THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
'
EIGHT YEARS' WANDERINGS
IN
CEYLON.
THE LAST PIA'NGE.
UUIXS AT POLLANABUA.
Page 70.
r H I L A 1) E I, P II I A :
.1. B. LTPPTNCOTT & CO.
EIGHT YEARS' WANDERINGS
IN
CEYLON.
BY SIR SAMUEL W. BAKER,
AUTHOR OF "THE RIFLE AND THE HOUND IN CBYLON," "CAST UP BY
THE SEA," "THE ALBERT N'YANZA," ETC.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
PHILADELPHIA
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.
1874.
LIPPINCOTT'S PRESS, PHILADELPHIA.
e.
PREFACE.
EIGHT years' wanderings in Ceylon have created a love
for this beautiful island which can only be equaled by
my affection for Old England, from which the independence of
a wild life, combined with an infatuation for rambling into
every unvisited nook and corner, sentenced me to a term of
voluntary exile.
During this period my delight has been in tracing the great
natural resources of the country, in observing the immense
relics of its former prosperity, and contrasting the past gran-
deur and energy of an extinct race with the apathetic and
selfish policy of our present system.
It is the false economy of our present government to leave
untested the actual capabilities of its possessions. Thus, while
Ceylon remains with ruined tanks, deserted cities and vast tracts
of uncultivated rice-lands, India, governed by the Company, is
advancing in cultivation.* New tanks are formed, new canals
for irrigation penetrate through hitherto barren jungles, and
arouse the soil to fertility. In fact, the vigilant eye of the
Company is directed to the true resources of the country, and
every acre of available land must yield its proportion to the
revenue.
Without the statistical details which would render a de-
scription laborious to the general reader, I shall endeavor
* Since the above was written, the government of India has been transferred from
the East India Company to the Crown.
1* 5
Si;
6 Preface.
to give an impartial picture of Ceylon as it is, touching
lightly upon the past, in order to prove the possibility of im-
provement for the future. Having given an account of the
sports of the country in the Rifle and Hound," I shall not
dwell at too great length upon this topic, how tempting soever
it may be.
In these days, when the enterprise of Englishmen is ex-
hibited on so large a scale by the stream of emigration to
foreign shores, a few hints may not be uninteresting to the
intending settler. We are all more or less sanguine, and, if
unguided by the experience of age, we are apt to paint the
future too brightly. This is an error which entails disappoint-
ment and regret upon the hasty emigrant, who may discover,
when far from his deserted home, that the paradise which he
had pictured to himself is but earthly, after all, and is accom-
panied by drawbacks and hardships which he had not an-
ticipated.
It is not every temperament that is fitted for the anxieties
of a wild life in a strange land. This many persons who have
left England confident in their own strength have discovered,
unfortunately, when too late.
Englishmen, however, are naturally endowed with a spirit
of adventure. There is in the heart of all of us a germ of
freedom which longs to break through the barriers that confine
us to our own shores ; and as the newborn wildfowl takes to
water from its deserted egg-shell, so we wander over the world
when launched on our own resources.
This innate spirit of action is the mainspring of the power
of England. Go where you will, from north to south and
from east to west, you meet an Englishman. Sail round the
globe, and upon every point of strength the Union Jack glad-
dens your eye, and you think with wonder of the vast pos-
sessions which have been conquered, and the immense tracts
Preface. 7
of country which have been peopled, by the overflow of our
little island.
Among the list of possessions, Ceylon is but a speck ;
nevertheless the act of settling in one colony is a fair sample
of the general hardships of emigration. I shall therefore in-
troduce a slight sketch of a settlement in Ceylon, which may
give some insight into the little disappointments inseparable
from a new enterprise. The reader will, I trust, wander with
me in my rambles through this lovely country, and endeavor to
pass an idle hour among the scenes portrayed.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAQI
Colombo Dullness of the Town Cinnamon Gardens A_Cin-
galese Appo Ceylon Sport Jungle Fever Newera Ellia
Energy of Sir E. Barnes Influence of the Governor Pro-
jected Improvements 15
CHAPTER II.
Past Scenes Attractions of Ceylon Emigration Difficulties
in Settling Accidents and Casualties An Eccentric Groom
Insubordination Commencement of Cultivation Sagacity of
the Elephant Disappointments " Death" in the Settlement
Shocking Pasturage Success of Emigrants "A Good Knock-
about kind of a Wife" 25
CHAPTER III.
Task Completed The Mountain-top Change in the Face of
Nature Original Importance of Newera Ellia "The Path
of a Thousand Princes" Vestiges of Former Population
Mountains The Highlands of Ouva Ancient Methods of
Irrigation Remains of Aqueducts The Vale of Rubies
Ancient Ophir Discovery of Gold Mineral Resources
Native Blacksmiths 39
9
io Contents.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
Poverty of Soil Ceylon Sugar Fatality of Climate Supposed
Fertility of Soil Native Cultivation Neglect of Rice Culti-
vation Abandoned Reservoirs Former Prosperity Ruins of
Cities Pollanarua The Great Dagoba Architectural Relics
The Rock Temple Destruction of Population Neglected
Capabilities Suggestions for Increasing Population Progress
of Pestilence Deserted Villages Difficulties in the Cultiva-
tion of Rice Division of Labor Native Agriculture 58
CHAPTER V.
Real Cost of Land Want of Cpmmunication Coffee-planting
Comparison between French and English Settlers Landslips
Forest-clearing Manuring The Coffee Bug Rats Fatted
Stock Suggestions for Sheep-farming Attack of a Leopard
Leopards and Chetahs Boy Devoured Traps Musk Cats
and the Mongoose Vermin of Ceylon 8l
CHAPTER VI.
"Game Eyes" for Wild Sports Enjoyments of Wild Life
Cruelty of Sports Native Hunters Moormen Traders
Their wretched Guns Rifles and Smooth-bores Heavy Balls
and Heavy Metal Beattie's Rifles Balls and Patches Ex-
periments The Double-groove Power of Heavy Metal
Curious Shot at a Bull Elephant African and Ceylon Ele-
phants Structure of Skull Lack of Trophies Boar-spears
and Hunting-knives "Bertram" A Boar Hunt Fatal Cut. 104
CHAPTER VII.
Curious Phenomenon Panorama of Ouva South-west Mon-
soon Hunting Followers Fort M'Donald River Jungle
Paths Dangerous Locality Great Waterfall Start for Hunt-
Contents. 1 1
PAGE
, ing The Find A Gallant Stag "Bran" and "Lucifer"
" Phrenzy's" Death Buck at Bay The Cave Hunting-box
"Madcap's" Dive Elk Soup Former Inundation "Blue-
beard" leads off" Hecate's" Course The Elk's Leap Vari-
ety of Deer The Axis Ceylon Bears Variety of Vermin
Trials for Hounds Hounds and their Masters A Sportsman
" shut up" A Corporal and Centipede 132
CHAPTER VIIL
Observations on Nature in the Tropics The Dung Beetle The
Mason-fly "Spiders Luminous Insects Efforts of a Natural-
ist Dogs Worried by Leeches Tropical Diseases Malaria-
Causes of Infection Disappearance of the " Mina" Poison-
ous Water Well-digging Elephants 175,
CHAPTER IX.
Instinct and Reason Tailor Birds and Grosbeaks The White
Ant Black Ants at War Wanderoo Monkeys Habits of
Elephants Elephants in the Lake Herd of Elephants Bath-
ing Elephant-shooting The Rencontre The Charge
Caught by the Tail Horse Gored by a Buffalo Sagacity of
Dogs " Bluebeard" His Hunt A True Hound 194
CHAPTER X.
Wild Fruits Ingredients for a " Soupe Maigre" Orchidaceous
Plants Wild Nutmegs Native Oils Cinnamon Primeval
Forests Valuable Woods The Mahawelli River Variety of
Palms Cocoa-nut Toddy Arrack Cocoa-nut Oil Cocoa-
nut-planting The Talipot Palm The Areca Palm Betel
Chewing Sago Nuts Variety of Bees Waste of Beeswax-
Edible Fungi Narcotic Puff-ball Intoxicating Drugs Pois-
oned Cakes The " Sack Tree" No Gum Trees of Value in
Ceylon 219
12 Contents.
CHAPTER XI.
PAOI
Indigenous Productions Botanical Gardens Suggested Experi-
ments Lack of Encouragement to Gold-diggers Prospects
of Gold-digging We want " Nuggets." Who is to Blame ?
Governor's Salary Fallacies of a Five Years' Reign Ne-
glected Education of the People Responsibilities of Conquest
Progress of Christianity 256
CHAPTER XII.
The Pearl Fishery Desolation of the Coast Harbor of Trin-
comalee Fatal Attack by a Shark Ferocious Crocodiles Salt
Monopoly Salt Lakes Method of Collection Neglect of
Ceylon Hides Fish and Fishing Primitive Tackle Oysters
and Penknives A Night Bivouac for a Novice No Dinner,
but a Good Fire Wild Yams and Consequences The Ele-
phants' Duel A Hunting Hermitage Bluebeard's last Hunt
The Leopard Bluebeard's Death Leopard Shot 281
CHAPTER XIII.
Wild Denizens of Forest and Lake Destroyers of Reptiles
The Tree Duck The Mysteries of Night in the Forest The
Devil-Bird The Iguanodon in Miniature Outrigger Canoes
The Last Glimpse of Ceylon A Glance at Old Times. ... 310
EIGHT YEARS' WANDERINGS.
CHAPTER I.
COLOMBO DULLNESS OF THE TOWN CINNAMON GARDENS
A CINGALESE APPO CEYLON SPORT JUNGLE FEVER
NEWERA ELLIA ENERGY OF SIR E." BARNES INFLUENCE
OF THE GOVERNOR PROJECTED IMPROVEMENTS.
I
IT was in the year 1845 that the spirit of wandering
allured me toward Ceylon : little did I imagine at
that time that I should eventually become a settler.
The descriptions of its sports, and the tales of hair-
breadth escapes from elephants, which I had read in
various publications, were sources of attraction against
which I strove in vain ; and I at length determined
upon the very wild idea of spending twelve months in
Ceylon jungles.
It is said that the delights of pleasures in anticipa-
tion exceed the pleasures themselves : in this case
doubtless some months of great enjoyment passed in
making plans of every description, until I at length
arrived in Colombo, Ceylon's seaport capital.
I never experienced greater disappointment in an ex-
pectation than on my first view of Colombo. I had
15
1 6 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
spent some time at Mauritius and Bourbon previous to
my arrival, and I soon perceived that the far-famed
Ceylon was nearly a century behind either of those
small islands.
Instead of the bustling activity of the Port Louis
harbor in Mauritius, there were a few vessels rolling
about in the roadstead, and some forty or fifty fishing
canoes hauled up on the sandy beach. There was a
peculiar dullness throughout the town a sort of some-
thing which seemed to say, " Coffee does not pay."
There was a want of spirit in everything. The ill-
conditioned guns upon the fort looked as though not
intended to defend it ; the sentinels looked parboiled ;
the very natives sauntered rather than walked ; the
bullocks crawled along in the midday sun, listlessly
dragging the native carts. Everything and everybody
seemed enervated, except those frightfully active people
in all countries and climates, "the custom-house
officers :" these necessary plagues to society gave their
usual amount of annoyance.
What struck me the most forcibly in Colombo was
the want of shops. In Port Louis the wide and well-
paved streets were lined with excellent " magasins" of
every description ; here, on the contrary, it was difficult
to find anything in the shape of a shop until I was in-
troduced to a soi-disant store, where everything was to
be purchased from a needle to a crowbar, and from
satin to sail-cloth ; the useful predominating over the
ornamental in all cases. It was all on a poor scale ;
and after several inquiries respecting the best hotel, I
located myself at that termed the Royal or Seager's
Hotel. This was airy, white and clean throughout ;
but there was a barn-like appearance, as there is
Cinnamon Gardens. iy
throughout most private dwellings in Colombo, which
banished all idea of comfort.
A good tiffin concluded, which produced a happier
state of mind, I ordered a carriage for a drive to the
Cinnamon Gardens. The general style of Ceylon
carriages appeared in the shape of a caricature of a
hearse : this goes by the name of a palanquin carriage.
Those usually hired are drawn by a single horse, whose
natural vicious propensities are restrained by a low
system of diet
In this vehicle, whose gaunt steed was led at a mel-
ancholy trot by an equally small-fed horsekeeper, I
traversed the environs of Colombo. Through the
winding fort gateway, across the flat Galle Face (the
race-course), freshened by the sea-breeze as the waves
break upon its western side ; through the Colpetty
topes of cocoanut trees shading the road, and the
houses of the better class of European residents to the
right and left ; then turning to the left a few minutes
of expectation and behold the Cinnamon Gardens !
What fairy-like pleasure-grounds have we fondly an-
ticipated ! what perfumes of spices, and all that our
childish imaginations had pictured as the ornamental
portions of a cinnamon garden !
A vast area of scrubby, low jungle, composed of
cinnamon bushes, is seen to the right and" left, before
and behind. Above, is a cloudless sky and a broiling
sun ; below, is snow-white sand of quartz, curious only
in the possibility of its supporting vegetation. Such
is the soil in which the cinnamon delights ; such are
the Cinnamon Gardens, in which I delight not. They
are an imposition, and they only serve as an addition
to the disappointments of a visitor to Colombo. In
2* B
1 8 Eight Tears' Wandering? in Ceylon.
fact, the whole place is a series of disappointments.
You see a native woman clad in snow-white petticoats,
a beautiful tortoiseshell comb fastened in her raven
hair ; you pass her you look back wonderful ! she
has a beard ! Deluded stranger, this is only another
disappointment ; it is a Cingalese Appo a man no,
not a man a something male in petticoats ; a petty
thief, a treacherous, cowardly villain, who would per-
petrate the greatest rascality had he only the pluck to
dare it. In fact, in this petticoated wretch you see a
type of the nation of Cingalese.
On the morning following my arrival in Ceylon, I
was delighted to see several persons seated at the
" table-d'hote" when I entered the room, as I was most
anxious to gain some positive information respecting
the game of the*island, the best localities, etc., etc. I
was soon engaged in conversation, and one of my first
questions naturally turned upon sport.
"Sport!" exclaimed two gentlemen simultaneously
''sport! there is no sport to be had in Ceylon !" "at
least the race-week is the only sport that I know of,"
said the taller gentleman.
"No sport!" said I, half energetically and half des-
pairingly. "Absurd! every book on Ceylon mentions
the amount of game as immense ; and as to ele-
phants "
Here I was interrupted by the same gentleman.
"All gross exaggerations," said he "gross exaggera-
tions ; in fact, inventions to give interest to a book. I
have an estate in the interior, and I have never seen a
wild elephant. There may be a few in the jungles of
Ceylon, but very few, and you never see them."
I began to discover the stamp of my companion
Jungle Fever. 19
from his expression, "You never see them." Of course
I concluded that he had never looked for them ; and I
began to recover from the first shock which his ex-
clamation, " There is no sport in Ceylon !" had given
me.
I subsequently discovered that my new and non-
sporting acquaintances were coffee-planters of a class
then known as the Galje Face planters, who passed
their time in cantering about the Colombo race-course
and idling in the town, while their estates lay a hundred
miles distant, uncared for and naturally ruining their
proprietors.
That same afternoon, to my delight and surprise, I
met an old Gloucestershire friend in an officer of the
Fifteenth Regiment, then stationed in Ceylon. From
him I soon learnt that the character of Ceylon for
game had never been exaggerated ; and from that mo-
ment my preparations for the jungle commenced.
I rented a good airy house in Colombo as head-
quarters, and the verandas were soon strewed with
jungle-baskets, boxes, tent, gun-cases, and all the para-
phernalia of a shooting trip.
******
What unforeseen and apparently trivial incidents
may upset all our plans for the future and turn our
whole course of life !
At the expiration of twelve months my shooting
trips and adventures were succeeded by so severe an
attack of jungle fever that from a naturally robust
frame I dwindled to a mere nothing, and very little of
my former self remained. The first symptom of con-
valescence was accompanied by a peremptory order
from my medical attendant to start for the highlands,
2O Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
to the mountainous region of Newera Ellia, the sanita-
rium of the island.
A poor, miserable wretch I was upon my arrival at
this elevated station, suffering not only from the fever
itself, but from the feeling of an exquisite debility that
creates an utter hopelessness of the renewal of strength.
I was only a fortnight at Newera Ellia. The rest-
house or inn was the perfection of everything that was
dirty and uncomfortable. The toughest possible speci-
men of a beef-steak, black bread and potatoes were
the choicest and only viands obtainable for an invalid.
There was literally nothing else ; it was a land of
starvation. But the climate! what can I say to de-
scribe the wonderful effects of such a pure and unpol-
luted air? Simply, that .at the expiration of a fort-
night, in spite of the tough beef, and the black bread
and potatoes, I was as well and as strong as I ever had
been ; and in proof of this I started instanter for
another shooting excursion in the interior.
It was impossible to have visited Newera Ellia, and
to have benefited in such a wonderful manner by the
climate, without contemplating with astonishment its
poverty-stricken and neglected state.
At that time it was the most miserable place con-
ceivable. There was a total absence of all ideas of
comfort or arrangement. The houses were for the
most part built of such unsubstantial materials as stick
and mud plastered over with mortar pretty enough in
exterior, but rotten in ten or twelve years. The only
really good residence was a fine stone building erected
by Sir Edward Barnes when governor of Ceylon. To
him alone indeed are we indebted for the existence of
a sanitarium. It was he who opened the road, not
Newera Ellia. 21
only to Newera Ellia, but for thirty-six miles farther
on the same line to Badulla. At his own expense he
built a substantial mansion at a cost, as it is said, of
eight thousand pounds, and with provident care for
the health of the European troops, he erected barracks
and officers' quarters for the invalids.
Under his government Newera Ellia was rapidly be-
coming a place of importance, but unfortunately at the
expiration of his term the place became neglected.
His successor took no interest in the plans of his pre-
decessor ; and from that period, each successive gover-
nor being influenced by an increasing spirit of parsi-
mony, Newera Ellia has remained " in statu quo," not
even having been visited by the present governor.
In a small colony like Ceylon it is astonishing how
the movements and opinions of the governor influence
the public mind. In' the present instance, however,
the movements of the governor (Sir G. Anderson) can-
not carry much weight, as he does not move at all,
with the exception of an occasional drive from Colombo
to Kandy. His knowledge of the colony and of its
wants or resources must therefore, from his personal
experience, be limited to the Kandy road. This
apathy, when exhibited by her Majesty's representative,
is highly contagious among the public of all classes
and colors, and cannot have other than a bad moral
tendency.
Upon my first visit to Newera Ellia, in 1847, Lord
Torrington was the governor of Ceylon, a man of
active mind, with an ardent desire to test its real capa-
bilities and to work great improvements in the colony.
Unfortunately, his term as governor was shorter than
was expected. The elements of discord were at that
22 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
time at work among all classes in Ceylon, and Lord
Torrington was recalled.
From the causes of neglect described, Newera Eliia
was in the deserted and wretched state in which I saw
it ; but so infatuated was I in the belief that its import-
ance must be appreciated when the knowledge of its
climate was more widely extended that I looked for-
ward to its becoming at some future time a rival to the
Neilgherries station in India. My ideas were based
upon the natural features of the place, combined with
its requirements.
It apparently produced nothing except potatoes. The
soil was supposed to be as good as it appeared to be.
The quality of the water and the supply were unques-
tionable ; the climate could not be surpassed for salu-
brity. There was a carriage road from Colombo, one
hundred and fifteen miles, and from Kandy, forty-seven
miles ; the last thirteen being the Rambodde Pass,
arriving at an elevation of six thousand six hundred
feet, from which point a descent of two miles termi-
nated the road to Newera Ellia.
The station then consisted of about twenty private
residences, the barracks and officers' quarters, the rest-
house and the bazaar ; the latter containing about two
hundred native inhabitants.
Bounded upon all sides but the east by high moun-
tains, the plain of Newera Ellia lay like a level valley
of about two miles in length by half a mile in width,
bordered by undulating grassy knolls at the foot of the
mountains. Upon these spots of elevated ground most
of the dwellings were situated, commanding a view of
the plain, with the river winding through its centre.
The mountains were 'clothed from the base to the sum-
Projected Improvements. 23
mit with dense forests, containing excellent timber for
building purposes. Good building-stone was procurable
everywhere ; limestone at a distance of five miles.
The whole of the adjacent country was a repetition
of the Nevvera Ellia plain with slight variations, com-
prising a vast extent of alternate swampy plains and
dense forests.
Why should this place lie idle? Why should this
great tract of country in such a lovely climate be un-
tenanted and uncultivated? How often I have stood
upon the hills and asked myself this question when
gazing over the wide extent of undulating forest and
plain ! How often I have thought of the thousands of
starving wretches at home, who here might earn a
comfortable livelihood ! and I have scanned the vast
tract of country, and in my imagination I have cleared
the dark forests and substituted waving crops of corn,
and peopled a hundred ideal cottages A'ith a thriving
peasantry.
Why should not the highlands of Ceylon, with an
Italian climate, be rescued from their state of barren-
ness ? Why should not the plains be drained, the for-
ests felled, and cultivation take the place of the rank
pasturage, and supplies be produced to make Ceylon
independent of other countries ? Why should not schools
be established, a comfortable hotel be erected, a church
be built? In fact, why should Newera Ellia, with its
wonderful climate, so easily attainable, be neglected in
a country like Ceylon, proverbial for its unhealthiness?
These were my ideas when I first visited Neweni
Ellia, before I had much experience in either people or
things connected with the island.
My twelve months' tour in Ceylon being completed,
24 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
I returned to England delighted with what I had seen
of Ceylon in general, but, above all, with my short
visit to Newera Ellia, malgre its barrenness and want
of comfort, caused rather by the neglect of man than
by the lack of resources in the locality.
CHAPTER II.
PAST SCENES ATTRACTIONS OF CEYLON EMIGRATION DIFFI-
CULTIES IN SETTLING ACCIDENTS AND CASUALTIES AN
ECCENTRIC GROOM INSUBORDINATION COMMENCEMENT
OF CULTIVATION SAGACITY OF THE ELEPHANT DISAP-
POINTMENTS " DEATH " IN THE SETTLEMENT SHOCKING
PASTURAGE SUCCESS OF EMIGRANTS "A GOOD KNOCK-
ABOUT KIND OF A WIFE."
I HAD not been long in England before I discovered
that my trip to Ceylon had only served to upset all
ideas of settling down quietly at home. Scenes of
former sports and places were continually intruding
themselves upon my thoughts, and I longed to be once
more roaming at large with the rifle through the noise-
less wildernesses in Ceylon. So delightful were the
recollections of past incidents that I could scarcely
believe that it lay within my power to renew them.
Ruminating over all that had happened within the past
year, I conjured up localities to my memory which
seemed too attractive to have existed in reality. I wan-
dered along London streets, comparing the noise and
bustle with the deep solitudes of Ceylon, and I felt like
the sickly plants in a London parterre. I wanted the
change to my former life. I constantly found myself
gazing into gunmakers' shops, and these I sometimes
entered abstractedly to examine some rifle exposed in
3 25
26 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
the window. Often have I passed an hour in boring
the unfortunate gunmakers to death by my suggestions
for various improvements in rifles and guns, which, as
I was not a purchaser, must have been extremely
edifying.
Time passed, and the moment at length arrived when
I decided once more to see Ceylon. I determined to
become a settler at Newera Ellia, where I could reside
in a perfect climate, and nevertheless enjoy the sports
of the low country at my own will.
Thus, the recovery from a fever in Ceylon was the
hidden cause of my settlement at Newera Ellia. The
infatuation for sport, added to a gypsy-like love of wan-
dering and complete independence, thus dragged me
away from home and from a much-loved circle.
In my determination to reside at Newera Ellia, I
hoped to be able to carry out some of those visionary
plans for its improvement which I have before sug-
gested ; and I trusted to be enabled to effect such a
change in the rough face of Nature in that locality as
to render a residence at Newera Ellia something ap-
proaching to a country life in England, with the advan-
tage of the whole of Ceylon for my manor, and no
expense of gamekeepers.
To carry out these ideas it was necessary to set to
work ; and I determined to make a regular settlement
at Newera Ellia, sanguinely looking forward to estab-
lishing a little English village around my own resi-
dence.
Accordingly, I purchased an extensive tract of land
from the government, at twenty shillings per acre. I
engaged an excellent bailiff, who, with his wife and
daughter, with nine other emigrants, including a black-
Emigration. 27
smith, were to sail for my intended settlement in
Ceylon.
I purchased farming implements of the most im-
proved descriptions, seeds of all kinds, saw-mills, etc.,
etc., and the following stock: A half-bred bull (Dur-
ham and Hereford), a well-bred Durham cow, three
rams (a Southdown, Leicester and Cotswold), and a
thorough-bred entire horse by Charles XII. ; also a
small pack of foxhounds and a favorite greyhound
("Bran").
My brother had determined to accompany me ; and
with emigrants, s.tock, machinery, hounds, and our re-
spective families, the good ship "Earl of Hardwick,"
belonging to Messrs. Green & Co., sailed from London
in September, 1848. I had previously left England by
the overland mail of August to make arrangements at
Newera Ellia for the reception of the whole party.
I had as much difficulty in making up my mind to
the proper spot for the settlement as Noah's dove ex-
perienced in its flight from the ark. However, I
wandered over the neighboring plains and jungles of
Newera Ellia, and at length I stuck my walking-stick
into the ground where the gentle undulations of the
country would allow the use of the plough. Here,
then, was to be the settlement.
I had chosen the spot at the eastern extremity of the
Newera Ellia plain, on the verge of the sudden descent
toward Badulla. This position was two miles and a
half from Newera Ellia, and was far more agreeable
and better adapted for a settlement, the land being com-
paratively level and not shut in by mountains.
It was in the dreary month of October, when the
south-west monsoon howls in all its fury across the
28 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
mountains ; the mist boiled up from the valleys and
swept along the surface of the plains, obscuring the
view of everything, except the pattering rain, which de-
scended without ceasing day or night. Every sound
was hushed, save that of the elements and the distant
murmuring roar of countless waterfalls ; not a bird
chirped, the dank white lichens hung from the branches
of the trees, and the wretchedness of the place was be-
yond description.
I found it almost impossible to persuade the natives
to work in such weather; and it being absolutely
necessary that cottages should be built with the greatest
expedition, I was obliged to offer an exorbitant rate
of wages.
In about fortnight, however, the wind and rain
showed flags of truce in the shape of white clouds set
in a blue sky. The gale ceased, and the skylarks
warbled high in air, giving life and encouragement to
the whole scene. It was like a beautiful cool mid-
summer in England.
I had about eighty men at work ; and the constant
click-clack of axes, the falling of trees, the noise of
saws and hammers and the perpetual chattering of
coolies gave a new character to the wild spot upon
which I had fixed.
The work proceeded rapidly ; neat white cottages
soon appeared in the forest ; and I expected to have
everything in readiness for the emigrants on their
arrival. I rented a tolerably good house in Newera
Ellia, and so far everything had progressed well.
The " Eai'l of Hardwick" arrived after a prosperous
voyage, with passengers and stock all in sound health ;
the only casualty on board had been to one of the hounds.
Accidents and Casualties. 29
In a few days all started from Colombo for Newera
Ellia. The only trouble was, How to get the cow up?
She was a beautiful beast, a thorough-bred "short
horn," and she weighed about thirteen hundredweight.
She was so fat that a march of one hundred and fifteen
miles in a tropical climate was impossible. Accord-
ingly a van was arranged for her, which the maker as-
sured me would carry an elephant. But no sooner had
the cow entered it than the whole thing came down
with a crash, and the cow made her exit through the
bottom. She was therefore obliged to start on foot in
company with the bull, sheep, horse and hounds,
orders being given that ten miles a day, divided be-
tween morning and evening, should be the maximum
march during the journey.
The emigrants started per coach, while our party
drove up in a new clarence which I had brought from
England. I mention this, as its untimely end will be
shortly seen.
Four government elephant-carts started with ma-
chinery, farming implements, etc., etc,, while a troop
of bullock-bandies carried the lighter goods. I had a
tame elephant waiting at the foot of the Newera Ellia
Pass to assist in carrying up the baggage and maid-
servants.
There had been a vast amount of trouble in making
all the necessary arrangements, but the start was com-
pleted, and at length we were all fairly off.
In an enterprise of this kind many disappointments
were necessarily to be expected, and I had prepared
myself with the patience of Job for anything that
might happen. It was well that I had done so, for it
was soon put to the test.
3*
30 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
Having reached Rambodde', at the foot of the
Newera Ellia Pass, in safety, I found that the carriage
was so heavy that the horses were totally unable to as-
cend the pass. I therefore left it at the rest-house
while we rode up the fifteen miles to Newera Ellia, in-
tending to send for the empty vehicle in a few days.
The whole party of emigrants and ourselves reached
Newera Ellia in safety. On the following day I sent
down the groom with a pair of horses to bring up the
carriage ; at the same time I sent down the elephant to
bring some luggage from Rambodde.
Now this groom, u Henry Perkes," was one of the
emigrants, and he was not exactly the steadiest of the
party ; I therefore cautioned him to be very careful in
driving up the pass, especially in crossing the narrow
bridges and turning the corners. He started on his
mission.
The next day a dirty-looking letter was put in my
hand by a native, which, being addressed to me, ran
something in this style :
" Honor* Zur
" I'm sorry to hinform you that the carrige and osses has met with
a haccidint and is tumbled down a preccippice and its a mussy as I
didn't go too. The preccippice isn't very deep bein not above heighty
feet or therabouts the hosses is got up but is very bad the carrige
lies on its back and we can't stir it nohow. M*. is very kind,
and has lent above a hunderd niggers, but they aint no more use than
cats at liftin. Plese Zur come and see whats to be done.
" Your Humbel Serv',
" H. PERKES."
This was pleasant, certainly^-a new carriage and a
pair of fine Australian horses smashed before they
reached Newera Ellia !
String of Accidents. 31
This was, however, the commencement of a chapter
of accidents. I went down the pass, and there, sure
enough, I had a fine bird's-eye view of the carriage
down a precipice on the road side. One horse was so
injured that it was necessary to destroy him ; the other
died a few days after. Perkes had been intoxicated ;
and, while driving at a full gallop round a corner, over
went the carriages and horses.
On my return to Newera Ellia, I found a letter in-
forming me that the short-horn cow had halted at Am-
berpusse, thirty-seven miles from Colombo, dangerously
ill. The next morning another letter informed me that
she was dead. This was a sad loss after the trouble of
bringing so fine an animal from England ; and I re-
gretted her far more than both carriage and horses
together, as my ideas for breeding some thorough-bred
stock were for the present extinguished.
There is nothing like one misfortune for breeding
another ; and what with the loss of carriage, horses
and cow, the string of accidents had fairly commenced.
The carriage still lay inverted ; and although a tolerable
specimen of a smash, I determined to pay a certain
honor to its remains by not allowing it to lie and rot
upon the ground. Accordingly, I sent the blacksmith
with a gang of men, and Perkes was ordered to accom-
pany the party. I also sent the elephant to assist in
hauling the body of the carriage up the precipice.
Perkes, having been much more accustomed to riding
than walking during his career as groom, was deter-
mined to ride the elephant down the pass ; and he
accordingly mounted, insisting at the same time that
the mohout should put the animal into a trot. In vain
the man remonstrated, and explained that such a pace
32 Eight Years' Wanderings In Ceylon.
would injure the elephant on a journey ; threats pre-
vailed, and the beast was soon swinging along at full
trot, forced on by the sharp driving-hook, with the
delighted Perkes striding across its neck, riding an im-
aginary race.
On the following day the elephant-driver appeared at
the front door, but 'without the elephant. I irtimediately
foreboded some disaster, which was soon explained.
Mr. Perkes had kept up the pace for fifteen miles, to
Rambodde, when, rinding that the elephant was not
required, he took a little refreshment in the shape of
brandy and water, and then, to use his own expression,
" tooled the old elephant along till he came to a stand-
still."
He literally forced the poor beast up the steep pass
for seven miles, till it fell down and shortly after died.
Mr. Perkes was becoming an expensive man : a most
sagacious and tractable elephant was now added to his
list of victims.; and he had the satisfaction of knowing
that he was one of the few men in the world who had
ridden an elephant to death.
That afternoon, Mr. Perkes was being wheeled about
the bazaar in a wheelbarrow, insensibly drunk, by a
brother emigrant, who was also considerably elevated.
Perkes had at some former time lost an eye by the kick
of a horse, and to conceal the disfigurement he wore a
black patch, which gave him very much the expression
of a bull terrier with a similar mark. Notwithstand-
ing this disadvantage in appearance, he was perpetu-
ally making successful love to the maid-servants, and
he was altogether the most incorrigible scamp that I
ever met with, although I must do him the justice to
say he was thoroughly honest and industrious.
Commencement of Cultivation. 33
I shortly experienced great trouble with the emi-
grants ; they could not agree with the bailiff, and openly
defied his authority. I was obliged to send two of
them to jail as an example to the others. This pro-
duced the desired effect, and we shortly got regularly
to work.
There were now about a hundred and fifty natives
employed in the tedious process of exterminating jungle
and forest, not felling, but regularly digging out every
tree and root, then piling and burning the mass, and
leveling the cleared land in a state to receive the
plough. This was very expensive work, amounting to
about thirty pounds per acre. The root of a large tree
would frequently occupy three men a couple of days in
its extraction, which, at the rate of wages, at one shil-
ling per diem, was very costly. The land thus cleared
was a light sandy loam, about eighteen inches in depth,
with a gravel subsoil, and was considered to be far
superior to the patina (or natural grass-land) soil, which
was, in appearance, black loam on the higher ground,
and of a peaty nature in the swamps.
The bailiff (Mr. Fowler) was of' opinion that the
patina soil was the best ; therefore, while the large
native force was engaged in sweeping the forest from
the'surface, operations were commenced according to
agricultural rules upon the patinas.
A tract of land known as the " Moon Plains," com-
prising about two hundred acres, was immediately
commenced upon. As some persons considered the
settlement at Newera Ellia the idea of a lunatic, the
" Moon Plain" was an appropriate spot for the experi-
ment. A tolerably level field of twenty acres was
fenced in, and the work begun by firing the patina and
C
34 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
burning off all the grass. Then came three teams, as
follows :
Lord Ducie's patent cultivator, drawn by an ele-
phant ; a skim, drawn by another elephant, and a long
wood plough, drawn by eight bullocks.
The field being divided into three sections, was thus
quickly pared of the turf, the patent cultivator working
admirably, and easily drawn by the elephant.
The weather being very dry and favorable for the
work, the turf was soon ready for burning ; and being
piled in long rows, much trouble was saved in subse-
quently spreading the ashes. This being completed,
we had six teams at work, two horse, two bullock, and
two elephant; and the ploughing was soon finished.
The whole piece was then sown with oats.
It was an interesting sight to see the rough plain
yielding to the power of agricultural implements, es-
pecially as some of these implements were drawn by
animals not generally seen in plough harness at home.
The " cultivator," which was sufficiently large to
anchor any twenty of the small native bullocks, looked
a mere nothing behind the splendid elephant who
worked it, and it cut through the wiry roots of the rank
turf as a knife peels an apple. It was amusing to see
this same elephant doing the work of three separate
teams when the seed was in the ground. She first
drew a pair of heavy harrows ; attached to these and
following behind were a pair of light harrows, and
behind these came a roller. Thus the land had its
first and second harrowing at the same time with the
rolling.
This elephant was particularly sagacious ; and het
farming work being completed, she was employed in
Sagacity of the Elephant. 35
making a dam across a stream. She was a very large
animal, and it was beautiful to witness her wonderful
sagacity in carrying and arranging the heavy timber
required. The rough trunks of trees from the lately
felled forest were lying within fifty yards of the spot,
and the trunks required for the dam were about fifteen
feet long and fourteen to eighteen inches in diameter.
These she carried in her mouth, shifting her hold
along the log before she raised it until she had obtained
the exact balance ; then, steadying it with her trunk,
she carried every log to the spot, and laid them across
the stream in parallel rows. These she herself ar-
ranged, under the direction of her driver, with the
reason apparently of a human being.
The most extraordinary part of her performance was
the arranging of two immense logs of red keenar (one
of the heaviest woods). These were about eighteen
feet long and two feet in diameter, and they were in-
tended to lie on either bank of the stream, parallel to
the brook and close to the edge. These she placed
with the greatest care in their exact positions, unassisted
by any one.* She rolled them gently over with her
head, then with one foot, and keeping her trunk on the
opposite side of the log, she checked its way whenever
its own momentum would have carried it into the
stream. Although I thought the work admirably done,
she did not seem quite satisfied, and she presently got
into the stream, and gave one end of the log an extra
push with her head, which completed her task, the two
trees lying exactly parallel to each other, close to the
edge of either bank.
Tame elephants are constantly employed in building
* Directed of course by her driver.
36 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
stone bridges, when the stones required for the abut-
ments are too heavy to be managed by crowbars.
Many were the difficulties to contend against when
the first attempts were made in agriculture at Newera
Ellia. No sooner were the oats a few inches above
ground than they were subjected to the nocturnal visits
of elk and hogs in such numbers that they were almost
wholly destroyed.
A crop of potatoes of about three acres on the newly-
cleared forest land was totally devoured by grubs. The
bull and stock were nearly starved on the miserable
pasturage of the country, and no sooner had the clover
sprung up in the new clearings than the Southdown
ram got hoven upon it and died. The two remaining
rams, not having been accustomed to much high living
since their arrival at Newera Ellia, got pugnacious
upon the clover, and in a pitched battle the Leicester
ram killed the Cotswold, and remained solus. An
epidemic appeared among the cattle, and twenty-six
fine bullocks died within a few days ; five Australian
horses died during the first year, and everything seemed
to be going into the next world as fast as possible.
Having made up my mind to all manner of disap-
pointments, these casualties did not make much impres-
sion on me, and the loss of a few crops at the outset
was to be expected ; but at length a deplorable and un-
expected event occurred.
The bailiff's family consisted of a wife and daughter ;
the former was the perfection of a respectable farmer's
wife, whose gentle manners and amiable disposition
had gained her many friends ; the daughter was a very
pretty girl of nineteen.
For some time Mrs. Fowler had been suffering from
Natural Pasturage. 37
an illness of long standing, and I was suddenly called
to join in the mournful procession to her grave. This
was indeed a loss which I deeply deplored.
At length death left the little settlement, and a ray
of sunshine shone through the gloom which would
have made many despond. Fortune smiled upon every-
thing. Many acres of forest were cleared, and the
crops succeeded each other in rapid succession. I had,
however, made the discovery that without manure
nothing would thrive. This had been a great disap-
pointment, as much difficulty lay in procuring the ne-
cessary item.
Had the natural pasturage been good, it would soon
have been an easy matter to procure any amount of
manure by a corresponding number of cattle ; but, as it
happened, the natural pasturage was so bad that no
beast could thrive upon it. Thus everything, even
grass-land, had to be manured ; and, fortunately, a
cargo of guano having arrived in the island, we were
enabled to lay down some good clover and seeds.
The original idea of cultivation, driving the forests
from the neighborhood of Newera Ellia, was therefore
dispelled. Every acre of land must be manured, and
upon a large scale at Newera Ellia that is impossible.
With manure everything will thrive to perfection with
the exception of wheat. There is neither lime nor
magnesia in the soil. An abundance of silica throws
a good crop of straw, but the grain is wanting : Indian
corn will not form grain from the same cause. On the
other hand, peas, beans, turnips, carrots, cabbages, etc.,
produce crops as heavy as those of England. Potatoes,
being the staple article of production, are principally
cultivated, as the price of twenty pounds per ton yields
4
38 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
a large profit. These, however, do not produce larger
crops than from four to six tons per acre when heavily
manured ; but as the crop is fit to dig in three months
from the day of planting, money is quickly made.
There are many small farmers, or rather gardeners,
at Newera Ellia who have succeeded uncommonly
well. One of the emigrants who left my service re-
turned to England in three years with three hundred
pounds ; and all the industrious people succeed. I am
now without one man whom I brought out. The
bailiff farms a little land of his own, and his pretty
daughter is married ; the others are scattered here and
there, but I believe all are doing well, especially the
blacksmith, upon whose anvil Fortune has smiled most
kindly.
By the bye, that same blacksmith has the right stamp
of a "better half" for an emigrant's wife. According
to his own description she is a "good knock-about
kind of a wife." I recollect seeing her, during a press
of work, rendering assistance to her Vulcan in a man-
ner worthy of a Cyclop's spouse. She was wielding-
an eighteen-pound sledgehammer, sending the sparks
flying at every blow upon the hot iron, and making the
anvil ring again, while her husband turned the metal
at every stroke, as if attending on Nasmyth's patent
steam hammer.
It has been a great satisfaction to me that all the
people whom I brought out are doing well ; even
Henry Perkes, of elephant-jockeying notoriety, is, I be-
lieve, prospering as a groom in Madras.
CHAPTER III.
TASK COMPLETED THE MOUNTAIN-TOP CHANGE IN THE PACK
OF NATURE ORIGINAL IMPORTANCE OF NEWERA ELLIA
"THE PATH OF A THOUSAND PRINCES" VESTIGES OF
FORMER POPULATION MOUNTAINS THE HIGHLANDS OF
OUVA ANCIENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION REMAfNS OF
AQJJEDUCTS THE VALE OF RUBIES ANCIENT OPHIR
DISCOVERY OF GOLD MINERAL RESOURCES NATIVE
BLACKSMITHS.
IN a climate like that of Newera Ellia, even twelve
months make a great change in the appearance of
a new settlement ; plants and shrubs spring up with
wonderful rapidity, and a garden of one year's growth,
without attendance, would be a wilderness.
A few years necessarily made a vast change in
everything. All kinds of experiments had been made,
and those which succeeded were persevered in. I dis-
covered that excellent beer might be made at this
elevation (six thousand two hundred feet), and I ac-
cordingly established a small brewery.
The solitary Leicester ram had propagated a numer-
ous family, and a flock of fat ewes, with their lambs,
throve to perfection. Many handsome young heifers
looked very like the emigrant bull in the face, and
claimed their parentage. The fields were green ; the
axe no longer sounded in the forests ; a good house
39
40 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
stood in tne centre of cultivation ; a road of two miles
in length cut through the estate, and the whole place
looked like an adopted "home." All the trials and
disappointments of the beginning were passed away,
and the real was a picture which I had ideally con-
templated years before. The task was finished.
In the interim, public improvements had not been
neglected ; an extremely pretty church had been erected,
and a public reading-room established ; but, with the
exception of one good house which had been built, pri-
vate enterprise had lain dormant. As usual, from Jan-
uary to May, Newera Ellia was overcrowded with
visitors, and nearly empty during the other months of
the year.
All Ceylon people dread the wet season at Newera
Ellia, which continues from June to December.
I myself prefer it to what is termed the dry season,
at which time the country is burnt up by drought.
There is never more rain at Newera Ellia than vegeta-
tion requires, and not one-fourth the quantity falls at
this elevation, compared to that of the low country. It
may be more continuous, but it is of a lighter character,
and more akin to " Scotch mist." The clear days
during the wet season are far more lovely than the con-
stant glare of the summer months, and the rays of the
sun are not so powerful.
There cannot be a more beautiful sight than the
view of sunrise from the summit of Pedrotallagalla, the
highest mountain in Ceylon, which, rising to the height
of 8300 feet, looks down upon Newera Ellia, some two
thousand feet below upon one side, and upon the inter-
, minable depths of countless ravines and valleys at its
base.
The Mountain-Top. 41
There is a feeling approaching the sublime when a
solitary man thus stands upon the highest point of earth,
before the dawn of day, and waits the first rising of the
sun. Nothing above him but the dusky arch of heaven.
Nothing on his level but empty space, all beneath,
deep beneath his feet. From childhood he has looked
to heaven as the dwelling of the Almighty, and he now
stands upon that lofty summit in the silence of utter
solitude ; his hand, as he raises it above his head, the
highest mark upon the sea-girt land ; his form above
all mortals upon this land, the nearest to his God.
Words, till now unthought of, tingle in his ears : "He
went up into a mountain apart to pray." He feels the
spirit which prompted the choice of such a lonely spot,
and he stands instinctively uncovered, as the first ray
of light spreads like a thread of fire across the sky.
And now the distant hill-tops, far below, struggle
through the snowy sheet of mist, like islands in a fairy
sea ; and far, how far his eye can scan, where the faint
line upon the horizon marks the ocean ! Mountain
and valley, hill and plain, with boundless forest, stretch
beneath his feet, far as his sight can gaze, and the scene,
so solemnly beautiful, gradually wakens to his senses ;
the birds begin to chirp ; the dew-drops fall heavily
from the trees, as the light breeze stirs from an apparent
sleep : a golden tint spreads over the sea of mist below ;
the rays dart lightning-like upon the eastern sky ; the
mighty orb rises in all the fullness of his majesty, recall-
ing the words of Omnipotence : " Let there be light !"
The sun is risen ! the misty sea below mounts like a
snowy wreath around the hill-tops, and then, like a
passing thought, it vanishes. A glassy clearness of the
atmosphere reveals the magnificent view of Nature,
4*
42 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
fresh from her sleep ; every dewy leaf gilded by the
morning sun, every rock glistening with moisture in his
bright rays, mountain and valley, wood and plain, alike
rejoicing in his beams.
And now, the sun being risen, we gaze from our
lofty post upon Newera Ellia, lying at our feet. We
trace the river winding its silvery course through the
plain, and for many miles the alternate plains and
forests joining in succession.
How changed are some features of the landscape
within the few past years, and how wonderful the
alteration made by man on the face of Nature ! Com-
paratively but a few years ago, Newera Ellia was un-
discovered a secluded plain among the mountain-
tops, tenanted by the elk and boar. The wind swept
over it, and the mists hung around the mountains, and
the bright summer with its spotless sky succeeded, but
still it was unknown and unseen except by the native
bee-hunter in his rambles for wild honey. How
changed ! The road encircles the plain, and carts are
busy in removing the produce of the land. Here,
where wild forests stood, are gardens teeming with
English flowers ; rosy-faced children and ruddy coun-
trymen are about the cottage doors ; equestrians of both
sexes are galloping round the plain, and the cry of the
hounds is ringing on the mountain-side.
How changed ! There is an old tree standing upon
a hill, whose gnarled trunk has been twisted by the
winter's wind for many an age, and so screwed is its
old stem that the axe has spared it, out of pity, when
its companions were all swept away and the forest
felled. And many a tale that old tree could tell of
winter's blasts and broken boughs, and storms which
Change in the Face of Nature. 43
howled above its head, when all was wilderness around.
The eagle has roosted in its top, the monkeys have
gamboled in its branches, and the elephants have rub-
bed their tough flanks against its stem in times gone
by ; but it now throws a shadow upon a Christian's
grave, and the churchyard lies beneath its shade.
The church-bell sounds where the elephant trumpeted
of yore. The sunbeam has penetrated where the forest
threw its dreary shade, and a ray of light has shone
through the moral darkness of the spot.
The completion of the church is the grand improve-
ment in Newera Ellia.
Although Newera Ellia was in the wild state de-
scribed when first discovered by Europeans, it is not to
be supposed that its existence was unknown to the Cin-
galese. The name itself proves its former importance
to the kings of Kandy, as Newera Ellia signifies " Royal
Plains." Kandy is termed by the Cingalese " Newera,"
as it was the capital of Ceylon and the residence of
the king.
However wild the country may be, and in many
portions unvisited by Europeans, still every high moun-
tain and every little plain in this wilderness of forest is
not only known to the natives of the adjacent low country,
but has its separate designation. There is no feature
of the country without its name, although the immense
tracts of mountain are totally uninhabited, and the
nearest villages are some ten or twelve miles distant,
between two and three thousand feet below.
There are native paths from village to village across
the mountains, which, although in appearance no nure
than deer-runs, have existed for many centuries, and are
used by the natives even to this day. The great
44 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
of forest-covered Newera Ellia mountains divides the
two districts of Ouva and Kotmalie, and these native
paths have been formed to connect the two by an ardu-
ous accent upon either side, and a comparatively level
cut across the shoulders of the mountains, through
alternate plain and forest, for some twenty-five miles.
These paths would never be known to Europeans were
it not for the distant runs of the hounds, in following
which, after some hours of fatiguing jungle-work, I
have come upon a path. The notches on the tree-
stems have proved its artificial character, and by fol-
lowing its course I have learnt the country.
There is not a path, stream, hill, or plain, within
many miles of Newera Ellia, that I do not know inti-
mately, although, when the character of the country is
scanned by a stranger from some mountain-top, the
very act of traversing it appears impossible. This
knowledge has been gained by years of unceasing
hunting, and by perseveringly following up the hounds
wherever they have gone. From sunrise till nightfall I
have often ploughed along through alternate jungles
and plains, listening eagerly for the cry of the hounds,
and at length discovering portions of the country which
I had never known to exist.
There is a great pleasure in thus working out the
features of a wild country, especially in an island like
Ceylon, which, in every portion, exhibits traces of
former prosperity and immense population. Even these
uninhabited and chilly regions, up_ to an elevation of
seven thousand feet, are not blank pages in the book of
Nature, but the hand of man is so distinctly traced
that the keen observer can read with tolerable certainty
the existence of a nation long since passed away.
Original Importance of Netvera Ellia. 45
As I before mentioned, I pitched my settlement on
the verge of the highland, at the eastern extremity of
the Newera Ellia plain, where the high road com-
mences a sudden descent toward Badulla, thirty-three
miles distant. This spot, forming a shallow gap, was
the ancient native entrance to Newera Ellia from that
side, and the Cingalese designation for the locality is
interpreted " the Path of a Thousand Princes." This
name assists in the proof that Newera Ellia was for-
merly of some' great importance. A far more enticing
name gives an interest to the first swampy portion of
the plain, some three hundred paces beyond, viz., " the
Valley of Rubies."
Now, having plainly discovered that Newera Ellia
was of some great importance to the natives, let us
consider in what that value consisted. There are no
buildings remaining, no ruins, as in other parts of
Ceylon, but a liquid mine of wealth poured from these
lofty regions. The importance of Newera Ellia lay
first in its supply of water, and, secondly, in its gems.
In all tropical countries the first principle of cultiva-
tion is the supply of water, without which the land
would remain barren. In a rice-growing country like
Ceylon, the periodical rains are insufficient, and the
whole system of native agriculture depends upon irri-
gation. Accordingly, the mountains being the reser-
voirs from which the rivers spring, become of vital im-
portance to the country.
The principal mountains in Ceylon are Pedrotalla-
galla, eight thousand two hundred and eighty feet ;
Kirigallapotta, seven thousand nine hundred ; Tota-
pella, eight thousand feet; and Adam's Peak, seven
thousand seven hundred ; but although their altitude is
46 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
so considerable, they do not give the idea of grandeur
which such an altitude would convey. They do not
rise abruptly from a level base, but they are merely the
loftiest of a thousand peaks towering from the highlands
of Ceylon.
The greater portion of the highland district may
therefore be compared to one vast mountain ; hill piled
upon hill, and peak rising over peak ; ravines of im-
mense depth, forming innumerable conduits for the
mountain torrents. Then, at the elevation of Newera
Ellia the heavings of the land appear to have rested,
and gentle undulations, diversified by plains and forests,
extend for some thirty miles. From these compara-
tively level tracts and swampy plains the rivers of
Ceylon derive their source and the three loftiest peaks
take their base ; Pedrotallagalla rising from the Newera
Ellia Plain, " Totapella" and Kirigallapotta from the
Horton Plains.
The whole of the highland district is thus composed
of a succession of ledges of great extent at various ele-
vations, commencing with the highest, the Horton
Plains, seven thousand feet above the sea.
Seven hundred feet below the Horton Plain, the
Totapella Plains and undulating forests continue at
this elevation as far as Newera Ellia for about twenty
miles, thus forming the second ledge.
Six miles to the west of Newera Ellia, at a lower
elevation of about nine hundred feet, the district of
Dimboola commences, and extends at this elevation
over a vast tract of forest-covered country, stretching
still farther to the west, and containing a small pro-
portion of plain.
At about the same elevation, nine miles on the
The Highlands of Ouva. 47
north of Newera Ellia, we descend to the Elephant
Plains ; a beautiful tract of fine grass country, but of
small extent. This tract and that of Dimboola form
the third ledge.
Nine miles to the east of Newera Ellia, at a lower
elevation of one thousand five hundred feet, stretches
the Ouva country, forming the fourth ledge.
The features of this country are totally distinct from
any other portion of Ceylon. A magnificent view ex-
tends as far as the horizon, of undulating open grass-
land, diversified by the rich crops of paddy which are
grown in each of the innumerable small valleys formed
by the undulations of the ground. Not a tree is to be
seen except the low brushwood which is scantily dis-
tributed upon its surface. We emerge suddenly from
the forest-covered mountains of Newera Ellia, and,
from a lofty point on the high road to Badulla, we look
down upon the splendid panorama stretched like a
waving sea beneath our feet The road upon which
we stand is scarped out of the mountain's side. The
forest has ceased, dying off gradually into isolated
patches and long ribbon-like strips on the sides of the
mountain, upon which rich grass is growing, in vivid
contrast to the rank and coarse herbage of Newera
Ellia, distant only five miles from the point upon which
we stand.
Descending until we reach Wilson's Plain, nine
miles from Newera Ellia, we arrive in the district of
Ouva, as much like the Sussex Downs as any place to
which it can be compared.
This district comprises about six hundred square
miles, ami forms the fourth and last ledge of the high-
lands of Ceylon. Passes from the mountains which
48 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
form the wall-like boundaries of this table-land descend
to the low. country in various directions.
The whole of the Ouva district upon the one side,
and of the Kotmalee district on the other side, of the
Newera Ellia range of mountains, are, with the excep-
tion of the immediate neighborhood of Kandy and
Colombo, the most populous districts of Ceylon.
