4 \ --»- :^ V ^f 4- FUNDAMENTALS OF FRENCH GRAMMAR WITH ILLUSTRATIVE TEXTS, EXERCISES, AND VOCABULARIES FOR USE IN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES WILLIAM B. SNOW Officier d' Academie Head of the Department of Romance Languages English High School, Boston, Mass. NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1912 Copyright, 1912, HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY y c -r « THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. PREFACE A quarter-century of teaching has convinced the author that the value of a text-book generally varies inversely as its size. His original question was therefore not what could be put into an elementary French grammar, but what might reasonably be omitted. He had before his eyes more than one unhappy example of books spoiled for the class-room by the excess of their excellences. "Abundant exercises" have in some cases so multiplied that, with our time-limitations, the reader, which should be the center of our instruction, is crowded out, and grammar is mistress instead of handmaiden. This book is planned to give the help required in connection with reading or writing, and is intended to furnish that help as need thereof is likely to be felt. Exercises and illustrations are believed to be sufficiently numerous to explain and fix principles, without being too extensive for careful study in the time that should be ap- portioned to the grammar. For each topic, not all possi- ble forms of exercises, but the kinds thought best suited to that topic, have been provided. The best supplemen- tary exercises are those based on the text read by each class. Teachers, however, who wish to do intensive work in connection with the grammar will find a classified col- lection of substantial drill material on pages 147 to 192. Arrangement is at first inductive, examples preceding rules; later, deductive. A considerable portion of Chap- ters VI and VII should be omitted by beginners, but is iii 250987 IV PREFACE inserted to make the book adequate for advanced work in secondary schools or for most classes in colleges. The question of phonetic tji^e is solved by putting it at the bottom of the page, where those who wish it can find it easily, and those who object to it need not look at it. An especial feature of the book is the presentation of the verb, which the author has tested for many j^ears, teaching by tenses instead of by conjugations, and giving tenses in the order of their importance. Useful synoptic tables are given on pages 193 to 201; but the complete tables of conjugation and translation found in many books are directly opposed to the author's belief that one should not do for a pupil what the latter can profitablj^ do for himself; and long experience, both with and with- out complete paradigms, has proved conclusively that they are a positive injury to the pupil, and that far better results are obtained when, from the beginning, the pupil learns most forms as derived in accordance with a few simple rules, and then concentrates his attention on the exceptions. Another conviction, based on both theory and expe- rience, is that irregular forms, being the commonest and most useful words, should be attacked early and mastered while one form is as easy to memorize as another, before an established analogy impels the mind to reject such forms as faites, vont, or tiennent. Prepositions are given a fullness of treatment which it is hoped will be welcome in view of the great importance and difficulty of the subject. A page or two on word- order, that prime essential in expressing or comprehend- ing delicate shades of thought, may be illuminating to some readers. PREFACE V The author's obligation to several well-known grammars will be apparent and is gratefully acknowledged. His thanks are also due to his colleagues Charles P. Lebon, who has made many valuable suggestions and corrections, Peter F. Gartland, who has read proof, and James E. O'Neil, who has assisted with the vocabularies. W. B. S. Boston, April 6, 1912. Digitized by tlie Internet Arcliive in 2008 witli funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcli ive.org/details/fundamentalsoffrOOsnowricli CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE The Parts of Speech, §1 1 Letters and Their Sounds, §2 2 Vowels, §§ 3-11 2 Syllables, §§ 12-14 5 Nasal vowels, § 15 7 Consonants, § 16 8 Liaison, § 17 10 Phonetic alphabet, § 18 11 Chapter I SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR MOST FREQUENT SUBORDINATES Definite nouns; masculine and feminine, §§ 19-20 13 Feminine of adjectives, §§ 21-23 13 Special forms before vowels, EUsion, § 24; ce, cet, beau, bel, etc., § 25 15 Plurals of nouns and adjectives, §§ 26-31 16 Contracted forms; pronoun ce, §§ 29, 30 18 Possessive adjectives, § 32 19 Indefinite and partitive constructions, §§ 33-37 20 Chapter II FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS Primitive tenses; stem and ending, §§ 38-40 23 Present indicative singular, § 41; subject pronouns, § 42 . . . 25 Present indicative plural, §§ 43, 44 26 Vowel-strengthening, §§ 45, 46 27 Y and i, § 47; c and g, cedilla, § 48 29 Noteworthy forms of present indicative, § 49 30 vii VlU CONTENTS PAGE Imperative, § 50 31 Interrogative forms, §§ 51-53 33 Negation, § 54 34 Chapter III PRONOUNS Personal pronouns, § 55 35 Direct and indirect objects, § 56 36 Disjunctive or stressed pronouns, § 57 37 Position of objective pronouns, § 58 37 Reflexive pronouns, §§ 59, 60 38 Y and en, § 61 39 Invariable le, § 62 40 Two objective pronouns, §§ 63-65 41 Possessive pronouns, § 66 43 Demonstrative pronouns, §§ 67-71 45 Relative pronouns, §§ 72-80 48 Interrogative pronouns, §§ 81-83 53 Indefinites, §§ 84-89 56 Chapter IV PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE Past indefinite, §§ 90-92 61 Imperfect, §§ 93-95 63 Past definite, §§ 96, 97 64 Future, §§ 98-101 68 Compound tenses, §§ 102-104 71 Passive voice, §§ 105-107 73 Chapter V VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE Infinitive, §§ 108, 109 75 Participles (gerund), §§ 110-113 76 Conditional, §§ 114-116 79 Subjunctive, §§ 117-125 82 CONTENTS ix Chapter VI MORE ABOUT SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES PAGB Gender, §§ 126-129 89 Invariable forms, §§ 130, 131 93 Agreement of adjectives, § 132 94 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs, §§ 133-135 94 Use of the articles, §§ 136, 137 96 Word-order, § 138 98 Cardinal numbers, § 139 100 Ordinals, § 140; collectives, § 141; fractions, § 142 102 Time, § 143; dates and titles, § 144 104 Age, § 145 105 Dimension, § 146 106 Ce and U, § 147 107 Predicate le, § 148; le plus, § 149 108 En for English possessive adjective, § 150 109 Chapter VII MORE ABOUT VERBS Inversion, §§ 151, 152 110 Agreement, §§ 153-155 Ill Government, § 156 112 Complement, §§ 157-162 113 Special uses of future, §§ 163, 164 116 Special uses of conditional, §§ 165-168 116 Imperative, §§ 169, 170 118 Difficulties of the subjunctive, §§ 171-175 119 Infinitive, §§ 176-178 121 Participles, §§ 179, 180 122 Impersonal verbs, §§ 181-186 123 Chapter VIII UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH Adverbs Position, § 187 125 Derivation, §§ 188-190; comparison, § 191 126 X CONTENTS PAQB Non, oui, si, §§ 192-195; ne, §§ 196-198 127 The prefix au, § 199; davftntage, § 200; only, § 201 ... 131 Prepositions A, §§ 202-206 132 Avant, devant, § 207; avec, § 208 134 Chez, § 209; dans, en, § 210 135 De, §§ 211-216 136 Envers, vers, § 217 137 Pour, § 218; special uses of prepositions, § 219 138 Repetition of prepositions, § 220 139 Prepositional phrases, § 221 140 Conjunctions Conjunctions requiring the subjunctive, § 222 140 Ni, § 223; quand and lorsque, § 224 141 Tandis que, pendant que, § 225; depuis que, puisque, § 226 141 Distinction between conjunctions and prepositions, § 227 142 Que, §§ 228, 229 142 Interjections, § 230 142 Comme, comment, § 231 143 Abbreviations, § 232 143 TEXTS AND EXERCISES Selections from French history (adapted from Lavisse) I. Jeanne d'Arc. (Articles and partitives) 147 II. Les trois Etats. (Possessives and demonstratives) 150 III. Frangois Premier. (Interrogatives and compara- tives) 152 IV. Hemi Quatre. (Disjunctive personals and rela- tives) 154 V. Louis Quatorze. (Two objective personal pronouns — past participles) 156 VI. Louis Quinze. (Future and conditional) .... 159 VII. La Revolution. (Subjunctive mode) 162 VIII. Napoleon. (Subjunctives and infinitives) .... 164 Noiraud 168 Exercises based on Noiraud 176 CONTENTS XI PAGE La demiere Classe 183 Exercises based on La demiere Classe (especially for the subjunctive) 188 Essential Verb-Forms 193 Index to Irregular Verbs 198 Synopsis of Inflected Forms 201 French-English Vocabulary 203 English-French Vocabulary 240 Index 263 FKENCH GEAMMAE INTRODUCTION I.— THE PARTS OF SPEECH 1. Language, like thought, deals with things and acts. Hence words are: stantives, Nouns Les noms (a) Their substitutes, Pronouns Les pronoms (6) Their modifiers, Adjectives Les adjectifs (c) Their Hnk-words, which introduce them. Prepositions Les prepositions II. Act- words, or words that predicate. Verbs Les verbes (o) Their modifiers. Adverbs Les adverbes (6) Their link-words. which introduce them, Conjunctions Les conjonctions The adjectives a, an, and the have the special name Articles Les articles Certain cries, independent of the sentence struc- ture, expressing feeling rather than thought, are called Interjections Les interjections ^ INTRODUCTION Adverbs are used also to modify adjectives or other adverbs. Conjunctions are used to connect any two words or word-groups that have the same sjmtax (construction), as such expressions always imply two coordinate clauses: John and Henry came implies John came and Henry came. To know what part of speech a word is, ask what it does, or what its "function" is, in the sentence. II.— LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS The French names for the letters of the alphabet a a h ache u u b be i i P P6 V ve c c6 J ji q ku w double v6 d de k ka r crre X Iks e 6(e) 1 elle s esse y i grec f effe m emrae t te z zede g g^ n enne 3. Six of these represent vowel sounds, the relation of which to one another and to the nearest English sounds appears from the following table, in which letters at the top represent sounds made with the lower jaw up, hence the mouth nearly closed; the lower the letter, the lower the jaw, hence the wider the mouth opening. Letters at the left represent sounds articulated at the front of the mouth; those at the right represent back vowels, i.e. vowels made with the highest part of the tongue at the back of the mouth. The vowel triangle on the opposite page gives the typical vowel sounds of French, with diagrams indicating lip outlines, round for back vowels, elongated for front vowels. LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS Front Vowels Front-Round Vowels Back Vowels '^" , , ' Lips rounded and pushed forward, "puckered." i (y) pire u pur ee E. peer {E. ee with lips rounded as for whistling) e bebe eu peu (Lips close) a E. baby ur, er E. further e mene e le e E. men e E. the boy € E. there ur E. cur e pere oe (eu) coeur (Lips open) a a E. pat a papa a a patte ou pour 00 E. poor 6 cote, peau E. cone o offrir^ E. not E. north o mort, Maure pate E. jar Front Front-Round ^i u Back O Oe oe o' \(eu) / O 1 Perhaps the nearest English equivalent is the sound often heard in obey or wholly, when the o is not given the long close sound of in holy, but is spoken short and somewhat open. 4 INTRODUCTION 4. As there are more sounds than letters, a sound is sometimes represented by a combination of two or more letters, as eu, ou, oeu. Other combinations are au = eau = 6, la peau; ai = e or e, allai, allais; ei = e, la reine. A letter may be made to represent different sounds by writing over it cUacritics called accents. Thus the acute accent (accent aigu) shows e to be pronounced with the mouth nearly closed, as in bebe; the grave accent (accent grave) shows e to l^e pronounced with the mouth rather widely open, as in mene, mere; the circumflex accent (accent circonflexe) generally shows a letter to be long, as in pate. Notice that open and close refer to mouth opening, while long and short refer to the time the sound is prolonged. 5. The vowels of a group shade insensibly into one another. Thus the e sounds shade from the open e of pere, through bete, mene, fletrir, to the close stressed e of bebe. Stress and lengthening intensify the character of a vowel, making open vowels more open and close vowels closer, e is generally long and open, while a, i, 6, and eu are generally long and close. The lips are rounded or "puckered" for the back and mid-vowels, except a, and are pushed farther and farther forward as the mouth closes; in the front vowels, the corners of the mouth are drawn back more and more as the mouth closes. 6. The muscles are tenser and their action prompter and more vigorous for French than for English vowels; especially the close vowels, i, u, ou, and e, should have this muscle-tension, or "narrouiiess." LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS 5 7. English long vowels often end in a glide or "vanish " caused by closing the mouth while the sound continues. Thus English a ends in an ee sound, and English o in an 00 sound. In French, such a glide is bad, and the utmost care must be taken to avoid any change in quality during the continuance of a vowel. 8. English has no sound like that of French u. This sound has the lip position of French ou, and the tongue and teeth in position for pronouncing French i. To make it, put the lips into the French ou position (close, as if for whistling) and without moving them try to pronounce French i. 9. An e having no written accent and coming at the end of a syllable is called e mute (e muet). It usually has the obscure sound given in rapid speech to the vowel of English the, as the boy, and often seems to vanish en- tirely, its syllable sounding like a part of the preceding syllable. A preceding consonant has cUstinct utterance. 10. y between two vowels is pronounced like French i-i, paya being pronounced pai-ia = pe-ia. 11. oi is a diphthong and is pronounced like French oua ; moi is pronounced moua ; toi, toua ; the stress coming on the a, and the ou short and semi-consonant, like a w. English mwah, twah, with short vowels. 13. Whenever possible, a syllable -vvill begin with a single consonant or with a consonant followed by an h, 1, n, or r with which the consonant blends in pronuncia- tion: a-ni-mal, mour-rai, per-du, res-te, ta-bleau, a-chat, pro-phete, a-gre-able, a-gneau, Sei-gneiu:. 6 INTRODUCTION In certain compound words, consonant groups occur that contain an s followed by one or more consonants. Usage is not uniform in dividing these words. We find con-spirer and cons-pirer, in-stniction and ins-tniction, de-scription and des-cription, ob-scurcir and obs-curcir, in-spirer and trans-pirer, abs-tenir and ob-stine, circon- spect and circons-pection, trans-fuge and atmo-sphere. Some printers follow the etymology, others the sound of the word. In writing, the s seems to go with the preced- ing syllable in a majority of cases, but in pronouncing it will be spoken with the syllable following. X is always written with the preceding vowel, ex-act; Ih is divided in writing, mal-heur, but blended in speak- ing, pronounce ma-leur. The dieresis (trema) indicates that its vowel begins a new syllable, hair, naif; or, if used over mute e, that a preceding u has its proper sound, aigue, ambigue, as distinguished from intrigue, figue, etc. 13. At the end of a syllable a consonant or group of consonants, except c, f, 1, and r, is generally silent, pied, trop, vous, dit, prix, pends, lac, bref, mil, fer. 14. French syllables must be spoken with smooth, even stress, the only ones slurred and indistinct being those whose vowel is mute e. The last pronounced sylla- ble of a word-group generally has increased stress, and is often lengthened. EXERCISE I Let the pupil pronounce after the teacher: Car, part; cave, lave, alpe, barbe, dalle, nappe, carafe, rapace. Poire, boire, noir, soir, noise, toise, boive, boite, soif, poil, voile, froide, moine, foi, loi, roi, toi, moi, ^moi. LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS 7 Mere, pere, frere, amer, ver, claire, taire; bete, tete, baisse, laisse, caisse, mele, chaine, seize, pese, bale, claie, taie, vrai; feve, greve, neige; belle, mene, cede, peine, aime; leste, celte, bee, dette, bref, messe, cesse. Alle, aUer, aUez, allai, cede, gai, aime, ble, frappe, bebe. Liste, dite, pipe, cycle, file, mille, figue, ligue, tigre; ami, fini, grive, cire, sire, dire, grise, mise, \'ise, lie, mie, manie. Pate, tasse, espace, pale, fable, sable, flanmie, base, vase, blame, mois, le bois, poids, trois, noix, poix. Or, dore, Maure, corde, force, golfe, froc, hotte, dot, cotte, robe, notre, colle, Paul, bonne, album, mauvais, restaurant. Cote, ote, notre, saute, aune, baume, zone, atome, fauve, dome, fosse, grosse, mauve, sauve, close, dose, rose, cause, pause, 6tau, eau, peau, seau, beau, aux, baux. Courte, lourde, bouc, broute, doute, coupe, touffe, mousse, douce, pousse, boule, coule, coude, couve, prouve, cou, fou, trou; boue, loue, clone, amour, four, tour, bourre, blouse, douze. Coeur, beurre, heure, soeur, peur, fleur; heurte, meurtre, peuple, neuf, veuf, oeuf, boeuf, aveugle. Bleu, feu, lieu, voeu, creuse, Meuse, berceuse, meute, neutre, bleus, voeux, veux, veut, affreux, deux, creux, oeufs, bceufs, feux. Buste, juste, culte, pulpe, turc, urne, due, nuque, brut, sucre, hutte, butte, dupe, russe, suce, nul, rude, fugue, tube, dune, lune, fume; nu, cru, rue, nue, use, buse, amuse, ruse, dure, pure, mtire, sure. 15. If, while pronouncing the open vowels, a, o, e, ce, we allow part of the air from the lungs to pass out by the nose, we get four sounds called nasal vowels. Nasal vowels are indicated by an n or m, not doubled, follomng a vowel in the same syllable, as, content, dans, hum-ble; but there is no nasal vowel in a-ni-mal, in-no-ver. The m or n is itself never to be pronounced, the sound of the vowel stopping before the mouth closes. The tilde, as in 5; O; is often used to show that the vowel under it is 8 INTRODUCTION to be made nasal. Compounds of en, also ennui and its derivatives, have the nasal vowel of French en even though m or n is double, as emmener, ennoblir, ennui. Nasal a (a) is written am, an, em, en. It is a little less open than a, approaching o : champ, an, sembler, tenter. Nasal (3) is written cm, on : nom, ton. Nasal CE (de) is written um, un : parfum, lundi. Nasal e (g) is written im, in, ym, yn: simple, fin, nymphe. It is also written en after i, y, or e, in words like bien, mien, rien, vient, tiendrai, Troyen, Europeen, lyceen; likewise in a few foreign words, as examen, Ben- jamin. To learn to make the nasal vowels well, with no trace of a consonant sound at the end, practise prolonging them as long as the breath holds out, keeping the sound steady, and stopping it before the mouth begins to close. 16. Accurate pronunciation of the vowels is the first essential for speaking French. Most of the consonants are so nearly like the English sounds represented by the same characters, that the substitution of the English sounds does not make what we say unintelligible to a Frenchman. The following points, however, require especial attention. Enunciation must be vigorous, muscle-action energetic, lips and tongue active, sounds clear-cut and definite. Linguo-dentals, that is, tongue-teeth sounds, have the tip of the tongue farther forward than in English. For t, d, I, n, in English, the tongue-tip usually touches the palate; in French it should press against the back of the upper teeth. In many words, il or ill has a sound resembling that of English y. This is called liquid I (1 mouillee). Pro- LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS 9 nounce in this way la fiUe, la feuille, la paille, la muraille, une abeille, une bouteille, une corbeille, meilleur, vieille, gentille, une aiguille, une coquille, une cuiller, juillet, Castille, un ceil, le seuil, le travail, un fauteuil, une gre- nouille, je chatouille. A sound called liquid n (n mouillee) is written gn. It is similar to 7ii or ny in English words like onion, ban- yan, but the tip of the tongue is on the bottom of the mouth against the lower teeth. Pronounce in this way digne, ignorant, magnifique, une ligne, Agnes, ignoble, un rognon, un compagnon, une compagne, la campagne, I'Allemagne, je soigne, je regne, je peigne, etc. „ b sounds like p before s or t, as, absurde, I'abstinence, j 'observe, j'obtiens, etc. c and g before front vowels (e, i, y) have the "soft" sounds like s in case and s in measure, respectively; before back vowels (a, o, u) they sound respectively hke k in kick and g in go. The cedilla is written under a c which is to have the soft sound before a, o, or u, as, plaf ant, nous forfons, il re^ut. ch is similar to English sh in show, but the lips protrude more and the sound is less explosive. Pronounce Charles chante une chanson en cherchant son capuchon. ch in a few words of Greek origin sounds like k, as Christ, chaos. j, always, and g, before a front vowel (e, i, y), sound like s in measure or z in azure, but the lips protrude more than in English. Pronounce je juge que le jeune Georges joue avec la jolie Jeanne. h is not sounded, but sometimes keeps words from run- ning together in pronunciation. It is then called as- pirate and is treated as a consonant, as in la hache, la haine, les halles, la harpe, des haricots, du heros, la 10 INTRODUCTION honte, ce homard, ce hibou, de grands hetres, Jean est en haut. qu sounds like k: qui, que; verj- rarely like kou, as in equateur, etc. r, when pronounced, must either be uvular or clearly trilled with tongue-tip well forward. s generally sounds as in say, but when between two vowels it has the sound of 2 in zone. Pronounce c'est six sous, ces six saucissons-ci ; Louise a plusieurs roses qu'elle a mises dans un vase. ti has the sound of si in many words where correspond- ing English words usually have the sound of sh or s, as, essentiel, ambitieux, un petiole, ime condition, la nation, l)gyptien, le Titien, une portion, TaristGcratie, la diploma- tie, I'inertie, je balbutie, etc. X is generally pronounced like ks: fixer, luxe; but the initial syllable ex preceding a vowel sounds like egz: exemple, exister. In soixante, Bruxelles, Aix-la-Chapelle, etc., x sounds like ss; and in deuxieme, dixieme, etc., it sounds like z. 17. Words that belong closely together in sense are often run together in pronunciation and sound like a single word. A final consonant is then pronounced with an initial vowel in the next word of the group. This is called liaison, "linking," as in des amis, cet animal. In liaison the sonants (voiced letters) d and g become surds (unvoiced) and sound like t and k, respectively, grand arbre, sang impur; while the surds f and x become sonant, and sound respectively like v and z, neuf ans, dix eleves. When final n of a nasal vowel is carried over, the vowel loses its nasality wholly or in part, men ami. Un- less aspirate, initial h does not prevent liaison. LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS 11 For further information about pronouncing French, the reader is re- ferred to some special book on pronunciation, among the best being : An Introduction to the Pronunciation of French, by PhiUp Hudson Churchman, to be had at. the Harvard Cooperative, Cambridge, Mass. ; Precis de Prononciation Frangaisc, by Rousselot and Laclotte, pubUshed in Paris by H. Welter; A Primer of French Pronunciation, by John E. Matzke, New York, Henry Holt and Company. EXERCISE n Pronounce after the teacher: En, dans, quand, sans, tant, cent, Caen, Jean, une dent, le temple, le camp, un franc, un membre, la patience, la science, une lampe, je rends, je vends, je tente, etc. Hein, \dn, vain, americain, simple, Reims, juin, loin, la faim, le chien, la main, le pain, I'index, le lin, le foin, le pin, je tiens, je pince, je vins, etc. Un emprunt, un lundi, chacun, quelqu'un, brun, humble, j'emprunte, etc. On, bon, ton, men, le lion, sent, font, plomb, Tombre, la bonte, le jonc, un pigeon, je romps, je compte, je fends, je conte, etc. 18. In representing sounds by printed characters, it is unfortunate that ordinary alphabets do not always use the same character for a given sound, nor does a given character always represent the same sound. This causes confusion, and in order to show more precisely and cer- tainly how words are pronounced, phonetic alphabets have been devised in which each character has always approx- imately the same sound. The characters of one such alphabet, with the sound of each character, are shown in the following table. This alphabet will be used to show the pronunciation of words and word-groups that might otherwise be doubtful, and students who learn to use it will find it helpful both in learning French and in other language work. 12 INTRODUCTION ALPHABET OF THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION (Association Phonetique Internationale) Each sign has the value of the italicized letter or letters in the word next to which it stands. a patte I la \oeu a pote m ma oe leur b bebe n nonne a dans k col (quand) Y)eati (pot) § vm d dans poche 3 hon e alle p pas de ^in e vets r rat j ijcnx 9 me s ceux (seul) w oui i /ou t tGte q Iwi g ^ater y vxi S chnt h /iardi v tous ji digne i si z 2ebre (rose) : sign of length 3 git (jour) u voiis CHAPTER I SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR MOST FREQUENT SUBORDINATES 19. Definite Nouns — Masculine and Feminine. Sub- stantives that indicate a particular object as distinguished from others of the same class are called definite. When not otherwise determined, each such substantive is pre- ceded by the definite article (English the). Le crayon est petit. La plume est petite. The pencil is small The pen small Le monsieur est grand, il La dame est grande, elle gentleman tall he lady she n'est pas petit. n'est pas petite. is not Le petit garfon est joli, // La petite fille est jolie, e//e boy pretty girl n'est pas laid. n'est pas laide. homely Some definite nouns are preceded l)y le. These nouns are called masculine, as, le crayon, le monsieur. Other definite nouns are preceded by la. These nouns are called feminine, as, la plume, la dame. 20. II is the substitute for a masculine singular noun used as subject of a verb. Elle is the substitute for a feminine singular noun used as subject of a verb. 21. An adjective that modifies a feminine singular noun must generally end in e. Usually this e is added to the masculine singular, which is the only form commonly given in vocaVmlaries. Pronounce: b krejS 8 pgti. la plym e patit. la masjo e gra, 11 ne pa pati. la dam e gruid, el ne pa patit. b pati garso e 3oli, il ne pa le. la patit fij e 3oli, el ne pa led. 13 14 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES EXERCISE m Write the feminine singular of noir, gris, bleu, vert, brun, ouvert, ferm^, poll, impoli, rond, carre, gai, fort, mechant. Learn from the vocabulary the sound and meaning of new words. Fill the blanks with suitable adjectives and pronouns: Henri est et . Marie est et . Le livre est , n'est pas . La plume est , n'est pas . Write similar sentences with the following nouns : le crayon, la salle, le bureau, le papier, le pupitre, la chaise, le canif, la porte, la fenetre, le tableau. 22, Paul est jeune. Marie est jeune. If a masculine singular adjective ends in e, its feminine is the same as the masculine. 23. Le melon est gros. La pomme est grosse. Le papier est blanc. La craie est blanc/ie. Louis est heureux. Louise est heureuse. Le chemin est long. La rue est longue. Le pantalon est neuf. La veste est neuue. Many adjectives double or modify the final consonant before adding e to form the feminine. EXERCISE IV Write the feminine, (a) Doubling the final consonant of cruel, tel, quel, pareil, vermeil, gentil, nul; bon, ancien, Chre- tien; has, gras, las, gros, ^pais, net, sot. Pronounce: pol e seen, mari e 3CEn. la mal5 e gro. la pom e gro:s. la papje e bla. la kre e blat^. Iwi £t aT0. Iwiiz et cer0:z. la Same e 15. la ry e loig. la patalo e ncef. la vest e noe:v. SPECIAL FORMS BEFORE . ■ n'. i . - i5 (6) Softening f to v in actif, attentif, vif, neuf . (c) Changing x to s in heureux, envieux, honteux, joyeux, genereux, paresseux, cu- rieux, dangereux, glorieux, odieux, jaloux. AVhat final consonants sometimes double? How does X change? f ? SPECIAL FORMS BEFORE VOWELS 34. L'arbre est haut. L'encre est noire. L'oiseau est petit. L'eau nest pas claire. Before a vowel sound, monosyllables ending in mute e, also la, cut out the final vowel and replace it by an apos- trophe. This is called elision, si, if, elides i before il or ils (s'il, s'Us); and some compounds of que show elision with particular words as quelqu'un, lorsqu'elle. 25. Ce fruit est une ponune; cet arbre est un pommier; cette pomme est rouge. Quel beau dahlia ! Quel bel ceillet ! Quelle belle rose ! Five common adjectives have two forms of the mascu- line singular, one ending in a vowel, for use before a con- sonant, and an older form, ending in a consonant, still used before a vowel; the principle being that a succession of vowel sounds (called hiatus) is unpleasant. The fem- inine comes from the second form, and doubles the final consonant. Write the feminine of these adjectives, which are: ce, cet; beau, bel; nouveau, nouvel; fou, fol; mou, mol. Pronounce: 1 arbr e o. 1 a:kr e nwa:r. 1 wazo e pati. 1 o ne pa kleir. S9 frui et yn pom; set arbr et de pomje; set pom e ruis. kel bo dalja! kelbela'je! kelbelroiz! 