown there was a very 
 large loss in our annual egg output, nearly all of which was due to 
 improper methods of handling on the farm and at the country store. 
 A conservative estimate of this loss was given as 17 per cent of the 
 total value, amounting to about $45,000.000 annually. 
 
 Practically all of this loss is borne by the farmers and other egg 
 producers, and a large part of it should be easily preventable. In 
 order to show how this loss might be prevented, the bureau last year 
 sent the authors of the present bulletin into the State of Kansas to 
 conduct investigations to this end. The results of the first season's 
 work are described herein. 
 
 It is believed that Mr. Lamon, who outlined the field work, has 
 struck the keynote in the solution of the problem by bringing about 
 the organization of the egg buyers, with the cooperation of the State 
 authorities, for the purpose of compelling the traders in eggs to buy 
 on a quality basis only in other words, to substitute the " loss-off " 
 method of buying for the prevailing u case-count " system. Prob- 
 ably the best evidence that the work of the bureau in this matter 
 had been well directed is the rapid spread of the movement into 
 other States. 
 
 The authors desire to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Alfred 1\. 
 Lee, of the Animal Husbandry Division, who was in the field at the 
 same time. They also wish to thank the egg merchants, railroad 
 officials, agricultural college officers, and the State board of health of 
 Kansas for valuable cooperation. 
 
 Respectfully. A. D. MELVIN, 
 
 Chief of Bureau. 
 
 Hon. JAMES WILSON, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction !) 
 
 Extent of the industry 10 
 
 Loss due to poor handling II 
 
 Factors influencing quality in eggs \~2 
 
 The case-count system of buying 12 
 
 The loss-off system of buying 13 
 
 The country store 11 
 
 Delay in moving eggs 15 
 
 Classes of deteriorated eggs 15 
 
 Heated eggs 15 
 
 Held or shrunken eggs 1 ti 
 
 Rots 1 (i 
 
 Dirty eggs 1 (J 
 
 Broken eggs 17 
 
 Other deteriorated eggs 17 
 
 Methods used for the improvement of the farm egg 17 
 
 Organization of buyers 17 
 
 Cooperation of State officials 1 !) 
 
 Investigation of conditions surrounding the egg industry 1!) 
 
 Conditions on the farm 20 
 
 The poultry stock 22 
 
 Poultry buildings 21 
 
 Cleanliness and ventilation 21 
 
 Feeding methods 25 
 
 Hatching and brooding 2fi 
 
 Method of marking poultry to determine ago 27 
 
 Insufficient number of nests 2S 
 
 Dirty nests 2!) 
 
 Irregularity in gathering eggs 30 
 
 Males running with flock after hatching season 30 
 
 Inefficient storing facilities 30 
 
 Washing eggs 31 
 
 Holding eggs until a quantity has accumulated 31 
 
 Careless methods of transportation from farm to village 32 
 
 The farmer's market 32 
 
 Present features of store dealing 32 
 
 The cash buyer 31 
 
 The huckster 35 
 
 The cooperative creamery 35 
 
 Shipping eggs locally 35 
 
 The car-lot shipper 3,H 
 
 Educational work 3!) 
 
 Results of first season's work 10 
 
 Extension of movement to ot her States 11 
 
 Summary 12 
 
 Suggestions for the farmer 12 
 
 Suggestions for the country merchant and cash buyer 13 
 
 Suggestions for railroad officials 13 
 
 Suggestions for the car-lot shipper 13 
 
 5
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 PLATE I. A farm flock of Rhode Island Red chickens 24 
 
 II. Fig. 1. A crudely constructed poultry house. Fig. 2. A well- 
 constructed poultry house. Fig. 3. -An inexpensive practical 
 farm poultry house 24 
 
 III. Fig. 1. Tree nests, where some Kansas hens lay. Fig. 2. Gathering 
 
 eggs from under the corn crib. 32 
 
 IV. Fig. 1. Taking eggs to market. Fig. 2. A shipment of eggs on 
 
 railroad platform awaiting arrival of local freight 32 
 
 TEXT FIGURES. 
 
 FIG. 1. Method of toe-marking chicks to determine age 27 
 
 2. A stock car used for shipping poultry and eggs 37 
 
 6
 
 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN THE EGG TRADE. 
 
 Candling. The process of testing eggs by passing light through them so as 
 to reveal the condition of the contents. 
 
 Checks. Eggs which are cracked but not leaking. 
 
 Leakers. Cracked eggs which have lost a part of their contents. 
 
 Dirties. Eggs soiled with earth, droppings, or the contents of broken eggs. 
 
 Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the period 
 when the chick becomes visible. 
 
 Floats, light. Eggs in which embryo development has proceeded to a point 
 corresponding to about 18 to 24 hours of normal incubation ; they are not readily 
 detected by the casual observer, even when broken. 
 
 Floats, heary. Eggs in which the development has proceeded further than 
 is the case with the light floats. When broken, the yolk has a white and 
 scummy appearance. 
 
 Rots. A term used in the egg trade to designate eggs absolutely unfit for 
 food purposes. 
 
 Spots. Eggs in which bacteria or mold growth has developed locally aud 
 caused the formation of a lumpy adhesion on the inside of the shell. 
 
 Watery eggs. Those in which the inner membrane of the air cell is rup- 
 tured, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the eggs, and giving a 
 watery or frothy appearance. 
 
 Weak eggs. Those in which by reason of unfavorable conditions or of age 
 the stiffness or viscosity of the egg white is lessened, producing an egg which 
 does not stand up well or whip into a firm froth. 
 
 Case count. A term used in egg buying where eggs are accepted simply on 
 the basis of number without regard to quality. 
 
 Los* off. A term used in egg buying where eggs are tested by candling before 
 being accepted. The bad eggs, usually the rots and broken eggs, are rejected 
 and no pay is received for them. 
 
 Sceonds. A term often used when eggs are bought on a graded basis to 
 designate usually the second-best grade. 
 
 Flats. The square of straw-board which is placed between layers of eggs in 
 the egg case. 
 
 7
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is an accepted fact that the commercial egg of this country is 
 of a very poor quality, and when the housewife purchases eggs of 
 the local grocer she is often compelled to break them lirst in a saucer 
 before using them for culinary purposes. This poor quality in eggs 
 has been attributed by the majority of persons to the retention of the 
 eggs in cold storage until a large per cent of them are unfit for 
 human consumption. This condition, however, is not as a rule due 
 to cold storage, but to the condition of the eggs when they go into 
 storage. If eggs are full and fresh when put into a well-equipped 
 and properly managed cold-storage house there is, practically speak- 
 ing, no change in quality during the period they are normally held 
 which renders them unfit for food. On the other hand, if eggs are 
 heated, shrunken, watery, or otherwise deteriorated when they reach 
 the storage house, they can not improve in quality by virtue of being 
 held at a low temperature and are quite likely to deteriorate to a 
 still greater extent. In other words, the function of cold storage 
 in the case of eggs is to retard or prevent changes which are unfavor- 
 able to good quality. 
 
 From the time the eggs reach the poultry packer or other large 
 fairer of eggs they are as a rule given good care.-and the deterioration 
 from this point until they go into cold storage or reach their ultimate- 
 market is comparatively small. While there is. undoubtedly, still 
 room for improvement during this period of the egg's journey to 
 market, conditions are on the whole too satisfactory to account for 
 the very serious deterioration which is so widespread and marked. 
 
 It is therefore necessary to go further back in the, process of 
 marketing and to study the conditions surrounding the production 
 and handling of eggs from the farm to the packing house, if a really 
 noticeable and substantial improvement is to lx> eil'ected. The 
 Bureau of Animal Industry has undertaken to grapple with this 
 problem and a report of the preliminary work was published in 
 1009, as Circular 140, entitled, "The Egg Trade of the United 
 States." This circular gives a bird's-eye view of the situation in all 
 sections of the country and forcibly demonstrates the need of pro- 
 curing more detailed information on this subject. 
 100717--Riil]. 14111
 
 10 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 The work described in the present paper deals mainly with the 
 situation in the Middle West and particularly in the State of Kansas. 
 The objects sought to be attained are, to improve the quality of com- 
 mercial eggs by investigations on the ground to determine the reasons 
 for the poor quality of eggs so frequently seen, to devise methods for 
 improving the present conditions economically and reduce the loss 
 to a minimum, and, by a campaign of education, to disseminate the 
 results of the investigation in other sections of the country where 
 similar conditions prevail in the egg trade. The loss represented by 
 improper handling of eggs on the farm and in the country store is, 
 in the main, a preventable one. It is borne directly both by the 
 producer and the consumer, and affects the consumer also by curtail- 
 ing the egg supply of the country as well as by lowering, its quality. 
 By preventing this loss it is possible for the farmer to realize a 
 greater profit and for the consumer to be more certain that he is 
 purchasing eggs of reasonably good quality. 
 
 EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY. 
 
 There is probably no other domestic animal which has a more gen- 
 eral distribution than the hen, and the part which she plays in the 
 agricultural wealth of this country is almost incredible. According 
 to the m.ost recent 'statistics of the Department of Agriculture, the 
 products of the American hen aggregate a total value of more than 
 $620,000,000 annually. This sum is stated to be equal to the value 
 of the hay crop for 1908 and greater than the combined value of oats 
 and potatoes for the same year. It is nearly nine times the value of 
 the tobacco crop and equal to that of wheat. 
 
 Poultry and eggs are produced in all sections of the country, but 
 the business finds its greatest scope in areas presenting the most favor- 
 able conditions. It is a noticeable fact that the bulk of these impor- 
 tant products is produced on the farms of the Mississippi Valley. 
 In this section there are practically no large intensive poultry farms 
 such as are commonly found in the Eastern States and on the Pacific 
 coast. Poultry keeping, therefore, is largely incidental, the hens being 
 considered and treated largely as an agency for converting material 
 which would otherwise go to waste into a salable product. Conse- 
 quently the poultry and eggs produced constitute merely a by-product 
 of the general farm. Because prices for poultry products are com- 
 paratively low the farmers make no effort to keep larger flocks than 
 can be supported by this w r aste without much attention or extra feed, 
 and because individual flocks are small little attention or thought has 
 been given to improving the product or the method of disposing of 
 it. It should be kept in mind, however, that while individual sales 
 of poultry products are small, the aggregate for the year is large, 
 reaching for each State in the Middle West a total of many millions 
 of dollars.
 
 RESULT OF POOR HANDLING. 
 
 11 
 
 LOSS DUE TO POOR HANDLING. 
 
 The estimate of the author of Circular 140 of this bureau places 
 the annual loss for the entire country at 17 per cent of the total value 
 of the crop, or $45,000.000 annually. A vivid idea of what this loss 
 means to the State of Kansas alone may be obtained from the follow- 
 in": statement contained in a circular letter distributed by the packers 
 and car-lot shippers of that State: 
 
 It is the belief of those who are in a position to know that the value of the 
 egg product of the State of Kansas would be increased approximately $1.000.000 
 annually if proper care were taken of the product by the farmer and merchant. 
 
 More accurate figures show that the loss varies during the year 
 from 5 to 25 per cent, depending largely on the time of year and 
 weather conditions. 
 
 The following table gives a condensed report of the total receipts 
 of three Kansas egg buyers during the months of July, August, and 
 September, 1910, showing the number of rots thrown out as the result 
 of candling as well as the number of seconds and checks in two 
 instances : 
 
 TABLE 1. Showing loss in eggs received by three Kansas buyers in summer 
 
 months of 1010. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Local- 
 ity. 
 
 Total re- 
 ceipts. 
 
 Firsts. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 Chocks. 
 
 Rots. 
 