This is entirely owing to the never-failing supply of
water obtained from the mountains ; and upon this
supply the wealth and prosperity of the country depend.
The ancient history of Ceylon is involved in much
obscurity, but nevertheless we have sufficient data in
the existing traces of its former population to form our
opinions of the position and power which Ceylon oc-
cupied in the Eastern Hemisphere when England was
in a state of barbarism. The wonderful remains of
ancient cities, tanks and water-courses throughout the
island all prove that the now desolate regions were
tenanted by a multitude not of savages, but of a race
long since passed away, full of industry and intelli-
gence.
Among the existing traces of former population few
are more interesting than those in the vicinity of
Newera Ellia.
Judging from the present supply of water required
for the cultivation of a district containing a certain pop-
ulation, we can arrive at a tolerably correct idea of the
former population by comparing the present supply of
water with that formerly required.
Although the district of Ouva is at present well pop-
ulated, and every hollow is taken advantage of for the
cultivation of paddy, still the demand for water in pro-
portion to the supply is comparatively small.
Ancient Methods of Irrigation. 49
The system of irrigation has necessarily involved
immense labor. For many miles the water is con-
ducted from the mountains through dense forests, across
ravines, round the steep sides of opposing hills, now
leaping into a lower valley into a reservoir, from which
it is again led through this arduous country until it at
length reaches the land which it is destined to render
fertile.
There has been a degree of engineering skill dis-
played in forming aqueducts through such formidable
obstacles ; the hills are lined out in every direction with
these proofs of industry, and their winding course can
be traced round the grassy sides of the steep moun-
tains, while the paddy-fields are seen miles away in the
valleys of Ouva stretched far beneath.
At least eight out of ten of these water-courses are
dry, and the masonry required in the sudden angles
of ravines, has, in most cases, fallen to decay. Even
those water-courses still in existence are of the second
class ; small streams have been conducted from their
original course, and these serve for the supply of the
present population.
From the remains of deserted water-courses of the
first class, it is evident that more than fifty times the
volume of water was then required that is in use at
present, and in the same ratio must have been the
amount of population.
In those days rivers were diverted from their natural
channels ; opposing hills were cut through, and the
waters thus were led into another valley to join a stream
flowing in its natural bed, whose course, eventually ob-
structed by a dam, poured its accumulated waters into
canals which branched to various localities. Not a
6 D
50 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
river in those times flowed in vain. The hill-sides
were terraced out in beautiful cultivation, which are
now waving with wild vegetation and rank lemon
grass. The remaining traces of stone walls point out
the ancient boundaries far above the secluded valleys
now in cultivation.
The nation has vanished, and with it the industry
and perseverance of the era.
We now arrive at the cause of the former importance
of Newera Ellia, or the " Royal Plains."
It has been shown that the very existence of the pop-
ulation depended upon the supply of water, and that
supply was obtained from the neighborhood of Newera
Ellia. Therefore, a king in possession of Newera Ellia
had the most complete command over his subjects ; he
could either give or withhold the supply of water at
his pleasure, by allowing its free exit or by altering its
course.
Thus, during rebellion, he could starve his people
into submission, or lay waste the land in time of for-
eign invasion. I have seen in an impregnable position
the traces of an ancient fort, evidently erected to de-
fend the pass to the main water-course from the low
country.
This gives us a faint clue to the probable cause of
the disappearance of the nation.
In time of war or intestine commotion, the water
may have been cut off from the low country, and the
exterminating effects of famine may have laid the
whole land desolate.
It is, therefore, no longer a matter of astonishment
that the present plain of Newera Ellia should have
received its appellation of the "Royal Plain." IP
The Vale of Rubies. 51
those days there was no very secure tenure to the
throne, and by force alone could a king retain it. The
more bloodthirsty and barbarous the tyrant, the more
was he dreaded by the awe-stricken and trembling pop-
ulation. The power of such a weapon of annihilation
as the command of the waters may be easily conceived,
as it invested a king with almost divine authority in
the eyes of his subjects.
Now there js little doubt that the existence of pre-
cious gems at Newera Ellia may have been accidentally
discovered in digging the numerous water-courses in
the vicinity ; there is, however, no doubt that at some
former period the east end of the plain, called the
" Vale of Rubies," constituted the royal " diggings."
That the king of Kandy did not reside at Newera Ellia
there is little wonder, as a monarch delighting in a
temperature of 85 Fahr. would have regarded the
climate of a mean temperature of 60 Fahr. as we
should that of Nova Zembla.
We may take it for granted, therefore, that when the
king came to Newera Ellia his visit had some object,
and we presume that he came to look at the condition
of his water-courses and to superintend the digging for
precious stones ; in the same manner that Ceylon gov-
ernors of past years visited Arippo during the pearl-
fishing.
The "diggings" of the kings of Kandy must have
been conducted on a most extensive scale. Not only
has the Vale of Rubies been regularly turned up for
many acres, but all the numerous plains in the vicinity
are full of pits, some of very large size and of a depth
varying from three to seventeen feet. The Newera
Ellia Plain, the Moonstone Plain, the Kondapalle"
52 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
Plain, the Elk Plains, the Totapella Plains, the Hor-
ton Plains, the Bopatalava Plains, the Augara Plains
(translated the " Diggings"), and many others extend-
ing over a surface of thirty miles, are all more or less
studded by deep pits formed by the ancient searchers
for gems, which in those days were a royal monopoly.
It is not to be supposed that the search for gems
would have been thus persevered in unless it was found
to be remunerative ; but it is a curious fact that no
Englishmen are ever to be seen at work at this em-
ployment. The natives would still continue the search,
were they permitted, upon the "Vale of Rubies;" but
I warned them oft' on purchasing the land ; and I have
several good specimens of gems which I have dis-
covered by digging two feet beneath the surface.
The surface soil being of a light, peaty quality, the
stones, from their greater gravity, lie beneath, mixed
with a rounded quartz gravel, which in ages past must
have been subjected to the action of running water.
This quartz gravel, with its mixture of gems, rests upon
a stiff white pipe-clay.
In this stratum of gravel an infinite number of small,
and for the most part worthless, specimens of gems are
found, consisting of sapphire, ruby, emerald, jacinth,
tourmaline, chrysoberyl, zircon, cat's-eye, " moon-
stone," and " star-stone." Occasionally a stone of
value rewards the patient digger ; but, unless he
thoroughly understands it, he is apt to pass over the
gems of most value as pieces of ironstone.
The mineralogy of Ceylon has hitherto been little
understood. It has often been suggested as the
" Ophir" of the time of Solomon, and doubtless, from
its production of gems, it might deserve the name.
Mineralogy of Ceylon. 53
It has hitherto been the opinion of most writers on
Ceylon that the precious metals do not exist in the
island ; and Dr. Davy in his work makes an unquali-
fied assertion to that effect. But from the discoveries
recently made, I am of opinion that it exists in -very
large quantities in the mountainous districts of the
island.
It is amusing to see the positive assertions of a clever
man upset by a few uneducated sailors.
A few men of the latter class, who had been at the
gold-diggings both in California and Australia, hap-
pened to engage in a ship bound for Colombo. Upon
arrival they obtained leave from the captain for a stroll
on shore, and they took the road toward Kandy, and
when about half-way it struck them, from the appear-
ance of the rocks in the uneven bed of a river, called
the Maha Oya, "that gold must exist in its sands."
They had no geological reason tor this opinion ; but
the river happened to be very like those in California
in which they had been accustomed to find gold. They
accordingly set to work with a tin pan to wash the
sand, and to the astonishment of every one in Ceylon,
and to the utter confusion of Dr. Davy's opinions, they
actually discovered gold I
The quantity was small, but the men were very
sanguine of success, and were making their prepara-
tions for working on a more extensive scale, when they
were all prostrated by jungle fever a guardian-spirit
of the gold at Ambepusse 1 , which will ever effectually
protect it from Europeans.
They all returned to Colombo, and, when .conva-
lescent, they proceeded to Newera Ellia, naturally con-
cluding that the gold which existed in dust in the rivers
5*
54 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
below must be washed down from the richer stores of
the mountains.
Their first discovery of gold at Newera Ellia was on
the I4th June, 1854, on the second day of their search
in that locality. The first gold was found in the "Vale
of Rubies."
I had advised them to make their first search in that
spot for this reason : that, as the precious stones had
there settled in the largest numbers, from their superior
gravity, it was natural to conclude that, if gold should
exist, it would, from its gravity, be somewhere below
the precious stones or in their vicinity.
From the facility with which it has been discovered,
it is impossible to form an opinion as to the quantity or
the extent to which it will eventually be developed.
It is equally impossible to predict the future discoveries
which may be made of other minerals. It is well
known that quicksilver was found at Cotta, six miles
from Colombo, in the year 1797. It was in small
quantities, and was neglected by the government, and
no extended search was prosecuted. The present search
for gold may bring to light mineral resources of Ceylon
which have hitherto lain hidden.
The minerals proved to exist up to the present time
are gold, quicksilver, plumbago and iron. The two
latter are of the finest quality and in immense abun-
dance. The rocks of Ceylon are primitive, consisting
of granite, gneiss and quartz. Of these the two latter
predominate. Dolomite also exists in large quantities
up to an elevation of five thousand feet, but not beyond
this height.
Plumbago is disseminated throughout the whole of
both soil and rocks in Ceylon, and may be seen cover-
Mineral Resources. 55
ing the surface in the drains by the road side, after a re-
cent shower.
It is principally found at Ratnapoora and at Belligam,
in large, detached kidney-shaped masses, from four to
twenty feet below the surface. The cost of digging
and the transport are the only expenses attending it, as
the supply is inexhaustible. Its component parts are
nineteen of carbon and one of iron.
It exists in such quantities in the gneiss rocks that
upon their decomposition it is seen in bright specks
like silver throughout.
This gneiss rock, when in a peculiar stage of decom-
position, has the appearance and consistency of yellow
brick, speckled with plumbago. It exists in this state
in immense masses, and forms a valuable building-
stone, as it can be cut with ease to any shape required,
and, though soft when dug, it hardens by exposure to
the air. It has also the valuable property of with-
standing the greatest heat ; and for furnace building it
is superior to the best Stourbridge fire-bricks.
The finest quality of iron is found upon the moun-
tains in various forms, from the small iron-stone gravel
to large masses of many tons in weight protruding
from the earth's surface.
So fine is that considered at Newera Ellia and the
vicinity that the native blacksmiths have been accus-
tomed from time immemorial to make periodical visits
for the purpose of smelting the ore. The average
specimens of this produce -about eighty per cent, of
pure metal, even by the coarse native process of smelt-
ing. The operations are as follows :
Having procured the desired amount of ore, it is
56 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
rendered as small as possible by pounding with a
hammer.
A platform is then built of clay, about six feet in
length by three feet in height and width.
A small well is formed in the centre of the platform,
about eighteen inches in depth and diameter, egg-
shaped.
A few inches from the bottom of this well is an air-
passage, connected with a pipe and bellows.
The well is then filled with alternate layers of char-
coal and pulverized iron ore ; the fire is lighted, and
the process of smelting commences.
The bellows are formed of two inflated skins, like a
double "bagpipe." Each foot of the " bellows-blower"
is strapped to one skin, the pipes of the bellows being
fixed in the air-hole of the blast. He then works the
skins alternately by moving his feet up and down, be-
ing assisted in this treadmill kind of labor by the elas-
ticity of two bamboos, of eight or ten feet in length,
the butts of which, being firmly fixed in the ground,
enable him to retain his balance by grasping one with
either hand. From the yielding top of each bamboo,
a string descends attached to either big toe ; thus the
downward pressure of each foot upon the bellows
strains upon the bamboo top as a fish bears upon a
fishing-rod, and the spring of the bamboo assists him in
lifting up his leg. Without this assistance, it would
be impossible to continue the exertion for the time re-
quired.
While the "bellows-blower" is thus getting up a
blaze, another man attends upon the well, which he
continues to feed alternately with fresh ore and a cor-
Native Blacksmiths. 57
responding amount of charcoal, every now and then
throwing in a handful of fine sand as a flux.
The return for a whole day's puffing and blowing
will be about twenty pounds weight of badly-smelted
iron. This is subsequently remelted, and is eventually
worked up into hatchets, hoes, betel-crackers, etc., etc.,
being of a superior quality to the best Swedish iron.
If the native blacksmith were to value his time at
only sixpence per diem from the day on which he first
started for the mountains till the day that he returned
from his iron-smelting expedition, he would find that
his iron would have cost him rather a high price per
hundredweight ; and if he were to make the same cal-
culation of the value of time, he would discover that
by the time he had completed one axe he could have
purchased ready made, for one-third the money, an
English tool of superior manufacture. This, however,
is not their style of calculation. Time has no value,
according to their crude ideas; therefore, if they want
an article, and can produce it without the actual outlay
of cash, no matter how much time is expended, they
will prefer that method of obtaining it.
Unfortunately, the expense of transit is so heavy from
Newera Ellia to Colombo, that this valuable metal, like
the fine timber of the forests, must remain useless.
CHAPTER IV.
POVERTY OF SOIL CEYLON SUGAR FATALITY OF CLIMATE
SUPPOSED FERTILITY OF SOIL NATIVE CULTIVATION NE-
GLECT OF RICE CULTIVATION ABANDONED RESERVOIRS
FORMER PROSPERITY RUINS OF CITIES POLLANARU A
THE GREAT DAGOBAr-ARCHITECTURAL RELICS THE ROCK
TEMPLE DESTRUCTION OF POPULATION NEGLECTED CA-
PABILITIES SUGGESTIONS FOR INCREASING POPULATION
PROGRESS OF PESTILENCE DESERTED VILLAGES DIFFI-
CULTIES IN THE CULTIVATION OF RICE DIVISION OF LABOR
NATIVE AGRICULTURE.
FROM the foregoing description, the reader will
have inferred that Newera Ellia is a delightful
place of residence, with a mean temperature of 60
Fahr., abounding with beautiful views of mountain and
plain and of boundless panoramas in the vicinity. He
will also have discovered that, in addition to the health-
iness of its climate, its natural resources are confined
to its timber and mineral productions, as the soil is de-
cidedly poor.
The appearance of the latter has deceived every one,
especially the black soil of the patina, which my bailiff,
on his first arrival, declared to be excellent. Lord
Torrington, who is well known as an agriculturist, was
equally deceived. He was very confident in the opinion
that " it only required draining to enable it to produce
58
Poverty of Soil. 59
anything." The real fact is, that it is far inferior to the
forest-land, and will not pay for the working.
Nevertheless, it is my decided opinion that the gen-
erality of the forest-land at Newera Ellia and the vicin-
ity is superior to that in other parts of Ceylon.
There are necessarily rich lots every now and then
in such a large extent as the surface of the low country ;
but these lots usually lie on the banks of rivers which
have been subjected to inundations, and they are not
fair samples of Ceylon soil. A river's bank or a val-
ley's bottom must be tolerably good even in the poorest
country.
The great proof of the general poverty of Ceylon is
shown in the failure of every agricultural experiment
in which a rich soil is required.
Cinnamon thrives ; but why? It delights in a soil of
quartz sand, in which nothing else would grow.
Cocoa-nut trees flourish for the same reason ; sea air,
a sandy soil and a dry subsoil are all that the cocoa-nut
requires.
On the other hand, those tropical productions which
require a strong soil invariably prove failures, and
sugar, cotton, indigo, hemp and tobacco cannot possi-
bly be cultivated with success.
Even on the alluvial soil upon the banks of rivers
sugar does not pay the proprietor. The only sugar
estate in the island that can keep its head above water
is the Peredenia estate, within four miles of Kandy.
This, again, lies upon the bank of the Mahawelli river,
and it has also the advantage of a home market for its
produce, as it supplies the interior of Ceylon at the rate
of twenty-three shillings per cwt. upon the spot.
Any person who thoroughly understands the practi-
60 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
cal cultivation of the sugar-cane can tell the quality of
sugar that will be produced by an examination of the
soil. I am thoroughly convinced that no soil in Ceylon
will produce a sample of fine, straw-colored, dry,
bright, large-crystaled sugar. The finest sample ever
produced of Ceylon sugar is a dull gray, and always
moist, requiring a very large proportion of lime in the
manufacture, without which it could neither be cleansed
nor crystalized.
The sugar cane, to produce fine sugar, requires a
rich, stifF, and very dry soil. In Ceylon, there is no
such thing as a stiff soil existing. The alluvial soil
upon the banks of rivers is adapted for the growth of
cotton and tobacco, but not for the sugar-cane. In such
light and moist alluvial soil the latter will grow to a
great size, and will yield a large quantity of juice in
which the saccharometer may stand well ; but the de-
gree of strength indicated will proceed from an immense
proportion of mucilage, which will give much trouble
in the cleansing during boiling ; and the sugar produced
must be wanting in dryness and fine color.
There are several rivers in Ceylon whose banks would
produce good cotton and tobacco, especially those in the
districts of Hambantotte and Batticaloa ; such as the
" Wallawe," the " Yalle river," the " Koombookanaar,"
etc. ; but even here the good soil is very limited, lying
on either bank for only a quarter of a mile in width.
In addition to this, the unhealthiness of the climate is
so great that I am convinced no European constitution
could withstand it. Even the natives are decimated
at certain seasons by the most virulent fevers and
dysentery.
These diseases generally prevail to the greatest extent
Supposed Fertility of Soil, 61
during the dry season. This district is particularly sub-
ject to severe droughts ; months pass away without a
drop of rain or a cloud upon the sky. Every pool and
tank is dried up ; the rivers forsake their banks, and a
trifling stream trickles over the sandy bed. Thus all
the rotten wood, dead leaves and putrid vegetation
brought down by the torrent during the wet season are
left upon the dried bed to infect the air with miasma.
This deadly climate would be an insurmountable
obstacle to the success of estates. Even could mana-
gers be found to brave the danger, one season of sick-
ness and death among the coolies would give the estate
a name which would deprive it of all future supplies
of labor.
Indigo is indigenous to Ceylon, but it is of an in-
ferior quality, and an experiment made in its cultiva-
tion was a total failure.
In fact, nothing will permanently succeed in Ceylon
soil without abundance of manure, with the exception
of cinnamon and cocoa-nuts. Even the native gardens
will not produce a tolerable sample of the common
sweet potato without manure, a positive proof of the
general poverty of the soil.
Nevertheless, Ceylon has had a character for fertility.
Bennett, in his work entitled " Ceylon and its Capa-
bilities," describes the island in the most florid terms,
as " the most important and valuable of all the insular
possessions of the imperial crown." Again he speaks
of " its fertile soil, and indigenous vegetable produc-
tions," etc., etc. Again : " Ceylon, though compara-
tively but little known, is pre-eminent in natural re-
sources." All this serves to mislead the public opinion.
Agricultural experiments in a tropical country in a little
6
62 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
garden highly manured may be very satisfactory and
very amusing. Everything must necessarily come to
perfection with great rapidity ; but these experiments
are no proof of what Ceylon will produce, and the
popular idea of its fertility has been at length proved a
delusion.
It is a dangerous thing for any man to sit down to
"make" a book. If he has had personal experience,
let him write a description of those subjects which he
understands ; but if he attempts to " make" a book, he
must necessarily collect information from hearsay,
when he will most probably gather some "chaff" with
his grain.
Can any man, when describing the "fertility" of
Ceylon, be aware that newly-cleared forest-land will
only produce one crop of the miserable grain called
korrakan ? Can he understand why the greater por-
tion of Ceylon is covered by dense thorny jungles? It
is simply this that the land is so desperately poor that
it will only produce one crop, and thus an immense
acreage is required for the support of a few inhabitants ;
thus, from ages past up to the present time, the natives
have been continually felling fresh forest and deserting
the last clearing, which has accordingly grown into a
dense, thorny jungle, forming what are termed the
" Chenars" of Ceylon.
So fully aware are the natives of the impossibility of
getting more than one crop out of the land that they
plant all that they require at the same time. Thus
may be seen in a field of korrakan (a small grain),
Indian corn, millet and pumpkins, all growing together,
and harvested as they respectively become ripe.
The pi'incipal articles of native cultivation are rice,
Neglect of Rice Cultivation. 63
korrakan, Indian corn, betel, areca-nuts, pumpkins,
onions, garlic, gingelly-oil seed, tobacco, millet, red
peppers, curry seed and sweet potatoes.
The staple articles of Ceylon production are coffee,
cinnamon and cocoa-nut oil, which are for the most
part cultivated and manufactured by Europeans.
The chief article of native consumption, "rice,"
should be an export from Ceylon ; but there has been
an unaccountable neglect on the part of government
regarding the production of this important grain, for
the supply of which Ceylon is mainly dependent upon
importation. In the hitherto overrated general re-
sources of Ceylon, the cultivation of rice has scarcely
been deemed worthy of notice ; the all-absorbing subject
of coffee cultivation has withdrawn the attention of the
government from that particular article, for the pro-
duction of which the resources of Ceylon are both
naturally and artificially immense.
This neglect is the more extraordinary as the in-
crease of coffee cultivation involves a proportionate
increase in the consumption of rice, by the additional
influx of coolie labor from the coast of India ; there-
fore the price and supply of rice in Ceylon become
questions of similar importance to the price of corn in
England. This dependence upon a foreign soil for the
supply involves the necessary fluctuations in price
caused by uncertain arrivals and precarious harvests ;
and the importance of an unlimited supply at an even
rate may be imagined when it is known that every na-
tive consumes a bushel of rice per month, when he can
obtain it.
Nevertheless, the great capabilities of Ceylon for the
cultivation of this all-important " staff of life" are en-
64 Eight Tears 1 Wandering's in Ceylon.
tirely neglected by the government. The tanks which
afforded a supply of water for millions in former ages
now lie idle and out of repair ; the pelican sails in soli-
tude upon their waters, and the crocodile basks upon
their shores ; the thousands of acres which formerly
produced rice for a dense population are now matted
over by a thorny and impenetrable jungle. The wild
buffalo, descendant from the ancient stock which tilled
the ground of a great nation, now roams through a barren
forest, which in olden times was a soil glistening with
fertility. The ruins of the mighty cities tower high
above the trees, sad monuments of desolation, where
all was once flourishing, and where thousands dwelt
within their walls.
All are passed away ; and in the wreck of past ages
we trace the great resources of the country, which pro-
duced sufficient food to support millions ; while for the
present comparatively small population Ceylon is de-
pendent upon imports.
These lakes, or tanks, were works of much art and
of immense labor for the purpose of reservoirs, from
the supply of which the requisite amount of land could
be irrigated for rice cultivation. A valley of the re-
quired extent being selected, the courses of neighboring
or distant rivers were conducted into it, and the exit of
the waters was prevented by great causeways, or dams,
of solid masonry, which extended for some miles across
the lower side of the valley thus converted into a lake.
The exit of the water was then regulated by means of
sluices, from which it was conducted by channels to the
rice-lands.
< These tanks are of various extent, and extremely nu-
merous throughout Ceylon. The largest are those of
Former Prosperity. 65
Minneria, Kandellai, Padavellkiellom, and the Giant's
Tank. These are from fifteen to twenty-five miles in
circumference ; but in former times, when the sluices
were in repair and the volume of water at its full height,
they must have been much larger.
In those days the existence of a reservoir of water
was a certain indication of a populous and flourishing
neighborhood ; and the chief cities of the country were
accordingly situated in those places which were always
certain of a supply. So careful were the inhabitants
in husbanding those liquid resources upon which their
very existence depended that even the surplus waters
of one lake were not allowed to escape unheeded.
Channels were cut, connecting a chain of tanks of
slightly varying elevations, over an extent of sixty or
seventy miles of apparently flat country, and the over-
flow of one tank was thus conducted in succession
from lake to lake, until they all attained the desired
level.
In this manner was the greater portion of Ceylon
kept in the highest state of cultivation. From the
north to the south the island was thickly peopled, and
the only portions which then remained in the hands of
nature were those which are now seen in the state of
primeval forest.
Well may Ceylon in those times have deserved the
name of the " Paradise of the East." The beauties
which nature has showered upon the land were height-
ened by cultivation ; the forest-capped mountains rose
from a waving sea of green ; the valleys teemed with
wealth ; no thorny jungles gave a barren cast to the
interminable prospect, but the golden tints of ripening
crops spread to the horizon. Temples stood upon the
6 * E
66 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
hill-tops ; cities were studded over the land, their lofty
dagobas and palaces reflected on the glassy surface
of the lakes, from which their millions of inhabit-
ants derived their food, their wealth and their very
life.
The remains of these cities sufficiently attest the
former amount of population and the comparative civ-
ilization which existed at that remote era among the
progenitors of the present degraded race of barbarians.
The ruins of "Anaradupoora," which cover two hun-
dred and fifty-six square miles of ground, are all that
remain of the noble city which stood within its walls
in a square of sixteen miles. Some idea of the amount
of population may be arrived at, when we consider the
present density of inhabitants in all Indian houses and
towns. Millions must, therefore, have streamed from
the gates of a city to which our modern London was
comparatively a village.
There is a degree of sameness in the ruins of all the
ancient cities of Ceylon which renders a description
tedious. Those of "Anaradupoora" are the largest in
extent, and the buildings appear to have been more
lofty, the great dagoba having exceeded four hundred
feet in height ; but the ruins do not exhibit the same
"finish" in the style of architecture which is seen in
the remains of other towns.
Among these, "Topare," anciently called "Polla-
narua," stands foremost. This city appears to have
been laid out with a degree of taste which would have
done credit to our modern towns.
Before its principal gate stretched a beautiful lake of
about fifteen miles' circumference (now only nine).
The approach to this gate was by a broad road, upon
Pottanarua. 67
the top of a stone causeway, of between two and three
miles in length, which formed a massive dam to the
waters of the lake which washed its base. To the
right of this dam stretched many miles of cultivation ;
to the left, on the farther shores of the lake, lay park-
like grass-lands, studded with forest trees, some of
whose mighty descendants still exist in the noble
"tamarind," rising above all others. Let us return in
imagination to Pollanarua as it once stood. Having
arrived upon the causeway in the approach to the city,
the scene must have been beautiful in the extreme : the
silvery lake, like a broad mirror, in the midst of a
tropical park ; the flowering trees shadowing it's
waters ; the groves of tamarinds sheltering its many
nooks and bays ; the gorgeous blossoms of the pink
lotus resting on its glassy surface ; and the carpet-like
glades of verdant pasturage, stretching far away upon
the opposite shores, covered with countless elephants,
tanned to complete obedience. Then on the right,
below the massive granite steps which form the cause-
way, the water rushing from the sluice carries fertility
among a thousand fields, and countless laborers and
cattle till the ground : the sturdy buffaloes straining at
the plough, the women, laden with golden sheaves of
corn and baskets of fruit, crowding along the palm-
shaded road winding toward the city, from whose gate
a countless throng are passing and returning. Behold
the mighty city ! rising like a snow-white cloud from
the broad margin of the waters. The groves of cocoa-
nuts and palms of every kind, grouped in the inner
gardens, throwing a cool shade upon the polished
walls ; the lofty palaces towering among the stately
areca trees, and the gilded domes reflecting a blaze of
68 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
light from the rays of a midday sun. Such let us sup-
pose the exterior of Pollanarua.
The gates are entered, and a broad street, straight as
an arrow, lies before us, shaded on either side by rows
of palms. Here stand, on either hand, the dwellings
of the principal inhabitants, bordering the wide space,
which continues its straight and shady course for about
four miles in length. In the centre, standing in a spa-
cious circle, rises the great Dagoba, forming a grand
coup (Fceil, from the entrance gate. Two hundred and
sixty feet from the base the Dagoba rears its lofty sum-
mit. Two circular terraces, each of some twenty feet
in height, rising one upon the other, with a width of
fifty feet, and a diameter at the base of about two hun-
dred and fifty, from the step-like platform upon which
the Dagoba stands. These are ascended by broad
flights of steps, each terrace forming a circular prome-
nade around the Dagoba ; the whole having the ap-
pearance of white marble, being covered with polished
stucco ornamented with figures in bas-relief. The
Dagoba is a solid mass of brickwork in the shape of a
dome, which rises from the upper terrace. The whole
is covered with polished stucco, and surmounted by a
gilded spire standing upon a square pedestal of stucco,
highly ornamented with large figures, also in bas-relief;
this pedestal is a cube of about thirty feet, supporting
the tall gilded spire, which is surmounted by a golden
umbrella.
Around the base of the Dagoba on the upper terrace
are eight small entrances with highly-ornamented ex-
teriors. These are the doors to eight similar chambers
of about twelve feet square, in each of which is a small
altar and carved golden idol.
The Great Dagoba. 69
This Dagoba forms the main centre of the city, from
which streets branch off in all directions, radiating
from the circular space in which it stands.
The main street from the entrance-gate continues to
the further extremity of the city, being crossed at right
angles in the centre by a similar street, thus forming
two great main streets through the city, terminating in
four great gates or entrances to the town north, south,
east and west.
Continuing along the main street from the great
Dagoba for about a mile, we face another Dagoba of
similar appearance, but of smaller dimensions, also
standing in a spacious circle. Near this rises the king's
palace, a noble building of great height, edged at the
corner by narrow octagon towers.
At the further extremity of this main street, close to
the opposite entrance-gate, is the rock temple, with the
massive idols of Buddha flanking the entrance.
This, from the form and position of the existing
ruins, we may conceive to have been the appearance
of Pollanarua in its days of prosperity. But what
remains of its grandeur? It has vanished like " a tale
that is told ;" it is passed away like a dream ; the pal-
aces are dust ; the grassy sod has grown in mounds over
the ruins of streets and fallen houses ; nature has turfed
them in one common grave with their inhabitants.
The lofty palms have faded away and given place to
forest trees, whose roots spring from the crumbled
ruins ; the bear and the leopard crouch in the porches
of the temples ; the owl roosts in the casements of the
palaces ; the jackal roams among the ruins in vain ;
there i& not a bone left for him to gnaw of the multi-
tudes which have passed away. There is their hand-
70 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
writing upon the temple wall, upon the granite slab
which has mocked at Time ; but there is no man to
decipher it. There are the gigantic idols before whom
millions have bowed ; there is the same vacant stare
upon their features of rock which gazed upon the mul-
titudes of yore ; but they no longer stare upon the
pomp of the glorious city, but upon ruin, and rank
weeds, and utter desolation. How many suns have
risen and how many nights have darkened the earth
since silence has reigned amidst the city, no man can
tell. No mortal can say what fate befell those hosts of
heathens, nor when they vanished from the earth. Day
and night succeed each other, and the shade of the set-
ting sun still falls from the great Dagoba ; but it is the
"valley of the shadow of death" upon which that
shadow falls like a pall over the corpse of a nation..
The great Dagoba now remains a heap of moulder-
ing brickwork, still retaining its form, but shorn of all
its beauty. The stucco covering has almost all disap-
peared, leaving a patch here and there upon the most
sheltered portions of the building. Scrubby brush-
wood and rank grass and lichens have for the most
part covered its surface, giving it the appearance rather
of a huge mound of earth than of an ancient building.
A portion of the palace is also standing, and, although
for the most part blocked up with ruins, there is still
sufficient to denote its former importance. The bricks,
or rather the tiles, of which all the buildings are com-
posed, are of such an imperishable nature that they
still adhere to each other in large masses in spots where
portions of the buildings have fallen.
In one portion of the ruins there are a number of
beautiful fluted colums, with carved capitals, still re-
Architectural Ruins. *j\
maining in a perfect state. Among these are the ruins
of a large flight of steps ; near them, again, a stone-
lined tank, which was evidently intended as a bath ;
and everything denotes the former comfort and arrange-
ment of a first-class establishment. There are innu-
merable relics, all interesting and worthy of individual
attention, throughout the ruins over a surface of many
miles, but they are mostly overgrown with jungle or
covered with rank grass. The apparent undulations
of the ground in all directions are simply the remains
of fallen streets and buildings overgrown in like man-
ner with tangled vegetation.
The most interesting, as being the most perfect,
specimen, is the small rock temple, which, being hewn
out of the solid stone, is still in complete preservation.
This is a small chamber in the face of an abrupt rock,
which, doubtless, being partly a natural cavern, has
been enlarged to the present size by the chisel ; and the
entrance, which may have been originally a small hole,
has been shaped into an arched doorway. The interior
is not more than perhaps twenty-five feet by eighteen,
and is simply fitted up with an altar and the three
figures of Buddha, in the positions in which he is
usually represented the sitting, the reclining and the
standing postures.
The exterior of the temple is far more interesting.
The narrow archway is flanked on either side by two
inclined planes, hewn from the face of the rock, about
eighteen feet high by twelve in width. These are com-
pletely covered with an inscription in the old Pali lan-
guage, which has never been translated. Upon the left
of one plain is a kind of sunken area hewn out of the
rock, in which sits a colossal figure of Buddha, about
72 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
twenty feet in height. On the right of the other plane
is a figure in the standing posture about the same
height; and still farther to the right, likewise hewn
from the solid rock, is an immense figure in the recum-
bent posture, which is about fifty-six feet in length, or,
as I measured it, not quite nineteen paces.
These figures are of a far superior class of sculpture
to the idols usually seen in Ceylon, especially that in
the reclining posture, in which the impression of the
head upon the pillow is so well executed that the mas-
sive pillow of gneiss rock actually appears yielding to
the weight of the head.
This temple is supposed to be coeval with the city,
which was founded about three hundred years before
Christ, and is supposed to have been in ruins for up-
ward of six hundred years. The comparatively recent
date of its destruction renders its obscurity the more
mysterious, as there is no mention made of its annihila-
tion in any of the Cingalese records, although the city
is constantly mentioned during the time of its prosperity
in the native history of Ceylon. It is my opinion that
its destruction was caused by famine.
In those days the kings of Ceylon were perpetually
at war with each other. The Queen of the South,
from the great city of Mahagam in the Hambantotte
district, made constant war with the kings of Pollanarua.
They again made war with the Arabs and Malabars,
who had invaded the northern districts of Ceylon ; and
as in modern warfare the great art consists in cutting
off the enemy's supplies, so in those days the first and
most decisive blow to be inflicted was the cutting off
the " water." Thus, by simply turning the course of a
river which supplied a principal tank, not only would
Destruction of Population. 73
that tank lose its supply, but the whole of the connected
chain of lakes dependent upon the principal would in
like manner be deprived of water.
This being the case, the first summer or dry season
would lay waste the country. I have myself seen the
lake of Minneria, which is twenty-two miles in cir-
cumference, evaporate to the small dimensions of four
miles circuit during a dry season.
A population of some millions wholly dependent
upon the supply of rice for their existence would be
thrown into sudden starvation by the withdrawal of the
water. Thus have the nations died out like a fire for
lack of fuel.
This cause will account for the decay of the great
cities of Ceylon. The population gone, the wind and
the rain would howl through the deserted dwellings,
the white ants would devour the supporting beams, the
elephants would rub their colossal forms against the
already tottering houses, and decay would proceed with
a rapidity unknown in a cooler clime. As the seed
germinates in a few hours in a tropical country, so
with equal haste the body of both vegetable and animal
decays when life is extinct. A perpetual and hurrying
change is visible in all things. A few showers, and
the surface of the earth is teeming with verdure ; a few
days of drought, and the seeds already formed are fall-
ing to the earth, springing in their turn to life at the
approach of moisture. The same rapidity of change is
exhibited in their decay. The heaps of vegetable pu-
tridity upon the banks of rivers, when a swollen torrent
has torn the luxuriant plants from the loosened soil, are
but the effects of a few hours' change. The tree that
arrives at maturity in a few years rots in as short a
7
74 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
time when required for durability : thus it is no mys-
tery, that either a house or a city should shortly fall to
decay when the occupant is gone.
In like manner, and with still greater rapidity, is a
change effected in the face of nature. As the flowers
usurp the place of weeds under the care of man, so,
when his hand is wanting, a few short weeks bury
them beneath an overwhelming mass of thorns. In
one year a jungle will conceal all signs of recent culti-
vation. Is it, therefore, a mystery that Ceylon is cov-
ered with such vast tracts of thorny jungle, now that
her inhabitants are gone ?
Throughout the world there is a perpetual war be-
tween man and nature, but in no country has the
original curse of the earth been carried out to a fuller
extent than in Ceylon : " thorns also and thistles shall
it bring forth to thee." This is indeed exemplified
when a few months' neglect of once-cultivated land
renders it almost impassable, and where man has
vanished from the earth and thorny jungles have cov-
ered the once broad tracts of prosperous cultivation.
A few years will thus produce an almost total ruin
throughout a deserted city. The air of desolation
created by a solitude of six centuries can therefore be
easily imagined. There exists, however, among the
ruins of Pollanarua a curious instance of the power of
the smallest apparent magnitude to destroy the works
of man. At some remote period a bird has dropped
the seed of the banian tree (Jicus Indicus) upon the
decaying summit of a dagoba. This, germinating,
has struck its root downward through the brickwork,
and, by the gradual and insinuating progress of its
growth, it has split the immense mass of building into
Suggestions for Increasing Population. 75
two sections ; the twisted roots now appearing through
the clefts, while the victorious tree waves in exultation
above the ruin : an emblem of the silent growth of
" civilization" which will overturn the immense fabric
of heathen superstition.
It is placed beyond a doubt that the rice-growing re-
sources of Ceylon have been suffered to lie dormant
since the disappearance of her ancient population ; and
to these neglected capabilities the attention of govern-
ment should be directed.
An experiment might be commenced on a small
scale by the repair of one tank say Kandellai, which
is only twenty-six miles from Trincomalee on the high-
road to Kandy. This tank, when the dam and sluices
were repaired, would rise to about nine feet above
its present level, and would irrigate many thousand
acres.
The grand desideratum in the improvement of Cey-
lon is the increase of the population ; all of whom
should, in some measure, be made to increase the
revenue.
The government should therefore hazard this one
experiment to induce the emigration of the industrious
class of Chinese to the shores of Ceylon. Show them
a never-failing supply of water and land of unlimited
extent to be had on easy terms, and the country would
soon resume its original prosperity. A tax of five per
cent, upon the produce of the land, to commence in the
ratio of .o per cent, for the first year, three per cent, for
the second and third, and the full amount of five for the
fourth, would be a fair and easy rent to the settler, and
would not only repay the government for the cost of
repairing the tank, but would in a few years become a
76 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
considerable source of revenue, in addition to the in-
creased value of the land, now worthless, by a system
of cultivation.
Should the first experiment succeed, the plan might
be continued throughout Ceylon, and the soil of her
own shores would produce a supply for the island con-
sumption. The revenue would be derived direct from
the land which now produces nothing but thorny jungle.
The import trade of Ceylon would be increased in pro-
portion to the influx of population, and the duties upon
enlarged imports would again tend to swell the revenue
of the country.
The felling and clearing of the jungle, which culti-
vation would render necessary, would tend, in a great
measure, to dispel the fevers and malaria always pro-
duced by a want of free circulation of air. In a jungle-
covered country like Ceylon, diseases of the most ma-
lignant character are harbored in thes.e dense and un-
disturbed tracts, which year after year reap a pesti-
lential harvest from the thinly-scattered population.
Cholera, dysentery, fever and small-pox all appear in
their turn and annually sweep whole villages away. I
have frequently hailed with pleasure the distant tope
of waving cocoa-nut trees after a long day's journey in
a broiling sun, when I have cantered toward these
shady warders of cultivation in hopes of a night's halt
at a village. But the palms have sighed in the wind
over tenantless abodes, and the mouldering dead have
lain beneath their shade. Not a living soul remaining ;
all swept away by pestilence ; huts recently fallen to
decay, fruits ripening on the trees, and no hand left to
gather them ; the shaddock and the lime falling to the
earth to be preyed upon by the worm, like their former
Deserted Villages. 77
masters. All dead ; not one left to tell the miserable
tale.
The decay of the population is still progressing, and
the next fifty years will see whole districts left unin-
habited unless something can be done to prevent it.
There is little doubt that if land and water could be
obtained from government in a comparatively healthy
and populous neighborhood, many would migrate to
that point from the half-deserted districts, who might
assist in the cultivation of the country instead of rotting
in a closing jungle.
One season of pestilence, even in a large village,
paves the road for a similar visitation in the succeeding
year, for this reason :
Say that a village comprising two hundred men is
reduced by sickness to a population of one hundred.
The remaining one hundred cannot keep in cultivation
the land formerly open ; therefore, the jungle closes
over the surface and rapidly encroaches upon the vil-
lage. Thus the circulation of air is impeded and
disease again halves the population. In each succes-
sive year the wretched inhabitants are thinned out, and
disease becomes the more certain as the jungle con-
tinues to advance. At length the miserable few are no
longer sufficient to cultivate the rice-lands ; their num-
bers will not even suffice for driving their buffaloes.
The jungle closes round the village ; cholera finishes
the scene by sweeping off the remnant ; and groves of
cocoa-nut trees, towering over the thorny jungle, become
monuments sacred to the memory of an exterminated
village.
The number of villages which have thus died out is
almost incredible. In a day's ride of twenty miles, I
7*
78 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
have passed the remains of as many as three or four ;
how many more may have vanished in the depths of
the jungle !
Wherever the cocoa-nut trees are still existing, the
ruin of the village must have been comparatively recent,
as the wild elephants generally overturn them in a few
years after the disappearance of the inhabitants, brow-
sing upon the succulent tops, and destroying every
trace of a former habitation.
There is no doubt that when sickness is annually re-
ducing the population of a district, the inhabitants, and
accordingly the produce of the land, must shortly come
to an end. In all times of pestilence the first impulse
among the natives is to fly from the neighborhood, but
at present there is no place of refuge. It is, therefore,
a matter of certainty that the repair of one of the prin-
cipal tanks would draw together in thousands the sur-
vivors of many half-perished villages, who would
otherwise fall victims to succeeding years of sickness.
The successful cultivation of rice at all times requires
an extensive population, and large grazing-grounds for
the support of the buffaloes necessary for the tillage of
the land.
The labor of constructing dams and forming water-
courses is performed by a general gathering, similar to
the American principle of a "bee;" and, as "many
hands make light work," the cultivation proceeds with
great rapidity. Thus a large population can bring into
tillage a greater individual proportion of ground than a
smaller number of laborers, and the rice is iccordingly
produced at a cheaper rate.
Few people understand the difficulties with which a
small village has to contend in the cultivation of rice.
Difficulties in the Cultivation of Rice. 79
The continual repairs of temporary dams, which are
nightly trodden down and destroyed by elephants ; the
filling up of the water-courses from the same cause ;
the nocturnal attacks upon the crops by elephants and
hogs ; the devastating attacks of birds as the grain be-
comes ripe ; a scarcity of water at the exact moment
that it is required ; and other numerous difficulties
which are scarcely felt by a large population.
By the latter the advantage is enjoyed of the division
of labor. The dams are built of permanent material ;
every work is rapidly completed ; the night-fires blaze
in the lofty watch-houses, while the shouts of the
watchers scare the wild beasts from the crops. Hun-
dreds of children are daily screaming from their high
perches to scare away the birds. Rattles worked by
long lines extend in every direction, unceasingly pulled
by the people in the watch-houses ; wind-clackers
(similar to our cherry-clackers) are whirling in all
places ; and by the division of the toil among a multi-
tude the individual work proceeds without fatigue.
Every native is perfectly aware of this advantage in
rice cultivation ; and were the supply of water ensured
to them by the repair of a principal tank, they would
gather around its margin. The thorny jungles would
soon disappear from the surface of the ground, and a
densely-populated and prosperous district would again
exist where all has been a wilderness for a thousand
years.
The system of rice cultivation is exceedingly labori-
ous. The first consideration being a supply of water,
the second is a perfect level, or series of levels, to be ir-
rigated. Thus a hill-side must be terraced out into a
succession of platforms or steps ; and a plain, however
So Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
apparently flat, must, by the requisite embankments, be
reduced to the most perfect surface.
This being completed, the water is laid on for a cer-
tain time, until the soil has become excessively soft and
muddy. It is then run oft', and the land is ploughed by
a simple implement, which, being drawn by two buffa-
loes, stirs up the soil to a depth of eighteen inches.
This finished, the water is again laid on until the mud
becomes so soft that a man will sink knee-deep. In
this state it is then trodden over by buffaloes, driven
backward and forward in large gangs, until the mud is
so thoroughly mixed that upon the withdrawal of the
water it sinks to a perfect level.
Upon this surface the paddy, having been previously
soaked in water, is now sown ; and, in the course of a
fortnight, it attains a height of about four inches. The
water is now again laid on, and continued at intervals
until within a fortnight of the grain becoming ripe. It
is then run off; the ground hardens, the ripe crop is
harvested by the sickle, and the grain is trodden out by
buffaloes. The rice is then separated from the paddy
or husk by being pounded in a wooden mortar.
This is a style of cultivation in which the Cingalese
particularly excel ; nothing can be more beautifully
regular than their flights of green terraces from the
bottoms of the valleys to the very summits of the hills ;
and the labor required in their formation must be im-
mense, as they are frequently six feet one above the
other. The Cingalese are peculiarly a rice-growing
nation ; give them an abundant supply of water and
land on easy terms, and they will not remain idle.
CHAPTER V.
REAL COST OF LAND WANT OF COMMUNICATION COFFEE-
PLANTINGCOMPARISON BETWEEN FRENCH AND ENGLISH
SETTLERS LANDSLIPS FOREST-CLEARING MANURING
THE COFFEE BUG RATS FATTED STOCK SUGGESTIONS
FOR SHEEP-FARMING ATTACK OF A LEOPARD LEOPARDS
AND CHETAHS BOY DEVOURED TRAPS MUSK CATS AND
THE MONGOOSE VERMIN OF CEYLON.
WHAT is the government price of land in Ceylon ?
and what is the real cost of the land ? These
are two questions which should be considered sepa-
rately, and with grave attention, by the intending settler
or capitalist.
The upset price of government land is twenty shil-
lings per acre ; thus, the inexperienced purchaser is
very apt to be led away by the apparently low sum per
acre into a purchase of great extent. The question of
the real cost will then be solved at his expense. There
are few colonies belonging to Great Britain where the
government price of land is so high, compared to the
value of the natural productions of the soil.
The staple commodity of Ceylon being coffee, I will
assume that a purchase is concluded with the govern-
ment for one thousand acres of land, at the upset price
of twenty shillings per acre. What has the purchaser
F 81
8s Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
obtained for this sum? One thousand acres of dense
forest, to which there is no road. The one thousand
pounds passes into the government chest, and the
purchaser is no longer thought of; he is left to
shift for himself and to make the most of his bad
bargain.
He is, therefore, in this position : He has parted
with one thousand pounds for a similar number of
acres of land, which will not yield him one penny in
any shape until he has cleared it from forest. This he
immediately commences by giving out contracts, and
the forest is cleared, lopped and burnt. The ground is
then planted with coffee, and the planter has to wait
three years for a return. By the time of full bearing
the whole cost of felling, burning, planting and clean-
ing will be about eight pounds per acre ; this, in addi-
tion to the prime cost of the land, and about two
thousand pounds expended in buildings, machinery,
etc., etc., will bring the price of the land, when in a
yielding condition, to eleven pounds an acre at the low-
est calculation. Thus before his land yields him one
fraction, he will have invested eleven thousand pounds,
if he clears the whole of his purchase. Many per-
sons lose sight of this necessary outlay when first pur-
chasing their land, and subsequently discover to their
cost that their capital is insufficient to bring the estate
into cultivation.
Then comes the question of a road. The govern-
ment will give him no assistance ; accordingly, the
whole of his crop must be conveyed on coolies' heads
along an arduous path to the nearest highway, perhaps
fifteen miles distant. Even this rough path of fifteen
miles the planter must form at his own expense.
Want of Communication. 83
Considering the risks that are always attendant upon
agricultural pursuits, and especially upon coffee-plant-
ing, the price of rough land must be acknowledged as
absurdly high under the present conditions of sales.
There is a great medium to be observed, however, in
the sales of crown land ; too low a price is even a
greater evil than too high a rate, as it is apt to encour-
age speculators in land, who do much injury to a colony
by locking up large tracts in an uncultivated state, to
take the chance of a future rise in the price.
This evil might easily be avoided by retaining the
present bona Jide price of the land per acre, qualified
by an arrangement that one-half of the purchase money
should be expended in the formation of roads from the
land in question. This would be of immense assistance
to the planters, especially in a populous planting neigh-
borhood, where the purchases of land were large and
numerous, in which case the aggregate sum would be
sufficient to form a carriage road to the main highway,
which might be kept in repair by a slight toll. An
arrangement of this kind is not only fair to the planters,
but would be ultimately equally beneficial to the gov-
ernment. Every fresh sale of land would ensure either
a new road or the improvement of an old one ; and the
country would be opened up through the most remote
districts. This very fact of good communication would
expedite the sales of crown lands, which are now value-
less from their isolated position.
Coffee-planting in Ceylon has passed through the
various stages inseparable from every " mania."
In the early days of our possession, the Kandian dis-
trict was little known, and sanguine imaginations
painted the hidden prospect in their ideal colors, ex-
84 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
pecting that a trace once opened to the interior would
be the road to fortune.
How these golden expectations have been disap-
pointed the broken fortunes of many enterprising
planters can explain.
The protective duty being withdrawn, a competition
with foreign coffee at once reduced the splendid prices
of olden times to a more moderate standard, and took
forty per cent, out of the pockets of the planters.
Coffee, which in those days brought from one hundred
shillings to one hundred and forty shillings per hundred-
weight, is now reduced to from sixty shillings to eighty
shillings.
This sudden reduction created an equally suddeii
panic among the planters, many of whom were men
of straw, who had rushed to Ceylon at the first cry of
coffee "fortunes," and who had embarked on an exten-
sive scale with borrowed capital. These were the first
to smash. In those days the expenses of bringing land
into cultivation were more than double the present
rate, and, the cultivation of coffee not being so well
understood, the produce per acre was comparatively
small. This combination of untoward circumstances
was sufficient cause for the alarm which ensued, and
estates were thrust into the market and knocked down
for whatever could be realized. Mercantile houses
were dragged down into the general ruin, and a dark
cloud settled over the Cinnamon Isle.
As the after effects of a "hurricane" are a more
healthy atmosphere and an increased vigor in all vege-
tation, so are the usual sequels to a panic in the com-
mercial world. Things are brought down to their real
value and level ; men of straw are swept away, and
Coffee- Planting. 85
affairs are commenced anew upon a sound and steady
basis. Capital is invested with caution, and improve-
ments are entered upon step by step, until success is
assured.
The reduction in the price of coffee was accordingly
met by a corresponding system of expenditure and by
an improved state of cultivation ; and at the present
time the agricultural prospects of the colony are in a
more healthy state than they have ever been since the
commencement of coffee cultivation.
There is no longer any doubt that a coffee estate in a
good situation in Ceylon will pay a large interest for
the capital invested, and will ultimately enrich the pro-
prietor, provided that he has his oivn. capital to work
his estate, that he gives his own personal superintend-
ence and that he understands the management. These
are the usual conditions of success in most affairs ; but
a coffee estate is not unfrequently abused for not paying
when it is worked with borrowed capital at a high
rate of interest under questionable superintendence.
It is a difficult thing to define the amount which con-
stitutes a "fortune :" that which is enough for one man
is a pittance for another ; but one thing is certain, that,
no matter how small his first capital, the coffee-planter
hopes to make his "fortune."
Now, even allowing a net profit of twenty per cent,
per annum on the capital invested, it must take at least
ten years to add double the amount to the first capital,
allowing no increase to the spare capital required for
working the estate. A rapid fortune can never be
made by working a coffee estate. Years of patient in-
dustry and toil, chequered by many disappointments,
may eventually reward the proprietor ; but it will be at
8
36 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
a time of life when a long residence in the tropics will
have given him a distaste for the chilly atmosphere of
old England ; his early friends will have been scattered
abroad, and he will meet few faces to welcome him on
his native shores. What cold is so severe as a cold re-
ception ? no thermometer can mark the degree. No
fortune, however large, can compensate for the loss of
home, and friends, and early associations.
This feeling is peculiarly strong throughout the
British nation. You cannot convince an English
settler that he will be abroad for an indefinite number
of years ; the idea would be equivalent to transporta-
tion : he consoles himself with the hope that something
will turn up to alter the apparent certainty of his exile ;
and in this hope, with his mind ever fixed upon his re-
turn, he does nothing for posterity in the colony. He
rarely even plants a fruit tree, hoping that his stay will
not allow him to gather from it. This accounts for the
poverty of the gardens and enclosures around the
houses of the English inhabitants, and the general
dearth of any fruits worth eating.
How different is the appearance of French colonies,
and how different are the feelings of the settler ! The
word "adieu" once spoken, he sighs an eternal fare-
well to the shores of " La belle France," and, with the
natural light-hearted ness of the nation, he settles cheer-
fully in a colony as his adopted country. He lays out
his grounds with taste, and plants groves of exquisite
fruit trees, whose produce will, he hopes, be tasted by
his children and grandchildren. Accordingly, in a
French colony there ia a tropical beauty in the culti-
vated trees and flowers which is seldom seen in our
possessions. The fruits are brought to perfection, as
Coffee- Planting. 87
there is the same care taken in pruning and grafting the
finest kinds as in our gardens in England.
A Frenchman is necessarily a better settler ; every-
thing is arranged for permanency, from the building
of a house to the cultivation of an estate. He does not
distress his land for immediate profit, but from the
very commencement he adopts a system of the highest
cultivation.
The latter is now acknowledged as the most remune-
rative course in all countries ; and its good effects are
already seen in Ceylon, where, for some years past,
much attention has been devoted to manuring on coffee
estates.
No crop has served to develop the natural poverty of
the soil so much as coffee ; and there is no doubt that,
were it possible to procure manure in sufficient quantity,
the holes should be well filled at the time of planting.
This would give an increased vigor to the young plant
that would bring the tree into bearing at an earlier date,
as it would the sooner arrive at perfection.