16 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES Ce vieux livre; ce Diej/arbre; cette vieille dame. Vieux usually becomes vieil before a vowel. The femi- nine is vieille. EXERCISE V Fill blanks with adjectives used in same sentence: Le petit Henri est bon, studieux, et attentif ; la Henrietta est , , et . Le long mur blanc est bas et epais; la muraille est Paul est jeune, sage, \\i, fort, et heureux; Marie est , , Before each noun in the next line, write each of the five adjectives given after the nouns: Jardin, etoile, animal, maison, fontaine. Ce, quel, beau, nou- veau, vieux. PLURALS 36. Le jardin est grand, il n'est pas petit; les jardins sont grands, ils ne sont pas petits. La fenetre est ouverte, elle n'est pas fermee; les fenetres sont ouvertes, elles ne sont pas fermees. Most nouns, pronouns, and adjectives form their plural by adding s to the singular. Every pronoun or adjective that relates to a plural noun must itself be plural in form. 27. Les is the plural of la and of 1', as well as of le. Pro7iounce: sa vjo li:vr; S9 vjej arbr; set vjej dam. h pati ari e bo, stydjo, e atatif; la patit ariet e bon, stydjoiz, e atatiiv. la 15 my:r bla 8 baz e epe; la lo:g myraij bla:5 e bas e epes. pol e siT^n, sa:3, vif, foir, e cere; mari e 3oen, sa:3, vi:v, fort, e oeroiz. la 3ard8 e gra, il ne pa poti; le sarde so gra, il na so pa pati. la faneitr et uvert, el ne pa ferine; le faneitr sot uvert, el na s5 pa ferme. PLURALS 17 EXERCISE VI Make the following sentences plural : Le jeune gargon est actif, il n'est pas sot. Le petit livre est ferme, il n'est pas ouvert. Le joli mouchoir est blanc, il n'est pas noir. L'arbre vert est grand, il n'est pas petit. Substitute fille for gargon, porte for livre, robe for mou- choir, maison for arbre, and rewrite the sentences in both singular and plural forms. 28. Le Frangais est courtois mais impetueux. Les Fran- gais sont courtois mais impetueux. Le nouveau cheval est beau. Les nouceaux chevaux sont beaux. Nouns and adjectives ending in s, x, or z remain un- changed in the plural. Nouns ending in au or eu, and adjectives ending in au (also hebreu), add x instead of s to form the plural. Most nouns and many adjectives ending in al change 1 to u and then add x to form the plural. A few nouns end- ing in ail have a similar plural in aux, as travail, travaux. Learn: un oeil, an eye, plural, des yeux; le del, sky, heaven, plural, les cieux. EXERCISE VII Write the plural of Loyal, doux, faux, legal, egal, gris, brutal, special. Le cardinal, le chateau, le bras, le nez, ce jeu, la voix. Le brave general, ce vieux bateau, I'oeil ferm6, ce beau travail, le fils paresseux, ce gateau frais. Pro7wunce: la sa-n garso et aktif, il ne pa so. h pati Ii:vr 8 ferme, il ne paz uveir. la soli mu^Jwair e bla, il ne pa nwa:r. 1 arbr veir e gra, il ns pa pati. la 5ffin fi:j et aktiiv, el ne pa sot. la patit port e ferme, el ne paz uvert. la soli rob e blaij, el ne pa nwair. la mezo vert 8 gru:d, el ne pa patit. la frase e kurtwa mez epetqo. le frase s5 kurtwa mez epetiio. la nuvo Saval e bo. le nuvo ^avo so bo. 18 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES CONTRACTED FORMS. THE PRONOUN CE 39. Ce livre est (belongs) au professeur. Ces livres sont aux professeurs. Cest le livre du professeur. Ce sont les livres des pro- fesseurs. With le or les, forms of the definite article, a preposi- tion a or de blends into a single word, the 1 of the article changing to u or disappearing, a and le become au; a and les give aux; de and le become du; de and les give des. 30. Notice that the adjective ce has a plural ces, but the pronoun ce remains unchanged in the plural. EXERCISE VIII From the following ten nouns make forty combinations, by using both singular and plural and prefixing to each first a and then de, e.g. le livre, au livre, du livre, aux livres, des livres. le general, la femme, roncle, la tante, le frere, Tanimal, la vache, le cheval, I'ami, le crayon. 31. Ces beaux hommes sont /ou5. Ces belles dames sont folks. The plural of the adjective ce is ces for both genders. The other adjectives with double forms in the masculine singular have in the masculine plural beaux, nouveaux, fous, mous, vieux; the feminine plural coming regularly from the feminine singular by adding s. Pronounce: sa li:vr et o profesoeir. se li:vr s5t o profesoe:r. se h Ii:vr dy profesoe:r. sa s5 le li:vr de profesceir. se boz om s5 fu. se bel dam s3 fol. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES 19 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES 33. Voila mon pere, ma mere, mes freres, et mes soeursl Voici notre oncle, notre tante, nos cousins, et nos cousines! Possessive adjectives are peculiar in form. Singular Plural Vlasculine, and Feminine Feminine before a For Both before a Vowel Sound. Consonant Sound. Genders. mon ma mes ton ta tes son sa ses notre nos votre vos leur leurs EXERCISE IX (a) Before each of the folloudng nouns write six pos- sessive adjectives: cousin, cousine; ami, amie; crayon, plume; jardin, maison; oncle, orange. (6) Make the nouns plural, and then write before each six possessive adjectives. (c) Put the following sentences into the plural: Ce fameux general est fort et heureux. Ce bel animal blanc est bon et doux (feminine, douce). Son pauvre oncle est faible, vieux, et boiteux. Notre ami est brave, loyal, et genereux. Pronounce: vwala m5 pe:r, ma meir, me frs:r, e me soe:r! vwasi notr 5:kl, notr ta:t, no kuze, e no kuzi:n! mo ma me, notr no. to ta te, votr vo. s5 sa se, loeir lce:r. sa fame general e fo:r e cere; set famoiz fam e fort e oeroiz; se fame genero so fo:rz e oero; se famoiz fam so fortz e ceroiz. so bel animal bla[k] e bo e du; set bel Se:vr bla:^ e bon e du:s. s5 po:vr oikl e fe:bl, vJ0, e bwato; sa po:vr ta:t e fe:bl, vje:j, e bwat0!z. notr ami e bra:v, Iwajal, e senero; notr ami e braiv, Iwajal, e generoiz. 20 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES Substitute for general, femme; for animal, chevre; for oncle, tante; for ami, amie; and write the sentences in both singular and plural. INDEFINITE AND PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 33. Voila un livre, une plume, et des crayons; est-ce le livre, la plume, et les crayons que vous cherchez? There is a book, a pen, and some -pencils; are they the hook, the pen, and the pencils which you are seekingf Sur la table il y a Ju papier, de la craie, de /'encre, des regies, de bons crayons, et beaucoup de plumes, mais il n'y a pas de livres. On the table there are paper, chalk, ink, riders, good pencils, and many pens, but there are no books. Besides definite nouns, we have indefinite nouns and partitive nouns. 34. Indefinite nouns apply to any one of a class of objects, as distinguished from definite nouns, which apply to a particular one of those objects. Indefinite nouns are commonly preceded in English by a {an), and in French by un (masculine) or ime (feminine). As the plural of the indefinite article, we often use some in English, and regularly have des in French. 35. Partitive nouns express an undefined number or quantity of the objects or substance specified, and are commonly preceded in English by some, and in French by words that literally mean of the, as du courage, de la patience, des enfants. Nous avons achete (quelques-uns) des livres (qui existent). We have bought some (of the) bonks (which exist) Pronounce: vwala de li:vr, yn plym, e de krejo; es la liivr, la plym, e le krejo ka vu Ser^e. syr la tabl iija dy papje, da la kre, da 1 a:kr, de reigl, da bo krejS, e boku da plym, mez il nja pa da liivr. INDEFINITE AND PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 21 Comparison of the preceding sentences leads us to think that tlie complete expression should mean some oj the, but that English omits oj the, and French omits some, the implied relative clause at the end being omitted in both languages. 36. The partitive adjective some is often omitted in English, but a French partitive noun must always have its "partitive article," composed of de and the definite article, except in the case of: 1. Partitives closely joined to a verb, as avoir faim, to he hungry; avoir soif, to he thirsty; avoir peur, to he afraid; avoir besoin, to need; prendre garde, to take care; faire attention, to pay attention. 2. Partitives introduced by the prepositions sans or de (and occasionally avec or a), as du pain sans beurre, hread without butter; sans peur et sans reproche, without fear and without reproach; un morceau de pain, a piece of hread; une plume d'or, a gold pen; une tasse de cafe, a cup of coffee; plein de vin, full of wine; peu d 'argent, Utile money; beaucoup de patience, much patience; assez de papier, paper enough; trop d'eau, too much water; tant de livres, so many hooks; autant de tableaux, as many pictures; pas de crayons, no pencils; plus de temps, no more time; il n'a guere d'amis, he has hut few friends; je ne mange jamais de grenouilles, / never eat frogs; avec plaisir, ivith pleas- ure; avec joie, gladly; chapeau a plumes, plumed hat. Note especially the partitives connected by de with a noun, an adverb of negation (pas, plus, guere, jamais), or an adverb of quantity (tant, beaucoup, trop, assez, etc.). (See § 137, 2/.) After etre, however, an adverb of negation affects the 22 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES verb rather than a following predicate nominative, and the definite article is used : ce n'est pas du vin, that is not wine; ce ne sont pas des fraises, those are not strawberries. Compare with je ne bois pas de vin, / drink no wine; il n'a pas de fraises, he has no strawberries. 3. Partitives in an enumeration or series, where the repetition of an article would be tedious, as, vin, biere, pain, beurre, fromage, viande, il avalait tout, he gobbled everything, wine, beer, bread, butter, cheese, meat. 4. Partitives that follow the conjunctions ni . . . ni, neither . . . nor, or soit . . . soit, either . . . or: soit peur, soit colere, either fear or anger; ni parents ni amis, neither relatives nor friends. 31. When an adjective precedes the partitive noun, it is usual to omit the definite article: de bon papier, good paper; de tels enfants, such children; de mauvais pain, bad bread; but with adjective after the noun use the definite article, du papier rouge, red paper; des enfants sages, good children; du pain sec, dry bread. EXERCISE X I. Change each of the following sentences : By putting before each noun an adjective: bon, beau, joli, grand, etc. E.g. Nous avons de bon papier, etc. By putting before each noun an adverb of quantity : peu, assez, tant, etc. E.g. Je vois beaucoup de garfons, etc. By putting after each noun an adjective: rouge, stu- dieux, casse, mur, etc. E.g. Elle cherche des pommes rouges, etc. By using an adverb of negation: pas, plus, guere, jamais, etc. E.g. Vous n'achetez jamais d'encre ni de livres. INDEFINITE AND PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 23 A negative sentence must have ne before the verb. The negative of et is ni. 1. Nous avons (have) du papier, de la craie, et des crayons. 2. Je vols (see) des gardens et des filles. 3. Elle cherche (seeks) des pommes et des oranges. 4. Vous achetez (binj) de I'encre et des livres. 5. Le petit Jean a (has) des balles, des biUes, et des toupies. II. Translate the following expressions: 1. Paper, chaUc, ink, and books; courage and patience; nuts, apples, and oranges; tea, coffee, milk, and water; tops and mar- bles; frogs and fishes; bread, butter, and cheese. 2. To be cold, to be hungry, to be thirsty, to be frightened, to take care, to pay attention. 3. Coffee without sugar; without money and without friends; a gold cup; full of water; a piece of cheese; a box of chalk. 4. No more money; no ink; httle patience; wine enough; so much rain; too much snow; few books; much courage; many friends. CHAPTER II FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS PRINCIPAL PARTS, PRESENT INDICATIVE, AND IMPERATIVE 38. All forms of most French verbs may be derived from five principal parts or primitive tenses. These five principal parts are: (1) the infinitive, the form usually given in word-lists; (2) the present participle; (3) the past participle; (4) the first person singular of the present Pronou7ice: nuz av5 dy papje, de la kre, e de krejo. 3a vwa de garsoz e de fi:j. el ^er^ de pomz e dez ora:3. vuz a^te da 1 aikr e de liivr. b pati 3a a de bal, de bi:j, e de tupi. 24 FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS indicative; and (5) the first person singular of the past definite. For sixteen common verbs these parts are: Infinitive Present Part. Past Part. Pres. Ind. Past Def, donner, give donnant donne donne donna/ finrr, finish finissan/ fin/ fin/s fin/s romp re, break Tompant rompu romps romprs avoir, have ayant eu ai eus etre, be etant ete suis fus aller, go allant alle vais allaf venir, come venan/ venu viens vins dire, say disant dit dis dis faire, do faisan/ iait fais fi<7 mettre, put taettant mis mets mis prendre, take prenan/ pris prends pris recevo/r, receive recevan/ refu refois refus voir, see voyant vu vois vis savoir, know sachant su sais sus voulo/r, tvish voulan/ voulu veux voulus pouvoir, be able pouvan/ pu peux pus 39. Infinitive endings are -er, -ir, -oir, and -re. About nine tenths of all French verbs end in -er. All present participles end in -ant. The first singular present indicative ends in -e (all -er verbs except aller; also a few -ir verbs), in -s (aller, most -ir and -oir, and all -re verbs), or in -X (pouvoir, valoir, vouloir). Avoir (ai) is the only exception. The first singular past definite ends in -ai for -er verbs, and in -s for all other verbs. Pronounce: done, dona, done, don, done; finiir, finiso, fini, fini, fiiii: ro:pr, r5pa, ropy, ro:p, ropi; avwa:r, eja, y, e, y; e:tr, eta, ete, sqi, fy; ale, ala, ale, ve, ale; vaniir, vona, vony, vje, ve; di:r, diza, di, di, di: fe:r, foza, fe, fe, fi; metr, meta, mi, me, mi; pra:dr, prona, pri, pro, pri; r9S9Vwa:r, rasava, rasy, raswa, rasy; vwa:r, vwaja, vy, vwa, vi; savwair, sa$a, sy, se, sy; vulwa.T, vula, vuly, V0, vuly; puvwair, puva, py, po, py. PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR 25 40. The part of a tense which changes to express dif- ferences in person or number is called the ending; the remaining portion is called the stem of the tense. The stems 'of donner, finir, and rompre are the same in all the principal parts, except that finir inserts the syllable -iss- in the presertit participle. A verb conjugated throughout like one or these is called regular or weak. Other verbs have one or more changes, usually in the stem, and are called irregular or strong verbs. Their principal parts must be learned with the utmost care. PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR 41. When the first singular present indicative ends in -e the second person ends in -es and the third in -e. When the first singular ends in -s or -x the second sin- gular is hke the first, and the third generally ends in -t; but this -t is omitted after final c, d, or t of the stem. 43. The personal pronouns used as subjects are je, /, tu, ijou, il, he, it, elle, she, it, nous, ive, vous, you, ils, elles, theij, as, je donne, tu donnes, il donne, elle donne; nous donnons, vous donnez, ils donnent, elles donnent. je romps, tu romps, il rompt, elle rompt; nous rompons, vous rompez, ils rompent, elles rompent. EXERCISE XI Write the present indicative singular of the verbs in § 38, omitting avoir, etre, and aller. Write the principal parts and the present indicative singular of the regular verbs : Pronotmce: 3a don, ty don, il don, el don; nu donS, vu done, il don, el don. 39 r5, ty r5, il r5, el ro; nu rop5, vu rope, il ro:p, el ro:p. 26 FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS regarder, to watch; trouver, to firid; parler, to speak; aimer, to love; rougir, to grow red; palir, to grow pale; jaunir, to grow yellow; blanchir, to grow white; r^pondre, to answer; perdre, to lose; vendre, to sell; attendre, to wait. PRESENT INDICATIVE PLURAL 43. To form tlie plural of the present indicative, change -ant of the present participle into -ons, -ez, -ent. Thus in finir the stem of the plural of the present indica- tive is not fin-, as in the singular and in the infinitive, but finiss-, and the present indicative plural is therefore fmissons, finissez, finissent. 44. Notice that the endings of the present indicative are mute, except in the first and second persons plural. EXERCISE Xn Write the present inchcative plural of the regular verbs given in the last exercise. Write the present indicative of the verbs whose princi- pal parts are ecrire, write ecrivant ecrit ecris ecrivis craindre, fear craignant craint crains craignis conduire, lead conduisant conduit conduis conduisis partir, start partant parti pars partis suivre, follow suivant suivi suis suivis valoir, he worth valant valu vaux valus vivre, he alive vivant vecu vis vecus lire, read lisant lu Us lus Pronounce: ekriir, ekriva, ekri, ekri, ekrivi; kre:dr, krejia, kre, kre, krejii; kodqiir, kSdiiiza, kodqi, kodqi, kodqizi; parti :r, parta, parti, par, parti; sijiivr, sqiva, sijivi, sqi, sqivi; valwair, vala, valy, vo, valy; vi:\T, viva, veky, vi, veky; li:r, liza, ly, 11, ly. PRESENT INDICATIVE PLURAL ouvrir, open ouvrant ouvert ouvre ouvris naitre, he horn naissant ne nais naquis i before t, in naitre, paraitre, etc. 45. When the ending is mute^ the voice-stress (tonic accent) falls upon the last vowel of the stem, called the stem vowel. This often causes a change, called strengthen- ing, in the stem vowel, which changes from a dose vowel (one made with the mouth nearly closed) to an oyen vowel (one made with the mouth well open), or even to a diphthong. Thus we have ceder, yield je cede nous cedons ils cedent lever, lijt je leve nous levons ils levent geler, freeze je gele nous gelons ils gelent acb.eter, huy j'achete nous achetons ils achetent Jeter, throw je jette nous jetons ils jettent appeler, call j'appelle nous appelons ils appellent mourir, die je meurs nous mourons ils meurent vouloir, wish je veux nous voulons ils veulent pouvoir, he able je peux nous pouvons ils peuvent tenir, hold je tiens nous tenons ils tiennent devoir, oice je dois nous devons ils doivent boire, drink je bois nous buvons ils boivent Some people seem to consider this strengthening very mysterious and difficult. In fact, nothing could be sim- pler. More stress requires more breath; more breath re- quires a wider mouth opening to let it out; opening the mouth wider means naturally a change to a more open vowel. Pronounce: uvri:r, uvra_, uve:r, uivr, uvri; neitr, nesa, ne, ne, naki. sede, 39 sed, nu sed5, 11 sed; bve, 39 leiv, nu bv5, 11 le:v; 3ale, 39 3el, nu 39I5, il 5el; a^ste, 3aSet, nuz a^ato, ilz a^et; 39te, 39 set, nu 39t5, il 3et; apale, sapel, nuz apalo, ilz apel; muri:r, 39 moeir, nu muro, il moe:r; \Tzlwa:r, 59 vo, nu \'ulo, il va'l; puvwair, 39 po, nu puv5, il pce:v; t9ni:r, 39 tje, nu t9n5, il tjen; davwair, 39 dwa, nu d9v5, il dwa:v; bwa:r, 39 bwa, nu byvo, il bwaiv. 28 FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS — 46. It will be noticed that before mute e the final consonant of the stem doubles in jeter, appeler, and tenir. We recognize an e as mute (§ 9) when it ends a syllable and has no written accent. As syllables in French must begin with a consonant whenever possible (§ 12), we divide je-ter, appe-ler, te-nir, and see that the stem vowel is mute. But a mute syllable can never have voice-stress; and that the stem vowel, mute e, becomes an open e before a mute ending may be shown either by writing the grave accent over it, as in leve, gele, achetent, or by doubling the following consonant as in jet-te, appel-le, vien-nent, so that the e of the stem no longer ends the syllable. Most verbs in -eler and -eter double the con- sonant. We must observe and remember those that are written with the grave accent. The stem strengthening explained in § 45 and § 46 occurs before a mute ending in the present indicative, present imperative, and present subjunctive, and is to be expected there whenever the first singular of the present indicative has a strengthened form. EXERCISE Xm Write the present indicative of the verbs in § 45, also of venir, prendre and its compounds: apprendre, to learn, com- prendre, to imderstand, surprendre, to surprise; mener (mene), to lead, rep^ter (r^pete), to repeat, peler (pele), to peel. Give orally the present indicative of three verbs that change atonic ou of the stem to eu in stressed position; of five verbs that change mute e or close e (e) to open e; of two verbs that strengthen mute e to ie (open e). ORTHOGRAPHIC CONVENTIONS 29 ORTHOGRAPHIC CONVENTIONS 47. Certain verbs use the letter y before a pronounced vowel, and i before mute e or a consonant. So we have croire, believe croyant, cru, crois, croyons, croient employer, employ employe, emploie, employons, emploient appuyer, support appuye, appuie, appuyons, appuient After e, and sometimes after a, y is used before mute e also, as in grasseyer, speak thick grasseye, grasseyons, grasseyent asseoir, seat asseyant, asseyons, asseyez, asseyent payer, pay payant, pale, paient, or paye, payent 48. The letters c and g have a "soft" sound (s, 3) be- fore front vowels (e, i), and a "hard" sound (k, g) before back vowels (a, o, u). W^hen these letters have the soft sound in the infinitive, the same sound must be kept throughout; so before a, o, or u we write a cedilla under c, "and an e after g, as in placer, place plagant, place, place, plagons, placent, plafai manger, eat mange, mange, mangeons, mangent, mangeai recevoir, receive regu, ref ois, recevons, refoivent, refus EXERCISE XIV Write the present indicative of voir (see § 38), croire, employer, essuyer, appuyer, nettoyer, manger, tracer, forcer, effacer, plonger. Pronounce: krwa:r, krwaja, kry, krwo, krwajo, krwa; aplwaje, aplwaje, aplwa, aplwajo, aplwa; apqije, apiiije, apqi, apqijo, apqi. graseje, grase:j, grasejS, graseij; aswair, aseja, asejS, assje, ase:j; peje, peja, pe. plase, plasa, plase, plas, plas5, plas, plase; mase, mase, mais, ma35, mass, mase; r8S8vwa:r, rasy, raswa, resavo, raswaiv, rasy. 30 FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS Write the present indicative of the verbs whose princi- pal parts are fixir, jlee fuyant fui fixis fuis asseoir, seat asseyant assis assieds assis 49. The following verbs must be learned with especial care: Present Indicative avoir: ai, as, a; avons, avez, ont etre: suis, es, est; sommes, etes, sont aller: vais, vas, va; allons, allez, vont Three second plurals end in -tes: etes, dites, faites. Four third plurals end in -ont: ont, sont, vont, font. Savoir has the stem sav- in the plural: savons, savez, savent. EXERCISE XV I. Write from memory the present indicative of avoir, etre, aller, dire, fairs, savoir. II. Translate: (a) You {use vous) go, you are, you have, you say, you see, you make, you come, you know. {b) I go, I give, I wish, I am, I have, I come, I know, I take, I put, I can. (c) I finish, we finish; I believe, we believe; I receive, we re- ceive; I go, we go; I am, we are; I have, we have; I yield, we yield; I lift, we lift; I owe, we owe; I drink, we drink; I call, we call; I can, we can; I wish, we wish. {d) He is freezing, you are freezing; he throws, you throw; he holds, you hold; he is dying, you are dying; he leads, you lead; he repeats, you repeat; he comes, you come; he receives, Pronounce: fqi:r, fqija, fqi, fqi, fiji; aswair, aseja, asi, asje, asi. e, a, a; av5, ave, 5. sqi, 8, c; som, et, s5. ve, va, va; alo, ale, v5. et, dit, fet. 5, so, v5, f5. savo, save, saiv. IMPERATIVE 31 you receive; he knows, you know; he wishes, you wish; he can, you can; he is going, you are going. (e) We are, they are; we have, they have; we go, they go; we make, they make; we come, they come; we receive, they receive; we take, they take; we wish, they wish; we drink, they drink; we can, they can; we see, they see; we place, they place; we eat, they eat; we flee, they flee; we trace, they trace; we plunge, they plunge; we are cleaning, they are cleaning. IMPERATIVE 50. The imperative has three persons: second singu- lar and second plural, and a first plural commonly trans- lated let us , as, ayons, let us have; soyons, let us he; sachons, let us know. The second person singular is like the first person singular of the present indicative; or like the second singular if the final -s be dropped in -er verbs; the first and second persons of the plural are like the same persons of the present indicative. No subject pronouns are used with the imperative. Imperative donner : donne, donnons, donnez finir: finis, finissons, finissez recevoir : refois, recevons, recevez dire: dis, disons, dites faire: fais, faisons, faites Exceptions are avoir: aie, ayons, ayez etre: sois, soyons, soyez aller: va, allons, allez savoir : sache, sachons, sachez Pronounce: don, dono, done; fini, finiso, finise; roswa, rasovo, rasave; di, dizo, dit; fe, faso, fet. 8!J, 8J5, eje; swa, swajo, swaje; va, alo, ale; sa^, sa^S, sa^e. 32 FUNDAIVIENTAL VERB-FORMS EXERCISE XVI I. Write the imperative of the verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. II. Translate: (a) {Use singular of second-person verbs.) Come! Let us come! Go! Let us go! Say! Let us say! Be good (sage)! Let us be good! Have patience (patience, /.)! Let us have patience! Do that (cela) ! Let us do that! Lift the head (tete, /.)! Let's Uft the head! Throw the ball! Let's throw the ball! Call Mary! Let's call Mary! Hold the rope (corde, /.) ! Let's hold the rope! Drink the milk (lait, 7n.)\ Let's drink the milk! Give the hand (main, /.) ! Let's give the hand! Break the stick (baguette,/.)! Let's break the stick! Take the pen! Let's take the pen! Know how (savoir) to wait! Let's know how to wait! Buy some oranges! Let's buy some oranges! (b) (Use plnral of second-person verbs.) Come now (mainte- nant)! Let's come now! Go yonder (la-bas) ! Let's go yonder! Tell the truth (verite, /.)! Let's tell the truth! Make a ball! Let's make a ball! Know the truth! Let's know the truth! Receive that gentleman! Let's receive that gentleman! Buy some apples! Let us buy some apples! Take some chalk! Don't take any chalk! Let's take some chalk! Let us take no chalk! Drink some water! Drink no water! Let us drink some coffee! Let us not drink coffee! Be happy! Let us be happy! Have courage! Let us have courage! Reply to Henry! Let us reply to Henry ! Open the door ! Let us open the door ! Shut the window! Let us shut the window! Fear nothing (ne . . . rien)! Let us fear nothing! Finish this exercise (exercice, ?«.)! Let us finish this exercise! (c) You are sad, be gay! Are you afraid? Don't be afraid! You say nothing; say something! We are doing well, but let us do even (encore) better to-morrow! INTERROGATIVE FORMS 33 INTERROGATIVE FORMS 51. Verbs may l^e made interrogative by prefixing est-ce que, is it true that, used like English auxiliary do, did, etc. Declarative Interrogati\'e Je donne, / give. Est-ce que je donne? Do I give? Vous dites, You say. Est-ce que vous dites? Do you say? Interrogations are also made by inversion, putting a pronoun subject after the verb, as je suis; interrogative, suis-je? vous faites; interrogative, faites-vous? Jean voit; interrogative, Jean voit-il? Marie parle; interroga- tive, Marie parle-t-elle? 53. In the first person singular of the present indica- tive, the first method is to be used except for certain monosyllables, as suis-je? ai-je? dis-je? puis-je? fais-je? vais-je? sais-je? dois-je? 53. In the third person singular, when the verb ends in a vowel, -t- must be inserted between the verb and its following pronoun subject, as donne-t-il? a-t-il? va-t-elle? EXERCISE XVn (a) Give each of the follo\\ing interrogations in an- other form: Dis-je? Vais-je? Est-ce que nous savons? Ont-ils? Font-ils? Est-ce que vous dites? Faites-vous? Puis-je? Est-ce qu'ils vont? Est-ce qu'elle va? Ailons-nous? Est-ce qu'il a? Pronounce: 39 don, eskasa don; vu dit, eska vu dit. 3a sqi, siii:3; vu fet, fet vu; 3a vwa, 3d vwatil; mari pari, mari parlatel. siii:3, e:3, di:3, pqi:3, f8:3, V8:3, se:3, dwai3. dontil, atil, vatel. di:3, ve:3, eska nu sav5; atil, f5til, eska vu dit; fet vu, piii:3, eskil v5; eskel va, al5 nu, eskil a? 34 FUNDAMENTAL VERB-FORMS (6) Turn the following statements into questions: 11 donne EUea Vous ecrivez Vous allez Nous parlons lis regoivent Nous voyons Je vends Marie ecrit Je mange 11 salt Pierre nage Tu veux Je plonge Louise mange (c) Write interrogatively the present indicative of the verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. (fl) Translate: Do I give? does she give? do you give? Do I go? does he go? do we go? Do I have? does he have? do they have? Do I make? does she make? do you make? Do I say? does he say? do you say? Am I? is she? are they? Do I open the door? Does he open the door? Do you open the door? Am I closing the window? Is she closing the win- dow? Are we closing the windows? Am I eating the apple? Is he eating an apple? Are we eating apples? Am I writing an exercise? Is she writing an exercise? Are you writing exercises? NEGATION 54. The French negation with verbs is ne, placed before the verb and as near it as possible. The negation is almost invariably strengthened by a complementary substantive or adverb placed usually directly after the verb. Je ne vais pas a Paris, / am not going to Paris {not a step). Je n'ai rien, I have nothing {not a thing). II ne parle jamais, he never speaks {not ever). Elle ne voit que lui, she sees him only {none but him). Pronounce: 11 don, ela, vuz ekrive, viiz ale, nu parlo, il raswaiv, nu vwajS, 39 va, mari ekri, 39 mais, il se, pjeir na:3, ty V0, 39 pl5:3, Iwiiz ma:3. 