 July. 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 C 
 A 
 B 
 C 
 A 
 B 
 C 
 
 Dozens. 
 223, 230 
 100,899 
 36,600 
 100,320 
 71,430 
 46,500 
 
 Dozens. 
 207, 240 
 60,044 
 28, 970 
 133, 620 
 45,055 
 31,151 
 
 P. ct. 
 92.9 
 60.2 
 79.2 
 83 5 
 
 Dozens. 
 
 p. a. 
 
 Dozens. 
 
 r. ct. 
 
 Dozf n x. 
 15,990 
 
 7, 298 
 2,4!H 
 20, 7'X) 
 5, 607 
 4,374 
 
 P. c'. 
 7.1 
 7.2 
 6.8 
 lii.fi 
 7.8 
 9.4 
 
 August 
 
 27, 9(X) 
 5, 13fi 
 
 27.6 
 14.0 
 
 5,057 
 
 5.0 
 
 
 
 September 
 
 63.1 
 67.0 
 
 17,265 
 8.997 
 
 24.1 
 19.3 
 
 3,503 
 1,978 
 
 4.9 
 4.2 
 
 Total 
 
 42,710 
 24,880 
 
 29,659 
 17,260 
 
 69.5 
 69.4 
 
 8,460 
 5,253 
 
 19 8 
 21.1 
 
 2,083 
 889 
 
 4.8 
 3.5 
 
 2, ,508 
 1,478 
 
 5.8 
 5.9 
 
 700. >9 
 
 553,599 
 
 78.3 
 
 73,011 
 
 10.3 
 
 13,510 
 
 1.9 
 
 66. 449 
 
 9.4 
 
 
 
 It will be seen by an examination of the above table that the total 
 receipts of the three localities were 70(5,509 dozen. At 15 cents a 
 dozen, which is about the average price for " firsts " during the 
 months of July, August, and September, the value of the total re- 
 ceipts would be $105,985.35. However, 152,970 do/en, or 21.7 per 
 cent, of these eggs did not pass as " firsts." Of this number M(i.521 
 dozen were classed as seconds (which includes checks), and (>0,449 
 dozen were "' rots." It will be noticed that locality A does not dis- 
 criminate against seconds and checks. This condition makes the 
 actual loss in seconds and checks less than it would be under the 
 candling system of localities B and C\ The per cent of 4 ' firsts " is 
 also necessarily greater. When buying on a loss-off basis the price 
 paid for seconds is from 1 to 8 cents per dozen less than the price of 
 firsts. At G cents this would mean a loss of $5.191.26 in localities B
 
 12 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 and C. The 66,449 dozen " rots represent a loss of $9,967.35. Thus 
 there is from eggs thrown out and from those depreciated in quality a 
 total loss of $15,158.61, or 14.3 per cent of the original value, and this 
 does not include the possible losses from seconds and checks in 
 locality A. 
 
 The following table, giving the weekly receipts of still another 
 buyer, shows the percentage that were classed as " firsts " during the 
 months of June to October, 1910, inclusive. 
 
 TABLE 2. Percentage of eggs classed as firsts in weekly receipts of one buyer. 
 
 Week 
 beginning 
 
 Percentage 
 of firsts. 
 
 Week 
 beginning 
 
 Percentage 
 of firsts. 
 
 Week 
 beginning 
 
 Percentage 
 of firsts. 
 
 Week 
 beginning 
 
 Percentage 
 of firsts. 
 
 June 4.. 
 
 94.13 
 
 July 16 
 
 80.88 
 
 Aug. 27.. 
 
 83.68 
 
 Oct. 8 
 
 91 88 
 
 June 11.. 
 
 88.31 
 
 July 23 
 
 80.57 
 
 Sept. 3 . 
 
 83.11 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 91.44 
 
 June 18 
 June 25.. 
 
 86.43 
 84.15 
 
 July 30. .. 
 Aug. 6.. 
 
 63.68 
 66.53 
 
 Sept. 10. 
 Sept. 17 
 
 88.64 
 86.75 
 
 Oct. 22 
 Oct. 29 
 
 94.24 
 91 25 
 
 July 2... 
 
 80.00 
 
 Aug. 13. 
 
 87.75 
 
 Sept. 24. 
 
 86.82 
 
 
 
 July 9 
 
 85.82 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 87.71 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 91.66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The figures given above are based on an average weekly business of 
 15,000 dozen eggs. The decline in quality with the increased severity 
 of the summer heat can be readily traced. This decline reached its 
 maximum during the last week of July and the first week of August, 
 when the weather was unusually warm. After this time the number 
 of eggs classed as " firsts " rapidly increased. It should be kept in 
 mind, however, that in classing these eggs as " firsts," practically all 
 except " rots," spots, blood rings, badly heated eggs, and broken eggs 
 were included. The apparent improvement does not, therefore, indi- 
 cate that there had been any improvement in shrunken eggs or others 
 less badly deteriorated. 
 
 These two tables show a serious condition, which, moreover, is not 
 limited to the particular cases specified, but is widespread and com- 
 mon. Under the case-count system of buying the producer stands 
 this loss, although, as will be explained later, he does not realize it. 
 How much better it would be for a system of marketing to be brought 
 into general use which would make him realize this loss directty and 
 thereby provide an incentive to market his eggs in a more careful and 
 rational manner. The so-called " loss-off " is such a system. Needless 
 to say a strong effort is being made by this bureau to encourage the 
 introduction of this system. 
 
 FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY IN EGGS. 
 THE CASE-COUNT SYSTEM Or BUYING. 
 
 Viewed from the standpoint of progress and the improvement of 
 the poultry industry of the Middle West, the system of marketing in 
 general use in this great producing section known to the trade as the
 
 FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY. 13 
 
 "case-count" system has proven u great stumbling block. It is a 
 system of payment for number alone regardless of quality, and in 
 consequence it has not only not provided an incentive for care and 
 attention to quality, but by neglecting to reward carefulness has even 
 encouraged careless and dilatory marketing on the part of fanners, 
 with the attendant loss in quality. Briefly, case-count buying con- 
 sists of the payment of the fixed price which happens to be current 
 at the time for each and every dozen eggs which may be offered for 
 sale, regardless of whether the eggs themselves are good, bad. or 
 indifferent. The only requisite in most cases to consummate a sale 
 is for each egg to have an intact shell. The case-count system of 
 buying eggs may, therefore, be said to be the greatest factor in pre- 
 venting an improvement in the general quality of commercial eggs. 
 No more practical step can be taken, or one which would have a 
 more immediate and far-reaching effect in improving the quality of 
 the eggs of the Middle West, than to discard this system of buying 
 and to replace it by the one known to the trade as '* loss-off," in other 
 words, to buy on a candled or quality basis. 
 
 THE I/)SS-OFF SYSTEM OF BUYING. 
 
 Where this system is in use the eggs as bought are " candled," 
 that is, subjected to a test which shows quite definitely their con- 
 dition and quality. Candling is performed by holding the eggs up 
 to a small hole, about the size of a half dollar, cut in a shield of 
 metal or other material, behind which is a strong light. Usually 
 this light is furnished by an ordinary 16-candle power incandescent 
 light, but a lamp, candle, or even the sunlight may be utilized. The 
 person candling the eggs is in a dark or semidark room, so that the 
 light shines through the eggs, and when the latter are twirled the 
 condition of the contents is at once revealed to an expert eye. By this 
 test it is possible to detect rots, spots, and other deteriorated eggs, 
 such as shrunken, weak, watery, and heated eggs. In paying for 
 eggs bought on this basis, the rots and usually the spots and blood 
 rings are thrown out entirely, so that they become a dead loss to the 
 person responsible for them. Often in buying from the farmer no 
 other distinction is made. The eggs are simply divided into two 
 classes, one of which is good enough to accept and pay for while the 
 other is rejected and payment therefor is refused. Such a classification 
 is a distinct step forward and results in a great improvement in the 
 eggs. Indeed, there are many reasons to believe that such a simple 
 system is preferable when dealing with the farmers to a more com- 
 plicated one where the eggs are placed in several grades, according 
 to quality, and for which different prices are paid. In the latter 
 case the farmer is prone to think that he is being cheated if a part 
 of his eggs are accepted but' bring a les's price than the others.
 
 14 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 The agency indirectly responsible for the opposition to this method 
 of buying and for the continuance of the case-count system is the 
 country store. 
 
 THE COUNTRY STORE. 
 
 It has been the custom from the time towns were settled through- 
 out the West for the country store to handle the eggs in most in- 
 stances. 
 
 The peculiar workings of this system, together with its baleful 
 effects, have been well discussed by Milo M. Hastings in Circular 140 
 of this bureau. He says : 
 
 The trips to the general store, necessary to supply the household needs, offer 
 the most convenient opportunity for this marketing; but there is a reason for 
 the general merchant being an egg buyer that is more interesting and far- 
 reaching in its effect upon the egg trade. The merchant buys eggs because 
 by doing so he can control his selling trade. There are two reasons why the 
 farmer trades where he sells his eggs: (1) Because it is convenient to trade 
 at one place, and (2) because he wishes to avoid offending the merchant, which 
 he would do if he broke the established custom of trading out the amount. 
 
 The merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell goods, and he therefore 
 bids for eggs. His competitors in the same town, as well as in other towns, 
 also bid for eggs. The effect to the merchant of lowering the price of his goods 
 or raising the price of eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the 
 matter of cutting prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles on 
 which the merchant makes his chief profits are dry goods and notions. Such 
 articles are not standardized, but their real value varies in a manner quite im- 
 possible of estimation by the unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are 
 quoted by the dozen, and all who run may read. 
 
 Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each doing 
 business with a 20 per cent profit and are buying eggs at 10 cents and selling 
 for 11, the 1 cent advance being sufficient to pay for the labor of handling, in- 
 cidental loss, and a small profit. One merchant concludes to cater for more 
 trade. If he marks his goods down he will gain some extra trade, but people 
 will fear his goods are cheap. But let him put out a placard " Eleven cents paid 
 for eggs," and the farmers will throng his store and be less inclined to question 
 the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, his rival across 
 the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of dry goods, and one fine 
 morning puts out a card, " Twelve cents paid for eggs," and more farm wagons 
 will be hitched on his side of the street. The volume of business at the lower 
 profit being insufficient to maintain two men in the town, a mutual understand- 
 ing is gradually brought about by which the prices of goods sold are worked 
 back to the basis of 20 per cent gross profit, but the false price of eggs serves 
 to draw trade from neighboring towns, and is maintained at the higher 
 level. 
 
 As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the general stores 
 of the Mississippi Valley is frequently 1 to 2 cents above the price at which the 
 storekeeper sells the product. Allowing the cost of handling, we have a con- 
 dition prevailing in which the merchant is handling eggs at from 5 to 10 per 
 cent loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by adding to 
 the prices of his goods.
 
 CLASSES OF DETERIORATED EGGS. 15 
 
 Some of the effects of this system aro: 
 
 1. The inflated price of merchandise is an injustice to the townspeople and to 
 farmers not selling produce; in fact, it amounts to a taxation of these people 
 for the benefit of the egg producers. 
 
 2. The inflated prices of the merchant's wares work to his own disadvantage 
 in competition with mail-order or out-of-town trade. 
 
 I!. The farmer who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for 
 his eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to that end. but 
 is in the main merely exchanging more dollars. 
 
 4. The use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior 
 produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices thus caused 
 is much greater than his gain through the forced contributions of his neighbors. 
 
 DKLAY IN MOVING ECCS. 
 