The present system of coffee-planting on a good
estate is particularly interesting. It has now been
proved that the best elevation in Ceylon to combine
fine quality with large crops is from twenty-five hun-
dred to four thousand feet. At one time it was con-
sidered that the finest quality was produced at the
highest range ; but the estates at an elevation of five
thousand feet are so long at arriving at perfection, and
the crop produced is so small, that the lower elevation
is preferred.
In the coffee districts of Ceylon there is little or no
level ground to be obtained, and the steep sides of the
hills offer many objections to cultivation. The soil,
88 Eight Tears' Wandering's $n Ceylon.
naturally light and poor, is washed by every shower,
and the more soluble portions, together with the salts
of the manure applied to the trees, are being continu-
ally robbed by the heavy rains. Thus it is next to im-
possible to keep an estate in a high state of cultivation,
without an enormous expense in the constant applica-
tion of manure.
Many estates are peculiarly subject to landslips, which
are likewise produced by the violence of the rains. In
these cases the destruction is frequently to a large ex-
tent ; great rocks are detached from the summits of the
hills, and sweep off whole lines of trees in their
descent.
Wherever landslips are frequent, they may be taken
as an evidence of a poor, clay subsoil. The rain soaks
through the surface ; and not being able to percolate
through the clay with sufficient rapidity, it lodges be-
tween the two strata, loosening the upper surface, which
slides from the greasy clay ; launched, as it were, by its
own gravity into the valley below.
This is the worst kind of soil for the coffee tree,
whose long tap-root Is ever seeking nourishment from
beneath. On this soil it is very common to see a
young plantation giving great promise ; but as the trees
increase in growth the tap-root reaches the clay sub-
soil and the plantation immediately falls off. The
subsoil is of far more importance to the coffee-tree than
the upper surface ; the latter may be improved by
manure, but if the former is bad there is no remedy.
The first thing to be considered being the soil, and
the planter being satisfied with its quality, there is
another item of equal importance to be taken into con-
sideration when choosing a locality for a coffee estate.
Forest - Clearing. 89
This is an extent of grazing land sufficient for the sup-
port of the cattle required for producing manure.
In a country with so large a proportion of forest as
Ceylon, this is not always practicable ; in which case
land should be cleared and grass planted, as it is now
proved that without manure an estate will never pay
the proprietor.
The locality being fixed upon, the clearing of the
forest is commenced. The felling is begun from the
base of the hills, and the trees being cut about half
through, are started in sections of about an acre at one
fall. This is easily effected by felling some large tree
from the top, which, falling upon its half-divided
neighbor, carries everything before it like a pack of
cards.
The number of acres required having been felled, the
boughs and small branches are all lopped, and, together
with the cleared underwood, they form a mass over the
surface of the ground impervious to man or beast.
This mass, exposed to a powerful sun, soon becomes
sufficiently dry for burning, and, the time of a brisk
breeze being selected, the torch is applied.
The magnificent sight of so extensive a fire is suc-
ceeded by the desolate appearance of blackened stumps
and smouldering trunks of trees : the whole of the
branches and underwood having been swept away by
the mighty blaze, the land is comparatively clear.
Holes two feet square are now dug in parallel lines
at a distance of from six to eight feet apart throughout
the estate, and advantage being taken of the wet sea-
son, they are planted with young coffee trees of about
twelve inches high. Nothing is now required but to
keep the land clean until the trees attain the height of
8*
9C Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
about four feet and come into bearing. This, at an
elevation of three thousand feet, they generally do in two
years and a half. The stem is then topped, to prevent
its higher growth and to produce a large supply of
lateral shoots.
The system of pruning is the same as with all fruit
trees ; the old wood being kept down to induce fruit-
bearing shoots, whose number must be proportioned to
the strength of the tree.
The whole success of the estate now depends upon
constant cleaning, plentiful manuring and careful
pruning, with a due regard to a frugal expenditure and
care in the up-keep of buildings, etc., etc. Much
attention is also required in the management of the
cattle on the estate, for without a proper system the
amount of manure produced will be proportionately
small. They should be bedded up every night hock
deep with fresh litter, and the manure thus formed
should be allowed to remain in the shed until it is
between two and three feet deep. It should then be
treated on a " Geoffrey" pit (named after its inventor).
This is the simplest and most perfect method for
working up the weeds from an estate, and effectually
destroying their seeds at the same time that they are
converted into manure.
A water-tight platform is formed of stucco say forty
feet square surrounded by a wall two feel high, so as
to form a tank. Below this is a sunken cistern say
eight feet square into which the drainage would be
conducted from the upper platform. In this cistern a
force-pump is fitted, and the cistern is half filled with
a solution of saltpetre and sal-ammoniac.
A layer of weeds and rubbish is now laid upon the
Manuring. 91
platform for a depth of three feet, surmounted by a
layer of good dung from the cattle sheds of one foot
thick. These layers are continued alternately in the
proportion of three to one of weeds, until the mass is
piled to a height of twenty feet, the last layer being
good dung. Upon this mass the contents of the cistern
are pumped and evenly distributed by means of a
spreader.
This mixture promotes the most rapid decomposition
of vegetable matter, and, combining with the juices of
the weeds and the salts of the dung, it drains evenly
through the whole mass, forming a most perfect com-
post. The surplus moisture, upon reaching the bottom
of the he#p, drains from the slightly inclined platform
into the receiving cistern, and is again pumped over
the mass.
This is the cheapest and best way of making manure
upon an estate, the cattle sheds and pits being arranged
in the different localities most suitable for reducing the
labor of transport.
The coffee berry, when ripe, is about the size of a
cherry, and is shaped like a laurel berry. The flesh
has a sweet but vapid taste, and encloses two seeds of
coffee. These are carefully packed by nature in a
double skin.
The cherry coffee is gathered by coolies at the rate
of two bushels each per diem, and is cleared from the
flesh by passing through a pulper, a machine consisting
of cylindrical copper graters, which tear the flesh from
the berry and leave the coffee in its second covering of
parchment. The coffee is then exposed to a partial
fermentation by being piled for some hours in a large
heap. This has the effect of loosening the fleshy par-
92 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
tides, which, by washing in a cistern of running water,
are detached from the berry. It is then rendered per-
fectly dry in the sun or by means of artificially heated
air ; and, being packed in bags, it is forwarded to Co-
lombo. Here it is unpacked and sent to the mill,
which, by means of heavy rollers, detaches the parch-
ment and under silver skin, and leaves the grayish-blue
berry in a state for market. The injured grains are
sorted out by women, and the coffee is packed for the
last time and shipped to England.
A good and well-managed estate should produce an
average crop of ten hundredweight per acre, leaving a
net profit of fifteen shillings per hundredweight under
favorable circumstances. Unfortunately, it is next to
impossible to make definite calculations in all agricul-
tural pursuits : the inclemency of seasons and the at-
tacks of vermin are constantly marring the planter's
expectations. Among the latter plagues the "bug"
stands foremost. This is a minute and gregarious in-
sect, which lives upon the juices of the coffee tree, and
accordingly is most destructive to an estate. It attacks
a variety of plants, but more particularly the tribe of
jessamine ; thus the common jessamine, the " Gardenia"
(Cape jessamine) and the coffee {Jasminum Ara-
bicum) are more especially subject to its ravages.
The dwelling of this insect is frequently confounded
with the living creature itself. This dwelling is in
shape and appearance like the back shell of a tortoise,
or, still more, like a " limpet," being attached to the
stem of the tree in the same manner that the latter ad-
heres to a rock. This is the nest or house, which, al-
though no larger than a split hempseed, contains some
hundreds of the "bug." As some thousands of these
The Coffee Bug Rats. 93
scaly nests exist upon one tree, myriads of insects
must be feeding upon its juices.
The effect produced upon the tree is a blackened and
sooty appearance, like a London shrub ; the branches
look withered, and the berries do not plump out to
their full size, but, for the most part, fall unripened
from the tree. This attack is usually of about two
years' duration ; after which time the tree loses its
blackened appearance, which peels off the surface of
the leaves like gold-beaters' skin, and they appear in
their natural color. Coffee plants of young growth are
liable to complete destruction if severely attacked by
"bug."
Rats are also very destructive to an estate ; they are
great adepts at pruning, and completely strip the trees
of their young shoots, thus utterly destroying a crop.
These vermin are more easily guarded against than the
insect tribe, and should be destroyed by poison. Hog's
lard, ground cocoa-nut and phosphorus form the most
certain bait and poison combined.
These are some of the drawbacks to coffee-planting,
to say nothing of bad seasons and fluctuating prices,
which, if properly calculated, considerably lessen the
average profits of an estate, as it must be remembered
that while a crop is reduced in quantity, the expenses
continue at the usual rate, and are severely felt when
consecutive years bring no produce to meet them.
Were it not for the poverty of the soil, the stock of
cattle required on a coffee estate for the purpose of
manure might be made extremely profitable, and the
gain upon fatted stock would pay for the expense
of manuring the estate. This would be the first and
most reasonable idea to occur to an agriculturist " buy
94 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
poor cattle at a low price, fatten them for the butcher,
and they give both profit and manure."
Unfortunately, the natural pasturage is not sufficiently
good to fatten beasts indiscriminately. There are some
few out of a herd of a hundred who will grow fat upon
anything, but the generality will not improve to any
great degree. This accounts for the scarcity of fine
meat throughout Ceylon. Were the soil only tolerably
good, so that oats, vetches, turnips and mangel wurtzel
could be grown on virgin land without manure, beasts
might be stall-fed, the manure doubled by that method,
and a profit made on the animals. Pigs are now kept
extensively on coffee estates for the sake of their manure,
and being fed on Mauritius grass (a coarse description
of gigantic " couch") and a liberal allowance of cocoa-
nut oilcake ("poonac"), are found to succeed, although
the manure is somewhat costly.
English or Australian sheep have hitherto been un-
tried for what reason I cannot imagine, unless from
the expense of their prime cost, which is about two
pounds per head. These thrive to such perfection at
Newera Ellia, and also in Kandy, that they should suc-
ceed in a high degree in the medium altitudes of the
coffee estates. There are immense tracts of country
peculiarly adapted for sheep-farming throughout the
highlands of Ceylon, especially in the neighborhood of
the coffee estates. There are two enemies, however,
against which they would have to contend viz.,
"leopards" and "leeches." The former are so destruc-
tive that the shepherd could never lose sight of his
flock without great risk ; but the latter, although tron
blesome, are not to be so much dreaded as people sup-
pose. They are very small, and the quantity of blood
Attack of a Leopard. 95
drawn by their bite is so trifling that no injury could
possibly follow, unless from the flies, which would be
apt to attack the sheep on the smell of blood. These
are drawbacks which might be easily avoided by com-
mon precaution, and I feel thoroughly convinced that
sheep-farming upon the highland pasturage would be a
valuable adjunct to a coffee estate, both as productive
of manure and profit. I have heard the same opinion
expressed by an experienced Australian sheep-farmer.
This might be experimented upon in the "down"
country of Ouva with great hopes of success, and by a
commencement upon a small scale the risk would be
trifling. Here there is an immense tract of country
with a peculiar short grass in every way adapted for
sheep-pasturage, and with the additional advantage of
being nearly free from leopards. Should sheep succeed
on an extensive scale the advantage to the farmer and
to the colony would be mutual.
The depredations of leopards among cattle are no in-
considerable causes of loss. At Newera Ellia hardly a
week passes without some casualty among the stock of
different proprietors. Here the leopards are particu-
larly daring, and cases have frequently occurred where
they have effected their entrance to a cattle-shed by
scratching a hole through the thatched roof. They
then commit a wholesale slaughter among sheep and
cattle. Sometimes, however, they catch a " Tartar."
The native cattle are small, but very active, and the
cows are particularly savage when the calf is with
them.
About three years ago a leopard took it into, his head
to try the beefsteaks of a very savage and sharp-horned
cow, who with her calf was the property of the black-
96 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
smith. It was a dark, rainy night, the blacksmith and
his wife were in bed, and the cow and her calf were
nestled in the warm straw in the cattle-shed. The
door was locked, and all was apparently secure, when
the hungry leopard prowled stealthily round the cow-
house, sniffing the prey within. The scent of the
leopard at once aroused the keen senses of the cow,
made doubly acute by her anxiety for her little charge,
and she stood ready for the danger as the leopard, hav-
ing mounted on the roof, commenced scratching his
way through the thatch.
Down he sprang ! but at the same instant, with a
splendid charge, the cow pinned him against the wall,
and a battle ensued which can easily be imagined. A
coolie slept in the corner of the cattle-shed, whose
wandering senses were completely scattered when he
found himself the unwilling umpire of the fight.
He rushed out and shut the door. In a few minutes
he succeeded in awakening the blacksmith, who struck
a light and proceeded to load a pistol, the only weapon
that he possessed. During the whole of this time the
bellowing of the cow, the roars of the leopard and the
thumping, trampling and shuffling which proceeded
from the cattle-shed, explained the savage nature of the
fight.
The blacksmith, who was no sportsman, shortly
found himself with a lanthorn in one hand, a pistol in
the other, and no idea of what he meant to do. He
waited, therefore, at the cattle-shed door, and holding
the light so as to shine through the numerous small
apertures in the shed, he looked in.
The leopard no longer growled ; but the cow was
mad with fury. She alternately threw a large dark
Leopards and Chetahs. 97
mass above her head, then quickly pinned it to the
ground on its descent, then bored it against the wall, as
it crawled helplessly toward a corner of the shed. This
was the " beef-eater" in reduced circumstances ! The
gallant little cow had nearly killed him, and was giving
him the finishing strokes. The blacksmith perceived
the leopard's helpless state, and, boldly opening the
door, he discharged his pistol, and the next moment
was bolting as hard as he could run, with the warlike
cow after him. She was regularly " up," and was
ready for anything or anybody. However, she was at
length pacified, and the dying leopard was put out of
his misery.
There are two distinct species of the leopard in
Ceylon viz., the " chetah," and the "leopard" or
" panther." There have been many opinions on the
subject, but I have taken particular notice of the two
animals, and nothing can be more clear than the dis-
tinction.
The " chetah" is much smaller than the leopard,
seldom exceeding seven feet from the nose to the end
of the tail. He is covered with round black ''spots"
of the size of a shilling, and his weight rarely exceeds
ninety pounds. ,
The leopard varies from eight to nine feet in length,
and has been known to reach even ten feet. His body
is covered with black " rings" with a rich brown
centre his muzzle and legs are speckled with black
''spots" and his weight is from one hundred and ten
to one hundred and seventy pounds. There is little or
no distinction between the leopard and the panther ;
they are synonymous terms for a variety of species in
different countries. In Ceylon all leopards are termed
9 G
98 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
"chetahs ;" which proceeds from the general ignorance
of the presence of the two species.
The power of a leopard is wonderful in proportion
to his weight. I have seen a full-grown bullock with
its neck broken by the leopard that attacked it. It is
the popular belief that the effect is produced by a blow
of the paw ; this is not the case ; it is not simply the
blow, but it is the combination of the weight, the
power and the momentum of the spring which renders
the effects of a leopard's attack so surprising.
Few leopards rush boldly to the attack like a dog ;
they stalk their game and advance crouchingly, making
use of every object that will afford them cover until
they are within a few bounds of their prey. Then the
immense power of muscle is displayed in the concen-
trated energy of the spring ; he flies through the air and
settles on the throat, usually throwing his own body
over the animal, while his teeth and claws are fixed on
the neck ; this is the manner in which the spine of an
animal is broken by a sudden twist, and not by a
blow.
The blow from the paw is nevertheless immensely
powerful, and at one stroke will rip open a bullock like
a knife ; but the after effects of the wound are still more
to be dreaded than the force of the blow. There is a
peculiar poison in the claw which is highly dangerous.
This is caused by the putrid flesh which they are con-
stantly tearing, and which is apt to cause gangrene by
inoculation.
It is a prevalent idea that a leopard will not eat
putrid meat, but that he forsakes a rotten carcase and
seeks fresh prey. There is no doubt that a natural
love of slaughter induces him to a constant search for
Boy Devoured. 99
prey, but it has nothing to do with the daintiness of
his appetite. A leopard will eat any stinking offal
that offers, and I once had a melancholy proof of this.
I was returning from a morning's hunting ; it was a
bitter day ; the rain was pouring in torrents, th*e wind
was blowing a gale and sweeping the water in sheets
along the earth. The hounds were following at my
horse's heels, with their ears and sterns down, looking
very miserable, and altogether it was a day when man
and beast should have been at home. Presently, upon
turning a corner of the road, I saw a Malabar boy of
about sixteen years of age, squatted shivering by the
roadside. His only covering being a scanty cloth round
his loins, I told him to get up and go on or he would
be starved with cold. He said something in reply,
which I could not understand, and, repeating my first
warning, I rode on. It was only two miles to my
house, but upon arrival I could not help thinking that
the boy must be ill, and having watched the gate for
some time to see if he passed by, I determined to send
for him.
Accordingly, I started off a couple of men with orders
to carry him up if he were sick.
They returned in little more than an hour, but the
poor boy was dead ! sitting crouched in the same
position in which I had seen him. He must have died
of cold and starvation ; he was a mere skeleton,
I sent men to the spot, and had him buried by the
roadside, and a few days after I rode down to see where
they had laid him.
A quantity of fresh-turned earth lay scattered about,
mingled with fragments of rags. Bones much gnawed
lay here and there on the road, and a putrid skull h<i
ioo Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
rolled from a shapeless hole among a confused and
horrible heap. The leopards had scratched him up
and devoured him ; their footprints were still fresh
upon the damp ground.
Both leopards and chetahs are frequently caught at
Newera Ellia. The common trap is nothing more or
less than an old-fashioned mouse-trap, with a falling
door on a large scale ; this is baited with a live kid or
sheep ; but the leopard is naturally so wary that he
frequently refuses to enter the ominous-looking build-
ing, although he would not hesitate to break into an
ordinary shed. The best kind of trap is a gun set with
a line, and the bait placed so that the line must be
touched as the animal advances toward it. This is
certain destruction to the leopard, but it is extremely
dangerous, in case any stranger should happen to be in
the neighborhood who might inadvertently touch the
cord.
Leopards are particularly fond of stealing dogs, and
have frequently taken them from the very verandas of
the houses at Newera Ellia in the dusk of the evening.
Two or three cases have occurred within the last two
years where they have actually sprung out upon dogs
who have been accompanying their owners upon the
high road in broad daylight. Their destruction should
be encouraged by a government reward of one pound
per head, in which case their number would be ma-
terially decreased in a few years.
The best traps for chetahs would be very powerful
vermin-gins, made expressly of great size and strength,
so as to lie one foot square when open. Even a com-
mon jackal-trap would hold a leopard, provided the
chain was fastened to an elastic bough, so that it would
Traps. 101
yield slightly to his spring ; but if it were secured to a
post, or to anything that would enable him to get a
dead pull against it, something would most likely give
way. I have constantly set these traps for them, but
always without success, as some other kind of vermin
is nearly certain to spring the trap before the chetah's
arrival. Among the variety of small animals thus
caught I have frequently taken the civet cat. This is a
very pretty and curious creature, about forty inches
long from nose to tip of tail. The fur is ash-gray,
mottled with black spots, and the tail is divided by
numerous black rings. It is of the genius Viverra,
and is exceedingly fierce when attacked. It preys
chiefly upon fowls, hares, rats, etc. Its great peculi-
arity is the musk-bag or gland situated nearly under
the tail ; this is a projecting and valved gland, which
secretes the musk, and is used medicinally by the
Cingalese, on which account it is valued at about six
shillings a pod. The smell is very powerful, and in
my opinion very offensive, when the animal is alive ;
but when a pod of musk is exti'acted and dried, it has
nothing more than the well-known scent of that used
by perfumers. The latter is more frequently the pro-
duction of the musk-deer, although the scent is pos-
sessed by many animals, and also insects, as the musk-
ox, the musk-deer, the civet or musk-cat, the musk-rat,
the musk-beetle, etc.
Of these, the musk-rat is a terrible plague, as he per-
fumes everything that he passes over, rendering fruit,
cake, bread, etc., perfectly uneatable, and even flavor-
ing bottled wine by running over the bottles. This,
however, requires a little explanation, although it is the
popular belief that he taints the wine through the glass.
9*
102 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
The fact is, he taints the cork, and the flavor of musk
is communicated to the wine during the process of un-
corking the bottle.
There is a great variety of rats in Ceylon, from the
tiny shrew to the large " bandicoot." This is a most
destructive creature in all gardens, particularly among
potato crops, whole rows of which he digs out and
devours. He is a perfect rat in appearance, but he
would rather astonish one of our English tom-cats if
encountered during his rambles in search of rats, as the
" bandicoot" is about the same size as the cat.
There is an immense variety of vermin throughout
Ceylon, including many of that useful species the
ichneumon, who in courage and strength stands first
of his tribe. The destruction of snakes by this animal
renders him particularly respected, and no person ever
thinks of destroying him. No matter how venomous
the snake, the ichneumon, or mongoose, goes straight
at him, and never gives up the contest until the snake
is vanquished.
It is the popular belief that the mongoose eats some
herb which has the property of counteracting the effects
of a venomous bite ; but this has been proved to be a
fallacy, as pitched battles have been witnessed between
a mongoose and the most poisonous snakes in a closed
room, where there was no possibility of his procuring
the antidote. His power consists in his vigilance and
activity ; he avoids the dart of the snake, and adroitly
pins him by the back of the neck. Here he maintains
his hold, in spite of the contortions and convulsive
writhing of the snake, until he succeeds in breaking
the spine. A mongoose is about three feet long from
the nose to the tip of the tail, and is of the same genus
Vermin of Ceylon. 103
as the civet cat. Unfortunately, he does not confine his
destruction to vermin, but now and then pays a visit to
a hen-roost, and sometimes, poor fellow ! he puts his
foot in the traps.
Ceylon can produce an enticing catalogue of attrac-
tions, from the smallest to the largest of the enemies to
the human race ticks, bugs, fleas, tarantulas, centi-
pedes, scorpions, leeches, snakes, lizards, crocodiles,
etc., of which, more hereafter.
CHAPTER VI.
" GAME EYES" FOR WILD SPORTS ENJOYMENTS OF WILD LIFB
CRUELTY OF SPORTS NATIVE HUNTF.RS MOORMEN
TRADERS THEIR WRETCHED GUNS RIFLES AND SMOOTH-
BORES HEAVY BALLS AND HEAVY METAL BEATTIE'S
RIFLES BALLS AND PATCHES EXPERIMENTS THE DOU-
BLE-GROOVE POWER OF HEAVY METAL CURIOUS SHOT
AT A BULL ELEPHANT AFRICAN AND CEYLON ELEPHANTS
STRUCTURE OF SKULL LACK OF TROPHIES BOAR-
SPEARS AND HUNTING-KNIVES BERTRAM A BOAR HUNT
FATAL CUT. ,
IN traveling through Ceylon, the remark is often
made by the tourist that "he sees so little game."
From the accounts generally written of its birds and
oeasts, a stranger would naturally expect to come upon
them at every turn, instead of which it is a well-known
fact that one hundred miles of the wildest country may
be traversed without seeing a single head of game, and
the uninitiated might become skeptical as to its exist-
ence.
This is accounted for by the immense proportion of
forest and jungle, compared to the open country. The
nature of wild animals is to seek cover at sunrise, and
to come forth at sunset ; therefore it is not surprising
that so few are casually seen by the passing traveler.
There is another reason, which would frequently apply
104
" Game Eyes" for Wild Sports. 105
even in an open country. Unless the traveler is well
accustomed to wild sports, he has not his "game eye"
open in fact ; he either passes animals without observ-
ing them, or they see him and retreat from view before
he remarks them.
It is well known that the color of most animals is
adapted by Nature to the general tint of the country
which they inhabit. Thus, having no contrast, the
animal matches with surrounding objects, and is diffi-
cult to be distinguished.
It may appear ridiculous to say that an elephant is
very difficult to be seen ! he would be plain enough
certainly on the snow, or on a bright green meadow in
England, where the contrasted colors would make him
at once a striking object ; but in a dense jungle his
skin matches so completely with the dead sticks and
dry leaves, and his legs compare so well with the sur-
rounding tree-stems, that he is generally unperceived
by a stranger, even when pointed out to him. I have
actually been taking aim at an elephant within seven
or eight paces, when he has been perfectly unseen by a
friend at my elbow, who was peering through the
bushes in quest of him.
Quickness of eye is an indispensable quality in
sp6rtsmen, the possession of which constitutes one of
their little vanities. Nothing is so conducive to the
perfection of all the senses as the constant practice in
wild and dangerous sports. The eye and the ear be-
come habituated to watchfulness, and their powers are
increased in the same proportion as the muscles of the
body are by exercise. Not only is an animal imme-
diately observed, but anything out of the common
among surrounding objects instantly strikes the atten-
106 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
tion ; the waving of one bough in particular when all
are moving in the breeze ; the twitching of a deer's ear
above the long grass ; the slight rustling of an animal
moving in the jungle. The senses are regularly tuned
up, and the limbs are in the same condition from con-
tinual exercise.
There is a peculiar delight, which passes all descrip-
tion, in feeling thoroughly well-strung, mentally and
physically, with a good rifle in your hand and a trusty
gun-bearer behind you with another, thus stalking
quietly through a fine country, on the look-out for "any-
thing" no matter what. There is a delightful feeling
of calm excitement, if I might so express it, which
nothing but wild sports will give. There is no time
when a man knows himself so thoroughly as when he
depends upon himself, and this forms his excitement.
With a thorough confidence in the rifle and a bright
lookout, he stalks noiselessly along the open glades,
picking out the softest places, avoiding the loose stones
or anything that would betray his steps ; now piercing
the deep shadows of the jungles, now scanning the
distant plains, nor leaving a nook or hollow unsearched
by his vigilant gaze. The fresh breakage of a branch,
the barking of a tree-stem, the lately nibbled grass,
with the sap still oozing from the delicate blade, the
disturbed surface of a pool ; everything is noted, even
to the alarmed chatter of a bird : nothing is passed un-
heeded by an experienced hunter.
To quiet, steady-going people in England there is an
idea of cruelty inseparable from the pursuit of large
game; people talk of "unoffending elephants," "poor
buffaloes," "pretty deer," and a variety of nonsense
about things which they cannot possibly understand.
Cruelty of Sports. 107
Besides, the very person who abuses wild sports on the
plea of cruelty indulges personally in conventional
cruelties which are positive tortures. His appetite is
not destroyed by the knowledge that his cook has
skinned the eels alive, or that the lobsters were plunged
into boiling water to be cooked. He should remember
that a small animal has the same feeling as the largest,
and if he condemns any sport as cruel, he must con-
demn all.
There is no doubt whatever that a certain amount of
cruelty pervades all sports. But in " wild sports" the
animals are for the most part large, dangerous and mis-
chievous, and they are pursued and killed in the most
speedy, and therefore in the most merciful, manner.
The government reward for the destruction of ele-
phants in Ceylon was formerly ten shillings per tail ; it
is now reduced to seven shillings in some districts, and
is altogether abolished in others, as the number killed
was so great that the government imagined they could
not afford the annual outlay.
Although the number of these animals is still so im-
mense in Ceylon, they must nevertheless have been
much reduced within the last twenty years. In those
days the country was overrun with them, and some
idea of their numbers may be gathered from the fact
that three first-rate shots in three days bagged one hun-
dred and four elephants. This was told to me by one
of the parties concerned, and it throws our modern
shooting into the shade. In those days, however, the
elephants were comparatively undisturbed, and they
were accordingly more easy to approach. One of the
oldest native hunters has assured me that he has seen
the elephants, when attacked, recklessly expose them-
io8 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
selves to the shots and endeavor to raise their dead
comrades. This was at a time when guns were first
heard in the interior of Ceylon, and the animals had
never been shot at. Since that time the decrease in the
game of Ceylon has been immense. Every year in-
creases the number of guns in the possession of the
natives, and accordingly diminishes the number of
animals. From the change which has come over
many parts of the country within my experience of the
last eight years, I am of opinion that the next ten years
will see the deer-shooting in Ceylon completely spoiled,
and the elephants very much reduced. There are now
very few herds of elephants in Ceylon that have not
been shot at by either Europeans or natives, and it is a
common occurrence to kill elephants with numerous
marks of old bullet wounds. Thus the animals are
constantly on the " qui vive" and at the report of a
gun every herd within hearing starts off for the densest
jungles.
A native can now obtain a gun for thirty shillings ;
and with two shillings' worth of ammunition, he starts
on a hunting trip. Five elephants, at a reward of seven
shillings per tail, more than pay the prime cost of his
gun, to say nothing of the deer and other game that he
has bagged in the interim.
Some, although very few, of the natives are good
sportsmen in a potting" way. They get close to their
game, and usually bag it. This is a terrible system for
destroying, and the more so as it is unceasing. There
is no rest for the animals ; in the day-time they are
tracked up, and on moonlight nights the drinking-
places are watched, and an unremitting warfare is
carried on. This is sweeping both deer and buffalo
Native Hunters. 109
from the country, and must eventually almost annihilate
them.
The Moormen are the best hunters, and they combine
sport with trade in such a manner that " all is fish that
comes to their net." Five or six good hunters start
with twenty or thirty bullocks and packs. Some of
these are loaded with common cloths, etc., to exchange
with the village people for dried venison ; but the inten-
tion in taking so many bullocks is to bring home the
spoils of their hunting trip in fact, to "carry the bag."
They take about a dozen leaves of the talipot palm to
form a tent, and at night-time, the packs, being taken
off the bullocks, are piled like a pillar in the centre,
and the talipot leaves are formed in a circular roof
above them. The bullocks are then secured round the
tent to long poles, which are thrown upon the ground
and pinned down by crooked pegs.
These people have an intimate knowledge of the
country, and are thoroughly acquainted with the habits
of the animals and the most likely spots for game.
Buffaloes, pigs and deer are indiscriminately shot, and
the flesh being cut in strips from the bones is smoked
over a green-wood fire, then thoroughly dried in the
sun and packed up for sale. The deer skins are also
carefully dried and rolled up, and the buffaloes' and
deer horns are slung to the packs.
Many castes of natives will not eat buffalo meat,
others will not eat pork, but all are particularly fond
of venison. This the Moorman fully understands, and
overcomes all scruples by a general mixture of the
different meats, all of which he sells as venison. Thus
no animal is spared whose flesh can be passed off for
deer. Fortunately, their guns are so common that
10
no Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
they will not shoot with accuracy beyond ten or fifteen
paces, or there would be no game left within a few
years. How these common guns stand the heavy
charges of powder is a puzzle. A native thinks
nothing of putting four drachms down a gun that I
should be sorry to fire off at any rate. It is this heavy
charge which enables such tools to kill elephants
which would otherwise be impossible. These natives
look upon a first-class English rifle with a sort of vene-
ration. Such a weapon would be a perfect fortune to
one of these people, and I have often been astonished
that robberies of such things are not more frequent.
There is much difference of opinion among Ceylon
sportsmen as to the style of gun for elephant-shooting.
But there is one point upon which all are agreed, that
no matter what the size of the bore may be, all the
guns should be alike, and the battery for one man
should consist of four double-barrels. The confusion
in hurried loading where guns are of different calibres
is beyond conception.
The size and the weight of guns must depend as
much on the strength and build of a man as a ship's
armament does upon her tonnage ; but let no man
speak against heavy metal for heavy game, and let no
man decry rifles and uphold smooth-bores (which is
very general), but rather let him say, "I cannot carry
a heavy gun" and "I cannot shoot with a rifle"
There is a vast difference between shooting at a
target and shooting at live game. Many men who are .
capital shots at target-practice cannot touch a deer, and
cannot even use the rifle as a rifle at live game, but
actually knock the sights out and use it as a smooth-
bore. This is not the fault of the weapon ; it is the
Rifles and Smooth-Sores. in
fault of the man. It is a common saying in Ceylon,
and also in India, that you cannot shoot quick enough
with the rifle, because you cannot get the proper sight
in an instant.
Whoever makes use of this argument must certainly
be in the habit of very random shooting with a smooth-
bore. How can he possibly get a correct aim with
" ball," even out of a smooth-bore, without squinting
along the barrel and taking the muzzle-sight accurately?
The fact is, that many pei-sons fire so hastily at game
that they take no sight at all, as though they were
snipe-shooting with many hundred grains of shot in the
charge. This will never do for ball-practice, and when
the rifle is placed in such hands, the breech-sights
naturally bother the eye which is not accustomed to
recognize any sight ; and while the person is vainly en-
deavoring to get the sight correctly on a moving object,
the animal is increasing his distance. By way of
cutting the Gordian knot, he therefore knocks his sight
out, and accordingly spoils the shooting of the rifle
altogether.
Put a rifle in the hands of a man who knows how to
handle it, and let him shoot against the mutilated
weapon deprived of its sight, and laugh at the trial.
Why, a man might as well take the rudder off a ship
because he could not steer, and then abuse the vessel
for not keeping her course !
My idea of guns and rifles is this, that the former
should be used for what their makers intended them,
viz., shot-shooting, and that no ball should be fired from
any but the rifle. Of course it is just as easy and as
certain to kill an elephant with a smooth-bore as with
a rifle, as he is seldom fired at until within ten or
112 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
twelve paces ; but a man, when armed for wild sport,
should be provided with a weapon which is fit for any
kind of ball-shooting at any reasonable range, and his
battery should be perfect for the distance at which he is
supposed to aim.
I have never seen any rifles which combine the requi-
sites for Ceylon shooting to such a degree as my four
double-barreled No. 10, which I had made to order.
Then some persons exclaim against their weight, which
is fifteen pounds per gun. But a word upon that
subject.
No person who understands anything about a rifle
would select a light gun with a large bore, any more
than he would have a heavy carriage for a small horse.
If the man objects to the weight of the rifle, let him
content himself with a smaller bore, but do not rob the
barrels of their good metal for the sake of a heavy ball.
The more metal that the barrel possesses in proportion
to the diameter of the bore, the better will the rifle
carry, nine times out of ten. Observe the Swiss rifles
for accurate target-practice again, remark the Ameri-
can pea rifle ; in both the thickness of metal is immense
in proportion to the size of the ball, which, in great
measure, accounts for the precision with which they
carry.
In a light barrel, there is a vibration or jar at the
time of explosion, which takes a certain effect upon the
direction of the ball. This is necessarily increased by
the use of a heavy charge of powder ; and it is fre-
quently seen that a rifle which carries accurately enough
with a very small charge, shoots wide of the mark
when the charge is increased. This arises from several
causes, generally from the jar of the barrel in the stock,
Heavy Balls and Heavy Metal. 113
proceeding either from the want of metal in the rifle
or from improper workmanship in the fittings.
To avoid this, a rifle should be made with double
bolts, and a silver plate should always be let into the
stock under the breech ; without which the woodwork
will imperceptibly wear, and the barrel will become
loose in the stock and jar when fired.
There is another reason for the necessity of heavy
barrels, especially for two-grooved rifles. Unless the
grooves be tolerably deep, they will not hold the ball
when a heavy charge is behind it ; it quits the grooves,
strips its belt, and flies out as though fired from a
smooth-bore.
A 'large-bore rifle is a useless incumbrance, unless
it is so constructed that it will bear a proportionate
charge of powder, and shoot as accurately with its
proof charge as with a single drachm. The object in
having a large bore is to possess an extra powerful
weapon, therefore the charge of powder must be in-
creased in proportion to the weight of the ball, or the
extra power is not obtained. Nevertheless, most of
the heavy rifles that I have met with will not carry an
adequate charge of powder, and they are accordingly
no more powerful than guns of lighter bore which
carry their proportionate charge the powder has more
than its fair amount of work.
Great care should be therefore taken in making rifles
for heavy game. There cannot be a better calibre than
No. 10 ; it is large enough for any animal in the world,
and a double-barreled rifle of this bore, without a ram-
rod, is not the least cumbersome, even at the weight of
fifteen pounds. A ramrod is not required to be in the
gun for Ceylon shooting, as there is always a man
10* H
H4 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
behind with a spare rifle, who carries a loading rod ;
and were a ramrod fitted to a rifle of this size, it would
render it very unhandy, and would also weaken the
stock.
The sights should be of platinum at the muzzle, and
blue steel, with a platinum strip with a broad and deep
letter V cut in the breech-sights. In a gloomy forest
it is frequently difficult to catch the muzzle sight, un-
less it is of some bright metal, such as silver or plati-
num ; and a broad cut in the breech-sights, if shaped as
described, allows a rapid aim, and may be taken fine
or coarse at option.
The charge of powder must necessarily depend upon
its strength. For elephant-shooting, I always use six
drachms of the best powder for the No. 10 rifles, and
four drachms as the minimum charge for deer and
general shooting ; the larger charge is then unnecessary ;
it both wastes ammunition and alarms the country by
the loudness of the report.
There are several minutiae to be attended to in the
sports of Ceylon. The caps should always be carried
in a shot-charger (one of the common spring-lid
chargers) and never be kept loose in the pocket. The
heat is so intense that the perspiration soaks through
everything, and so injures the caps that the very best
will frequently miss fire.
The powder should be dried for a few minutes in the
sun before it is put into the flask, and it should be well
shaken and stirred to break any lumps that may be in
it. One of these, by obstructing the passage in the
flask, may cause much trouble in loading quickly,
especially when a wounded elephant is regaining his
feet. In such a case you must keep your eyes on the
Necessary Precautions. 115
animal while loading, and should the passage of the
powder-flask be stopped by a lump, you may fancy the
gun is loaded when in fact not a grain of powder has
entered it.
The patches should be of silk, soaked in a mixture
of one part of beeswax and two of fresh hog's lard,
free from salt. If they are spread with pure grease, it
melts out of them in a hot country, and they become
dry. Silk is better than linen as it is not so liable to
be cut by the sharp grooves of the rifle. It is also
thinner than linen or calico, and the ball is therefore
more easily rammed down.
All balls should be made of pure lead, without any
hardening mixture. It was formerly the fashion to use
zinc balls, and lead with a mixture of tin, etc., in ele-
phant-shooting. This was not only unnecessary, but
the balls, from a loss of weight by admixture with
lighter metals, lost force in a proportionate degree.
Lead may be a soft metal, but it is much harder than
any animal's skull, and if a tallow candle can be shot
through a deal board, surely a leaden bullet is hard
enough for an elephant's head.
I once tried a very conclusive experiment on the
power of balls of various metals propelled by an equal
charge of powder.
I had a piece of wrought iron five-eights of an inch
thick, and six feet high by two in breadth. I fired at
this at one hundred and seventy yards with my two-
grooved four-ounce rifle, with a reduced charge of six
drachms of powder and a ball of pure lead. It bulged
the iron like a piece of putty, and split the centre of
the bulged spot into a star, through the crevice of which
I could pass a pen-blade.
Il6 Eight Tears' Wanderings tn Ceylon.
A ball composed of half zinc and half lead, fired
from the same distance, hardly produced a perceptible
effect upon the iron target. It just slightly indented it.
I then tried a ball of one-third zinc and two-thirds
lead, but there was no perceptible difference in the
effect.
I subsequently tried a tin ball, and again a zinc ball,
but neither of them produced any other effect than
slightly to indent the iron.
I tried all these experiments again at fifty yards'
range, with the same advantage in favor of the pure
lead ; and at this reduced distance a double-barreled
No. 1 6 smooth-bore, with a large charge of four
drachms of powder and a lead ball, also bulged and
split the iron into a star. This gun, with a hard tin
ball and the same charge of powder, did not produce
any other effect than an almost imperceptible indenta-
tion.
If a person wishes to harden a ball for any purpose,
it should be done by an admixture of quicksilver to the
lead while the latter is in a state of fusion, a few sec-
onds before the ball is cast. The mixture must be then
quickly stirred with an iron rod, and formed into the
moulds without loss of time, as at this high tempera-
ture the quicksilver will evaporate. Quicksilver is
heavier than lead, and makes a ball excessively hard ;
so much so that it would very soon spoil a rifle. Al-
together, the hardening of a ball has been shown to be
perfectly unnecessary, and the latter receipt would be
found very expensive.
If a wonderful effect is required, the steel-tipped
conical ball should be used. I once shot through four-
teen elm planks, each one inch thick, with a four-ounce
The Double -Groove. 117
steel-tipped cone, with the small charge (for that rifle)
of four drachms of powder. The proper charge for
that gun is one-fourth the weight of the ball, or one
ounce of powder, with which it carries with great
nicety and terrific effect, owing to its great weight of
metal (twenty-one pounds) ; but it is a small piece of
artillery, which tries the shoulder very severely in the
recoil.
I have frequently watched a party of soldiers wind-
ing along a pass, with their white trousers, red coats,
white cross-belts and brass plates, at about four hun-
dred yards, and thought what a raking that rifle would
give a body of troops in such colors Tor a mark. A
ball of that weight, with an ounce of powder, would
knock down six or eight men in a row. A dozen of
such weapons well handled on board a ship would
create an astonishing effect ; but for most purposes the
weight of the ammunition is a serious objection.
There is a great difference of opinion among sports-
men regarding the grooves of a rifle ; some prefer the
two-groove and belted ball ; others give preference to
the eight or twelve-groove and smooth-bore. There
are good arguments on both sides.
There is no doubt that the two-groove is the hardest
hitter and the longest ranger ; it also has the advantage
of not fouling so quickly as the many-grooved. On
the other hand, the many-grooved is much easier to
load ; it hits quite hard enough ; and it ranges truly
much farther than any person would think of firing at
an animal. Therefore, for sporting purposes, the only
advantage which the two-groove possesses is the keep-
ing clean, while the many-groove claims the advantage
of quick loading.
n8 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
The latter is by far the more important recommenda-
tion, especially as the many-groove can be loaded with-
out the assistance of the eye, as the ball, being smooth
and round, can only follow the right road down the
barrel. The two-grooved rifle, when new, is particu-
larly difficult to load, as the ball must be tight to avoid
windage, and it requires some nicety in fitting and
pressing the belt of the ball into the groove, in such a
manner that it shall start straight upon the pressure of
the loading-rod. If it gives a slight heel to one side at
the commencement, it is certain to stick in its course,
and it then occupies much time and trouble in being
rammed home. Neither will it shoot with accuracy,
as, from the amount of ramming to get the ball to its
place, it has become so misshapen that it is a mere
lump of lead, and no longer a rifle-ball.
My double-barreled No. 10 rifles are two-grooved,
and an infinity of trouble they gave me for the first two
years. Many a time I have been giving my whole
weight to the loading rod, with a ball stuck half-way
down the barrel, while wounded elephants lay strug-
gling upon the ground, expected every moment to rise.
From constant use and repeated cleaning they have now
become so perfect that they load with the greatest ease ;
but guns of their age are not fair samples of their class,
and for rifles in general for sporting purposes I should
give a decided preference to the many-groove. I have
had a long two-ounce rifle of the latter class, which I
have shot with for many years, and it certainly is not
so hard a hitter as the two-grooved No. ID'S ; but it hits
uncommonly hard, too ; and if I do not bag with it, it
is always my fault, and no blame can be attached to
the rifle.
Power of Heavy Metal. 119
For heavy game-shooting, I do not think there can
be a much fairer standard for the charge of powdei
than one-fifth the weight of the ball for all bores.
Some persons do not use so much as this ; but I am
always an advocate for strong guns and plenty of
powder.
A heavy charge will reach the brain of an elephant,
no matter in what position he may stand, provided a
proper angle is taken for attaining it. A trifling
amount of powder is sufficient, if the elephant offers a
front shot, or the temple at right angles, or the ear
shot ; but if a man pretend to a knowledge of elephant-
shooting, he should think of nothing but the brain, and-
his knowledge of the anatomy of the elephant's head
should be such that he can direct a straight line to this
mark from any position. He then requires a rifle of
such power that the ball will crash through every
obstacle along the course directed. To effect this he
must not be stingy of the powder.
I have frequently killed elephants by curious shots
with the heavy rifles in this manner ; but I once killed
a bull elephant by one shot in the upper jaw, which
will at once exemplify the advantage of a powerful rifle
in taking the angle for the brain.
My friend Palliser and I were out shooting on the
day previous, and we had spent some hours in vainly
endeavoring to track up a single bull elephant. I for-
get what we bagged, but I recollect well that we were
unlucky in finding our legitimate game. That night at
dinner we heard elephants roaring in the Yalle river,
upon the banks of which our tent was pitched in fine
open forest. For about an hour the roaring was con-
tinued, apparently on both sides the river, and we im-
I2O Eight Dears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
mediately surmised that our gentleman friend on our
side of the stream was answering the call of the ladies
of some herd on the opposite bank. We went to sleep
with the intention of waking at dawn of day, and then
strolling quietly along with .only two gun-bearers each,
who were to carry my four double No ID'S, while we
each carried a single barrel for deer.
The earliest gray tint of morning saw us dressed and
ready, the rifles loaded, a preliminary cup of hot
chocolate swallowed, and we were off while the forest
was still gloomy ; the night seemed to hang about it,
although the sky was rapidly clearing above.
A noble piece of Nature's handiwork is that same
Yalle 1 forest. The river flows sluggishly through its
centre in a breadth of perhaps ninety yards, and the im-
mense forest trees extend their giant arms from the high
banks above the stream, throwing dark shadows upon
its surface, enlivened by the silvery glitter of the fish as
they dart against the current. Little glades of rank
grass occasionally break the monotony of the dark
forest ; sandy gullies in deep beds formed by the tor-
rents of the rainy season cut through the crumbling
soil and drain toward the river. Thick brushwood
now and then forms an opposing barrier, but generally
the forest is beautifully open, consisting of towering
trees, the leviathans of their race, sheltering the scanty
saplings which have sprung from their fallen seeds.
For a few hundred yards on either side of the river the
forest extends in a ribbon-like strip of lofty vegetation
in the surrounding sea of low scrubby jungle. The
animals leave the low jungle at night, passing through
the forest on their way to the river to bathe and drink ;
they return to the low and thick jungle at break of day,
Curious Shot at a Bull Elephant. 121
and we hoped to meet some of the satiated elephants on
their way to their dense habitations.
We almost made sure of finding our friend of yester-
day's track, and we accordingly kept close to the edge
of the river, keeping a sharp eye for tracks upon the
sandy bed below.
We had strolled for about a mile along the high bank
of the river without seeing a sign of an elephant, when
I presently heard a rustle in the branches before me,
and upon looking up I saw a lot of monkeys gamboling
in the trees. I was carrying my long two-ounce rifle,
and I was passing beneath the monkey-covered boughs,
when I suddenly observed a young tree of the thickness
of a man's thigh shaking violently just before me.
It happened that the jungle was a little thicker in
this spot, and at the same moment that I observed the
tree shaking almost over me, I passed the immense
stem of one of those smooth-barked trees which grow
to such an enormous size on the banks of rivers. At
the same moment that I passed it I was almost under
the trunk of a single bull elephant, who was barking
the stem with his tusk as high as he could reach, with
his head thrown back. I saw in an instant that the
only road to his brain lay through his upper jaw, in the
position in which he was standing ; and knowing that
he would discover me in another moment, I took the
eccentric line for his brain, and fired upward through
his jaw. He fell stone dead, with the silk patch of the
rifle smoking in the wound.
Now in this position no light gun could have killed
that elephant ; the ball had to pass through the roots
of the upper grinders, and keep its course through hard
bones and tough membranes for about two feet before
11
122 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
it could reach the brain ; but the line was all right, and
the heavy metal and charge of powder kept the ball to
its work.
This is the power which every elephant-gun should
possess : it should have an elephant's head under com-
plete command in every attitude.
There is another advantage in heavy metal ; a heavy
ball will frequently stun a vicious elephant when in full
charge, when a light ball would not check him ; his
quietus is then soon arranged by another barrel. Some
persons, however, place too much confidence in the
weight of the metal, and forget that it is necessary to
hold a powerful rifle as straight as the smallest gun.
It is then very common during a chase of a herd to see
the elephants falling tolerably well to the shots, but
on a return for their tails, it is found that the stunned
brutes have recovered and decamped.
Conical balls should never be used for elephants ;
they are more apt to glance, and the concussion is not
so great as that produced by a round ball. In fact there
is nothing more perfect for sporting purposes than a
good rifle from a first-rate maker, with a plain ball of
from No. 12 to No. 10. There can be no improvement
upon such a weapon for the range generally required
by a good shot.
I am very confident that the African elephant would
be killed by the brain-shot by Ceylon sportsmen with as
much ease as the Indian- species. The shape of the
head has nothing whatever to do with the shooting,
provided the guns are powerful and the hunter knows
where the brain lies.
When I arrived in Ceylon one of my first visits was
to the museum at Colombo. Here I carefully examined
Structure of Skull. 12^
the transverse sections of an elephant's skull, until per-
fectly acquainted with its details. From the museum I
went straight to the elephant-stables and thoroughly
examined the head of the living animal, comparing it
in my own mind w^th the skull, until I was thoroughly
certain of the position of the brain and the possibility
of reaching it from any position.
An African sportsman would be a long time in kill-
ing a Ceylon elephant, if he fired at the long range
described by most writers ; in fact, he would not kill
one out of twenty that he fired at in such a jungle-cov-
ered country as Ceylon, where, in most cases, every-
thing depends upon the success of the first barrel.
It is the fashion in Ceylon to get as close as possible
to an elephant before firing ; this is usually at about ten
yards' distance, at which range nearly every shot must
be fatal. In Africa, according to all accounts, ele-
phants are fired at at thirty, forty, and even at sixty
yards. It is no wonder, therefore, that African sports-
men take the shoulder shot, as the hitting of the brain
would be a most difficult feat at such a distance, seeing
that the even and dusky color of an elephant's head
offers no peculiar mark for a delicate aim.
The first thing that a good sportsman considers with
every animal is the point at which to aim so to bag him
as speedily as possible. It is well known that all ani-
mals, from the smallest to the largest, sink into instant
death when shot through the brain ; and that a wound
through the lungs or heai't is equally fatal, though not
so instantaneous. These are accordingly the points for
aim, the brain, from its small size, being the most diffi-
cult to hit. Nevertheless, in a jungle country, elephants
must be shot through the brain, otherwise they would
124 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceyton.
not be bagged, as they would retreat with a mortal
wound into such dense jungle that no man could follow.
Seeing how easily they are dropped by the brain-shot
if approached sufficiently near to ensure the correctness
of the aim, no one would ever think of firing at the
shoulder who had been accustomed to aim at the head.
A Ceylon sportsman arriving in Africa would natu-
rally examine the skull of the African elephant, and
when once certain of the position of the brain he
would require no further information. Leave him
alone for hitting it if he knew where it was.
What a sight for a Ceylon elephant-hunter would be
the first view of a herd of African elephants all tusk-
ers ! In Ceylon, a " tusker" is a kind of spectre, to be
talked of by a few who have had the good luck to see
one. And when he is seen by a good sportsman, it is
an evil hour for him he is followed till he gives up his
tusks.
It is a singular thing that Ceylon is the only part of
the world where the male elephant has no tusks ; they
have miserable little grubbers projecting two or three
inches from the upper jaw and inclining downward.
Thus a man may kill some hundred elephants without
having a pair of tusks in his possession. The largest
that I have seen in Ceylon were about six feet long,
and five inches in diameter in the thickest part.
These would be considered rather below the average
in Africa, although in Ceylon they were thought mag-
nificent.
Nothing produces either ivory or horn in fine speci-
mens throughout Ceylon. Although some of the buffa-
loes have tolerably fine heads, they will not bear a
comparison with those of other countries. The horns
Lack of Trophies. 125
of the native cattle are not above four inches in length.
The elk and the spotted deer's antlers are small com-
pared with deer of their size on the continent of India.
This is the more singular, as it is evident from the
geological' formation that at some remote period Ceylon
was not an island, but formed a portion of the main
land, from which it is now only separated by a shallow
and rocky channel of some few miles. In India the
bull elephants have tusks, and the cattle and buffaloes
have very large horns. My opinion is that there are
elements wanting in the Ceylon pasturage (which is
generally poor) for the formation of both horn and
ivory. Thus many years of hunting and shooting are
rewarded by few trophies of the chase. So great is
the natural inactivity of the natives that no one under-
stands the preparation of the skins ; thus all the elk
and deer hides are simply dried in the sun, and the
hair soon rots and" falls off. In India, the skin of the
Samber deer (the Ceylon elk) is prized above all
others, and is manufactured into gaiters, belts, pouches,
coats, breeches, etc. ; but in Ceylon, these things are
entirely neglected by the miserable and indolent popu-
lation, whose whole thoughts are concentrated upon
their daily bread, or rather their curry and rice.
At Newera Ellia, the immense number of elk that I
have killed would have formed a valuable collection of
skins had they been properly prepared, instead of
which the hair has been singed from them, and they
have been boiled up for dogs' meat.
Boars' hides have shared the same fate. These are
far thicker than those of the tame species, and should
make excellent saddles. So tough are they upon the
live animal that it requires a very sharp-pointed knife
11*
ia6 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
to penetrate them, and too much care cannot be be-
stowed upon the manufacture of a knife for this style
of hunting, as the boar is one of the fiercest and most
dangerous of animals. * -.
Living in the thickest jungles, he rambles out at
night in search of roots, fruits, large earth-worms, 01
anything else that he can find, being, like his domesti-
cated brethren, omnivorous. He is a terrible enemy to
the pack, and has cost me several good dogs within the
last few years. Without first-rate seizers it would be
impossible to kill him with the knife without being
ripped, as he invariably turns to bay after a short run
in the thickest jungle he can find. There is no doubt
that a good stout boar-spear, with a broad blade and
strong handle, is the proper weapon for the attack ; but
a spear is very unhandy and even dangerous to carry
in such a hilly country as the neighborhood of Newera
Ellin. The forests are full of steep ravines and such
tangled underwood that following the hounds is always
an arduous task, but with a spear in the hand it is still
more difficult, and the point is almost certain to get
injured by striking against the numerous rocks, in
which case it is perfectly useless when perhaps most
required. I never carry a spear for these reasons, but
am content with the knife, as in my opinion any animal
that can beat off good hounds and a long knife deserves
to escape.