39 n9 ve paz a pari; 39 ne rje; il n9 pari 3ame; el ng vwa kg Iqi. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 35 EXERCISE XVIII I. (a) Write negatively, using ne . . . pas, the present indicative of the verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. (b) Write the same negative-interrogatively (n'ai-je pas, etc.). (c) Write with ne ". . . rien the present indicative of faire, dire, recevoir, vouloir, and manger. (rf) Write with ne . . . jamais the present indicative of etre malade, aller a Paris, venir en retard, ceder, finir. (e) Write the negative imperative of the verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. II. Translate: I do not give, I never give, I give only that (cela). He has no apples, he has only two apples, he has but few apples, he never has any apples. You are doing nothing, you do only that, you never do that. You say nothing, you say only that, you never say that. CHAPTER III PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS 55. The pronouns je and nous always refer to the speaker and are said to be of the first person. Tu and vous refer to the person addressed, and are called sec- ond person, tu being used only to an animal, a child, an intimate friend, or a near relative. II, lis, elle, elles, refer to that of which we are speaking, and are said to be of the third person. Since these pronouns, unlike most others, have always the same "person" and so determine the "person" of their verbs, they are called personal pronouns. The pronouns mentioned are used as subject tu il eUe nous vous ils eUes te le la nous vous leg les te lui lui nous vous leur leur toi lui eUe nous vous eux elles 36 PRONOUNS of the verb; they have corresponding personal pronouns used as direct or indirect objects, and others used dis- junctively, that is, not connected with any verb as sub- ject or object. Subject je Direct object me Indirect object me Disjunctives moi 56. No verb can have more than one direct object. An object that expresses the relation of to or for, as: He gave me the book, meaning He gave the hook to me, or : He bought them some peaches, meaning He bought some peaches for them, is called an indirect object. Distinguish the ob- jects and tell what pronouns to use in: He taught us French, We wrote them a letter. He asked her a question. Tell us a story, Sell him your boat. Learn with especial care the indirect objects lui and leur. After verbs of thinking and verbs expressing motion, a disjunctive with a and not an indirect object pronoun is used, as, allez a lui, go to him; pensez a moi, think of me. Penser also takes y, chiefly of things, pensez-y, think of it. EXERCISE XIX Give the French translations for words in italics: 1. He sends her to the library. 9. Go to them. 2. He sends her some flowers. 10. Speak to them. 3. She showed theyn her books. 11. Tell him your name. 4. She showed them to him. 12. Don't sell her your dog. 5. I gave him a dog. 13. She is a good dog; don't sell 6. He gave Mm to Mary. her. 7. You wrote me a letter. 14. Ask them one question. 8. Come to me. 15. Who thinks of them? Pronounce: 39, ty, il, el, nu, vu, il, el; ma, ta, b, la, le; Iqi, Icfiir; mwa, twa, 0. aleza Iqi; paseza mwa; pasezi. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 37 57. Est-ce vous qui dites cela? Non, ce n'est pas nous qui le disons, c'est lui. Allez-vious avec moi ou avec eux? Moi, je vais avec toi, mais lui va avec eux. Ce sont elles. Cette plume est a mon frere, elle n'est pas a vous. The disjunctives are well termed "stressed forms," because they are always used when an emphatic or stressed pronoun is desired. Study especially the stressed pronouns of the third person. Notice that when em- phatic those of the third person may be used as subject of the verb. Another way to emphasize the pronoun is to put it last, as, lis ne vont pas, eux. A stressed word is usually put at the end of its word-group. EXERCISE XX Give the following sentences, substituting other pro- nouns for those in italics, as, tu le crois, toi; il le croit, lui, etc.: Je le crois, moi. C'est moi qui le dis. II parle de moi. Elle me voit. II me parle. II m'ecrit souvent des lettres. Repeat, making sentences negative. 58. n nous regarde. Ne /e regardez pas, regardez-mor. Elle me suit. Ne la suivez pas, suivez-/e. Assieds-/o/! Je vais m'asseoir pres de la table. Pronounce: es vu ki dit sala? no, sa ne pa nu ki b diz5, se liji. ale vuz avek mwa u avek 0? mwa, 33 vez avek twa, me \\\i va avek 0. 89 sot el. set plym et a mo fre:r, el ne paz a vu. il na vo pa, 0. ty la krwa, twa; il lo krwo, h\\; 39 b krwa, mwa; se mwa ki b di, se twa ki I9 di, se vu ki b dit; il pari d9 mwa, il pari d9 Iqi, il pari del, il pari de; el m9 vwa, el b vwa; il m9 pari, il Iqi pari, il Ioe:r pari; il mekri suva de letr, il loe:r ekri suva de letr. il nu ragard. n9 la ragarde pa, ragarde mwa. el ma sqi. na la sqive pa, sqive la. Asje twa! 3a ve maswair pre da la tabl. 38 PRONOUNS Objective personal pronouns stand before the verb ex- cept with the imperative affirmative. Note that after the imperative the stressed forms moi and toi, not the unstressed forms me or te, are used at the end of a word- group. EXERCISE XXI Give the following sentences, substituting other pro- nouns for those in italics: II me parle en me regardant. Elle yne sourit en ^'appelant. Asseyez-vous pres de moi. lis vont chanter avec 7noi. Elle va me S^^B^ des cerises. Tais-toi, ne hii dis pas cela. Meis-toi pres de la porte. Envoyez-//?oi de vos nouvelles. Qui ?/;e volt? 59. In the third person, an objective pronoun referring to the subject of the verb is se, not le, la, lui, les, or leur. Thus il se volt means he sees himself, 11 le volt, he sees him, i.e. some other person; lis se lavent means they are washing themselves, lis les lavent, they are washing them, i.e. some other persons or things. An objective pronoun referring to the subject of the verb is called "reflexive" and a verb that has such an object is called a reflexive verb. Th^ present indicative and imperative of s'asseoir, to seat oneself, are je m'assieds nous nous asseyons assieds-Zo/I tu /'assieds vous vous asseyez asseyons-nousi il s'assied ils s'asseyent asseyez-vousl elle s'assied elles s'asseyent Pronounce: il mo pari a ma ragcarda. el ma suri a mapala. aseje vii pre da mwa. il v5 ^ate avek mwa. el va mo done de sariiz. te twa, no Iqi di pa sola, me twa pre do la port, avwaje mwa do vo nuvel. ki mo vwa? il so vwa; il la vwa; il so laiv; il le laiv. 30 masje, ty tasje, il sasje, el sasje; nu nuz asejS, vu vuz aseje, il saseij, el sase:j; asje twa, asejo nu, aseje vu. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 39 What is the syntax of the first pronoun? of the second? Give the negative imperative; the present indicative in- terrogative. 60. French often uses a reflexive form where EngHsh uses a passive verb: •* -^ Cela se voit souvent, that is often seen. Cela se fait tous les jours, that is done every day. EXERCISE XXn Write both affirmatively and negatively the present in- dicative and the imperative of the following reflexives : se mettre a table, se tenir debout, se laver les mains, s'asseoir a terra, s'iippeler Henri, s'excuser d'arriver en retard, se sauver bien vite, se lever de bonne heure, se coucher tard, s'adresser a un sergent de viUe. 61. Quand allez-vous a I'eglise? J'y vais le dimanche. Revenez-vous de la poste? Oui, j'en reviens. Avez-vous des sous? Je n'en ai pas. Va-t-il a la banque? II n'^ va pas, il en revient. Two little words, y and en, originally adverbs meaning there or thither, and from there, have come to be used as pronouns, or rather as pro-phrases, y replaces a phrase beginning with a or some similar preposition of location or direction (dans, chez) ; en replaces a phrase beginning Pronounce: s(8)la sa vwa suva; sola sa fe tu le 3u:r. S9 metr a tabl; sa taniir dabu; sa lave le me; saswa:r a te:r; sapale ari; sekskyze darive a ratair; sa sove bje vit; sa lave da ban cE:r; sa ku^e ta:r; s'adrese a de sersa da vil. kat ale vuz a legliiz? 3! ve la dima:^. ravane vu da la post? wi, 3a ravje. ave vu de su? 3a na ne pa. vatil a la ba:k? il ni va pa, il a ravje. 40 PRONOUNS with the preposition de. En and y have the position of objective personal pronouns. In the preceding sentences what phrases do y and en replace? EXERCISE XXm I. Replace italicized phrases by y or en : Voila notre ecole; je vais a Vecole a neuf heures du matin et je reviens de Vecole a deux heures de Fapres-midi. Cast une baiique; on va d la hanque chercher de I'argent, et Ton revient de la banque la poche pleine. C'est une bonne affaire; je pense d cette affaire tous les jours, et je parle de cette affaire sou vent. Quel beau jardin ! Des rosiers fleurissent dans ce jardin, et Ton cueille dans ce jardin de jolis bouquets. II. Translate: 1. I am going there and he is coming back from there. 2. Roses bloom there, and Mary picks some often. 3. They have horses, and we have none. 4. Are you going there? No, I am coming back from there. 5. Who thinks of that (a cela)? I think of it often and I speak of it every day. 63. Marie est contente, et je le suis aussi (le = content[e]). Pierre est malade, mais sa mere ne le salt pas (le = que Pierre est malade). The invariable pronoun le is used in the predicate as a pro-adjective or pro-clause; that is, to take the place of an adjective or of a clause (English so or it). Pronounce: vwala notr ekol; 3! veza ncEV ceir dy mate, e 3a ravjez a doz oc:r da lapre midi. set yn ba:k; 5ni va ^er^e da lar3a, e 15 na ravje la poS plen. set yn bon afeir; 3! pais tu le 3u:r, e 3a"parl suva. kel bo 3arde!_ de rozjez i flooris, e l3 ni ka^:j do 3oli buke. mari e kotait, e 3a la siiiz osi. pje:r e malad, me sa me:r na la se pu. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 41 EXERCISE XXIV I. In each of the following sentences replace a clause or an adjective by le : Pierre est heureux, et nous sommes aussi heureux. On dit qu'il va arriver ce soir, mais je ne crois pas qu'il va arriver ce soir. Ce petit gargon va tomber; ne pensez-vous pas qu'il va tomher? Marie est fort studieuse et sa sa?ur est aussi studieuse. C'est lui qui sera (will be) nomine; on dit partout que c'est lui qui sera nomme. II. Translate: 1. You are happy, and I am too. 2." People say so, but I don't believe it. 3. He is studious, but his brother is not. 4. Roses (les roses) are beautiful; \dolets are too. 5. He is going to come back, but don't tell his sister (a s^ scEur). 63. Ce livre est & moi; donnez-/e-moi; ne le leur donnez pas! Cette plume est a Marie, donnez-/a-lui ; ne me la donnez pas! Marie desire ces fraises; veuillez les lui porter! Elle va vom en donner; donnez-nous-en aussi. Wheji_two objective conjunctive personal pronouns are used with a verb, the one nearer the verb must be of the third person. When both pronouns are of the third person, the direct object precedes the indirect; except that se precedes any other pronoun. Pronmmce: pjeir et oere, e nu la somz osi. 5 di kil va arive S9 swair, me 39 na la krwa pa. sa pati garso va tobe; na la pase vu pa? mari e fair stydjoiz, e sa sce:r let osi. se Iqi ki sara name; 5 la di partu. sa li:vr et a mwa; done la moi; na la loeir done pa. set plym et a mari; done la liji, na ma la done pa. mari deziir se frez; voeje le \\\\ parte, el va vuz a done; done nuz a osi. 42 PRONOUNS 64. Pourquoi m'envoyez-vous a lui? Je ne vous envoie pas a lui. If the direct object is a personal pro- noun other than le, la, or les, any indirect object, except en or y, is expressed by a and a disjunctive. What is the difference between je vais vous presenter a elle and je vais vous la presenter? EXERCISE XXV Translate : 1. Who sends you to me? 2. Let us introduce ourselves to her. 3. Is he going to show himseK to them? 65. Jean desire de I'encre, veuillez lui en donner. II n'y en a pas dans I'encrier. Guillaume va au concert; men pere la'y mene aussi. Menez-les-t/; et s'ils desirent des oranges, achetez-leur-en! En and y follow objective personal pronouns; and if used together en follow^s y. EXERCISE XXVI (a) Complete the following sentences by inserting the complements indicated : Des oranges; mon pere va acheter {them for me). Une plume; je donne (it to yoxi). Du pain; ma mere donne sou vent {some to them). Le concert; veuillez mener {us there). Les livres; je vais montrer {them to her). Pronounce: purkwa mavwaje vuz a Iqi? 33 na vuz avwa paz a Iqi. 3a desiir da Ia:kr, voeje Iqi 5 dane. il nja na pa da lakrje. gijoim va o k5se:r; m5 pe:r mi men osi. mane lez i; e sil desi:r dez ora:3, a^ate loeir a. dez ora:3; m5 pe:r va vu lez a^ate. yn plym; 5a la Iqi don. dy pe; ma meir ma don suva. la koseir; voeje lez i mane, le liivr; 33 ve vu le motre. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 43 (6) Change the following sentences, giving successively all possible personal pronouns as direct objects in the first four and as indirect objects in the last four; repeat, mak- ing sentences negative: 1. II me renvoie a elle. 5. II me les prete. 2. II m'eii chasse. 6. II me la donne. 3. II ?» 'y aper§oit. 7. Parlez-r?i'en ! 4. Donnez-m'en bien vite ! 8. On me I'a dit. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 66. To take sessive adjective may use for mon crayon, for ma plume, for ton pere, for ta mere, for son oncle, for sa tante, for notre jardin, for notre maison, for votre cheval, forvotre regie, for leur jeu, for leur poupee. the place of a noun preceded by a pos- we use possessive pronouns. Thus we le mien la mienne le tien la tienne le sien la sienne le notre la notre le votre la votre le leur la leur for mes crayons, for mes plumes, for tes freres, for tes soeurs, for ses oncles, for ses tantes, for nos jardins, for nos maisons, for vos chevaux, for vos regies, for leurs jeux, for leurs poupee s. les miens les miennes les tiens les tiennes les siens les siennes les notres les notres les votres les votres les leurs les leurs Pronounce: il ma ravwa a el. il ma ^as. il mi aperswa. done ma bje vit. il mo le pret. il ma la don. parle ma. 5 ma la di. m5 krejo, la mje, me krejS, le mje; ma plym, la mjen, me plym, le mjen; to pe:r, la tje, te freir, le tje; ta me:r, la tjen, te soe:r; le tjen; son a:kl, la sje, sez o:kl, le sje; sa ta:t, la sjen, se ta:t, le sjen; notr Sarde, la no:tr, no 3arde, le noitr; notr mez5, la no:tr, no mezo, le no:tr; votr Saval, la vo:tr, vo Ssvo, le voitr; votr regl, la voitr, vo regl, le vo:tr, loer 30, la Iceir, la?r 30, le la^:r; la^r pupe, la loe:r, loer pupe, le Ineir. 44 PRONOUNS Pronouns must have the gender and number of the nouns for which they stand. In comparing possessive ad- jectives and pronouns, note: 1. Adjectives are used ivith nouns, pronouns instead of nouns. 2. Adjectives are unstressed, pronouns ^re stressed. 3. Adjectives are short, pronouns generally longer forms. 4. The definite article is always used with the pronoun, but never with the adjective. EXERCISE XXVII I. Replace possessive adjectives and nouns by pronouns : Mes amis, tes amis, et leurs amis. Vos plumes, ses plumes, et mes plumes. Ton crayon, son crayon, et men crayon. Ta mere, sa mere, et leur mere. Nos chevaux, ses chevaux, et vos chevaux. II. Translate into French: My house; yours, his, hers, theirs, ours. Her garden; his, mine, yours, ours, theirs. Your books; mine, hers, his, ours, theirs. Their roses; his, ours, theirs, hers, yours. My father and hers; his mother and mine. Your cousins and ours: his sister and theirs. Pronounce: mez ami, tez ami^e loerz ami; vo plym, se plym, e me plym; to krej5, s3 kreja, e m5 Krej5; ta me:r, sa meir, e l.oer me:r; no Savo, se Savo, et vo Savo. DEMONSTRATIVES 45 DEMONSTRATIVES 67. Demonstratives, like possess! ves, may be Adjectives, used with a noun: ce, cet, cette, ces; or Pronouns, used instead of a noun: ce, ceci, cela, celui, etc. Cest elle. Ce ne sont pas eux. Ce doit etre lui. Ce me semble. Tout ce qui reluit n'est pas or. Je sais bien ce que vous pensez. Ceci (this, emphatic) est pour lui, cela {that, emphatic) est pour elle. Voulez-vous ceci ou cela? Ce sont la mes joyaux. The uninflected pronoun ce, or one of its stressed forms, ceci, cela, must be used when no particular noun is in mind to determine gender and number. Whenever stress is required, by contrast, position, etc., ceci, cela, ce (etre) la, will be used. The pronoun ce is unstressed, invariable (but c' before a vowel), and either subject of a verb or antecedent of a relative pronoun, as ce qui, ce que, ce dent, ce a quel. The only verbs regularly used with ce are etre, sembler, or a verb like doit or peut governing etre. What, meaning that which, is ce+a relative: ce qui, ce que, etc. EXERCISE XXVm Change the following sentences, and begin each with a demonstrative pronoun, e.g. ce livre est a moi = c'est men livre. Which form stresses the possessor? Pronounce: sa, set, set, se; sa, sasi, sala, salqi. set el, sa na s5 paz 0. sa dwat e:tr Iqi. sa ma sa:bl. tu ski ralqi ne paz o:r. 33 se bje ska vu pase. sasi e pur \\\\, sala e pur el. vule vu sasi u sala? sa s5 la me 3wajo. sa liivr et a mwa; se mo liivr. 46 PRONOUNS Cette plume est a lui. Ces livres sont a toi. Ce chien est a elle. Ces billes sont a nous. Ce chapeau est a elle. Cette maison est a elles. Ces chapeaux sont a vous. Ce jardin est a eux. Repeat, making sentences (a) negative, (h) interrogative. 68. Void deux beaux livres, voulez-vous celui-ci ou celui- la? Quelles belles roses! Celle-ci est rouge, celle-la est blanche. Voyez-vous ces enfants? Ceux qui jouent aux billes sont mes cousins, ceux qui courent sont mes neveux. Tous ces devoirs sont bien faits, mais celui de Jean est mieux ecrit que celui de Marie. Forms of the inflected pronoun, celui, not the unin- flected ce, ceci, or cela, are commonly used to replace a particular noun that has been already expressed or is about to follow in a de-phrase. The principle is that a noun clearly in mind so impresses its gender and number as to require an inflected pronoun to replace it. However, as subject of etre, Avith predicate noun, ce is used: qui est ce monsieur? C'est men ami X. 69. Ce mouchoir-d est plus cher que celui-/a. Cette dame-d s'appelle Alice, celle-/a s'appelle Marie. The distinction made in English by having two demon- stratives, this and that, is expressed in French by affixing -ci or -la to nouns or pronouns used with strong demon- strative force, where contrast or distinctive emphasis is required. Pronounce: set plym et a Iqi; sa 5je et a el; sa ^apo et a el; se ^apo s5t a vu; se liivr sot a twa; se bi:j s5t a nu. set mez5 et a el; sa sarde et a 0. vwasi do bo liivr, vule vu salqi si u salqi la? kel bel ro:z ! sel si e ru!3, sel la e blai^. vwaje vu sez afa? S0 ki 5U o bi:j s3 me kuze, 80 ki kuir so me navo. tu se davwair so bje fe, me salqi da 3a e mj0z ekri ka saliji da marl. sa mu^wair si e ply $e:r ka salqi la. set dam si sapel alls, sel la sapel mari. DEMONSTRATIVES 47 70. Note that a form of celui will always be followed by one of three things: One of the adverbs, -ci or -la, A phrase beginning with de, or A relative clause. 71. Of two objects, -ci indicates the nearer, -la, the more remote; therefore, of two things previously men- tioned, -ci means the latter, -la, the former, as, voila une rose et un dahlia; celui-ci est plus gros, mais celle-la a plus de parfum. EXERCISE XXIX I. Fill blanks with demonstratives: 1. sont deux beaux enfants; mais enf ant-la est moins beau que qui joue a la balle. 2. sont de beaux li\Tes; je crois que livres sont chers, et je pense que la sont plus chers que ci. 3. est une belle bague; bague est plus belle que de Marie. 4. sont de belles roses; roses-ci sont blanches, la sont jaunes; et qui sont sur la table sont rouges. 5. est petit, est grand; cependant va tuer ; car augmente et diminue ton jours. Pronounce: vwala yn ro:z e de dalja, salqi si e ply gro, me sal la a ply da parfce. S9 so do boz afa, me set afa la e mwe bo ka salqi ki su a la bal. S9 so da bo li:vr; 3a krwa ka se liivr so 5e:r, e 3a pas ka sola s5 ply lew ka S0si. set yn bel bag; set bag e ply bel ka sel da mari. sa s5 da bel roiz; se roiz si s5 blai^, sel la so 30m; e sel ki so syr la tabl so ru!3. sasi e pati, sala e gra; sapada sasi va tqe sala; kar sasi ogma:t e sala diminy tu3u:r. 48 PRONOUNS II. Translate: 1. This and that; this rose and that; this book and that; this is a rose and that is a book; this rose and that book. 2. Do you wish this or that? Is that a tree? Is this a flower? That tree is an oak. That is not an elm. That flower is a car- nation. That carnation is pretty. 3. That ehn is taller than this one; that carnation is white and this one is red; that pansy is prettier than this one. 4. These books and those; these pens and those; these pen- cils and those; these houses and those. 5. Those are roses; these flowers are violets; these carna- tions are prettier than Mary's; those pansies are not so pretty as Louisa's. 6. Gowns, handsome gowns, blue gowns, her gowns, yours, Mary's, my sister's, hers, the red (ones), the silk ones, the white (ones), the cotton ones, the ones which are on the table. 7. Gloves, handsome gloves, black gloves, her gloves, yours, Mary's, my sister's, hers, the red (ones), the silk ones, the white (ones), the cotton ones, the ones which are on the table. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 72. La lettre" gm est arrivee. L'homme guevous avez vu. La plume avec laquelle vous ecrivez. Le livre auquelje pense. Les outils avec lesquels nous travaillons. Les fleurs pour lesquelles elle vient. Est-ce vous qui dites cela? C'est moi qui le dis. Savez-vous ce que c'est? A relative pronoun joins a clause to a noun or pronoun that is called the antecedent of the relative. A relative is equivalent to a conjunction and a personal pronoun. It has the gender, number, and person of its antecedent. What are the antecedents of the relatives in this section? Pronounce: la letr ki et arive; bm ka vuz ave vy; la plym avek lakel vuz ekrive; h li:vr okel 39 pa:s; kz utiz avek lekel nu travajS; le fla'ir pur lekcl el vje. es vu ki dit sala? se mwa ki la di. save vu ska se? RELATIVE PRONOUNS ' 49 73. The relatives most used are As subject of the verb, qui. As direct object of the verb, or as predicate nominative, que. After prepositions, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles. The first part of lequel is the definite article, which is inflected, and which contracts with a preceding a or de, giving the forms auquel, auxquels, auxquelles, duquel, desquels, desquelles. The second part of lequel is the interrogative adjective quel, meaning which, what. EXERCISE XXX Translate : 1. The child who is crying; the child whom you see; the book which I hold, the book which is on the table, the book in which you are reading. 2. The lady who is singing; the lady to whom we listen (ecou- ter, with direct object); the pen which pleases you; the pen which you desire; the pen with which you are writing. 3. The pupils at whom you are looking (regarder, ivith direct object); the pupils who are looking at you; the pupils with whom he is playing; the flowers which smell so sweet (bon, in- variable, since it is vsed adverbially) ; the flowers which you give them; the flowers in which that occurs (se trouve). 74. Lequel may be used in any construction, but be- ing longer than qui and que is not used as subject or direct object unless needed to avoid ambiguity, as, c'est la soeur de notre ami, laquelle vous ne connaissez pas, it is our friend's sister, whom you do not know. If que were used, it would refer to ami and not to soeur. 50 PRONOUNS EXERCISE XXXI Translate : 1. My aunt's dog, which is always barking. 2. My uncle's house, which is very ugly. 3. Mr. Loubet's hens, which the neighbors hate. 4. Mrs. Duval's cat, which has only three feet. 5. Your brother's umbrella, wliich has an ivory dog's head (tete de chien en ivoire). 75.. Dont, whose, of whom, of which, commonly re- places de+lequel, but is never used to modify the object of a preposition. It always begins its clause, and does not change the word-order, a noun which is direct object following the verb, as, le monsieur dont nous parlons; un enfant dont je connais le pere; la fagon dont il m'a repondu. EXERCISE XXXn Translate : 1. Mr. Thiers, whose brother you know. 2. Mr. Carnot, of whom we are speaking. 3. Mr. Thiers, of whose books we are speaking. 4. Your brother, whose handwriting pleases me so much. 5. Your brother, whose head I see yonder. 6. Your brother, with whose pen I am writing. 76. In expressions of time and place, ou is often used instead of auquel or dans lequel: le jardin oii (dans le- quel) nous jouons. 77. Referring to persons, qui may be used as the ob- ject of a preposition: le monsieur dont (or duquel, or de qui) il parle ; la dame a qui (or a laquelle) il pense. Pronounce: la masjo d5 nxyparlo. de nafa d5 39 kone la peir. la fas5 do til ma repody. ^ la sarde u (da lakel) nu 3w5. la masjo dot (dykel, da ki) il pari, la dam a ki (a lakel) il pais. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 51 78. Lequel is occasionally used as an adjective: dix francs, laquelle somme , ten francs, which sum . 79. The relative pronoun quoi is disjunctive, and used only after an indefinite antecedent, as, ce a quoi je pense; voila de quoi je desire vous parler; «Merci, monsieur !» «I1 n'y a pas de quoi !» 80. Que is used in clauses after c'est ... to replace any complement, indirect as well as direct: c'est de vous que je parle, i.e. je parle de vous, que = de vous; c'est a votre frere que je donne ce livre, i.e. je donne ce livre a votre frere, que = a votre frere; ce fut un grand jour que (fut) celui de ma premiere commimion, que = un grand jour. The effect of the c'est . . . que construction is to bring out the complement with great emphasis. EXERCISE XXXm Using the c'est . . . qui, c'est . . . que construction. translate 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. I say so. I am speaking of her, and not (non) of her brother. I bring it for you. She is looking for you. She is looking for you. He lives in that house. 7. 8. They desire those oranges. They desire those oranges. Pronounce: di fra, lakel som. S8 a kwa 30 pa:s. vwala da kwa 39 deziir vu parle. mersi, masjo.. 11 nja pa da kwa. se da vu ka 3a pari; set a voir freir ka 3a don sa lisvr. sa fyt de gra 3uir ka salyi da ma pramjeir komynjS. 52 PRONOUNS EXERCISE XXXIV I. (a) Distinguish between Le chien qui nous regarde and Le chien que nous regardons. La dame qui voit M. Duval and La dame que voit ]\L Duval. La bete qui vous porte and La bete que vous portez. (6) Fill blanks with the proper ending: Mes amis que je cherch — Mes amis qui me cherch— " Le monsieur qui vous invit — Le monsieur que vous invit — Ceux que nous respect— Ceux qui nous respect— (c) Fill blanks with relative pronouns : II n'aime ni ceux il trompe ni ceux le trompent. Ceux vous suivez n'en savent pas plus que ceux vous suivent. Ce vous pensez m'interesse beaucoup plus que ce vous dites. Dites-moi ce vous amuse, et je vais vous dire ce vous etes. Les li\Tes nous plaisent sont ceux nous achetons. L'homme est malhonnete n'est pas celui il faut imiter. Si \131^ parlez de Jean en pensant a ]\Iarie, celui vous parlez n'est pas celle a vous pensez. Assez souvent ce nous parlons n'est pas ce a nous pensons. Ce monsieur la-bas est celui vous cherchez. Cette petite joue la-bas est celle le frere est malade. Pronounce: h $je ki nu ragard; la Sje ka nu ragardo. la dam ki vwa masJ0 dyval; la dam ka vwa masjo dyval. la be!t ki vu port; la be:t ka vu porte. rnez ami ka 5a ^erS; mez ami ki ma Ser^. la masjo ki y\iz evit; la masj0 ka vuz evite. so ka nu respektS; S0 ki nu respekt. il nem ni so kil tr5:p ni so ki la tr6:p. so ka vu sqive nd sa:v pa ply ka so ki vu sqiiv. sa ka vu pase meteres boku ply ka ska vu dit. dit mwa ski vuz amy:z, e 3a ve vu di:r ska vuz et. le li:vr ki nu ple:z s5 so ka nuz a^ato. lorn ki e malonet ne pa .salqi kil fot imite. si vu parle da 3a a pasa ta mari, selqi do \'u parle ne pa sel a ki vu pase. ase suva sa d5 nu parlo ne pa sa a kwa nu pas5. sa masjo la ba e salqi ka vu Serje. set patit ki 3U la ba e sel do la freir e malad. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 53 Ce petit vous voyez est celui je vous parle. Celle • chante est la dame vous trouvez la voix si belle. Pretez- leur les outils ils ont besoin. Ce pauvre homme n'a j5as de vivre. «Merci, monsieur!)) (dl n'y a pa^ de !)) II ne salt pas de il se mele. II. Translate into French: The bed on which he sleeps; the boy of whom we are think- ing; the la(|y of whom they are speaking; the book in which she is reading; the oranges of which you are thinking; the roses of which he is speaking. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 81. Qui dit cela? Qui regardez-vous? De qui parle-t-il? Qu'est-ce qui fait ce bruit? Que veut-il? De quoi parle- t-elle? The uninflected interrogative pronouns are (a) Referring to persons, sometimes to animals, Qui, used in all constructions. (6) Referring to things, Qu'est-ce qui, as subject of the verb, Que, direct object of a verb or predicate nominative, Quoi, disjunctive or stressed. Pro7iounce: sa pati ka vu vwaje e selqi d5 3a vii pari, sel ki 5a:t e la dam do vu truve la vwa si bel. prete loe:r lez uti dot ilz 5 bozwe. S9 po:vr om na pa do kwa vi:vr. mersi, mosjo. il nja pa do kwa. il no se pa da kwa il sa meil. ki di sala? ki ragarde vu? da ki pari til? keski fe so brqi? ka V0t il? do kwa pari tel? 54 PRONOUNS EXERCISE XXXV (a) Fill blanks with interrogative pronouns: vive? dit-il? remue la-bas? voyez- vous? va la? nous regarde? regardons-nous? vous ecoute? ecoutez-vous? De parlez-vous? A pensez-vous? A s'occupe-t-il? Pour appor- tez-vous cette poupee? vous rend si triste? (h) Translate: 1. Wlio does it? 10. Who prevents j-ou from do- 2. What does it? ing (de faire) that? 3. What do you see? 11. What prevents you from 4. Whom do you see? doing that? 5. Who sees her? 12. What are you talking 6. Whom does she see? about? 