 The delay which takes place from the time tho eggs aro produced 
 on the farm until they reach tho packing house or car-lot shipper is a 
 direct result of the case-count system of buying. This delay is most 
 serious, and, coupled with weather conditions, it is responsible for 
 the changes occurring and the loss and deterioration caused. Inci- 
 dental to the delay and the ignoring of the necessity for good quality, 
 many careless habits develop in handling the eggs. On the farm 
 this usually takes the form of negligence in gathering the eggs, also in 
 storing them in hot, damp, or other unsuitable places, and in holding 
 them for a considerable length of time, either because it is not con- 
 venient to go to town or, in the fall on a rising market, with the idea 
 of getting a better price. At the country store, also, the eggs aro 
 often held for a considerable length of time. When the eggs finally 
 reach the packer they may, therefore, be several weeks old. and as 
 they are subjected to high temperature during the summer and early 
 fall months, and may have been held in damp places, changes often 
 take place which bring them under one or other of the following well- 
 recognized classes. 
 
 CLASSES OF DETERIORATED EGGS. 
 IIKATED E(1(JS. 
 
 Heated eggs occur most commonly, of course, during the summer 
 months. They are caused by the development of the embryo in fer- 
 tile eggs. AVhenever a fertile egg is subjected to proper conditions of 
 heat and moisture, whether it be under a hen. in a bucket behind tho 
 kitchen range, or in an egg case in (he hot *un on tho railroad s(a(ion 
 platform, the embryo development proceeds. The degree to which 
 this development has progressed will determine into which of the 
 classes or grades recognized by practical egg men it will fall. 
 " Light floats" are those in which there is only a slight development, 
 approximately equal to that reached at the end of 18 or -24 hours of
 
 1(5 IMPROVEMENT OP THE FARM EGG. 
 
 natural incubation. Usually this development would go unnoticed 
 when the egg is broken. " Heavy floats " show a greater develop- 
 ment, usually sufficient to be noticed on breaking. "Blood rings" 
 are characterized by the appearance of a ring of blood next to the shell 
 membrane. In these eggs the developing embryo has died, and the 
 peripheral blood vessel has adhered to the membrane and is plainly 
 visible before the candle. In other cases the development proceeds 
 until the growing chick is visible before the candle. Many of the 
 eggs that contain well-developed chicks are classed as rots. In ex- 
 ceptional cases the development may proceed until the egg actually 
 hatches in the egg case or wherever else it may be. 
 
 HELD OR SHRUNKEN EGGS. 
 
 The contents of a fresh-laid egg completely fill it, but as the egg 
 cools the contents shrink slightly, causing a small bubble or air cell 
 to appear at the large end. As the egg grows older the water is con- 
 tinually evaporating from the white through the shell membrane and 
 the shell, and this causes the air cell in the large end of the egg to 
 increase in size. Such an egg is characterized as held, or shrunken. 
 The rapidity with which this evaporation and shrinking progresses 
 depends, of course, upon the humidity of the air surrounding the egg. 
 Shrunken eggs are most common during the fall and early winter, 
 when the price of eggs is rising. At this time both the farmer and 
 the storekeeper are often guilty of holding eggs in the hope that the 
 price will have advanced by the time they are ready to sell. Needless 
 to say, they largely defeat themselves, for buyers have learned to 
 anticipate this condition, and consequently depress the price below 
 what it would othenvise be. 
 
 ROTS. 
 
 A number of different kinds of rots are recognized by the trade, but 
 the two most common classes are those known as black or mixed rots 
 and as spot rots or spots. The black rot is often caused by bacterial 
 growth. These eggs appear dark or black before the candle and are 
 characterized on breaking by a most offensive odor. In the case of 
 spot rots, the bacterial growth has remained localized and shows as 
 a spot or patch next the shell and usually attached to it. These are 
 easily detected on candling. Spots are also often caused by the de- 
 velopment of molds. 
 
 DIRTY EGGS. 
 
 Many eggs are soiled and dirty. These are caused by dirty nests, 
 thus allowing the eggs to be soiled by droppings, by dirt from the feet 
 of the fowls, particularly during rainy weather, and by smearing with 
 the contents of broken or cracked eggs.
 
 DETAILS OF PLAN FOR IMPROVEMENT. 17 
 
 BROKEN EGGS. 
 
 Many eggs are cracked or broken before reaching the packing house. 
 Those cracked only slightly, so that the egg contents do not leak out, 
 are known as ''checks." Those in which the egg contents are leaking 
 or have partial!} 7 leaked away are known as "leakers." Broken or 
 "checked" eggs depreciate rapidly and must, therefore, be separated 
 out and sold for immediate consumption at a reduced price or they 
 must be dried or broken out in cans and frozen. 
 
 OTHER DETERIORATED EGGS. 
 
 As eggs are very prone to take on the taste and odor of their sur- 
 roundings, a considerable number deteriorate in this respect. Tf 
 stored in damp cellars, they are likely to develop a musty flavor which 
 is practically impossible to detect without tasting. Other flavors 
 caused by storing with vegetables, such as onions, are common. 
 
 METHODS USED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 In attacking this problem the bureau concentrated its efforts upon 
 those measures which were considered the most important and gave 
 promise of accomplishing the most good. The two main lines were : 
 First, the encouragement of the loss-off system of buying, and second, 
 a close and careful examination of the conditions surrounding the 
 marketing of eggs all the way from the producer to the packing house. 
 The State of Kansas was selected as a working base for three reasons: 
 First, the output of eggs is enormous, but the quality has usually been 
 low. Second, the. buyers of the State had already made at least one 
 attempt to enforce the loss-off system of buying, which indicated a 
 receptive spirit on their part. Third, the statutes of Kansas contain 
 provisions giving the State board of health abundant authority to 
 prevent the sale of bad eggs within the State. 
 
 The first attempt, above alluded to, of enforcing the loss-off system 
 of buying failed because the buyers along the borders of the State met 
 competition from adjacent States where the case-count system was in 
 operation and. becoming discouraged, in self-defense resorted again 
 to the case-count system. The other buyers of the State in turn felt 
 compelled to return to the case-count basis, and the entire agreement 
 soon fell to pieces. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF BUYERS. 
 
 The first step, therefore, was to get the buyers together. With 
 the cooperation of officers of the State board of health and the Kan- 
 sas State Agricultural College, a meeting of the Kansas Carlot 
 Egg Shippers' Association was held at Topeka on June 10. 1910. 
 
 100717 Bull. 14111 3
 
 18 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 where an agreement was entered into to buy strictly on a loss-off 
 basis after July 1, 1910. 
 
 The proceedings of the meeting resulted in the adoption of the 
 following resolutions : 
 
 First. That Dr. Crumbine have cards and circulars printed and mailed to 
 every merchant that handles eggs in the State of Kansas, the association bear- 
 ing the expense. 
 
 Second. That buyers send out circulars to their patrons, through their offices, 
 relative to their attitude on the marketing of eggs. 
 
 Third. The term designating loss-off includes all rots, spots, blood rings, and 
 leakers. 
 
 Fourth. That Dr. Crumbine and G. C. Bowman shall draft and have printed 
 circulars to be sent to shippers for distributing to their patrons. 
 
 Fifth. That buying on a loss-off basis shall commence July 1, 1910. 
 
 Sixth. That the members of the association shall sign the following agree- 
 ment : 
 
 " We the undersigned egg shippers, hereby agree that from and after July 1, 
 1910, we will buy all eggs loss-off, said loss-off to include all rots, spots, blood 
 rings, and leakers." . 
 
 The following circular was drafted and mailed by members of the 
 association to the dealers throughout the State from whom they drew 
 their supplies. 
 
 TO OUR PATRONS. 
 
 The prices current on Kansas eggs on the eastern market indicate that the 
 Kansas egg has a " bad name." This deplorable condition is the natural and 
 inevitable result of buying and shipping eggs by the " case-count " system, or, 
 as one man graphically expressed the situation,. " everything with a shell goes 
 in Kansas." This lowered price of the Kansas product means a great loss to 
 the producers and buyers of a wholesome article, which can never be remedied 
 until the egg unfit for food is eliminated from the channels of trade. It is the 
 belief of those who are in a position to know that the value of the egg product 
 of Kansas would be increased approximately $1,000,000 annually if proper care 
 is taken of the product by the farmer and merchant. 
 
 An egg that will grade a first or extra when delivered by the farmer will 
 rapidly deteriorate into a second or even a third if held for only a short time 
 during the heat of summer. Therefore, the farmer should gather his eggs at 
 least twice a day, put them in a cool place, and deliver them to the merchant 
 at least every second day, and the merchant in turn ship daily during the hot 
 season. 
 
 We desire also to call your attention to the fact that the Government has 
 shown considerable activity of late in the seizure of the eggs entering into 
 interstate commerce which have not complied with the national food and drug 
 law in that there were many of them unfit for food. 
 
 The State authorities, cooperating with the Federal Government, are insisting 
 that the sale of eggs unfit for food shall cease. There is only one method of 
 bringing about the results above indicated ; namely, that of buying " loss off." 
 By putting into action the above suggestions, in handling and carefully candling, 
 it has been agreed that beginning July 1, 1910, all eggs shall be purchased on 
 the " loss-off " basis. 
 
 f We want every merchant to cooperate with us by candling all eggs and ship 
 them daily, and further, instruct the producers to gather eggs at least twice a 
 day, put them in a cool place, and market them every other day.
 
 CONDITIONS SURROUNDING EGG INDUSTRY. 
 
 19 
 
 COOPERATION OF STATE OFFICIALS. 
 
 Profiting by the failure of the former attempt to bring about the 
 loss-off system of buying, the support of the State board of health 
 was early enlisted in the cause. This was an important step, with- 
 out which the movement would have met the same fate as its prede- 
 cessors, for the activity of the State board of health served to keep 
 wavering buyers in line through fear of prosecution for handling 
 bad eggs. It is a pleasure to state that the secretary of the board, 
 Dr. S. J. Cmmbine, was most active in supporting the movement 
 and lent the force of his department to its successful operation. 
 Placards (as below) were printed and posted in about 3,000 stores 
 throughout the State where eggs were bought or sold. 
 
 WARN IXC, BAD EGGS. 
 
 The Kansas food and drugs law forbids the sale or offering for 
 sale of eggs unfit for human food. "Sec. 7, Subdivision sixth: 
 If it consists in whole or in pan of a filthy, decomposed, tainted, 
 or putrid animal or vegetable substance," etc. 
 
 Keg. 1 1 , Par. C: "The sale, keeping for sale, or offering for sale 
 of tainted or rotten eggs is prohibited." 
 
 Inspectors of this department, and all police officers of the State, arc 
 instructed to enforce these provisions of the law. 
 
 KANSAS STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, 
 By the Chief Food and Drug Inspector. 
 TOPEKA, KANSAS, June 11, 1910. 
 
 INVESTIGATION OF CONDITIONS SURROUNDING THE EGG 
 
 INDUSTRY. 
 
 After the above buying agreement had been accomplished, and the 
 assistance of the State authorities assured, the efforts of the bureau 
 were at once directed to a comprehensive study of the conditions in 
 the field and a campaign of education was immediately begun among 
 the Kansas farmers. The following account of the methods used in 
 making this study may serve as a guide to similar work which may be 
 undertaken in other States. 
 
 As the first step, a packing house was selected whoso manager was 
 in sympathy with and believed in the practical good to be accom- 
 plished by such a study. The association with such a packing house 
 made it possible to investigate shipments of eggs, whenever de>ired, 
 from their origin on the farm, and to observe the changes which 
 might occur. By virtue of enjoying the confidence and friendship 
 of the manager, it was also possible to get into touch with some of 
 the smaller buyers and stores shipping eggs to him. Through these 
 buyers and storekeepers it was again possible to make the acquaint- 
 ance and secure the confidence of the farmers furnishing them with 
 eggs. Thus a complete chain was established from the farm to the
 
 20 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 packing house, all parts of which had a direct interest in the egg busi- 
 ness, and all of which \vere willing to give the bureau any help pos- 
 sible. The conditions found as a result of these studies are given in 
 
 o 
 
 the following section. 
 