My knife was made to my own pattern by Paget of
Piccadilly. The blade is one foot in length, and two
inches broad in the widest part, and slightly concave in
the middle. The steel is of the most exquisite quality,
and the entire knife weighs three pounds. The pecu-
liar shape added to the weight of the blade gives an
Bertram. 127
extraordinary force to a blow, and the blade being
double-edged for three inches from the point, inflicts a
fearful wound : altogether it is a very desperate weapon,
and admirably adapted for this kind of sport.
A feat is frequently performed by the Nepaulese by
cutting off a buffalo's head at one blow of a sabre or
tulwal. The blade of this weapon is peculiar, being
concave, and the extremity is far heavier than the hilt;
the animal's neck is tied down to a post, so as to pro-
duce a tension on the muscles, without which the
blow, however great, would have a comparatively
small effect.
The accounts of this feat always appeared very mar-
velous to my mind, until I one day unintentionally per-
formed something similar on a small scale with the
hunting-knife.
I was out hunting in the Elk Plains, and having
drawn several jungles blank, I ascended the mountains
which wall in the western side of the patinas (grass-
plains), making sure of finding an elk near the sum-
mit. It was a lovely day, perfectly calm and cloudless ;
in which weather the elk, especially the large bucks,
are in the habit of lying high up the mountains.
I had nine couple of hounds out, among which
were some splendid seizers, "Bertram," "Killbuck,"
"Hecate," "Bran," "Lucifer" and "Lena," the first
three being the progeny of the departed hero, old
" Smut," who had been killed by a boar a short time
before. They were then just twelve months old, and
" Bertram" stood twenty-eight and a half inches high
at the shoulder. To him his sire's valor had descended
untarnished, and for a dog of his young age he was the
most courageous that I have ever seen. In appearance
128 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
he was a tall Manilla bloodhound, with the strength of
a young lion ; very affectionate in disposition, and a
general favorite, having won golden opinions in every
contest. Whenever a big buck was at bay, and punish-
ing the leading hounds, he was ever the first to get his
hold ; no matter how great the danger, he never waited
but recklessly dashed in. " There goes Bertram !
Look at Bertram ! Well done, Bertram !" were the con-
stant exclamations of a crowd of excited spectators when
a powerful buck was brought to bay. He was a wonder-
ful dog, but I prophesied an early grave for him, as no
dog in the world could long escape death who rushed
so recklessly upon his dangerous game.* His sister,
" Hecate," was more careful, and she is alive at this
moment, and a capital seizer of great strength com-
bined with speed, having derived the latter from her
dam, " Lena," an Australian greyhound, than whom a
better or truer bitch never lived. " Old Bran," and his
beautiful son " Lucifer," were fine specimens of gray-
hound and deerhound, and as good as gold.
There was not a single elk track the whole of the
way up the mountain, and upon arriving at the top, I
gave up all hope of finding for that day, and I enjoyed
the beautiful view over the vast valley of forest which
lay below, spangled with green plains, and bounded by
the towering summit of Adam's Peak, at about twenty-
five miles' distance. The coffee estates of Dimboola lay
far beneath upon the right, and the high mountains of
Kirigallapotta and Totapella bounded the view upon
the left.
There is a good path along the narrow ridge on the
* Speared through the body by the horns of a buck elk acd killed,
shortly after this was written.
A Boar Hunt. 129
summit of the Elk Plain hills, which has been made
by elephants. This runs along the very top of the
knife-like ridge, commanding a view of the whole
country to the right and left. The range is terminated
abruptly by a high peak, which descends in a sheer
precipice at the extremity.
I strolled along the elephant-path, intending to gain
the extreme end of the range for the sake of the view,
when I suddenly came upon the track of a "boar," in
the middle of the path. It was perfectly fresh, as were
also the ploughings in the ground close by, and the
water of a small pool was still curling with clouds of
mud, showing most plainly that he had been disturbed
from his wallowing by my noise in ascending the moun-
tain-side.
There was no avoiding the find ; and away went
"Bluebeard," " Plough boy," "Gaylass," and all the
leading hounds, followed by the whole pack, in full
chorus, straight along the path at top speed. Presently
they turned sharp to the left into the thick jungle,
dashing down the hillside as though off to the Elk
Plains below. At this pace I knew the hunt would not
last long, and from my elevated stand I waited impa-
tiently for the first sounds of the bay. Round they
turned again, up the steep hillside, and the music
slackened a little, as the hounds had enough to do in
bursting through the tangled bamboo up the hill.
Presently I heard the rush of the boar in the jungle,
coming straight up the hill toward the spot where I
was standing ; and, fearing that he might top the ridge
and make down the other side toward Dimboola, I
gave him a halloo to head him back. Hark, for-r-rard
to him ! yo-o-ick ! to him !
I
130 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
Such a yell, right in his road, astonished him, and,
as I expected, he headed sharp back. Up came the
pack, going like race-horses, and wheeling ofT where the
game had turned, a few seconds running along the side
of the mountain, and then such a burst of music ! such
a bay ! The boar had turned sharp round, and had
met the hounds on a level platform on the top of a
ridge.
" Lucifer" never leaves my side until we are close up
to the bay ; and plunging and tearing through the
bamboo grass and tangled nillho for a few hundred
yards, I at length approached the spot, and I heard
Lord Bacon grunting and roaring loud above the din
of the hounds.
Bertram has him for a guinea ! Hold him, good
lad! and away dashed "Lucifer" from my side at the
halloo.
In another moment I was close up, and with my knife
ready I broke through the dense jungle and was im-
mediately in the open space cleared by the struggles of
the boar and pack. Unluckily, I had appeared full in
the boar's front, and though five or six of the large
seizers had got their holds, he made a sudden charge
at me that shook them all off, except " Bertram" and
" Lena."
It was the work of an instant, as I jumped quickly
on one side, and instinctively made a downward cut at
him in passing. He fell all of a heap, to the complete
astonishment of myself and the furious pack.
He was dead ! killed by one blow with the hunting-
knife. I had struck him across the back just behind
the shoulders, and the wound was so immense that he
had the appearance of being nearly half divided. Not
Herds of Wild Boars* _ 131
only was the spine severed, but the blade had cut deep
into his vitals and produced instant death.
One of the dogs was hanging on his hind quarters
when he charged, and as the boar was rushing forward,
the muscles of the back were accordingly stretched
tight, and thus the effect of the cut was increased to
this extraordinary degree. He was a middling-sized
boar, as near as I could guess, about two and a half
hundredweight.
Fortunately none of the pack were seriously hurt,
although his tusks were as sharp as a knife. This
was owing to the short duration of the fight, and also
to the presence of so many seizers, who backed each
other up without delay.
There is no saying to what size a wild boar grows.
I have never killed them with the hounds above four
hundredweight ; but I have seen solitary boars in the
low country that must have weighed nearly double.
I believe the flesh is very good ; by the natives it is
highly prized ; but I have so strong a prejudice against
it from the sights I have seen of their feasting upon
putrid elephants that I never touch it.
The numbers of wild hogs in the low country is sur-
prising, and they are most useful in cleaning up the
carcases of dead animals and destroying vermin. I
seldom or never fire at a hog in those districts, as their
number is so great that there is no sport in shooting
them. They travel about in herds of one and two
hundred, and even more. These are composed of
sows and young boars, as the latter leave the herd when
arrived at maturity.
CHAPTER VII.
CURIOUS PHENOMENON PANORAMA OF OUVA SOUTH-WEST
MONSOON HUNTING FOLLOWERS FORT M'DONALD RIVER
JUNGLE PATHS DANGEROUS LOCALITY GREAT WATER-
FALL START FOR HUNTING THE FIND A GALLANT STAG
"BRAN" AND "LUCIFER" "PHRENZY'S" DEATH BUCK
AT BAY THE CAVE HUNTING-BOX "MADCAP'S" DIVE ELK
SOUP FORMER INUNDATION " BLUEBEARD" LEADS OFF
" HECATE'S " COURSE THE ELK'S LEAP VARIETY OF DEER
THE AXIS CEYLON BEARS VARIETY OF VERMIN TRIALS
FOR HOUNDS HOUNDS AND THEIR MASTERS A SPORTSMAN
" SHUT UP" A CORPORAL AND CENTIPEDE.
FROM June to November the south-west monsoon
brings wind and mist across the Newera Ellia
mountains.
Clouds of white fog boil up from the Dimboola val-
ley like the steam from a huge cauldron, and invade
the Newera Ellia plain through the gaps in the moun-
tains to the westward.
The wind howls over the high ridges, cutting the
jungle with its keen edge, so that it remains as stunted
brushwood, and the opaque screen of driving fog and
drizzling rain is so dense that one feels convinced there
is no sun visible within at least a hundred miles.
There is a curious phenomenon, however, in this
locality. When the weather described prevails at New-
132
Panorama of Ouva. 133
era Ellia, there is actually not one drop of rain within
four miles of my house in the direction of Badulla.
Dusty roads, a cloudless sky and dazzling sunshine
astonish the thoroughly-soaked traveler, who rides out
of the rain. and mist into a genial climate, as though he
passed through a curtain. The wet weather terminates
at a mountain called Hackgalla (or more properly
Yakkadagalla, or iron rock). This bold rock, whose
summit is about six thousand five hundred feet above
the sea, breasts the driving wind and seems to com-
mand the storm. The rushing clouds halt in their mad
course upon its crest and curl in sudden impotence
around the craggy summits. The deep ravine formed
by an opposite mountain is filled with the vanquished
mist, which sinks powerless in its dark gorge ; and the
bright sun, shining from the east, spreads a perpetual
rainbow upon the gauze-like cloud of fog which settles
in the deep hollow.
This is exceedingly beautiful. The perfect circle of
the rainbow stands like a fairy spell in the giddy depth
of the hollow, and seems to forbid the advance of the
monsoon. All before is bright and cloudless ; the lovely
panorama of the Ouva country spreads before the eye
for many miles beneath the feet. All behind is dark
and stormy ; the wind is howling, the forests are groan-
ing, the rain is pelting upon the hills.
The change appears impossible ; but there it is, ever
the same ; season after season, year after year, the rug-
ged top of Hackgalla struggles with the storms, and
ever victorious the cliffs smile in the sunshine on the
eastern side ; the rainbow reappears with the monsoon,
and its vivid circle remains like the guardian spirit of
the valley.
12
134 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
It is impossible to do justice to the extraordinary
appearance of this scene by description. The pano-
ramic view in itself is celebrated ; but as the point in
the road is reached where the termination of the mon-
soon dissolves the cloud and rain into a thin veil of
mist, the panorama seen through the gauze-like atmos-
phere has the exact appearance of a dissolving view ;
the depth, the height and distance of every object, all
great in reality, are magnified by the dim and unnatural
appearance ; and by a few steps onward the veil gradu-
ally fades away, and the distant prospect lies before the
eye with a glassy clearness made doubly striking by the
sudden contrast.
The road winds along about midway up the moun-
tain, bounded on the right by the towering cliffs and
sloping forest of Hackgalla, and on the left by the
almost precipitous descent of nearly one thousand feet,
the sides of which are clothed by alternate forest and
waving grass. At the bottom flows a torrent, whose
roar, ascending from the hidden depth, increases the
gloomy mystery of the scene.
On the north, east and south-east of Newera Ellia
the sunshine is perpetual during the reign of the misty
atmosphere, which the south-west monsoon drives upon
the western side of the mountains. Thus, there is al-
ways an escape open from the wet season at Newera
Ellia by a short walk of three or four miles.
A long line of dark cloud is then seen, terminated
by a bright blue sky. So abrupt is the line and the
cessation of the rain that it is difficult to imagine how
the moisture is absorbed.
This sudden termination of the cloud-capped moun-
tain gives rise to a violent wind in the sunny valleys and
South-west Monsoon. 135
bare hills beneath. The chilled air of Newera Ellia
pours down into the sun-warmed atmosphere below,
and creates a gale that sweeps across the grassy hill-
tops with great force, giving the sturdy rhododendrons
an inclination to the north-east, which clearly marks the
steadiness of the monsoon.
It is not to be supposed, however, that Newera Ellia
lies in unbroken gloom for months together. One
month generally brings a share of uninterrupted bad
weather ; this is from the middle of June to the middle
of July. This is the commencement of the south-west
monsoon, which usually sets in with great violence.
The remaining portion of what is called the wet season,
till the end of November, is about as uncertain as the
climate of England some days fine, others wet, and
every now and then a week of rain at one bout.
A thoroughly saturated soil, with a cold wind, and
driving rain, and forests as full of water as sponges,
are certain destroyers of scent; hence, hunting at
Newera Ellia is out of the question during such
weather. The hounds would get sadly out of condi-
tion, were it not for the fine weather in the vicinity
which then invites a trip.
I have frequently walked ten miles to my hunting-
grounds, starting before daybreak, and then, after a
good day's sport up and down the steep mountains, I
have returned home in the evening. But this is twelve
hours' work, and it is game thrown away, as there is
no possibility of getting the dead elk home. An ani-
mal that weighs between four hundred and four hun-
dred and fifty pounds without his insides, is not a very
easy creature to move at any time, especially in such a
steep mountainous country as the neighborhood of
136 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
Newera Ellia. As previously described, at the base
of the mountains are cultivated rice-lands, generally
known as paddy-fields, where numerous villages have
sprung up from the facility with which a supply of
water is obtained from the wild mountains above them.
I have so frequently given the people elk and hogs
which I have killed on the heights above their paddy-
fields that they are always on the alert at the sound of
the bugle, and a few blasts from the mountain-top im-
mediately creates a race up from the villages, some two
or three thousand feet below. Like vultures scenting
carrion, they know that an elk is killed, and they start
off to the well-known sound like a pack of trained
hounds.
Being thorough mountaineers, they are extraordin'aiy
fellows for climbing the steep grassy sides. With a
light stick about six feet long in one hand, they will
start from the base of the mountains and clamber up
the hillsides in a surprisingly short space of time, such
as would soon take the conceit out of a " would-be pe-
destrian." This is owing to the natural advantages of
naked feet and no inexpressibles.
Whenever an elk has given a long run in the direc-
tion of this country, and after a persevering and ardu-
ous chase of many hours, I have at length killed him
on the grassy heights above the villages, I always take
a delight in watching the tiny specks issuing from the
green strips of paddy as the natives start off at the
sound of the horn.
At this altitude, it requires a sharp eye to discern a
man, but at length they are seen scrambling up the
ravines and gullies and breasting the sharp pitches,
until at last the first man arrives thoroughly " used up ;"
Hunting Followers. 137
and a string of fellows of lesser wind come in, in sec-
tions, all thoroughly blown.
However, the first man in never gets the lion's share,
as the poor old men, with willing spirits and weak
flesh, always bring up the rear, and I insist upon a fair
division between the old and young, always giving an
extra piece to a man who happens to know a little
English. This is a sort of reward for acquirements,
equivalent to a university degree, and he is considered
a literary character by his fellows.
There is nothing that these people appreciate so much
as elk and hog's flesh. Living generally upon boiled
rice and curry composed of pumpkins and sweet pota-
toes, they have no opportunities of tasting meat unless
upon these occasions.
During the very wet weather at Newera Ellia I
sometimes take the pack and bivouac for a fortnight in
the fine-weather country. About a week previous I
send down word to the village people of my intention,
but upon these occasions I never give them the elk. I
always insist upon their bringing rice, etc., for the dogs
and myself in exchange for venison, otherwise I should
have some hundreds of noisy, idle vagabonds flocking
up to me like carrion-crows.
Of course I give them splendid bargains, as I barter
simply on the principle that no man shall come for
nothing. Thus, if a man assist in building the kennel,
or carrying a load, or cutting bed-grass, or searching
for lost hounds, he gets a share of meat. The others
bring rice, coffee, fowls, eggs, plantains, vegetables,
etc., which I take at ridiculous rates a bushel of rice
for a full-grown elk, etc., the latter being worth a
couple of pounds and the rice about seven shillings.
12*
138 Eight Tears* Wandering's in Ceylon.
Thus the hounds keep themselves in rice and supply
me with everything that I require during the trip, at
the same time gratifying the natives.
The direct route to this country was unknown to
Europeans at Newera Ellia until I discovered it one
day, accidentally, in following the hounds.
A large tract of jungle-covered hill stretches away
from the Moon Plains at Newera Ellia toward the east,
forming a hog's back of about three and a half miles
in length. Upon the north side this shelves into a deep
gorge, at the bottom of which flows, or rather tumbles,
Fort M'Donald river on its way to the low country,
through forest-covered hills and perpendicular cliffs,
until it reaches the precipitous patina mountains, when,
in a succession of large cataracts, it reaches the paddy-
fields in the first village of Pere'welle (guava paddy-
field). Thus the river in the gorge below runs parallel
to the long hog's back of mountain. This is bordered
on the other side by another ravine and smaller tor-
rent, to which the Badulla road runs parallel until it
reaches the mountain of Hackgalla, at which place the
ravine deepens into the misty gorge already described.
At one time, if an elk crossed the Badulla road and
gained the Hog's Back jungle, both he and the hounds
were lost, as no one could follow through such impene-
trable jungle without knowing either the distance or
direction.
"They are gone to Fort M'Donald river!" This
was the despairing exclamation at all times when the
pack crossed the road, and we seldom saw the hounds
again until late that night or on the following day.
Many never returned, and Fort M'Donald river became
a by-word as a locality to be always dreaded.
Fort M'Donald River. ^39
After a long run one day, the pack having gone off
in this fatal direction, I was determined, at any price,
to hunt them up, and accordingly I went some miles
down the Badulla road to the limestone quarries, which
are five miles from the Newera Ellia plain. From this
point I left the road and struck down into the deep,
grassy valley, crossing the river (the same which runs
by the road higher up) and continuing along the side
of the valley until I ascended the opposite range of
hills. Descending the precipitous side, I at length
reached the paddy-fields in the low country, which
were watered by Fort M'Donald river, and I looked up
to the lofty range formed by the Hog's Back hill, now
about three thousand feet above me. Thus I had
gained the opposite side of the Hog's Back, and, after a
stiff pull up the mountain, I returned home by a good
path, which I had formerly discovered along the course
of the river through the forest to Newera Ellia, via
Rest-and-be-Thankful Valley and the Barrack Plains,
having made a circuit of about twenty-five miles and
become thoroughly conversant with all the localities.
I immediately determined to have a path cut from the
Badulla road across the Hog's Back jungle to the pati-
nas, which looked down upon Fort M'Donald on the
other side, and up which I had. ascended on my return.
I judged the distance would not exceed two miles
across, and I chose the point of junction with the Ba-
dulla road two miles and a half from my house. My
reason for this was, that the elk invariably took to the
jungle at this place, which proved it to be the easiest
route.
This road, on completion, answered every expecta-
tion, connecting the two sides of the Hog's Back by an
140 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
excellent path of about two miles, and debouching on
the opposite side on a high patina peak which com-
manded the whole country. Thus was the whole
country opened up by this single path, and should an
elk play his old trick and be ofT across the Hog's Back
to Fort M'Donald river, I could be there nearly as soon
as he could, and also keep within hearing of the hounds
throughout the run.
I was determined to take the tent and regularly hunt
up the whole country on the other side of the Hog's
Back, as the weather was very bad at Newcra Ellia,
while in this spot it was beautifully fine, although very
windy.
I therefore sent on the tent, kennel-troughs and pots,
and all the paraphernalia indispensable for the jungle,
and on the 3ist May, 1852, I started, having two com-
panions Capt. Pelly, Thirty-seventh Regiment, who
was then commandant of Newera Ellia, and his brother
on a visit. It was not more than an hour and a half's
good walking from my house to the high patina peak
upon which I pitched the tent, but the country and
climate are so totally distinct from anything at Newera
Ellia that it gives every one the idea of being fifty
miles away.
We hewed out a spacious arbor at the edge of the
jungle, and in this I had the tent pitched to protect it
from the wind, which it did effectually, as well as the
kennel, which was near the same spot. The servants
made a good kitchen, and the encampment was soon
complete.
There never could have been a more romantic or
beautiful spot for a bivouac. To the right lay the dis-
tant view of the low country, stretching into an unde-
Great Waterfall. 141
fined distance, until the land and sky appeared to melt
together. Below, at a depth of about three thousand
feet, the river boiled through the rocky gorge until it
reached the village of Pere*welle at the base of the line
of mountains, whose cultivated paddy-fields looked no
larger than the squares upon a chess-board. On the
opposite side of the river rose a precipitous and im-
passable mountain, even to a greater altitude than the
facing ridge upon which I stood, forming as grand a
foreground as the eye could desire. Above, below,
around, there was the bellowing sound of heavy cata-
racts echoed upon all sides.
Certainly this country is very magnificent, but it is
an awful locality for hunting, as the elk has too great
an advantage over both hounds and hunters. Moun-
tainous patinas of the steepest inclination, broken here
and there by abrupt precipices, and with occasional
level platforms of waving grass, descend to the river's
bed. These patina mountains are crowned by exten-
sive forests, and narrow belts of jungle descend from
the summit to the base, clothing the numerous ravines
which furrow the mountain's side. Thus the entire
surface of the mountains forms a series of rugged grass-
lands, so steep as to be ascended with the greatest diffi-
culty, and the elk lie in the forests on the summits and
also in the narrow belts which cover the ravines.
The whole country forms a gorge, like a gigantic
letter V. At the bottom roars the dreaded torrent,
Fort M'Donald river, in a succession of foaming cata-
racts, all of which, however grand individually, are
completely eclipsed by its last great plunge of three
hundred feet perpendicular depth into a dark and nar-
row chasm of wall-bound cliffs.
142 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
The bed of the river is the most frightful place that
can be conceived, being choked by enormous fragments
of rock, amidst which the irresistible torrent howls with
a fury that it is impossible to describe.
The river is confined on either side by rugged cliffs
of gneiss rock, from which these fragments have from
time to time become detached, and have accordingly
fallen into the torrent, choking up the bed and throw-
ing the obstructed waters into frightful commotion.
Here they lie piled one upon the other, like so many
inverted cottages ; here and there forming dripping
caverns ; now forming walls of slippery rock, over
which the water falls in thundering volumes into pools
black from their mysterious depth, and from which
there is no visible means of exit. These dark and
dangerous pools are walled in by hoary-looking rocks,
beneath which the pent-up water dives and boils in
subterranean caverns, until it at length escapes through
secret channels, and reappears on the opposite side of
its prison-walls ; lashing itself into foam in its mad
frenzy, it forms rapids of giddy velocity through the
rocky bounds ; now flying through a narrowed gorge,
and leaping, striving and wrestling with unnumbered
obstructions, it at length meets with the mighty fall, like
death in a madman's course. One plunge ! without a
single shelf to break the fall, and down, down it sheets ;
at first like glass, then like the broken avalanche of
snow, and lastly ! we cannot see more the mist boils
from the ruin of shattered waters and conceals the
bottom of the fall. The roar vibrates like thunder in
the rocky mountain, and forces the grandeur of the
scene through every nerve.
No animal or man, once in those mysterious pools,
Start for Hunting. 143
could ever escape without assistance. Thus in years
past, when elk were not followed up in this locality,
the poor beast, being hard pressed by the hounds, might
have come to bay in one of these fatal basins, in which
case, both he and every hound who entered the trap
found sure destruction.
The hard work and the danger to both man and
hound in this country may be easily imagined when it
is explained that the nature of the elk prompts him to
seek for water as his place of refuge when hunted ;
thus he makes off down the mountain for the river, in
which he stands at bay. Now the mountain itself is
steep enough, but within a short distance of the bot-
tom the river is in many places guarded by precipices
of several hundred feet in depth. A few difficult passes
alone give access to the torrent, but the descent re-
quires great caution.
Altogether, this forms the wildest and most arduous
country that can be imagined for hunting, but it
abounds with elk.
The morning was barely gray when I woke up the
servants and ordered coffee, and made the usual prepa-
rations for a start. At last, thank goodness ! the boots
are laced ! This is the troublesome part of dressing
before- broad daylight, and nevertheless laced ankle-
boots must be worn as a protection against sprains and
bruises in such a country. Never mind the trouble of
lacing them ; they are on now, and there is a good day's
work in store for them.
It was the 3oth May, 1853, a lovely hunting morn-
ing and a fine dew on the patinas ; rather too windy,
but that could not be helped.
Quiet now ! down, Bluebeard ! back, will you,
144 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylom
Lucifer ! Here's a smash ! there goes the jungle ken-
nel ! the pack squeezing out of it in every direction as
they hear the preparations for departure.
Now we are all right ; ten couple out, and all good
ones. Come along, yo-o-i, along here ! and a note on
the horn brings the pack close together as we enter the
fo -st on the very summit of the ridge. Thus the
start was completed just as the first tinge of gold
spread along the eastern horizon, about ten minutes
before sunrise.
The jungles were tolerably good, but there were not
as many elk tracks as I had expected ; probably the
high wind on the ridge had driven them lower down
for shelter ; accordingly I struck an oblique direction
downward, and I was not long before I discovered a
fresh track ; fresh enough, certainly, as the thick moss
which covered the ground showed a distinct path where
the animal had been recently feeding.
Every hound had stolen away ; even the greyhounds
buried their noses in the broad track of the buck, so
fresh was the scent ; and I waited quietly for " the
find." The greyhounds stood round me with their
ears cocked and glistening eyes, intently listening for
the expected sound.
There they are ! all together, such a burst ! They
must have stolen away mute and have found on the
other side the ridge, for they were now corning down
at full speed from the very summit of the mountain.
From the amount of music I knew they had a good
start, but I had no idea that .the buck would stand to
such a pack at the very commencement of the hunt.
Nevertheless there was a sudden bay within a few hun-
dred vards of me, and the elk had already turned to
The Find. 145
fight. I knew that he was an immense fellow from
his track, and I at once saw that he would show fine
*
sport.
Just as I was running through the jungle toward
the spot, the bay broke and the buck had evidently
gone off straight away, as I heard the pack in full cry
rapidly increasing their distance and going off down
the mountain.
Sharp following was now the order of the day, and
away we went. The mountain was so steep that it
was necessary every now and then to check the mo-
mentum of a rapid descent by clinging to the tough
saplings. Sometimes one would give way and a con-
siderable spill would be the consequence. However, I
soon got out on the patina about one-third of the way
down the mountain, and here I met one of the natives,
who was well posted. Not a sound of the pack was
now to be heard ; but this man declared most positively
that the elk had suddenly changed his course, and, in-
stead of keeping down the hill, had struck off to his
left along the side of the mountain. Accordingly, off I
started as hard as I could go with several natives, who
all agreed as to the direction.
After running for about a mile along the patinas in
the line which I judged the pack had taken, I heard one
hound at bay in a narrow jungle high up on my left.
It was only the halt of an instant, for the next moment
I heard the same hound's voice evidently running on
the other side of the strip of jungle, and taking off
down the mountain straight for the dreaded river.
Here was a day's work cut out as neatly as could be.
Running toward the spot, I found the buck's track
leading in that direction, and I gave two or three view
13 K
146 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
halloos at the top of my voice to bring the rest of the
pack down upon it. They were close at hand, but the
high wind had prevented me from hearing them, and
away they came from the jungle, rushing down upon
the scent like a flock of birds. I stepped off the track
to let them pass as they swept by, and " For-r-r-a-r-d
to him ! For-r-r-ard !" was the word the moment they
had passed, as I gave them a halloo down the hill.
It was a bad look-out for the elk now; every hound
knew that his master was close up, and they went like
demons.
The " Tamby" * was the only man up, and he and I
immediately followed in chase down the precipitous
patinas ; running when we could, scrambling, and
sliding on our hams when it was too steep to stand, '
and keeping good hold of the long tufts of grass, lest
we should gain too great an impetus and slide to' the
bottom.
After about half a mile passed in this manner, I
heard the bay, and I saw the buck far beneath, standing
upon a level, grassy platform, within three hundred
yards of the river. The whole pack was around him
except the greyhounds, who were with me ; but not a
hound had a chance with him, and he repeatedly
charged in among them, and regularly drove them
before him, sending any single hound spinning when-
ever he came within his range. But the pack quickly
reunited, and always returned with fresh vigor to the
attack. There was a narrow, wooded ravine between
me and them, and, with caution and speed combined,
I made toward the spot down the precipitous moun-
* An exceedingly active Moorman, who was my great ally in
hunting.
A Gallant Stag. 147
tain, followed by the greyhounds " Bran " and
" Lucifer."
I soon arrived on a level with the bay, and, plunging
into the ravine, I swung myself down from tree to tree,
and then climbed up the opposite side. I broke cover
within a few yards of him. What a splendid fellow
he looked ! He was about thirteen hands high, and
carried the most beautiful head of horns that I had
ever seen upon an elk. His mane was bristled up, his
nostril was distended, and, turning from the pack, he
surveyed me, as though taking the measure of his new
antagonist. Not seeming satisfied, he deliberately
turned, and, descending from the level space, he care-
fully picked his way. Down narrow elk-runs along
the steep precipices, and, at a slow walk, with the
whole pack in single file at his heels, he clambered
down toward the river. I followed on his track over
places which I would not pass in cold blood ; and I
shortly halted above a cataract of some eighty feet in
depth, about a hundred paces from the great water-
fall of three hundred feet.
It was extremely grand ; the roar of the falls so en-
tirely hushed all other sounds that the voices of the
hounds were perfectly inaudible, although within a few
yards of me, as I looked down upon them from a rock
that overhung the river.
The elk stood upon the brink of the swollen tor-
rent ; he could not retreat, as the wall of rock was
behind him, with the small step-like path by which he
had descended ; this was now occupied by the yelling
pack.
The hounds knew the danger of the place ; but the
buck, accustomed to these haunts from his birth, sud-
148 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
denly leapt across the boiling rapids, and springing
from rock to rock along the verge of the cataract, he
gained the opposite side. Here he had mistaken his
landing-place, as a shelving rock, upon which he
had alighted, was so steep that he could not retain
his footing, and he gradually slid down toward the
river.
At this moment, to my horror, both " Bran" and
" Lucifer" dashed across the torrent, and bounding from
rock to rock, they sprung at the already tottering elk,
and in another moment both he and they rolled over in
a confused mass into the boiling torrent. One more
instant and they reappeared, the buck gallantly stem-
ming the current, which his great length of limb and
weight enabled him to do ; the dogs, overwhelmed in
the foam of the rapids, were swept down toward the
fall, in spite of their frantic exertions to gain the bank.
They were not fifteen feet from the edge of the fall,
and I saw them spun round and round in the whirl-
pools, being hurried toward certain destruction. The
poor dogs seemed aware of the danger, and made the
most extraordinary efforts to avoid their fate. They
were my two favorites of the pack, and I screamed out
words of encouragement to them, although the voice
of a cannon could not have been heard among the roar
of waters. They had nearly gained the bank on the
very verge of the fall, when a few tufts of lemon grass
concealed them from my view. I thought they were
over, and I could not restrain a cry of despair at their
horrible fate. I felt sick with the idea. But the next
moment I was shouting hurrah ! they are all right ;
thank goodness, they were saved. I saw them strug-
gling up the steep bank, through the same lemon grass,
"Frenzy's" Death. 149
which had for a moment obscured their fate. They
were thoroughly exhausted and half drowned.
In the mean time, the elk had manfully breasted the
rapids, carefully choosing the shallow places ; and the
whole pack, being mad with excitement, had plunged
into the water, regardless of the danger. I thought
every hound would have been lost. For an instant
they looked like a flock of ducks, but a few moments
afterward they were scattered in the boiling eddies,
hurrying with fatal speed toward the dreadful cataract.
Poor " Phrenzy !" round she spun in the giddy vortex ;
nearer and nearer she approached the verge her
struggles were unavailing over she went, and was of
course never heard of afterward.
This was a terrible style of hunting ; rather too much
so to be pleasant.
I clambered down to the edge of the river just in
time to see the elk climbing as nimbly as a cat up the
precipitous bank on the opposite side, threading his
way at a slow walk under the overhanging rocks, and
scrambling up the steep mountain with a long string
of hounds at his heels in single file. "Valiant,"
"Tiptoe" and "Ploughboy" were close to him, and I
counted the other hounds in the line, fully expecting to
miss half of them. To my surprise and delight, only
one was absent ; this was poor " Phrenzy." The
others had all managed to save themselves. I now
crossed the river by leaping from rock to rock with
some difficulty, and with hands and knees I climbed
the opposite bank. This was about sixty feet high,
from the top of which the mountain commenced its as-
cent, which, though very precipitous, was so covered
with long lemon grass that it was easy enough to
13*
150 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
climb. I looked behind me, and there was the Tamby,
all right, within a few paces.
The elk was no longer in sight, and the roar of the
water was so great that it was impossible to hear the
hounds. However, I determined to crawl along his
track, which was plainly discernible, the high grass be-
ing broken into a regular lane which skirted the preci-
pice of the great waterfall in the direction of the vil-
lages.
We were now about a hundred feet above, and on
one side of the great fall, looking into the deep chasm
into which the river leapt, forming a cloud of mist be-
low. The lemon grass was so high in tufts among the
rocks that we could not see a foot before us, and we
knew not whether the next step would land us on firm
footing, or deposit us some hundred feet below. Clutch-
ing fast to the long grass, therefore, we crept carefully
on for about a quarter of a mile, now climbing the face
of the rocks, now descending by means of their irregu-
lar surfaces, but still skirting the dark gorge down
which the river fell.
At length, having left the fall some considerable dis-
tance behind us, the ear was somewhat relieved from
the bewildering noise of water, and I distinctly heard
the pack at bay not very far in advance. In another
moment I saw the elk standing on a platform of rock
about a hundred yards ahead, on a lower shelf of the
mountain, and the whole pack at bay. This platform
was the top of a cliff which overhung the deep gorge ;
the river flowing in the bottom after its great fall, and
both the elk and hounds appeared to be in "a fix."
The descent had been made to this point by leaping
down places which he could not possibly reascend, and
Buck at Bay. 151
there was only one narrow outlet, which was covered
by the hounds. Should he charge through the hounds
to force this passage, half a dozen of them must be
knocked over the precipice.
However, I carefully descended, and soon reached
the platform. This was not more than twenty feet
square, and it looked down in the gorge of about three
hundred feet. The first seventy of this depth were
perpendicular, as the top of the rock overhung, after
which the side of the cliff was marked by great fissures
and natural steps formed by the detachment from time
to time of masses of rock which had fallen into the
river below. Bushes and rank grass filled the inter-
stices of the rocks, and an old deserted water-course lay
exactly beneath the platform, being cut and built out
of the side of the cliff.
It was a magnificent sight in such grand scenery to
see the buck at bay when we arrived upon the platform.
He was a dare-devil fellow, and feared neither hounds
nor man, every now and then charging through the
pack, and coming almost within reach of the Tamby's
spear. It was a difficult thing to know how to kill
him. I was afraid to go in at him, lest in his struggles
he should drag the hounds over the precipice, and I
would not cheer the seizers on for the same reason.
Indeed, they seemed well aware of the danger, and
every now and then retreated to me, as though to in-
duce the elk to make a move to some better ground.
However, the buck very soon decided the question.
I made up my mind to halloo the hounds on, and to
hamstring the elk, to prevent him from nearing the
precipice : and, giving a shout, the pack rushed at him.
Not a dog could touch him ; he was too quick with
152 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
his horns and fore feet. He made a dash into the pack,
and then regained his position close to the verge of the
precipice. He then turned his back to the hounds,
looked down over the edge, and, to the astonishment
of all, plunged into the abyss below ! A dull crash
sounded from beneath, and then nothing was heard but
the roaring of the waters as before. The hounds
looked over the edge and yelled with a mixture of fear
and despair. Their game was gone !
By making a circuit of about half a mile among these
frightful precipices and gorges, we at length arrived at
the foot of the cliff down which the buck had leapt.
Here we of course found him lying dead, as he had
broken most of his bones. He w^s in very fine condi-
tion ; but it was impossible to move him from such a
spot. I therefore cut off his head, as his antlers were
the finest that I have ever killed before or since.
To regain the tent, I had a pull for it, having to
descend into the village of Perewelle, and then to re-
ascend the opposite mountain of three thousand feet ;
but even this I thought preferable to returning in cold
blood by the dangerous route I had come.
Tugging up such a mountain was no fun after a hard
morning's work, and I resolved to move the encamp-
ment to a large cave, some eight hundred feet lower
down the mountain. Accordingly, I struck the tent,
and after breakfast we took up our quarters in a cavern
worthy of Robin Hood. This had been formed by a
couple of large rocks the size of a moderate house,
whrch had been detached from the overhanging cliff
above, and had fallen together. There was a smaller
cavern within, which made a capital kennel ; rather
more substantial than the rickety building of yesterday.
Elk Venison. 153
Some of the village people, hearing that the buck
was killed and lying in the old water-course, went in a
gang to cut him up. What was their surprise on
reaching the spot to find the carcase removed ! It had
evidently been dragged along the water-course, as the
trail was distinct in the high grass, and upon following
it up, away went two fine leopards, bounding along the
rocks to their adjacent cave. They had consumed a
large portion of the flesh, but the villagers did not leave
them much for another meal. Skin, hoofs, and in fact
every vestige of an elk, is consumed by these people.
For my own part, I do not think much of elk venison,
unless it be very fat, which is rarely the case. It is at
all times more like beef than any other meat, for which
it is a very good substitute. The marrow-bones are the
''bonne bouche" being peculiarly rich and delicate.
Few animals can have a larger proportion of marrow
than the elk, as the bones are more hollow than those
of most quadrupeds. This cylindrical formation en-
ables them to sustain the severe shocks in descending
rough mountains at full speed. It is perfectly wonder-
ful to see an animal of near six hundred pounds' weight
bounding down a hillside, over rocks and ruts and
every conceivable difficulty of ground, at a pace which
will completely distance the best hound ; and even at
this desperate speed, the elk will never make a false
step ; sure-footed as a goat, he will still fly on through
bogs, ravines, tangled jungles and rocky rivers, ever
certain of his footing.
The foregoing description of an elk-hunt will give
the reader a good idea of the power of this animal in
stemming rapids and climbing dangerous precipices ;
but even an elk is not proof against the dangers of Fort
154 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
M'Donald river, an example of which we had on the
following morning.
The hounds found a doe who broke cover close to
me in a small patina and made straight running for the
river. She had no sooner reached it than I heard
her cry out, and as she was closely followed I thought
she was seized. However, the whole pack shortly re-
turned, evidently thrown out, and I began to abuse
them pretty roundly, thinking that they had lost their
game in the river. So they had, but in an excusable
manner ; the poor doe had been washed down a rapid,
and had broken her thigh. We found her dead under
a hollow rock in the middle of the river.
Here we had a fine exemplification of the danger of
the mysterious pools.
While I was opening the elk, with the pack all round
me licking their lips in expectation, old u Madcap" was
jostled by one of the greyhounds, and slipped into a
basin among the rocks, which formed an edge of about
two feet above the surface.
The opposite side of the pool was hemmed in by
rocks about six feet high, and the direction of the
under-current was at once shown by poor old " Mad-
cap" being swept up against this high wall of rock,
where she remained paddling with all her might in an
upright position.
I saw the poor beast would be sucked under, and yet
I could not save her. However, I did my best at the
risk of falling in myself.
I took off my handkerchief and made a slip-knot,
and, begging Pelly to lie down on the top of the rock,
I took his hand while I clung to the face of the wall as
I best could by a little ledge of about two inches' width.
"Madcap's" Dive. 155
With great difficulty I succeeded in hooking the bitch's
head in the slip-knot, but in my awkward position I
could not use sufficient strength to draw her out. I
could only support her head above the water, which I
could distinctly feel was drawing her from me. Pre-
sently she gave a convulsive struggle, which freed her
head from the loop, and in an instant she disappeared.
I could not help going round the rock to see if her
body should be washed out when the torrent reappeared,
when, to my astonishment, up she popped all right, not
being more than half drowned by her subterranean ex-
cursion, and we soon helped her safe ashore. Fortu-
nately for her, the passage had been sufficiently large to
pass her, although I have no doubt a man would have
been held fast and drowned.
There was so much water in the river that I deter-
mined to move from this locality as too dangerous for
hunting. I therefore ordered the village people to as-
semble on the following morning to carry the loads and
tent. In the mean time I sent for the dead elk.
There could not be a better place for a hunting-box
than that cave. We soon had a glorious fire roaring
round the kennel-pot, which, having been well scoured
with sand and water, was to make the soup. Such
soup ! shades of gourmands, if ye only smelt that
cookery ! The pot held six gallons, and the whole elk,
except a few steaks, was cut up and alternately boiled
down in sections. The flesh was then cut up small for
the pack, the marrow-bones reserved for " master,"
and the soup was then boiled until it had evaporated
to the quantity required. A few green chilies, onions
in slices fried, and a little lime-juice, salt, black pepper
and mushroom ketchup, and in fact, there is no use
156 Eight Tears Wanderings in Ceylon.
thinking of it, as the soup is not to be had again. The
fire crackled and blazed as the logs were heaped upon
it as night grew near, and lit up all the nooks and
corners of the old cave. Three beds in a row con-
tained three sleepy mortals. The hounds snored and
growled, and then snored again. The servants jab-
bered, chewed betel, spit, then jabbered a little more,
and at last everything and everybody was fast asleep
within the cave.
The next morning we had an early breakfast and
started, the village people marching off in good spirits
with the loads. I was now en route for Bertram's
patinas, which lay exactly over the mountain on the
opposite side of the river. This being perpendicular, I
was obliged to make a great circuit by keeping the old
Newera Ellia path along the river for two or three
miles, and then, turning off at right angles, I knew an
old native trace over the ridge. Altogether, it was a
round of about six miles, although the patinas were not
a mile from the cave in a straight line.
The path in fact terminates upon the high peak,
exactly opposite the cave, looking down upon my
hunting-ground of the day before, and on the othei
side the ridge lie Bertram's patinas.
The extreme point of the ridge which I had now
gained forms one end of a horse-shoe or amphitheatre ;
the other extremity is formed by a high mountain
exactly opposite, at about two miles' distance. The
bend of the horse-shoe forms a circuit of about six
miles, the rim of which is a wall of precipices and
steep patina mountains, which are about six or seven
hundred feet above the basin or the bottom of the
amphitheatre. The tops of the mountains are covered
Former Inundation. 157
with good open forest, and ribbon-like strips descend to
the base. Now the base forms an uneven shelf of great
extent, about two thousand feet above the villages.
This shelf or valley appears to have suffered at some
remote period from a terrible inundation. Landslips
of great size and innumerable deep gorges and ravines
furrow the bottom of the basin, until at length a princi-
pal fissure carries away the united streams to the
paddy-fields below.
The cause of this inundation is plain enough. The
basin has been the receptacle for the drainage of an ex-
tensive surface of mountain. This drainage has been
effected by innumerable small torrents, which have
united in one general channel through the valley. The
exit of this stream is through a narrow gorge, by which
it descends to the low country. During the period of
heavy rains a landslip has evidently choked up this
passage, and the exit of the water being thus obstructed,
the whole area of the valley has become a lake. The
accumulated water has suddenly burst through the ob-
struction and swept everything before it. The elk are
very fond of lying under the precipices in the strips of
jungle already mentioned. When found, they are ac-
cordingly forced to take to the open country and come
down to the basin below, as they cannot possibly ascend
the mountain except by one or two remote deer-runs.
Thus the whole hunt from the find to the death is gene-
rally in view.
From every point of this beautiful locality there is a
boundless and unbroken panorama of the low country.
Unfortunately, although the weather was perfectly
fine, it was the windy season, and a gale swept across
the mountains that rendered ears of little use, as a
14
158 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
hound's voice was annihilated in such a hurricane.
This was sadly against sport, as the main body of the
pack would have no chance of joining the finding
hound.
However, the hounds were unkenneled at break of
day, and, the tent being pitched at the bottom of the
basin, we commenced a pull up the steep patinas,
hoping to find somewhere on the edge of the jungles.
" There's scent to a certainty ! look at old Blue-
beard's nose upon the ground and the excited wagging
of his stern. Ploughboy notices it now Gaylass
they'll hit it off presently to a certainty, though it's as
cold as charity. That elk was feeding here early in
the night ; the scent is four hours old if a minute.
There they go into the jungle, and we shall lose the
elk, ten to one, as not another hound in the pack will
work it up. It can't be helped ; if any three hounds
will rouse him out, those are the three."
For a couple of hours we had sat behind a rock,_
sheltered from the wind, watching the immense pros-
pect before us. The whole pack Were lying around us
except the three missing hounds, of whom we had seen
nothing since they stole away upon the cold scent.
That elk must have gone up to the top of the moun-
tains after feeding, and a pretty run he must be having,
very likely off to Matturatta plains ; if so, good-bye to
all sport for to-day, and the best hounds will be dead
tired for to-morrow.
I was just beginning to despair when I observed a
fine large buck at about half a mile distance, cantering
easily toward us across an extensive flat of table-land.
This surface was a fine sward, on the same level with
the point upon which we sat, but separated from us by
A Buck in Doubt. 159
two small wooded ravines, with a strip of patina be-
tween them. I at once surmised that this was the
hunted elk, although, as yet, no hounds were visible.
On arrival at the first ravine he immediately de-
scended, and shortly after he reappeared on the small
patina between the two ravines, within three hundred
yards of us. Here the strong gale gave him our scent.
It was a beautiful sight to see him halt in an instant,
and, drawing up to his full height, snuff the warning
breeze and wind the enemy before him.
Just at this moment I heard old " Bluebeard's" deep
note swelling in the distance, and I saw him leading
across the table-land as true as gold upon the track ;
" Ploughboy" and " Gaylass" were both with him, but
they were running mute.
The buck heard the hounds as well as we did, and I
was afraid that the whole pack would also catch the
sound, and, by hurrying toward it, would head the elk
and turn him from his coui'se. Up to the present time
they had not observed him.
Still the buck stood in an attitude of acute suspense.
He winded an enemy before him, and he heard an-
other behind, which was rapidly closing up, and, as
though doubting his own power of scent, he gave pref-
erence to that of hearing, and gallantly continued his
course and entered the second ravine just beneath our
feet.
I immediately jumped up, and, exciting the hounds
in a subdued voice, I waved my cap at the spot, and
directed a native to run at full speed to the jungle to
endeavor to meet the elk, as I knew the hounds would
then follow him. This they did ; and they all entered
the jungle with the man except the three greyhounds,
160 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
" Lucifer," " Bran" and " Hecate," who remained with
me.
A short time passed in breathless suspense, during
which the voices of the three following hounds rapidly
approached as they steadily persevered in the long
chase ; when suddenly, as I had expected, the main
body of the pack met the elk in the strip of jungle.
Joyful must have been the burst of music to the ears
of old " Bluebeard" after his long run. Out crashed
the buck upon the patinas near the spot where the pack
had entered, and away he went over the grassy hills at
a pace which soon left the hounds behind. The grey-
hounds will stretch his legs for him. Yo-i-ck to him,
Lucifer ! For-r-r-ard to him, Hecate !
Off dashed the three greyhounds from my side at a
railway pace, but, as the buck was above them and had
a start of about two hundred yards, in such an uphill
race both Bran and Lucifer managed to lose sight of
him in the undulations.
Now was the time for Hecate's enormous power of
loin and thigh to tell, and, never losing a moment's
view of her game, she sped up the steep mountain side
and was soon after seen within fifty yards of the buck
all alone, but going like a rocket.
Now she has turned him ! that pace could not last
up hill, and round the elk doubled arid came flying
down the mountain side.
From the point of the hill upon which we stood we
had a splendid view of the course ; the bitch gained
upon him at every bound, and there was a pitiless dash
in her style of going that boded little mercy to her
game. What alarmed me, however, was the direction
that the buck was taking. An abrupt precipice of
Danger Ahead. 161
about two hundred and fifty feet was lying exactly in
his path ; this sunk sheer down to a lower series of
grass-lands.
At the tremendous pace at which they were going
I feared lest their own impetus should carry both elk
and dog to destruction before they could see the danger.
Down they flew with unabated speed ; they neared
the precipice, and a few more seconds would bring them
to the verge.
The stride of the buck was no match for the bound
of the greyhound : the bitch was at his flanks, and he
pressed along at flying speed.
He was close to the danger and it was still unseen :
a moment more and " Hecate" sprang at his ear. For-
tunately she lost her hold as the ear split. This check
saved her. I shouted, " He'll be over !" and the next
instant he was flying through the air to headlong de-
struction.
Bounding from a projecting rock upon which he
struck, he flew outward, and with frightfully increasing
momentum he spun round and round in his descent,
until the centrifugal motion drew out his legs and neck
as straight as a line. A few seconds of this multiply-
ing velocity and crash !
It was all over. The bitch had pulled up on the
very brink of the precipice, but it was a narrow escape.
Sportsmen are contradictory creatures. If that buck
had come to bay, I should have known no better sport
than going in at him with the knife to the assistance
of the pack ; but I now felt a great amount of compas-
sion for the poor brute who had met so terrible a fate.
It did not seem fair ; and yet I would not have missed
such a sight for anything. Nothing can be conceived
14 L
1 62 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
more terribly grand than the rush of so large an animal
through the air ; and it was a curious circumstance
that within a few days no less than two bucks had gone
over precipices, although I had never witnessed such
an accident more than once before.
Upon reaching the fatal spot, I, of course, found him
lying stone dead. He had fallen at least two hundred
and fifty feet to the base of the precipice ; and the
ground being covered with detached fragments of rock,
he had broken most of his bones, beside bursting his
paunch and smashing in the face. However, we cut
him up and cleaned him, and, with the native follow-
ers heavily laden, we reached the tent.
The following morning I killed another fine buck
after a good run on the patinas, where he was coursed
and pulled down by the greyhounds ; but the wind was
so very high that it destroyed the pleasure of hunting.
I therefore determined on another move to the Mattu-
ratta Plains, within three miles of my present hunting-
ground.
After hunting four days at the Matturatta Plains, I
moved on to the Elephant Plains, and from thence re-
turned home after twelve days' absence, having killed
twelve elk and two red deer.
The animal known as the " red deer" in Ceylon is a
very different creature to his splendid namesake in
Scotland ; he is particularly unlike a deer in the dispro-
portionate size of his carcase to his length of leg. He
stands about twenty-six inches high at the shoulder and
weighs (live weight) from forty-five to fifty pounds.
He has two sharp tusks in the upper jaw, projecting
about an inch and a half from the gum. These are
exactly like the lower-jaw tusks of a boar, but they
The "Mouse Deer." 163
incline in the contrary direction, viz., downward, and
they are used as weapons of defence.
The horns of the red deer seldom exceed eight
inches in Vength, and have no .more than two points
upon each antler, formed by a fork-like termination.
This kind of deer has no brow antler. They are very
fast, and excel especially in going up hill, in which
ground they frequently escape from the best grey-
hounds.
There is no doubt that the red-deer venison is the
best in Ceylon, but the animal itself is not generally
sought after for sport. He gives a most uninteresting
run ; never going straight away like a deer, but doub-
ling about over fifty acres of ground like a hare, until
he is at last run into and killed. They exist in extraor-
dinary numbers throughout every portion of Ceylon,
but are never seen in herds.
Next to the red deer is the still more tiny species,
the " mouse deer." This animal seldom exceeds twelve
inches in height, and has the same characteristic as the
red deer in the heavy proportion of body to its small
length of limb. The skin is a mottled ash-gray, cov-
ered with dark spots. The upper jaw is furnished with
sharp tusks similar to the red deer, but the head is free
from horns.
The skull is perfectly unlike the head of a deer, and
is closely allied to the rat, which it would exactly re-
semble, were it not for the difference in the teeth. The
mouse deer lives principally upon berries and fruits ;
but I have seldom found much herbage upon examina-
tion of the' paunch. Some people consider the flesh
very good, but my ideas perhaps give it a "ratty"
flavor that makes it unpalatable.
164 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
These little deer make for some well-known retreat
the moment that they are disturbed by dogs, and they
are usually found after a short run safely ensconced in
a hollow tree.
It is a very singular thing that none of the deer tribe
in Ceylon have more than six points on their horns,
viz., three upon each. These are, the brow-antler
point, and the two points which form the extremity of
each horn. I have seen them occasionally with more,
but these were deformities in the antlers.
A strapger is always disappointed in a Ceylon elk's
antlers ; and very naturally, for they are quite out of
proportion to the great size of the animal. A very
large Scotch red deer in not more than two-thirds the
size of a moderately fine elk, and yet he carries a head
of horns that are infinitely larger.
In fact, so rare are fine antlers in Ceylon that I could
not pick out more than a dozen of really handsome elk
horns out of the great numbers that I have killed.
A handsome pair of antlers is a grand addition to
the beauty of a fine buck, and gives a majesty to his
bearing which is greatly missed when a fine animal
breaks cover with only a puny pair of horns. There
is as great a difference in his appearance as there would
be in a life-guardsman in full uniform or in his shirt.
The antlers of the axis, or spotted deer, are generally
longer than those of the elk ; they are also more slender
and graceful. Altogether, the spotted deer is about the
handsomest of that beautiful tribe. A fine spotted stag
is the perfection of elegance, color, strength, courage
and speed. He has a proud and thorough-bred way of
carrying his head, which is set upon his neck with a
peculiar grace. Nothing can surpass the beauty of his
Average Weight of Ceylon Deer. 165
full black eye. His hide is as sleek as satin a rich
brown, slightly tinged with red, and spotted as though
mottled with flakes of snow. His weight is about two
hundred and fifty pounds (alive).
It is a difficult thing to judge of a deer's weight with
any great accuracy ; but I do not think I am far out in
my estimation of the average, as I once tried the ex-
periment by weighing a dead elk. I had always con-
sidered that a mountain elk, which is smaller than those
of the low country, weighed about four hundred pounds
when cleaned, or five hundred and fifty pounds live
weight. I happened one day to kill an average-sized
buck, though with very small horns, close to the road ;
so, having cleaned him, I sent a cart for his carcase on
my return home. This elk I weighed whole, minus
his inside, and he was four hundred and eleven pounds.