7. What does she see? 13. Of wliom are you speaking? 8. Who is running yonder? 14. What are you thinking of? 9. What is running j'onder? 15. Of wliom are you thinking? 82. Lequel de ces livres voulez-vous? Lesquels de ces crayons sont a vous? Laquelle de ces cartes est la plus belle? «Veuillez m'apporter ces plumes.)) ((LesqueUes?» Wlien a particular substantive is in mind, either already used or immediately following in a phrase beginning with de, an interrogative pronoun referring thereto must be the inflected pronoun lequel. The first syllable contracts with a or de, giving auquel, duquel, desquels, etc. Pronounce: ki vi:v? ka ditil? keski ramy la bo? ki vwaje vu? ki va la? ki nu rogard? ka ragardS nu? ki vuz ekut? ki ekute vu? da kwa parle vu? a kwa pase vu? a kwa sokyio til? pur ki aporte vu set pupe? keski vu ra si trist? lakel da se liivr vule vu? lekel da se krejo s5t a vu? lakel da ss kart c la ply bel? voeje maporte se plym. lekel? INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 55 EXERCISE XXXVI I. (a) Fill blanks with interrogative pronouns: de ces deux plumes voulez-vous? de ces messieurs est son pere? sont ses oncles? de ces dames est rotre mere? sont vos tantes? de ces deux dessins donnez- vous la preference? de ces deux crayons avez-vous besoin? (6) Ask, in French, questions to be answered by the words in italics : I. Pierre lit. 2. II lit un livre. 3. II lit le livre de Paul. 4. Marie est assise. 5. Elle est assise sur une chaise. 6. L'arbre tombe. 7. II tombe pres de la maison. 8. Henri pense. 9. II pense a sa mere. 10. II pense a ses jouets. 11. Ce jardin est a 7non oncle. 12. La pomme est rouge. 13. Cet arhre porte des noix. II. Translate: 1. Which one of those pens do you wish? 2. Of which ones are you speaking? 3. Look at those men yonder ! Which ones? 4. To which one of those cities is he going? 5. Of which is he speaking? 6. Of which is he tliinking? 7. I like that picture. Which one? 8. Of which one are you thinking? 9. Of which one are you speaking? 10. Please close the window ! Wliich one? 83. Qui est-ce qui pleure? Qui est-ce que vous appelez? Qu'est-ce qu'il dit? Qu'est-ce (que c'est) que cela (ga)? Pronounce: pje:r li. il ht de h:vr. il H la U:vr da pol. marl et asi:z. el et asi:z syr yn 5e:z. larbr t5:b. il tob pre da la mezo. ari pa:s. il pciis a sa me:r. il pais a se 3we. sa sarde et a mo noikl. la pom e ru:3. set arbr port de nwa. ki es ki ploeir? ki es ka vuz apale? keskil di? kesk9sekas(l)a? 56 PRONOUNS In conversation periphrastic forms are common instead of the simpler qui or que. In these, the last qui or que is a relative pronoun; the first is an interrogative predicate nominative; any intermediate que is a relative predicate nominative; ce is subject of etre and antecedent of the relative. INDEFINITES 84. A considerable class of words, some of them pro- nouns and some adjectives or adverbs, refer to no clearly defined person or thing, and so are called indefinites. They can best be learned from text or dictionary. The most common are: 85. On. Third singular subject pronoun, translated 7, ive, you, they, people, folks, someone, etc. Used whenever the speaker does not care to specify definitely who acts; especially frequent where English uses the passive voice: on dit, it is said, they say, people say; on parle frangais, French is spoken. Its corresponding object-pronoun is vous, cela vous degoute, that disgusts one. The form Ton is commonly used instead of on after et, ou, si, que, unless the next word begins ^vith 1, as, on fera ce que Ton voudra, they will do what they please. Translate : EXERCISE XXXVn 1. English is spoken. 2. She is often seen. 3. People don't say that. 4. That isn't done in France. Pronounce: 5 di. 5 pari fmse. sola vu dcgut. 5 fora sko 15 \'udra. INDEFINITES , 57 5. People are looking at you. 6. Those things vex (agacer) one. 7. IVIay one enter? 8. That is done everj- day in the United States. 86. Quelque, so7ne; the plural quelques and the plural pronouns quelques-uns, quelques-unes are often translated a few. Note that quelque is affirmative; the negatives aucun, pas un, nul, meaning no, usually have pas de as their plural. Compounds of quelque are quel- qu'un, someone, with its negative ne . . . personne ; quelque chose, something, negative ne . . . rien; quelquefois, some- times, negative ne . . . jamais. As a pronoun personne is masculine: personne n'est plus adroit que lui. 87. The indefinite adjective chaque, each, gives pro- noun chacun. The (reflexive) disjunctive referring to the indefinite subject of a verb is soi, as, chacun pense a soi. In modern French it is used only of an indefinite or general ante- cedent: chacun travaille pour soi, [Jean travaille pour lui(-meme)]; il ne faut pas trop parler de soi, one should not speak too much about himself, [Marie parle trop d'elle (-meme)]. 88. The reciprocal pronouns I'un and I'autre are used together in many elliptical expressions, I'lm being the sub- ject and I'autre the complement of an omitted verb. lis se regardent I'un (regarde) I'autre. L'un et I'autre (both), I'un ou I'autre, ni l'un ni I'autre, l'un (de, a, pour, etc.) Pronounce: ^akde pais a swa. ^akce travaij pur swa. 5a travarj pur Iqi (me:m). il na fo pa tro parle da swa. mari pari tro del (meim.) il sa regard Ide lotr. Ide ne lotr; Ide nu lotr; ni Ide ni lotr. 58 PRONOUNS I'autre are frequent combinations with obvious mean- ings. Both pronouns are plural if the sense requires, thus I'un I'autre, each other, would be used of two, while les uns les autres, one another, would be used where each group contains more than one. 89. Other indefinites are autre, other certain, certain autrui, others different, different divers, various maint, many (a) meme, self, same, very, even plusieurs (invariable), several quelconque, whatever tel, such tout (m. plu. tous), all, every (a) Autre means other in the sense of different; other in the sense of more is encore : encore une orange, one more orange; encore des plaintes, more complaints; encore trois plumes, three more -pens. In connection with nous or vous, as, nous autres Ame- ricains, we Americans, vous autres Franfais, you French- men, autre is used simply to emphasize a distinction, and is not translated. (6) Autrui is used only as the complement of a verb or of a preposition: il faut aimer autrui, we should love others; le bien d'autrui, other people's property. (c) Meme, used adverbially, is invariable, as, les en- fants meme, the very children or even the children; other- wise it agrees, as adjective or pronoun, ^\ith its substan- tive: eux-memes, themselves; les memes enfants, the same children; ce sont les memes, they are the same ones. Pronounce: ako:r >ti orais; ako:r de ple:t; ako:r trwa plym. nuz otrz amerike; vuz otr f rd.se. il fot erne otnii; la bje dotrqi. lez afa me:m; me:m; le meimz afa; sa so le me:m. INDEFINITES 59 (d) Plusieurs is either masculine or feminine: plusieurs hommes et plu§ieurs femmes. (e) Quelconque follows its noun: un livre quelconque, any book whatever, any sort of hook. (/) Unlike the English word such, tel has the usual posi- tion of an adjective, and comes after the article: une telle femme, such a woman; de tels hommes, such men. It has various idiomatic meanings: monsieur un tel, Mr. So and So; tel pere tel fils, like father, like son; as the father, so is the son; tel rit, tel pleure, one man laughs, another cries; tel rit aujourd'hui qui pleurera demain, 7nany a man laughs to-day irho ivill cry to-morrotv; je le prends tel quel, / take it such as it is. (g) Tout precedes the article: tout le monde, everybody; toute la ville, the whole city; tout im peuple, a whole nation; tous les enfants, all the children. Tous, when a pronoun, has the final s pronounced: je les ai tous aimes, / have loved them all. As a substantive, tout means all, everything, or the whole: tout est perdu ; il veut tout ; le tout est plus grand qu'une partie quelconque, the whole is greater than any portion whatever. EXERCISE XXXVra Translate : I. 1. II commence tout sans rien achever. 2. II chancelle quelquefois, mais ne tombe jamais. 3. Quelques-uns sent blesses, mais personne n'est mort. 4. Avez-vous vu quelquechose? — Rien ! Pronounce: plyzjopirz omz e plyzjoDir fam. de li:vr kelkok. yn tel fam; da telz am; m9SJ0 de tel; tel peir, tel fis; tel ri, tel plce:r; tel rit 03urdiii ki ploerara dame; 3a la pra tel kel. tu lam5:d; tut la vil; tut de poepl; tu lez afa. 3a lez e tus eme. tut e perdy; il vo tu; la tut e ply gra kyn parti kelkSk. 60 PRONOUNS 5. Chante-t-il quelquefois? — Jamais! 6. lis se regardent les uns les autres. 7. lis se pardonnent Fun a I'autre. 8. lis disent du bien I'un de I'autre. 9. Ces pommes me coutent cinq sous chacune. 10. Prenez cette plume, j'911 ai encore trois. 11. Telle est sa bonte qu'il se fait aimer de tous. 12. Pourquoi portez-voiis de tels souliers? II. 1. One can't (ne saurait) thvijk oLevervthing. 2. It is said that no one is pei-fect.^*^*: „ 3. AU languages are spoken here. 4. All the children are asking for another story. 5. Tell them a few more, Mary. 6. Here are a few apples; does anyone wish them? 7. He has no money, not a cent. 8. Nobody speaks, everybody is silent. 9. We have something for you, but we have nothing for him nor for her. 10. Be sUent at times, but never lie. 11. I hear someone yonder, but I see no one. 12. Every man looks at his neighbor without saying any- thing. (Is the thought affirmative or negative here?) 13. They speak of each other, they think of each other, they work for each other, they love each other. 14. Neither one likes me, and I detest them both. 15. Several of these sentences have the same mistakes. 16. Don't desire other people's property (le bien). 17. Such a man, such a woman, and such children are not found (rencontrer) every day. 18. Many a man shouts, "Each for himself! " without adding (a j outer) "and God for all!" 19. I find in it (y) certain things which displease me. 20. They have different talents and are of divers opinions. PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE 61 CHAPTER IV PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 90. In French the past tense commonly used in con- versation is formed by using a past participle with the present tense of avoir or etre, as, j'ai ecrit, / wrote, je suis venu, / came. The tense is called the 'past indefinite. A tense which, like the past indefinite, is formed by using a past participle with an auxiliary verb (avoir or etre) is called a corn-pound tense. Tenses formed of a single word, like the French present indicative, are called sim- ple tenses. Since the past indefinite is formed Avith the present tense of the auxiliary, it is sometimes called the "compound of the present." The past indefinites of rompre and of aller are j'ai rompu nous avons rompu je suis alle nous sommes alles tu as rompu vous avez rompu tu es alle vous etes alles il a rompu ils ont rompu il est alle ils sont alles elle a rompu elles ont rompu eUe est allee elles sont allees 91. Marie est venue avec son frere. lis sont alles ^ la poste. J'ai vu la maison que Charles a achetee. . J'ai des poires; mon pere me les a apportees. Elle s'est achete des gants. EUe a perdu les gants qu'elle s'est achetes. Except in the case of reflexive verbs, a past participle conjugated with etre agrees in gender and number with the subject of the verb, A past participle conjugated with avoir, and the past participle of a reflexive verb, agree in gender and number 62 PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE with a preceding direct object. If there is no direct ob- ject, or if the direct ol)ject follows the past participle, the past participle remains invariable. The principle seems to be that a substantive so impresses its gender and num- ber on the mind as to cause a following past participle, directly relating to it, to take the corresponding form. In Old French the past participle of reflexive verbs agreed with the sul:)ject, and the agreement in cases like elle s'est souvenue de, ils se sent apergus de, ces maisons se sent baties rapidement is undoubtedly a survival of old usage and shows agreement with the subject. 93. Most verbs are conjugated with avoir; those con- jugated wdth etre are 1. All reflexive verbs, as, s'asseoir, se laver les mains, etc. 2. Some intransitive verbs, most of them expressing change of place, as, aller, arriver, entrer, sortir, partir, monter, descendre, tomber, rester; venir and its com- pounds; naitre and mourir. EXERCISE XXXrX (a) Write the past indefinite tense of the verbs just mentioned as conjugated with etre; also of the other verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. (h) Change the following from present to past time, beginning, ((Ce matin Pierre s'est leve ...» Pierre se leve de bonne heure, il va a la fenetre, il remonte le store, il regarde le ciel et il ^coute un peu les oiseaux. Puis il verse de I'eau dans la cuvette, il se lave les mains et la figure et il se brosse les dents et les cheveux. II s'habille bien vite, il met ses souliers, il prend son chapeau, il descend I'escalier et il va faire un petit tour au jardin avant de dejeuner. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE 63 Repeat, substituting for Pierre, Marie, je, tu, vous, nous. Repeat, substituting Paul et Henri for Pierre. Repeat, substituting Marie et Louise for Pierre. Note that certain verbs like remonter and descendre are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive. What difference does this make in the auxiUary verb? 93. Comme elle parlait, Paixl entra. As she was speaking, Paul entered. Besides the past indefinite, to express action in past time the French have in the indicative twa simple tenses, the ini'perfect (parlait) and the past definite (entra). 94. The imperfect indicative may be formed by chang- ing the ending -ant of the present participle into -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient. Thus the imperfect indica- tive of finir, present participle finissant, is finissais finissions finissais finissiez finissait finissaient The imperfect indicative of ecrire, present participle ecri- vant, is ecrivais ecrivions ecrivais ecriviez ecrivait ecrivaient The imperfect indicative is used to express a past action which the speaker w-ishes to represent as customary, re- peated, or continuous. It paints the background of a word-picture, describing the permanent features upon which successive events stand out. It has been called the "descriptive past." It shows neither the beginning 64 PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE nor the end of the action, which appears as in a frame that hides beginning and end, showing only a period of continuance. So in the illustrative sentence, we perceive neither that she began to speak nor that she ceased speaking, but merely her continuing to speak at the mo- ment when Paul entered. It provides the descriptive background on which Paul's entrance stands out vividly. EXERCISE XL Write the imperfect indicative of the verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. 95. The only common verbs whose imperfect indica- tives do not follow the rule of formation are avoir and savoir. Learn the first singulars as avals and savais, and write the tenses, the endings being always regular. 96. The first singular past definite is the fifth princi- pal part. In -er verbs it ends in -ai, in all other verbs, in -s. The rest of the tense may be formed by substitu- ting successively the proper endings, the endings of the tense being in -er verbs, -ai, -as, -a, -ames, -ates, -erent; in all other verbs, -s, -s, -t, -mes, -tes, -rent. Note that in the first and second persons plural, the stressed vowel always has the circumflex accent. EXERCISE XLI Write the past definite of the verbs in §§ 38, 44, 45, and 48. PAST DEFINITE 05 97. The past definite is distinctly a "book tense," and is said by Paul Passy to be "absolutely dead in the spoken language of Northern France." ^ Conversation and familiar correspondence use instead the past indef- inite. The past definite expresses a past act entirely performed within the period of past time that we are considering. We see the act begun, performed, and finished; and the tense often calls especial attention to the beginning, so much so that it has been called an inceptive tense. It is also called the "past historical," and the "narrative past," from its frequent use in historical and narrative passages. It is also called the "simple past" (passe sim- ple) in contrast to the "compound past" (passe compose) or past indefinite. It is used in series, where each verb is a Unk in the chain of events that follow in succession, each action beginning and ending before the next begins. The inceptive force appears in such expressions as H eut, he received or obtained, i.e. began to have. n sut, he learned, i.e. began to know. II s'en fut, he went off, i.e. began to be away. Note the "links" in such a series as «I1 prit son parti, touma son pied droit autour de son pied gauche, se dressa sur son pied gauche, et etendit le bras . . .; mais au moment ou il touchait le mannequin, son corps, qui n'avait plus qu'un pied, chancela sur I'esca- beau, qui n'en avait que trois; il voulut s'appuyer au man- nequin, perdit I'equilibre, et tomba.» (Victor Hugo.) "He made his decision, twisted his right foot around his left, rose upon 1 Didionnaire phojietique de la langue frangaise, by H. Michaelis and P. Passy. Introduction, p. xiv. : ((passe defini; temps absolument mort dans le langage parle des Fran^ais du Nord.» 66 PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE his left foot, and stretched out his arm . . .; hut at the moment when he was touching the dummy, his body, poised wpon one foot, tottered wpon the three-legged stool; he tried to support himself by the dummy, lost his balance, and fell." In the following description of what happened at the climax of the Reign of Terror, compare the imperfects that tell what had been customary, with the past definites that tell what began to be the state of affairs : «0n observait encore quelques formes; on les supprima. Les accuses avaient des def enseurs ; ils n'en eurent plus. On les jugeait individuellement ; on les jugea en masse. Les jures avaient pour regie de leur determination la loi; ils n'eurent plus que leur conscience.)) (Mignet.) "They still were accustomed to observe certain forms, these they sup- pressed; the accused were formerly allowed attorneys, they had them no longer; they had been tried separately, now they were tried in a body; the juries had been basing their decision upon the law, now they consulted only their own consciences." EXERCISE XLII (a) Use the proper tense, imperfect or past definite, of the verbs indicated : Le vaisseau rOrion (etre) mouill^ pres de FArsenal. Un matiji la foule qui le {contempler) {etre) t6moin d'un accident. Un gabier (perdre) Fequilibre. On le (voir) chanceler, la multi- tude {Jeter) un cri, la tete {emporter) le corps, I'homme {tourner) autour de la vergue, {saisir) au passage le faux marchepied et y {r ester) suspendu. La mer {etre) au-dessous de lui a une pro- fondeur vertigineuse. L'homme {oiler) et {venir) au bout du marchepied comme la pierre d'une fronde. Aller a son secours, c'{etre) courir un risque effrayant. Au- cun des matelots n'{oser) s'y aventurer. Cependant le mal- SIMPLE PAST TENSES OF INDICATIVE 67 heureux gabier se (fatiguer); on ne (pouvoir) voir son angoisse sur son visage, mais on {distinguer) dans tons ses membres son epuisement. Ses bras se (tordre). II ne (crier) pas de peur de pcrdre de la force. On n'{attendre) plus que la minute oil il lacherait la corde. Tout a coup, on (apercevoir) un honune qui (grimper) dans le greement avec I'agilite d'un chat-tigre. Get homme (etre) vetu de rouge, c'{etre) un forgat; il (avoir) un bonnet vert, c'(etre) un forgat a vie. Un coup de vent (emporter) son bonnet et (lais- ser) voir une tete toute blanche; ce n'(etre) pas un jeune homme. En un chn d'a^il il (etre) sur la vergue. II s'(arreter) quelques secondes et (paraltre) la mesurer du regard. Ces secondes, pendant lesquelles le vent (balancer) le gabier a I'extremite d'un fil, (sembler) des siecles a ceux qui (regarder). Enfin le forgat (lever) les yeux au ciel et (faire) un pas en avant. La foule (respirer). On le (voir) parcourir la vergue en courant. Parvenu a la pointe, il y (attacker) un bout de la corde qu'il (avoir) appor- tee et (laisser) pendre I'autre bout, puis il se (mettre) a descendre avec les mains le long de cette corde, et alors, au lieu d'un homme suspendu sur le gouffre, on en (voir) deux. (Adapted from Victor Hugo.) Translation: The ship Orion was at anchor near the Arsenal. One morning the crowd which was watching it witnessed an acci- dent. A topman lost his balance. They saw him totter, the crowd screamed, his head overbalanced liis body, the man swung around the yard, seized the foot-rope as he fell, and hung there. Below him, at a dizzy depth, lay the sea. Like a stone in a shng, the man swung back and forth, at the end of the foot-rope. To go to his assistance meant running a frightful, risk. Not one of the .sailors dared venture. Meanwhile the unlucky topman was growing tired; they could not see the agony on his face, but ex- haustion was manifest in every limb. His arms twisted. He did not shout for fear of losing strength. Men looked for the moment when he would let go the rope. Suddenly a man was seen climbing up the rigging with the agility of a tiger-cat. This man was dressed in red, he was a convict; he wore a green cap, he was in for life. A gust blew off his cap and showed a head quite white; he was not a young man. In a twinkling he was on the yard. He stopped a few seconds, and seemed to be measuring it with his eye. These seconds, during 68 PAST AND- FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE which the wind swayed the topman at the end of his thread, seemed centuries to those watching. At last the convict looked up and took a step forward. The crowd breathed again. They saw him nni along the yard. Reaching the end, he made fast to it one end of the rope he had brought; let the other hang, then began to go dowTi the rope hand over hand. Then instead of one man, two were seen hanging over the abyss. (6) Translate into French : A poor topman was climbing into the rigging when he lost his balance and fell. The crowd that was watching him uttered a cry. The man caught the foot-rope as he passed it, but he had not the strength to pull himself up (se hisser) as far as the yard. As he swung back and forth at the end of the foot-rope, a con- vict seized a rope and in a twinkling they saw him on the yard. He was dressed in red; he had a green cap; people recognized (reconnaitre) that he was a life-convict; For a few seconds he seemed to be hesitating (hesiter) ; at last he made up his mind and ran along the yard. The unhappy topman was getting tired; he was not screaming, but one saw his agony in (sur) his face. The convict tied his rope to the yard, went down the rope hand over hand, securely lashed (amarrer solidement) the top- man's body, got up again (remonter) on the yard, hauled (baler) the sailor up (y), seized him in his arms, and carried him to (dans) the cross-trees (la hune) where he left him in the hands of his comrades. FUTURE INDICATIVE 98. Je lirai ce livre demain. Quand vous y arriverez, vous vous coucherez aussitot. S'il arrive ce soir, il recevra notre lettre. The future tense in French is formed by adding to the infinitive -ai, -as, -a, -ons, -ez, -ont (the endings of the present indicative of the verb avoir). Verbs in -oir ex- cept prevoir and pourvoir, all in -re, and a few in -ir drop the vowel of the infinitive ending. FUTURE INDICATIVE 69 Thus the first singular futures of donner, finir, devoir, and dire are donnerai, finirai, devrai, and dirai. Let the pupil complete the tense in each case. EXERCISE XLin (o) Write the future tense of recevoir, parler, rompre, mourir (mourr-), courir (courr-), boire, ecrire, vivre, mouvoir, and prendre. (6) Translate, giving two translations for the English past tense : 1. I receive, I received {two ways); I was receiving; I shall receive. 2. {Addressing a child) You are speaking, you spoke, you were speaking, you will speak. 3. He is breaking, he broke, he was breaking, he will break. 4. She runs, she ran, she was running, she will run. 5. People die, they died, they were dying, one will die. 6. We drink, we drank, we were drinking, we shall drink. 7. You write, you wrote, you were writing, you wall write. 8. They take, they took, they were taking, they will take. 99. Dropping the vowel of the infinitive ending some- times brings together consonants that do not blend well, such as two liquids (1, n, r), and this requires further changes in the stem. Learn the first singular future of aller, irai; asseoir, assierai; avoir and savoir, aurai, sau- rai ; conquerir, conquerrai ; cueillir, cueiilerai ; envoyer and voir, enverrai, verrai; etre, serai; faire, ferai; pouvoir, pourrai; [falloir], valoir and vouloir, [faudra], vaudrai, vou- drai; tenir and venir, tiendrai, viendrai. Write the com- plete tense of each of these verbs. Which one has only the third person singular? 70 PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE Adding the future endings to certain infinitives in -er gives a mute e in both penult and antepenult. In such cases, to avoid two successive mute syllables, the antepe- nult is regularly strengthened, either by the grave accent, as in menerai, gelerai, acheterai, or by doubling the fol- lowing consonant, as in jetterai, appellerai. Write the future tense of each of these verbs; also of peler (pel-), semer, amener, promener. 100. Des qu'ils arriveront, nous partirons. Quand vous viendrez chez nous, nous nous amuse- rons bien. S'il pleut, nous n'irons pas chez eux. Si vous voulez y aller, j'irai avec vous. Subordinate clauses referring to future time take the future tense, except after si, meaning if, which requires the present or imperfect indicative (or their compound tenses). 101. Instead of the future tense, the present indica- tive of aller with a dependent infinitive is often used to express action in the immediate future, as, elle va chan- ter, she is about to sing; nous aliens partir, we are just going to start. EXERCISE XLIV (See text in § 97) I. Using aller, translate: 1. The convict will fall from the yard, 2. He will let go the rope. 3. He will take a step forward. 4. He will go down that rope. 5. He will tie it to the yard. COMPOUND TENSES 71 II. Translate: 1. When the topman lets go the rope, he will fall into the sea. 2. The crowd will breathe again when the convict takes a step forward. 3. As soon as the topman loses his l^alance, the crowd will scream. 4. As soon as he begins to go down you will see two men hanging over the abyss. •5. When he is on the yard, he will measure it with his eye. Repeat, substituting if for when or as soon as. COMPOUND TENSES 103. For every simple tense there is a corresponding compound tense, formed by using the simple tense of an auxiliary with the past participle of the verb. We have already learned the past indefinite, formed with the pres- ent tense of the auxiliary. From the other tenses of the indicative we get Compound of the imperfect, the pluperfect, j 'avals ete, j'etais alle; Compound of the past definite, the past anterior, il eut parle, elle fut venue ; Compound of the future, the future anterior, j'aurai dit, je serai revenu. EXERCISE XLV Write the pluperfect tense of the verbs in § 38; the past anterior of the verbs in § 44; the future anterior of the verbs in § 45. 103. II lit le livre que son pere lui a donne. II lisait le livre que son pere lui avait donne. II lira le livre que son pere lui aura donne. 72 PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE The compound tenses express action pre\dous (anterior) to the time expressed by the corresponding simple tense. Thus the compound of the present expresses action pre- vious to the present, at the present time entirely com- pleted. So, if we were using the imperfect to tell of what was happening at noon yesterday, the compound of the imperfect would express action pre\aous to noon yesterday, and at that time entirely completed; if we use the future tense Avith reference to noon to-morrow, the compound of the future will express action previous to noon to-morrow, action which, by noon to-morrow, will have been entirely completed. Since the compound tenses all express completed action, action continuing at the time in mind must be expressed by a simple tense: I have been here ten minutes {and am still here) must be je suis id depuis dix minutes, or, il y a (voila) dix minutes que je suis ici; I had been studijing an hour, imphdng that the speaker was still continuing to study, must be j'etudiais depuis line heure, or, il y avait une heure que j'etudiais. 