 CONDITIONS ON THE FARM. 
 
 The writers made personal visits to more than 100 farms during 
 the summer of 1910, driving more than 1,000 miles over the country 
 roads. Detailed records are available for 92 of these farms. In 
 assembling the information secured the card shown below was used. 
 
 [Front of card.] 
 
 [UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.] 
 POULTRY AND EGG MARKETING INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 FARMER'S CARD. 
 
 No. 
 
 Name 
 
 Address 
 
 Date 
 
 Character of farm : 
 
 Size 
 
 Crops raised 
 
 Stock kept 
 
 Poultry accommodations : 
 Houses 
 
 Kind 
 
 Number 
 
 Location . 
 
 Nests 
 
 Kind 
 
 Number 
 
 Location 
 
 Runs 
 
 Size 
 
 Number 
 
 Treatment 
 
 Poultry kept : 
 
 Variety 
 
 Number 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Ages 
 
 Natural or artificial incubation 
 
 Natural or artificial brooding . 
 
 Egg production : 
 
 Weight of eggs per dozen 
 
 Method of feeding 
 
 Rations 
 
 Gathering eggs : 
 
 Frequency 
 
 By whom . 
 
 In what 
 
 Keeping eggs for market : 
 
 Where 
 
 How long 
 
 Temperature 
 
 How marketed 
 
 Distance from market 
 
 Name and address of person or firm to whom sold
 
 POULTRY SCORE CARD. 
 
 [Back of card.] 
 SCORE CARD OF FAKM POULTRY Fr.orK. 
 
 21 
 
 Equipment. 
 
 Score. 
 
 Methods. 
 
 Score. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Allowed. 
 
 Perfect . 
 
 Allowed. 
 
 POULTRY STOCK. 
 
 Health 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 FEEDING. 
 Water: Clean. fresh. abundant . . 
 
 :; . 
 
 
 Variety of feed "> 
 
 
 Green feed 
 
 ., 
 
 Age 
 
 3 
 
 
 In winter and at other 
 limes when not available. 
 Meat feed, wholesome 
 
 ;i 
 
 All in first or not over half 
 in second laying year neces- 
 sary for perfect score. 
 
 HOUSES. 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 
 Grit 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 
 Shell 
 
 Fresh feed, not sloppy or sour. . . 
 
 
 
 HANDLING EGGS. 
 
 Gathering: Once daily, twice in 
 hot weather 
 
 
 Well drained 5 
 
 
 Southern or southeastern 
 
 
 Tight back wall, ends, 
 and roof 1 
 
 
 Keeping eggs 
 
 
 Cool, 50 to 70 ' F 1 
 Dry, to prevent mold. ... 1 
 Free from contamination 
 of taste or odor 1 
 
 
 I)rv floor 2 
 
 Kcononiv 1 
 
 Location and shape of 
 windows 1 
 
 Clean surroundings 1 
 
 Light 
 
 One square foot of glass to 
 10-10 floor space or 1 square 
 foot of glass, and 1 square 
 foot of cloth to 2j feet floor 
 space. 
 
 
 Daily 3 
 
 
 Spmiweeklv ... 2 
 
 Weekly 1 
 
 Less often 
 
 Grading out odd-sized, dirty, 
 washed, cracked, and doubt- 
 ful eggs for home use. 
 
 Open front or curtain 
 front 3 
 
 
 Vdjustable windows ... 2 
 
 Separation of males from fe- 
 males during warm weather 
 after breeding season . 
 
 
 Floor space 
 
 4. 5 too square feet per hen. 3 
 3.5 to 4.5 square feet per 
 hen 2 
 
 
 Total... 
 
 2.5 to 3.5 square feet per 
 hen 1 
 
 Less than 2.5 square feet 
 per hen 
 
 Convenience 
 
 Nests 
 
 
 1 to 5 hens. 
 Cleanliness 
 
 
 Frequent removal of drop- 
 pings 2 
 
 
 Nests . 2 
 
 Walls windows, etc 1 
 
 RUNS OR RANGE. 
 
 100 to 200 square feet 3 
 50 to 100 square feet 2 
 
 
 Less than 50 square feet.. . 1 
 No run 
 
 Cultivation 
 
 Drainage 
 
 
 Shade 
 
 1 
 
 
 Total... 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 :<) 
 
 Equipment-. Methods .Final Score. 
 
 This card was found to be a most convenient method of tabulating 
 and preserving the data secured from individual farms. The score 
 card on the back served to make comparison easy by placing a 
 numerical value on the poultry equipment and methods. 
 
 Before entering into the discussion relating to the poultry condi- 
 tions on the farm, it might IK> well to give a brief description of the 
 100717 Hull. 1-41 11 i
 
 22 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 size and general character of the farms which were visited. As to 
 size, there are in Kansas the smaller farms containing from 60 to 
 300 acres and also those which are several thousand acres in extent, 
 the latter being used for the most part as pasture and grain land, 
 while on the former diversified farming is the usual practice. The 
 principal crops raised are corn, wheat, oats, barley, kafir corn, millet, 
 sorghum, potatoes, and hay. The term " hay " would include many 
 varieties of cultivated grasses and legumes, and of these alfalfa is 
 by far the most important crop. The classes of live stock which are 
 raised extensively are horses, beef cattle, milch cows, sheep, and hogs, 
 beef cattle and hogs being in the majority. The large farms, or 
 ranges, do not as a rule have any great number of poultry on them, 
 and consequently play a small part in the present discussion. From 
 this general description it is easy to understand why poultry forms 
 an important part in the agricultural wealth of this section of the 
 country, since grain and other desirable feed, including alfalfa, are 
 abundantly and economically raised, and the soil and climatic condi- 
 tions are well suited to the production of poultry. The details of 
 the 92 farms previously referred to in regard to acreage and size 
 of flocks are as follows : 
 
 TABLE 3. Relation of size of farm to number of It ens kept, based upon 92 
 
 Kansas farms. 
 
 Size of farm. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Total 
 acreage. 
 
 Average 
 acreage. 
 
 Total 
 number 
 of hens. 
 
 Average 
 number 
 of hens. 
 
 Hens per 
 acre. 
 
 80 acres or less . 
 
 18 
 
 1,440' 
 
 80.0 
 
 1,998 
 
 111.0 
 
 1.39 
 
 81 to 160 acres. 
 
 45 
 
 6,514 
 
 144.7 
 
 5,401 
 
 120.0 
 
 .83 
 
 161 to 240 acres 
 
 18 
 
 3,828 
 
 212.7 
 
 2,190 
 
 121.7 
 
 .57 
 
 Over 240 acres . . 
 
 11 
 
 3,805 
 
 345.9 
 
 1,680 
 
 152.7 
 
 .44 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 92 
 
 15,587 
 
 169.4 
 
 11,269 
 
 122.5 
 
 .72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE POULTRY STOCK. 
 
 The value of purebred poultry has not been realized to as great 
 an extent by the farmers of Kansas as it should be. The bulk of the 
 poultry on the farms are what are commonly known as mongrel or 
 dunghill fowls. When any breeding is apparent Barred Plymouth 
 Rock and Leghorn characteristics predominate. A small proportion 
 of the farmers, however, do keep some purebred poultry. In Plate I 
 is shown a view of a good farm flock of Rose Comb Rhode Island 
 Reds. The breed most popular among farmers is the Barred 
 Plymouth Rock. 
 
 Improvement is usually sought by bringing in fresh blood every 
 two or three years in the form of a new male bird, generally of a 
 different breed each time. About the only visible effect of this spas- 
 modic scheme is to add yet greater dissimilarity to the already won-
 
 POULTRY STOCK IX KANSAS. 
 
 23 
 
 derfully variegated flock. If the farmer would carefully select 10 
 or 12 of his best females each year and mate them \vith a purebred 
 male which conformed to the general character of the females, ad- 
 hering always to the same breed, he ct.uld in the course of a few years 
 make a marked improvement in his flock. 
 
 The introduction of Leghorn blood (and many farm flocks show 
 some trace of Leghorn blood) has had a marked tendency to decrease 
 the size of the average farm fowl in Kansas This p:>int was forci- 
 bly demonstrated to the authors by observing the weights of many 
 thousands of birds in the large packing houses, and also by weigh- 
 ing eggs from the flocks of all the farms visited. These observa- 
 tions showed that the average weight of hens on the farm ranged 
 from 24 to 4 pounds, and the average weight of eggs per dozen was 
 23 ounces. At a glance it is quite evident that the weight of the 
 mature fowls is very much lower than it should be, and observations 
 have shown that the average weight of a dozen eggs from purebred 
 stock does not fall below 24 ounces. The standard weights of the 
 popular general-purpose breeds are given below : 
 
 Plymouth Rocks ((> varieties) : lien, 74 pounds; cock, 9} pounds. 
 
 Wyandottes (8 varieties) : lien, C>i pounds: cock, 8.V pounds. 
 
 Orpingtons (3 varieties) : Hen 8 pounds; cock, 10 pounds. 
 
 Rhode Island Reds (2 varieties) : Hen, Gi pounds; cock, S\ pounds. 
 
 While it is quite evident that the stock on the farms in this section 
 is undersized, and that the eggs are smaller than those of purebreds. 
 it is satisfactory to note that there is a tendency at the present time 
 to improve this inferior stock or discard it. entirely by purchasing 
 eggs or stock of some breeder who handles a pure breed of the gen- 
 eral-purpose type. One of the reasons for this change is that many 
 of the large packing houses are offering 2 to 3 cents more per pound 
 for market fowls of the heavier breeds than they are for the Medi- 
 terranean or lighter breeds. The following table shows the breeds 
 of poultry kept on the 1)2 farms where detailed studies were made, 
 and the relative proportion of purebred flocks and flocks of mixed 
 breeding: 
 
 TABLE 4. Breeding of eJiiekeiiN kept on 9> K<inttx furnn. 
 
 Purebred flocks. 
 
 Klooks of mixed breeding. 
 
 Breed. 
 
 Number Percent 
 of farms, of total. 
 
 Hreed predominating. 
 
 Xmnlver 
 of farms. 
 
 Percent 
 of total. 
 
 T'lvmouth Rook 
 
 4 4.3 
 
 Plvmouth Rock 
 
 14 
 
 17 S 
 
 1,/oghorn 
 
 5 ">. 4 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 13 
 
 1 1. 1 
 
 Rhode Inland Red 
 
 2 22 
 
 Rhode, Island Ked 
 
 4 
 
 4 :i 
 
 Orpington 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 Orpinirton 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 3 
 
 Wvandotte 
 
 4 4.3 
 
 W vandotte. . . . . . . 
 
 
 
 LanjTghnn 
 
 2 22 
 
 Brahma 
 
 .> 
 
 > > 
 
 
 
 Minorca 
 
 1 
 
 l i 
 
 
 
 Plain mixed 
 
 4 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 18 19.5 
 
 Total 
 
 71 
 
 SO. 3 
 
 
 
 

 
 24 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 POULTRY BUILDINGS. 
 
 The majority of the farm poultry buildings are either poorly con- 
 structed for the purpose, or were buildings which had formerly been 
 used for other purposes. There is little indication of any special 
 effort on the part of the farmer to provide clean comfortable quarters 
 for his fowls. He seems to take it for granted that the fowls, unlike 
 the horses and cattle and other live stock, do not require comfortable 
 quarters in order to be profitably maintained. In this assumption he 
 is partially correct, for where there is very little investment and a 
 more or less regular income he is sure to realize some profit. It is, in 
 fact, almost impossible to neglect fowls to such an extent that they 
 are maintained at a loss under such conditions. Even in instances 
 where the farm flock is compelled to roost in the trees throughout the 
 entire year, and forage for the greater part of their feed, some profit 
 is usually realized. All this is true because the fowls, on account of 
 this hardy outdoor existence, are as a rule in excellent health and pro- 
 duce enough eggs in the spring and summer months to return a rea- 
 sonable profit to the farmer. 
 