Many hours had elapsed since his death, so that the
carcase must have lost much weight by drying ; this,
with the loss of blood and offal, must have been at least
one hundred and fifty pounds, which would have made
his live weight five hundred and sixty-one pounds.
Of the five different species of deer in Ceylon, the
spotted deer is alone seen upon the plains. No climate
can be too hot for his exotic constitution, and he is
never found at a higher elevation than three thousand
feet. In the low country, when the midday sun has
driven every other beast to the shelter of the densest
jungles, the sultan of the herd and his lovely mates are
sometimes contented with the shade of an isolated tree
or the simple border of the jungle, where they drowsily
pass the day, flapping their long ears in listless idleness
until the hotter hours have passed away. At about
four in the afternoon they stroll upon the open plains,
1 66 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
bucks, does and fawns, in beautiful herds ; when un-
disturbed, as many as a hundred together. This is the
only species of deer in Ceylon that is gregarious.
Neither the spotted deer, nor the bear or buffalo, is
to be found at Newera Ellia. The axis and the buffalo,
being the usual denizens of the hottest countries, are
not to be expected to exist in their natural state in so
low a temperature ; but it is extraordinary that the
bear, who in most countries inhabits the mountains,
should in Ceylon adhere exclusively to the low country.
The Ceylon bear is of that species which is to be
seen in the Zoological Gardens as the " sloth bear ;" an
ill-bred-looking fellow with a long-haired black coat
and a gray face.
A Ceylon bear's skin is not worth preserving ; there
is no fur upon it, but it simply consists of rather a
stingy allowance of black hairs. This is the natural
effect of his perpetual residence in a hot country, where
his coat adapts itself to the climate. He is desperately
savage, and is more feared by the natives than any
other animal, as he is in the constant habit of attacking
people without the slightest provocation. His mode of
attack increases the danger, as there is a great want of
fair play in his method of fighting. Lying in wait,
either behind a rock or in a thick bush, he makes a
sudden spring upon the unwary wanderer, and in a
moment he attacks his face with teeth and claws. The
latter are about two inches long, and the former are
much larger than a leopard's ; hence it may easily be
imagined how even a few seconds of biting and claw-
ing might alter the most handsome expression of coun-
tenance.
Bears have frequently been known to tear off' a
Variety of Vermin Trials for Hounds. 167
mr.n's face like a mask, leaving nothing but the face of
a skull.
Thus the quadrupeds of Newera Ellia and the adja-
cent highlands are confined to the following classes :
the elephant, the hog, the leopard, the chetah, the elk,
the red deer, the mouse deer, the hare, the otter, the
jackal, the civet cat, the mongoose and two others
(varieties of the species), the black squirrel, the gray
squirrel, the wanderoo monkey (the largest species in
Ceylon), the porcupine, and a great variety of the sat.
Imagine the difficulty of breaking in a young hound
for elk-hunting when the jungles are swarming with
such a list of vermin ! The better the pup the more he
will persevere in hunting everything that he can possi-
bly find ; and with such a variety of animals, some of
which have the most enticing scent, it is a source of
endless trouble in teaching a young hound what to
hunt and what to avoid.
It is curious to witness the sagacity of the old
hounds in joining or despising the opening note of a
new-comer.
The jungles are fearfully thick, and it requires great
exertion on the part of the dog to force his way through
at a pace that will enable him to join the finding hound ;
thus he feels considerable disappointment if upon his
arrival he finds the scent of a monkey or a cat instead
of his legitimate game. An old hound soon marks the
inexperienced voice of the babbler, and after the cry of
" wolf" has been again repeated, nothing will induce
him to join the false finder.
Again, it is exceedingly interesting to observe the
quickness of all hounds in acknowledging their leader.
Only let them catch the sound of old " Bluebeard's"
168 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
voice, and see the dash with which they rush through
the jungle to join him. They know the old fellow's
note is true to an elk or hog, and, with implicit confi-
dence in his " find," they never hesitate to join.
There are numerous obstacles to the breaking and
training of dogs of all kinds in such a country. A
hound when once in the jungle is his own master. He
obeys the sound of the halloo or the horn, or not, as he
thinks proper. It is impossible to correct him, as he is
outt)f sight.
Now, the very fact of having one or two first-ratt
finders in a pack will very likely be the cause of spoil-
ing the other hounds. After repeated experience their
instinct soon shows them that, no matter how the whole
pack may individually hunt, the "find" will be achieved
by one of the first-rate hounds, and gradually they give
up hunting and take to listening for the opening note
of the favorite. Of course in an open country they
would be kept to their work by the whip, but at
Newera Ellia this is impossible. This accounts for
the extreme paucity of first-rate "finders."
Hunting in a wild country is a far more difficult
task for hounds than the ordinary chase at home.
Wherever a country is cultivated it must be enclosed.
Thus, should a flock of sheep have thrown the hounds
out by crossing the scent, a cast round the fences must
soon hit it off again if the fox has left the field. But in
elk-hunting it is scarcely possible to assist the hounds ;
a dozen different animals, or even a disturbed elk, may
cross the scent in parts of the jungle where the cry of
the hounds is even out of hearing. Again, an elk has
a constant habit of running or swimming down a river,
his instinct prompting him to drown his own scent, and
Training Hounds. 169
thus throw off his pursuers. Here is a trial for the
hounds ! the elk has waded or swum down the stream,
and the baffled pack arrive upon the bank ; their cheer-
ing music has ceased ; the elk has kept the water for
perhaps a quarter of a mile, or he may have landed
several times during that distance and again have taken
to water.
Now the young hounds dash thoughtlessly across the
river, thinking of nothing but a straight course, and
they are thrown out on the barren bank on the other
side. Back they come again, wind about the last track
for a few minutes, and then they are forced to give it
up they are thrown out altogether.
Mark the staunch old hounds ! one has crossed the
river ; there is no scent, but he strikes down the bank
with his nose close to the ground, and away he goes
along the edge of the river casting for a scent. Now
mark old " Bluebeard," swimming steadily down the
stream ; he knows the habits of his game as well as I
do, and two to one that he will find, although "Plough-
boy" has just started along the near bank ; so that both
sides of the river are being hunted.
Now this is what I call difficult hunting ; bad enough
if the huntsman be up to assist his hounds, but nine
times out of ten this happens in the middle of a run,
without a soul within a mile.
The only way to train hounds in this style of country
is to accustom them to complete obedience from puppy-
hood. , This is easily effected by taking them out for
exercise upon a road coupled to old hounds. A good
walk every morning, accompanied by the horn and the
whip, and they soon fall into such a habit of obedience
that they may be taken out without the couples.
15
170 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
The great desideratum, then, is to gain their affection
and confidence, otherwise they will obey upon the road
and laugh at you when in the jungle. Now " affection"
is a difficult feeling to instill into a foxhound, and can
only be partially attained by the exercise of cupboard
love ; thus a few pieces of dry liver or bread, kept in
the pocket to be given to a young hound who has
sharply answered to his call, will do more good than a
month of scolding and rating.
" Confidence," or the want of it, in a hound depends
entirely upon the character of his master. There is an
old adage of "like master, like man;" and this is
strongly displayed in the hound. The very best seizer
would be spoiled if his master were a leetle slow in
going in with the knife ; and, on the other hand, dogs
naturally shy of danger turn into good seizers where
their master invariably leads them in.
Not only is their confidence required and gained at
these times, but they learn to place implicit reliance
upon their master's knowledge of hunting, in the same
manner that they acknowledge the superiority of a par-
ticular hound. This induces them to obey beyond any
method of training, as they feel a certain dependence
upon the man, and they answer his halloo or the horn
without a moment's hesitation.
Nothing is so likely to destroy the character of a pack
as a certain amount of laziness or incapacity upon the
master's part in following them up. This is natural
enough, as the best hounds, if repeatedly left unassisted
for hours when at bay with their game until they are
regularly beaten off, will lose their relish for the sport.
On the other hand, perseverance on the huntsman'b
part will ensure a corresponding amount in the hounds ;
A Sportsman "Shut Up." 171
they will become so accustomed to the certain appear-
ance of their master at the bay at some time or other
that they will stick to their game till night. I have
frequently killed elk at two or three o'clock in the af-
ternoon that have been found at six in the morning.
Sometimes I have killed them even later than this when,
after wandering fruitlessly the whole day in every di-
rection but the right one, my ears have at length been
gladdened by the distant sound of the bay. The par-
ticular moment when hope and certainty combined re-
ward the day's toil is the very quintessence of joy and
delight. Nothing in the shape of enjoyment can come
near it. What a strange power has that helpless-look-
ing mass the brain ! One moment, and the limbs are
fagged, the shins are tender with breaking all day
through the densest jungles, the feet are worn with un-
requited labor, and hark ! The bay ! no doubt of it
the bay ! There is the magic spell which, acting on
the brain, flies through every nerve. New legs, new
feet, new everything, in a moment ! fresh as though
just out of bed ; here we go tearing through the jungle
like a buffalo, and as happy as though we had just
come in for a fortune happier, a great deal.
Nevertheless, elk-hunting is not a general taste, as
people have not opportunities of enjoying it constantly.
Accordingly, they are out of condition, and soon be-
come distressed and of necessity " shut up" (a vulgar
but expressive term). This must be fine fun for a total
stranger rather inclined to corpulency, who has daunt-
lessly persevered in keeping up with the huntsman,
although at some personal inconvenience. There is a
limit to all endurance, and he is obliged to stop, quite
blown, completely done. He loses all sounds of hounds
172 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
and huntsman, and everything connected with the hunt.
Where is he? How horrible the idea that flashes
across his mind ! he has no idea where he is, except
that he is quite certain that he is in some jungle in
Ceylon.
Distraction ! Ceylon is nearly all jungle, two hundred
and eighty miles long, and he is in this somewhere.
He tries to recollect by what route he has come ; im-
possible ! He has been up one mountain, <md then he
turned to the right, and got into a ravine ; he recollects
the ravine, for he fell on his head with the end of a
dead stick in his stomach just as he got to the bottom ;
he forgets every other part of his route, simply having
an idea that he went down a great many ravines and
up a number of hills, and turned to the right and left
several times. He gives it up ; he finds himself " lost,"
and, if he is sensible, he will sit down and wait till
some one comes to look for him, when he will start
with joy at the glad sound of the horn. But should he
attempt to find his way alone through those pathless
jungles, he will only increase his distance from the
right course.
One great peculiarity in Newera Ellia is the com-
parative freedom from poisonous vermin. There are
three varieties of snakes, only one of which is hurtful,
and all are very minute. The venomous species is the
" carrawelle," whose bite is ~ generally fatal ; but this
snake is not often met with. There are no ticks, nor
bugs, nor leeches, nor scorpions, nor white ants, nor
wasps, nor mosquitoes ; in fact, there is nothing venom-
ous except the snake alluded to, and a small species of
centipede. Fleas there are certainly indeed, a fair
Vermin in Ceylon. 173
sprinkling of fleas ; but they are not troublesome, ex-
cept in houses which are unoccupied during a portion
of the year. This is a great peculiarity of a Ceylon
flea he is a great colonist ; and should a house be
untenanted for a few months, so sure will it swarm with
these " settlers." Even a grass hut built for a night's
bivouac in the jungle, without a flea in the neighbor-
hood, will literally swarm with them if deserted for a
couple of months. Fleas have a great fancy for set-
tling upon anything white ; thus a person with white
trowsers will be blackened with them, while a man in
darker colors will be comparatively free. I at first
supposed that they appeared in larger numbers on the
white ground because they were more easily distin-
guished ; but I tried the experiment of putting a sheet
of writing-paper and a piece of brown talipot leaf in
the midst of fleas ; the paper was covered with them,
while only two or three were on the talipot.
The bite of the small species of centipede alluded to
is not very severe, being about equivalent to a wasp's
sting. I have been bitten myself, and I have seen
another person suffering from the bite, which was ludi-
crous enough.
The sufferer was Corporal Phinn, of H.M. Fifteenth
Regiment. At that time he was one of Lieutenant de
Montenach's servants, and accompanied his master on
a hunting-trip to the Horton Plains.
Now Phinn was of course an Irishman ; an excellent
fellow, a dead hand at tramping a bog and killing a
snipe, but (without the slightest intention of impugning
his veracity) Phinn's ideality was largely developed.
He was never by himself for five minutes in the jungle
without having seen something wonderful before his
15*
1 74 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
return ; this he was sure to relate in a rich brogue with
great facetiousness.
However, we had just finished dinner one night, and
Phinn had then taken his master's vacant place (there
being only one room) to commence his own meal,
when up he jumped like a madman, spluttering the
food out of his mouth, and shouting and skipping
about the room with both hands clutched tightly to the
hinder part of his inexpressibles. "Oh, by Jasus !
help, sir, help ! I've a reptile or some divil up my
breeches ! Oh ! bad luck to him, he's biting me ! Oh !
oh ! it's sure a sarpint that's stinging me ! quick, sir, or
he'll be the death o' me !"
Phinn was frantic, and upon lowering his inexpress-
ibles we found the centipede about four inches long
which had bitten him. A little brandy rubbed on the
part soon relieved the pain.
CHAPTER VIII.
OBSERVATIONS ON NATURE IN THE TROPICS THE DUNG BEETLE
THE MASON FLY SPIDERS LUMINOUS INSECTS EF-
FORTS OF A NATURALIST DOGS WORRIED BY LEECHES
TROPICAL DISEASES MALARIA CAUSES OF INFECTION
DISAPPEARANCE OF THE " MINA" POISONOUS WATER
WELL-DIGGING ELEPHANTS.
HOW little can the inhabitant of a cold or temper-
ate climate appreciate the vast amount of "life"
in a tropical country ! The combined action of light,
heat and moisture calls into existence myriads of
creeping things, the offspring of the decay of vegeta-
tion. " Life" appears to emanate from " death" the
destruction of one material seems to multify the exist-
ence of another the whole surface of the earth seems
busied in one vast system of giving birth.
An animal dies a solitary beast and before his unit
life has vanished for one week, how many millions of
living creatures owe their birth to his death? What
countless swarms of insects have risen from that one
carcase ! creatures which never could have been
brought into existence were it not for the presence of
one dead body which has received and hatched the
deposited eggs of millions that otherwise would have
remained unvivified.
175
176 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
Not a tree falls, not a withered flower droops to the
ground, not a fruit drops from the exhausted bough, but
it is instantly attacked by the class of insect prepared
by Nature for its destruction. The white ant scans a
lofty tree whose iron-like timber and giant stem would
seem to mock at his puny efforts ; but it is rotten at
the core and not a leaf adorns its branches, and in less
than a year it will have fallen to the earth a mere shell ;
the whole of the wood will have been devoured.
Rottenness of all kinds is soon carried from the face
of the land by the wise arrangements of Nature for pre-
serving the world from plagues and diseases, which the
decaying and unconsumed bodies of animals and vege-
tables would otherwise engender.
How beautiful are all the laws of Nature ! how per-
fect in their details ! Allow that the great duty of the
insect tribe is to cleanse the earth and atmosphere from
countless impurities noxious to the human race, how
great a plague would our benefactors themselves be-
come were it not for the various classes of carnivorous
insects who prey upon them, and are in their turn the
prey of others ! It is a grand principle of continual
strife, which keeps all and each down, to their required
level.
What a feast for an observant mind is thus afforded
in a tropical country ! The variety and the multitude
of living things are so great that a person of only ordi-
nary observation cannot help acquiring a tolerable
knowledge of the habits of some of the most interest
ing classes. In the common routine of daily life they
are continually in his view, and even should he have
no taste for the study of Nature and her productions,
still one prevailing characteristic of the insect tribe
Dry Beetles. 177
must impress itself upon his mind. It is the natural
instinct not simply of procreating their species, but of
laying by a provision for their expected offspring.
What a lesson to mankind ! what an example to the
nurtured mind of man from one of the lowest classes
of living things !
Here we see no rash matrimonial engagements ; no
penniless lovers selfishly and indissolubly linked to-
gether to propagate large families of starving children.
All the arrangements of the insect tribe, though
prompted by sheer instinct, are conducted with a de-
gree of rationality that in some cases raises the mere
instinct of the creeping thing above the assumed "rea-
son" of man.
The bird builds her nest and carefully provides for
the comfort of her young long ere she lays her fragile
egg. Even look at that vulgar-looking beetle, whose
coarse form would banish the idea of any rational feel-
ing existing in its brain the Billingsgate fish-woman
of its tribe in coarseness and rudeness of exterior
{Scarabceus carnifex) see with what quickness she is
running backward, raised almost upon her head, while
with her hind legs she trundles a large ball ; herself no
bigger than a nutmeg, the ball is four times the size.
There she goes along the smooth road. The ball she
has just manufactured from some fresh-dropped horse-
dung ; it is as round as though turned by a lathe, and,
although the dung has not lain an hour upon the
ground, she and her confederates have portioned out
the spoil, and each has started off with her separate
ball. Not a particle of horsedung remains upon the
road. Now she has rolled the ball away from the hard
road, and upon the soft, sandy border she has stopped
M
178 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
to rest. No great amount of rest ; she plunges her
head into the ground, and with that shovel-like projec-
tion of stout horn she mines her way below : she has
disappeared even in these few seconds.
Presently the apparently deserted ball begins to
move, as though acted on by some subterranean force ;
gradually it sinks to the earth, and it vanishes alto-
gether.
Some persons might imagine that she feeds upon the
ordure, and that she has buried her store as a dog hides
a bone ; but this is not the case ; she has formed a re-
ceptacle for her eggs, which she deposits in the ball of
dung, the warmth of which assists in bringing the lar-
vae into life, which then feed upon the manure.
It is wonderful to observe with what rapidity all
kinds of dung are removed by these beetles. This is
effected by the active process of rolling the loads instead
of carrying, by which method a large mass is trans-
ported at once.
The mason-fly is also a ball-maker, but she carries
her load and builds an elaborate nest. This insect be-
longs to the order " Hymenoptera," and is of the Ich-
neumon tribe, being a variety of upward of four hun-
dred species of that interesting fly.
The whole tribe of Ichneumon are celebrated for
their courage ; a small fly will not hesitate to attack
the largest cockroach, who evinces the greatest terror
at sight of his well-known enemy ; but the greatest
proof of valor in a fly is displayed in the war of the
ichneumon against the spider.
There is a great variety of this insect in Ceylon, from
the large black species, the size of the hornet, down to
the minute tinsel-green fly, no bigger than a gnat ; but
Mason Flies. 179
every one of these different species wages perpetual war
against the arch enemy of flies.
In very dry weather in some districts, when most
pools and water-holes are dried up, a pail of water
thrown upon the ground will as assuredly attract a
host of mason-flies as carrion will bring together
"blow-flies." They will be then seen in excessive
activity upon the wet earth, forming balls of mud, by
rolling the earth between their fore feet until they have
manufactured each a pill. With this they fly away to
build their nest, and immediately return for a further
supply.
The arrangement of the nest is a matter of much
consideration, as the shape depends entirely upon the
locality in which it is built: it may be in the corner of
a room, or in a hole in a wall, or in the hollow of a
bamboo ; but wherever it is, the principle is the same,
although the sTiape of the nest may vary. Everything
is to be hermetically sealed.
The mason-fly commences by flattening the first pill
of clay upon the intended site (say the corner of a
room) ; she then spreads it in a thin layer over a sur-
face of about two inches, and retires for another ball of
clay. This she dabs upon the plastic foundation, and
continues the apparently rude operation until some
twenty or thirty pills of clay are adhering at equal dis-
tances. She then forms these into a number of neat
oval-shaped cells, about the size of a wren's egg, and
in each cell she deposits one egg. She then flies off in
search of spiders, which are to be laid up in stores
within the cells as food for the young larvse when
hatched.
Now the transition from the larva to the fly takes
180 Eight Fears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
place in the cell, and occupies about six weeks from
the time the egg is first laid ; thus, as the egg itself is
not vivified for some weeks after it is deposited, the
spiders have to be preserved in a sound and fresh state
during that interval until the larva is in such an ad-
vanced stage as to require food.
In a tropical country every one knows that a very few
hours occasion the putrefaction of all dead animal sub-
stances ; nevertheless these spiders are to be kept fresh
and good, like our tins of preserved meats, to be eaten
when required.
One, two, or even three spiders, according to their
size, the mason-fly deposits in each cell, and then closes
it hermetically with clay. The spiders she has pounced
upon while sunning themselves in the centre of their
delicate nets, and they are hurried off in a panic to be
converted into preserved provisions. Each cell being
closed, the whole nest is cemented over with a thick
covering of clay. In due time the young family hatch,
eat their allowance of spiders, undergo their torpid
change, and emerge from their clay mansion complete
mason-flies.
Every variety of Ichneumon, however minute (in
Ceylon), chooses the spider as the food for its young.
It is not at all uncommon to find a gun well loaded
with spiders, clay and grubs, some mason-fly having
chosen the barrel for his location. A bunch of keys
will invite a settlement of one of the smaller species,
who will make its nest in the tube of a key, which it
also fills with minute spiders.
In attacking the spider, the mason-fly has a choice
of his antagonist, and he takes good care to have a pre-
ponderance of weight on his own side. His reason for
Spiders. 181
choosing this in preference to other insects for a pre-
served store may be that the spider is naturally juicy,
plump and compact, combining advantages both for
keeping and packing closely.
There are great varieties of spiders in Ceylon, one
of which is of such enormous size as to resemble the
Aranea avicularia of America. This species stands
on an area of about three inches, and never spins a
web, but wanders about and lives in holes ; his length
of limb, breadth of thorax and powerful jaws give him
a most formidable appearance. There is another spe-
cies of a large-sized spider who spins a web of about
two and a half feet in diameter. This is composed of
a strong, yellow, silky fibre, and so powerful is the tex-
ture that a moderate-sized walking-cane thrown into the
web will be retained by it. This spider is about two
inches long, the color black, with a large yellow spot
upon the back, and the body nearly free from hair.
Some years ago an experiment was made in France
of substituting the thread of the spider for the silk of
the silkworm : several pairs of stockings and various
articles were manufactured with tolerable success in
this new material, but the fibre was generally con-
sidered as too fragile.
A sample of such thread as is spun by the spider
described could not have failed to produce the desired -
result, as its strength is so great that it can be wound
upon a card without the slightest care required in the
operation. The texture is far more silky than the fibre
commonly produced by spiders, which has more gene-
rally the character of cotton than of silk.
Should this ever be experimented on, a question might
arise of much interest to entomologists, whether a dif-
16
1 82 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
ference in the food of the spider would affect the quality
of the thread, as is well known to be the case with the
common silkworm.
A Ceylon night after a heavy shower of rain is a
brilliant sight, when the whole atmosphere is teeming
with moving lights bright as the stars themselves, wav-
ing around the tree-tops in fiery circles, now threading
like distant lamps through the intricate branches and
lighting up the dark recesses of the foliage, then rush-
ing like a shower of sparks around the glittering
boughs. Myriads of bright fire-flies in these wild
dances meet their destiny, being entangled in opposing
spiders' webs, where they hang like fairy lamps, their
own light directing the path of the destroyer and assist-
ing in their destruction.
There are many varieties of luminous insects in Cey-
lon. That which affords the greatest volume of light
is a large white grub about two inches in length.
This is a fat, sluggish animal, whose light is far more
brilliant than could be supposed to emanate from such
a form.
The light of a common fire-fly will enable a person
to distinguish the hour on a dial in a dark night, but
the glow from the grub described will render the small-
est print so legible that a page may be read with ease.
I once tried the experiment of killing the grub, but the
light was not extinguished with life, and by opening
the tail, I squeezed out a quantity of glutinous fluid,
which was so highly phosphorescent that it brilliantly
illumined the page of a book which I had been reading
by its light for a trial.
All phosphorescent substances require friction to
produce their full volume of light ; this is exemplified
Luminous Insects. 183
at sea during, a calm tropical night, when the ocean
sleeps in utter darkness and quietude and not a ripple
disturbs the broad surface of the water. Then the
prow of the advancing steamer cuts through the dreary
waste of darkness and awakens into fiery life the spray
which dashes from her sides. A broad stream of light
illumines the sea in her wake, and she appears to
plough up fire in her rush through the darkened water.
The simple friction of the moving mass agitates the
millions of luminous animalcules contained in the
water ; in the same manner a fish darting through the
sea is distinctly seen by the fiery course which is created
by his own velocity.
All luminous insects are provided with a certain
amount of phosphorescent fluid, which can be set in
action at pleasure by the agitation of a number of
nerves and muscles situated in the region of the fluid
and especially adapted to that purpose. It is a com-
mon belief that the light of the glow-worm is used as
a lamp of love to assist in nocturnal meetings, but
there can be little doubt that the insect makes use of
its natural brilliancy without any specific intention. It
is as natural for the fire-fly to glitter by night as for the
colored butterfly to be gaudy by day.
The variety of beautiful and interesting insects is so
great in Ceylon that an entomologist would consider it
a temporary elysium ; neither would he have much
trouble in collecting a host of different species who will
exhibit themselves without the necessity of a laborious
search. Thus, while he may be engaged in pinning
out some rare specimen, a thousand minute "eye-flies"
will be dancing so close to his eyeballs that seeing is
out of the question. These little creatures, which are
184 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
no larger than pins' heads, are among the greatest
plagues in some parts of the jungle ; and what increases
the annoyance is the knowledge of the fact that they
dance almost into your eyes out of sheer vanity. They
are simply admiring their own reflection in the mirror
of the eye ; or, may be, some mistake their own re-
flected forms for other flies performing the part of a
"vis-a-vis" in their unwearying quadrille.
A cigar is a specific against these small plagues, and
we will allow that the patient entomologist has just
succeeded in putting them to flight and has resumed
the occupation of setting out his specimen. Ha ! see
him spring out of his chair as though electrified.
Watch how, regardless of the laws of buttons, he fran-
tically tears his trowsers from his limbs ; he has him !
no he hasn't ! yes he has ! no no, positively he can-
not get him off. It is a tick no bigger than a grain of
sand, but his bite is like a red-hot needle boring into
the skin. If all the royal family had been present, he
could not have refrained from tearing off his trowsers.
The naturalist has been out the whole morning col-
lecting, and a pretty collection he has got a perfect
fortune upon his legs alone. There are about a hun-
dred ticks who have not yet commenced to feed upon
him ; there are also several fine specimens of the large
flat buffalo tick ; three or four leeches are enjoying
themselves on the juices of the naturalist ; these he had
not felt, although they had bitten him half an hour be-
fore ; a fine black ant has also escaped during the re-
cent confusion, fortunately without using his sting.
Oil is the only means of loosening the hold of a tick ;
this suffocates him and he dies ; but he leaves an amount
of inflammation in the wound which is perfectly stir-
Treasures for the Entomologist. 185
prising in so minute an insect. The bite of the smallest
species is far more severe than that of the large buffalo
or the deer tick, both of which are varieties.
Although the leeches in Ceylon are excessively an-
noying, and numerous among the dead leaves of the
jungle and the high grass, they are easily guarded
against by means of leech-gaiters : these are wide
stockings, made of drill or some other light and close
material, which are drawn over the foot and trowsers
up to the knee, under which they are securely tied.
There are three varieties of the leech : the small jungle
leech, the common leech and the stone leech. The
latter will frequently creep up the nostrils of a dog
while he is drinking in a stream, and, unlike the other
species, it does not drop off when satiated, but con-
tinues to live in the dog's nostril. I have known a
leech of this kind to have lived more than two months
in the nose of one of my hounds ; he was so high up
that I could only see his tail occasionally when he
relaxed to his full length, and injections of salt and
water had no effect on him. Thus I could not relieve
the dog till one day when the leech descended, and I
observed the tail working in and out of the nostril ; I
then extracted him in the usual way with the finger and
thumb and the tail of the coat.
I should be trespassing too much upon the province
of the naturalist, and attempting more than I could ac-
complish, were I to enter into the details of the ento-
mology of Ceylon ; I have simply mentioned a few of
those insects most common to the every-day observer,
and I leave the description of the endless varieties of
classes to those who make entomology a study.
It may no doubt appear very enticing to the lovers of
16*
1 86 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
such things, to hear of the gorgeous colors and prodigious
size of butterflies, moths and beetles ; the varieties of
reptiles, the flying foxes, the gigantic crocodiles ; the
countless species of waterfowl, et hoc genus omne ; but
one very serious fact is apt to escape the observation of
the general reader, that wherever insect and reptile life
is most abundant, so sure is that locality full of malaria
and disease.
Ceylon does not descend to second-class diseases :
there is no such thing as influenza ; hooping-cough,
measles, scarlatina, etc., are rarely, if ever, heard of;
we ring the changes upon four first-class ailments four
scourges, which alternately ascend to the throne of pes-
tilence and annually reduce the circle of our friends
cholera, dysentery, small-pox and fever. This year
(1854) there has been some dispute as to the routine
of succession ; they have accordingly all raged at one
time.
The cause of infection in disease has long been a
subject of controversy among medical men, but there
can be little doubt that, whatever is the origin of the
disease, the same is the element of infection. The ques-
tion is, therefore, reduced to the prime cause of the dis-
ease itself.
A theory that animalcules are the cause of the various
contagious and infectious disorders has created much
discussion ; and although this opinion is not generally
entertained by the faculty, the idea is so feasible, and
so many rational arguments can be brought forward in
its support, that I cannot help touching upon a topic so
generally interesting.
In the first place, nearly all infectious diseases pre-
dominate in localities which are hot, damp, swampy,
Malaria, 187
abo'unding in stagnant pools and excluded from a free
circulation of air. In a tropical country, a residence in
such a situation would be certain death to a human
being, but the same locality will be found to swarm
with insects and reptiles of all classes.
Thus, what is inimical to human life is propitious to
the insect tribe. This is the first step in favor of the
argument. Therefore, whatever shall tend to increase
the insect life must in an inverse ratio war with human
existence.
When we examine a drop of impure water, and dis-
cover by the microscope the thousands of living beings
which not only are invisible to the naked eye, but some
of whom are barely discoverable even by the strongest
magnifying power, it certainly leads to the inference,
that if one drop of impure fluid contains countless
atoms endowed with vitality, the same amount of im-
pure air may be equally tenanted with its myriads of
invisible inhabitants.
It is well known that different mixtures, which are
at first pure and apparently free from all insect life,
will, in the course of their fermentation and subsequent
impurity, generate peculiar species of animalcules.
Thus all water and vegetable or animal matter, in a
state of stagnation and decay, gives birth to insect life ;
likewise all substances of every denomination which
are subjected to putrid fermentation. Unclean sewers,
filthy hovels, unswept streets, unwashed clothes, are
therefore breeders of animalcules, many of which are
perfectly visible without microscopic aid.
Now, if some are discernible by the naked eye, and
others are detected in such varying sizes that some can
only just be distinguished by the most powerful lens, is
1 38 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.,
it not rational to conclude that the smallest discernible
to human intelligence is but the medium of a countless
race ? that millions of others still exist, which are too
minute for any observation ?
Observe the particular quarters of a city which sufler
most severely during the prevalence of an epidemic.
In all dirty, narrow streets, where the inhabitants are
naturally of a low and uncleanly class, the cases will be
tenfold. Thus, filth is admitted to have at least the
power of attracting disease, and we know that it not
only attracts, but generates animalcules ; therefore filth,
insects and disease are ever to be seen closely linked
together.
Now, the common preventives againt infection are
such as are peculiarly inimical to every kind of insect ;
camphor, chloride of lime, tobacco-smoke, 'and power-
ful scents and smokes of any kind. The first im-
pulse on the appearance of an infectious disease is to
purify everything as much as possible, and by extra
cleanliness and fumigations to endeavor to arrest its
progress. The great purifier of Nature is a violent
wind, which usually terminates an epidemic immedi-
ately ; this would naturally carry before it all insect life
with which the atmosphere might be impregnated, and
the disease disappears at the same moment. It will be
well remembered that the plague of locusts inflicted
upon Pharaoh was relieved in the same manner :
"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind,
which took away the locusts and cast them into the Red
Sea ; there remained not one locust in all the coasts of
Egypt."
Every person is aware that unwholesome air is quite
Disappearance of the "Afzna." 189
as poisonous to the human system as impure water ;
and seeing that the noxious qualities of the latter are
caused by animalcules, and that the method used for
purifying infected air are those most generally destruct-
ive to insect life, it is not irrational to conclude that
the poisonous qualities of bad water and bad air arise
from the same cause.
Man is being constantly preyed upon by insects ; and
were it not for ordinary cleanliness, he would become
a mass of vermin ; even this does not protect him from
the rapacity of ticks, mosquitoes, fleas and many
others. Intestinal worms feed on him within, and,
unseen, use their slow efforts for his destruction.
The knowledge of so many classes which actually
prey upon the human system naturally leads to the
belief that many others endowed with the same pro-
pensities exist, of which we have at present no concep-
tion. Thus, different infectious disorders might pro-
ceed from peculiar species of animalcules, which, at
given periods, are wafted into certain countries, carry-
ing pestilence and death in their invisible course.
A curious phenomenon has recently occurred at
Mauritus, where that terrible scourge, the cholera, has
been raging with desolating effect.
There is a bird in that island called the " martin,"
but it is more properly the " mina." This bird is
about the size of the starling, whose habits its possesses
in a great degree. It exists in immense numbei's, and
is a grand destroyer of all insects. On this account it
is seldom or never shot at, especially as it is a great
comforter to all cattle, whose hides it entirely cleans
from ticks and other vermin, remaining for many hours
perched upon the back of one animal, while its bill is
190 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
actively employed in searching out and destroying every
insect.
During the prevalence of the cholera at Mauritius
these birds disappeared. Such a circumstance had
never before occurred, and the real cause of their
departure is still a mystery.
May it not . have been, that some species of insect
upon which they fed had likewise migrated, and that
certain noxious animalcules, which had been kept down
by this class, had thus multiplied within the atmos-
phere until their numbers caused disease? All suppo-
sitions on such a subject must, however, remain in
obscurity, as no proof can be adduced of their correct-
ness. The time may arrive when science may success-
fully grapple with all human ailments, but hitherto
that king of pestilence, the " cholera," has reduced the
highest medical skill to miserable uncertainty.
Upon reconsidering the dangers of fevers, dysentery,
etc., in the swampy and confined districts described,
the naturalist may become somewhat less ardent in fol-
lowing his favorite pursuit. Of one fact I can assure
him that no matter how great the natural strength of
his constitution, the repeated exposure to the intense
heat of the sun, the unhealthy districts that he will visit,
the nights redolent of malaria, and the horrible water
that he must occasionally drink, will gradually under-
mine the power of the strongest man. Both sportsman
and naturalist in this must share alike.
No one who has not actually suffered from the effect
can appreciate the misery of bad water in a tropical
country, or the blessings of a cool, pure draught. I
have been in districts of Ceylon where for sixteen or
twenty miles not a drop of water is to be obtained fit
Poisonous Water. 191
for an animal to drink ; not a tree to throw a few yards
of shade upon the parching ground ; nothing but
stunted, thorny jungles and sandy, barren plains as far
as the eye can reach ; the yellow leaves crisp upon the
withered branches, the wild fruits hardened for want
of sap, all moisture robbed from vegetation by the piti-
less drought of several months.
A day's work in such a country is hard indeed
carrying a heavy rifle for some five-and-twenty miles,
sometimes in deep sand, sometimes on good ground,
but always exposed to the intensity of that blaze, added
to the reflection from the sandy soil, and the total want
of fresh air and water. All Nature seems stagnated ;
a distant pool is seen, and a general rush takes place
toward the. cheering sight. The water is thicker than
pease soup, a green scum floats through the thickened
mass, and the temperature is upward of 130 Fahr.
All kinds of insects are swarming in the putrid fluid,
and a saltish bitter adds to its nauseating flavor. I
have seen the exhausted coolies spread their dirty cloths
upon the surface, and form them into filters by sucking
the water through them. Oh for a glass of Newera
Ellia water, the purest and best that ever flows, as it
sparkles out of the rocks on the mountain-tops ! what
pleasure so perfect as a long, deep and undisturbed
draught of such cold, clear nectar when the throat is
parched with unquenchable thirst!
In some parts of Ceylon, especially in the neighbor-
hood of the coast, where the land is flat and sandy, the
water is always brackish, even during the rainy season,
and in the dry months it is undrinkable.
The natives then make use of a berry for cleansing
it and precipitating the impurities. I know the shrub
192 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
and the berry well, but it has no English denomina-
tion. The berries are about the size of a very large
pea, and grow in clusters of from ten to fifteen together,
and one berry is said to be sufficient to cleanse a gallon
of water. The method of using them is curious,
although simple. The vessel which is intended to
contain the water, which is generally an earthen chatty,
is well rubbed in the inside with a berry until the lat-
ter, which is of a horny consistency, like vegetable
ivory, is completely worn away. The chatty is then
filled with the muddy water, and allowed to stand for
about an hour or more, until all the impurities have
precipitated to the bottom and. the water remains
clear.
I have constantly used this berry, but I certainly can-
not say that the water has ever been rendered perfectly
clear; it has been vastly improved, and what was
totally undrinkable before has been rendered fit for
use ; but it has at the best been only comparatively
good ; and although the berry has produced a decided
effect, the native accounts of its properties are greatly
exaggerated.
During the prolonged droughts, many rivers of con-
siderable magnitude are completely exhausted, and
nothing remains but a dry bed of sand between lofty
banks. At these seasons the elephants, being hard
pressed for water, make use of their wonderful instinct
by digging holes in the dry sand of the river's bed ;
this they perform with the horny toes of their fore feet,
and frequently work to a depth of three feet before they
discover the liquid treasure beneath. This process of
well-digging almost oversteps the boundaries of in-
stinct and strongly savors of reason, the two powers
Well-Digging Elephants.
193
being so nearly connected that it is difficult in some
cases to define the distinction. There are so many
interesting cases of the wonderful display of both these
attributes in animals, that I shall notice some features
of this subject in a separate chapter.
ir H
CHAPTER IX.
INSTINCT AND REASON TAILOR-BIRDS AND GROSBEAKS THB
WHITE ANT BLACK ANTS AT WAR WANDEROO MONKEYS
HABITS OF ELEPHANTS ELEPHANTS IN THE LAKE
HERD OF ELEPHANTS BATHING ELEPHANT-SHOOTING '
THE RENCONTRE THE CHARGE CAUGHT BY THE TAIL
HORSE GORED BY A BUFFALO SAGACITY OF DOGS
"BLUEBEARD" HIS HUNT A TRUE HOUND.
THERE can be no doubt that man is not the only
animal endowed with reasoning powers : he pos-
sesses that faculty to an immense extent, but although
the amount of the same power possessed by animals
may be infinitely small, nevertheless it is their share
of reason, which they occasionally use apart from mere
instinct.
Although instinct and reason appear to be closely
allied, they are easily separated and defined.
Instinct is the faculty with which Nature has en-
dowed all animals for the preservation and continuation
of their own species. This is accordingly exhibited in
various features, as circumstances may call forth the
operation of the power ; but so wonderful are the attri-
butes of Nature that the details of her arrangements
throughout the animal and insect creation give to every
class an amount of sense which in many instances sur-
mounts the narrow bounds of simple instinct.
194
Instinct and Reason. 195
The great characteristic of sheer instinct is its want
of progression ; it never increases, never improves.
It is possessed now in the nineteenth century by every
race of living creatures in no larger proportion than
was bestowed upon them at the creation.
In general, knowledge increases like a rolling snow-
ball ; a certain amount forms a base for extra improve-
ment, and upon successive foundations of increasing
altitude the eminence has been attained of the present
era. This is the effect of "reason;" but "instinct,"
although beautiful in its original construction, remains,
like the blossom of a tree, ever the same a limited
effect produced by a given cause ; an unchangeable
law of Nature that certain living beings shall perform
certain functions which require a certain amount of in-
telligence ; this amount is supplied by Nature for the
performance of the duties required ; this is instinct.
Thus, according to the requirements necessitated by
the habits of certain living creatures to an equivalent
amount is their share of instinct.
Reason differs from instinct as combining the effects
of thought and reflection ; this being a proof of con-
sideration, while instinct is simply a direct emanation
from the brain, confined to an impulse.
In our observations of Nature, especially in tropical
countries, we see numberless exemplifications of these
powers, in some of which the efforts of common in-
stinct halt upon the extreme boundary and have almost
a tinge of reason.
What can be more curious than the nest of the
" tailor-bird?" a selection of tough leaves neatly sewn
one over the other to form a waterproof exterior to the
comfortable little dwelling within? Where does the
196 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
needle and thread come from ? The first is the deli-
cate bill of the bird itself, and the latter is the strong
fibre of the bark of a tree, with which the bird sews
every leaf, lapping one over the other in the same man-
ner that slates are laid upon a roof.
Nevertheless this is simple instinct ; the tailor-bird in
the days of Adam constructed her nest in a similar
manner, which will be continued without improvement
till the end of time.
The grosbeak almost rivals the tailor-bird in the
beautiful formation of its nest. These birds build in
company, twenty or thirty nests being common upon
one tree. Their apparent intention in the peculiar con-
struction of their nests is to avoid the attacks of snakes
and lizards. These nests are about two feet long, com-
posed of beautifully woven grass, shaped like an elon-
gated pear. They are attached like fruit to the extreme
end of a stalk or branch, from which they wave to and
fro in the wind, as though hung out to dry. The bird
enters at a funnel-like aperture in the bottom, and by
this arrangement the young are effectually protected
from reptiles.
All nests, whether of birds or insects, are particularly
interesting, as they explain the domestic habits of the
occupants ; but, however wonderful the arrangement
and the beauty of the work as exhibited among birds,
bees, wasps, etc., still it is the simple effect of instinct
on the principle that they never vary.
The white ant that grand destroyer of all timber
always works under cover ; he builds as he progresses
in his work of destruction, and runs a long gallery of
fine clay in the direction of his operations; beneath
this his devastation proceeds until he has penetrated to
Instinct and Reason. 197
the interior of the beam, the centre of which he en-
tirely demolishes, leaving a thin shell in the form of
the "original log, encrusted over the exterior with nu-
merous galleries.
There is less interest in the habits of these destructive
wretches .than in all other of the ant tribe ; they build
stupendous nests, it is true, but their interior economy
is less active and thrifty than that of many other
species of ants, among which there is a greater appear-
ance of the display of reasoning powers than in most
animals of a superior class.
On a fine sunny morning it is not uncommon to see
ants busily engaged in bringing out all the eggs from
the nest and laying them in the sun until they become
thoroughly warmed, after which they carry them all
back again and lay them in their respective places.
This looks very like a power of reasoning, as it is deci-
dedly beyond instinct. If they were to carry out the
eggs every morning, wet or dry, it would be an effort
of instinct to the detriment of the eggs ; but as the
weather is uncertain, it is an effort of reason on the
part of the ants to bring out the eggs to the sun, espe-
cially as it is not an every-day occurrence, even in fine
weather.
In Mauritius, the negroes have a custom of turn-
ing the reasoning powers of the large black ant to
advantage.
White ants are frequently seen passing in and out of
a small hole from underneath a building, in which case
their ravages could only be prevented by taking up the
flooring and destroying the nest.
The negroes avoid this by their knowledge of the hab-
its of the black ant, who is a sworn enemy to the white.
17*
198 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
They accordingly pour a little treacle on the ground
within a yard of the hole occupied by the white ants.
The smell of the treacle shortly attracts some of the
black species, who, on their arrival are not long in
observing their old enemies passing in and out of the
hole. Some of them leave the treacle ; these are evi-
dently messengers, as in the course of the day a whole
army of black ants will be seen advancing in a narrow
line of many yards in length, to storm the stronghold
of the white ants. They enter the hole, and they destroy
every white ant in the building. Resistance there can
be none, as the plethoric, slow-going white ant is as a
mouse to a cat in the encounter with his active enemy,
added to which the black ant is furnished with a most
venomous sting, in addition to a powerful pair of man-
dibles. I have seen the black ants returning from their
work of destruction, each carrying a slaughtered white
ant in his mouth, which he devours at leisure. This is
again a decided effort of reason, as the black ant arrives
at the treacle without a thought of the white ant in his
mind, but, upon seeing his antagonist, he despatches
messengers for reinforcements, who eventually bring up
the army to the " rendezvous."
Numerous instances might be cited of the presence
of reasoning powers among the insect classes, but this
faculty becomes of increased interest when seen in the
larger animals.
Education is both a proof and a promoter of reason
in all animals. This removes them from their natural
or instinctive position, and brings forth the full develop-
ment of the mental powers. This is exhibited in the
performance of well-trained dogs, especially among
pointers and setters. Again, in the feats performed by
Reason of Dogs and Eltphants. 199
educated animals in the circus, where the elephant has
lately endeavored to prove a want of common sense by
standing on his head. Nevertheless, however absurd
the tricks which man may teach the animal to perform,
the very fact of their performance substantiates an
amount of reason in the animal.
Monkeys, elephants and dogs are naturally endowed
with a larger share of the reasoning power than other
animals, which is frequently increased to a wonderful
extent by education. The former, even in their wild
state, are so little inferior to some natives, either in
their habits or appearance, that I should feel some
reluctance in denying them an almost equal share of
reason ; the want of speech certainly places them below
the Veddahs, but the monkeys, on the other hand,
might assert a superiority by a show of tails.
Monkeys vary in intelligence according to their
species, and may be taught to do almost anything.
There are several varieties in Ceylon, among which the
great black wanderoo, with white whiskers, is the
nearest in appearance to the human race. This monkey
stands upward of three feet high, and weighs about
eighty pounds. He has immense muscular power, and
he has also a great peculiarity in the formation of the
skull, which is closely allied to that of a human being,
the lower jaw and the upper being in a straight line
with the forehead. In monkeys the jaws usually pro-
ject. This species exists in most parts of Ceylon, but
I have seen it of a larger size at Newera Ellia than in
any of the low-country districts.
Elephants are proverbially sagacious, both in their
wild state and when domesticated. I have previously
described the building of a dam by a tame elephant,
2OO Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
which was an exhibition of reason hardly to be ex-
pected in any animal. They are likewise wonderfully
sagacious in a wild state in preserving themselves from
accidents, to which, from their bulk and immense
weight, they would be particularly liable, such as the
crumbling of the verge of a precipice, the insecurity of
a bridge or the suffocating depth of mud in a lake.
It is the popular opinion, and I have seen it ex-
pressed in many works, that the elephant shuns rough
and rocky ground, over which he moves with difficulty,
and that he delights in level plains, etc., etc. This may
be the case in Africa, where his favorite food, the mi-
mosa, grows upon the plain, but in Ceylon it is directly
the contrary. In this country the elephant delights in
the most rugged localities ; he rambles about rocky
hills and mountains with a nimbleness that no one can
understand without personal experience. So partial
are elephants to rocky and uneven ground that should
the ruins of a mountain exist in rugged fragments
among a plain of low, thorny jungle, five chances to
one would be in favor of tracking the herd to this very
spot, where they would most likely be found, standing
among the alleys formed by the fragments heaped
around them. It is surprising to witness the dexterity
of elephants in traversing ground over which a man
can pass with difficulty. I have seen places on the
mountains in the neighborhood of Newera Ellia bear-
ing the unmistakable marks of elephants where I
could not have conceived it possible for such an animal
to stand. On the precipitous sides of jungle-covered
mountains, where the ground is so steep that a man is
forced to cling to the underwood for support, the ele-
phants still plough their irresistible course. In descend-
Habits of Elephants. 201
ing or ascending these places, the elephant always
describes a zigzag, and thus lessens the abruptness of
the inclination. Their immense weight acting on their
broad feet, bordered by sharp horny toes, cuts away the
side of the hill at every stride and forms a level step ;
thus they are enabled to skirt the sides of precipitous
hills and banks with comparative ease. The trunk is
the wonderful monitor of all danger to an elephant,
from whatever cause it may proceed. This may arise
from the approach of man or from the character of the
country ; in either case the trunk exerts its power ; in one
by the acute sense of smell, in the other by the combi-
nation of the sense of scent and touch. In dense jun-
gles, where the elephant cannot see a yard before him,
the sensitive trunk feels the hidden way, and when the
roaring of waterfalls admonishes him of the presence
of ravines and precipices, the never-failing trunk low-
ered upon the ground keeps him advised of every inch
of his path.
Nothing is more difficult than to induce a tame ele-
phant to cross a bridge which his sagacity assures him
is insecure ; he will sound it with his trunk and press
upon it with one foot, but he will not trust his weight
if he can perceive the slightest vibration.
Their power of determining whether bogs or the
mud at the bottom of tanks are deep or shallow is be-
yond my comprehension. Although I have seen ele-
phants in nearly every position, I have never seen one
inextricably fixed in a swamp. This is the more extra-
ordinary as their habits induce them to frequent the
most extensive morasses, deep lakes, muddy tanks and
estuaries, and yet I have never seen even a young one
get into a scrape by being overwhelmed. There ap-
2O2 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
pears to be a natural instinct which warns them in their
choice of ground, the same as that which influences the
buffalo, and in like manner guides him through his
swampy haunts.
It is a grand sight to see a large herd of elephants
feeding in a fine lake in broad daylight. This is sel-
dom witnessed in these days, as the number of guns
have so disturbed the elephants in Ceylon that they
rarely come out to drink until late in the evening or
during the night ; but some time ago I had a fine view
of a grand herd in a lake in the middle of the day.
I was out shooting with a great friend of mine, who
is a brother-in-arms against the game of Ceylon, and
than whom a better sportsman does not breathe, and
we had arrived at a wild and miserable place while en
route home after a jungle trip. Neither of us was feel-
ing well ; we had been for some weeks in the most un-
healthy part of the country, and I was just recovering
from a touch of dysentery : altogether, we were looking
forward with pleasure to our return to comfortable
quarters, and for the time we were tired of jungle life.
However, we arrived at a little village about sixty miles
south of Batticaloa, called " Gollagangwelle'weve' "
(pronunciation requires practice), and a very long
name it was for so small a place ; but the natives in-
sisted that a great number of elephants were in the
neighborhood.
They also declared that the elephants infested the
neighboring tank even during the forenoon, and that
they nightly destroyed their embankment, and would
not be driven away, as there was not a single gun pos-
sessed by the village with which to scare them. This
looked all right ; so we loaded the guns and started
Elephants in the Lake. 203
without loss of time, as it was then one P. M., and the
natives described the tank as a mile distant. Being
perfectly conversant with the vague idea of space
described by a Cingalese mile, we mounted our horses,
and, accompanied by about five-and-twenty villagers,
twenty of whom I wished at Jericho, we started. By
the by, I have quite forgotton to describe who " we"
are F. H. Palliser, Esq., and myself.
Whether or not it was because I did not feel in brisk
health, I do not know, but somehow or other I had a
presentiment that the natives had misled us, and that
we should not find the elephants in the tank, but that,
as usual, we should be led up to some dense, thorny
jungle, and told that the elephants were somewhere in
that direction. Not being very sanguine, I had accord-
ingly taken no trouble about my gun-bearers, and I saw
several of my rifles in the hands of the villagers, and
only one of my regular gun-bearers had followed me ;
the rest, having already had a morning's march, were
"glad of an excuse to remain behind.
Our rate lay for about a quarter of a mile through
deserted paddy-land and low jungle, after which we
entered fine open jungle and forest. Unfortunately, the
recent heavy rains had filled the tank, which had over-
flowed the broken dam and partially flooded the forest.
This was in all parts within two hundred yards from
the dam a couple of feet deep in water, with a propor-
tionate amount of sticky mud beneath, and through
this we splashed until the dam appeared about fifty
yards on our right. It was a simple earthern mound,
which rose about ten feet from the level of the forest,
and was studded with immense trees, apparently the
growth of ages. We knew that the tank lay on the
304 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
opposite side, but we continued our course parallel with
the dam until we had ridden about a mile from the
village, the natives, for a wonder, having truly described
the distance.
Here our guide, having motioned us to 'stop, ran
quickly up the dam to take a look out on the opposite
side. He almost immediately beckoned us to come up.
This we did without loss of time, and knowing that the
game was in view, I ordered the horses to retire for
about a quarter of a mile.
On our arrival on the dam there was a fine sight.
The lake was about five miles round, and was quite
full of water, the surface of which was covered with a
scanty, but tall, rushy grass. In the lake, browsing
upon the grass, we counted twenty-three elephants, and
there were many little ones, no doubt, that we could
not distinguish in such rank vegetation. Five large
elephants were not more than a hundred and twenty
paces distant ; the remaining eighteen were in a long
line about a quarter of a mile from the shore, feeding
in deep water.
We were well concealed by the various trees which
grew upon the dam, and we passed half an hour in
watching the manoeuvres of the great beasts as they
bathed and sported in the cool water. ~ However, this
was not elephant-shooting, and the question was, How
to get at them ? The natives had no idea of the sport,
as they seemed to think it very odd that we did not fire
at those within a hundred paces' distance. I now
regretted my absent gun-bearers, as I plainly saw that
these village people would be worse than useless.
We determined to take a stroll along the base of the
dam to reconnoitre the ground, as at present it seemed
Elephant -Shooting. 205
impossible to make an attack ; and even were the ele-
phants within the forest, there appeared to be no possi-
bility of following them up through such deep water
and heavy ground with any chance of success. How-
ever, they were not in the forest, being safe, belly and
shoulder deep, in the tank.
We strolled through mud and water thigh-deep for a
few hundred paces, when we suddenly came upon the
spot where in ages past the old dam had been carried
away. Here the natives had formed a mud embank-
ment strengthened by sticks and wattles. Poor fellows !
we were not surprised at their wishing the elephants
destroyed ; the repair of their fragile dam was now a
daily occupation, for the elephants, as though out of
pure mischief, had chosen this spot as their thorough-
fare to and from the lake, and the dam was trodden
down in all directions.
We found that the margin of the forest was every-
where flooded to a width of about two hundred yards,
after which it was tolerably dry ; we therefore returned
to our former post.