104. The compound of the past definite, the past an- terior, is but little used, and only (a) after an adverb of time, in the subordinate clause of a complex sentence, (b) expressing the less prominent of two acts, (c) when the main verb is in the past definite. Thus in the sentence, quand Marie fut entree, Jean ferma la porte, the important statement is that John closed the door, Marie's having previously entered being mentioned incidentally; but if we said quand Jean ferma la porte, Marie etait entree the important statement would be that IVIarie had entered, after which John closed the PASSIVE VOICE 73 door. We note that the past anterior is in the subordi- nate clause introduced by the adverb of time, quand, and that the main verb is in the past definite. Unless the three conditions specified are all fulfilled, the compound of a past tense should be the pluperfect and not the past anterior. EXERCISE XLVI (See text in § 97) Translate : 1. When he had made his decision, he rose upon his riglit foot. 2. As soon as he had stretched out his hand, he lost his balance. 3. The crowd had been watching the topman for five minutes when the convict climbed up into the rigging. 4. The topman had been swinging back and forth for two minutes when the convict began to go down the rope hand over hand. 5. We have been studying French for three months. PASSIVE VOICE 105. Passive constructions when used in French cor- respond exactly to similar Enghsh constructions, the aux- ihary being etre, the past participle agreeing in gender and number with the subject of the verb, and the agent being introduced by par or de. Par is used commonly with the agent of a material act, and de with the agent of mental action: elle est aimee de ses parents; ils furent vaincus par leurs ennemis. Formerly de was more generally used, and it still ap- pears where the agency is expressed rather as incidental or descriptive than as having definite purpose, as, suivi 74 PAST AND FUTURE TENSES OF INDICATIVE de ses trois enfants; un papier signe du roi; un arbuste battu des vents de mer; brule du soleil; autant vaut etre mordu du chien que de la chienne {as well he bitten by the dog as by his mate). On the other hand, to express vigorous, volitional agency par occurs where we might expect de, as, hai par les grands, aime par le peuple ; estime par les savants. EXERCISE XLVn Translate: 1. Those ladies are respected by all. 2. That invasion was dreaded by everyone. 3. Is he known to (de) you? 4. Do you fear to (de) be forgotten by us? 5. He will be punished by his father. 6. She will be punished for (de) her faults. 7. The topman was saved by the convict. 8. The rope will be broken by the sailor. 106. Passive constructions are less frequent in French than in English, being usually avoided by the use of on (see § 85), by the use of a reflexive verb (see § 60), or by turning the agent into the subject of an active verb, as, ses affaires le retiendront a Paris, instead of il sera re- tenu a Paris par ses affaires. EXERCISE XLVm Translate, not using the passive form in French: 1. The door is opened but no one is seen. 2. That isn't said; such expressions arc avoided. 3. Has that book been translated? 4. I am told that his book is selling well (is selling itself well). THE INFINITIVE 75 107. An English past passive participle dependent on a verb of causation or perception is rendered in French by an active infinitive with some indefinite subject under- stood, as, je I'ai fait appeler, I have had him called, i.e. / have had (someone) call him; je I'ai vu frapper, / have seen him struck, i.e. / have seen (somebody) strike him. The latter sentence may also mean / have seen him strike and should therefore be avoided where ambiguity might exist. EXERCISE XLIX Translate : 1. Do you wish to have your shoes mended? 2. He has had that ugly dog killed. 3. I saw it burned. 4. Have you heard it said often? 5. Have them called at once. CHAPTER V VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE THE INFINITIVE 108. The infinitive is a word combining the functions of a verb and those of a noun; that is, it may have any construction that a noun may have, be subject or com- plement of a verb, or object of a preposition, while at the same time it expresses action. What is the construction of the following infinitives? Vouloir, c'est pouvoir. Mieux vaut mourir que perdre Thonneur. II aimait mieux boire qfue manger. Je ne crois pas pouvoir y aller. Faites, sans raisonner. 76 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE 109. The simple (present) infinitive expresses action at the time referred to by the context; the compound (past) infinitive expresses action anterior to that of the main verb; hence after apres the past infinitive is regu- larly used: je jure de m'y trouver demain; apres avoir dit cela, il sortit. For the preposition that sometimes introduces an in- finitive, see §§ 202-219. EXERCISE L Translate into French : 1. Knowledge is power. 2. Death is better than living without friends. 3. Do you like swimming better than skating? 4. He does not think he can come. 5. Go there at once, without answering him. 6. After going out, he called his friend. THE PARTICIPLE 110. A part of a verb that may modify a substantive, i.e. that combines the functions of the verb and of the adjective, "participating" in both, is called a participle. The verb-form ending in -ant, generally called the present participle, includes forms and uses derived from the Latin gerund as well as those coming from the present participle. The gerund constructions include a considerable variety of circumstantial complements, and are frequently preceded by the preposition en. In ele- mentary work, it does not seem wise to emphasize the distinction, as many students know no Latin, and are only concerned with the actual uses of the form which they know as the present participle. More advanced THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE 77 students, especially those familiar with Latin, may prefer to divide the class of present participles into gerunds; present participles in the restricted sense of those de- rived from the Latin participle, still retaining verb-force, and commonly invariable; and verbal adjectives. The gerund (gerondif) is the -ant form used as an indefinite noun. To express the less prominent of two acts done at thfe same time by the same subject, we commonly use the present participle, as, On apprend bien des choses en lisant. «Parlez,» dit-elle, en le regardant. Ouvrant les yeux, il vit son frere. The preposition en, the only one in French that governs the present participle, expresses a close connection be- tween the participle and the main verb, such as is often indicated in Enghsh by while, by, on, when, etc.: on de- vient soupfonneux en vieillissant, one becomes suspicious by growing old or as he grows old. The present participle may also refer to the direct ob- ject of a verb; and it is occasionally found in other con- structions, as. On les trouve errant (or errants) dans les bois. Lui chantant, personne ne bougera. L'appetit vient en mangeant. 111. English present participles expressing a position are generally translated by past participles in French, as, sitting before a little table, assis devant ime petite table; leaning against the wall, appuye au mur; leaning froin the window, penche a la fenetre ; hanging from the branches, suspendu aux branches. 78 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE The present participle in similar sentences would ex- press simultaneous action, not position, as, s'asseyant devant une petite table, taking a seat in front of a small table; s'appuyant au mur, bracing himself against the wall, etc. 112. English present participles are often translated by a relative clause, as, / found him waiting for me, je le trouvai qui m'attendait ; a slee'ping child, un enfant qui dort. 113. When a preceding substantive is described by a past participle, the adjective force usually predominates, and the participle, like other adjectives, takes the gender and number of the substantive, as, Cast une plume cassee. Cette plume est cassee; c'est Jean qui I'a cassee. Voila la plume que Jean a cassee. Combien de plumes avez-vous cassees? When no preceding substantive is described by a past participle, action outweighing description, the verbal force predominates and the participle is invariable, i.e. it does not change its form to agree in gender and number with any substantive, as, Marie n'a pas casse la plume. Combien avez-vous casse de plumes? EXERCISE LI I. Substitute participles for the infinitives in paren- theses. Ce matin nous nous sommes {lever) de bonne heure, nous avons {dejeuner), nous sommes {aller) a la gare, nous avons {prendre) des billets pour Versailles, et apres les avoir {payer), THE CONDITIONAL 79 nous sommes (entrer) dans la salle d'attente. Quand on a {ap- peler) les voyageurs, nous somnies (sortir), nous soniines {monter) dans le train, et nous avons {presenter) nos billets au controleur qui les a (poingonner) et nous les a {rendre). En (arriver) a Versailles, nous sonimes {descendre) du train, nous avons (remettre) nos billets a la porte de sortie, et nous avons (heler) un cocher qui nous a (conduire) au palais, oii nous avons beaucoup (admirer) ces magnifiques tableaux historiques que vous avez sans doute deja (voir). Repeat, substituting Marie for nous. Repeat, substituting Marie et Louise for nous. Repeat, substituting successively for nous the other sub- jective personal pronouns. II. Translate into French: 1. Close the door as you go out. 2. She broke her arm (se casser le bras) as she fell. 3. Saying that, she went away. 4. When I came in, I saw the flowers you had left for me. 5. He went to bed very late, and when he awoke he saw John writing a letter. THE CONDITIONAL 114. A tense formed by adding to the infinitive the endings of the imperfect indicative, -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient, is called the present conditional. As in forming the future, verbs in -oir except pourvoir and pre- voir, all in -re, and a few in -ir, drop the vowel of the in- finitive ending. The tense might therefore be said to have the stem of the future and the endings of the imper- fect indicative, a statement true for every verb in the language. The compound of the present conditional is called the past conditional. 80 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE EXERCISE Ln Write the present conditional of the verbs of which the future was asked in §§98 and 99. 115. Study the tenses in the following sentences: Pierre repond, «S'il pleut, je n'irai pas.» Pierre repond que s'il pleut, il n'ira pas. Pierre repondit que s'il pleuvait, il n'irait pas. In the first sentence, the words of Pierre are quoted just as he spoke them; this is called direct discourse. In the other two sentences, the substance of what Pierre replied appears, but introduced by the conjunction que, and with je changed to il. This is called indirect discourse. In the second sentence, the verb repond is in the present tense, and the tenses following are the same as in the direct quotation, present and future. In the third sentence, the verb introducing the indirect quota- tion, repondit, is a past definite, and the following tenses are not the same as in the direct discourse, the present indicative pleut changing to pleuvait, an imperfect; and the future irai changing to a conditional, irait. The past tenses, and usually the present conditional, require such a change in the tense of a subordinate verb, and are called secondary tenses. The present and future indicative re- quire no change in the tense of a subordinate verb and are called primary tenses. Note that the English con- struction is quite similar to the French. One of the two great uses of the conditional is to re- place the future in subordinate clauses that depend upon a secondary tense. This conditional has been called the futur dans le passe and denotes action to follow a moment of past time, just as the future denotes action to follow the present moment. THE CONDITIONAL 81 EXERCISE Lin 1. In the following sentences, change the main verb from present to past definite or imperfect indicative, and make necessary changes in the subordinate verbs: L II repoiid qu'il nous en saura gre, tant qu'il vi\Ta. 2. Je pense que celui qui a fait cela pourra bien fairs davan- tage. 3. lis savent que celui qui n'etudie pas, ne saura pas sa lec^on. 4. Esperez-vous qu'ils viendront s'il fait beau temps? 5. lis disent que nous serons les bienvenus si nous voulons leur faire visite. What happens if we change the main verb to a future tense? What happens if we change the main verb to a present conditional? II. Translate: 1. He did not believe she would come. 2. She kept saying that they would do it soon. 3. You knew you would be welcome. 4. Did you think we should be late? 5. We hoped he would find his watch again. 116. The second use of the conditional is its use in a then clause (apodosis) to tell what would be if . . ., implying non-fulfilment of a condition. The if clause (protasis) regularly has the imperfect indicative, or its compound (the pluperfect). Si vous etiez tombe (but you did not fall), vous vous seriez casse la jambe (but you did not), if you had fallen, you would have broken your leg. Je voudrais bien le voir (but I do not see him), I shoidd like to see him. Si Pierre venait, nous 82 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE irions ensemble faire la peche aux truites (but Peter has not come, and our trout fishing seems improbable), ij Peter should come, we should go trout fishing together. EXERCISE LIV I. Translate into French: 1. If we had apples, we should give you some. 2. If you had apples, should you give us any? 3. They would die if they ate those mushrooms. 4. If I had a carriage, I should go to Versailles. 5. He would come back to-morrow if it should rain. II. Replace by the proper tense the infinitives in parentheses : 1. Si Paul mange des fruits verts, il (etre) malade. 2. Si Paul mangeait des fruits verts, il (etre) malade. 3. Si je vols votre frere, je lui (donner) de vos nouvelles. 4. Si je voyais votre frere, je lui {donner) de vos nouvelles. 5. Si les chats sont absents, les souris (danser). 6. Quand les chats (etre) absents, les souris danseront. 7. Si les chats etaient absents, les souris (danser). THE SUBJUNCTIVE 117. Some statements it is well not to make too positive, either because our knowledge is incomplete, or because the nature of the fact makes it desirable not to declare it too positively. In subordinate clauses, French puts such statements in the subjunctive mode. In the following sentences 1. Je souhaite qu'il retrouve sa montre. / ivish him to find his icatch. 2. Je ne crois pas qu'il vienne. I do not believe he is coming. THE SUBJUNCTIVE 83 3. Je regrette qu'il soil malade. / am sorry he is ill. 4. Je suis heureux qu'il so/7 retabli. / a7?i glad he is well again. retrouve, vienne, and soit are subjunctives. I ivish him to find his watch — but I cannot tell positively that he will or will not; / do not believe he is coming — but cannot say positively that he is or is not; I am sorry that he is ill — but am reluctant to state positively so unpleasant a fact; / am glad he is well again — but hardly dare be too sure of it. The subjunctive seems always to imply some such mental reservation as, "so far as I can judge," ''if I am correctly informed," "to the best of my knowledge," "judging from appearances," "yet I may be in error," 118. Th€ essential characteristics of the three great modes are, then, Indicative, positiveness. Conditional, (a) in subordinate clauses, supplies a secondary tense for the future, "a future in the past," (6) in principal clauses, implies some unfulfilled con- dition. Subjunctive, mental reservation, lack of positiveness in statement, absence of speaker's guarantee. 119. Some of the expressions which usually require the verb of a dependent clause to be in the subjunctive are 1. Expressions of wish, command, purpose, concession, approval, necessity, etc., in which the implication of fu- turity makes positive statement impossible. Events do 84 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE not always turn out as we wish, command, plan, or think right or necessary. 2. Expressions of emotion; perhaps because belief or sentiment, rather than fact, is recognized as the cause of emotions. 3. Negative or interrogative expressions implying un- certainty as to the statement in the subordinate clause. 4. Absolute negations, superlatives, and exclusives like seul, unique, premier, where a positive statement would imply omniscience. 5. Most impersonal expressions, like il faut, il est bien, etc., come under 1 or 2, and require a subjunctive unless a dependent infinitive is used. In the following sentences the verbs in italics are in the subjunctive. Study them and tell why. 1. II est juste qu'il soil puni; il faut qu'il se conduise bien. It is right for him to he punished; he must behave well. 2. Je veux que vous disiez toujours la verite. / wish you to speak the truth always. 3. Je crois qu'il est parti, mais je ne crois pas que sa soeur soil partie avec lui. I believe he has gone, hut I do 7iot believe that his sister went with him. 4. Je dis qu'il le fera, mais je ne dis pas qu'il le fasse volontiers. / say he will do it, but I do not say he will do it willingly. 5. C'est le meilleur homme que je connaisse. He is the best man that I know. 130. In subjunctive clauses dependent on a primary tense (present or future) we use the present subjunctive or its compound (the past subjunctive), as in the five THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE 85 preceding sentences. The present subjunctive may be formed by changing the -ant of the present participle into -e, -es, -e, -ions, -iez, -ent. The present subjunc- tive of ecrire, present participle ecrivant, is therefore ecrive, ecrives, ecrive, ecrivions, ecriviez, ecrivent. EXERCISE LV Write the present subjunctive of donner, finir, rompre, connaltre, lire, ou\Tir, plaindre, con- duire, savoir, s'asseou', vivre. 121. In the singular and third plural of the present subjunctive the endings are mute, and the voice-stress (tonic accent) therefore comes on the stem, which in these persons usually strengthens its last vowel (stem vowel) whenever the first singular present indicative has a strengthened stem vowel. So in mourir, mourant, meurs; venir, venant, viens; mener, menant, mene; ceder, ce- dant, cede; devoir, devant, dois; the close stem vowel of the present participle strengthens to an open vowel in the first singular of the present indicative; we therefore expect a similar streng-thening in the mute-ending forms of the present subjunctives which are: meure, meures, meure, mourions, mouriez, meurent; vienne, viennes, vienne, venions, veniez, viennent; mene, menes, mene, menions, meniez, menent; cede, cedes, cede, cedions, cediez, cedent; doive, delves, doive, devions, deviez, doivent. EXERCISE LVI Write the present subjunctives of recevoir, boire, acquerir, mouvoir, envoyer, fuir, prendre, con- cevoir, croire, apercevoir, voir. . 86 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE Note" the following forms of avoir: aie, ait, ayons; and of etre : sois, soit, soyons. What persons are these? Write the whole tense. Two verbs, faire and pouvoir, have irregular stems fass- and puiss- throughout the tense. Write in full. The present subjunctive of savoir is formed in accordance with the rule, although the stem of the present participle, sachant, is peculiar. Four verbs, aller, falloir, valoir, and vouloir, have a liquid 1 (ill) before mute endings in the present subjunctive, the third persons singular being aille, faille, vaille, and veuille. Which of the verbs occurs only in the third sin- gular? Write the tense in full for the others. 132. In subjunctive clauses dependent on a secondary tense (past tenses, and regularly the present conditional), we use the imperfect subjunctive or its compound (the pluperfect subjunctive). The imperfect subjunctive may be formed for every verb in the language by changing the last letter of the first singular past definite into -sse, -sses, -t, -ssions, -ssiez, -ssent. In the five sentences at the end of § 119, if we used imperfect indicatives instead of present indicatives for the main verbs, we should have to change all the dependent subjunctives from presents to imperfects, and the sentences would become 1. II etait juste qu'il fiit puni; 11 fallait qu'il se conduisU bien. 2. Je voulais que vous dissiez toujours la verite. 3. Je croyais qu'il etait parti; mais je ne croyais pas que sa soeur fiit partie avec lui. 4. Je disais qu'il le ferait; mais je ne disais pas qu'il le fit volontiers. 5. C etait le meilleur homme que je connusse. THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 87 The forms of the imperfect subjunctive, especially those in -ss-, seem obnoxious to most Frenchmen and are almost invariably avoided in conversation. Instead of the "book French" of 5 a Frenchman might say, c'etait le meilleur homme de ma connaissance, or je ne connais- sais pas de meilleur homme, or je ne connaissais per- sonne de si bon que lui. EXERCISE LVn Write the imperfect subjunctives of the sixteen verbs in §38. 123. The present subjunctive is used with the force of an imperative, expressing wish, exhortation, or command, in certain clauses introduced by que or some compound of que. These are sometimes regarded as clauses dependent on some verb of wish or command that is omitted; but historically many are independent constructions, coming from Latin subjunctives with imperative force. Thus, (Je veux, j'ordonne) Qu'il vienne! Let him come! (Je serai content) Pourvu qu'on I'attrape ! Only let them catch him! 134. A few subjunctive forms, — sois, puisse, veuille, garde, vive, plaise, plut, dut, — are used without que in similar optative or imperative clauses: Plut a Dieu qu'il f ut ici ! Would to God that he were here! Vive le roi! Long live the king! A Dieu ne plaise ! God forbid! Ainsi soit-ill So let it he! 125. A pluperfect subjunctive may be used in either clause of those conditional sentences that regularly have the pluperfect indicative in protasis and the past condi- 88 VERB-FORMS OTHER THAN THE INDICATIVE tional in apodosis. So instead of s'il etait venu plus tot, on I'aiirait pris, we might find fut-il (s'il fut) venu plus tot, on I'eut pris. Some grammarians call this a "sec- ondary form of conditional," although it looks like a plu- perfect subjunctive. This use is wholly literary. EXERCISE LVni (See text in § 97) Translate into French: 1. I wash them to suppress these formalities. 2. I wish they would suppress these formalities. 3. They would suppress these fomialities if they stiU ob- served them. 4. They would have suppressed these formaUties if they had still observed them. 5. Let them suppress these formalities; do you wish us to observe them forever? 6. If he had made a decision, he would have raised himself upon his left foot. 7. Let him twist his left foot around iiis right foot. 8. It is unfortunate that the stool has but three legs. 9. It was unfortunate that the stool had but three legs. 10. I am sorry that he stretched out his arm. 11. I am sorrj^ that he is losing his balance and falling. 12. I am sorry that he lost his balance and fell. 13. I was sorr\' for him to lose his balance and fall. 14. I was sorrv^ that he had lost his balance and fallen. 15. Let him support himself by the dummy! God forbid that hefaU! 16. The topman must seize the foot-rope. 17. The topman had to seize the foot-rope. 18. I am glad the topman seized the foot-rope. 19. I was glad the topman had seized the foot-rope. 20. The convict must climb up the rigging. GENDER OF NOUNS 89 21. The convict had to chmb up the rigging. 22. It is well the convict climbed up the rigging. 23. It was Veil the convict had climbed up the rigging. 24. The convict is the first who climbed U]) the rigging. 25. The convict was the first who had climbed up the rigging. 26. The topman is the only one who has fallen from the yard. 27. The topman was the only one who had faUen from the yard. 28. Let the topman go down the rope hand over hand. 29. Order the convict to go to liis assistance. CHAPTER VI MORE ABOUT SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES GENDER OF NOUNS 136. The best way to master the gender of nouns is to associate each with an article that shows the gender, as, iin incendie, iin lycee, une dent, une soiiris. Most of the many rules sometimes given for gender are forgotten be- fore they are used. The following appear to be the most helpful ones, and all that it is worth while for most stu- dents to memorize. Even to these there are many excep- tions that must be learned by experience. Assume a noun to be masculine, unless you know it to be feminine. The endings -age, -ege, -aire, -iste, and -ice are almost always masculine. Most feminines are included in the following classes: 1. Nouns denoting females. 2. Nouns derived from Latin feminines and from neuter plurals in -a. 90 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES 3. Nouns ending in -ace, -ade, -ude ; -ale, -ole, -ule; -ise, -ose, -use; -ance, -anse, -ence, -ense; -ane, -ine, -iere, -ure. Learn these by pronouncing and l)y writing them. Learn as exceptions un grade, un prelude, le silence, un mur- mur e. 4. Nouns ending in mute -e preceded by a vowel or a double consonant. Learn as exceptions un lycee, un musee, un incendie, un genie, un parapluie. 5. Nouns ending in -son or -ion, and abstracts in -te, -tie, -oire, and -eur. Learn as exceptions le poison, le bonheur, le malheur, un honneur, le labeur. 6. Clef (cle), soif ;faim; fagon, legon, ranfon; fin, main; chair, cour, tour (tower); cuiller, mer; brebis, souris, oasis, vis; fois; dent, dot, foret, mort, nuit, part; paix, chaux, faux, croix, noix, poix, voix, perdrix, toux; syllabe, justice, cage, image, nage, page, plage, rage; fanfare, guitare, lyre; neige, tige; fourmi, foi, loi; eau, peau, tribu, vertu are also feminine. Study the nouns in a chapter of the text you are reading and see what per cent of them are explained by this section. 7. Gens is feminine; but combinations like gens de lettres, jeunes gens, tous les gens sages are masculine. Moreover, a pronoun referring to gens, and an adjective which begins its word-group or which follows gens, will usually be masculine: ceux de ces bonnes gens que j'ai connus; instruits or instruites par I'experience, les vieilles gens sont prudents or prudentes. GENDER OF NOUNS 91 137. Some nouns use an entirely different word for the feminine, as, homme, femine; frere, soeur; oncle, tante; bouc, chevre; taureau, vache; others have a fem- inine derived from the same word, l)ut shghtly different in form, as, empereur, imperatrice ; canard, cane; com- pagnon, compagne; serviteur, servante; loup, louve. Many change the masculine ending to -esse, sometimes slightly modifying the stem of the word, as, comte, com- tesse; maitre, maitresse; prince, princesse; due, duchesse; dieu, deesse; enchanteur, enchanteresse ; pecheur, peche- resse. 138. Adjectives, and most nouns not coming under § 127, form their feminine 1. By adding -e to the mascuhne, as, grand, grande; cousin, cousine; meilleur, meilleure; but Words ending in -e in the masculine, as sage, artiste, remain unchanged. On adding -e for the feminine, the stem changes its final consonant as follows: (a) f to V : bref , breve ; attentif , attentive ; veuf , veuve. X to s: heureux, heureuse; jaloux, jalouse; epoux, epouse. c to ch or qu : blanc, blanche ; public, publique ; turc, turque. g to gu: long, longue. n to gn: in benin, benigne; malin, maligne. r to s : in adjectives in -eur like menteur, menteuse, trompeur, trompeuse, which have the same stem as present participles in -ant, mentant (mentir), and trompant (tromper). (h) Final 1, n, s, and t are often doubled, especially after e, as, cruel, cruelle; mortel, mortelle; gentil, gen- 92 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES tille; nul, nulle; bon, bonne; chien, chienne; paysan, paysanne; gros, grosse; epais, epaisse; sot, sotte; poulet, poulette; chat, chatte. Remember to write the grave accent over an e which ends its syllable and is followed by a mute syllable, as in cher, chere; complet, complete; secret, secrete; etranger, etrangere; sec, seche. 2. By changing -teur to -trice if there be no present participle having th. same stem and the ending -ant, as, acteur, actrice ; createur, creatrice ; but flatteiir gives flat- teuse, since we have a present participle flattant. Note as exceptions inspectrice, inventrice, executrice, persecu- trice. 3. By adding -ine, as, tsar, tsarine; Victor, Victorine. Heros drops s, forming heroine. 