 Views are reproduced in the upper portion of Plate II, showing two 
 extreme types of poultry houses, the one poorly and the 'other well 
 constructed. Both houses provide comfortable quarters for the fowls 
 in so far as protection from the w T eather is concerned, but when we 
 consider the question of eradicating disease, lice, or mites, the build- 
 ing shown in figure 1 presents a difficult problem. It is true that for 
 all practical purposes the building in figure 2 does not afford any bet- 
 ter protection from the \veather elements than the inferior house, but 
 the material and workmanship is such that diseases and vermin can be 
 successfully combated. The most serious objection to this house is 
 that it is a more expensive structure than many farmers would care 
 to erect. There is, however, no necessity for going to one extreme or 
 the other, and in figure 3 is shown what can rightly be called a happy 
 medium. This house combines the good points of both the others, 
 and the material and workmanship is such that it is as easy to keep 
 in a sanitary condition as the more expensive house. 
 
 CLEANLINESS AND VENTILATION. 
 
 A not uncommon practice on Kansas farms is to clean the poultry 
 house only once or twice a year and the result is that many of the 
 houses are in a very filthy condition. The accumulation of filth and 
 droppings on the floor of the poultry houses, 95 per cent of which 
 have dirt floors, opens the way for the invasion of many infectious 
 diseases, and the droppings from one sick fowl may be the means of 
 infecting the entire flock. In one or two instances the houses were 
 equipped with a dropping board under the roosts. This practice is
 
 141. BUREAU OF ASIWAL INDUSTRY, U. S. D:pr. OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 A FARM FLOCK OF RHODE ISLAND RED CHICKENS.
 
 BUL. 141, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 FIG. 1 A CRUDELY CONSTRUCTED POULTRY 
 HOUSE. 
 
 FIG. 2. A WELL-CONSTRUCTED POULTRY 
 HOUSE. 
 
 FIG. 3. AN INEXPENSIVE PRACTICAL FARM POULTRY HOUSE.
 
 FEEDING METHODS OF POULTRY IN KANSAS. 2o 
 
 to be highly commended, since it prevents the accumulation of drop- 
 pings on the floor, and also makes it easy to remove them. 
 
 No special attention was given to supplying the fowls with a liberal 
 amount of fresh air, but because the majority of the houses are of 
 crude construction, and also by means of small windows, doors, and 
 numerous cracks and openings the fowls suffered little from the lack 
 of ventilation. In relation to the amount of door space }>er bird, it 
 is a common occurrence to find from 75 to 100 fowls housed in a build- 
 ing of such dimensions that it allows each fowl only about 1 square 
 foot of floor space, and it was easy to find cases where even less space 
 than this was provided. However, where the fowls are allowed free 
 range on all suitable days, and the house is cleaned at frequent inter- 
 vals, the question of a definite amount of floor space per bird is not 
 very important. 
 
 The farmer of the Middle "West seldom, if ever, confines his poultry 
 in yards, and there is no doubt that this has been a most important 
 factor in maintaining the vigor and health of the fowls so admirably. 
 The condition of the farm flocks in respect to these two qualities is 
 well shown bv the following figures from the 9:2 farms: 
 
 TABLK 5. Ilcaltli nntl ri</or of poullnj flock* on !>,> Kaunas farms. 
 
 Health. 
 
 Vigor. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Poor. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Poor. 
 
 Go 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 67 
 
 IS 
 
 7 
 
 FKEDINO MKTHODS. 
 
 During the spring, summer, and fall the fowls are compelled to 
 forage for the greater part of their living. Even during the winter 
 months they are fortunate if they receive more than one feed a day. 
 Consequently they are compelled to pick up a considerable portion 
 of their living around the barn and eorncrib. This condition has 
 arisen from the practice of giving the poultry free access to the feed 
 lots for beef cattle and hogs. In feeding the steers and hogs the corn 
 is often dumped in piles about the feed lot. thus making it possible 
 for the fowls to procure a liberal feed of corn at least once a day. 
 At thrashing time also there is considerable waste grain which would 
 be a total loss if not utilized by the poultry. The fields of alfalfa 
 make an ideal range and furnish abundant green feed. It is quite 
 common to see the alfalfa stack in close proximity to the barn and 
 other outbuildings, and in this case the fowls have green feed close at 
 hand.
 
 26 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 Where any attempt is made to supply the fowls with grain regu- 
 larly once or twice a day the following feeds are generally used : 
 Corn, wheat, kafir corn, and spelt. Of these the one most commonly 
 used is corn. The fowls do not receive a regular supply of meat 
 feed, and when insects are no longer available they are compelled to 
 exist on an unbalanced ration of starchy grains. It is, however, a 
 common practice to give the fowls the offal from whatever butcher- 
 ing may be done on the farm, and often the farmer may kill jack 
 rabbits, which are sometimes used as meat feed for the poultry. The 
 supply of meat feed is, however, very irregular. Practically every 
 flock examined showed more or less feather pulling, thought to be the 
 result of an insufficient supply of this material. 
 
 Crushed clam shells are used almost exclusively to furnish the 
 fowls with carbonate of lime. Grit in the form of commercially 
 prepared crushed stone is seldom used, but many farmers haul a load 
 of coarse sand to the barnyard and allow the fowls free access to it 
 at all times. Such a method is inexpensive to the farmer and fur- 
 nishes the fowls with an abundant supply of grit. 
 
 The water supply for the poultry is usually both insufficient and 
 insanitary. Vessels of every size and description, such as oven doors, 
 milk-can tops, wooden troughs, pails, and cans of all sizes, are used 
 as reservoirs for water. It is the exception rather than the rule to 
 find these vessels clean and filled with water. They are more apt to 
 be completely dry and dirty, while the fowls can be seen drinking 
 from a cesspool in the barnyard or a wallow r in the pigpen. 
 
 HATCHING AND BROODING. 
 
 There are two general systems of hatching and brooding the chicks : 
 First, hatching and brooding with hens exclusively ; second, hatching 
 the eggs in an incubator and then giving the chicks to hens. The 
 former is practiced to a greater extent than the latter, and in many 
 instances a combination of both is used. Where this is done it is a 
 general practice to set a number of hens at the same time, and when 
 the hatch comes off the chicks are divided up among them. Many 
 chicks are produced by hens stealing their nests, and this condition 
 is responsible for a large per cent of the immature stock that is so 
 noticeable in the fall and early winter. 
 
 If fowls are used exclusively for hatching and rearing, it is often 
 difficult to get the chicks out early on account of the hens' indispo- 
 sition to sit. It was largely to overcome this difficulty that the incu- 
 bator has been adopted on the farm. A comparison of the relative 
 frequency with which artificial and natural methods or a combina- 
 tion of the two are used, both in hatching and brooding, is given in 
 Table 6.
 
 METHODS OF MARKETING POULTRY. 27 
 
 TABLE G. Methods of incubation and brooding uwd on 'J> Kan-vax farm*. 
 
 Hatching. 
 
 Brooding. 
 
 Natural. 
 
 Artificial. 
 
 Combina- 
 tion. 
 
 Natural. 
 
 Artificial. 
 
 Combina- 
 tion. 
 
 54 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 The methods of feeding the chicks are for the most part very 
 simple. Some chicks are grown on nothing but corn meal and 
 cracked corn, and others receive only millet seed until they are large 
 enough to consume the coarser grains. There are many farms. ho\v- 
 
 ' A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 -A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 - A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 FIG. 1. Method of toe-marking chicks to determine age. Sixteen different toe m:irks. 
 
 ever, where such extreme measures are not used, a happy medium 
 l>eing reached by using some commercial chick feed in connection 
 with such products as are produced on the farm. 
 
 METHOD OF MARKING POfl.TRY TO DETERMINE ACE. 
 
 At the present time 05 per cent of the farmers have no positive. 
 method of determining the age of their poultry. From an economic
 
 28 IMPEOVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 standpoint it is very desirable that when a farmer markets a part of 
 his stock he should be able by some accurate method to ascertain the 
 age of the fowls which he sells. Such a plan would tend to decrease 
 the enormous number of pullets and yearling hens which through 
 lack of system are now being disposed of while old hens are often 
 retained. Yearling hens and pullets especially will in the course 
 of the year return to the farmer a greater profit from the eggs which 
 they produce than will the older fowls. Hens can be kept at a good 
 profit until they have passed their second year, but they are not as a 
 rule profitable beyond that age. 
 
 The most common method of marking poultry is to leg-band them. 
 These bands are manufactured from aluminum, wire, and composite 
 metals, and are placed around the leg of the fowl and fastened in 
 numerous ways. This system, w r hile eminently satisfactory, requires 
 more labor and attention than most farmers would care to give. A 
 more practical method is by punching the web of the foot at the time 
 the chick is hatched. The operation is simple and an entire hatch 
 can be toe-marked in a short time. Figure 1 shows a diagram of a 
 system by which 1C different combinations of toe-marking are possible. 
 If only one mark is employed for all chicks hatched in a given year, 
 no farmer would find it necessary to use more than three or four of 
 these marks, but, if it were desired to show ages more closely, or to 
 mark pedigree stock, all the forms indicated might be found useful. 
 
 INSUFFICIENT NUMBER OF NESTS. 
 
 While the conditions thus far discussed surrounding the keeping of 
 poultry on Kansas farms have a great influence upon the number 
 and size of the eggs produced and may also have some influence upon 
 their quality, there are other conditions which have a much more 
 direct influence upon quality and are responsible for the greater part 
 of the deterioration w r hich has occurred by the time the eggs reach the 
 country store. Among these are. insufficient number of nests, dirty 
 nests, irregularity in gathering eggs, allowing the males to run with 
 the flock after the hatching season, poor storing facilities, washing 
 eggs, holding for a definite number of eggs, and careless methods of 
 transportation from the farm to the village. 
 
 It is doubtful if any other one factor contributes more to the aggre- 
 gate number of bad eggs on the farm than the lack of a sufficient num- 
 ber of properly located, clean nests. The average number of nests 
 on the Kansas farms observed is 11 to every 100 hens. This means 
 that nearly 50 per cent of the fowls are compelled to seek nests for 
 themselves. This condition is well shown in Table 7.
 
 NESTS AND THEIR CONDITION. 29 
 
 TABLE 7. Number of nest ft In number of hens kept on 9.2 Kanxaa farms. 
 
 Nests to hens. 
 
 Number 
 of farms. 
 
 Nests to hens. 
 
 Number 
 of farms. 
 
 No nests . 
 
 5 
 
 1 nest to 13 hens .... 
 
 4 
 
 1 nest to 100 hens 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to 12 hens 
 
 
 
 1 nest to 57 hens ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to 1 1 hens 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to 10 hens 
 
 12 
 
 1 nest to 37 hens . . 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to 9 hens 
 
 3 
 
 1 nest to 33 hens .... 
 
 2 
 
 1 nest to 8 hens 
 
 f> 
 
 1 nest to 30 hens 
 
 2 
 
 1 nest to 7 hens ... 
 
 
 1 nest to21hens 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to (i hens .... 
 
 
 1 nest to 20 hens 
 
 2 
 
 1 nest to 5 hens 
 
 
 1 nest to 18 hens. . 
 
 3 
 
 1 nest to 4 hens. . 
 
 
 1 nest to 17 hens. ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to 3 hens .... 
 
 ;{ 
 
 1 nest to 16 hens 
 
 2 
 
 1 nest to 2 hens 
 
 6 
 
 1 nest to 15 hens. . 
 