It struck me that the only way to secure a shot at the
herd would be to employ a ruse, which I had once
practiced successfully some years ago. Accordingly
we sent the greater part of the villagers for about a
half a mile along the edge of the lake, with orders to
shout and make a grand hullaballoo on arriving at their
station. It seemed most probable that on being dis-
turbed the elephants would retreat to the forest by their
usual thoroughfare ; we accordingly stood on the alert,
ready for a rush to any given point which the herd
should attempt in their retreat.
Some time passed in expectation, when a sudden
18
2o6 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
yell broke from the far point, as though twenty demons
had cramp in the stomach. Gallant fellows are the
Cingalese at making a noise, and a grand effect this had
upon the elephants ; up went tails and trunks, the whole
herd closed together and made a simultaneous rush for
their old thoroughfare. Away we skipped through the
water, straight in shore through the forest, until we
reached the dry ground, when, turning sharp to our
right, we soon halted exactly opposite the point at
which we knew the elephants would enter the forest.
This was grand excitement ; we had a great start of
the herd, so that we had plenty of time to arrange gun-
bearers and take our position for the rencontre.
In the mean time, the roar of water caused by the
rapid passage of so many large animals approached
nearer and nearer. Pallser and I had taken splendid
positions, so as to command either side of the herd on
their arrival, with our gun-bearers squatted around 113
behind our respective trees, while the non-sporting
village followers, who now began to think the matter
rather serious and totally devoid of fun, scrambled up
various large trees with ape-like activity.
A few minutes of glorious suspense, and the grand
crash and roar of broken water approached close at
hand, and we distinguished the mighty phalanx, headed
by the largest elephants, bearing down exactly upon us,
and not a hundred yards distant. Here was luck!
There was a grim and very murderous smile of satis-
faction on either countenance as we quietly cocked the
rifles and awaited the onset : it was our intention to let
half the herd pass us before we opened upon them, as
we should then be in the very centre of the mass, and
be able to get good and rapid shooting.
The Rencontre. 207
On came the herd in gallant style, throwing the spray
from the muddy water, and keeping a direct line for
our concealed position. They were within twenty
yards, and we were still undiscovered, when those ras-
cally villagers, who had already taken to the trees,
sci ambled still higher in their fright at the close ap-
proach of the elephants, and by this movement they
gave immediate alarm to the leaders of the herd.
Round went the colossal heads ; right about was
the word, and away dashed the whole herd back toward
the tank. In the same instant we made a rush in
among them, and I floored one of the big leaders by a
shot behind the ear, and immediately after, as bad luck
would have it, Palliser and I both took the same bird,
and down went another to the joint shots. Palliser
then got another shot and bagged one more, when the
herd pushed straight out to the deep lake, with the ex-
ception of a few elephants, who turned to the right ;
after which Palliser hurried through the mud and water,
while I put on all steam in chase of the main body of
the herd. It is astonishing to what an amount a man
can get up this said steam in such a pitch of excitement.
However, it was of no use in this case, as I was soon
hip-deep in water, and there was aq end to all pursuit
in that direction.
It immediately struck me that the elephants would
again retreat to some other part of the forest after hav-
ing made a circuit in the tank. I accordingly waded
back at my best speed to terra Jirma, and then striking
off to my right, I ran along parallel to the water for
about half a mile, fully expecting to meet the herd
once more on their entrance to the jungle. It was now
tnat I deplored the absence of my regular gun-bearers ;
208 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
the village people had no taste for this gigantic scale of
amusement, and the men who carried my guns would
not keep up ; fortunately, Carrasi, the best gun-bearer,
was there, and he had taken another loaded rifle, after
handing me that which he had carried at the onset. I
waited a few moments for the lagging men, and suc-
ceeded in getting them well together just as I heard
the rush of water, as the elephants were again entering
the jungle, not far in advance of the spot upon which I
stood.
This time they were sharp on the qui vive, and the
bulls, being well to the front, were keeping a bright
look-out. It was in vain that I endeavored to conceal
myself until the herd had got well into the forest ; the
gun-bearers behind me did not take the same precau-
tion, and the leading elephants both saw and winded
us when at a hundred paces distant. This time, how-
ever, they were determined to push on for a piece of
thicker jungle, which they knew lay in this direction,
and upon seeing me running toward them, they did not
turn back to the lake, but slightly altered their course
in an oblique direction, still continuing to push on
through the forest, while I was approaching at right
angles with the herd.
Hallooing and screaming at them with all my might
to tease some of the old bulls into a charge, I ran at
top speed through the fine open forest, and soon got
among a whole crowd of half-grown elephants, at
which I would not fire ; there were a lot of fine beasts
pushing along in the front, and toward these I ran as
hard as I could go. Unfortunately, the herd seeing me
so near and gaining upon them, took to the ruse of a
beaten fleet and scattered in all directions ; but I kept
The Charge. 209
a few big fellows in view, who were still pretty well
together, and managed to overtake the rearmost and
knock him over. Up went the tail and trunk of one
of the leading bulls at the report of the shot, and
trumpeting shrilly, he ran first to one side, then to the
other, with his ears cocked and sharply turning his
head to either side. I knew this fellow had his monkey
up, and that a little teasing would bring him round for
a charge. I therefore redoubled my shouts and yells
and kept on in full chase, as the elephants were strain-
ing every nerve to reach a piece of thick jungle within
a couple of hundred paces.
I could not go any faster, and I saw that the herd,
which was thirty or forty yards ahead of me, would
gain the jungle before I could overtake them, as they
were going at a slapping pace and I was tolerably
blown with a long run at full speed, part of which had
been through deep mud and water. But I still teased
the bull, who was now in such an excited state that I
felt convinced he would turn to charge.
The leading elephants rushed into the thick jungle,
closely followed by the others, and, to my astonishment,
my excited friend, who had lagged to the rear, followed
their example. But it was only for a few seconds, for,
on entering the thick bushes, he wheeled sharp round
and came rushing out in full charge. This was very
plucky, but very foolish, as his retreat was secured when
in the thick jungle, and yet he courted further battle.
This he soon had enough of, as I bagged him in his
onset with my remaining barrel by the forehead shot.
I now heard a tremendous roaring of elephants be-
hind me, as though another section was coming in
from the tank ; this I hoped to meet. I therefore re-
18*
2IO Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
loaded the empty rifles as quickly as possible and ran
toward the spot. The roaring still continued and was
apparently almost stationary ; and what was my disap-
pointment, on arrival, to find, m place of the expected
herd, a young elephant of about four feet high, who
had missed the main body in the retreat and was now
roaring for his departed friends ! These young things
are excessively foolhardy and willful, and he charged
me the moment I arrived. As I laid the rifle upon the
ground instead of firing at him, the rascally gun-
bearers, with the exception of Carrasi, threw down the
rifles and ran up the trees like so many monkeys, just
as I had jumped on one side and caught the young ele-
phant by the tail. He was far too strong for me to
hold, and, although I dug my heels into the ground
and held on with all my might, he fairly ran away with
me through the forest. Carrasi now came to my as-
sistance and likewise held on by his tail ; but away we
went like the tender to a ?'eam-engine ; wherever the
elephant went there we were dragged in company.
Another man now came to the rescue ; but his assist-
ance was not of the slightest use, as the animal was so
powerful and of such weight that he could have run
away with half a dozen of us unless his legs were tied.
Unfortunately we had no rope, or I could have secured
him immediately, and seeing that we had no power
over him whatever, I was obliged to run back for one
of the guns to shoot him. On my return it was laugh-
able to see the pace at which he was running away
with the two men, who were holding on to his tail like
grim death, the elephant not having ceased roaring
during the run. I accordingly settled him, and re-
turned to have a little conversation with the rascals
Punishing a Cingalese. 211
who were still perched in the trees. I was extremely
annoyed, as these people, if they had possessed a grain
of sense, might have tied their long comboys (cotton
cloths about eight feet long) together, and we might
have thus secured the elephant without difficulty by
tying his hind legs. It was a great loss, as he was so
large that he might have been domesticated and driven
to Newera Ellia without the slightest trouble. All this
was occasioned by the cowardice of these villainous
Cingalese, and upon my lecturing one fellow on his
conduct he began to laugh. This was too much for
any person's patience, and I began to look for a stick,
which the fellow perceiving he immediately started oft'
through the forest like a deer. He could run faster
than I could, being naked and having the advantage of
bare feet ; but I knew I could run him down in the
course of time, especially as, being in a fright, he
would soon get blown. We had a most animated hunt
through water, mud, roots of trees, open forest and all
kinds of ground, but I ran into him at last in heavy
ground, and I dare say he recollects the day of the
month.
In the mean time, Palliser had heard the roaring of
the elephant, followed by the screaming and yelling of
the coolies, and succeeded by a shot. Shortly after he
heard the prolonged yells of the hunted villager while
he was hastening toward my direction. This combina-
tion of sounds naturally led him to expect that some
accident had occurred, especially as some of the yells
indicated -that somebody had come to grief. This
caused him a very laborious run, arid he arrived
thoroughly blown, and with a natural desire to kick the
recreant villager who had caused the yells.
212 Eight Fears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
If the ground had been even tolerably dry, we should
have killed a large number of elephants out of this
herd ; but, as it happened, in such deep mud and water
the elephants had it all their own way, and our joint
bag could not produce more than seven tails ; however,
this was far more than I had expected when I first saw
the herd in such a secure position.
On our return to the village we found Palliser's horse
terribly gored by a buffalo, and we were obliged to
leave him behind for some weeks ; fortunately, there
was an extra pony, which served him as a mount
home, a distance of a hundred and fifty miles.
*****
This has been a sad digression from our argument
upon instinct and reason, a most unreasonable depart-
ure from the subject ; but this is my great misfortune ;
so sure as I bring forward the name of an elephant,
the pen lays hold of some old story and runs madly
away in a day's shooting. I now have to speak of the
reasoning powers of the canine race, and I confess my
weakness. I feel perfectly certain that the pen will
serve me the same trick, and that it will be plunging
through a day's hunting to prove the existence of reason
in a hound and the want of it in the writer. Thrash
me, good critics ; I deserve it ; lay it on with an un-
sparing thong. I am humiliated, but still willful ; I
know my fault, but still continue it.
Let us think; what was the subject? Reason in
dogs, to be sure. Well, every one who has a dog must
admit that he has a strong share of reason ; only ob-
serve him as he sits by your side and wistfully watches
the endless transit of piece after piece, bit after bit, as
the fork is conveying delicate morsels to your mouth.
Sagacity of Dogs. 213
There is neither hope nor despair exhibited in his
countenance he knows those pieces are not for him.
There is an expression of impatience about the eye as
he scans your features, which seems to say, " Greedy
fellow ! what, not one bit for me ?" Only cut a slice
from the exterior of the joint a piece that he knows
you will not eat and watch the change and eager-
ness of his expression ; he knows as well as you do
that this is intended for him he has reasoned upon
it.
This is the simple and every-day performance of a
common house-dog. Observe the pointers in a field of
close-cut stubble two well-broken, reasonable old
dogs. The birds are wild, and have been flushed
several times during the day, and the old dog has
winded them now in this close-cut stubble, from which
he knows the covey will rise at a long range. Watch
his expression of intense and yet careful excitement,
as he draws upon his game, step by step, crouching
close to the ground, and occasionally moving his head
slowly round to see if his master is close up. Look at
the bitch at the other end of the field, backing him like
a statue, while the old dog still creeps on. Not a step
farther will he move ; his lower jaw trembles with ex-
citement ; the guns advance to a line with his shoulder ;
up they rise, whiz-z-z-z-z-z-z ! bang ! bang ! See how
the excitement of the dog is calmed as he falls to the
down charge, and afterward with what pleasure he
follows up and stands to the dead birds. If this is not
reason, there is no such thing in existence.
Again, look at the sheep-dog. What can be more
beautiful than to watch the judgment displayed by these
dogs in driving a large flock of sheep? Then turn to
214 Eight Years' Wandering's in Ceylon,
the Mont St. Bernard dog and the Newfoundland, and
countless instances could be produced as proofs of their
wonderful share of reasoning power.
The different classes of hounds, being kept in kennels,
do not exhibit this power to the same amount as many
others, as they are not sufficiently domesticated, and
their intercourse with man is confined to the one par-
ticular branch of hunting ; but in this pursuit they will
afford many striking proofs that they, in like manner
with their other brethren, are not devoid of the reason-
ing power.
Poor old " Bluebeard !" he had an almost human
share of understanding, but being simply a hound,
this was confined to elk-hunting ; he was like the fox-
hunter of the last century, whose ideas did not extend
beyond his sport ; but in this he was perfect.
Bluebeard was a foxhound, bred at Newera Ellia, in
1847, by F. J. Templer, Esq. He subsequently be-
longed to F. H. Palliser, Esq., who kindly added him
to my kennel.
He was a wonderful hound on a cold scent, and so
thoroughly was he versed in all the habits of an elk
that he knew exactly where to look for one. I am con-
vinced that he knew the date of a track from its appear-
ance, as I have constantly seen him shove his nose
into the deep impression, to try for a scent when the
track was some eight or ten hours' old.
It was a curious thing to watch his cleverness at
finding on a patina. In most of the plains in the
neighborhood of Newera Ellia a small stream flows
through the centre. To this the elk, who are out feed-
ing in the night, are sure to repair at about four in the
morning for their last drink, and I usually try along the
Bluebeard. 215
banks a little after daylight for a find, where the scent
is fresh and the tracks are distinctly visible.
While every hound has been eagerly winding the
scent upon the circuitous route which the elk has made
in grazing, Bluebeard would never waste his time in
attempting to follow the innumerable windings, but,
taking a fresh cast, he would invariably strike off to
the jungle and try along the edge, until he reached the
spot at which the elk had entered. At these times he
committed the only fault which he possessed (for an
elk-hound) ; he would immediately open upon the
scent, and, by alarming the elk at too great a distance,
would give him too long a start. Nevertheless, he
made up for this by his wonderful correctness and
knowledge of his game, and if the run was increased
in length by his early note, we nevertheless ran into
our game at last.
Some years ago he met with an accident which
partly deprived him of the use of one of his hind legs ;
this made the poor old fellow very slow, but it did not
interfere with his finding and hunting, although the
rest of the pack would shoot ahead, and the elk was
frequently brought to bay and killed before old Blue-
beard had finished his hunt ; but he was never thrown
out, and was sure to come up at last ; and if the pack
were at fault during the run, he was the hound to show
them the right road on his arrival.
I once saw an interesting proof of his reasoning
powers during a long and difficult hunt.
I was hunting for a few days at the Angora patinas,-
accompanied by Palliser. These are about five hundred
feet lower than Newera Ellia, and are situated in the
district of Dimboola. They are composed of undulating
2i 6 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
knolls of fine grass, with a large and deep river flowing
through the centre. These patinas are surrounded by
wooded hills of good open jungle.
We had found upon the patina at break of day, and
the whole pack had gone ofFin full cry ; but the where-
about was very uncertain, and having long lost all
sound of the hounds we wandered here and there to no
purpose. At length we separated, and took up our
stations upon different knolls to watch the patina and
to listen.
The hill upon which I stood commanded an exten-
sive view of the patina, while the broad river flowed at
the base, after its exit from the jungle. I had been only
a few minutes at my post when I observed, at about
six hundred yards distant, a strong ripple in the river
like the letter V, and it immediately struck me that an
elk had come down the river from the jungle and was
swimming down the stream. This was soon proved to
be the case, as I saw the head of a doe elk in the acute
angle of the ripple.
I had the greyhounds with me, " Lucifer," " Lena,"
" Hecate" and " Bran," and I ran down the hill with
these dogs, hoping to get them a view of her as she
landed on the patina. I had several bogs and hollows
to cross, and I accordingly lost sight of the elk ; but
upon arriving at the spot where I imagined the elk
would land, I saw her going off across the patina, a
quarter of a mile away. The greyhounds saw her, and
away they flew over the short grass, while the pack
began to appear from the jungle, having come down to
the halloo that I had given on first seeing the elk swim-
ming down the river.
The elk seemed determined to give a beautiful course,
A True Hound. 217
for, instead of pushing straight for the jungle, she made
a great circuit on the patina, as though in the endeavor
to make once more for the river. The long-legged ones
were going at a tremendous pace, and, being fresh, they
rapidly overhauled her ; gradually the distance between
them diminished, and at length they had a fair course
down a gentle inclination which led toward the river.
Here the greyhounds soon made an end of the hunt ;
their game was within a hundred yards, going at top
speed : but it was all up with the elk ; the pace was
too good, and they ran into her and pulled her down
just as the other hounds had come down upon my
scent.
We were cutting up the elk, when we presently
heard old Bluebeard's voice far away in the jungle, and,
thinking that he might perhaps be running another elk,
we ran to a hill which overlooked the river and kept
a bright look-out. We soon discovered that he was
true upon the same game, and we watched his plan of
hunting, being anxious to see whether he could hunt
up an elk that had kept to water for so long a time.
On his entrance to the patina by the river's bank he
immediately took to water and swam across the stream ;
here he carefully hunted the edge for several hundred
yards down the river, but, finding nothing, he returned
to the jungle at the point from which the river flowed.
Here he again took to water, and, swimming back to
the bank from which he had at first started, he landed
and made a vain cast down the hollow. Back he re-
turned after his fruitless search, and once more he took
to water. I began to despair of the possibility of his
finding ; but the true old hound was now swimming
steadily down the stream, crossing and recrossing from
19
218 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
either bank, and still pursuing his course down the
river. At length he neared the spot where I knew that
the elk had landed, and we eagerly watched to see if he
would pass the scent, as he was now several yards from
the bank. He was nearly abreast of the spot, when he
turned sharp in and landed in the exact place ; his deep
and joyous note rung across the patinas, and away went
the gallant old hound in full cry upon the scent, while
I could not help shouting, " Hurrah for old Blue-
beard !" In a few minutes he was by the side of the
dead elk a specimen of a true hound, who certainly
had exhibited a large share of "reason."
CHAPTER X.
WILD FRUITS INGREDIENTS FOR A " SOUPE MAIGRE " OR-
CHIDACEOUS PLANTS WILD NUTMEGS NATIVE OILS
CINNAMON PRIMEVAL FOREST VALUABLE WOODS
THE MAHAWELLI RIVER VARIETY OF PALMS COCOA-
NUT TODDY ARRACK COCOA-NUT OIL COCOA-NUT
PLANTING THE TALIPOT PALM THE ARECA PALM
BETEL-CHEWING SAGO NUTS VARIETY OF BEES
WASTE OF BEESWAX EDIBLE FUNGI NARCOTIC PUFF-
BALL INTOXICATING DRUGS POISONED CAKES THE
"SACK TREE" NO GUM TREES OF VALUE IN CEYLON.
AMONG the inexperienced there is a prevalent idea
connected with tropical forests and jungles that
they teem with wild fruits, which Nature is supposed
to produce spontaneously. Nothing can be more
erroneous than such an opinion ; even edible berries are
scantily supplied by the wild shrubs and trees, and
these, in lieu of others of superior quality, are some-
times dignified by the name of fruit.
The guava and the katumbille are certainly very
numerous throughout the Ouva district ; the latter being
a dark red, rough-skinned kind of plum, the size of a
greengage, but free from stone. It grows upon a
thorny bush about fifteen feet high ; but the fruit is too
acid to please most palates ; the extreme thirst produced
by a day's shooting in a burning sun makes it refresh-
219
220 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
ing when plucked from the tree ; but it does not aspire
to the honor of a place at a table, where it can only ap-
pear in the form of red currant jelly, for which it is an
undeniable substitute.
Excellent blackberries and a very large and full-
flavored black raspberry grow at Newera Ellia ; likewise
the Cape gooseberry, which is of the genus " solanum."
The latter is a round yellow berry, the size of a cherry ;
this is enclosed in a loose bladder, which forms an
outer covering. The flavor is highly aromatic, but,
like most Ceylon wild fruits, it is too acid.
The sweetest and the best of the jungle productions
is the " morra." This is a berry about the size of a
small nutmeg, which grows in clusters upon a large
tree of rich dark foliage. The exterior of the berry is
brown and slightly rough ; the skin, or rather the case,
is brittle and of the consistence of an egg-shell ; this,
when broken and peeled off, exposes a semi-transparent
pulp, like a skinned grape in appearance and in flavor.
It is extremely juicy ; but, unfortunately, a large black
stone occupies the centre and at least one-half of the
bulk of the entire fruit.
The jambo apple is a beautiful fruit in appearance,
being the fac-simile of a snow-white pear formed of
wax, with a pink blush upon one side. Its exterior
beauty is all that it can boast of, as the fruit itself is
vapid and tasteless. In fact, all wild fruits are, for the
most part, great exaggerations. I have seen in a work
on Ceylon the miserable little acid berry of the rattan,
which is no larger than a currant, described as a fruit ;
hawthorn berries might, with equal justice, be classed
among the fruits of Great Britain.
I will not attempt to describe these paltry produc-
Ingredients for a "Soupe Mat'gre" 221
tions in detail ; there is necessarily a great variety
throughout the island, but their insignificance does not
entitle them to a description which would raise them
far above their real merit.
It is nevertheless most useful to a sportsman in Cey-
lon to possess a sufficient stock of botanical information
for his personal convenience. A man may be lost in
the jungles or hard up for provisions in some out-of-
the-way place, where, if he has only a saucepan, he can
generally procure something eatable in the way of
herbs. It is not to be supposed, however, that he
would succeed in making a good dinner ; the reader
may at any time procure something similar in England
by restricting himself to nettle-tops an economical but
not a fattening vegetable. Anything, however simple,
is better than an empty stomach, and when the latter is
positively empty it is wonderful how the appetite wel-
comes the most miserable fare.
At Newera Ellia the jungles would always produce
a supply for a soupe maigre. There is an esculent
nillho which grows in the forest in the bottoms of the
swampy ravines. This is a most succulent plant, which
grows to the height or length of about seven feet, as its
great weight keeps it close to the ground. It is so brit-
tle that it snaps like a cucumber when struck by a
stick, and it bears a delicate, dark-blue blossom. When
stewed, it is as tender as the vegetable marrow, but its
flavor approaches more closely to that of the cucumber.
Wild ginger also abounds in the forests. This is a
coarse variety of the " amomum zingiber." The leaves,
which spring from the ground, attain a height of seven
or eight feet ; a large, crimson, fleshy blossom also
springs from the ground in the centre of the surround*
19*
232 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
ing leaf-stems. The root is coarse, large, but wanting
in fine flavor, although the young tubers are exceedingly
tender and delicate. This is the favorite food of ele-
phants on the Ceylon mountains ; but it is a curious
fact that they invariably reject the leaves, which any one
would suppose would be their choicest morsel, as they
are both succulent and plentiful. The elephants simply
use them as a handle for tearing up the roots, which
they bite off and devour, throwing the leaves on one
side.
The wild parsnip is also indigenous to the plains on
the mountains. As usual with most wild plants of this
class, it has little or no root, but runs to leaf. The
seeds are very highly flavored, and are gathered by the
natives for their curries.
There is, likewise, a beautiful orchidaceous plant,
which is very common throughout the patinas on the
mountains, and which produces the very finest quality
of arrowroot. So much is this valued in the Nepaul
country in India, that I have been assured by a person
well acquainted with that locality, that this quality of
arrowroot is usually sold for its weight in rupees. In
vain have I explained this to the Cingalese ; they will
not attempt its preparation because their fathers did not
eat it ; and yet these same men will walk forty miles to
cut a bundle of sticks of the galla gaha tree for driving
buffaloes ! their fathers did this, and therefore they do
it. Thus this beautiful plant is only appreciated by
those whose instinct leads them to its discovery. The
wild hogs plough up the patinas and revel in this deli-
cate food. The plant itself is almost lost in the rank
herbage of the patinas, but its beautiful pink, hyacinth-
shaped blossom attracts immediate attention. Few
Orchidaceous Plants. 223
plants combine beauty of appearance, scent and utility,
but this is the perfection of each quality nothing can
surpass the delicacy and richness of its perfume. It
has two small bulbs about an inch below the surface of
the earth, and these, when broken, exhibit a highly
granulated texture, semi-transparent like half-boiled
sago. From these bulbs the arrowroot is produced by
pounding them in water and drying the precipitated
farina in the sun.
There are several beautiful varieties of orchidaceous
plants upon the mountains ; among others, several spe-
cies of the dendrobium. Its rich yellow flowers hang
in clusters from a withered tree, the only sign of life
upon a giant trunk decayed, like a wreath upon a
grave. The scent of this flower is well known as most
delicious ; one plant will perfume a large room.
There is one variety of this tribe in the neighborhood
of Newera Ellia, which is certainly unknown in Eng-
lish collections. It blossoms in April ; the flowers are
a bright lilac, and I could lay my hand upon it at any
time, as I have never seen it but in one spot, where it
flourishes in profusion. This is about fourteen miles
from Newera Ellia, and I have never yet collected a
specimen, as I have invariably been out hunting when-
ever I have met with it.-
The black pepper is also indigenous throughout
Ceylon. At Newera Ellia the leaves of this vine are
highly pungent, although at this elevation it does not
produce fruit. A very short distance toward a lower
elevation effects a marked change, as within seven
miles it fruits in great perfection.
At a similar altitude, the wild nutmeg is very com-
mon throughout the forests. This fruit is a perfect
224 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
anomaly. The tree is entirely different to that of the
cultivated species. The latter is small, seldom exceed-
ing the size of an apple-tree, and bearing a light green
myrtle-shaped leaf, which is not larger than that of a
peach. The wild species, on the contrary, is a large
forest tree, with leaves equal in size to those of the
horse chestnut ; nevertheless, it produces a perfect nut-
meg. There is the outer rind of fleshy texture, like an
unripe peach ; enclosed within is the nutlike shell,
enveloped in the crimson network of mace, and within
the shell is the nutmeg itself. All this is perfect
enough, but, alas, the grand desideratum is wanting
it has no flavor or aroma whatever.
It is a gross imposition on the part of Nature ; a
most stingy trick upon the public, and a regular do.
The mace has no taste whatever, and the nutmeg has
simply a highly acrid and pungent taste, without any
spicy flavor, but merely abounding in a rank and dis-
agreeable oil. The latter is so plentiful that I am as-
tonished it has not been experimented upon, especially
by the natives, who are great adepts in expressing oils
from many substances.
Those most common in Ceylon are the cocoa-nut
and gingerly oils. The former is one of the grand
staple commodities of the island ; the latter is the pro-
duce of a small grain, grown exclusively by the na-
tives.
But, in addition to these, there are various other oils
manufactured by the Cingalese. These are the cinna-
mon oil, castor oil, margosse oil, mee oil, kenar oil,
meeheeria oil ; and both clove and lemon-grass oil are
prepared by Europeans.
The first, which is the cinnamon oil, is more pro-
Native Oils. 225
perly a kind of vegetable wax, being of the consistence
of stearine. This is prepared from the berries of the
cinnamon shrub, which are boiled in water until the
fatty substance, or so-called oil, floats upon the surface ;
this is then skimmed off, and, when a sufficient quan-
tity is collected, it is boiled down until all watery parti-
cles are evaporated, and the melted fat is turned out
into a shallow vessel to cool. It has a pleasant, though,
perhaps, a rather faint aromatic smell, and is very
delicious as an adjunct in the culinary art. In addition
to this it possesses gentle aperient properties, which
render it particularly wholesome.
Castor oil is also obtained by the natives by boiling,
and it is accordingly excessively rank after long keep-
ing. The castor-oil plant is a perfect weed throughout
Ceylon, being one of the few useful shrubs that will
flourish in such poor soil without cultivation.
Margosse oil is extracted from the fruit of a tree of
that name. It has an extremely fetid and disagreeable
smell, which will effectually prevent the contact of flies
or any other insect. On this account it is a valuable
preventive to the attacks of flies upon open wounds, in
addition to which it possesses powerful healing pro-
perties.
Mee oil is obtained from the fruit of the mee tree.
This fruit is about the size of an apricot, and is ex-
tremely rich in its produce ; but the oil is of a coarse
description, and is simply used by the natives for their
rude lamps. Kenar oil and meeheeria oil are equal-
ly coarse, and are quite unfit for any but native pur-
poses.
Lemon-grass oil, which is known in commerce as
citronella oil, is a delightful extract from the rank
P
226 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
lemon grass, which covers most of the hillsides in the
more open districts, of Ceylon. An infusion of the
grass is subsequently distilled ; the oil is then discovered
on the surface. This is remarkably pure, with a most
pungent aroma. If rubbed upon the skin, it will pre-
vent the attacks of insects while its perfume remains ;
but the oil is so volatile that the scent quickly evapo-
rates and the spell is broken.
Clove oil is extracted from the leaves of the cinna-
mon tree, and not from cloves, as its name would imply.
The process is very similar to that employed in the
manufacture of citronella oil.
Cinnamon is indigenous throughout the jungles of
Ceylon. Even at the high elevation of Newera Ellia,
it is one of the most common woods, and it grows to
the dimensions of a forest tree, the trunk being usually
about three feet in circumference. At Newera Ellia it
loses much of its fine flavor, although it is still highly
aromatic.
This tree flourishes in a white quartz sandy soil, and
in its cultivated state is never allowed to exceed the
dimensions of a bush, being pruned down close to the
ground every year. This system of close cutting in-
duces the growth of a large number of shoots, in the
same manner that withes are produced in England.
Every twelve months these shoots attain the length
of six or seven feet, and the thickness of a man's ringer.
In the interim, the only cultivation required is repeated
cleaning. The whole plantation is cut down at the
proper period, and the sticks are then stripped of their
bark by the peelers. These men are called " chalias,'*
and their labor is confined to this particular branch.
The season being over, they pass the remaining portion
The Cinnamon Tree. 227
of the year in idleness, their earnings during one crop
being sufficient to supply their trifling wants until the
ensuing harvest.
Their practice in this employment naturally renders
them particularly expert, and in far less time than is
occupied in the description they run a sharp knife
longitudinally along a stick, and at once divest it of the
bark. On the following day the strips of bark are
scraped so as entirely to remove the outer cuticle. One
strip is then laid within the other, which, upon becom-
ing dry, contract, and form a series of enclosed pipes.
It is subsequently packed in bales, and carefully sewed
up in double sacks for exportation.
The essential oil of cinnamon is usually made from
the refuse of the crop ; but the quantity produced, in
proportion to the weight of cinnamon, is exceedingly
small, being about five ounces of oil to half a hundred-
weight of the spice.
Although the cinnamon appears to require no more
than a common quartz sand for its production, it is
always cultivated with the greatest success where the
subsoil is light, dry and of a loamy quality.
The appearance of the surface soil is frequently very
deceitful. It is not uncommon to see a forest of mag-
nificent trees growing in soil of apparently pure sand,
which will not even produce the underwood with which
Ceylon forests are generally choked. In such an in-
stance the appearance of the trees is unusually grand,
as their whole length and dimensions are exposed to
view, and their uniting crowns throw a sombre shade
over the barren ground beneath. It is not to be sup-
posed that these mighty specimens of vegetation are
supported by the poor sandy soil upon the surface ; their
228 Eight Year? Wanderings in Ceylon.
tap-roots strike down into some richer stratum, from
which their nourishment is derived.
These forests are not common in Ceylon ; their rarity
accordingly enhances their beauty. The largest Eng-
lish oak would be a mere pigmy among the giants of
these wilds, whose stature is so wonderful that the eye
never becomes tired of admiration. Often have I halted
on my journey to ride around and admire the prodigious
height and girth of these trees. Their beautiful pro-
portions render them the more striking ; there are no
gnarled and knotty stems, such as we are accustomed
to admire in the ancient oaks and beeches of England,
but every trunk rises like a mast from the earth, per-
fectly free from branches for ninety or a hundred feet,
straight as an arrow, each tree forming a dark pillar to
support its share of the rich canopy above, which con-
stitutes a roof perfectly impervious to the sun. It is
difficult to guess the actual height of these forest trees ;
but I have frequently noticed that it is impossible to
shoot a bird on the higher branches with No. 5 shot.
It is much to be regretted that the want of the means
of transport renders the timber of these forests perfectly
valueless. From age to age these magnificent trees re-
main in their undisturbed solitudes, gradually increasing
in their apparently endless growth, and towering above
the dark vistas of everlasting silence. No on can im-
agine the utter stillness which pervades these gloomy
shades. There is a mysterious effect produced by the
total absence of animal life. In the depths of these
forests I have stood and listened for some sound until
my ears tingled with overstrained attention ; not a chirp
of a bird, not the hum of an insect, but the mouth of
Nature is sealed. Not a breath of air has rustled a leaf,
Primeval Forests. 229
not even a falling fruit has broken the spell of silence ;
the undying verdure, the freshness of each tree, even in
its mysterious age, create an idea of eternal vegetation,
and the silvery yet dim light adds to the charm of
the fairylike solitude which gradually steals over the
senses.
I have ridden for fifteen or twenty miles through one
of these forests without hearing a sound, except that of
my horse's hoof occasionally striking against a root.
Neither beast nor bird is to be seen except upon the
verge. The former has no food upon such barren
ground ; and the latter can find no berries, as the earth
is sunless and free from vegetation. Not even monkeys
are to be seen, although the trees must produce fruit
and seed. Everything appears to have deserted the
country, and to have yielded it as the sole territory of
Nature on a stupendous scale. The creepers lie ser-
pent-like along the ground to the thickness of a man's
waist, and, rearing their twisted forms on high, they
climb the loftiest trees, hanging in festoons from stem
to stem like the cables of a line-of-battle-ship, and ex-
tending from tree to tree for many hundred yards ; now
falling to the earth and striking a fresh root ; then, with
increased energy, remounting the largest trunks, and
forming a labyrinth of twisted ropes along the ceiling
of the forest. From these creepers hang the sabre-
beans. Everything seems on a supernatural scale the
bean-pod four feet or more in length, by three inches
in breadth ; the beans two inches in diameter.
Here may be seen the most valuable woods of Cey-
lon. The ebony grows in great perfection and large
quantity. This tree is at once distinguished from the
surrounding stems by its smaller diameter and its sooty
20
230 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon,
trunk. The bark is crisp, jet black, and has the ap-
pearance of being charred. Beneath the bark the wood
is perfectly white until the heart is reached, which is
the fine black ebony of commerce. Here also, equally
immovable, the calamander is growing, neglected and
unknown. This is the most esteemed of all Ceylon
woods, and it is so rare that it realizes a fancy price.
It is something similar to the finest walnut, the color
being a rich hazel brown, mottled and striped with
irregular black marks. It is superior to walnut in the
extreme closeness of the grain and the richness of its
color.
There are upward of eighty different woods pro-
duced in Ceylon, which are made use of for various
purposes ; but of these many are very inferior. Those
most appreciated are
Calamander, j chiefl used for furniture and ca bi_
Ebony, > / ,
* ' ( net work.
Satin-wood, '
Suria (the tulip tree).
Tamarind.
Jackwood.
Halmileel.
Cocoa-nut.
Palmyra.
The suria is an elegant tree, bearing a beautiful yel-
low blossom something similar to a tulip, from which
it derives its name. The wood is of an extremely close
texture and of a reddish-brown color. It is exceed-
ingly tough, and it is chiefly used for making the
spokes of wheels.
The tamarind is a fine, dark red wood, mottled with
Wild fruits. 231
black marks ; but it is not in general use, as the tree is
too valuable to be felled for the sake of its timber.
This is one of the handsomest trees of the tropics,
growing to a very large size, the branches widely
spreading, something like the cedars of Lebanon.
Jackwood is a coarse imitation of mahogany, and
is used for a variety of purposes, especially for making
cheap furniture. The latter is not only economical,'
but exceedingly durable, and is manufactured at so
low a rate that a moderate-sized house might be en-
tirely furnished with it for a hundred and fifty pounds.
The fruit of the jack grows from the trunk, and
branches of the tree, and when ripe it weighs about
twenty pounds. The rind is rough, and when cut it
exposes a yellow, pulpy mass. This is formed of an
infinite number of separate divisions of fleshy matter,
which severally enclose an oval nut. The latter are
very good when roasted, having a close resemblance to
a chestnut. The pulp, which is the real fruit, is not
usually eaten by Europeans on account of its peculiar
odor. This perfume is rather difficult to describe, but
when a rainy day in London crams an omnibus with
well-soaked and steaming multitudes, the atmosphere
in the vehicle somewhat approaches to the smell of the
jack-fruit.
The halmileel is one of the most durable and useful
woods in Ceylon, and is almost the only kind that is
thoroughly adapted for making staves for casks. Of
late years the great increase of the oil-trade has brought
this wood into general request, consequent upon the
increased demand for casks. So extensive and general
is the present demand for this wood that the natives
are continually occupied in conveying it from certain
232 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
districts which a few years ago were utterly neglected.
Unfortunately, the want of roads and the means of
transport confine their operations to the banks of
rivers, down which the logs are floated at the proper
season.
I recollect some eight years ago crossing the Maha-
welli river upon a raft which my coolies had hastily
constructed, and reaching a miserable village near Mo-
nampitya, in the extreme north of the Veddah country.
The river is here about four hundred paces wide, and
in the rainy season a fine volume of water rolls along
in a rapid stream toward Trincomalee, at which place
it meets the sea. I was struck at the time with the
magnificent timber in the forests on its banks, and no
less surprised that with the natural facilities of trans-
port it should be neglected. Two years ago I crossed
at this same spot, and I remarked the wonderful change
which a steady demand had effected in this wild coun-
try. Extensive piles of halmileel logs were collected
along the banks of the river, while the forests were
strewed with felled trees in preparation for floating
down the stream. A regular demand usually ensures a
regular supply, which could not be better exemplified
than in this case.
Among fancy woods the bread-fruit tree should not
be omitted. This is something similar to the jack, but,
like the tamarind, the value of the produce saves the
tree from destruction.
This tree does not attain a very large size, but its
growth is exceedingly regular and the foliage peculiarly
rich and plentiful. The fruit is something similar in
appearance to a small, unripe jack-fruit, with an equally
rough exterior. In the opinion of most who have
Variety of Palms. 233
tasted it, its virtues have been grossly exaggerated. To
my taste it is perfectly uneatable, unless fried in thin slices
with butter ; it is even then a bad imitation of fried po-
tatoes. The bark of this tree produces a strong fibre,
and a kind of very adhesive pitch is also produced by
decoction.
The cocoa-nut and palmyra woods at once introduce
us to the palms of Ceylon, the most useful and the most
elegant class in vegetation. For upward of a hundred
and twenty miles along the western and southern coasts
of Ceylon, one continuous line of cocoa-nut groves
wave their green leaves to the sea-breeze, without a
single break, except where some broad clear river
cleaves the line of verdure as it meets the sea.
Ceylon is rich in palms, including the following
varieties :
The Cocoa-nut.
The Palmyra.
The Kittool.
The Areca
The Date.
The Sago.
The Talipot.
The wonderful productions of this tribe can only be
appreciated by those who thoroughly understand the
habits and necessities of the natives ; and, upon exami-
nation, it will be seen that Nature has opened wide her
bountiful hand, and in the midst of a barren soil she
has still remembered and supplied the wants of the
inhabitants.
As the stream issued from the rock in the wilderness,
so the cocoa-nut tree yields a pure draught from a dry
20*
234 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
and barren land ; a cup of water to the temperate and
thirsty traveler ; a cup of cream from the pressed
kernel ; a cup of refreshing and sparkling toddy to the
early riser ; a cup of arrack to the hardened spirit-
drinker, and a cup of oil, by the light of which I now
extol its merits five separate and distinct liquids from
the same tree !
A green or unripe cocoa-nut contains about a pint of
a sweetish water. In the hottest weather this is deli-
ciously cool, in comparison to the heat of the atmos-
phere.
The ripe nut, when scraped into a pulp by a little
serrated, semi-circular iron instrument, is squeezed in a
cloth by the hand, and about a quarter of a pint of de-
licious thick cream, highly flavored by cocoa-nut, is
then expressed. This forms the chief ingredient in a
Cingalese curry, from which it entirely derives its rich-
ness and fine flavor.
The toddy is the sap which would nourish and fruc-
tify the blossom and young nuts, were it allowed to
accomplish its duties. The toddy-drawer binds into one
rod the numerous shoots, which are garnished with
embryo nuts, and he then cuts off the ends, leaving an
abrupt and brush-like termination. Beneath this he
secures an earthen chatty, which will hold about a gal-
lon. This remains undisturbed for twenty-four hours,
from sunrise to sunrise on the following morning ; the
toddy-drawer then reascends the tree, and lowers the
chatty by a line to an assistant below, who empties the
contents into a larger vessel, and the chatty is replaced
under the productive branch, which continues to yield
for about a month.
When first drawn the toddy has the appearance of
Cocoa-nut Toddy. 235
thin milk and water, with a combined flavor of milk
and soda-water, with a tinge of cocoa-nut. It is then
very pleasant and refreshing, but in a few hours after
sunrise a great change takes place, and the rapidity of
the transition from the vinous to the acetous fermenta-
tion is so great that by midday it resembles a poor and
rather acid cider. It now possesses intoxicating prop-
erties, and the natives accordingly indulge in it to some
extent ; but from its flavor and decided acidity I should
have thought the stomach would be affected some time
before the head.
From this fermented toddy the arrack is procured by
simple distillation.
This spirit, to my taste, is more palatable than most
distilled liquors, having a very decided and peculiar
flavor. It is a little fiery when new, but as water soon
quenches fire, it is not spared by the native retailers,
whose arrack would be of a most innocent character
were it not for their infamous addition of stupefying
drugs and hot peppers.
The toddy contains a large proportion of saccharine,
without which the vinous fermentation could not take
place. This is procured by evaporation in boiling, on
the same principle that sugar is produced from cane-
juice. The syrup is then poured into small saucers to
cool, and it shortly assumes the consistence of hardened
sugar. This is known in Ceylon as "jaggery," and is
manufactured exclusively by the natives.
Cocoa-nut oil is now one of the greatest exports of
Ceylon, and within the last few years the trade has
increased to an unprecedented extent. In the two
years of 1849 and 1850, the exports of cocoa-nut oil did
not exceed four hundred and forty-three thousand six
236 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
hundred gallons, while in the year 1853 they had in-
creased to one million thirtv-tnree thousand nine hun-
dred gallons ; the trade being more than quadrupled in
three years.
The manufacture of the oil is most simple. The
kernel is taken from the nut, and being divided, it is
exposed to the sun until all the watery particles are
evaporated. The kernel thus dried is known as " cop-
perah." This is then pressed in a mill, and the oil
flows into a reservoir.
This oil, although clear and limpid in the tropics,
hardens to the consistence of lard at any temperature
below 72 Fahr. Thus it requires a second preparation
on its arrival in England. There it is spread upon
mats (formed of coir) to the thickness of an inch, and
then covered by a similar protection. These fat sand-
wiches are two feet square, and being piled one upon
the other to a height of about six feet in an hydraulic
press, are subjected to a pressure of some hundred tons.
This disengages the pure oleaginous parts from the
more insoluble portions, and the fat residue, being
increased in hardness by its extra density, is mixed with
stearine, and by a variety of preparations is converted
into candles. The pure oil thus expressed is that known
in the shops as cocoa-nut oil.
The cultivation of the cocoa-nut tree is now carried
to a great extent, both by natives and Europeans ; by
the former it is grown for a variety of purposes, but by
the latter its profits are confined to oil, coir and poonac.
The latter is the refuse of the nut after the oil has been
expressed, and corresponds in its uses to the linseed-oil
cake of England, being chiefly employed for fattening
cattle, pigs and poultry.
Cocoa-nut Planting. 237
The preparation of coir is a dirty and offensive occu-
pation. The husk of the cocoa-nut is thrown into
tanks of water, until the woody or pithy matter is
loosened by fermentation from the coir fibre. The
stench of putrid vegetable matter arising from these
heaps must be highly deleterious. Subsequently the
husks are beaten and the fibre is separated and dried.
Coir rope is useful on account of its durability and
power of resisting decay during long immersion. In
the year 1853, twenty-three hundred and eighty tons of
coir were exported from Ceylon.
The great drawback to the commencement of a
cocoa-nut plantation is the total .uncertainty of the
probable alteration in the price of oil during the interval
of eleven years which must elapse before the estate
comes into bearing. In this era of invention, when
improvements in every branch of science follow each
other with such rapid strides, it is always a dangerous
speculation to make any outlay that will remain so long
invested without producing a return. Who can be so
presumptuous as to predict the changes of future years?
Oil may have ceased to be the common medium of
light our rooms may be illumined by electricity, or
from fifty other sources which now are never dreamed
of. In the mean time, the annual outlay during eleven
years is an additional incubus upon the prime cost of
the plantation, which, at the expiration of this term,
may be reduced to one-tenth of its present value.
The cocoa-nut tree requires a sandy and well-drained
soil ; and although it flourishes where no other tree will
grow, it welcomes a soil of a richer quality and pro-
duces fruit in proportion. Eighty nuts per annum are
?bout the average income from a healthy tree in full
238 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
bearing, but this, of course, depends much upon the
locality. This palm delights in the sea-breeze, and
never attains the same perfection inland that it does in
the vicinity of the coast. There are several varieties,
and that which is considered superior is the yellow
species, called the " king cocoa-nut." I have seen this
on the Maldive Islands in great perfection. There it is
the prevailing description.
At the Seychelles, there is a variety peculiar to those
islands, differing entirely in appearance from the com-
mon cocoa-nut. It is fully twice the size, and is shaped
like a kidney that is laid open. This is called by the
French the "coco de mer" from the large numbers
that are found floating in the sea in the neighborhood
of the islands.
The wood of the cocoa-nut tree is strong and dura-
ble ; it is a dark brown, traversed by longitudinal black
lines.
There are three varieties of toddy-producing palms
in Ceylon ; these are the cocoa-nut, the kittool and the
palmyra. The latter produces the finest quality of jag-
gery. This cannot be easily distinguished from crum-
bled sugar-candy, which it exactly resembles in flavdr.
The wood of the palmyra is something similar to the
cocoa-nut, but it is of a superior quality, and is much
used for rafters, being durable and of immense
strength.
The kittool is a very sombre and peculiar palm. Its
crest very much resembles the drooping plume upon a
hearse, and the foliage is a dark green with a tinge of
gray. The wood of this palm is almost black, being
apparently a mass of longitudinal strips, or coarse lines
of whalebone running close together from the top to
The Talipot Palm. 239
Ihrt root of the tree. This is the toughest and most
pliable of all the palm-woods, and is principally used
by the natives in making " pingos." These are flat
bows s.boi't eight feet in length, and are used by the
Cingalese fcr carrying loads upon the shoulder. The
weight is slung at either end of the pingo, and the
elasticity of the wood accommodates itself to the spring
of each step, thereby reducing the dead weight of the
load. In this manner a stout Cingalese will carry and
travel with eighty pounds if working on his own ac-
count, or with fifty if hired for a journey. A Cinga-
lese will carry a much heavier weight than an ordinary
Malabar, as he is a totally different man in form and
strength. In fact, the Cingalese are generally a com-
pactly built and well-limbed race, while the Malabar is
a man averaging full a stone lighter weight.
The most extraordinary in the list of palms is the
talipot. The crest of this beautiful tree is adorned by
a crown of nearly circular, fan-shaped leaves of so
tough and durable a texture that they are sewn together
by the natives for erecting portable tents or huts. The
circumference of each leaf at the extreme edge is from
twenty to thirty feet, and even this latter size is said to
be frequently exceeded.
Every Cingalese throughout the Kandian district is
provided with a section of one of these leaves, which
forms a kind of fan about six feet in length. This is
carried in the hand, and is only spread in case of rain,
when it forms an impervious roofing of about three
feet in width at the broad extremity. Four or five
of these sections will form a circular roof for a small
hut, which resembles a large umbrella or brobdignag
mushroom.
240 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
There is a great peculiarity in the talipot palm. It
blossoms only once in a long period of years, and after
this it dies. No flower can equal the elegance and ex-
traordinary dimensions of this blossom ; its size is pro-
portionate to its leaves, and it usurps the place of the
faded crest of green,. forming a magnificent crown or
plume of snow-white ostrich feathers, which stand
upon the summit of the tall stem as though they were
the natural head of the palm.
There is an interesting phenomenon at the period of
flowering. The great plume already described, prior
to its appearing in bloom, is packed in a large case or
bud, about four feet long. In this case the blossom
comes to maturity, at which time the tightened cuticle
of the bud can no longer sustain the pressure of the
expanding flower. It suddenly bursts with a loud re-
port, and the beautiful plume, freed from its imprison-
ment, ascends at this signal and rapidly unfolds its
feathers, towering above the drooping leaves which are
hastening to decay.
The areca is a palm of great elegance ; it rises to a
height of about eighty feet, and a rich feathery crest
adorns the summit. This is the most delicate stem of
all the palm tribe ; that of a tree of eighty feet in
length would not exceed five inches in diameter.
Nevertheless, I have never seen an areca palm over-
turned by a storm ; they bow gracefully to the wind,
and the extreme elasticity of the wood secures them
from destruction.
This tree produces the commonly-called "betel-nut,"
but more properly the areca-nut. They grow in clus-
ters beneath the crest of the palm, in a similar manner
to the cocoa-nut; but the tree is more prolific, as it
Betel- Chewing* 24 1
produces about two hundred nuts per annum. The
latter are very similar to large nutmegs both in size and
appearance, and, like the cocoa-nut, they are enclosed
in an outer husk of a fibrous texture.
The consumption of these nuts may be imagined
when it is explained that every native is perpetually
chewing a mixture of this nut and betel leaf. Every
man carries a betel bag, which contains the following
list of treasures : a quantity of areca-nuts, a parcel of
betel leaves, a roll of tobacco, a few pieces of ginger,
an instrument similar to pruning scissors and a brass
or silver case (according to the wealth of the indi-
vidual) full of chunam paste viz., a fine lime pro-
duced from burnt coral, slacked. This case very much
resembles an old-fashioned warming-pan breed of watch
and chateleine, as numerous little spoons for scooping
out the chunam are attached to it by chains.
The betel is a species of pepper, the leaf of which
very much resembles that of the black pepper, but is
highly aromatic and pungent. It is cultivated to a very
large extent by the natives, and may be seen climbing
round poles and trees in every garden.
It has been said by some authors that the betel has
powerful narcotic properties, but, on the contrary, its
stimulating qualities have a directly opposite effect.
Those who have attributed this supposed property to
the betel leaf must have indulged in a regular native
"chew" as an experiment, and have nevertheless been
ignorant of the mixture.
We will make up a native "chew" after the most
approved fashion, and the reader shall judge for him-
self in which ingredient the narcotic principle is dis-
played.
21 Q
243 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
Take a betel leaf, and upon this spread a piece of
chunam as large as a pea ; then with the priming-
scissors cut three very thin slices of areca-nut, and lay
them in the leaf; next, add a small piece of ginger ;
and, lastly, a good-sized piece of tobacco. Fold up this
mixture in another betel leaf in a compact little parcel,
and it is fit for promoting several hours' enjoyment in
chewing, and spitting a disgusting blood-red dye in
every direction. The latter is produced by the areca-
nut. It is the tobacco which possesses the narcotic
principle ; if this is omitted, the remaining ingredients
are simple stimulants.
The teeth of all natives are highly discolored by the
perpetual indulgence in this disgusting habit ; nor is
this the only effect produced ; cancer in the cheek is a
common complaint among them, supposed to be pro-
duced by the caustic lime which is so continually in the
mouth.
The exports of areca-nuts from Ceylon will give some
idea of the supply of palms. In 1853 no less than three
thousand tons were shipped from this colony, valued at
about 45,ooo/. The greater portion of these is con-
sumed in India.
Two varieties of palms remain to be described the
date and the sago.
The former is a miserable species, which does not
exceed the height of three to five feet, and the fruit is
perfectly worthless.
The latter is indigenous throughout the jungles in
Ceylon, but it is neither cultivated, nor is the sago pre-
pared from it.
The height of this palm does not exceed fifteen or
twenty feet, and even this is above the general average.
Sago-nuts. 243
It grows in the greatest profusion in the Veddah coun-
try. The stem is rough, and a continuation of rings
divides it into irregular sections. The leaves are a rich
dark green, and very light and feathery, beneath which
the nuts grow in clusters similar to those of the areca
palm.
The only use that the natives make of the produce of
this tree is in the preparation of flour from the nuts.
Even this is not very general, which is much to be
wondered at, as the farina is far superior in flavor to
that produced from most grains.
The natives ascribe intoxicating properties to the
cakes made from this flour; but I have certainly eaten
a fair allowance at one time, and I cannot say that I
had the least sensation of elevation.
The nut, which is something similar to the areca in
size, is nearly white when divested of its outer husk,
and this is soaked for about twenty-four hours in water.
During this time a slight fermentation takes place,
and the gas generated splits the nut open at a closed
joint like an acorn. This fermentation may, perhaps,
take some exhilarating effect upon the natives' weak
heads.
The nuts being partially softened by this immersion,
are dried in the sun, and subsequently pounded into
flour in a wooden mortar. This flour is sifted, and the
coarser parts being separated, are again pounded, until
a beautiful snow-white farina is produced. This is
made into a dough by a proper admixture with water,
and being formed into small cakes, they are baked for
about a quarter of an hour in a chatty. The fermenta-
tion which has already taken place in the nut has im-
pregnated the flower with a leaven ; this, without any
244 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
further addition, expands the dough when in the oven,
and the cake produced is very similar to a crumpet,
both in appearance and flavor.
The village in which I first tasted this preparation of
the sago-nut was a tolerable sample of such places, on
the borders of the Veddah country. The population
consisted of one old man and a corresponding old
woman, and one fine stout young man and five young
women. A host of little children, who were so similar
in height that they must have been one litter, and three
or four most miserable dogs and cats, were additional
tenants of the soi-disant village.