129. Irregular forms are favori, favorite ; frais, fraiche ; tiers, tierce; doux, douce; faux, fausse; grec, grecque. Note also the adjectives with two forms in the mascu- line singular mentioned in § 25. Jumeau, jumelle, has a feminine formed like that of beau and nouveau. EXERCISE LIX Write the feminine of the follo^\dng words : ami, jeune, cousin, frere, marquis, oncle, franc, actif, beau, frais, h^ros, gris, muet, pret, pareil, lion, idiot, expres, mou, ancien, "vieux, dieu, berger, inquiet, favori, superieur, empereur, directeur, vendeur, majeur, danseiu-, accusateur, chanteur. Write the masculine nouns corresponding to mere, femme, princesse, servante, compagne, ambassadrice, abbesse, tigresse, Suissesse, negresse. INVARIABLE FORMS 93 INVARIABLE FORMS 130. Uninflected parts of speech, although used as substantives, proper nouns, certain adjectives hke demi, nu, plein, feu when they precede their substantives, and adjectives used as adverbs, are usually invariable, as, Les non etaient nombreux. Avez-vous vu les Duval? Elle etait nu-pieds pendant une demi-heure (but une heure et demie) . Elle parlait haut. In many of these cases, and in the treatment of compound nouns and adjectives, usage allows considerable latitude; and common sense, guided by the principle that, except for the agreement of a verb with its subject, nouns and adjectives are the only proper variables, is the best substitute for that personal feeling for what is right which comes only with long and careful attention to good French models. Study the fol- lowing sentences: Ces fleurs sentent bon, mais elles ne coutent pas cher. Ce sont des sourds-muets. Elle etait court-vetue. II trouva de jolies perce-neige. Ce sont des chefs-d'oeuvre. Avez-vous un cure-dent? Lisez les cinquieme et sbdeme chapitres. Certain words like aurore, jonquille, marron, orange, paille, ponceau, pourpre were originally nouns, hence when used to denote the color of an object, they remain invariable, the words couleur de being perhaps under- stood, as, des rubans (couleur de) paille, straw-colored rib- bons; des etofifes marron, broum cloths. Any word of color if modified by an adjective like clair, light, fonce, dark, is invariable, as, des fleurs (d'un) bleu fonce, des robes jaune clair. 131. Although used adverbially, frais in fraiche cueillie, grand in grande ouverte, and tout before a fem- 94 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES inine word beginning with a consonant are inflected like adjectives: des fleurs fraiches cueillies; une fenetre grande ouverte ; elle etait tout etonnee et toute confuse. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 133. An adjective referring to more than one sub- stantive must be plural, and is masculine if either of the substantives is masculine. If the substantives are of dif- ferent genders, it is desirable that the one nearest the adjective be masculine. Marie et Jean sent arrives. Cette viande et ces fruits sont bons. Two adjectives referring to the same substantive agree with it in gender; but if the thought of the adjective be singular it need not agree in number with a plural noun, as, les nations anglaise et franfaise. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133. Except for the three adjectives bon, meilleur, le meilleur; petit, moindre, le moindre; mauvais, pire, le pire ; and the corresponding adverbs bien, mieux, le mieux ; peu, moins, le moins; mal, pis, le pis French adjectives and adverbs are compared by means of the adverbs plus, aussi, and moins, expressing respectively superiority, equality, and inferiority, as, plus grand (e), taller; aussi grand (e), as tall; moins grand (e), not so tall. The two terms of the comparison are always connected by que, although English uses sometimes than and sometimes as. Jean est plus studieux que Jules et aussi studieux que Pierre, mais il est moins studieux que GuiUaume. Jean court plus vite que vous. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 95 134. In comparisons of inequality, the first clause be- ing affirmative, a verb in the second clause is usually pre- ceded by ne: il est plus riche qu'il ne le parait, he is richer than he seems. 135. The superlative, in French, is merely the com- parative made definite by prefixing the definite article or some Umiting adjective, as, tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes ; elle portait 5a plus jolie robe. A phrase limiting a superlative, generally introduced in English by in, begins with de in French, as, le plus grand arbre du jardin, the tallest tree in the garden. One definite article answers for both noun and adjective when the superlative precedes its noun, as, la plus jolie fiUe de la classe; but when the adjective follows its noun each must have its own definite article, as, I'eleve le plus studieux de la classe ; les livres les plus interessants que j'aie lus. EXERCISE LX Translate : 1. Paris is the largest city in France, but London (Londres, rn.) is larger than Paris. 2. London is the largest city in the world. 3. Is Berlin larger than Paris? No, Berlin is smaller {less large) than Paris. 4. The dog is man's most faithful friend. 5. That apple-tree is the tallest tree in the garden. 6. The pear-trees are as tall as the cherry-trees, and taller than the rose-bushes, but they are not so tall as {are less tall than) the walnut-trees. 7. I like roses better than pinks. 8. Which is the best of those grammars? 9. That one is easier than it appears. 10. That one is harder than you think it. 96 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES USE OF THE ARTICLE 136. An article, or some limiting adjective, is the proper attribute of every French noun that is used with independent substantive force. When the noun loses its independent substantive force and blends with a verb into a verbal word-group like avoir faim, prendre garde, faire attention; or fades into a mere adverb or adjective as a modifier of a verb or of some more prominent sub- stantive as se mettre a table, monter a cheval, roi de France, iin morceau de pain, iin quart d'heure, il est avocat, sans peur, etc., it loses its article. Vagueness in the substantive concept, such for instance as characterizes its use with the preposition en or in a general negation, or mere adjective force, as in apposi- tion, — en France, pas de livres, Vivette, petite-fille du meunier, etc., — allows the article to drop away. In many cases it is correct to use or to omit the article ac- cording to the degree of definite substantive force desired, as par chemin de fer, where the phrase has mere ad- verbial force, and par le chemin de fer, where we feel chemin de fer as a definite independent substantive. Names of countries omit the article after de in common adjective phrases referring to the ruler, form of govern- ment, great institutions, and wars: le royaume, le roi, la cour, le parlement d'Angleterre; I'lnstitut de France; les guerres d'ltalie; in adverbial phrases after sortir, revenir, etc.: sortir de France, revenir d'Amerique; feminine countries omit the article in similar phrases referring to the products and geographical features of the country: la carte d'Afrique, les monts d'Auvergne, la porcelaine de Saxe, les vins d'Espagne (but monts du Limousin, vins du Portugal). USE OF THE ARTICLE 97 Nevertheless, if the conventional form of the expres- sion is broken by introducing an unusual element — comtes de Forez, comtes amovibles du Forez — or if the proper noun stands out with dominant substantive force — les montagnes de la Suisse — the article appears. 137. Certain noteworthy cases are 1. The use of the indefinite article with an abstract noun that is modified by an adjective, as, une bonne sante, un courage a toute epreuve, une patience admirable. 2. The use of the definite article. (a) With a generic noun, that is, a noun used in a gen- eral sense, meaning all, every, in general, as, le fer et le plomb sent des metaux, il n'aime pas les chiens, nous apprenons le frangais. (6) With distributive nouns of weight, measure, etc., after expressions of price: dix sous la livre; trois sous la piece ; trois francs la douzaine. (c) With proper nouns accompanied by an adjective or a title, as, le petit Henri, le roi fidouard, le pere Simon. (d) With most geographical names, except those of cities, as, la France, I'ltalie, le Rhin, les Alpes, le mont Cervin. (e) Instead of a weak possessive adjective, especially of parts of the body, an indirect object pronoun often occur- ring to show the possessor, as, il leva la tete; il s'est cogne la tete; il m'a ecrase le pied; elle lui donna la main; il m'a barre le passage. (/) After bien and la plupart : bien des hommes, la plu- part du monde. 98 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES WORD-ORDER 138. The French language is periodic, fond of a cHmax; the tonic accent comes on the last pronounced syllable; the stressed, emphatic, prominent word comes at the end of its word-group, where a dramatic pause can follow it. Everything leads up to this finale, this key-word that tells what the rest is about. This basal principle of the language puts unstressed words like ne and the objective personal pronouns out of the way before the verb, — je ne le lui dirai pas; places weak adverbs and pronouns be- fore the participle of a compound tense, — il a trop bu, nous n'avons rien vu; develops expressions like c'est lui qui I'a fait, ce n'est pas I'intelligence qui lui manque, qu'est-ce que c'est? or qu'est-ce que c'est que ga? to bring the prominent stressed word at the end of a word-group; and furnishes the only trustworthy guide to the position of a qualifying adjective. The adjective that is weak, hackneyed, unemphatic, yields the coveted group-end place to its substantive; but the adjective that is stressed, rare, long, possessed of verbal force, or other\\ise entitled to prominence, acquires it by coming after its substantive at the end of its word-group. So le bleu ciel, une blanche vestale, une profonde vallee, un doux parfum gain little from the adjective; skies are blue, vestals white, valleys deep, perfumes sweet, as a matter of course; but if we see un oiseau bleu, une robe blanche, un lac profond, une odeur douce we are impressed by the blueness of the l)ird, the whiteness of the gown, the depth of the lake, the sweet- ness of the smell. Overworked common words then, like beau, bon, grand, gros, jeune, joli, long, mauvais, meil- leur, petit, vieux, vilain, usually precede the noun; ad- jectives used figuratively precede: une eclatante victoire. WORD-ORDER 99 une verte vieillesse; while an adjective strengthened by a phrase or a long adverb, or joined by a, conjunction to an important adjective, must follow the noun, as, un bon- homme vieux et ruse, des etres infiniment petits, un homme meilleur que ses voisins. Study the position of adjectives found in your text until you feel the force of group-end position. A favorite way of bringing a particular word or phrase into prominence is to put c'est before it and a relative pronoun between it and the following statement, as, c'est a Vous que je donne le livre; c'est moi qui vous donne le livre; c'est le livre que je vous donne; where the expres- sions in italics have more stress than in the normal sen- tence, je vous donne le livre. The tendency to put the most prominent thing last also appears in the order of the complements that follow a verb. Of two equally important, the longer one will fol- low the shorter. Not only does the pause in language lend prominence to the preceding word or word-group which it gives us time to comprehend before we go further, it also makes prominent the word or word-group immediately follow- ing, which introduces some new subject to a mind re- freshed by the pause and ready to pass to a new thought. Next in importance to the end, then, is the beginning of the French sentence or verse; and in place of the subject, which regularly occupies this position, an important ad- verbial modifier is often put here, as, Jamais je ne me battrai avec vous. Deja la nuit tombait. Bientot il revint. Ce matin meme il me I'a dit. 100 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES CARDINAL NUMBERS 139. Digits. Digits + 10. Digits X 10. 1. un, une 11. onze 10. dix 2. deux 12. douze 20. vingt 3. trois 13. treize 30. trente 4. quatre 14. quatorze 40. quarante 5. cinq 15. quinze 50. cinquante 6. six 16. seize 60. soixante 7. sept 17. dix-sept 70. soixante-dix 8. huit 18. dix-huit 80. quatre-vingts 9. neiS 19. dix-neuf 90. quatre-vingt-dix When the numeral modifies a following substantive, the final consonants of the numbers from 2 to 19, inclusive, are silent before a consonant sound, as, deux livres, trois crayons, cinq fils, six gargons, sept plumes, huit petits agneaux, neuf jolies maisons; while before a vowel sound liaison occurs, f softening to v and s or x to z in pronun- ciation, as, deux hommes, trois enfants, cinq eleves, six arbres, dix-neuf agneaux. Elsewhere the pronunciation is as indicated, as, le cinq Janvier, sept pour cent, page neuf. Liaison or elision never occurs with onze. From 21 to 69, inclusive, the multiples of ten are com- bined with the digits, the conjunction et being replaced by a hj^hen except before un(e), as, Pronounce: ce, yn, do, trwa, katr, sek, sis, set, qit, ncsf, dis, 5:z, duiz, tre:z, katorz, ke:z, se:z, dis set, diz qit, diz noef, ve, vet e de, ved d0, vet trwa, vet katr, vet sek, trait, karait, seka:t, swasait, katra ve, katra ve de, katra ve do, katra ve 5:z, sa, sa de, do sa, do sa de, mil, mil de, mil noe sa katra ve diz \\\t, trwa mil. do liivr, doz om, trwa krejo, trwaz afa, se fis, sek eleiv, la sek savje, si gars5, siz arbr, la sis avril, se plym, set pur sd, qi patiz apo, nuz etj5 qit, noe soli mez5, diz noev ape, pais i^o^f. CARDINAL NUMF^Mr? 101 21. vingt et un(e) 22. vingt-deux 23. vingt-trois 24. vingt-quatre 25. vingt-cinq 26. vingt-six 27. vingt-sept 28. vingt-huit 29. vingt-nenf 31. trente et un(e) 32. trente-deux 41. quarante et un(e) 43. quarante-trois 51. cinquante et un(e) 54. ciuquaute-quatre 61. soixante et un(e) 65. soixante-cinq 69. soixante-iieuf From 69 the series continues "sixty-ten," "sixty- eleven," etc., to "four-score," "four-score-one," "four- score-eleven, " " four-score-ten-nine " ( = ninety-nine) : 71. soixante (et) onze 72. soixante-douze 73. soixante-treize 74. soixante-quatorze 75. soixante-quinze 81. quatre- vingt-un (e) 89. quatre-vingt-neuf 91. quatre- vingt-onze 97. quatre-vingt-dix-sept 99. quatre-vingt-dix-neuf Higher numerals are 100. cent 1000. mille 101. cent un(e) 1215. mille deux cent quinze 200. deux cents 1998. mille neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-huit 209. deux cent neuf 3000. trois mille Cent and vingt must take a final s when multiplied and not followed by another numeral, as, trois cents, quatre- vingts, etc.; yet not when used as ordinals, as, I'an cinq cent, page trois cent, page quatre-vingt, etc. Other car- dinal numbers are invariable, except un. Unlike the numeral adjectives the nouns un millier (1000), un million (1,000,000), and un mUUard (1,000,- 000,000) always take an s in the plural, and may be modified by an article. 1,0^2 ^fjpSTAN'flVES A?vD THEIR SUBORDINATES For dates between 1001 and 1999 a.d., inclusive, mil is used instead of mille, as, mil huit cent douze (or dix-huit cent douze). ORDINAL NUMBERS 140. The numbers that denote order in a series are 1st. preniier(s), fem. premiere(s) 3d. troisieme(s) 2d. second (e)(s) when a third is not im- 5th. cinquieme(s) phed 9th. neuvieme(s) deuxieme(s) when a thirdis imphed 10th. dixieme(s) etc. the others all being formed by adding -ieme(s) to the last consonant of the corresponding cardinal. COLLECTIVE NUMERAL NOUNS 141. The following feminine nouns are used to de- note approximately the number indicated by the corre- sponding cardinal: mie huitaine, eight; ime dizaine, a half-score; ime douzaine, a dozen, etc., many others being formed by adding -aine to the last consonant of the cor- responding cardinal. The following are mascuHne, and (except millier) used Avith greater precision: un cent, un millier, un million, un milliard, etc. FRACTIONS 143. Fractions are commonly formed by using a car- dinal number for the numerator, and an ordinal for the denominator, as, f, trois septiemes; jo^, neuf cent-troi- siemes, etc. The following are exceptions: i, un demi, FRACTIONS 103 une demie, la moitie; h, un tiers; i, un quart. Trois demi(e)s et trois sixiemes font deux entiers, three halves and three sixths make two wholes (units). Deux tiers et trois quarts font dix-sept douziemes, c'est-a-dire un (en- tier) et cinq douziemes, two thirds and three fourths inake seventeen twelfths, that is, one (unit) and five twelfths. Fractions limited by a definite substantive take the definite article themselves, as, la moitie du temps, les deux tiers de ces hommes-la, il n'en veut que le quart. EXERCISE LXI I. (a) Give the tables for addition and multiplication according to the follo\\ing models: Deux et un font trois, deux et deux font quatre, deux et trois font cinq, etc. Une fois deux fait deux, deux fois deux font quatre, trois fois deux font six, etc. (b) Write the follo^\^ng questions and the answers in French : 1. How many are two thirds and one fourth? 2. How many are two fifths less one third? 3. How many are seven twelfths and three fourths? 4. By (de) how much is a half (demi) greater than a sixth? II. Translate: 1. Mary has eaten half an apple. 2. Little John has eaten half (la moitie) of his apples. 3. They have only written three fourths of those sentences. 4. We have wTitten some thirty (une trentaine) of them. 5. This time there were thousands of them. 6. Three eighths is hah of three fourths. 104 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES TIME 143. Quelle heure est-il? II est minuit. II est minuit (et) dix (mi- nutes). II est une heure. II est une heure ( et) un quart. n est deux heures. II est trois heures (et) vingt (minutes). II est quatre heures et demie. II est cinq heures trente-sept. ] II est six heures moins vingt- j trois minutes. | II est sept heures moins un (le) quart. II est onze heures moins dix minutes. n est onze heures precises. n est midi. II est midi et demi. What time is it? It is twelve o'clock (midnight). It is ten minutes past twelve. It is one o'clock. It is quarter past one. It is two o'clock. It is twentij minutes past three. It is half past four. It is twenty-three minutes of six. It is (a) quarter to seven. It is ten minutes to eleven. It is exactly eleven. It is twelve o'clock (noon). It is half past twelve. DATES AND TITLES 144. To tell the day of the month cardinal numbers are used except for the first, as, Le premier Janvier s'appelle le jour de I'an. Le deux f evrier. Le trois mars. C'est aujourd'hui (le) lundi, quatre avril. C'etait hier (le) mardi, cinq mai. January first is called New- year's-day. February second. The third of March. To-day is Monday, April fourth. Yesterday teas Tuesday, May the fifth. AGE 105 Ce sera demain (le) mercredi, six juin. C'etait avant-hier (le) jeudi, sept juillet. Ce sera apres-demain (le) vendredi, huit aout. II y a huit jours c'etait (le) samedi, neuf septembre. D'aujourd'hui en quinze ce sera (le) dimanche, dix oc- tobre. Tres souvent on ecrit 7^"^®, gbre^ ^bre g^ x*'" au UeU de septembre, octobre, no- vembre et decembre. To-morroiD will he Wednesday, June sixth. Day before yesterday ivas Thurs- day, July seventh. Day after to-morrow will be Fri- day, August eight. A week ago (it) was Saturday, the ninth of September. A fortnight from to-day will he Sunday, October tenth. Frequently people write 7^^, gbre^ ghre^ ^^^ -^bre ^'^g^g^^^ q/ September, October, Novem- ber, and December Similarly in titles the cardinal numbers are used, ex- cept for first, as, Henri premier, Charles deux, Pie neuf. But note as exceptions Charles-Quint and Sixte-Quint, Charles V (of Spain) and (Pope) Sixtus Fifth. Note that days and months begin with small letters, not capitals. AGE 145. Quel age avez-vous? J'ai seize ans; mon frere a vingt ans, et ma petite sceur en a dix; done j'ai six ans de plus que ma sceur, et je suis de quatre ans moins age que mon frere; j'ai aussi une soeur mariee qui est plus agee que moi de sept ans ; elle est done agee de vingt-trois ans. How old are you? I am sixteen; my brother is twenty, arid my little sister ten; so I am six years older than my sister and four years younger than my brother; I also have a married sister who is seven years older than I; so she is twenty-three. 106 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES DIMENSION 146. Cette salle est longue de This room is thirty feet long, trente pieds et large de twenty-four feet wide, and vingt-quatre pieds, elle est tivelve feet high; that is, it is haute de douze pieds; c'est- thirty by twenty-four by twelve; a-dire, elle a trente pieds it is eight feet shorter than the de long (longueur) sur next room, which is thirty- vingt-quatre de large (lar- eight feet long. geur) et douze de haut (hauteur) ; elle est de huit pieds moins longue que la salle voisine qui est une salle de trente-huit pieds de longueur. EXERCISE LXn I. Translate: 1. The class begins at exactly ten o'clock. 2. The teacher comes into the room at two minutes of ten. 3. Until ten minutes past ten we read aloud (lire a haute voix) all together after the teacher. 4. From quarter past ten to half past ten we translate from French into English. 5. From half past ten till quarter of eleven we translate from English into French. 6. Until five minutes of eleven we study the verbs. 7. Sometimes we write a short (petit) dictation from ten minutes of twelve until noon, or until five minutes past twelve. II, Write the following questions and their answers in French : 1. How many days are there from Christmas until New- year's-day? 2. How many days were there from February 3, 1908, until March 7, 1909? CE AND IL AS SUBJECT 107 3. When were you born? {Use past indefinite.) 4. What day is it to-day? 5. What day was it yesterday? 6. What day was it day before yesterday? 7. What day will it be to-morrow? 8. What day will it be day after to-morrow? 9. What day was it a week ago? 10. Mary is fifteen years old; how much older are you than Mary? 11. John is seventeen; how much older are you than John? 12. A class room (classe, /.) was thirty-two feet long and twenty-five feet wide; how much longer and wider is our class room than that one? 13. An elm-tree was eighty feet high, and an oak was sixty- five feet high; how much higher was the former than the latter? CE AND IL AS SUBJECT 147. Ce is vague, indeterminate, 11 is definite, de- terminate; it, then, referring to some definite noun already named must usually be il or elle. Regardez ce tableau, U est blen beau. Va me chercher ma plume, elle est sur I'encrier, It, implying some object the name of which is not already clearly before the mind, or referring to an infin- itive or a word-group, must be ce,.as,^ qu'est-ce que c'est? C'est un etau. II n'est pas arrive ; c'est facheux. Savoir c'est pouvoir. The use of a pronoun, a proper noun, or a determinate substantive in the predicate after etre (or devoir, pou- voir, saurait+etre) usually shows that the subject was not already sufficiently definite, and ce is used, as, c'est lui, ce doit etre mon frere, ce sont des singes; etre be- ing plural when the substantive immediately following is 108 SUBSTANTIVES AND THEIR SUBORDINATES plural and of the third person, as, ce sent eux (but c'est nous, c'est Jean et son frere). For impersonal it, as subject of etre, with a predicate adjective or indeterminate substantive, use il if the ad- jective be followed l)y de+ infinitive, or l)v a que clause, as, il est facile de faire cela, il est bien que vous soyez venu, il est temps de partir. If no such word-group fol- lows the adjective, the subject is ce, as, c'est evident, ce sera a faire demain, ce n'est pas plus difficile que ga! In short colloquial sentences, and generally when the predicate adjective expresses emotion, ce often replaces il, as, c'etait pitie de la voir, c'est malheureux que vous soyez tombe. Certain common parenthetical expressions do not fol- low this rule, as, ils sent revenus, il est vrai; vous avez bien fait, ce me semble. H is always used to tell the time of day. See § 143. LE IN PREDICATE 148. The predicate le (see § 62) is variable only when referring to a definite substantive, as, etes-vous la mere de cet enfant? Non, je ne la suis pas. (But, etes-vous mere? Non, je ne le suis pas.) Etes-vous ses freres? Oui, nous les sommes. (But, etes-vous freres? Oui, nous le sommes.) LE PLUS 149. Le, before plus or moins, is variable when an adjective follows, but only when there is comparison be- tween different objects. De ces deux robes, celle-ci est la plus jolie, mais celle-la est le (or la) plus a la mode. C'est le soir que ceUe-la me parait le plus jolie, that one EN INSTEAD OF A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE 109 seems to me prettiest in the evening. (The gown is not compared with another, but with itself at different times. Here le plus = surtout.) EN INSTEAD OF A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE 150. Especially when referring to things, en trans- lates an English possessive adjective when the possessor is named in the preceding clause and when the name of the thing possessed is chrect object of a verb, or subject of etre, or predicate nominative, as, Je n'aime pas cette ville, mais j'en admire la proprete. Voyez ce couteau, le manche en est fort joli. Je connais bien le Canada, Ot- tawa en est la capitale. EXERCISE LXIII Translate : 1. There are some ladies. They are my neighbors. They are very well dressed (mis). 2. Bring me my pen, it is on the ink-well; take this pencil, it is not weU sharpened (taille). 3. He doesn't study much, it is true, and it is very unfortu- nate. 4. What time is it? It is midnight. It is the hour of the fairies. 5. It is easy to swim; we learned this summer, and it is not hard at all. 6. Are those ladies artists? No, they are not. 7. Are they the friends whom you expect? Yes, they are. 8. She is always pleasing (gentil), but it is when she smiles that she is prettiest. 9. She is the youngest of the family, Ixit she is also the most intelligent. 10. It is a handsome house, but I don't like its color. Does its color please you? 110 MORE ABOUT VERBS CHAPTER VII MORE ABOUT VERBS INVERSION 151. Jean etudie sa lefon. Jean etudie-t-il sa legon? Est-ce que Jean etudie sa legon? Que fait Jean? or Jean que fait-il? Pourquoi Jean ne joue-t-il pas? Est-ce que votre frere parle frangais? Qui le dit? The normal order is subject, verb, complement, modi- fied by the tendency of an emphatic word to end its group. Putting the verb before its subject is termed in- version. Unless the subject is an interrogative pronoun, inversion occurs regularly in questions; when est-ce que is used, the inversion occurs in that expression and in the following clause the subject precedes the verb. If the subject of the question is a noun, it generally precedes its verb, and the inversion is obtained by the use of a "pleo- nastic" subject-pronoun after the verb. An interrogative word or phrase begins its clause. 152. Inversion also occurs 1. In parenthetical expressions like dit-il, repondit-il, included in direct quotations. ((Aliens, dit-il, il est temps de partir.)) 2. Often when the clause begins with a predicate ad- jective, an objective relative pronoun, or certain adverbs, among which are ainsi, a peine, aussi, au moins, bientot, encore, ici, la, oii, peut-etre, toujours. Telle etait cette route. Aussi ne ravons-nous pas fait. Voici ce que m'a dit votre frere. AGREEMENT 111 3. Less commonly in other constructions, usually to bring a stressed subject at the end of the word-group. Vive le roi! Avait-il de Targent, il en jetait par les fenetres. C'est la qu'etait dresse I'echafaud. Vient un autre qui dit le contraire. AGREEMENT 153. With a composite subject or a singular collective subject the sense must determine the number of the verb. If the subject is conceived as a single mass or whole, the verb is singular; if the components are thought of as separate individuals, the verb is plural. Une nuee de barbares desolerent tout le pays. Une nuee de traits ob- scurcit Fair. Une troupe de montagnards ecrasa son armee. Une foule d'enfants couraient dans la rue. 154. With a limiting phrase, the number of the com- plement often prevails. Plus d'un enfant voudrait I'avoir. Moins de deux ne valent rien. La plupart du monde est egoiste. La plupart des citoyens le detestent. La plu- part, ^ith no complement, always takes a plural verb. La plupart le croient. EXERCISE LXrV Translate : 1. Most men speak without tliiiiking. 2. Most of the people wish to leave the city. 3. IVIost were afraid of a siege. 4. Most of the senate wished to remain. 5. IVIost of my books are at home. 6. ]\Iost (of them) are bound. 7. More than one poor man will be happier than he. 112 MORE ABOUT VERBS 8. Less than two gloves are useless. 9. The army of the barbarians was vanquished. 10. A crowd of cliildren were shouting and laugliing around her. 155. With two singular subjects joined by ou or ni, the verb in French is usually plural unless the activity is plainly restricted to one only, although with either or neither English regularly uses a singular verb. If the sub- jects differ in person, their order of importance in deter- mining the person of the verb is: first, second, third. Ni Tor ni la grandeur ne nous rendent heureux. Ni I'un ni I'autre n'iront a la chasse. Ni I'un ni I'autre ne sera votre mari. Le temps ou la mort sont nos remedes. Vous ou moi parlerons. Vous ou lui parlerez. Son pere ou son oncle sera nomme ambassadeur a Rome, EXERCI5E LXV Translate : 1. My brother and I shall be blamed. 2. You and your brother will be praised. 3. You or I will be sent to the bank. 4. Neither you nor John will be sent to the post-office. 5. Either she or her sister is that child's mother. GOVERNMENT 156. Verbs transitive in English are often translated by French intransitive ("neuter") verbs, while" English intransitives often correspond to French transitive ("active") verbs. COMPLEMENT 113 to approach something, s'approcher de quelque chose. to leave Paris, partir de Paris. to remember something, se souvenir de quelque chose. to use something, se servir de quelque chose. to enjoy good health, jouir d'une bonne sante. to obey someone, obeir a quelqu'un. to please someone, plaire a quelqu'un. to listen to something, ecouter quelque chose. to look at something, regarder quelque chose. to pay someone for something, payer quelque chose k quelqu'un. This "government" of verbs should be carefully ob- served in texts and dictionaries. Only verbs alike in government can take a common complement, as, il aime et respecte son pere, il entend et suit sa mere; but il aime son pere et lui obeit, il entend sa mere et lui repond. EXERCISE LXVI Translate : 1. He remembers and loves you. 2. He will leave and forget that little village. 