 1 
 
 More than 1 nest to 1 hen ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 nest to 14 hens 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The horse stable, straw stack, under the corncrib, or out in the weeds 
 are the places usually chosen by the hens when a sufficient number of 
 nests is not available. It is well known that vigorous bacterial 
 growth depends largely upon moisture and warmth, and these factors 
 are. usually present in such places. The result is that when a nest 
 full of such eggs is discovered, from 50 to 80 per cent of them have 
 already developed into seconds, blood rings, and rots. 
 
 The excuse is often given by farmers that if they went to the 
 trouble and expense of providing liberal nesting facilities the hens 
 would not utilize them, as they prefer the secluded nest of their own 
 choosing. While it is true that in many instances hens will steal 
 their nests rather than lay in places provided for them, especially 
 during the spring which is the natural hatching season, it was 
 observed that on the farms where nests were provided at the rate of 
 one for every four or five hens, and were kept free from vermin, 05 
 per cent of the eggs were laid in these nests, and it was only oeca- 
 sionallv that a hen would lav elsewhere. 
 
 UIKTY NKSTS. 
 
 It hardly seems necessary to make any mention of dirty nests, but 
 the investigations of the past year prove conclusively that either 
 through carelessness, neglect, or utter indifference the nests often 
 become so filthy that the hens refuse to lay in them. When such 
 nests are used the new-laid eggs come in contact with the droppings 
 of the fowls, which contain numerous bacteria, and the e<nrs mav 
 
 ~ ~ . 
 
 therefore become infected before they are removed from the nest. 
 This does not necessarily mean that the eggs are unfit for food at 
 this time; but the infection having taken place, they are likely sub- 
 jects for the production of spots and rots. One of the greatest needs. 
 therefore, in improving the condition of eggs on the farm is to pro- 
 vide an abundance of clean nests free from vermin.
 
 30 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG 
 
 IRREGULARITY IN GATHERING THE EGGS. 
 
 The practice of combining forces and organizing a general search 
 party to gather in the eggs on market day is still practiced on many 
 of the farms in Kansas. This is indeed a deplorable custom, and 
 there is no question but that it is the cause of many rotten eggs. It 
 is easy to see how eggs allowed to remain for several days or a week 
 in the unsuitable places where they may have been laid, subjected 
 probably to high temperature, wet by dew and by rain, and perhaps 
 sat upon by a broody hen, are certain to have undergone serious 
 deterioration if they are not absolutely spoiled. 
 
 MALES RUNNING WITH FLOCK AFTER HATCHING SEASON. 
 
 This is the usual rather than the unusual condition. Of the 92 
 farms, there were only 16 on which any effort had been made to 
 separate the males from the hens after the hatching season, while on 
 the remaining 76 farms the males and hens ranged together. Justifi- 
 cation for this practice is sometimes sought in the argument that 
 there will be some stolen nests that remain undiscovered for so long 
 that even the conscience hardened by the case-count system of buying 
 will not consent to their being marketed, and that if these eggs had 
 been fertilized by allowing the males to run with the flock a part 
 of the eggs would have hatched and the loss would not have been 
 absolute. It should be borne in mind, however, that a much greater 
 loss actually does occur when the eggs are fertile, for it is from the 
 fertile eggs only that the great mass of bad and deteriorated eggs 
 known as heated eggs, blood rings, and many of the rots develop. 
 With the eradication of fertile eggs during the hot summer months, 
 a large part of the problem of heated eggs would be solved. Surely 
 this is not a difficult condition to bring about if each one would do 
 his part. 
 
 INEFFICIENT STORING FACILITIES. 
 
 This is a serious difficulty with which the fawner's wife has to con- 
 tend, as a great many of the country homes in Kansas do not have 
 dry, cool cellars, and when the thermometer begins to register from 
 100 to 106 F., there is no good place to keep perishable produce. 
 To overcome this difficulty use is often made of the " cyclone cellar," 
 or cave. In some instances these caves are of concrete construction 
 throughout, and on such farms very little difficulty is experienced 
 in keeping eggs in good condition. Some of the caves, however, are 
 nothing more than oblong holes in the ground over which a rough 
 gable roof is built. The soil which has been excavated to make the 
 cave is thrown over this roof and thoroughly packed so as to make it 
 cool and practically waterproof. Caves of such construction are 
 very hard to keep clean on account of the dampness and mold, which 
 are always present when dirt walls and floor are used, and conse-
 
 METHODS OF HANDLING EGGS BY FARMER. 
 
 31 
 
 quently they are very undesirable as a storage room for eggs. Damp- 
 ness is conducive to the rapid development of mold and bacteria, 
 and consequently eggs kept in these caves are much more likely to 
 show deterioration than if they were held in a dry room at the same 
 temperature. 
 
 WASHING KGGS. 
 
 The lack of the necessary number of clean nests and irregularity 
 in gathering eggs, especially on rainy days, are the two main reasons 
 why it is often necessary for the farmer's wife to wash part of the 
 eggs. No one would ever accuse a neat housewife of taking dirty 
 eggs to town, and in order to maintain this reputation they are very 
 careful to see that each egg is clean before packing it in the case. 
 This practice, while not always harmful, often results in the egg 
 becoming contaminated with some form of micro-organism. The 
 eggshell itself is porous and not germ proof, and the pores are large 
 enough to allow- the invasion of moisture and bacteria, but the mem- 
 brane beneath the- shell is comparatively germ proof so long as it 
 remains dry; hence it is desirable that the eggs be clean in the first 
 place, so that water will not have to be brought in contact with them. 
 
 HOLDING KGGS VNTIL A QUANTITY HAS ACCTJMULATKD. 
 
 The farmer often makes use of an egg case in which to keep his 
 eggs and carry them to market. Sometimes he owns the case and 
 sometimes it is furnished him by the storekeeper. Often the case 
 is one holding 30 dozen eggs, and there is a tendency to wait until it 
 is filled before taking it to market. As this would take considerable 
 time with the average-sized flock, the quality of the eggs will have 
 suffered appreciably. Smaller cases, holding 12 dozen eggs, are also 
 used for this purpose and are much to be preferred, as they encourage 
 more frequent marketing. Another factor which influences the fre- 
 quency of marketing is the distance of the farm from the village or 
 country store. The greater the distance the less often are the trips 
 made and consequently the less convenient it is to market eggs fre- 
 quently. Table 8 indicates this tendency. 
 
 TABLE S. Distance from market in, relattim to frequency of market iny <'gax on 
 
 'JO l Kan-sax farm*. 
 
 Twice weekly. 
 
 Weekly. 
 
 Onec in two weeks. 
 
 Number 
 
 of farms. 
 
 Average 
 distance 
 to 
 market. 
 
 Numlxjr 
 of farms. 
 
 Average 
 distance 
 to 
 market. 
 
 Number 
 of farms. 
 
 Average 
 distance 
 to 
 market. 
 
 2C, 
 
 Milts. 
 2.4S 
 
 61 
 
 MUM. 
 
 4.12 
 
 3 
 
 Miles. 
 8. 5 
 
 i The two farms not included in this table did not send eggs to market during a large part of the year. 
 one case the eggs were used at home while in the other they were sold for hatching. 
 
 In
 
 IMPEOVEMENT OP THE FARM EGG. 
 
 CARELESS METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION FROM FARM TO VILLAGE. 
 
 While this element of egg deterioration does not cause a marked loss 
 or change in itself, because it occupies a relatively brief time, it is 
 nevertheless a contributing factor. In figure 1 of Plate IV is shown a 
 picture of the farmer and his family on their way to market. . This 
 particular drive was one of 8 miles and the egg case was exposed to 
 the sun's rays during the entire trip. At the time the picture was 
 taken the thermometer registered 106 F. on the top of the egg case. 
 
 THE FARMER'S MARKET. 
 
 The farmer may market his eggs through any one of the following 
 agencies: (1) The country store; (2) the cash buyer; (3) the huck- 
 ster; and (4) the cooperative creamery. Of these four outlets the 
 country store is by far the most important. The reason why this 
 system is so universal, together with the effect it has on the quality 
 of the eggs, have already been discussed (see p. 14). 
 
 PRESENT FEATURES OF STORE DEALING. 
 
 Under the present system of buying loss-off, or on a quality basis, 
 many of the storekeepers in Kansas have relinquished the handling 
 of farm eggs. This is due in part to the fact that the merchant does 
 not feel that he can go to the expense and trouble of candling, and also 
 to the fact that if in defiance of the pure-food laws of the State he 
 attempts to continue on the case-count basis, at the same time offer- 
 ing as much as his competitors who are buying on the loss-off basis, 
 he is experiencing a much heavier loss on his eggs than formerly. 
 If he does not offer as much as his competitors he is likely to get only 
 the most undesirable class of eggs, which will increase his loss still 
 more. What this loss may amount to in a single week will be seen 
 from Table 9. The figures given were secured from one of the car- 
 lot shippers and taken direct from the report of his candlers. 
 
 TABLE 9. Candler's report, slioicing losses in eggs received during one week in 
 
 August, 1910. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loss from 
 
 Loss from 
 
 
 Shipper. 
 
 Total re- 
 ceipts. 
 
 Firsts. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 Rots. 
 
 seconds at 
 6 cents per 
 
 rots at 15 
 cents per 
 
 Total loss. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dozen. 
 
 dozen. 
 
 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 
 
 
 Merchant A 
 
 180 
 
 106i 
 
 9 5 
 
 48J 
 
 $1.50 
 
 $7.28 
 
 $8.78 
 
 Merchant B 
 
 300 
 
 142 . 
 
 40 
 
 118 
 
 2.40 
 
 17.70 
 
 20. 10 
 
 Merchant C 
 
 40 
 
 280 
 
 38 
 
 132 
 
 2.28 
 
 19.80 
 
 22.08 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 930 
 
 528J 
 
 103 
 
 298J 
 
 6.18 
 
 44.78 
 
 50.% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In buying on the loss-off basis, the storekeeper would in all proba- 
 bility have made no distinction between the firsts and seconds, but
 
 Buu. 141, BUREAU O" AMWAL INDUSTRY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 FIG. 1. TREE NESTS, WHERE SOME KANSAS 
 HENS LAY. 
 
 FIG. 2. GATHERING EGGS FROM UNDER THE CURNCRIB.
 
 BUL. 141, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PLATE IV, 
 
 FIG. 1. TAKING EGGS TO MARKET. EGG CASE EX- 
 POSED TO SUN'S RAYS DURING S-MILE DRIVE AT 
 TEMPERATURE OF 106 F. 
 
 FIG. 2. A SHIPMENT OF EGGS ON RAILROAD PLAT- 
 FORM AWAITING ARRIVAL OF LOCAL FREIGHT. 
 
 [TIiu.se cases stood in the sun for 6 hours in a temper- 
 ature ranging from 110 to 1:50 F.]
 
 THE FARMER S MARKET. 33 
 
 would simply have thrown out the rots. The loss represented by the 
 rots would, however, have been saved, excepting a small proportion 
 which would have developed between the times the storekeeper and 
 the candler handled the eggs. 
 
 Driving the local merchant out of the egg business is not inevita- 
 ble, though in many respects it would be greatly to his advantage and 
 to the advantage of the egg trade. Indeed, the merchants of some 
 towns have voluntarily withdrawn by mutually agreeing to turn the 
 egg trade over to the cash buyer, where it belongs. This is the sim- 
 plest and best solution of the problem. It has also been suggested 
 that the business be turned over to the produce dealer, who. instead 
 of paying cash, shall issue scrip which will be taken at its face value 
 in payment for goods at any of the local stores. The whole object 
 of this plan is to compel the farmer to patronize home trade. 
 