These people lived upon sago cakes, pumpkins, wild
fruits and berries, river fish and wild honey. The
latter is very plentiful throughout Ceylon, and the na-
tives are very expert in finding out the nests, by watch-
ing the bees in their flight and following them up. A
bee-hunter must be a most keen-sighted fellow, although
there is not so much difficulty in the pursuit as may at
first appear. No one can mistake the flight of a bee
en route home, if he has once observed him. He is
no longer wandering from flower to flower in an un-
certain course, but he rushes through the air in a
straight line for the nest. If the bee-hunter sees one
bee thus speeding homeward, he watches the vacant
spot in the air, until assured of the direction by the
successive appearance of these insects, one following
the other nearly every second in their hurried race to
the comb. Keeping his eye upon the passing bees, he
follows them until he reaches the tree in which the
nest is found.
There are five varieties of bees in Ceylon ; these are
all honey-makers, except the carpenter bee. This
Variety of Sees. 245
species is entirely unlike a bee in all its habits. It is a
bright tinsel-green color, and the size of a large walnut,
but shaped like the humble bees of England. The
mouth is armed with a very powerful pair of mandi-
bles, and the tail with a sting even larger and more
venomous than that of the hornet. These carpenter
bees are exceedingly destructive, as they bore holes in
beams and posts, in which they lay their eggs, the
larvae of which when hatched greedily feed upon the
timber.
The honey bees are of four very distinct varieties,
each of which forms its nest on a 'different principle.
The largest and most extensive honey-maker is the
"bambera." This is nearly as large as a hornet, and
it forms its nest upon the bough of a tree, from which
it hangs like a Cheshire cheese, being about the same
thickness, but five or six inches greater in diameter.
The honey of this bee is not so much esteemed as that
from the smaller varieties, as the flavor partakes too
strongly of the particular flower which the bee has
frequented ; thus in different seasons the honey varies
in flavor, and is sometimes so highly aperient that it
must be used with much caution. This property is of
course derived from the flower which the bee prefers
at that particular season. The wax of the comb is the
purest and whitest of any kind produced in Ceylon.
So partial are these bees to particular flowers that they
migrate from place to place at different periods in quest
of flowers which are then in bloom.
This is a very wonderful and inexplicable arrange-
ment of Nature, when it is considered that some flowers
which particularly attract these migrations only blossom
once in "seven years" This is the case at Newera
21*
246 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
Ellia, where the nillho blossom induces such a general
rush of this particular bee to the district that the jun-
gles are swarming with them in every direction, al-
though during the six preceding years hardly a bee of
the kind is to be met with.
There are many varieties of the nillho. These vary
from a tender dwarf plant to the tall and heavy stem
of the common nillho, which is nearly as thick as a
man's arm and about twenty feet high.
The next honey-maker is very similar in size and
appearance to our common hive bee in England. This
variety forms its nest in hollow trees and in holes in
rocks. Another bee, similar in appearance, but not
more than half the size, suspends a most delicate comb
to the twigs of a tree. This nest is no larger than an
orange, but the honey of the two latter varieties is of
the finest quality, and quite equal in flavor to the famed
" miel vert" of the Isle de Burbon, although it has not
the delicate green tint which is so much esteemed in
the latter.
The last of the Ceylon bees is the most tiny, although
an equally industrious workman. He is a little smaller
than our common house-fly, and he builds his diminu-
tive nest in the hollow of a tree, where the entrance to
his mansion is a hole no larger than would be made by
a lady's stiletto.
It would be a natural supposition that so delicate an
insect would produce a honey of corresponding purity,
but instead of the expected treasure we find a thick,
black and rather pungent but highly aromatic mo-
lasses. The natives, having naturally coarse tastes and
strong stomachs, admire this honey beyond any other.
Many persons are surprised at the trifling exports of
Waste of Beeswax. 247
wax from Ceylon. In 1853 these amounted to no more
than one ton.
Cingalese are curious people, and do not trouble
themselves about exports ; they waste or consume all
the beeswax. While we are contented with the honey
and carefully reject the comb, the native (in some dis-
tricts) crams his mouth with a large section, and giving
it one or two bites, he bolts the luscious morsel and be-
gins another. In this manner immense quantities of
this valuable article are annually wasted. Some few
of the natives in the poorest villages save a small quan-
tity, to exchange with the traveling Moormen for cotton
cloths, etc., and in this manner the trifling amount ex-
ported is collected.
During the honey year at Newera Ellia I gave a
native permission to hunt bees in my forests, on condi-
tion that he should bring me the wax. Of course he
stole the greater portion, but nevertheless, in a few
weeks he brought me seventy-two pounds' weight of
well-cleaned and perfectly white wax, which he had
made up into balls about the size of an eighteen-pound
shot. Thus, in a few weeks, one man had collected
about the thirtieth part of the annual export from
Ceylon ; or, allowing that he stole at least one-half,
this would amount to the fifteenth.
It would be a vain attempt to restrain these people
from their fixed habit ; they would as soon think of re-
fraining from betel-chewing as giving up a favorite
food. Neither will they be easily persuaded to indulge
in a food of a new description. I once showed them
the common British mushroom, which they declared
was a poisonous kind. To prove the contrary, I had
them several times at table, and found them precisely
248 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
similar in appearance and flavor to the well-known
" Agaricus campestris ;" but, notwithstanding this
actual proof, the natives would not be convinced, and,
althongh accustomed to eat a variety of this tribe, they
positively declined this experiment. There is an edible
species which they prefer, which, from its appearance,
an Englishman would shun : this is perfectly white,
both above and below, and the upper cuticle cannot be
peeled off. I have tasted this, but it is very inferior in
flavor to the common mushroom.
Experiments in these varieties of fungi are highly
dangerous, as many of the most poisonous so closely
resemble the edible species that they can with difficulty
be distinguished. There is one kind of fungus that I
have met with in the forests which, from its offensive
odor and disgusting appearance, should be something
superlatively bad. It grows about four inches high ;
the top is round, with a fleshy and inflamed appear-
ance ; the stalk is out of all proportion in its thickness,
being about two inches in diameter and of a livid white
color ; this, when broken, is full of a transparent gelati-
nous fluid, which smells like an egg in the last stage of
rottenness.
This fungus looks like an unhealthy excrescence on
the face of Nature, who, as though ashamed of the dis-
gusting blemish, has thrown a veil over the defect.
The most exquisite fabric that can be imagined a
scarlet veil, like a silken net falls over this ugly fun-
gus, and, spreading like a tent at its base, it is there
attached to the ground.
The meshes of this net are about as fine as those of a
very delicate silk purse, and the gaudiness of the color
and the size of the fungus make it a very prominent
Curiozis Tent-like Fungus. 249
/
object among the surrounding vegetation. In fact, it is
a diminutive, though perfect circular tent of net-work,
the stem of the fungus forming the pole in the centre.
I shall never forget my first introduction to this speci-
men. It was growing in an open forest, free from any
underwood, and it seemed like a fairy bivouac beneath
the mighty trees which overshadowed it. Hardly be-
lieving my own eyes at so strange and exquisite a struc-
ture, I jumped off my horse and hastened to secure it.
But the net-work once raised was like the uncovering
of the veiled prophet of Khorassan, and the stem,
crushing in my fingers, revealed all the disgusting pro-
perties of the plant, and proved the impossibility of re-
moving it entire. The elegance of its exterior only
served to conceal its character like Madame Mantilini,
who, when undressed, "' tumbled into ruins."
There are two varieties of narcotic fungi whose pro-
perties are so mild that they are edible in small quanti-
ties. One is a bright crimson on the surface ; this is
the most powerful, and is seldom used. The other
is a white solid puff-ball, with a rough outer skin or
rind.
I have eaten the latter on two occasions, having been
assured by the natives that they were harmless. The
flavor somewhat resembles a truffle, but I could not
account for the extreme drowsiness that I felt soon after
eating ; this wore off in the course of two or three hours.
On the following day I felt the same effect, but to a still
greater degree, as, having convinced myself that they
were really eatable, I had taken a larger quantity.
Knowing that the . narcotic principle is the common
property of a great variety of fungi, it immediately
struck me that the puff-balls were the cause. On
250 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
questioning the natives, it appeared that it was this
principle that they admired, as it produced a species of
mild intoxication.
All people, of whatever class or clime, indulge in
some narcotic drug or drink. Those of the Cingalese
are arrack, tobacco, fungi and the Indian hemp. The
use of the latter is, however, not so general among the
Cingalese as the Malabars. This drug has a different
effect from opium, as it does not injure the constitution,
but simply exhilarates, and afterward causes a tempo-
rary lethargy.
In appearance it very nearly resembles the common
hemp, but it differs in the seed. The leaves and blos-
soms are dried, and are either smoked like tobacco, or
formed into a paste with various substances and
chewed.
When the plant approaches maturity, a gummy sub-
stance exudes from the leaves ; this is gathered by men
clothed in dry raw hides, who, by walking through the
plantation, become covered with this gum or glue.
This is scraped off and carefully preserved, being the
very essence of the plant, and exceedingly powerful in
its effects.
The sensation produced by the properties of this
shrub is a wild, dreamy kind of happiness ; the ideas
are stimulated to a high degree, and all that are most
pleasurable are exaggerated till the senses at length
sink into a vague and delightful elysium.
The reaction after this unnatural excitement is very
distressing, but the sufferer is set all right again by
some trifling stimulant, such as a glass of wine or
spirits.
It is supposed, and confidently asserted by some,
Intoxicating Drugs. 2Ji
that the Indian hemp is the foundation of the Egyp-
tian " hashisch," the effects of which, are precisely
similar.
However harmless the apparent effect of a narcotic
drug, common sense must at once perceive that a re-
peated intoxication, no matter how it is produced, must
be ultimately hurtful to the system. The brain, accus-
tomed to constant stimulants, at length loses its natural
power, and requires these artificial assistants to enable
it to perform its ordinary functions, in the same man-
ner that the stomach, from similar treatment, would
at length cease to act. This being continued, the brain
becomes semi-torpid, until wakened up by a powerful
stimulant, and the nervous system is at length worn out
by a succession of exciting causes and reactions. Thus,
a hard drinker appears dull and heavy until under the
influence of his secret destroyer, when he brightens up
and, perhaps, shines in conversation ; but every reaction
requires a stronger amount of stimulant to lessen its
effect, until mind and body at length become involved
in the common ruin.
The seed of the lotus is a narcotic of a mild descrip-
tion, and it is carefully gathered when ripe and eaten
by the natives.
The lotus is seen in two varieties in Ceylon the pink
and the white. The former is the most beautiful, and
they are both very common in all tanks and sluggish
streams. The leaves are larger than those of the water-
lily, to which they bear a great resemblance, and the
blossoms are full double the size. When the latter
fade, the petals fall, and the base of the flower and
seed-pod remains in the shape of a circular piece of
honeycomb, full of cells sufficiently large to contain a
252 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
hazel-nut. This is about the size of the seed, but the
shape is more like an acorn without its cup. The
flavor is pleasant, being something like a filbert, but
richer and more oily.
Stramoniun (Datura stramonium), which is a pow-
erful narcotic, is a perfect weed throughout the island,
but it is not used by the natives otherwise than medi-
cinally, and the mass of the people are ignorant of its
qualities, which are only known to the Cingalese doc-
tors. I recollect some years ago, in Mauritius, where
this plant is equally common, its proprieties were not
only fully understood, but made use of by some of the
Chinese emigrants. These fellows made cakes of
manioc and poisoned them with stramonium. Hot
manioc cakes are the common every-day accompani-
ment to a French planter's breakfast at Mauritius, and
through the medium of these the Chinese robbed several
houses. Their plan was simple enough.
A man with cakes to sell appeared at the house at an
early hour, and these being purchased, he retired until
about two hours after breakfast was concluded. By
this time the whole family were insensible, and the
thieves robbed the house at their leisure. None of
these cases terminated fatally ; but, from the instant
that I heard of it, I made every cake-seller who ap-
peared at the door devour one of his own cakes before
I became a purchaser. These men, however, were
bona Jide cake-merchants, and I did not meet with an
exception.
There are a great variety of valuable medicinal plants
in the jungles of Ceylon, many of which are unknown
to any but the native doctors. Those most commonly
known to us, and which may be seen growing wild by
The Cassia Fistula. 253
the roadside, are the nux vomtca, ipecacuanha, gam-
boge, sarsaparilla, cassia fistula, cardamoms, etc.
The ipecacuanha is a pretty, delicate plant, which
bears a bright orange-colored cluster of flowers.
The cassia fistula is a very beautiful tree, growing to
the size of an ash, which it somewhat resembles in
foliage. The blossom is very beautiful, being a pendant
of golden flowers similar to the laburnum, but each
blossom is about two and a half feet long, and the indi-
vidual flowers on the bunch are large in proportion.
When the tree is in full flower it is very superb, and
equally as singular when its beauty has faded and the
seed-pods are formed. These grow to a length of from
two to three feet, and when ripe are perfectly black,
round, and about three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
The tree has the appearance of bearing a prolific crop
of ebony rulers, each hanging from the bough by a
short string.
There is another species of cassia fistula, the foliage
of which assimilates to the mimosa. This bears a
thicker, but much shorter, pod, of about a foot in
length. The properties of both are the same, being
laxative. Each seed within the pod is surrounded by
a sweet, black and honey-like substance, which con-
tains the property alluded to.
The gamboge tree is commonly known in Ceylon as
the " ghorka." This grows to the common size of an
apple tree, and bears a corrugated and intensely acid
fruit. This is dried by the natives and used in curries.
The gamboge is the juice of the tree obtained by in-
cisions in the bark. This tree grows in great numbers
in the neighborhood of Colombo, especially among the
cinnamon gardens. Here, also, the cashew tree grows
22
254 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
to great perfection. The bark of the latter is very rich
in tannin, and is used by the natives in the preparation
of hides. The fruit is like an apple in appearance, and
small, but is highly astringent. The well-known
cashew-nut grows like an excrescence from the end of
the apple.
Many are the varieties and uses of vegetable produc-
tions in Ceylon, but of these none are more singular
and interesting than the "sack tree," the Riti Gaha
of the Cingalese. From the bark of this tree an in-
finite number of excellent sacks are procured, with
very little trouble or preparation. The tree being felled,
the branches are cut into logs of the length required,
and sometimes these are soaked in water ; but this is
not always necessary. The bark is then well beaten
with a wooden mallet, until it is loosened from the
wood ; it is then stripped off the log as a stocking is
drawn off the leg. It is subsequently bleached, and
one end being sewn up, completes a perfect sack of a
thick fibrous texture, somewhat similar to felt.
These sacks are in general use among the natives,
and are preferred by them to any other, as their dura-
bility is such that they sometimes descend from father
to son. By constant use they stretch and increase their
original size nearly one half. The texture necessarily
becomes thinner, but the strength does not appear to be
materially decreased.
There are many fibrous barks in Ceylon, some of
which are so strong that thin strips require a great
amount of strength to break them, but none of these
have yet been reduced to a marketable fibre. Several
barks are more or less aromatic ; others would be valu-
able to the tanners ; several are highly esteemed by the
No Gum Trees of Value in Ceylon. 255
natives as most valuable astringents, but hitherto none
have received much notice from Europeans. This may
be caused by the general want of success of all experi-
ments with indigenous produce. Although the jungles
of Ceylon produce a long list of articles of much in-
terest, still their value chiefly lies in their curiosity ;
they are useful to the native, but comparatively of little
worth to the European. In fact, few things will actu-
ally pay for the trouble and expense of collecting and
transporting. Throughout the vast forests and jungles
of Ceylon, although the varieties of trees are endless,
there is not one valuable gum known to exist. There
is a great variety of coarse, unmarketable productions,
about equal to the gum of the cherry tree, etc., but
there is no such thing as a high-priced gum in the
island.
The export of dammer is a mere trifle four tons in
1852, twelve tons in 1853. This is a coarse and com-
paratively valueless commodity. No other tree but the
doom tree produces any gum worth collecting ; this
species of rosin exudes in large quantities from an in-
cision in the bark, but the amount of exports shows its
insignificance. It is a fair sample of Ceylon produc-
tions ; nothing that is uncultivated is of much pecuniary
value.
CHAPTER XI.
INDIGENOUS PRODUCTIONS THE BOTANICAL GARDENS SUG-
GESTED EXPERIMENTS LACK OF ENCOURAGEMENT TO
GOLD-DIGGERS THE PROSPECTS OF GOLD-DIGGING WE
WANT "NUGGETS" WHO is TO BLAME? GOVERNOR'S SAL-
ARY FALLACIES OF A FIVE YEARS' REIGN NEGLECTED
EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE RESPONSIBILITIES OF CON-
qUEST PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.
THE Foregoing chapter may appear to decry in toto
the indigenous productions of Ceylon, as it is
asserted that they are valueless in their natural state.
Nevertheless, I do not imply that they must necessarily
remain useless. Where Nature simply creates a genus,
cultivation extends the species, and from an insignifi-
cant parent stock we propagate our finest varieties of
both animals and vegetables. Witness the wild kale,
parsnip, carrot, crab-apple, sloe, etc., all utterly worth-
less, but nevertheless the first parents of their now
choice descendants.
It is therefore impossible to say what might not be
done in the improvement of indigenous productions
were the attention of science bestowed upon them.
But all this entails expense, and upon whom is this to
fall? Out of a hundred experiments ninety-nine might
fail. In Ceylon we have no wealthy experimentalists,
no agricultural exhibitions, no model farms, but every
256
Botanical Gardens. 257
man who settles in a colony has left the mother country
to better himself; therefore, no private enterprise is
capable of such speculation. It clearly rests upon the
government to develop the resources of the country, to
prove the value of the soil, which is delivered to the
purchaser at so much per acre, good or bad. But no ;
it is not in the nature of our government to move from
an established routine. As the squirrel revolves his
cage, so governor after governor rolls his dull course
along, pockets his salary, and leaves the poor colony as
he found it.
The government may direct the attention of the pub-
lic, in reply, to their own establishment to the botan-
ical gardens. Have we not botanical gardens? We
have, indeed, and much good they should do, if
conducted upon the principle of developing local
resources ; but this would entail expense, and, like
everything in the hands of government, it dies in its
birth for want of consistent management.
With an able man as superintendent at a good
salary, the beautiful gardens at Peredenia are rendered
next to useless for want of a fund at his disposal.
Instead of being conducted as an experimental farm,
they are little more than ordinary pleasure-grounds,
filled with the beautiful foliage of the tropics and kept
in perfect order. What benefit have they been to the
colony ? Have the soils of various districts been tested ?
have new fibres been manufactured from the countless
indigenous fibrous plants? have new oils been ex-
tracted? have medicinal drugs been produced? have
dyes been extracted? have improvements been sug-
gested in the cultivation of any of the staple articles of
Ceylon export? In fact, has ANYTHING ever been
22* B
258 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
done by government for the interest of the private
settler ?
This is not the fault of the manager of the gardens ;
he has the will, but no funds. My idea of the object
of a botanical garden is, that agricultural theories
should be reduced to facts, upon which private enter-
prise may speculate, and by such success the govern-
ment should ultimately benefit.
It is well known to the commonest school-boy that
soil which may be favorable to one plant is not adapted
to another ; therefore, where there is a diversity of soils
it stands to reason that there should be a corresponding
variety of crops to suit those soils, so as to make the
whole surface of the land yield its proportion.
In Ceylon, where the chief article of production is
coffee, land (upon an estate) which is not suitable to
this cultivation is usually considered waste. Thus the
government and the private proprietor are alike losers
in possessing an amount of unprofitable soil.
Now, surely it is the common sense object in the
establishment of a botanical garden to discover for each
description of soil a remunerating crop, so that an
estate should be cultivated to its uttermost, and the
word u waste" be unknown upon the property.
Under the present system of management this is im-
possible ; the sum allowed per annum is but just suffi-
cient to keep the gardens in proper condition, and the
abilities of the botanist in charge are sacrificed. Many
a valuable plant now lies screened in the shades of
remote jungles, which the enterprising botanist would
bring to light were he enabled by government to make
periodical journeys through the interior. These jour-
neys should form a part of his duties ; his botanical
Discovery of Gold. 259
specimens should be his game, and they should be pur-
sued with the ardor of the chase itself, and subsequently
transferred to the gardens and their real merits discov-
ered by experiments.
But what can be expected from an apathetic system
of government? Dyes, fibres, gums may abound in
the forests, metals and even gold may be concealed be-
neath our feet ; but the governor does not consider it a
part of his duty to prosecute the search, or even to ren-
der facilities to those of a more industrious tempera-
ment. What can better exemplify the case than the
recent discovery of gold at Newera Ellia ?
Here was the plain fact that gold was found in small
specks, not in one spot, but everywhere throughout the
swamps for miles in the vicinity that at a depth of
two or three feet from the surface this proof was ad-
duced of its presence ; but the governor positively re-
fused to assist the discoverers (" diggers," who were
poor sailors visiting Ceylon), although they merely
asked for subsistence until they should be able to reach
a greater depth. This may appear too absurd to be
correct, but it is nevertheless true.
At the time that I commenced these sketches of
Ceylon the gold was just discovered, and I touched but
lightly upon it, in the expectation that a few months of
labor, aided by government support, would have estab-
lished its presence in remunerating quantities. The
swampy nature of the soil rendered the digging impos-
sible without the aid of powerful pumps to reduce the
water, which filled the shaft so rapidly that no greater
depth could be obtained than eighteen feet, and even
this at immense labor.
The diggers were absolutely penniless, and but for
260 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
assistance received from private parties they must have
starved. The rainy season was at its height, and tor-
rents fell night and day with little intermission.' Still,
these poor little fellows worked early and late, wet and
dry, ever sanguine of success, and they at length pe-
titioned the government to give them the means of sub-
sistence for a few months " subsistence" for two men,
and the assistance of a few coolies. This was refused,
and the reply stated that the government intended to
leave the search for gold to " private enterprise.'* No
reward was offered for its discovery as in other colonies,
but the governor would leave it to "private enterprise."
A promising enterprise truly, when every landholder in
Ceylon, on referring to his title-deeds, observes the
reservation of all precious metals to the crown. This
is a fair sample of the narrow-minded, selfish policy of
a government which, in endeavoring to save a little,
loses all ; a miserable tampering with the public in
attempting to make a cat's paw of private enterprise.
How has this ended ? The diggers left the island in
disgust. If the gold is there in quantity, there in
quantity it remains to the present time, unsought for.
The subject of gold is so generally interesting, and in
this case of such importance to the colony, that, believ-
ing as I do that it does exist in large quantities, I must
claim the reader's patience in going into this subject
rather fully.
Let us take the matter as it stands.
The reader will remember that I mentioned at an
early part of these pages that gold was first discovered
in Ceylon by the diggers in the bed of a stream near
Kandy that they subsequently came to Newera Ellia,
and there discovered gold likewise.
Prospects of Gold -Diggers. 261
It must be remembered that the main features of the
country at Nevvera Ellia and the vicinity are broad flats
or swampy plains, surrounded by hills and mountains :
the former covered with rank grass and \ntersected by
small streams, the latter covered with dense forest.
The soil abounds with rocks of gneiss and quartz,
some of the latter rose-color, some pure white. The
gold has hitherto been found in the plains only. These
plains extend over some thirty miles of country, divided
into numerous patches by intervening jungles.
The surface soil is of a peaty nature, perfectly black,
soapy when wet, and as light as soot when dry ; worth-
less for cultivation. This top soil is about eighteen
inches thick, and appears to have been the remains of
vegetable matter washed down from the surrounding
hills and forests.
This swampy black soil rests upon a thin stratum of
brownish clay, not more than a few inches thick, which,
forming a second layer, rests in its turn upon a snow-
white rounded quartz gravel intermixed with white
pipe-clay.
This contains gold, every shovelful of earth pro-
ducing, when washed, one or more specks of the pre-
cious metal.
The stratum of rounded quartz is about two feet
thick, and is succeeded by pipe-clay, intermixed with
quartz gravel, to a depth of eighteen feet. Here an-
other stratum of quartz gravel is met with, perfectly
water-worn and rounded to the size of a twelve-pound
shot.
In this stratum the gold was of increased size, and
some pieces were discovered as large as small grains
of rice ; but no greater depth was attained at the time
262 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
of writing than to this stratum, viz., eighteen feet from
the surface.
No other holes were sunk to a greater depth than
ten feet, on account of the influx of water, but similar
shafts were made in various places, and all with equal
success.
From the commencement of the first stratum of
quartz throughout to the greatest depth attained gold
was present.
Upon washing away the clay and gravel, a great
number of gems of small value remained (chiefly sap-
phire, ruby, jacinth and green tourmaline). These
being picked out, there remained a jet-black fine sand,
resembling gunpowder. This was of great specific
gravity, and when carefully washed, discovered the
gold some in grains, some in mere specks, and some
like fine, golden flour.
At this interesting stage the search has been given
up : although the cheering sight of gold can be ob-
tained in nearly every pan of earth at such trifling
depths, and literally in every direction, the prospect is
abandoned. The government leaves it to private en-
terprise, but the enterprising public have no faith in
the government.
Without being over-sanguine, or, on the other side,
closing our ears with asinine stubbornness, let us take
an impartial view of the facts determined, and draw
rational conclusions.
It appears that from a depth of two and a half feet
from the surface to the greatest depth as yet attained
(eighteen feet), gold exists throughout.
It also appears that this is not only the case in one
particular spot, but all over this part of the country,
The "Liberality" of Government. 263
and that this fact is undeniable ; and, nevertheless, the
government did not believe in the existence of gold in
Ceylon until these diggers discovered it; and when
discovered, they gave the diggers neither reward nor
encouragement, but they actually met the discovery by
a published prohibition against the search ; they then
latterly withdrew the prohibition and left it to private
enterprise, but neglected the unfortunate diggers. In
this manner is the colony mismanaged ; in this man-
ner is all public spirit damped, all private enterprise
checked, and all men who have anything to venture
disgusted.
The liberality of a government must be boundless
where the actual subsistence for a few months is re-
fused to the discoverers of gold in a country where,
hitherto, its presence had been denied.
It would be speculative to anticipate the vast changes
that an extended discovery would effect in such a colony
as Ceylon. We have before us the two pictures of
California and Australia, which have been changed as
though by the magician's wand within the last few
years. It becomes us now simply to consider the
probability of the gold being in such quantities in Cey-
lon as to effect such changes. We have at present
these simple data that in a soft, swampy soil gold has
been found close to the surface in small specks, gra-
dually increasing in size and quantity as a greater depth
has been attained.
From the fact that gold will naturally lie deep, from
its specific gravity, it is astonishing that any vestige of
such a metal should be discovered in such soil so close
to the surface. Still more astonishing that it should be
so generally disseminated throughout the locality.
264 Eight Years' Wandering's in Ceylon.
This would naturally be accepted as a proof that the
soil is rich in gold. But the question will then arise,
Where is the gold? The quantities found are a mere
nothing it is only dust: we want "nuggets."
The latter is positively the expression that I myself
fi - equently heard in Ceylon " We want nuggets."
Who does not want nuggets? But people speak of
" nuggets" as they would of pebbles, forgetting that the
very principle which keeps the light dust at the surface
has forced the heavier gold to a greater depth, and
that, far from complaining of the lack of nuggets when
digging has hardly commenced, they should gaze with
wonder at the bare existence of the gold in its present
form and situation.
The diggings at Ballarat are from a hundred to an
hundred and sixty feet deep in hard ground, and yet
people in Ceylon expect to find heavy gold in mere
mud, close to the surface. The idea is preposterous,
and I conceive it only reasonable to infer from the
present appearances that gold does exist in large quan-
tities in Ceylon. But as it is reasonable to suppose
such to be the case, so it is unreasonable to suppose
that private individuals will invest capital in so uncer-
tain a speculation as mining, without facilities from the
government, and in the very face of the clause in their
own title-deeds " that all precious metals belong to the
crown."
This is the anomalous position of the gold in Ceylon
under the governorship of Sir G. Anderson.
Nevertheless, it becomes a question whether we should
blame the man or the system, but the question arises in
this case, as with everything else in which government
is concerned, "Where is the fault?" "Echo answers
Who is to Blame ? 265
* Where ?' " But the public are not satisfied with
echoes, and in this matter-of-fact age people look to
those who fill ostensible posts and draw bona Jide sala-
ries ; and if these men hold the appointments, no matter
under what system, they become the deserved objects
of either praise or censure.
Thus it may appear too much to say that Sir G.
Anderson is liable for the mismanagement of the colony
in toto for the total neglect of the public roads. It
may appear too much to say, When you came to the
colony you found the roads in good order : they are now
impassable ; communication is actually cut off* from
places of importance. This is your fault, these are
the fruits of your imbecility ; your answer to our peti-
tions for repairs was, " There is no money ;" and yet at
the close of the year you proclaimed and boasted of a
saving of twenty-seven thousand pounds in the treasury !
This seems a fearful contradiction ; and the whole
public received it as such. The governor may com-
plain that the public expect too much ; the public may
complain that the governor does too little.
Upon these satisfactory terms, governors and their
dependants bow each other out, the colony being a kind
of opera stall, a reserved seat for the governor during
the performance of five acts (as we will term his five
years of office) ; and the fifth act, as usual in tragedies,
exposes the whole plot of the preceding four, and winds
up with the customary disasters.
Now the question is, how long this age of misrule
will last.
Every one complains, and still every one endures.
Each man has a grievance, but no man has a remedy.
Still, the absurdity of our colonial appointments is such
23
266 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
that if steps were purposely taken to ensure the "destruc-
tion of the colonies, they could not have been more
certain.
We will commence with a new governor dealt out to
a colony. We will simply call him a governor, not
troubling ourselves with his qualifications, as of course
they have not been considered at the Colonial Office.
He may be an upright, clear-headed, indefatigable man,
in the prime of life, or he may be old, crotchety, pig-
headed, and mentally and physically incapable. He
may be either ; it does not much matter, as he can only
remain for five years, at which time his term expires.
We will suppose that the crotchety old gentleman
arrives first. The public will be in a delightful per-
plexity as to what the new governor will do whether
he will carry out the views of his predecessor, or
whether he will upset everything that has been done in
the past five years ; all is uncertainty. The only thing
known positively is, that, good or bad, he will pocket
seven thousand a year ! *
His term of government will be chequered by many
disappointments to the public, and, if he has any feeling
at all, by many heartburnings to himself. Physically
incapable of much exertion, he will be unable to travel
over so wild a country as Ceylon. A good governor
in a little island may be a very bad governor in a large
island, as a good cab-driver might make a bad four-in-
hand man ; thus our old governor would have no prac-
tical knowledge of the country, but would depend upon
prejudiced accounts for his information. Thus he
would never arrive at any correct information ; he
would receive all testimony with doubt, considering
* Since reduced to five thousand pounds.
The Two Governors. 267
that each had some personal motive in offering advice,
and one tongue would thus nullify the other until he
would at length come to the conclusion of David in his
haste, "that all men are liars," and turn a deaf ear to
ail. This would enable him to pass the rest of his term
without any active blunders, and he might vary the pas-
sive monotony of his existence by a system of contra-
diction to all advice gratis. A little careful pruning of
expenses during the last two years of his term might
give a semblance of increase of revenue over expendi-
ture, to gain a smile from the Colonial Office. On his
return the colony would be left with neglected roads,
consequent upon the withdrawal of the necessary
funds.
This incubus at length removed from the colony, may
be succeeded by a governor of the first class.
He arrives ; finds everything radically wrong ; the
great arteries of the country (the roads) in disorder ; a
large outlay required to repair them. Thus his first
necessary act begins by an outlay at a time when all
outlay is considered equivalent to crime. This gains
him a frown from the Colonial Office. Conscious of
right, however, he steers his own course ; he travels
over the whole country, views its features personally,
judges of its requirements and resources, gathers ad-
vice from capable persons, forms his own opinion, and
acts accordingly.
We will allow two years of indefatigable research to
have passed over our model governor ; by that time,
and not before, he may have become thoroughly con-
versant with the colony in all its bearings. He has
comprehended the vast natural capabilities, he has
formed his plans methodically for the improvement of
268 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
the country ; not by any rash and speculative outlay,
but, step by step, he hopes to secure the advancement
of his schemes.
This is a work of time ; he has much to do. The
country is in an uncivilized state ; he sees the vestiges
of past grandeur around him, and his views embrace a
wide field for the renewal of former prosperity. Tanks
must be repaired, canals reopened, emigration of Chi-
nese and Malabars encouraged, forests and jungles
cleared, barren land brought into fertility. The work
of years is before him, but the expiration of his term
draws near. Time is precious, but nevertheless he
must refer his schemes to the Colonial Office. What
do they know of Ceylon ? To them his plans seem vis-
ionary ; at all events they will require an outlay. A
correspondence ensues that hateful correspondence !
This ensures delay. Time flies ; the expiration of his
term draws near. Even his sanguine temperament has
ceased to hope ; his plans are not even commenced, to
work out which would require years ; he never could
see them realized, and his successor might neglect
them and lay the onus of the failure upon him, the
originator, or claim the merit of their success.
So much for a five years' term of governorship, the
absurdity of which is superlative. It is so entirely con-
trary to the system of management in private affairs
that it is difficult to imagine the cause that could have
given rise to such a regulation. In matters great or
small, the capability of the manager is the first con-
sideration ; and if this be proved, the value of the man
is enhanced accordingly ; no employer would lose
him.
But in colonial governments the system is directly
Neglected Education of the People. 269
opposite, for no sooner does the governor become com-
petent than he is withdrawn and transferred to another
sphere. Thus every colony is like a farm held on a
short lease, which effectually debars it from improve-
ment, as the same feeling which actuates the individual
in neglecting the future, because he will not personally
enjoy the fruits of his labor, must in some degree fetter
the enterprise of a five years' governor. He is little
better than the Lord Mayor, who flutters proudly for a
year, and then drops his borrowed feathers in his
moulting season.
Why should not governors serve an apprenticeship
for five years as colonial secretaries to the colonies they
are destined for, if five years is still to be the limited
term of their office? This would ensure a knowledge
of the colony at a secretary's salary, and render them
fit for both the office and salary of governor when
called upon ; whereas, by the present system, they at
once receive a governor's salary before they understand
their duties.
In casually regarding the present picture of Ceylon,
it is hard to say which point has been most neglected ;
but a short residence in the island will afford a fair
sample of government inactivity in the want of educa^
tion among the people.
Upon this subject more might be said than lies in my
province to dwell upon ; nevertheless, after fifty years'
possession of the Kandian districts, this want is so
glaring that I cannot withhold a few remarks upon the
subject, as I consider the ignorant state of the native
population a complete check to the advancement of the
colony.
In commencing this subject, I must assume that the
23*
270 Eight fears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
conquerors of territory are responsible for the moral
welfare of the inhabitants ; therefore our responsibilty
increases with our conquests. A mighty onus thus
rests upon Great Britain, which few consider when
they glory in the boast, " that the sun never sets upon
her dominions."
This thought leads us to a comparison of power be-
tween ourselves and other countries, and we trace the
small spot upon the world's map which marks our
little island, and in every sphere we gaze with wonder
at our vast possessions. This is a picture of the pres-
ent. What will the future be in these days of advance-
ment? It were vain to hazard a conjecture; but we
can look back upon the past, and build upon this foun-
dation our future hopes.
When the pomps and luxuries of Eastern cities spread
throughout Ceylon, and millions of inhabitants fed on
her fertility, when the hands of her artists chiseled the
figures of her gods from the rude rock, when her
vessels, laden with ivory and spices, traded with the
West, what were we ? A forest-covered country, peo-
pled by a fierce race of savages clad in skins, bowing
before druidical idolatry, paddling ajong our shores in
frames of wickerwork and hide.
The ancient deities of Ceylon are in the same spots,
unchanged ; the stones of the Druids stand unmoved ;
but what has become of the nations? 'Those of the
East have faded away ai d their strength has perished.
Their ships are crumbled ; the rude canoe glides over
their waves ; the spices grow wild in their jungles ;
and, unshorn and unclad, the inhabitants wander on
the face of the land.
Is it " chance" that has worked this change ? Where
Responsibilities of Conquest. 271
is the forest-covered country and its savage race, its
skin-clad warriors and their frail coracles?
There, where the forest stood, from north to south
and from east to west, spreads a wide field of rich fer-
tility. There, on those rivers where the basket-boats
once sailed, rise the taut spars of England's navy.
Where the rude hamlet rested on its banks in rural
solitude, the never-weary din of commerce rolls through
the city of the world. The locomotive rushes like a
thunder-clap upon the rail ; the steamer ploughs against
the adverse wind, and, rapid as the lightning, the tele-
graph cripples time. The once savage land is the
nucleus of the arts and civilization. The nation that
from time to time was oppressed, invaded, conquered,
but never subjected, still pressed against the weight of
adversity, and, as age after age rolled on, and mightier
woes and civil strife gathered upon her, still the germ
of her destiny, as it expanded, threw off her load, until
she at length became a nation envied and feared.
It was then that the powers of the world were armed
against her, and all Europe joined to tear the laurels
from her crown, and fleets and armies thronged from
all points against the devoted land, and her old enemy,
the Gaul, hovered like his own eagle over the expected
prey.
The thunder of the cannon shook the world, and
blood tinged the waves around the land, and war and
tumult shrieked like a tempest over the fair face of
Nature ; the din of battle smothered all sounds of
peace, and years passed on and thicker grew the
gloom. It was then the innate might of the old Briton
roused itself to action and strained those giant nerves
which brought us victory. The struggle was past, and
272 Eight Yearf Wanderings in Ceylon.
as the smoke of battle cleared from the surface of the
world, the flag of England waved in triumph on the
ocean, her fleets sat swan-like on the waves, her stand-
ard floated on the strongholds of the universe, and far
and wide stretched the vast boundaries of her con-
quests.
Again I ask, is this the effect of " chance?" or is it
the mighty will of Omnipotence, which, choosing his
instruments from the humbler ranks, has snatched Eng-
land from her lowly state, and has exalted her to be the
apostle of Christianity throughout the world ?
Here lies her responsibility. The conquered nations
are in her hands ; they have been subject to her for half
a century, but they know neither her language nor her
religion.
How many millions of human beings of all creeds
and colors does she control ? Are they or their descend-
ants to embrace our faith? that is, are we the divine
instrument for accomplishing the vast change that we
expect by the universal acknowlegment of Christianity?
or are we I pause before the suggestion are we but
another of those examples of human insignificance, /
that, as from dust we rose, so to dust we shall return ?
shall we be but another in the long list of nations
whose ruins rest upon the solitudes of Nature, like
warnings to the proud cities which triumph in their
strength? Shall the traveler in future ages place his
foot upon the barren sod and exclaim, " Here stood
their great city !"
The inhabitants of Nineveh would have scoffed at
such a supposition. And yet they fell, and yet the
desert sand shrouded their cities as the autumn leaves
fall on the faded flowers of summer.
Progress of Christianity. 273
To a fatalist it can matter but little whether a nation
fulfills its duty, or whether, by neglecting it, punish-
ment should be drawn down upon its head. According
to his theory, neither good nor evil acts would alter a
predestined course of events. There are apparently
fatalist governments as Well as individuals, which,
absorbed in the fancied prosperity of the present, legis-
late for temporal advantages only.
Thus we see the most inconsistent and anomalous
conditions imposed in treaties with conquered powers ;
we see, for instance, in Ceylon, a protection granted to
the Buddhist religion, while flocks of missionaries are
sent out to convert the heathen. We even stretch the
point so far as to place a British sentinel on guard at
the Buddhist temple in Kandy, as though in mockery
of our Protestant church a hundred paces distant.
At the same time that we acknowledge and protect
the Buddhist religion, we pray that Christianity shall
spread through the whole world ; and we appoint bish-
ops to our colonies at the same time we neglect the
education of the inhabitants.
When I say we neglect the education I do not mean
to infer that there are no government schools, but that
the education of the people, instead of being one of
the most important objects of the government, is con-
sidered of so little moment that it is tantamount to
neglected.
There are various opinions as to the amount of learn-
ing which constitutes education, and at some of the
government schools the native children are crammed
with useless nonsense, which, by raising them above
their natural position, totally unfits them for their
pioper sphere. This is what the government calls
8
274 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
education ; and the same time and expense thus em-
ployed in teaching a few would educate treble the
number in plain English. It is too absurd to hear the
arguments in favor of mathematics, geography, etc.,
etc., for the native children, when a large proportion
of our own population in Great Britain can neither
read nor write.
The great desideratum in native education is a tho-
rough knowledge of the English tongue, which natu-
rally is the first stone for any superstructure of more
extended learning. This brings them within the reach
of the missionary, not only in conversation, but it en-
ables them to benefit by books, which are otherwise use-
less. It lessens the distance between the white man
and the black, and an acquaintance with the English
language engenders a taste for English habits. The
first dawn of civilization commences with a knowledge
of our language. The native immediately adopts some
English customs and ideas, and drops a corresponding
number of his own. In fact, he is a soil fit to work
upon, instead of being a barren rock as hitherto, firm
in his own ignorance and prejudices.
In the education of the rising native generation lies
the hope of ultimate conversion. You may as well try
to turn pitch into snow as to eradicate the dark stain
of heathenism from the present race. Nothing can be
done with them ; they must be abandoned like the bar-
ren fig-tree, and the more attention bestowed upon the
young shoots.
But, unfortunately, this is a popular error, and, like
all such, one full of prejudice. Abandon the present
race ! Methinks I hear the cry from Exeter Hall.
But the good people at home have no idea to what an
Ignorance of Native Population. 275
extent they are at present, and always have been, aban-
doned. Where the children who can be educated with
success are neglected at the present day, it may be im-
agined that the parents have been but little cared for ;
thus, in advocating their abandonment, it is simply pro-
posing an extra amount of attention to be bestowed
upon the next generation.
There are many large districts of Ceylon where no
schools of any kind are established. In the Ouva
country, which is one of the most populous, I have had
applications from the natives, begging me to interest
myself in obtaining some arrangement of the kind.
Throngs of natives applied, describing the forlorn con-
dition of their district, all being not only anxious to
send their children to some place where they could
learn free of expense, but offering to pay a weekly sti-
pend in return. " They are growing up as ignorant
as our young buffaloes," was a remark made by one of
the headmen of the villages, and this within twelve
miles of Newera Ellin.
Now, leaving out the question of policy in endeavor-
ing to make the language of our own country the com-
mon tongue of a conquered colony, it must be admitted
that, simply as a question of duty, it is incumbent
upon the government to do all in its power for the
moral advancement of the native population. It is
known that the knowledge of our language is the first
step necessary to this advancement, and nevertheless
it is left undone ; the population is therefore neglected.
I have already adverted to the useless system in the
government schools of forcing a superabundant amount
of knowledge into the children's brains, and thereby
raising them above their position. A contrasting ex-
276 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
ample of good common-sense education has recently
been given by the Rev. Mr. Thurston (who is indefati-
gable in his profession) in the formation of an indus-
trial school at Colombo.
This is precisely the kind of education which is re-
quired ; and it has already been attended with results
most beneficial on its limited scale.
This school is conducted on the principle that the
time of every boy shall not only be of service to him-
self, but shall likewise tend to the support of the estab-
lishment. The children are accordingly instructed in
such pursuits as shall be the means of earning a liveli-
hood in future years : some are taught a trade, others
are employed in the cultivation of gardens, and subse-
quently in the preparation of a variety of produce.
Among others, the preparation of tapioca from the root
of the manioc has recently been attended with great
success. In fact, they are engaged during their leisure
hours in a variety of experiments, all of which tend to
an industrial turn of mind, benefiting not only the lad
and the school, but also the government, by preparing
for the future men who will be serviceable and indus-
trious in their station.
Here is a lesson for the government which, if carried
out on an extensive scale, would work a greater change
in the colony within the next twenty years than all the
preaching of the last fifty.
Throughout Ceylon, in every district, there should be
established one school upon this principle for every
hundred boys, and a small tract of land granted to
each. One should be attached to the botanical gardens
at Peredenia, and instruction should be given to enable
every school to perform its own experiments in agri-
Ho-w to Convert the Natives. 277
culture. By this means, in the course of a few years
we should secure an educated and useful population, in
lieu of the present indolent and degraded race : an im-
proved system of cultivation, new products, a variety
of trades, and, in fact, a test of the capabilities of the
country would be ensured, without risk to the govern-
ment, and to the ultimate prosperity of the colony.
Heathenism could not exist in such a state of affairs ; it
would die out. Minds exalted by education upon such
a system would look with ridicule upon the vestiges of
former idolatry, and the rocky idols would remain with-
out a worshiper, while a new generation flocked to the
Christian altar.
This is no visionary prospect. It has been satisfac-
torily proved that the road to conversion to Christianity
is through knowledge, and this once attained, heathen-
ism shrinks into the background. This knowledge can
only be gained by the young when such schools are
established as I have described.
Our missionaries should therefore devote their atten-
tion to this object, and cease to war against the impos-
sibility of adult conversion. If one-third of the
enormous sums hitherto expended with little or no
results upon missionary labor had been employed in
the establishments as proposed, our colonies would
now possess a Christian population. But are our mis-
sionaries capable? Here commences another question,
which again involves others in their turn, all of which,
when answered, thoroughly explain the stationary, if
not retrograde, position of the Protestant Church
among the heathen.
What is the reader's conceived opinion of the duties
and labors of a missionary in a heathen land ? Does
24
278 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
he, or does he not imagine, as he pays his subscription
toward this object, that the devoted missionary quits
his native shores, like one of the apostles of old, to fight
the good fight? that he leaves all to follow "Him?"
and that he wanders forth in his zeal to propagate the
gospel, penetrating into remote parts, preaching to the
natives, attending on the sick, living a life of hardship
and self-denial ?
It is a considerable drawback to this belief in mis-
sionary labor when it is known that the missionaries
are not educated for the particular colonies to which
they are sent ; upon arrival, they are totally ignorant of
the language of the natives, accordingly, they are per-
fectly useless for the purpose of " propagating the gos-
pel among the heathen." Their mission should be that
of instructing the young, and for this purpose they
should first be instructed themselves.
I do not wish to throw a shade upon the efforts of
missionary labor ; I have no doubt that they use great
exertions privately, which the public on the spot do
not observe ; but taking this for granted as the case, the
total want of success in the result becomes the more
deplorable.
I have also no doubt that the missionaries penetrate
into the most remote parts of Ceylon and preach the
gospel. For many years I have traversed the wilder-
nesses of Ceylon at all hours and at all seasons. I
have met many strange things during my journeys, but
I never recollect having met a missionary. The bishop
of Colombo is the only man I know who travels out of
the high road for this purpose ; and he, both in this and
many other respects, offers an example which few ap-
pear to follow.
Religious Schisms. 279
Nevertheless, although Protestant missionaries are so
rare in the jungles of the interior, and, if ever there,
no vestige ever remains of such a visit, still, in spots
where it might be least expected, may be seen the hum-
ble mud hut, surmounted by a cross, the certain trace
of some persevering priest of the Roman faith. These
men display an untiring zeal, and no point is too re-
mote for their good offices. Probably they are not so
comfortable in their quarters in the towns as the Prot-
estant missionaries, and thus they have less hesitation
in leaving home.
The few converts that have been made are chiefly
Roman Catholics, as among the confusion arising from
our multitudinous sects and schisms the native is natu-
rally bewildered. What with High "Church, Low
Church, Baptists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, etc., etc.,
etc., the ignorant native is perfectly aghast at the variety
of choice.
With the members of our Church in such a dislo-
cated state, progression cannot be expected by simple
attemps at conversion ; even were the natives willing
to embrace the true faith, they would have great diffi-
culty in finding it amidst the crowd of adverse opinions.
Without probing more deeply into these social wounds,
I must take leave of the missionary labors in Ceylon,
trusting that ere long the eyes of the government will
be fixed upon the true light to guide the prosperity of
the island by framing an ordinance for the liberal edu-
cation of the people.
CHAPTER XII.
THE PEARL FISHERY DESOLATION OF THE COAST HARBOR
OF TRINCOMALEE FATAL ATTACK BY A SHARK FERO-
CIOUS CROCODILES SALT MONOPOLY SALT LAKES
METHOD OF COLLECTION NEGLECT OF CEYLON HIDES
FISH AND FISHING PRIMITIVE TACKLE OYSTER AND
PENKNIVES A NIGHT BIVOUAC FOR A NOVICE NO
DINNER, BUT A GOOD FIRE WILD YAMS AND CONSE-
qiJENCES THE ELEPHANTS* DUEL A HUNTING HERMI-
TAGE BLUEBEARD'S LAST HUNT THE LEOPARD BLUE-
BEARD'S DEATH LEOPARD SHOT.
WHILE fresh from the subject of government mis-
management, let us turn our eyes in the direc-
tion of one of those natural resources of wealth for
which Ceylon has ever been renowned the " pearl
fishery." This was the goose which laid the golden
egg, and Sir W. Horton, when governor of Ceylon,
was the man who killed the goose.
Here was another fatal instance of the effects of a
five years' term of governorship.
It was the last, year of his term, and he wished to
prove to the Colonial Office that "his talent" had not
been laid up in a napkin, but that he had left the colony
with an excess of income over expenditure. To obtain
this income he fished up all the oysters, ruined the fishery
280
The Pearl Fishery* 281
in consequence ; and from that day to the present time
it has been unproductive.
This is a serious loss of income to the colony, and
great doubts are entertained as to the probability of the
oyster-banks ever recovering their fertility.
Nothing can exceed the desolation of the coast in the
neighborhood of the pearl-banks. For many miles the
shore is a barren waste of low sandy ground, covered
for the most part with scrubby, thorny jungle, diversi-
fied by glades of stunted herbage. Not a hill is to be
seen as far as the eye can reach. The tracks of all
kind of game abound on the sandy path, with occa-
sionally those of a naked foot, but seldom does a shoe
imprint its civilized mark upon these lonely shores.
The whole of this district is one of the best in Ceylon
for deer-shooting, which is a proof of its want of in-
habitants. This has always been the case, even in the
prosperous days of the pearl fishery. So utterly worth-
less is the soil, that it remains in a state of nature, and
its distance from Colombo (one hundred and fifty miles)
keeps it in entire seclusion.
It is a difficult to conceive that any source of wealth
should exist in such a locality. When standing on the
parched sand, with the burning sun shining in pitiless
might upon all around, the meagre grass burnt to a
mere straw, the tangled bushes denuded of all verdure
save a few shriveled leaves, the very insects seeking
shelter from the rays, there is not a tree to throw a
shadow, but a dancing haze of molten air hovers upon
the ground, and the sea like a mirror reflects a glare,
which makes the heat intolerable. And yet beneath
the wave on this wild and desolate spot glitter those
baubles that minister to man's vanity ; and, as though
24 *
282 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
in mockery of such pursuits, I have seen the bleached
skulls of bygone pearl-seekers lying upon the sand,
where they have rotted in view of the coveted treasures.
There is an appearance of ruin connected with every-
thing in the neighborhood. Even in the good old times
this coast was simply visited during the period for fish-
ing. Temporary huts were erected for thousands of
natives, who thronged to Ceylon from all parts of the
East for the fascinating speculations of the pearl fishery.
No sooner was the season over than every individual
disappeared ; the wind swept away the huts of sticks
and leaves ; and the only vestiges remaining of the v6-
cent population were the government stores and house
at Arripo, like the bones of the carcase after the vul-
tures had feasted and departed. All relapsed at once
into its usual state of desolation.
The government house was at one time a building
of some little pretension, and from its style it bore the
name of the " Doric." It is now, like everything else,
in a state of lamentable decay. The honeycombed
eighteen-pounder, which was the signal gun of former
years, is choked with drifting sand, and the air of mis-
ery about the place is indescribable.
Now that the diving helmet has rendered subaqueous
discoveries so easy, I am surprised that a government
survey has not been made of the whole north-west coast
of Ceylon. It seems reasonable to suppose that the
pearl oyster should inhabit depths which excluded the
simple diver of former days, and that our modern im-
provements might discover treasures in the neighbor-
hood of the old pearl-beds of which we are now in
ignorance. The best divers, without doubt, could
never much exceed a minute in submersion. I believe
Harbor of Trincomalee. 283
the accounts of their performances generally to have
been much exaggerated. At all events, those of the
present day do not profess to remain under water much
more than a minute.
The accounts of Ceylon pearl fisheries are so com-
mon in every child's book that I do not attempt to de-
scribe the system in detail. Like all lotteries, there are
few prizes to the proportion of blanks.
The whole of this coast is rich in the biche de mer,
more commonly called the sea-slug. This is a disgust-
ing species of mollusca, which grows to a large size,
being commonly about a foot in length and three or
four inches in diameter. The capture and preparation
of these creatures is confined exclusively to the Chinese,
who dry them in the sun until they shrink to the size
of a large sausage and harden to the consistency of
horn ; they are then exported to China for making
soups. No doubt they are more strengthening than
agreeable ; but I imagine that our common garden slug
would be an excellent substitute to any one desirous of
an experiment, as it exactly resembles its nautical
representative in color and appearance. Trincomalee
is the great depot for this trade, which is carried on to
a large extent, together with that of sharks' fins, the
latter being used by the Chinese for the same purpose
as the biche de mer. Trincomalee affords many facili-
ties for this trade, as the slugs are found in large
quantities on the spot, and the finest harbor of the East
is alive with sharks. Few things surpass the tropical
beauty of this harbor ; lying completely land-locked, it
seems like a glassy lake surrounded by hills covered
with the waving foliage of groves of cocoa-nut trees
and palms of great variety. The white bungalows,
284 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
with their red-tiled roofs, are dotted about along the
shore, and two or three men-of-war are usually resting
at their ease in this calm retreat. So deep is the water
that the harbor forms a perfect dock, as the largest
vessel can lie so close to the shore that her yards over-
hang it, which enables stores' and cargo to be shipped
with great facility.