3. He approached and seized the table. 4. Use and carefully study your grammar. 5. Those who enjoy good health enjoy skating. 6. We must obey and listen to our parents. 7. His manners did not please my aunt, but she paid liim for his apples. 8. Look at that bird and hsten to him. COMPLEMENT 157. A French verb can have but one direct object, other objective substantives being either indirect object pronouns or joined to the verb by a preposition. So we 114 MORE ABOUT VERBS say, payez-le, pay him; but payez-lui ce que vous lui devez, pay him what you owe him, payez-lui ses mar- chandises, -pay him for his goods. 158. Faire and a dependent infinitive are in this re- spect treated as a single verb: faites-la chanter, faites- lui chanter cette chanson, faites-le lire, faites-lui lire cette lettre, il me I'a fait voir, he showed it to me (both pronouns preceding faire) . Entendre commonly has the same construction, and laisser, voir, ouir often do. Je lui ai entendu dire cela, laissez-lui lire ce livre ; but we may also give each of these verbs (not faire) a direct object of its own and say laissez- le lire ce livre, je I'ai vu frapper I'enfant. 159. Such constructions as je fais lire ce livre a I'en- fant are ambiguous and may mean either / 7nake the child read that hook, or I make (someone) read that book to the child, i.e. / have that book read to the child. In case of possible doubt the second is the more probable meaning, but ambiguity may he avoided by sa^ang, je fais qu'on Use ce livre a I'enfant, or je fais que I'enfant Use ce livre, j'obUge I'enfant a lire ce livre, je fais lire ce Uvre par I'enfant. 160. The reflexive object of an infinitive dependent on faire is usually omitted: faites asseoir ce petit. A similar omission sometimes occurs after laisser, entendre, voir, etc. EXERCISE LXVn Translate : 1. I see him coming. 2. Let him speak. 3. I had him go to bed at once. COMPLEMENT 115 4. I had him take off his wet clothes. 5. Make her hold her tongue. 6. Make her answer my question. 7. Make her open her desk. 8. Allow them to go out. 9. Have him pay well for those oranges. 10. Have liim paid well for those oranges. 161. Some verbs have a substantive complement that is neither direct nor indirect object, but an adverbial modifier expressing time, distance, weight, price, etc. Recommencer trois fois, to begin three times. Marcher deux jours, to walk two days. Peser cinq kilos, to weigh five kilograms. Valoir dix francs, to he worth ten francs. 162. The complement of devoir, pouvoir, vouloir, oser is often an implied infinitive: in such cases, as with valoir, peser, marcher, etc., just mentioned, note that a past participle is invariable : Les deux jours qu'il a marche. Les dix francs que cela a valu. n a ecrit les exercices qu'il a dn (ecrire). J'ai apporte toutes les pommes que j'ai pu (apporter). EXERCISE LXVni Translate : 1. Pay him now; we have not yet paid him for his apples. 2. I shall make hini hold his tongue (se taire). 3. Have them run to the post-office. 4. Have them drop (jeter) these letters into (a) the box. 5. Have her read; but don't have her read such novels (roman). 6. I don't regret the ten dollars that cost me. 116 MORE ABOUT VERBS 7. Think of all the times you have begun again. 8. The ten hours she has walked have quite exhausted her. 9. The twenty pounds it weighed at first seem Uke (en paraitre) forty. 10. Have you corrected all the mistakes you could? SPECIAL USES OF THE FUTURE 163. The future is sometimes used like an imperative. Tu ne tueras point, thou shall not kill. 164. The future states what the speaker regards as the probable explanation of facts previously mentioned. S'il n'est pas venu, c'est qu'il sera malade (i.e. il doit etre malade, sans doute il est malade, il faut qu'il soit malade, je crois qu'il est malade). II aura oublie la cle, he has probably forgotten the key. SPECIAL USES OF THE CONDITIONAL 165. Instead of si with an imperfect indicative, we sometimes find with the notion of extreme concession or great improbability: (a) an inverted conditional. Et pleuvrait-il, j'irais tout de meme. (&) a conditional after quand (meme), dans le cas ou, a relative pronoun, etc. Quand (meme) cela serait vrai, qu'importe? Dans le cas o^ il viendrait, que feriez-vous? Celui qui ferait cela, serait un scelerat. (c) a conditional followed by que and another condi- tional. Cela serait vrai que je ne sortirais pas d'ici. SPECIAL USES OF THE CONDITIONAL 117 166. The conditional gives what the speaker regards as a possible, but unconfirmed truth — "conditional of dubious assertion." D'apres les journaux, il serait mort, according to the papers, he is dead. Seriez-vous son frere? Can you be his brother? 167. The conditionals of vouloir, devoir, pouvoir, and savoir present certain difficulties, because certain English forms commonly used in translation are the same for positive assertions about past time and for conditional assertions implying improbability and relating to present or future time. / could not do it may be a positive asser- tion about past time, je ne pouvais [n'ai (pas) pu] le faire, I was not able to do it; or it may mean a conditional assertion about present or future time, je ne pourrais le faire, I should be unable to do it (riow or to-morrow), if . . . So, one ought to tell the truth may be a general statement of fact, made positively, on doit dire la verite ; or it may imply but does not always do so, in which case we say, on devrait dire la verite. Je veux qu'il apprenne sa lef on expresses the speaker's positive wish, almost determination, je voudrais qu'il apprit sa legon emphasizes the improbability of the wish being gratified. Instead of the present indicative of pouvoir the nega- tive conditional of savoir, with ne alone as negation, meaning literally I should not knoiv how to often translates English / cannot, where the inability is mental, je ne sau- rais vous repondre. A similar use of the interrogative often occurs, sauriez- vous me le dire? can you tell mef 168. Where English uses a past infinitive with these verbs, French uses the present infinitive and puts the past 118 MORE ABOUT VERBS thought into the tense of the main verb. I could have done it, — you ought to have done so, — / shoidd like to have seen him, would be j'aurais pu le faire, vous auriez du le faire (il fallait le faire), j'aurais voulu le voir. EXERCISE LXIX Translate : 1. I could not do it yesterday. 2. I could not have done it yesterday. 3. I could not do it now. 4. I could not do it to-morrow. 5. You ought to do so now. 6. You are to do it now. 7. You must do it to-morrow. 8. You will have to do it to-morrow. 9. You ought to do so to-morrow. 10. You ought to have done so yesterday. 11. I had to do it yesterday. 12. I wash him to be silent. 13. I wish he would be silent. 14. I wish he had been silent. 15. I should have liked him to be silent. 16. I can't learn all that before noon. IMPERATIVE 169. The imperative singular, although it has the form of the first singular present indicative, is really a second person, and the s which usually ends a second per- son singular is inserted before en or y when the impera- tive singular ends regularly in a vowel, as, coupes-en, vas-y, portes-y, donnes-en. This s is not used before the preposition en, as, souffre en patience. The missing persons of the imperative are supplied by the present subjunctive, as, DIFFICULTIES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 119 [Permettez] que je vous conte ime reponse qui m'a fait plaisir! let me tell you a reply that pleased me! [J'ordonne] qu'il parte a I'instant! let him start at once! [Je demande] qu'elles reviennent demain! let them return to-morrow! [Je souhaite] que je vous retrouve k mon retour modeste, douce, timide, docile, on my return let me find you still mod- est, gentle, retiring, obedient. Compare with the imphed threat in: que je te retrouve sur cet escalier! just let me catch you on these stairs again! 170. In classical French, when two imperatives are connected by et or ou, an objective personal pronoun may l^recede the second imperative. Trouvez-le, et lui portez trois cents francs. Payez-les et les laissez partir. This is no longer customary, and formerly in this construction both imperatives were required to l)e of the same person and number; hence Moliere's lines, Finissons voire affaire et me dites qui est celle que vous aimez, Laissons cela, et me dis . . . have been criticized as less correct than Finissons et dites-moi, Laissons cela et dis-moi. DIFFICULTIES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 171. Clauses introduced by the indefinite relatives qui que [ce soit qui (que)], quoi que [ce soit qui (que)], quel que, oil que, si . . . que, quelque . . . que, pour . . . que (English icho-, what-, where-, how-ever) take the sub- junctive. Qui que vous soyez, si en colere que vous sembliez, quelque grief que vous ayez, quoi que vous vouliez, tout sanglant que vous etes, entrez! 120 MORE ABOUT VERBS 173. With tout . . . que, in relative clauses, and after superlatives, negative or interrogative expressions, and exclusives, the indicative is used to express positive asser- tion of fact, and the subjunctive avoids such positive assertion. Thus relative clauses with an indefinite ante- cedent, after verbs of wishing, striving, commanding, etc., or after negations, interrogations, or conditions, commonly have the subjunctive. Je cherche une maison qui me plaise. J'ai trouve une maison qui me plait. Demandez un livre qui soit bien imprime. Je viens d'acheter un livre qui est bien imprime. 173. After the present conditional, the past indefinite, or the imperfect indicative after si, when present or future time is in mind, we commonly use primary (the present or its compound) subjunctives. Je partirais demain s'il fallait que vous vous en alliez. Serait-il possible qu'il n'ait pas regu ma lettre? Je n'ai pas dit qu'il soit mechant. 174. When the time of the subordinate verb is inde- pendent of that of the main verb the usual rules for se- quence do not apply. II me donna le premier livre que j'aie jamais vu, he gave me the first book I ever saw. 175. A very common case is the use of a secondary (imperfect or pluperfect) subjunctive to replace the con- ditional of corresponding clauses that do not require the subjunctive. Je crois qu'il pourrait le faire s'il etait ici. Je ne crois pas qu'il put le faire s'il etait ici. INFINITIVE 121 EXERCISE LXX Translate : 1. Whoever you are, speak! 2. However rich she is, it is unfortunate that she is proud and impoUte. 3. Of all his books, it is the only one he has read. 4. Of all those books, he chose the plainest {it is the least handsome that he chose). 5. Is there a man who can do that? 6. I know a man who can do it to-morrow. 7. I do not think he will come if it rains. 8. I do not think he would have come if it had rained. 9. That is the first thing he told me. 10. Is he the first who has failed to keep his word (manquer a sa parole)? 11. It is his best horse which is dead. 12. It is the best horse that ever ran. 13. Is it your last letter that she did not receive? 14. You are reading the last letter she ^v^ote. 15. It is the youngest of my brothers whom you know. INFINITIVE 176. The infinitive preceded by de (historical infini- tive) is sometimes used, in narration, instead of an in- dicative. II se sauva et Rigolette de rire, he ran away and Rigolette burst out laughing. 177. The infinitive is used with imperative force in brief directions and references. Agiter le flacon, shake the bottle. Voir page cent deux, see page one hundred two. 178. The active infinitive, with an indefinite subject understood, is used after faire, laisser, and verbs of per- 122 MORE ABOUT VERBS ception, where English has a passive construction. A similar use occurs in adjective phrases beginning with a, Je I'ai entendu dire, / have heard it said. II s'est fait batir une maison, he had a house built for himself. Elle etait bien a plaindre, she ivas much to he •pitied. EXERCISE LXXI Translate : 1. Here are some chairs I have had made. 2. We heard the Marseillaise {Marseillaise, f.) sung, 3. There were dangers to be avoided. 4. There will be nothing to be said. 5. I saw the door broken in. PARTICIPLES 179. It is sometimes hard to determine whether the form in -ant is verbal, and so invariable, or used ^vith adjective force, and so required to agree in gender and number with its substantive. Always after en, and usually when accompanied by an objective or adverbial complement, the word is invariable. 180. Invariable are the past participles of (a) Impersonal verbs (see § 181) : Les difficultes qu'il y a eu, the difficidties there have been. La belle journee qu'il a fait, the fine day it has been. Les efforts qu'il lui a fallu, the efforts necessary for him. (6) Marcher, couter, valoir, etc., ^vith a noun comple- ment that is not really a direct object (see §§ 161, 162): Les dix francs que cela m'a coute. Les trois milles que jai couru. IMPERSONAL VERBS 123 (c) Verbs with a complementary infinitive that has no subject expressed; and fait with any complementary in- finiti^'e : La dame que j'ai entendu(e)' chanter. La chanson que j'ai entendu chanter. La voiture que j'ai vu(e)^ venir. La voiture que j'ai fait venir. IMPERSONAL VERBS 181. An impersonal verb is one used in the third sin- gular only with indefinite il, it, there, as subject. H pleut, it is raining. II faut, it is necessary. 183. Many verbs are only occasionally impersonal. II vint des medecins, there came doctors. II vaudra mieux se taire, it will be better to say nothing. II s'agit de votre couronne, your crown is at stake. II y va de votre vie, you risk your life. (It is a question of your crown, your life.) 183. Faire is used impersonally of time and weather, or with certain complements composed of an adjective followed by an infinitive. n fait beau (temps), it is fine ireather, but le temps est beau. II fait chaud, it is warm, but I'ete a ete bien chaud cette annee. II se fait tard, it is grouping late. II fait bon y vivre par un tel temps, it is -pleasant to live there in such weather. 1 Agreement desirable, but optional. 124 MORE ABOUT VERBS 184. Avoir, preceded by y, is used in many idiomatic expressions (see § 180a) : II y a, il y a eu, il y aura, y a-t-il, y avait-il, etc., there is (are), there have been, there ivill be, are there, was there, etc. II n'y en a pas eu cette annee, there have not been any this year. Combien (de temps) y a-t-il que vous etes ici? hoiv long have you been here? (Depuis quand etes-vous ici?) Combien (de milles) y a-t-il de Boston a Springfield? how far is it from Boston to Springfield? II y a une centaine de milles, it is about a hundred miles. II est arrive il y a huit jours, he arrived a week ago. (II est arrive depuis huit jours.) 185. Do not confuse il y a, which is declarative, with voila, which is demonstrative and exclamatory, used only when showing or pointing out. Voila votre livre ! here (there) is your book! II y a un livre sur mon bureau; est-ce le votre? there is a book on my desk; is that one yours? 186. Falloir expresses external or material necessity as distinguished from devoir, moral obligation or inten- tion. The distinction is not always observed. With complementary infinitive an unstressed subject is com- monly omitted. H faut partir, (/, you, we, he, etc.) must go. When the subject of English must would be a personal pronoun, two constructions are possible with falloir: they ntust go, il leur faut partir, or, il faut qu'ils partent; but il faut qtie Jean parte, il fallait que son frere partit. English to 7ieed is commonly translated ]\y falloir with indirect object. ADVERBS 125 I need a -pen, il me faut une plume. That little king would need a kingdom, il faudrait un royaume a ce petit roi. EXERCISE LXXII Translate : 1. The point is to find out what they have done. 2. His happiness is at stake. 3. It would be better to stay here. 4. What sort of weather is it? 5. The weather was very cold yesterday. 6. It is expensive living in New York. 7. I wrote to her three days ago. 8. How far is it from here to the post-office? 9. You need half an hour to go there on foot. 10. That door needs a key. Note. The student desiring a fuller treatment of the French verb is referred to larger grammars or to special books, one of the best of which is Syntax of the French Verb, by E. C. Armstrong, Henry Holt and Company, New York. CHAPTER VIII UNINFLECTEr) PARTS OF SPEECH ADVERBS IS'?. Position. An adverb commonly follows its verb immediately; but interrogatives stand at the beginning of the clause, and others may be put there for emphasis or to give stressed words their proper position. II marchait lentement. EUe ne viendra pas aujourd'hui. Quand viendra-t-elle? Demain vous la verrez. 126 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH With an infinitive or a participle, a common, short, un- stressed adverb usually precedes; a long or stressed ad- verb will follow. II ne faut pas trop parler. II faut parler distinctement. II I'ai bien vu. II s'est vite apaise. Je I'ai vu hier. Otherwise an adverb connnonly i)recedes the word or phrase it modifies: tres souvent, bien facile, tout d'abord. 188. Derivation from adjectives. Many adverbs are formed by adding -ment to the feminine of an adjective: grand, grandement; heureux, heureusement ; sec, seche- ment. The inflectional -e of the feminine is omitted if the masculine singular ends in a vowel: joliment, resolument, decidement; l)ut gaiment (or gaiement), assidument, and a few others indicate the omission by a circumflex accent. 189. Certain adverbs of four or more syllables have -ement instead of -ement: aveuglement, confusement, precisement, etc. (Compare the substantive aveuglement.) 190. With the exception of lent, present, and vehe- ment (lentement, presentement, vehementement) adjec- tives in -ant or -ent add -ment to the masculine and assimilate -nt to -m : constamment, galamment, mecham- ment, recemment, prudemment. The ending is always pronounced as if spelled -ament. 191. Beaucoup, comparative plus, may be added to the adverbs mentioned in § 133 as irregularly compared. After plus or moins, a complementary substantive pre- ceded by a num(M-al is introduced by de not que. Ce tigre a mange plus d'un enfant, that tiger has eaten children, — more than one. NON, OUI, SI 127 |f the substantive belongs in a different clause (with verb expressed or understood) and is not itself the complement of plus, use que. Ce chien mange plus qu'un enfant (ne mange), that dog eats more than a child (eats). NON, OUI, SI 192. Except with a verb, the common negation is non; the common affirmation is oui. Le ferez-vous, oui ou non? Non seulement lui, mais aussi sa fenune. Une maison non meublee. Non may be strengthened by pas or point. Voulez- vous le faire? Non pas ! 193. Affirmation in reply to an implied or expected negative is si sometimes strengthened by repetition or by adding fait. «I1 n'est pas venu. — Si, si, il est ici. » «Vous ne m'ecoutez pas. — Si, monsieur, je vous ecoute.» «Je crois qu'il n'est pas venu. — Si fait, il est la.)> 194. Monsieur, madame, etc., are commonly used with oui, non, etc., in polite conversation; frequently also with nouns of relationship or titles: monsieur votre oncle, madame votre mere, monsieur le capitaine. 195. Oui, non, or si is often used after que to replace an entire clause: je pense que non, il repond que si, je dis que oui, / think not, he replies yes, I say yes. 196. Negation, with a verb, is expressed by ne. Ne alone as negation occurs : 128 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH (a) Often with savoir and bouger; and with pouvoir, oser, or cesser, followed by an infinitive. (Ne alone always in je ne saurais, je ne sais quoi, etc.) : II ne pouvait (pas) repondre, he could not answer. EUe ne cesse (pas) de larmoyer, she is always sniveling. Je ne saurais vous le dire, / can't tell you. II repondit je ne sais quoi, he answered something or other (I know not what). Je ne sais que dire, / know not what to say. (b) In dependent clauses after expressed or implied negation: Je ne veux rien, si ce n'est ce fusil, 7 ivill have nothing except that gun. II n'y a personne qui ne le croie, everybody believes him. Prenez garde qu'on ne vous voie, take care they don't see you. (c) In inverted conditions and occasionally in others: N'eut ete cette petite, j'etais mort, but for that child, I should have been a dead man. Si je ne me trompe (pas), if I mistake not. (d) After que meaning why, and usually after qui or que in rhetorical questions: Que n'etiez-vous la? Why weren't you there? Qui ne le voit? Who doesn't see it? (e) Often in proverbial and set expressions: N'importe, no matter. II n'est pire eau que I'eau qui dort, still waters run deep. Je n'avais garde de I'eveiller, I took care not to wake him. (/) With compound tenses after 11 y a, voila, depuis : II y a six mois que je ne lui ai parle, I haven't spoken to him for six months. PLEONASTIC NE 129 Voila un mois que je ne I'ai vu, / haven't seen him Jor a month. Depuis que je ne vous ai vu, since I saw you (I have not seen you during the time mentioned). n avait bien change depuis que je ne I'avais vu. But with a simple tense use ne . . . plus, ne . . . pas, ne . . . pomt: Depuis deux jours je ne sors plus (pas). Voici un mois que je ne le vois plus (pas). Depuis que je ne vous vois plus (pas). n y avait longtemps que nous ne nous voyions point. PLEONASTIC NE 197. A ne so weak in force that we do not translate it and that the negative value seems to have faded almost entirely away is generally used but is not now required: (a) With a finite verb in the second member of a com- parison expressing inequality, unless the first member ex- presses or implies negation: elle est plus jolie que vous ne la croyiez, she is prettier than you thought her; liut elle n'est pas plus jolie qu'elle I'etait. II est plus habile qu'il ne le parait, but il n'est pas plus habile qu'il le parait. In such a sentence as il est plus habile que lorsque vous I'avez connu note that the real second term of the comparison is omitted, the full expression being qu'il ne I'etait lorsque vous I'avez connu. (6) With dependent subjunctives commonly: 1. After affirmative expressions of fearing: je crains qu'il ne revienne, / fear he will return. I fear he will not return would be, je crains qu'il ne revienne pas. Ne 130 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH craignez-vous pas qu'il ne revienne? do you not fear that he will return f In the last example negation and inter- rogation neutralize each other, resulting in affirmative force, while alone neither would have ne: craignez-vous qu'il revienne? Je ne crains pas qu'il revienne. 2. After empecher, eviter, a moins que, rarely avant que, and after negative expressions of doubt or denial, in- cluding douter, nier, s'en falloir, etc., as, Empechez qu'il ne parte aujourd'hui, keep him from starting to-day. II ne le devinera pas a moins que vous ne lui en ayez dit quelque chose, he wonH guess it unless you have told him something about it. Je ne doute pas qu'il n'arrive ce soir, / doubt not that he ivill come this evening. Peu s'en est fallu qu'il ne m'ait dit votre nom, he almost told me your name (he lacked but little, — peu has negative force here). But 11 s'en faut de beaucoup que la somme y soit, the sum is far from being here. 198. Except as specified in §§ 196, 197, ne is usually strengthened by an adverb or substantive like pas or point (brin, goutte, miette) placed after the verb, as, je ne vais pas, elle ne reviendra point, ne . . . point being a stronger negative than ne . . . pas. Common combina- tions are ne . . . pas, ne . . . point, not; ne . . . guere, hardly; ne . . . jamais, never; ne . . . plus, no more; ne . . . que, only; ne . . . personne, no one; ne . . . rien, nothing. The use of any word that gives negative force to the clause, like aucunement, nullement, nul, ni . . . ni, etc., requires the verb to be preceded by ne. In compound tenses pas precedes the participle; it may follow avoir or etre, but precedes other infinitives. PLEONASTIC A'^ 131 199. Certain adverbs like tant, si, take tlie prefix au (autant, aussi) when used with comparative force, espe- cially when affirmative. In aussi the s is doubled to pre- serve the sharp (surd) sound between two vowels. II a bu autant que son frere, he drank as much as his brother; but with absolute force: il but tant qu'il en mourut, he drank so much that he died from it. 200. Davantage is a strong adverb and stands last in its word-group. It is not to be used in comparisons, and except for loss of force might always be replaced by plus. In which of the following sentences might davantage have been used? Cela m'interesse encore plus. N'en parlez plus. J'ai gagne plus de dix francs. Elle est de beaucoup plus habile que lui. Vous avez de I'argent, mais il en a plus. 201. Only, referring to a word which is predicate nom- inative or an objective complement of the verb, is gen- erally ne . . . que. Ce n'est que Jean, it is only Jean. Je ne veux que ce livre-la, / ivill have that book only. II ne pense qu'a sa sceur, he thinks of his sister only. Seulement may replace ne . . . que in any construction, or may be used to strengthen ne . . . que, and is used where ne . . . que could not be, when only refers to a que clause or to a word which is not a predicative complement of the verb. When only refers to the subject, French often uses an adjective or the paraphrase il n'y a que . . . qui, as, lui seul le savait, or il n'y a que lui qui le savait. 132 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH PREPOSITIONS 303. A, apart from its use as the sign of an indirect object, or "dative," expresses location at a point or motion toward a point. Compare a Paris, a la maison, with en France, dans Paris, dans la maison. The first expresses simply location or direction. One may be a Paris whether within or without the walls; your father is a la maison when standing at the gate, or sitting on the piazza, or watering the flowers in his garden; but only the man within the walls is dans Paris, only inside the door is one dans la maison. While a city is a mere point on the map, a place at which, a country with its greater extent is thought of as a region within which, and we say a Londres, a Rome, a Beriin, but en Angleterre, en Italie, en Allemagne, en Portugal, ^ en Danemark.^ Newly dis- covered and far-away lands probably impressed the an- cient Frenchman as mere points on the earth's surface, and he said au Japon, au Mexique, au Canada, aux Etats- Unis, forms which, once established, have remained. Feminine countries outside of Europe, however, follow the analogy of European countries and use en, not a and the definite article, as en Afrique, en Asie, en Amerique. A similar use of a with a definite, en with an indefinite, noun appears in the time expressions, au printemps, en ete, en automne, en hiver. Compare penser a quelque chose, tu think of something, meaning the direction of one's thought, with penser quelque chose de . . ., meaning to have a certain opinion concerning . . . Probably the notion of location explains an expression 1 From analogy with other mascuUne names of countries, au Danemark, au Portugal are now often heard. PREPOSITIONS 133 like quelle heure est-il a votre montre? What time is it by your watch f 303. A introduces many adverbial phrases of manner and adjective phrases of characteristic: parler a haute voix, acheter a tout prix, s'amuser aux depens de quel- qu'un, faire a la main, vendre a la douzaine, au poids, prendre im domestique a I'annee, ce garfon aux yeux noirs, rhomme au nez rouge, ce geant aux larges epaules. 204. Many verbs require a to intro(hice a dependent infinitive: aimer a jouer, apprendre a lire, avoir a tra- vailler, cherchez a comprendre. Some of the most com- mon of these are aider avoir s'exposer pousser appeler chercher inviter reduire s'appliquer condamner montrer reussir apprendre conduire parvenir songer s'attendre encourager porter tenir Some, like the follo^^^ng, may talvc a or may govern the infinitive directly: aimer, descendre, laisser, penser, pre- tendre, venir. Many, like the following, take sometimes a and some- times de: aimer decider forcer conimeneer demander hesiter consentir determiner obliger continuer essayer When a verb has more than one possible construction with a complementary infinitive, as, venir faire quelque chose, to come and do something; venir de faire quelque chose, to have just done something; venir a faire quelque chose, to happen to do sor7iething, there are usuall}^ differ- prier tacher refuser tenter resoudre venir 134 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH ences in meaning corresponding to the different preposi- tions. The best way to learn these is from the text in which they occur, or by careful study of the particular verb in a good dictionary. This grammar, therefore, makes no attempt to distinguish such uses. 205, Adjective phrases beginning with a often ex- press tendency, destination, purpose: un moulin a vent, une tasse a the, du bois a bruler, une salle a manger, un penchant a mentir. Complementary phrases, with similar force, follow many adjectives: bon a manger, pret a partir, facile a faire, utile a savoir. The infinitive in such phrases often has the force of an English passive infinitive. So also after cer- tain verbs: elle est a plaindre, la question reste a dis- cuter (see § 178), 11 n'y a que ga. a voir ici. A ^vith etre is used to affirm possession: ce livre est a moi, ce cheval est-il a votre frere? Note the use of a with verljs of thinking: je ne pense pas a elle, il songe a cela (see § 202). 