 Other plans have been devised and are working with some degree of 
 success which attempt to keep the benefits of the egg trade for the 
 merchant, while at the same time relieving him of its unpleasant 
 features. One of these allows the farmer to trade his eggs out on a 
 case-count basis as before, but these eggs are kept separate. Each 
 morning the receipts of the previous day are sold to the local cash 
 buyer, who candles the eggs and reports the rots or bad eggs found 
 in each individual lot. The merchant then charges the loss against 
 the farmer's account and deducts it from the next lot of eggs brought 
 in if he has no balance in his favor. By such a procedure the mer- 
 chant is obeying the law, is helping to improve the quality of the eggs, 
 is protecting himself against loss, and at the same time is retaining 
 his egg trade. This means that instead of unloading inferior mer- 
 chandise upon his customers, as he did when the case-count system 
 was in vogue, he is able to give them full value for their money. 
 He has no loss to figure and need not fear the competition of his 
 fellow merchants or the large out of town mail-order houses. As 
 soon as the farmer is made to realize that every merchant in town 
 is going to candle his eggs, he immediately commences to take better 
 care of them and carefully compares the prices on various articles 
 of food and clothing as advertised by the merchants. Thus the whole 
 problem simply resolves itself into the question of legitimate profits, 
 and unless the merchant is selfish or money mad there is no logical 
 reason why his prices can not be made as attractive as those of his 
 competitors. 
 
 Aside from the method of buying, there are other conditions con- 
 nected with the country store which should be remedied in order to 
 give best results. The most prominent of the>e i> in frequency in 
 shipping. It is not uncommon for the storekeeper to allow his eggs 
 to accumulate for a week or even longer before he ships them, and as
 
 34 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 he has no room specially equipped for holding eggs and must depend 
 upon using the back part of his store or a cellar, this is a serious 
 cause of deterioration. The produce dealer, on the other hand, under- 
 stands better the necessity for moving the eggs as quickly as possible, 
 and not infrequently ships daily during hot weather. Under such 
 conditions little of the deterioration occurring can be laid at his door. 
 In the country store it was frequently observed that the egg cases 
 were piled alongside of merchandise of many kinds, among them 
 barrels of kerosene, barrels and crates of vegetables, and other mate- 
 rials from which the eggs were almost certain to absorb undesirable 
 flavors or odors. 
 
 THE CASH BUYER. 
 
 The cash buyer or produce dealer may be in business for himself 
 or may be the agent of some large car-lot shipper, or creamery com- 
 pany. His method of doing business is very similar to that of the 
 country merchant, except that he offers cash instead of merchandise. 
 He is often not looked upon with favor by the town merchants, be- 
 cause they realize that the farmer prefers the cash in order that he 
 may purchase his merchandise from the firm offering the lowest 
 prices. As long as the merchants were able to dispose of their eggs 
 on a case-count basis they could, by offering 1 or 2 cents more per 
 dozen in merchandise, retain the greater part of their trade. The 
 enforcement of the loss-off system, however, is working a slow but 
 sure change in this system and a greater proportion of the trade is 
 going over to the cash buyer. 
 
 In studying the conditions found at the country store and at the 
 cash buyer's the following card was used. This card is self- 
 explanatory. 
 
 [UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.] 
 POULTRY AND EGG-MARKETING INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 COUNTRY STORE OR PRODUCE DEALER'S CARD. 
 
 No. 
 
 Name 
 
 Address 
 
 Date 
 
 Sources of supply 
 
 Relative proportion from each source- 
 Frequency of receipts 
 
 Character of payments 
 
 Grading 
 
 Methods of holding : 
 
 Containers 
 
 Repacking 
 
 Nature of storeroom 
 
 Capacity of storeroom 
 
 Temperature of storeroom 
 
 Length of time held 
 
 How shipped 
 
 Size of shipment
 
 MARKETING EGGS THROUGH THE CREAMERY. 
 
 Frequency of shipping- - 
 
 Instance from store to shipping point __ 
 
 Length of railroad haul 
 
 Time consumed in haul 
 
 Outlet 
 
 Name and address of person or firm to whom sold__ 
 
 mi: IHVKSTKI:. 
 
 The huckster or peddler who gathers eggs directly from the farm 
 is rarely found in Kansas. This system is practiced in the States 
 of Michigan. Indiana, Ohio. Kentucky, Tennessee, and the North- 
 eastern States. Where the huckster operates in thickly settled 
 localities and where it is possible to have a twice or thrice a week 
 service, the eggs gathered by him constitute some of the best on the 
 market, but where lie makes a trip of a week or 10 days the eggs are 
 exposed to many unfavorable conditions and are usually poor in 
 quality. 
 
 THK I'OOI'KRATIVK CRKAMERY. 
 
 The number of cooperative creameries handling eggs is not at the 
 present time large. There are some places where this system is 
 working successfully, and it is suggested as a feasible proposition in 
 localities where conditions are favorable. The chief requisites neces- 
 sary to operate such a S3'stem successfully are: (1) A well-established 
 creamery whose manager is interested in the welfare and advance- 
 ment of the community and who has by his straightforward dealings 
 gained the confidence of the farmers. (*2) A locality thickly enough 
 settled to supply the creamery with sufficient eggs to maintain a 
 trade in some near-by city. (3) A receptive and progressive body 
 of farmers who will cam- out their part of the agreement with the 
 creamery. (4) A system of gathering up the cream and eggs by 
 the creamery wagons or their delivery by the farmers at frequent and 
 regular intervals. (5) A system of payment which shall, like the 
 loss-off system, make each producer responsible for the quality of 
 the eggs. ((')) A market within easy shipping distance demanding 
 good dependable eggs and willing to pay a premium for them. For 
 a more detailed discussion of this subject the reader is referred to 
 an article which appeared in the Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the 
 Bureau of Animal Industry entitled "Marketing Eggs Through the 
 Creamery," and reprinted as Farmers' Bulletin 445. 
 
 SHIPPING K<;<iS LOCALLY. 
 
 It is the general custom for the farmer in Kansas to dispose of his 
 eggs through the country merchant or the cash buyer. The country 
 merchant may in turn either sell to the local cash buyer or ship his 
 receipts independently to commission men or car-lot shippers in sur-
 
 36 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 rounding cities. In most towns where cash buyers are located it is 
 usual for the merchant to dispose of his receipts through this chan- 
 nel. In many towns, however, there is not enough business to sup- 
 port a cash buyer, and in such cases the merchants ship to the firm 
 offering highest quotations. In cases where the cash buyer is a sal- 
 aried agent of some large shipper or packer he of course forwards 
 all receipts to the central plant, but should he be in business for him- 
 self the parties offering the best prices will receive the bulk of his 
 trade. 
 
 In shipping the eggs both the country merchant and the cash buyer 
 are often guilty of careless packing, which is responsible for a part 
 of the breakage. It is a frequent occurrence to find old tattered 
 fillers used which waste more money in time spent in packing the 
 eggs in them than new ones \vould cost. Often no flats are used be- 
 tween the fillers, but a few thicknesses of newspaper are depended 
 on to take their place. A small pad of excelsior should be placed in 
 the bottom of each side of the case and on the top of the uppermost 
 flats. These will provide elasticity and do much to prevent break- 
 age. Frequently, too, the trouble is taken to nail the top of the case 
 securely in the center. This is a mistake, as it prevents elasticity 
 and is unnecessary if the top is nailed securely at the ends. Excep- 
 tionally large eggs, even though they may have strong shells, are 
 almost sure to be broken if packed in the case, and will smear a large 
 number of other eggs. In fact, any of the factors causing broken 
 eggs result in a much greater loss than that of the eggs actually 
 broken, for many others are so badly smeared that they must be 
 classed in lower grades than they would otherwise be placed. 
 
 The eggs, after leaving the hands of the immediate collectors, are 
 handled mainly by local freights. During this stage of their jour- 
 ney there is liberal room for improvement. The general rule of 
 most railroads is that eggs or any other products which are to be 
 shipped on the daily freight must be delivered at the depot at least 
 one hour before scheduled train time. If all trains ran on scheduled 
 time this rule would not be so harmful, but since this is the exception 
 rather than the rule with the local freight, it often happens that the 
 eggs remain exposed to the direct rays of the sun for several hours. 
 During the months of June, July, August, and September the quality 
 of the eggs suffers from this treatment. Plate IV, figure 2, shows a 
 shipment of eggs which was exposed to the sun for six hours in a 
 temperature ranging from 110 to 130 F. In accordance with the 
 rule, these eggs were delivered at the depot one hour before train time. 
 On this particular day, however, the freight was several hours late, 
 and the eggs were allowed to remain in this extreme temperature 
 until it arrived. Such a condition could be materially improved if 
 the eggs were placed under a covered portion of the platform, where
 
 SHIPPING EGGS 15V LOC'AL FREIGHT. 
 
 37 
 
 they would be protected from the sun. It is only fair to say that such 
 covered shelters are often available, but they are seldom utilized. 
 
 When the cases are loaded on the train they are placed either in a 
 box car or in one end of an open stock car which is also used for 
 live poultry. (See fig. 2.) The box car often contains empty oil 
 barrels and freight of similar nature. These box cars are opened 
 when a stop is made, and then only long enough to load the shipments 
 from that station. If the day is warm the temperature inside the cars 
 will often go as high as 106 F. and remain at that point for hours. 
 
 FIG. 2. A stock car used for shipping poultry and ejjgs. 
 
 The temperature of the open stock cars is from 8 to 10 degrees lower 
 than that in box cars during the hottest period of the day. and owing 
 to the free circulation of air very much cooler after the sun has set. 
 Coupled with this exposure to high temperature and injurious odor- 
 the eggs are, of course, subjected to violent but unavoidable shaking 
 and jarring during the entire trip. 
 
 It should be said that at least one of the railroads operating in 
 Kansas has taken a long step forward in the matter of handling eggs 
 on the local freights. This road is running refrigerator cars into 
 which the eggs are loaded, and the most favorable temperature possi-
 
 38 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGO. 
 
 ble to get under these conditions is maintained. Some of the packers 
 consider this such an important feature in improving the quality of 
 the eggs handled by them that they intend to run refrigerator cars 
 at their expense over some of the lines from which they draw heavily. 
 The following are some of the most important ways in which the 
 railroads can help in this movement for the improvement of quality 
 in eggs: (1) Provide covered sections of station platforms and re- 
 quire that eggs waiting for shipment be stacked there out of the sun ; 
 (2) provide local refrigerator service for eggs; (3) if refrigerator 
 service is deemed out of the question, provide stock cars rather than 
 box cars for moving eggs during the summer months. 
 
 THE CAR-LOT SHIPPER. 
 
 After the eggs leave the hands of the country merchants and local 
 cash buyers they are next handled by the packers and car-lot shippers. 
 These men maintain central houses at important railroad junctions 
 and at various other large towns and cities. They are keen, shrewd, 
 business men, handling large quantities of eggs, so that they realize 
 the necessity of good treatment after the product reaches their hands. 
 While there is still room, no doubt, for considerable improvement in 
 methods from this point on, this end of the trade is much further 
 advanced at the present time than that represented by the producer 
 and storekeeper, so that the greatest need for the improvement of 
 methods of handling and thus of improving the quality of eggs is 
 from the farm to the packing house. 
 
 During the course of the investigation of conditions it was found 
 desirable to carry on certain experimental work. This consisted of 
 following shipments of eggs which had been subjected to various con- 
 ditions through to the packing house to determine the changes which 
 took place. In this work a card, the front and back of which is 
 shown below, was used in assembling the data. The work along this 
 line thus far conducted is not yet sufficient to be conclusive, and is 
 not, therefore, discussed in this bulletin. 
 
 [Front of card.] 
 
 [UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.] 
 POULTRY AND EGG-MARKETING INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 HANDLING EGGS. 
 
 Observer Date Experiment No 
 
 Statement of experiment 
 
 Material used . 
 
 Eggs produced by ' Farmers' Card No. 
 