The fort stands upon a projecting point of land,
which rises to about seventy feet above the level of the
galle face (the race-course) which faces it. Thus it
commands the land approach across this flat plain on
one side and the sea on the other. This same fort is
one of the hottest corners of Ceylon, and forms a de-
sirable residence for those who delight in a temperature
of from 90 to 104 in the shade. Bathing is the great
enjoyment, but the pleasure in such a country is
destroyed by the knowledge that sharks are looking
out for you in the sea, and crocodiles in the rivers and
tanks ; thus a man is nothing more than an exciting
live-bait when he once quits terra firma. Accidents
necessarily must happen, but they are not so frequent
as persons would suppose from the great number of
carnivorous monsters that exist. Still, I am convinced
that a white man would run greater risk than a black ;
he is a more enticing bait, being bright and easily dis-
tinguished in the water. Thus in places where the
natives are in the habit of bathing with impunity it
would be most dangerous for a white man to enter.
There was a lamentable instance of this some few
years ago at Trincomalee. In a sheltered nook among
the rocks below the fort, where the natives were always
in the habit of bathing, a party of soldiers of the regi-
ment then in garrison went down one sultry afternoon
Fatal Attack by a Shark. 285
for a swim. It was a lovely spot for bathing ; the water
was blue, clear and calm, as the reef that stretched far
out to sea served as a breakwater to the heavy surf, and
preserved the inner water as smooth as a lake. Here
were a fine lot of English soldiers stripped to bathe ;
and although the ruddy hue of British health had long
since departed in the languid climate of the East, never-
theless their spirits were as high as those of English-
men usually are, no matter where or under what cir-
cumstances. However, one after the other took a run,
and then a " header" off the rocks into the deep blue
water beneath. In the long line of bathers was a fine
lad of fifteen, the son of one of the sergeants of the
regiment ; and with the emulation of his age he ranked
himself among the men, and on arriving at the edge he
plunged head-foremost into the water and disappeared.
A crowd of men were on the margin watching the
bathing ; the boy rose to the surface within a few feet
of them, but as he shook the water from his hair, a
cloudy shadow seemed to rise from the deep beneath
him, and in another moment the distinct outline of a
large shark was visible as his white belly flashed below.
At the same instant there was a scream of despair ; the
water was crimsoned, and a bloody foam rose to the
surface the boy was gone ! Before the first shock of
horror was well felt by those around, a gallant fellow
of the same regiment shot head first into the bloody
spot, and presently reappeared from his devoted
plunge, bearing in his arms one-half of the poor boy.
The body was bitten off at the waist, and the lower
portion was the prize of the ground shark.
For several days the soldiers were busily employed
in fishing for this monster, while the distracted mother
286 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
sat in the burning sun, watching in heart-broken eager-
ness, in the hope of recovering some trace of her lost
son. This, however, was not to be ; the shark was
never seen again.
There is as much difference in the characters of
sharks as among other animals or men. Some are
timid and sluggish, moving as though too lazy to seek
their food ; and there is little doubt that such would
never attack man. Others, on the contrary, dash
through the water as a pike would seize its prey, and
refuse or fear nothing. There is likewise a striking
distinction in the habits of crocodiles ; those that in-
habit rivers being far more destructive and fearless than
those that infest the tanks. The natives hold the former
in great terror, while with the latter they run risks which
are sometimes fatal. I recollect a large river in the
south-east of Ceylon, which so abounds with ferocious
crocodiles that the natives would not enter the water in
depths above the knees, and even this they objected to,
unless necessity compelled them to cross the river. I was
encamped on the banks for some little time, and the
natives took the trouble to warn me especially not to
enter ; and, as proof of the danger, they showed me a
spot where three men had been devoured in the course
of one year, all three of whom are supposed to have
ministered to the appetite of the same crocodile.
Few reptiles are more disgusting in appearance than
these brutes ; but, nevertheless, their utility counterbal-
ances their bad qualities, as they cleanse the water from
all impurities. So numerous are they that their heads
may be seen in fives and tens together, floating at the
top of the water like rough corks ; and at about five
p. M. they bask on the shore close to the margin of the
Crocodiles. 287
water, ready to scuttle in on the shortest notice. They
are then particularly on the alert, and it is a most diffi-
cult thing to stalk them, so as to get near enough to
make a certain shot. This is not bad amusement when
no other sport can be had. Around the margin of a
lake, in a large plain far in the distance, may be seen a
distinct line upon the short grass like the fallen trunk
of a tree. As there are no trees at hand, this must
necessarily be a crocodile. Seldom can the best hand
at stalking then get within eighty yards of him before
he lifts his scaly head, and, listening for a second,
plunges off the bank.
I have been contradicted in stating that a ball will
penetrate their scales. It is absurd, however, to hold
the opinion that the scales will turn a ball that is to
say, stop the ball (as we know that a common twig
will of course turn it from its direction, if struck
obliquely).
The scales of a crocodile are formed of bone exquis-
itely jointed together like the sections of a skull ; these
are covered externally with a horny skin, forming, no
doubt, an excellent defensive armor, about an inch in
thickness ; but the idea of their being impenetrable to
a ball, if struck fair, is a great fallacy. People may
perhaps complain because a pea rifle with a mere pinch
of powder may be inefficient, but a common No. 16
fowling-piece, with two drachms of powder, will pene-
trate any crocodile that was ever hatched.
Among the most harmless kinds are those which
inhabit the salt lakes in the south of Ceylon. I have
never heard of an accident in these places, although
hundreds of persons are employed annually in collect-
ing salt from the bottom.
288 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
These natural reservoirs are of great extent, some of
them being many miles in circumference. Those most
productive are about four miles round, and yield a sup-
ply in August, during the height of the dry season.
Salt in Ceylon is a government monoply ; and it has
hitherto been the narrow policy of the government to
keep up an immense price upon this necessary of life,
when the resources of the country could produce any
amount required for the island consumption.'
These are now all but neglected, and the government
simply gathers the salt as the wild pig feeds upon the
fruit which falls from the tree in its season.
The government price of salt is now about three
shillings per bushel. This is very impure, being mixed
with much dirt and sand. The revenue obtained by
the salt monopoly is about forty thousand pounds per
annum, two-thirds of which is an unfair burden upon
the population, as the price, according to the supply
obtainable, should never exceed one shilling per bushel.
Let us consider the capabilities of the locality from
which it is collected.
The lakes are some five or six in number, situated
within half a mile of the sea, separated only by a high
bank of drift sand, covered for the most part with the
low jungle which clothes the surrounding country.
Flat plains of a sandy nature form the margins of the
lakes. The little town of Hambantotte, with a good
harbor for small craft, is about twenty miles distant, to
which there is a good cart road.
The water of these lakes is a perfect brine. In the
dry season the evaporation, of course, increases the
strength until the water can no longer retain the amount
of salt in solution ; it therefore precipitates and crystal-
Salt Lakes. 289
lizes at the bottom in various degrees of thickness, ac-
cording to the strength of the brine.
Thus, as the water recedes from the banks by evapo-
ration and the lake decreases in size, it leaves a beach,
not of shingles, but of pure salt in crystallized cubes to
the depth of several inches, and sometimes to half a
foot or more. The bottom of the lake is equally coated
with this thick deposit.
These lakes are protected by watchers, who live
upon the margin throughout the year. Were it not
for this precaution, immense quantities of salt would be
stolen. In the month of August the weather is gen-
erally most favorable for the collection, at which time
the assistant agent for the district usually gives a few
days' superintendence.
The salt upon the shore being first collected, the na-
tives wade into the lake and gather the deposit from
the bottom, which they bring to the shore in baskets ;
it is then made up into vast piles, which are subse-
quently thatched over with cajans (the plaited leaf of
the cocoa-nut). In this state it remains until an op-
portunity offers for carting it to the government salt-
stores.
This must strike the reader as being a rude method
of collecting what Nature so liberally produces. The
waste is necessarily enormous, as the natives cannot
gather the salt at a greater depth than three feet;
hence the greater proportion of the annual produce of
the lake remains ungathered. The supply at present
afforded might be trebled with very little trouble or
expense.
If a stick is inserted in the mud, so that one end
stands above water, the salt crystallizes upon it in a
25 T
290 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
large lump of several pounds' weight. This is of a
better quality than that which is gathered from the bot-
tom, being free from sand or other impurities. Innu-
merable samples of this may be seen upon the stakes
which the natives have stuck in the bottom to mark the
line of their day's work. These, not being removed,
amass a collection of salt as described.
Were the government anxious to increase the pro-
duce of these natural reservoirs, nothing could be more
simple than to plant the whole lake with rows of stakes.
The wood is on the spot, and the rate of labor sixpence
a day per man ; thus it might be accomplished for a
comparatively small amount.
This would not only increase the produce to an im-
mense degree, but it would also improve the purity of
the collection, and would render facilities for gathering
the crop by means of boats, and thus obviate the neces-
sity of entering the water ; at present the suffering
caused by the latter process is a great drawback to the
supply of labor. So powerful is the brine that the legs
and feet become excoriated after two or three days' em-
ployment, and the natives have accordingly a great
aversion to the occupation.
Nothing could be easier than gathering the crop by
the method proposed. Boats would paddle along be-
tween the rows of stakes, while each stick would be
pulled up and the salt disengaged by a single blow ;
the stick would then be replaced in its position until
the following season.
Nevertheless, although so many specimens exist of
this accumulation, the method which was adopted by
the savage is still followed by the soi-disant civilized
man.
Method of Collection Demand. 291
In former days, when millions occupied Ceylon, the
demand for salt must doubtless have been in proportion,
and the lakes which are now so neglected must have
been taxed to their utmost resources. There can be
little doubt that the barbarians of those times had some
more civilized method of increasing the production than
the enlightened race of the present day.
The productive salt lakes are confined entirely to the
south of Ceylon. Lakes and estuaries of sea-water
abound all round the island, but these are only com-
monly salt, and do not yield. The north and the east
coasts are therefore supplied by artificial salt-pans.
These are simple enclosed levels on the beach, into
which the sea-water is admitted, and then allowed to
evaporate by the heat of the sun. The salt of course
remains at the bottom. More water is then admitted,
and again evaporated ; and this process continues until
the thickness of the salt at the bottom allows of its
being collected.
This simple plan might be adopted with great success
with the powerful brine of the salt lakes, which might
be pumped from its present lower level into dry reser-
voirs for evaporation.
The policy of the government, however, does not
tend to the increase of any production. It is preferred
to keep up the high rate of salt by a limited supply,
which meets with immediate demand, rather than to
increase the supply for the public benefit at a reduced
rate. This is a mistaken mode of reasoning. At the
present high price the consumption of salt is extremely
small, as its use is restricted to absolute necessaries.
On the other hand, were the supply increased at one
half the present rate, the consumption would augment
292 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
in a far greater proportion, as salt would then be used
for a variety of purposes which at the present cost is
impossible, viz. for the purpose of cattle-feeding, man-
ures, etc., etc. In addition to this, it would vastly af-
fect the price of salt fish (the staple article of native
consumption), and by the reduction in the cost of this
commodity there would be a corresponding extension
in the trade.
The hundreds of thousands of hides which are now
thrown aside to rot uncared for would then be preserved
and exported, which at the present rate of salt is im-
possible. The skins of buffaloes, oxen, deer, swine,
all valuable in other parts of the world, in Ceylon are
valueless'. The wild buffalo is not even skinned when
shot ; he is simply opened for his marrow-bones, his
tail is cut off for soup, his brains taken out for cotelettes,
and his tongue salted. The beast himself, hide and all,
is left as food for the jackal. The wandering native
picks up his horns, which find their way to the English
market ; but the " hide," the only really valuable por-
tion, is neglected.
Within a short distance of the salt lakes, buffaloes,
boars, and in fact all kind of animals abound, and I have
no doubt that if it were once proved to the natives that
the hides could be made remunerative, they would soon
learn the method of preparation.
Some persons have an idea that a native will not take
the trouble to do anything that would turn a penny ; in
this I do not agree. Certainly a native has not sufficient
courage for a speculation which involves the risk of
loss ; but provided he is safe in that respect, he will
take unbounded trouble for his own benefit, not valuing
his time or labor in pursuit of his object.
Commercial Value of the Elephant. 293
I have noticed a great change in the native habits
along the southern coast, which exemplifies this, since
the steamers have touched regularly at Galle.
Some years ago, elephants, buffaloes, etc., when shot
by sportsmen, remained untouched except by the wild
beast ; but now within one hundred and fifty miles of
Galle every buffalo horn is collected, and even the ele-
phants' grinders are extracted from the skulls, and
brought into market.
An elephant's grinder averages seven pounds in
weight, and is not worth more than from a penny to
three half-pence a pound ; nevertheless they are now
brought to Galle in large quantities to be made into
knife-handles and sundry ornaments, to tempt the pas-
sengers of the various steamers. If the native takes
this trouble for so small a recompense, there is every
reason to suppose that the hides now wasted would be
brought into market and form a valuable export, were
salt at such a rate as would admit of their preparation.
The whole of the southern coast, especially in the
neighborhood of the salt lakes, abounds with fish.
These are at present nearly undisturbed ; but I have
little doubt that a reduction in the price of salt would
soon call forth the energies of the Moormen, who would
establish fisheries in the immediate neighborhood.
This would be of great importance to the interior of
the country, as a road has been made within the last
few years direct from this locality to Badulla, distant
about eighty miles, and situated in the very heart of
the most populous district of Ceylon. This road, which
forms a direct line of communication from the port of
Hambantotte to Newera Ellia, is now much used for
the transport of coffee from the Badulla estates, to
25*
794 Eight Tears 1 Wanderings in Ceylon.
which a cheap supply of salt and fish would be a great
desideratum.
The native is a clever fellow at fishing. Every little
boy of ten years old along the coast is an adept in
throwing the casting net ; and I have often watched
with amusement the scientific manner in which some
of these little fellows handle a fine fish on a single
line ; Isaak Walton would have been proud of such
pupils.
There is nothing like necessity for sharpening a
man's intellect, and the natives of the coast being a
class of ichthyophagi, it may be imagined that they
excel in all the methods of capturing their favorite
food.
The sea, the rivers, and in fact every pool, teem with
fish of excellent quality, from the smallest to the largest
kind, not forgetting the most delicious prawns and
crabs. Turtle likewise abound, and are to be caught
in great numbers in their season.
Notwithstanding the immense amount of fish in the
various rivers, there is no idea of fishing as a sport
among the European population of Ceylon. This I
cannot account for, unless from the fear of fever, which
might be caught with more certainty than fish by
standing up to the knees in water under a burning sun.
Nevertheless, I have indulged in this every now and
then, when out on a jungle trip, although I have never
started from home with such an intention. Seeing
some fine big fellows swimming about in a deep hole
is a great temptation, especially when you know they
are gray mullet, and the chef de cuisine is short of the
wherewithal for dinner.
This is not unfrequently the case during a jungle
Primitive Tackle. 295
trip ; and the tent being pitched in the shade of a noble
forest on the steep banks of a broad river, thoughts of
fishing naturally intrude themselves.
The rivers in the dry season are so exhausted that a
simple bed of broad dry sand remains, while a small
stream winds along the bottom, merely a few inches
deep, now no more than a few feet in width, now rip-
pling over a few opposing rocks, while the natural bed
extends its dry sand for many yards on either side. At
every bend in the river there is of course a deep hole
close to the bank ; these holes remain full of water, as
the little stream continues to flow through them ; and
the water, in its entrance and exit being too shallow for
a large fish, all the finny monsters of the river are com-
pelled to imprison themselves in the depths of these
holes. Here the crocodiles have fine feeding, as they
live in the same place.
With a good rod and tackle there would be capital
sport in these places, as some of the fish run ten and
twelve pounds weight ; but I have never been well pro-
vided, and, while staring at the coveted fish from the
bank, I have had no means of catching them, except
by the most primitive methods.
Then I have cut a stick for a rod, and made a line
with some hairs from my horse's tail, with a pin for a
hook, baited with a shrimp, and the fishing has com-
menced.
Fish and fruit are the most enjoyable articles of food
in a tropical country, and in the former Ceylon is rich.
The seir fish is little inferior to salmon, and were the
flesh a similar color, it might sometimes form a substi-
tute. Soles and whiting remind us of Old England,
but a host of bright red, blue, green, yellow, and extra-
296 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
ordinary-looking creatures in the same net dispel all
ideas of English fishing.
Oysters there are likewise in Ceylon ; but here, alas !
there is a sad falling off in the comparison with our
well-remembered " native." Instead of the neat little
shell of the English oyster, the Ceylon species is a
shapeless, twisted, knotty, rocky-looking creature, such
as a legitimate oyster would be in a fit of spasms or
convulsions. In fact, there is no vestige of the true
breed about it, and the want of flavor equals its miser-
able exterior.
There are few positions more tantalizing to a hungry
man than that of being surrounded by oysters without
a knife. It is an obstinate and perverse wretch that
will not accommodate itself to man's appetite, and it
requires a forcible attack to vanquish it ; so that every
oyster eaten is an individual murder, in which the cold
steel has been plunged into its vitals, and the animal
finds itself swallowed before it has quite made up its
mind that it has been opened. But take away the
knife, and see how vain is the attempt to force the
stronghold. How utterly useless is the oyster ! You
may turn it over and over, and look for a weak place,
but there is no admittance ; you may knock it with a
stone, but the knock will be unanswered. How would
you open such a creature without a knife?
This was one of the many things that had never
occurred to me until one day when I found myself
with some three or four friends and a few boatmen on
a little island, or rather a rock, about a mile from the
shore. This rock was rich in the spasmodic kind of
oyster, large detached masses of which lay just beneath
the water in lumps of some hundredweight each, which
Oysters and Penknives. 297
had been formed by the oysters clustering and adhering
together. It so happened that our party were unani-
mous in the love of these creatures, and we accordingly
exerted ourselves to roll out of the water a large mass ;
which having accomplished, we discovered to our dis-
may that nothing but one penknife was possessed
among us. This we knew was a useless weapon
against such armor ; however, in our endeavors to per-
form impossibilities, we tickled the oyster and broke
the knife. After gazing for some time in blank despair
at our useless prize, a bright thought struck one of the
party, and drawing his ramrod he began to screw it
into the weakest part of an oyster ; this, however, was
proof, and the ramrod broke.
Stupid enough it may appear, but it was full a quarter
of an hour before any of us thought of a successful plan
of attack. I noticed a lot of drift timber scattered upon
the island, and then the right idea was hit. We gath-
ered the wood, which was bleached and dry, and we
piled it a few feet to windward of the mass of oysters.
Striking a light with a cap and some powder, we lit
the pile. It blazed and the wind blew the heat strong
upon the oysters, which accordingly began to squeak
and hiss, until one by one they gave up the ghost, and,
opening their shells, exposed their delightfully roasted
bodies, which were eaten forthwith.
How very absurd and uninteresting this is ! but
nevertheless it is one of those trifling incidents which
sharpen the imagination when you depend upon your
own resources.
It is astonishing how perfectly helpless some people
are if taken from the artificial existence of every-day
life and thrown entirely upon themselves. One man
298 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
would be in superlative misery while another would
enjoy the responsibility, and delight in the fertility of
his own invention in accommodating himself to circum-
stances. A person can scarcely credit the unfortunate
number of articles necessary for his daily and nightly
comfort, until he is deprived of them. To realize this,
lose yourself, good reader, wander off a great distance
from everywhere, and be benighted in a wild country,
with nothing but your rifle and hunting-knife. You
will then find yourself dinnerless, supperless, houseless,
comfortless, sleepless, cold and miserable, if you do not
know how to manage for yourself. You will miss
your dinner sadly if you are not accustomed to fast for
twenty-four hours. You will also miss your bed de-
cidedly, and your toothbrush in the morning; but if,
on the other hand, you are of the right stamp, it is as-
tonishing how lightly these little troubles will sit on
you, and how comfortable you will make yourself under
the circumstances.
The first thing you will consider is the house. The
architectural style will of course depend upon the local-
ity. If the ground is rocky and hilly, be sure to make
a steep pitch in the bank or the side of a rock form a
wall, to leewai'd of which you will lie when your man-
sion is completed by a few sticks simply inclined from
the rock and covered with grass. If the country is flat,
you must cut four forked sticks, and erect a villa after
this fashion in skeleton-work, which you then cover
with grass.
You will then strew the floor with grass or small
boughs, in lieu of a feather bed, and you will tie up a
bundle of the same material into a sheaf, which will
A Night Bivouac for a Novice. 299
form a capital pillow. If grass and sticks are at hand,
this will be completed thus far in an hour.
Then comes the operation of fire-making, which is
by no means easy ; and as warmth comes next to food,
and a blaze both scares wild animals and looks cheer-
ful, I advise some attention to be paid to the fire.
There must be a good collection of old fallen logs, if
possible, together with some green wood to prevent
too rapid a consumption of fuel. But the fire is not
yet made.
First tear off a bit of your shirt and rub it with
moistened gunpowder. Wind this in a thick roll round
your ramrod just below the point of the screw, with the
rough torn edge uppermost. Into these numerous folds
sprinkle a pinch of gunpowder ; then put a cap on the
point of the screw, and a slight tap with your hunting-
knife explodes it and ignites the linen.
Now, fire in its birth requires nursing like a young
baby, or it will leave you in the lurch. A single spark
will perhaps burn your haystacks, but when you want
a fire it seldom will burn, out of sheer obstinacy ;
therefore, take a wisp of dry grass, into which push
the burning linen and give it a rapid, circular motion
through the air, which will generally set it in a blaze.
300 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
Then pile gently upon it the smallest and driest sticks,
increasing their size as the fire grows till it is all right ;
and you will sit down proudly before your own fire,
thoroughly confident that you are the first person that
ever made one properly.
There is some comfort in that ; and having manufac-
tured your own house and bed, you will lie down snugly
and think of dinner till you fall asleep, and the crowing
of the jungle-cocks will wake you in the morning.
The happiest hours of my life have been passed in
this rural solitude. I have started from home with
nothing but a couple of blankets and the hounds, and,
with one blanket wrapped round me I have slept be-
neath a capital tent formed of the other With two
forked sticks and a horizontal pole the ends of the
blanket being secured by heavy stones, thus
This is a more comfortable berth than it may appear
at first sight, especially if one end is stopped up with
boughs. The ridge-pole being only two feet and a half
high, renders it necessary to crawl in on all-fours ; but
this lowness of ceiling has its advantages in not catch-
ing the wind, and likewise in its warmth. A blanket
roof, well secured and tightly strained, will keep off
the heaviest rain for a much longer period than a com-
mon tent ; but in thoroughly wet weather any woven
roof is more or less uncomfortable.
Wild Tarns and Consequences. 301
I recollect a certain bivouac in the Augora patinas
for a few days' hunting, when I was suddenly seized
with a botanical fit in a culinary point of view, and I
was determined to make the jungle subscribe something
toward the dinner. To my delight, I discovered some
plants which, from the appearance of their leaves, I
knew were a species of wild yam ; they grew in a
ravine on the swampy soil of a sluggish spring, and
the ground being loose, I soon grubbed them up and
found a most satisfactory quantity of yams about the
size of large potatoes not bad things for dinner. Ac-
cordingly, they were soon transferred to the pot. Elk
steaks and an Irish stew, the latter to be made of elk
chops, onions and the prized yams ; this was the bill
of fare expected. But, misericordia ! what a change
came over the yams when boiled ! they turned a beau-
tiful slate color, and looked like imitations of their
former selves in lead.
Their appearance was uncommonly bad, certainly.
There were three of us to feed upon them, viz., Palli-
ser, my huntsman Benton and myself. No one wish-
ing to be first, it was then, I confess, that the thought
just crossed my mind that Benton should make the
experiment, but, repenting at the same moment, I pun-
ished myself by eating a very little one on the spot.
Benton, who was blessed with a huge appetite, picked
out a big one. Greedy fellow, to choose the largest ?
but, n'importe, it brought its punishment.
Palliser and I having eaten carefully, were just be-
ginning to feel uncomfortable, when up jumped Ben-
ton, holding his throat with both hands, crying, " My
throat's full of pins. I'm choked."
" We are poisoned, no doubt of it," said Palliser, in
26
302 EigJit dears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
his turn. "I am choking likewise." "So am I.'
There we wei - e all three, with our throats in an extraor-
dinary state of sudden contraction and inflammation,
with a burning and pricking sensation, in addition to a
feeling of swelling and stoppage of the windpipe.
Having nothing but brandy at hand, we dosed largely
instanter, and in the course of ten minutes we found
relief; but Benton, having eaten his large yam, was
the last to recover.
There must have been highly poisonous qualities in
this root, as the quantity eaten was nothing in propor-
tion to the effects produced. It is well known that
many roots are poisonous when raw (especially the
manioc), which become harmless when cooked, as the
noxious properties consist of a very volatile oil, which
is thrown off during the process of boiling. These
wild yams must necessarily be still worse in their raw
state ; and it struck me, after their effects became
known, that I had never seen them grubbed up by the
wild hogs ; this neglect being a sure proof of their un-
fitness for food.
In these Augora patinas a curious duel was lately
fought by a pair of wild "bull elephants, both of whom
were the rarce a-ves of Ceylon, " tuskers." These two
bulls had consorted with a herd, and had no doubt
quarreled about the possession of the females. They
accordingly fought it out to the death, as a large tusker
was found recently killed, with his body bored in many
directions by his adversary's tusks, the ground in the
vicinity being trodden down with elephant tracks prov-
ing the obstinacy of the fight.
The last time that I was in this locality poor old
Bluebeard was alive, and had been performing feats in
Fatality The Totapella Plains. 303
elk-hunting which no dog could surpass. A few weeks
later and he ran his last elk, and left a sad blank in the
pack.
Good and bad luck generally come in turn ; but when
the latter does pay a visit, it falls rather heavily, especi-
ally among the hounds. In one year I lost nearly the
whole pack. Seven died in one week from an attack
upon the brain, appearing in a form fortunately un-
known in England. In the same year I lost no less
than four of the best hounds by leopards, in addition
to a fearful amount of casualties from other causes.
Shortly after the appearance of the epidemic alluded
to, I took the hounds to the Totapella Plains for a fort-
night, for change of air, while their kennel was purified
and re-whitewashed.
In these Totapella Plains I had a fixed encampment,
which, being within nine miles of my house, I could
visit at any time with the hounds, without the slightest
preparation. There was an immense number of elk
in this part of the country ; in fact this was a great
drawback to the hunting, as two or more were con-
stantly on foot at the same time, which divided the
hounds and scattered them in all directions. This made
hard work of the sport, as this locality is nothing but a
series of ups and downs. The plains, as they are
termed, are composed of some hundred grassy hills, of
about a hundred feet elevation above the river ; these
rise like half oranges in every direction, while a high
chain of precipitous mountains walls in one side of
the view. Forest-covered hills abound in the centre
and around the skirts of the plains, while a deep river
winds in a circuitous route between the grassy hills.
My encampment was well chosen in this romantic
304 Eight Tears' Wandering's in Ceylon.
spot. It was a place where you might live all your
life without seeing a soul except a wandering bee-hunter,
or a native sportsman who had ventured up from the
low country to shoot an elk.
Surrounded on all sides but one with steep hills, my
hunting settlement lay snugly protected from the wind
in a little valley. A small jungle about a hundred
yards square grew at the base of one of these grassy
hills, in which, having cleared the underwood for about
forty yards, I left the larger trees standing, and erected
my huts under their shelter at the exact base of the
knoll. This steep rise broke off into an abrupt cliff
about sixty yards from my tent, against which the river
bad-waged constant war, and, turning in an endless
vortex, had worn a deep hole, before it shot off in a
rapid torrent from the angle, dashing angrily over the
rocky masses which had fallen from the overhanging
cliff, and coming to a sudden rest in a broad deep pool
within twenty yards of the tent door.
This was a delicious spot. Being snugly hidden in
the jungle, there was no sign of my encampment from
the plain, except the curling blue smoke which rose
from the little hollow. A plot of grass of some two
acres formed the bottom of the valley before my habi-
tation, at the extremity of which the river flowed,
backed on the opposite side by an abrupt hill covered
with forest and jungle.
This being a chilly part of Ceylon, I had thatched
the walls of my tent, and made a good gridiron bed-
stead, to keep me from the damp ground, by means of
forked upright sticks, two horizontal bars and numer-
ous cross-pieces. This was covered with six inches'
thickness of grass, strapped down with the bark of a
Bluebeard's Last Hunt. 305
fibrous shrub. My table and bench were formed in the
same manner, being of course fixtures, but most sub-
stantial. The kitchen, huts for attendants and kennel
were close adjoining. I could have lived there all my
life in fine weather. I wish I was there now with all
my heart. However, I had sufficient bad luck on my
last visit to have disgusted most people. Poor Match-
less, who was as good as her name implied, died of
inflammation of the lungs ; and I started one morning in
very low spirits at her loss, hoping to cheer myself up
by a good hunt.
It was not long before old Bluebeard's opening note
was heard high upon the hill-tops ; but, at the same
time, a portion of the pack had found another elk,
which, taking an opposite direction, of course divided
them. Being determined to stick to Bluebeard to the
last, I made straight through the jungle toward the
point at which I had heard a portion of the pack join
him, intending to get upon their track and follow up.
This I soon did ; and after running for some time
through the jungle, which, being young " nillho," was
unmistakably crushed by the elk and hounds, I came
to a capital though newly-made path, as a single ele-
phant, having been disturbed by the cry of the hounds,
had started off at full speed ; and the elk and hounds,
naturally choosing the easiest route through the jungle,
had kept upon his track. This I was certain of, as the
elk's print sunk deep in that of the elephant, whose
dung, lying upon the spot, was perfectly hot.
I fully expected that the hounds would bring the ele-
phant to bay, which is never pleasant when you are
without a gun ; however, they did not, but, sticking to
their true game, they went straight away toward the
26* U
306 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
chain of mountains at the end of the plain. The river,
in making its exit, is checked by abrupt precipices, and
accordingly makes an angle and then descends a ravine
toward the low country.
I felt sure, from the nature of the ground and the
direction of the run, that the elk would come to bay in
this ravine ; and, after half an hour's run, I was de-
lighted, on arriving on the hill above, to hear the bay
of the hounds in the river far below.
The jungle was thick and tangled, but it did not take
long to force my way down the steep mountain side,
and I neared the spot and heard the splashing in the
river, as the elk, followed by the hounds, dashed across
just before I came in view. He had broken his bay ;
and, presently, I again heard the chorus of voices as he
once more came to a stand a few hundred paces down
the river.
The bamboo was so thick that I could hardly break
my way through it ; and I was crashing along toward
the spot, when suddenly the bay ceased, and shortly
after some of the hounds came hurrying up to me
regularly scared. Lena, who seldom showed a symptom
of fear, dashed up to me in a state of great excitement,
with the deep scores of a leopard's claws on her hind-
quarters. Only two couple of the hounds followed on
the elk's track ; the rest were nowhere.
The elk had doubled back, and I saw old Bluebeard
leading upon the scent up the bank of the river, fol-
lowed by three other hounds.
The surest, although the hardest work, was to get on
the track and follow up through the jungle. This I
accordingly did for about a mile, at which distance I
arrived at a small swampy plain in the centre of the
Death among the Dogs. 307
jungle. Here, to my surprise, I saw old Bluebeard
sitting up. and looking faint, covered with blood, with
no other dog within view. The truth was soon known
upon examination. No less than five holes were cut
in his throat by a leopard's claws ; and by the violent
manner in which the poor dog strained and choked, I
felt sure that the windpipe was injured. There was no
doubt that he had received the stroke at the same time
that Lena was wounded beneath the rocky mountain
when the elk was at bay ; and nevertheless, the staunch
old dog had persevered in the chase till the difficulty of
breathing brought him to a standstill. I bathed the
wounds, but I knew it was his last day, poor old
fellow !
I sounded the bugle for a few minutes, and having
collected some of the scattered pack I returned to the
tent, leading the wounded dog, whose breathing Yapidly
became more difficult. I lost no time in fomenting
and poulticing the part, but the swelling had com-
menced to such an extent that there was little hope of
recovery.
This was a dark day for the pack. Benton returned
in the afternoon from a search for the missing hounds,
and, as he descended the deep hill-side on approaching
the tent, I saw that he and a native were carrying
something slung upon a pole. At first I thought it
was an elk's head, which the missing hounds might
have run to bay, but on his arrival the worst was soon
known.
It was poor Leopold, one of my best dogs. He was
all but dead, with hopeless wounds in his throat and
belly. He had been struck by a leopard within a few
yards of Benton's side, and, with his usual pluck, the
308 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
dog turned upon the leopard in spite of his wounds,
when the cowardly brute, seeing the man, turned and
fled.
That night Leopold died. The next morning Blue-
beard was so bad that I returned home with him slung
in a litter between two men. Poor fellow ! he never
lived to reach his comfortable kennel, but died in the
litter within a mile of home. \ had him buried by the
side of old Smut, and there are no truer dogs on the
earth than the two that there lie together.
A very few weeks after Bluebeard's death, however,
I got a taste of revenge out of one of the race.
Palliser and I were out shooting, and we found a
single bull elephant asleep in the dry bed of a stream ;
we were stealing quietly up to him, when his guardian
spirit whispered something in his ear, and up he jumped.
However, we polished him off, and having reloaded,
we passed on.
The country consisted of low, thorny jungle and small
sandy plains of short turf, and we were just entering
one of these open spots within a quarter of a mile of
of the dead elephant, when we observed a splendid
leopard crouching at the far end of the glade. He was
about ninety paces from us, lying broadside on, with
his head turned to the opposite direction, evidently
looking out for game. His crest was bristled up with
excitement, and he formed a perfect picture of beauty
both in color and attitude.
Halting our gun-bearers, we stalked him within sixty
yards : he looked quickly round, and his large hazel
eyes shone full upon us, as the two rifles made one re-
port, and his white belly lay stretched upon the ground.
They were both clean shots : Palliser had aimed at
Leopard Shot. 309
his head, and had cut off one ear and laid the skin open
at the back of the neck. My ball had smashed both
shoulders, but life was not fairly extinct. We therefore
strangled him with my necktie, as I did not wish to
spoil his hide by any further wound. This was a
pleasing sacrifice to the " manes" of old Bluebeard.
E. Palliser had at one time the luck to have a fair
turn up with a leopard with the dogs and hunting-
knife. At that time he kept a pack at Dimboola, about
nine miles from my house. Old Bluebeard belonged
to him, and he had a fine dog named " Pirate," who
was the heaviest and best of his seizers.
He was out hunting with two or three friends, when
suddenly a leopard sprang from the jungle at one of
the smaller hounds as they were passing quietly along
a forest path. Halloaing the pack on upon the instant,
every dog gave chase, and a short run brought him to
bay in the usual place of refuge, the boughs of a tree.
However, it so happened that there was a good sup-
ply of large sharp stones upon the soil, and with these
the whole party kept up a spirited bombardment*, until
at length one lucky shot hit him on the head, and at
the same moment he fell or jumped into the middle of
the pack. Here Pirate came to the front in grand
style and collared him, while the whole pack backed
him up without an exception.
There was a glorious struggle of course, which was
terminated by the long arm of our friend Palliser, who
slipped the hunting-knife into him and became a win-
ner. This is the only instance that I know of a leop-
ard being run into and killed with hounds and a knife.
CHAPTER XIII.
WILD DENIZENS OF FOREST AND LAKE DESTROYERS OF REP-
TILES THE TREE DUCK THE MYSTERIES OF NIGHT IN
THE FOREST THE DEVIL-BIRD THE IGUANODON IN MIN-
IATURE OUTRIGGER CANOES THE LAST GLIMPSE OF
CEYLON A GLANCE AT OLD TIMES.
ONE of the most interesting objects to a tourist in
Ceylon is a secluded lake or tank in those jungle
districts which are seldom disturbed by the white man.
There is something peculiarly striking in the wonderful
number of living creatures which exist upon the pro-
ductions of the water. Birds of infinite variety and
countless numbers fish in myriads reptiles and croco-
diles animals that feed upon the luxuriant vegetation
of the shores insects which sparkle in the sunshine in
every gaudy hue ; all these congregate in the neighbor-
hood of these remote solitudes, and people the lakes
with an incalculable host of living beings.
In such a scene there is scope for much delightful
study of the habits and natures of wild animals, where
they can be seen enjoying their freedom unrestrained
by the fear of man.
Often have I passed a quiet hour on a calm evening
when the sun has sunk low on the horizon, and the
cool breeze has stolen across the water, refreshing all
310
Wild Denizens pf Forest and Lake, 311
animal life. Here, concealed beneath the shade of
some large tree., I have watched the masses of living
things quite unconscious of such scrutiny. In one spot
the tiny squirrel nibbling the buds on a giant limb of
the tree above me, while on the opposite shore a ma-
jestic bull elephant has commenced his evening bath,
showering the water above his head and trumpeting
his loud call to the distant herd. Far away in the
dense jungles the ringing sound is heard, as the answer-
ing females return the salute and slowly approach the
place of rendezvous. One by one their dark forms
emerge from the thorny coverts and loom large upon
the green but distant shores, and they increase their
pace when they view the coveted water, and belly-deep
enjoy their evening draught.
The graceful axis in dense herds quit the screening
jungle and also seek the plain. The short, shrill barks
of answering bucks sound clearly across the surface of
the lake, and indistinct specks begin to appear on the
edge of the more distant forests. Now black patches
are dotted about the plain ; now larger objects, some
single and some in herds, make toward the water. The
telescope distinguishes the vast herds of hogs busy in
upturning the soil in search of roots, and the ungainly
buffaloes, some in herds and others single bulls, all
gathering at the hour of sunset toward the water.
Peacocks spread their gaudy plumage to the cool eve-
ning air as they strut over the green plain ; the giant
crane stands statue-like among the shallows ; the peli-
can floats like a ball of snow upon the dark water ;
and ducks and waterfowl of all kinds splash, and dive,
and scream in a confused noise, the volume of which
explains their countless numbers.
312 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
Foremost among the waterfowl for beauty is the
water-pheasant. He is generally seen standing upon
the broad leaf of a lotus, pecking at the ripe seeds and
continually uttering his plaintive cry, like the very dis-
tant note of a hound. This bird is most beautifully
formed, and his peculiarity of color is well adapted to
his shape. He is something like a cock pheasant in
build and mode of carriage, but he does not exceed the
size of a pigeon. His color is white, with a fine brown
tinsel glittering head and long tail ; the wings of the
cock bird are likewise ornamented with similar brown
tinsel feathers. These birds are delicious eating, but I
seldom fire at them, as they are generally among the
lotus plants in such deep water that I dare not venture
to get them on account of crocodiles. The lotus seeds,
which they devour greedily, are a very good substitute
for filberts, and are slightly narcotic.
The endless variety of the crane is very interesting upon
these lonely shores. From the giant crane, who stands
nearly six feet high, down to the smallest species of
paddy bird, there is a numerous gradation. Among
these the gaunt adjutant stands conspicuous as he stalks
with measured steps through the high rushes, now
plunging his immense bill into the tangled sedges, then
triumphantly throwing back his head with a large snake
writhing helplessly in his horny beak ; open fly the
shear-like hinges of his bill one or two sharp jerks
and down goes one half of an incredibly large snake ;
another jerk and a convulsive struggle of the snake ;
one more jerk snap, snap goes the bill and the snake
has disappeared, while the adjutant again stalks quietly
on, as though nothing had happened. Down goes his
bill, presently, with a sudden start, and again his head
Game J3irds. 313
is thrown back ; but this time it is the work of a mo-
ment, as it is only an iguana, which not being above
eighteen inches long, is easy swallowing.
A great number of the crane species are destroyers
of snakes, which in a country so infested with vermin
as Ceylon renders them especially valuable. Peacocks
likewise wage perpetual war with all kinds of reptiles,
and Nature has wisely arranged that where these nui-
sances most abound there is a corresponding provision
for their destruction.
Snipes, of course, abound in their season around the
margin of the lakes ; but the most delicious birds for
the table are the teal and ducks, of which there are
four varieties. The largest duck is nearly the size of a
wild goose, and has a red, fatty protuberance about the
beak very similar to a muscovy. The teal are the fat-
test and most delicious birds that I have ever tasted.
Cooked in Soyer's magic stove, with a little butter, ca-
yenne pepper, a squeeze of lime juice, a pinch of salt,
and a spoonful of Lea and Perrins' Worcester sauce
(which, by the by, is the best in the world for a hot
climate), and there is no bird like a Ceylon teaL They
are very numerous, and I have seen them in flocks of
some thousands on the salt-water lakes on the eastern
coast, where they are seldom or ever disturbed. Never-
theless, they are tolerably wary, which, of course, in-
creases the sport of shooting them. I have often
thought what a paradise these lakes would have made
for the veteran Colonel Hawker with his punt gun.
He might have paddled about and blazed away to his
heart's content.
There is one kind of duck that would undoubtedly
have astonished him, and which would have slightly
27
314 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
bothered the punt gun for an elevation : this is the tree
duck, which flies about and perches in the branches of
the lofty trees like any nightingale. This has an absurd
effect, as a duck looks entirely out of place in such a
situation. I have seen a whole cluster of them sitting
on one branch, and when I first observed them I killed
three at one shot to make it a matter of certainty.
It is a handsome light brown bird, about the size of
an English widgeon, but there is no peculiar formation
in the feet to enable them to cling to a bough ; they are
bondjide ducks with the common flat web foot.
A very beautiful species of bald-pated coot, called by
the natives keetoolle, is also an inhabitant of the lakes.
This bird is of a bright blue color with a brilliant pink
horny head. He is a slow flyer, being as bulky as a
common fowl and short in his proportion of wing.
It is impossible to convey a correct idea of the number
and variety of birds in these localities, and I will not
trouble the reader by a description which would be very
laborious to all parties ; but to those who delight in
ornithological studies there is a wild field which would
doubtless supply many new specimens.
I know nothing more interesting than the acquaint-
ance with all the wild denizens of mountain and plain,
lake and river. There is always something fresh to
learn, something new to admire, in the boundless works
of creation. There is a charm in every sound in Nature
where the voice of man is seldom heard to disturb her
works. Every note gladdens the ear in the stillness of
solitude, when night has overshadowed the earth, and
all sleep but the wild animals of the forest. Then I have
often risen from my bed, when the tortures of mosquitoes
have banished all ideas of rest, and have silently wan
Mysteries of Night in the Forest. 315
dered from the tent to listen in the solemn quiet of
night.
I have seen the tired coolies stretched round the
smouldering fires sound asleep after their day's march,
wrapped in their white clothes, like so many corpses
laid upon the ground. The flickering logs on the great
pile of embers crackling and sinking as they'consume ;
now falling suddenly and throwing up a shower of
sparks, then resting again in a dull red heat, casting a
silvery moonlike glare upon the foliage of the spread-
ing trees above. A little farther on, and the horses
standing sleepily at their tethers, their heads drooping
in a doze. Beyond them, and all is darkness and wil-
derness. No human dwelling or being beyond the little
encampment I have quitted ; the dark lake reflecting
the stars like a mirror, and the thin crescent moon giv-
ing a pale and indistinct glare which just makes night
visible.
It is a lovely hour then to wander forth and wait for
wild sounds. All is still except the tiny hum of the
mosquitoes. Then the low chuckling note of the night
hawk sounds soft and melancholy in the distance ; and
again all is still, save the heavy and impatient stamp of
a horse as the mosquitoes irritate him by their bites.
Quiet again for a few seconds, when presently the loud
alarm of the plover rings over the plain "Did he do
it?" the bird's harsh cry speaks these words as plainly
as a human being. This alarm is a certain warning
that some beast is stalking abroad which has disturbed
it from its roost, but presently it is again hushed.
The loud hoarse bark of an elk now unexpectedly
startles the ear ; presently it is replied to by another,
and once more the plover shrieks " Did he do it?" and a
316 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
peacock waking on his roost gives one loud scream and
sleeps again.
The heavy and regular splashing of water now marks
the measured tread of a single elephant as he roams
out into the cooled lake, and you can hear the more
gentle falling of water as he spouts a shower over his
body. Hark at the deep guttural sigh of pleasure
that travels over the lake like a moan of the wind !
what giant lungs to heave such a breath ; but hark
again ! There was a fine trumpet ! as clear as any
bugle note blown by a hundred breaths it rung through
the still air. How beautiful ! There, the note is an-
swered ; not by so fine a tone, but by discordant screams
and roars from the opposite side, and the louder splash-
ing tells that the herd is closing up to the old bull.
Like distant thunder a deep roar growls across the lake
as the old monarch mutters to himself in angry impa-
tience.
Then the long, tremulous hoot of the owl disturbs
the night, mingled with the harsh cries of flights of
waterfowl, which doubtless the elephants have dis-
turbed while bathing.
Once more all sounds sink to rest for a few minutes,
until the low, grating roar of a leopard nearer home
warns the horses of their danger and wakes up the
sleeping horsekeeper, who piles fresh wood upon the
fires, and the bright blaze shoots up among the trees
and throws a dull, ruddy glow across the surface of
the water. And morning comes at length, ushered in,
before night has yet departed, by the strong, shrill cry
of the great fish-eagle, as he sits on the topmost bough
of some forest tree and at measured periods repeats his
quivering and unearthly yell like an evil spirit calling.
The Demi-Bird. 317
But hark at that dull, low note of indescribable pain
and suffering ! long and heavy it swells and dies away.
It is the devil-bird ; and whoever sees that bird must
surely die soon after, according to Cingalese super-
stition.
A more cheering sound charms the ear as the gray
tint of morning makes the stars grow pale ; clear, rich,
notes, now prolonged and full, now plaintive and low,
set the example to other singing birds, as the bulbul,
first to awake, proclaims the morning. Wild, jungle-
like songs the birds indulge in ; not like our steady
thrushes of Old England, but charming in their quaint-
ness. The jungle partridge now wakes up, and with
his loud cry subdues all other sounds, until the numer-
ous peacocks, perched on the high trees around the
lake, commence their discordant yells, which master
everything.
The name for the devil-bird is " gualama," and so
impressed are the natives with the belief that a sight
of it is equivalent to a call to the nether world that
they frequently die from sheer fright and nervousness.
A case of this happened to a servant of a friend of
mine. He chanced to see the creature sitting on a
bough, and he was from that moment so satisfied of
his inevitable fate that he refused all food, and fretted
and died, as, of course, any one else must do, if starved,
whether he saw the devil-bird or not.
Although I have heard the curious, mournful cry of
this creature nearly every night, I have never seen one ;
this is easily accounted for, as, being a night-bird, it
remains concealed in the jungle during the day. In so
densely wooded a country as Ceylon it is not to be
wondered at that owls, and all other birds of similar
27*
318 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
habits are so rarely met with. Even woodcocks are
rarely noticed ; so seldom, indeed, that I have never
seen more than two during my residence in the island.
From the same cause many interesting animals pass
unobserved, although they are very numerous. The
porcupine, although as common as the hedge-hog in
England, is very seldom seen. Likewise the manis, or
great scaled ant-eater, who retires to his hole before
break of day, is never met with by daylight. Indeed,
I have had some trouble in persuading many persons
in Ceylon that such an animal exists in the country.
In the same manner the larger kinds of serpents con-
ceal themselves by day and wander forth at night,, like
all other reptiles except the smaller species of lizard,
of which we have in Ceylon an immense variety,
from the crocodile himself down to the little house-
lizard.
Of this tribe the " cabra goya" and the " iguana"
grow to a large size ; the former I have killed as long
as eight or nine feet, but the latter seldom exceeds four.
I have often intended to eat one, as the natives consider
them a great delicacy, but I have never been quite
hungry enough to make the trial whenever one was at
hand. The " cabra goya" is a horrid brute, and is not
considered eatable even by the Cingalese.
One curious species of lizard exists in Ceylon ; it is
a little brown species with a peculiarly rough skin and
a serrated spine. A long horn projects from the snout,
and it is a fac-simile in miniature of the antediluvian
monster, the " iguanodon," who was about a hundred
feet long and twelve feet thick an awkward creature
to meet in a narrow road. However, the crocodiles of
modern times are awkward enough for the present day,
Outrigger Canoes. 310
and sometimes grow to the immense length of twenty-
two feet.
It has frequently surprised me that they dp not upset
the small canoes in which the natives paddle about the
lakes and rivers. These are formed in the simplest
maner, of very rude materials, by hollowing out a
small log of wood and attaching an outrigger. Some
of these are so small that the gunwale is close to the
water's edge when containing only one person.
Even the large sea-canoes are constructed on a simi-
lar principle ; but they are really very wonderful boats
for both speed and safety.
A simple log of about thirty feet in length is hollowed
out. This is tapered off at either end, so as to form a
kind of prow. The cylindrical shape of the log is pre-
served as much as possible in the process of hollowing,
so that no more than a section of one fourth of the
circle is pared away upon the upper side.
Upon the edges of this aperture the top sides of the
canoe are formed by simple planks, which are merely
sewn upon the main body of the log parallel to each
other, and slightly inclining outward, so as to admit
the legs of persons sitting on the canoe.
A vessel of this kind would of course capsize im-
mediately, as the top weight of the upper works would
overturn the flute-like body upon which they rested.
This is prevented by an outrigger, which is formed of
elastic rods of tough wood, which, being firmly bound
together, project at right angles from the upper works.
At the extremity of these two rods, there is a tapering
log of light wood, which very much resembles the bot-
tom log of the canoe in miniature. This, floating on
the water, balances the canoe in an upright position ; it
320 Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon.
cannot be upset until some force is exerted upon the
mast of the canoe which is either sufficient to lift the
outrigger out of the water, or on the other hand to sink
it altogether; either accident being prevented by the
great leverage required. Thus, when a heavy breeze
sends the little vessel flying like a swallow over the
waves, and the outrigger to windward shows symptoms
of lifting, a man runs out upon the connecting rod, and,
squatting upon the outrigger, adds his weight to the
leverage. Two long bamboos, spreading like a letter
V from the bottom of the canoe, form the masts, and
support a single square sail, which is immensely large
in proportion to the size and weight of the vessel.
The motion of these canoes under a stiff breeze is
most delightful ; there is a total absence of rolling,
which is prevented by the outrigger, and the steadiness
of their course under a press of sail is very remarkable.
I have been in these boats in a considerable surf, which
they fly through like a fish ; and if the beach is sandy
and the inclination favorable, their own impetus will
carry them high and dry.
Sewing the portions of a boat together appears ill
adapted to purposes of strength ; but all the Cingalese
vessels are constructed upon this principle : the two
edges of the planks being brought together, a strip of
the areca palm stem is laid over the joints, and holes
being drilled upon each plank, the sewing is drawn
tightly over the lath of palm, which being thickly
smeared with a kind of pitch, keeps the seams per-
fectly water-tight. The native dhonies, which are ves-
sels of a hundred and fifty tons, are all fastened in this
simple and apparently fragile manner ; nevertheless
they are excellent sea-boats, and ride in safety through
The Last Glimpse of Ceylon. 321
many a gale of wind. The first moving .object which
met my view on arrival within sight of Ceylon was an
outrigger canoe, which shot past our vessels as if we had
been at anchor.
The last object that my eyes rested on, as the
cocoa-nut trees of Ceylon faded from sight, was again
the native canoe which took the last farewell lines to
those who were left behind. Upon this I gazed till it
became a gray speck upon the horizon and the green
shores of the Eastern paradise faded from my eyes for
ever.
******
How little did I imagine, when these pages were
commenced in Ceylon, that their conclusion would be
written in England !
An unfortunate shooting trip to one of the most un-
healthy parts of the country killed my old horse
"Jack," one coolie, and very nearly extinguished me,
rendering it imperative that I should seek a change of
climate in England. And what a dream-like change
it is ! past events appear unreal, and the last few
years seem to have escaped from the connecting chain
of former life. Scarcely can I believe in the bygone
days of glorious freedom, when I wandered through
that beautiful country, unfettered by the laws or cus-
toms of conventional life.
The white cliffs of Old England rose hazily on the
horizon, and greeted many anxious eyes as the vessel
rushed proudly on with her decks thronged with a liv-
ing freight, all happy as children in the thoughts of
home. The sun shone brightly and gave a warm wel-
come on our arrival ; and as the steamer moored along-
side the quay, an hour sufficed to scatter the host of
V
322 Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon.
passengers who had so closely dwelt together, as com-
pletely as the audience of a theatre when the curtain falls.
That act of life is past ''exeunt omnes," and a new
scene commences. We are in England.
A sudden change necessarily induces a comparison,
and I imagine there are few who have dwelt much
among the Tropics who do not acquire a distaste for the
English climate, and look back with lingering hopes to
the verdant shores they have left so far behind. The
recollection of absent years, which seem to have been
the summer of life, makes the chill of the present feel
doubly cold, and our thoughts still cling to the past,
while we strive against the belief that we never can re-
call those days again.
How, as my thoughts wander back to former scenes,
every mountain and valley reappears in the magic glass
of memory ! Every rock and dell, every old twisted
stem, every dark ravine and wooded cliff, the distant
outlines of the well-known hills, the jungle-paths known
to my eye alone, and the far, still spots where I have
often sat in solitude and pondered over the events of
life, and conjured up the faces of those so far away,
doubtful if we should ever meet again. Thus even now
I picture to myself the past ; and so vivid is the scene
that I can almost hear the fancied roar of the old water-
falls, and see the shadowy tints which the evening sun
throws upon the tree-tops. My old home rises before
me like a dissolving view, and I can see the very spot
where it was my delight to live, where a warm welcome
awaited every friend. And lastly, the faces of those
friends seem clear before me, and bring back the asso-
ciations of old times. Those who have shared in com-
mon many of these scenes I trust to meet again, and
A Glance at Old Times. 323
look back upon the events of former days as landscapes
on the road of life that we have viewed together.
For me Ceylon has always had a charm, and I shall
ever retain a vivid interest in the colony.
I trust that a new and more prosperous era has now
commenced, and that Ceylon, having shaken off the in-
cubus of mismanagement, may, under the rule of a
vigorous and enterprising governor, arrive at that pros-
perity to which she is entitled by her capabilities.
The governor recently appointed (Sir H. Ward) has
a task before him which his well-known energy will
doubtless enable him to perform.
THE END
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