 Date laid Where held 
 
 Container and its condition How long held 
 
 Date and hour left farm for market, . . .
 
 EDUCATIONAL tt'OKK. 
 
 Haul to market or store by fanner: Time Miles 
 
 Container 
 
 \S'agon Condition of road 
 
 Haul to market or store by egg collector or huckster: Card No Time Miles 
 
 Container 
 
 Wagon Condition of road 
 
 Store or buyer to whom sold Card No 
 
 Date received at store IIow long held 
 
 Where held Container and its condition 
 
 How packed for shipment Kind and condition of cases and fillers 
 
 Date and hour left store for station Length of haul 
 
 Where held at station How long held Covered or uncovered 
 
 Size of shipment Time put on car 
 
 Kind of car Eggs alone or eggs and poultry in car 
 
 Length and time of railroad haul Reloaded 
 
 [Back of card.] 
 
 Date and time of arrival at packing house 
 
 How handled at packing house: How long before put in cooler Temperature of cooler . 
 
 Candling before or after cooling Grading Packing 
 
 Time held How shipped 
 
 Date and hour put in car for shipment Kind of car Time of shipment . . 
 
 To whom shipped Date of shipment 
 
 Remarks: . . 
 
 GRADE OK EGOS. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 eggs. 
 
 Full 
 and 
 fresh. 
 
 Badly <, . 
 shrunken. b P ots " 
 
 Blood 
 rings. 
 
 Hots. 
 
 Checks. 
 
 Leak- 
 ers. 
 
 At farm just before marketing. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At store on arrival 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 At store just before shipment 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 On arrival at packing house 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 On leaving packing house . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK. 
 
 It must be remembered that while the farmers and storekeepers have 
 a general idea of some things which cause eggs to spoil, there are 
 many others of which they are unaware, and the importance of few, if 
 any, are fully realized. In all probability they have not given the 
 matter much thought, and since they have been able to sell all the 
 eggs they produce, though at a comparatively low price lo be sure, 
 they have not realized that they are actually losers as the result of 
 the spoiled eggs. It is necessary, therefore, to educate the fanner 
 especially to the true condition of affairs. 
 
 In its work the bureau has kept this point in mind and has made 
 an effort to disseminate information on the matter wherever possible.
 
 40 IMPROVEMENT OP THK FARM EGG. 
 
 The packers and car-lot shippers have also realized the benefits which 
 would accrue from giving the matter publicity and have distributed 
 circulars and other printed matter pointing out the most essential 
 features to be observed in caring for eggs. 
 
 In connection with the investigation of conditions on the farm the 
 men engaged in this work came into personal contact with a large 
 number of farmers and housewives and explained to them the aims 
 of the movement and the benefits to be derived from it. It is inter- 
 esting to note that in the case of nearly all farmers visited greater 
 interest is now being taken in their poultry, and much greater care is 
 being given to the eggs. It is a noticeable fact that as soon as a 
 farmer becomes interested in better poultry or in better methods of 
 caring for them he takes better care of the product. Special pains 
 w r ere taken, therefore, to give good practical help along any poultry 
 lines which the farmer wished. The desire for information concern- 
 ing housing, feeding, etc., also the best breeds to keep, and as to which 
 were the best birds in the flock, etc., w y as astonishing. By supplying 
 this information the confidence of the farmer was won and his help 
 and support secured in the effort to improve the quality of the eggs. 
 
 Many country stores were also visited. The object of these visits 
 was to become acquainted with the merchants and discuss with them 
 the loss-off system of buying. The majority of these merchants know 
 little or nothing about candling, and by practical demonstration it 
 was possible to show them that it would not be a very difficult matter 
 to become expert enough to be able to detect rots, spots, and blood 
 rings. 
 
 Some educational work can also be carried on through the poultry 
 shows. Anything which increases the interest in better poultry 
 helps along the movement for the improvement of eggs. Poultry 
 shows, particularly those held in the smaller towns, have a great influ- 
 ence along this line. A judge who will spend some time explaining 
 the good points of birds and giving reasons for awards can increase 
 Hie educative value of the show wonderfully. Exhibits of eggs and 
 market poultry can often be arranged. Packers or produce men can 
 occasionally be found who will provide attractive prizes for these 
 classes. The bureau has in some instances furnished judges for these 
 small shows and has frequently sent speakers for the purpose of giv- 
 ing talks concerning the care and handling of eggs. It has also been 
 possible to extend the educational work by referring those interested 
 to the publications of the United States Department of Agriculture 
 and those issued by the State experiment stations on poultry subjects. 
 
 RESULTS OF FIRST SEASON'S WORK. 
 
 Although but one season has been spent by the bureau in this work, 
 several much-desired changes have been brought about. The most
 
 KKSL'LTS OF SEASON ? S WORK. 41 
 
 important of these was the adoption by the Kansas car-lot shippers 
 of the loss-off system of buying and selling eggs. The immediate 
 effect of this system was a marked improvement in the quality of 
 Kansas eggs, and this was so apparent to the men engaged in han- 
 dling them that they became intensely interested in the bureau's work 
 and voluntarily offered their assistance in every possible way. 
 
 EXTENSION OF THE MOVEMENT TO OTHEK STATES. 
 
 As a result of its success during the past summer, the loss-oil' system 
 of buying has become more firmly established in Kansas. It al-o led 
 to a meeting at Kansas City, on December 20, 11)10, of the State pure- 
 food officials from Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, and Okla- 
 homa, with a committee of car-lot shippers of eggs, to discuss the 
 matter of administration and the enactment of suitable legislation. 
 It is believed that the Kansas hrw may be improved upon so that the 
 work may be made more effective, and for the purpose of enacting 
 uniform legislation in the States represented the following bill was 
 drafted at the meeting for recommendation to the respective legisla- 
 tures of the States represented : 
 
 AN ACT For the protection of public health and the prevention of fraud l>y regulating 
 the sale of eggs for food purposes, providing penalties for the violation thereof, and 
 providing for the enforcement thereof. 
 
 lie It enacted by the Legislature <>f Hie Mate <,f Knnxa*: 
 
 SECTION 1. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation engaged 
 in the buying and shipping of eggs, to buy. sell, barter, trade, or deliver, or to 
 offer to buy, sell, barter, trade, or deliver any eggs for food purposes between 
 the 1st day of June and the 31st day of December of each year, without first 
 candling said eggs, or causing the same to be candled: and any such person, 
 linn, or corporation who shall buy, sell, barter, trade, or deliver, or offer to buy, 
 sell, barter, trade, or deliver any such eggs without first candling the same, or 
 causing the same to be candled, and without first removing all decayed, de- 
 comiK)sed, and spot eggs from those candled, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor 
 and punished as hereinafter provided. 
 
 SEC. 2. The word "candle." as used herein, shall be construed to mean the 
 examination of eggs by means of natural or artificial light, in such a manner as 
 to disclose to the person examining the same whether the eggs so examined are 
 decayed, decomposed, or spot eggs. 
 
 SKC. 3. That the State board of health is authorized and directed to make and 
 publish uniform rules and regulations, not in conllict with the laws of this 
 State, for carrying out the provisions of this act. Any person who shall violate 
 any of the rules and regulations so made, and published in the ollicial State 
 paper, shall be deemed guilty of n misdemeanor, and on conviction shall be 
 punished by a fine of not less than dollars, or more than dollars. 
 
 Si:c. 4. That a case of eggs shall contain :?o do/en, and it shall not be con- 
 sidered as a violation of this act for any person, firm, or corporation to buy or 
 sell, or offer to buy or sell, any case of eggs for food purposes that does not con- 
 lain more than -I per cent of decayed, decomposed, or spot eggs.
 
 42 IMPROVEMENT OF THE FARM EGG. 
 
 SEC. 5. Auy person, firm, or corporation convicted of violating any provision 
 of this act shall be punished by a fine in the sum of not less than dollars, 
 itor more than dollars. 
 
 SEC. 6. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its publica- 
 tion in the statute book. 
 
 In addition to the States named, there is considerable interest on 
 the subject manifested in other Western States. The senior author of 
 this bulletin was invited to meet the State dairy and food commis- 
 sioner and egg buyers of South Dakota in January for the purpose 
 of discussing methods of improving the egg trade in that State, and 
 also addressed the Michigan Car Lot Shippers' Association at their 
 annual meeting in Detroit in February, 1911, where much interest 
 was evidenced in the subject. 
 
 In inaugurating such a movement, the first essential is an organiza- 
 tion of buyers agreed to buy only on a loss-off basis ; the second is the 
 firm cooperation of the State authorities to prevent the shipment of 
 bad eggs within the State. The one is practically useless without the 
 
 other. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 The Bureau of Animal Industry carried on work during the sum- 
 mer of 1910 in the State of Kansas with the object of improving 
 the quality of the eggs marketed in that State. As a result of this 
 work, the loss-off method of buying eggs has been quite generally 
 adopted by the car-lot shippers and has resulted in a most gratifying 
 improvement in the eggs. Considerable interest in the movement 
 has been aroused in other States, so that it bids fair to spread rapidly. 
 
 In connection with the work a careful investigation of all the 
 conditions surrounding the handling of eggs, from the time they are 
 produced on the farm until they reach the packing house, has been 
 made for the purpose of determining the preventable factors causing 
 loss of quality. As a result of this investigation the following sug- 
 gestions are made for the farmer, the country merchant and cash 
 buyer, the railroad, and the car-lot shipper. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR FAltMKK. 
 
 1. Improve your poultry slock. 
 
 2. Keep one of the general-purpose breeds, such as the Plymouth 
 Rock, Wyandotte, Orpington, or Rhode Island Red. 
 
 3. Provide one clean, dry, vermin-free nest for every four or five 
 hens. 
 
 4. Conclude all hatching by May 15 and sell or confine male birds 
 during the remainder of the summer. 
 
 5. Gather eggs once daily during ordinary times, and twice daily 
 during hot or rainy weather.
 
 SUMMARY. 4,3 
 
 6. In summer place eggs as soon as gathered in a cool, dry room. 
 
 7. Use all small and dirty eggs at home. 
 
 8. Market eggs frequently twice a week, if possible during the 
 summer. 
 
 9. In taking eggs to market protect them from the sun's rays. 
 
 10. In selling, insist that the transaction be on a loss-off basis, 
 for if care has been given the eggs this system will yield more money 
 to the producer. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE COUNTRY MERCHANT AND CASH BUYER. 
 
 1. Candle all eggs anil buy on a loss-off basis. 
 
 2. Allow the farmer to see you candle his eggs occasionally and 
 return those rejected if he wishes them. 
 
 3. Pack carefully in strong clean cases and fillers. 
 
 4. Do not keep in a musty cellar or near oil barrels or other 
 odoriferous merchandise. 
 
 5. Ship daily during warm weather. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR RAILROAD OFFICIALS. 
 
 1. Provide a covered portion of station platforms where egg cases 
 can be stacked and see that the agent stacks them there. 
 
 2. Provide refrigeration for the eggs on the local freight. 
 
 3. Where refrigerator cars are used on local freights, see that the 
 doors are kept closed when not loading. 
 
 4. If refrigeration can not be supplied, provide stock cars rather 
 than box cars for this purpose during the summer. 
 
 5. Where box cars are used for eggs do not allow freight which 
 may hurt their quality, such as oil barrels, to be loaded in the same 
 car. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE CAR-LOT SHIPPER. 
 
 1. Buy strictly on a loss-ort' basis. 
 
 2. Encourage the smaller buyers to trade on a loss-on" basis. 
 
 3. Join the State Car Lot Shippers' Association. 
 
 4. Cooperate with other shippers and the State officials in bringing 
 about this system of buying. 
 
 T>. Keep the subject agitated and before the people. In other 
 words, educate them. 
 
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