206. A with an infinitive often has a force similar to that of en with a present participle (gerund) : il a gagne cent dollars a vendre des moutons, il s'amuse a patiner, je me suis essouffle a courir si vite. 307. Avant, devant. Avant denotes time or order, devant is used of place: devant la maison, il etait arrive avant nous, il etait assis devant nous. Avant is the oppo- site of apres, devant of derriere. 308. Avec translates ^vith expressing companionship or instrumentality: il est venu avec son pere, 11 ecrit avec un crayon, il travaille avec ces outils. PREPOSITIONS 135 309. Chez, literally at the house of, may also refer to the place where one is commonly found or employed: chez Marie, at Mary's (house); chez le dentiste, at the dentist's (office). It is sometimes translated among: chez les Grecs, among the Greeks; or in, chez elle, I'etrangete sauvait la gaucherie, in her, quaintness saved from awkwardness. 210. Dans, en. Both denote interiority, but dans stresses especially the notion of bounds or limits of a def- inite, enclosed space: dans la maison, dans la rue, dans Paris, dans le jardin; while en stresses the notion of a certain place or space as distinguished from others, en France, as distinguished from en Italie or en Espagne; en Fair, as distinguished from dans I'eau; en ville, as dis- tinguished from a la campagne; en famille, as distin- guished from en societe or dans le monde ; en voiture, not en bateau or a pied. Dans is definite and is felt as the opposite of hers; as regards its noun it is relatively em- phatic : lui dans le jardin, moi dehors. En is general and unemphatic, and the contrast felt is a contrast of sub- stantives rather than of prepositions. Hence in modern French en is rarely found before a definite article except where the article has been retained in certain common expressions, usually before a vowel sound, as, en I'air, en Tan. In Old French en was more generally used. In expressions of time, dans means at the end of, en means in the course of: je partirai dans une heure; en quinze minutes je vais d'ici a B. ; en une heure je fais le trajet de B. a C, ou j'arriverai done dans deux heures (et) un quart. I shall start in an hour; in fifteen minutes I can go from here to B.; in an hour I can make the journey from B. to C, where I shall arrive, therefore, in two hours and a quarter from now. 136 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH 311. De. The root meanings of de are origin or possession, of, and separation, from. C'est le fils de ma voisine, Paris, capitale de la France, un morceau de fromage, de quel parlent-ils? aller de la banque a la poste, sortir de la maison. Where the notion of agency or instrumentaUty is weak, de has a force simihir to unstressed par or avec: aime de vos parents, frappe de cette ressemblance, suivi dune troupe d'esclaves, ecrire de la main droite. Compare with puni par ses narents, frappe par un assassin, pour- suivi par ses ennemis, ecrire avec une plume (a la plume, if adverbial clause of manner). Note that with a passive verb de commonly introduces the agent of mental action and par the agent of a material act. Avec governs the immediate instrument, — while the de-phrase shades into an adverbial phrase of manner rather than instrument: frapper avec un baton, des deux mains, de toutes ses forces, de jour ou de nuit, d'une maniere etonnante, sauter tout d'un coup, arriver d'un bond. In many phrases de occurs correhitive with a or en : de la page cinq (jusqu')a la page dix, de jour en jour, d'au- jourd'hui en quinze, a fortnight from to-day. 212. Many adjectives and participles, especially those expressing a sentiment, take de before their complement, as, heureux de vous voir, etonne de sa reponse, digne d'une recompense. 213. Nouns commonly require de before a dependent infinitive: le temps de chercher mes gants, la permission de parler, avoir honte de revenir. 214. Most impersonal verbs take de before an in- finitive which is the logical subject of the clause: il est PREPOSITIONS 137 bien de savoir cela; peu m'importe de tomber, little care I if I fall. 315. After que, in the second member of a compari- son, de is used before an infinitive, unless the clause is very short: j'aime mieux rester que de partir seule, mieux vaut etre que paraitre. 216. A very large number of verbs commonly require de to introduce a dependent infinitive. Some of the most common are achever dire ordonner s'apercevoir douter oublier avertir ecrire pardonner blamer empecher se passer cesser eviter persuader charger feindre promettre commander finir punir conseiller se hater r^primander convenir louer sommer craindre menacer supplier defendre offrir se vanter For those taking sometimes de and sometimes a, see §204. These lists might be greatly extended, but the only satisfactory way to understand the different meanings which verbs have with various complements is to note carefully their use in texts and to study each verb in a dictionary complete enough to give numerous examples of its use with different prepositions or with a direct in- finitive complement. 317. Envers, vers. Envers is figurative, vers is lit- eral. Marchons vers cette lueur, nous partirons vers 138 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH (les) onze heures, il s'est bien conduit envers nous, il n'a pas ete juste envers nous. 318. Pour. Cause or destination seem to be the root meanings of pour. Pour is used wdth an infinitive to ex- press purpose. (Compare the use of pour que \\ath the subjunctive.) The infinitive construction is used when the subject of a main verb and dependent infinitive is the same: je vous ecris pour vous dire; il est venu pour vaincre, mais il est parti vaincu, he came to conquer, but went away conquered. The subjunctive construction is used when the subject changes: je vous ecris pour que vous sachiez. Compare the use of aller and venir with the pure infin- itive, indicating actual performance of the second action: il est venu vaincre ses ennemis, he came and conquered his enemies; je suis alle voir son pere, / went and saw his father. Pour translates EngHsh for with expressions of future time: j'ai pris cette maison pour trois ans, / have taken that house for three years. Pour also translates for meaning in behalf of. J'ai achete cela pour vous (compare with je vous ai achete cela). Note also such expressions as: partir pour Paris, essayer pour la demiere fois, dent pour dent, pour lors, pour sur, jour pour jour, pour la plupart, venir pour affaires, to come on business. Mort pour mort, j'aime mieux etre fusille; il n'en est pas plus riche pour cela, he is no richer on that account. 219. Certain idiomatic uses of prepositions appear in the follo^Adng expressions : PREPOSITIONS 139 tenir a voir, to he determined to see. a mon avis, in viy opinion. a I'avenir, in the future. s'il vient a tomber, if he happens to fall. a temps, in time. c'est bien bon a vous, it is very kind in you. boire dans un verre, to drink from a glass. prendre dans une boite (un tiroir), to take from a box (drawer). d'apres (selon, sviivant) sa lettre, according to his letter. il vient de partir, he has just gone away. cet enfant tient de sa mere, that child takes after his mother. changer de direction, to change direction. se tromper de chemin, to miss one's way. il est plus age que moi de deux ans, et plus grand de trois centimetres, he is two years older and an inch taller than I. menuisier de son etat, a carpenter by trade. cette bague est en or, that ring is of gold. docteur en medecine, bachelier es (en les) lettres, doctor of medicine, bachelor of arts. entrer (sortir) par la porte (fenetre), to come in (go out) through the door (window). commencer (finir) par dire, to say first (last). par la pluie, in the rain. par le passe, in the past. tomber a terre, to fall to the ground (from above). tomber par terre, to fall (over) on the ground. avoir sous la main, to have at hand. sous les yeux, before one's eyes. sous le regne de, in the reign of. avoir de I'argent sur vous, to have money about you. deux fois sur cinq, two times in five. cinq metres sur trois, five meters by three. 220. Repetition. A, de, and en are regularly re- peated before each governed substantive, others are re- 140 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH peated for emphasis or contrast, but regularly need not be repeated: elle pense a Jean et a Henri, avec Jean et Henri, pour Jean et Henri, en France et en Espagne, sur terre et sur mer, sans peur et sans reproche, entre Pierre et Jean, les parents de Pierre et de Jean. 321. Many phrases compounded with de or a are used as prepositions. Some of them are k cause de, because of. a cote de, beside. a travers, through. au-dessous de, below. au-dessus de, above. au lieu de, instead of. autour de, around. aupres de, (venj) near. en face de, opposite. jusqu'a, until, as far as. par dela, beyond. par-dessous, under. par-dessus, over. pres de, near. quant a, as for. vis-a-vis de, opposite. CONJUNCTIONS 233. Conjunctions implying futurity, purpose, con- cession, or negation are followed by the subjunctive. The most common of these are afin que, pour que, in order that, a moins que, unless. avant que, before. bien que, quoique, although. pourvu que, provided that. sans que, ivithout. The verb introduced by sans que is not preceded by ne: sans que personne le sache. Some conjunctive expressions take the subjunctive when purpose or tendency is expressed and the indicative with statements of fact. Such are a condition que, on condition au (dans le) cas oil, in case. that. jusqu'a ce que, iintil. de faf on (maniere) que, \ so que, that. de (en) sorte que, J that. CONJUNCTIONS 141 223. Use ni, and not et or ou, in negative expressions. Sans pain ni viande, without bread or meat. Ni menaces ni prieres ne I'emeuvent, threats and prayers have no effect on him. Note that with ni each finite verb must be preceded by ne: U ne chante, ne rit, ni ne pleure, he neither sings, nor laughs, nor cries. 234. Use quand, not lorsque, in questions, direct or indirect. Savez-vous quand il va revenir? J'etais ici quand (lorsque) vous etes arrive. Do not use quand as a relative pronoun: Au moment ou (not quand) cela se fit, at the moment when that took place. 225. In contrasts, use tandis que, not pendant que. Pendant que expresses simultaneous action without con- trast, n travaillait tandis que vous jouiez, he was working xohile you were playing; but il est parti pendant que vous jouiez, he went away while you were playing. Maintenant il est riche, tandis que son ancien patron n'a rien, now he is rich ichile his Jormer employer has nothing; but il est devenu riche pendant que nous etions absents, he grew rich while we were away. 226. Depuis que has reference to time; puisque intro- duces a statement of cause or reason: II n'a pas plu depuis que vous etes ici, it hasn't rained since you have been here. Comment quitter I'ile puisque nous n'avons pas de bateau? how leave the island since we have no boat? 142 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH 3 3 7. Distinguish carefully between conjunctions and corresponding prepositions : after, preposition, apres; conjunction, apres que. before, " avant; " avant que, with in- finitive, avant de. for, " pour; " pour que (car). since, " depuis; " depuis que. until, " jusqu'a; " jusqu'a ce que. etc. 328. Que, conjunction or pronoun, nnist not be omitted as English that often is: I think he will come, je pense qu'il viendra. Que is often used to avoid repeating another conjunc- tion: Pourvu que j'en aie le temps et que vous le vouliez, provided I Iiave the time and, you ivish it. Si vous le voulez, et que j'en aie le temps, // you wish it and I have time enough. Que used for si always takes the subjunctive; other- wise que governs the mode which would be used after the conjunction replaced. Depuis que nous sommes ici et que je ne la vois plus. 329. Note the word-order which places the emphatic adjective or adverb at the end of the word-group in ex- clamations after que or comme : Que ces fleurs sont belles! Comme vous dessinez bien! INTERJECTIONS 330. Among those most commonly used are Ah! Ah! (expressing joy, grief, or surprise). Aie! Oh! (pain). ABBREVIATIONS 143 A la bonne heure! All right! (approval, satisfaction). A moi! au secours! au feu! a I'assassin! au voleurl Help! Help! Fire! Murder! Thieves! Allons! Come on! (encouragement). Allons done! Nonsense, don't tell me! (incredulity). Bis! Again! Repeat! Encore! Bon! Bien! Good! Chut! (whispered) Hist! Comment! What! (surprise). Comment done! Why, certainly! En avant! Forward! Fi (done)! Oh fie! (disapproval). Gare ! Look out (for) ! Ouf ! expresses suffocation or reUef and exhaustion. Par exemple! Indeed! Nonsense! (denial, refusal). Que si ! Yes, I say ! Que non ! No indeed ! Tiens! Why I (surprise). Voyons! Come, now! (encouragement). 231. In a sentence, comme is exclamatory, conunent interrogative (direct or indirect question). Comment ehante-t-elle? Hoiv does she sing? Comme elle ehante bien ! Hoio well she sings! ABBREVIATIONS 232. The following are the commoner abbreviations used in French: c.-a.-d. = c'est-a-dire, that is. in-f° = in-foUo, folio. Qie 0^ Qe ^ compagiiie, com- J.-C. = Jesus-Clirist, Jesus pany. Christ. etc. = et csetera. M. = Monsieur, Mr. fr. or f. = francs, francs. MM. = Messieurs, Messrs. h. = heure, hour. ■ M. R. = Monsieur R., Mr. R. 144 UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH M*^ = marchand, merchant. M^ (pi. M^^) = maitre, is used with names of lawyers instead of monsieur. Mgr. (pi. NNSS.) = mon- seigneur, jny lord. M"^ (pi. M'i^«) = Mademoi- selle, Miss. n° = nimi6ro, number. R. S. V. P. = Repondez s'il vous plait, an answer is re- quested. S. A. R. = Son Altesse Royale, His Royal Highness. s.-ent. = sous-entendu, under- stood. M'"^ (pi. M«^) = Madame, S. Exc. = Son Excellence, His Mrs. Excellency. M."" = maison, house, firm. S. M. (pi. LL. MM.) = Sa IVIa- ms. (pi. mss.) = manuscrit, jeste, His (Her) Majesty. manuscript. S. S. = Sa Saintet^, His Holi- N.-D. = Notre-Dame, Our ness. Lady. s. v. p. = s'il vous plait, if you N.-S. = Notre -Seigneur, Our 'please. Lord. V^ = veuve, widow. 1" (in titles) = premier, the First. II (in titles) = deux, the Second. Le XV^ siecle, etc. = le quin- zieme siecle, the 15th century. \^^ (fem. l^'^) = premier, ^rs^ 2^ = deuxieme, second. 1° = primo, firstly. ybre ^ septembre, September. ^bre ^ decembre, December. TEXTS AND EXERCISES SELECTIONS FROM FRENCH HISTORY Adapted from E. Lavisse: Premiere Annee d'Histoire de France I. GUERRE CONTRE LES ANGLAIS — JEANNE D'ARC La France eut des guerres a soutenir contre ses voisins. La principale guerre fut contre les Anglais. Un des grands seigneurs de France, le due de Norman- die, avait conquis I'Angleterre en 1066. En devenant roi d'Angleterre, il resta due de Normandie. Ses successeurs acquirent encore d'autres provinces frangaises, si bien que les dues de Normandie, rois d'Angleterre, devinrent plus puissants en France que les rois de France. Aussi nos rois firent-ils la guerre aux rois d'Angleterre. Une de ces guerres dura cent ans. Elle commenga en 1336, lorsque le roi d'Angleterre, fidouard III, pretendit devenir roi de France. Ce fut une guerre terrible. Les rois et les chevaliers de France y combattirent vaillamment, mais tres mal, sans discipline, a la fagon des anciens Gaulois. Au contraire, les Anglais combattirent avec beaucoup d'ordre et de sang-froid, comme autrefois les Romains. Les Anglais furent vainqueurs a Crecy (1346), a Calais, dont ils s'emparerent (1347), a Poitiers (1356) ou le roi Jean le Bon fut fait prisonnier apres s'etre defendu heroique- ment. Les Anglais furent encore vainqueurs a Azincourt (1415). Aux desastres de la guerre avec les Anglais vinrent s'aj outer les horreurs de la guerre civile des Armagnacs 147 148 TEXTS AND EXERCISES et des Bourguignons; de sorte que, a ravenement de Charles VII, en 1422, la France etait ruinee et presque tout entiere au pouvoir des Anglais. Mais les Frangais, en combattant contre I'Angleterre, comprirent qu'ils etaient un seul et meme peuple. lis eurent la haine de I'etranger et I'amour de la France. Ces sentiments inspirerent Jeanne d'Arc, notre grande et sainte heroine nationale. Elle battit les Anglais, delivra Orleans, une des villes que possedait encore le roi de France et que les Anglais voulaient lui prendre. Elle ren- dit confiance aux Frangais et fit sacrer Charles VII a Rheims, pour qu'il fut reconnu de tons comme roi de France, car les rois avaient coutume de se faire sacrer dans cette ville. Jeanne fut faite prisonniere a Compiegne. Les Anglais la brulerent a Rouen en 1431. Mais cette abominable cruaute ne leur rendit pas la victoire. Charles VII les chassa du royaume, oii ils ne garderent plus que Calais (1453). ARTICLES AND PARTITIVES (See §§ 136-137; §§ 33-37) France, Poitiers, England, Calais, Normandy, Agincourt. The king of France, the king of England, the duke of Normandy; love of Normandy, hatred of England, the Wctories of France. Good John, holy Jeanne, great Charles, mighty Edward. DiscipUne, coolness, war, order, confidence, crueltyr With abominable cruelty, with admirable coolness, with astonishing confidence; without hatred, without order, with great love for France; against king Edward, against duke Charles. Pow^erless, loveless, fearless; without king John, without duke Charles; John, the king of England; Charles, the king of France; Edward, the victor at Poitiers; Jeanne, the prisoner of the Enghsh. ARTICLES AND PARTITIVES 149 To make war, to fight against England, to ruin Normandy; conquerors fight heroically, good kings defend their people. In Calais, in England, in Poitiers; a war against foreigners, the custom of English kings. Wars, terrible wars, great wars, abominable wars, many wars, no wars, civil wars, all wars. Some cities, no cities, great cities, ruined cities, other cities, to burn cities, such (tel) cities, such wars. EngUshmen, no Englishmen, Frenchmen, no Frenchmen, all Frenclimen, some foreigners, no foreigners, many foreigners {use both beaucoup and bien), most foreigners, most cities, most Frenchmen, most Romans, all Romans. No Romans, in the manner of ancient Romans, Roman con- querors, some old Gauls, other Gauls, no Gauls, many Gauls, all Gauls. More (encore, 7iot treated as an adverb of quantity) wars, more Enghshmen, more French prisoners, more great lords, more dis- asters, more horrors. No more (plus) ci\dl wars, no more con- fidence, no more lords, no more dukes, no more conquerors, no more kings. Provincial cities, conquered provinces, provincial wars, pro- vincial knights, many knights, Norman knights, all provinces, all knights. So many (tant) ruined cities, so many undiscipUned knights, so many prisoners, so many horrors, so many disasters. A sort of national heroine, a sort of great lord, a sort of hatred, a sort of love, a sort of kingdom, all heroines, all disasters, all hatreds, all kingdoms. Such Romans, such kings, such (de si) good kings, such great cities, such customs, such a custom, such horrible customs, such confidence, such great confidence, such cruelty, such abominable cruelty, such horrors, such great horrors, such heroines, such holy heroines. 150 TEXTS AND EXERCISES II. LES TROIS ETATS Le mot fitat signifie condition, profession, metier (comme, par exemple, dans I'expression: etat militaire). II y avait en France trois etats ou conditions: I'etat du clerge, qui comprenait les pretres, eveques et arche- veques, les moines et les abbes; I'etat de la noblesse, qui comprenait tous les seigneurs; et le troisieme etat, ou tiers etat, qui comprenait les bourgeois des villes. On appelait Etats generaux la reunion des deputes du clerge, de la noblesse et du tiers etat. Les fitats generaux furent reunis pour la premiere fois sous le regne de Philippe le Bel. La premiere assemblee celebre est celle de I'an 1302. Les rois reunissaient les fitats generaux pour leur de- mander aide et conseil, c'est-a-dire de I'argent, des soldats, et I'approbation de leurs actes. Les fitats generaux au- raient done pu devenir une assemblee nationale qui aurait vote I'impot, fait les lois et gouverne la France avec le roi. Malheureusement il n'en fut pas ainsi. Les rois, qui aimaient mieux gouverner seuls, convoquerent les Etats generaux le moins souvent possible. Puis les trois ordres ne surent pas s'entendre pour empecher le roi de devenir trop puissant. Le clerge et la noblesse avaient des pri- vileges qu'ils voulaient garder; ils avaient I'orgueil de leur condition et ils dedaignaient le tiers etat. Le roi con- tinua done a faire ses volontes, et la France ne devint pas alors un pays libre. POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES (See §§ 66-71) Those lords, those are lords, his lord, her lord, our lord, their lord, their lords, that lord, this lord or that lord. Those liberties, your liberties, ours, his, theirs, yours, mine, POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES 151 hers, the citizens', the monks', our Uberties, these or ours, ours or the third estate's. That soldier, those soldiers, these, the king's, Phihp's, her soldier, the silver one. That money, his, your money, mine, her money, theirs, the king's, that of the States General, that is money, that money is mine (a moi), that money is his, that money is hers, that money is ours. That condition and this one, those lords and these, these cities and those, our bishops and yours, this meeting and that one, this time and that one, tliis tax and that one, his approval and yours, her approval and the king's, her pride and the king's, my will and his, his will and mine, her will and the archbishop's. That assembly, that pride, that approval, that tax, that law, that state, that example, that bishop, that abbot, that law, that order, that reign, that aid, that advice, that act, that privilege, that country. This assembly, the first one, the last one, the French one, the one of Philip's reign, the one we demand, that of the year 1300. That is a large city, that city is large, those are citizens of Paris, those citizens are going to Paris, that is a meeting of the three orders, that meeting is famous, that is the king of France, that king is famous. That is my trade, that business is better (valoir mieux) than mine, that is his condition, that condition is better than his, that is our city, this city is larger than ours, those are your sol- diers, those soldiers are the king's, those soldiers are yours, those soldiers are more famous than the king's, those soldiers are not so (moins) famous as ours and theirs. The king says this, the bishop says that, the citizens like this better than that, the lords demand this, the clergy demands that. The nobiUty despises what the citizens love; the king does not understand what the nobility is doing; do you understand what is doing that? Do you understand what we are doing? Do you understand 152 TEXTS AND EXERCISES what the third estate might have become? Do you understand what keeps the nobihty from becoming too powerful? Do you know what makes a free country? Do you know what the deputies are asking? That is what we do not under- stand. III. FRANCOIS PREMIER EX CHARLES-QUINT En 1515 Frangois P"" semblait le plus puissant roi du monde; mais on vit bientot en Europe un prince plus puissant que lui: c'etait Charles d'Autriche. Le pere de Charles d'Autriche etait Philippe le Beau, fils de Maxi- milien, empereur d'Allemagne, et de Marie de Bourgogne. Philippe le Beau possedait les Pays-Bas, I'Artois, et la Franche-Comte. II mourut jeune encore et son fils Charles d'Autriche herita de ces belles provinces. La mere de Charles d'Autriche etait Jeanne la Folle, fille de Ferdinand le Catholique et d'Isabelle de Castille, qui possedaient a eux deux TEspagne, le Roussillon, le royaume de Naples et d'immenses territoires en Ame- rique. Du cote de sa mere, Charles eut done I'Espagne, le Roussillon, Naples, les territoires d'Amerique. En 1519, Maximilien, empereur d'Allemagne, mourut. Charles d'Autriche, qui etait son petit-fils, fut elu em- pereur et prit le nom de Charles-Quint, ce qui veut dire Charles Cinq. Charles-Quint possedait done une grande partie de I'Europe et de I'Amerique; c'etait un prince tres instruit et tres reflechi, quoiqu'il fut tres jeune. Frangois P"" fut tres irrite de I'election de Charles- Quint comme empereur d'Allemagne, car il avait espere lui-m^me etre elu empereur. II fit la guerre a Charles- Quint. II n'avait pas autant d'fitats que Charles, mais il etait bien obei dans son royaume, ou il trouvait autant d'argent et de soldats qu'il voulait. II eut pour allies des INTERROGATIVES AND COMPARATIVES 153 princes italiens, qui trouvaient Charles-Quint trop puis- sant en Italic, et des princes allemands, qui le trouvaient trop puissant en Allemagne. II fit aussi alliance avec Soli- man, le sultan ou empereur des Turcs. Avec le secours de ces allies,. Frangois P"" put resister a Charles-Quint. INTERROGATIVES AND COMPARATIVES (See §§ 51-53, 81-83; §§ 133-135, 191) Who seemed the most powerful king in the world? Who in- herited the finest pro\7nces in Europe? Whom did you see in Paris? Who was more powerful than Francis First? Was Francis I less powerful than Charles V? Was the em- peror as powerful as Francis I? Who was father of Charles of Austria? What king died young? What provinces had he in- herited? Whose son was Charles? Whose father was Maximilian? From whom did Charles inherit the Low Countries? To whom did Philip leave Artois? Are you younger than Philip? Is Charles as young as Francis? Who is younger than Mary? Maximihan is not so young as you. What means "Charles Fifth"? Do you know what Charles- Quint means? What does he mean? Do you know what means "Crazy Jane"? Who did that? What did that? What do you see? Whom do you see? Who was the most learned prince in Germany? What name did he take? What territories did he possess? Against whom did Francis I make war? Who had as many states as Charles? What made him so powerful? With what was he able to re- sist Charles? Of what are we speaking? Of what are you thinking? What do you think of Charles V? Which of those provinces is the finest in Europe? Of which are you thinking? Of which are you speaking? Which of those princes are as thoughtful as Philip? 154 TEXTS AND EXERCISES Wliich of those kingdoms is the most powerful? Of which are you thinking? Of which are you speaking? What terri- tories did Charles possess? Of which are we thinking? Of which is the Sultan speaking? IV. HENRI QUATRE Henri III etant mort sans enfants, I'heritier de la cou- ronne fut Henri de Navarre, qui devint le roi Henri IV (1589-1610). Depuis son enfance, le futur Henri IV etait aux armees. II avait assiste a bien des batailles et a bien des prises de ville, et toujours on I'avait vu combattre au premier rang. La plupart des provinces avaient pour gouverneurs des nobles du parti de la Ligue. Le chef de la Ligue etait Mayenne, frere du due Henri de Guise. Ces gouver- neurs ne voulaient pas reconnaitre Henri IV pour roi. lis recevaient du roi d'Espagne, Philippe II, de I'argent et des troupes. Henri IV demanda des secours a la reine d'Angleterre, Elisabeth, et a quelques princes d'Alle- magne; mais il compta surtout sur lui-meme. Mayenne vint I'attaquer en Normandie avec une grande armee. Un moment, Henri se crut perdu, mais a la fin il fut vainqueur, et I'armee de Mayenne s'enfuit devant la petite troupe du roi de France. Henri pardonna a tous ceux qui s'etaient revoltes contre lui. II voulut que ses sujets s'aimassent les uns les autres, et qu'il n'y eM plus jamais de guerres civiles en France. II aimait beaucoup les paysans. II aurait voulu que chacun d'eux put mettre le dimanche «la poule au pot.)) II honora de son amitie Olivier de Serres, qui etait, comme Sully, un grand ami de I'agriculture. Mais il DISJUNCTIVE PERSONALS AND RELATIVES 155 aimait aussi les ouvriers. II crea des fabriques de draps, de tapis, de verres, de cristaux. On ne fabriquait plus d'etoffes de soie en France, et pourtant les nobles et les riches bourgeois en portaient. II fallait aller acheter de la soie en Italie. Henri IV vou- lut qu'on elevat en France des vers a soie; il fit planter des muriers, dont la feuille nourrit le ver a soie. On lui envoya la premiere paire de bas de soie qui fut fabriquee dans le royaume. II la mit tout de suite et il la faisait voir a tout le monde. II etait aussi fier ce jour-la que s'il avait remporte une victoire. Car ce grand roi n'etait pas seulement un guerrier; il aimait tout ce qu'un prince doit aimer, I'agriculture, le commerce, I'industrie, qui enrichissent le pays. DISJUNCTIVE PERSONALS AND RELATIVES (See §§ 55, 57; §§ 72-80) A. Translate each expression, and repeat, inflecting, e.g. moi, qui les vols; toi, qui les vois; lui, qui les voit; elle, qui les voit; nous, qui les voyons, etc. I, who see them; you, whom he sees. I, who have been pres- ent at many battles. We, who fight in the first rank. He, whom they will not recognize as king. You, from whom they receive money and troops. She, upon whom I counted. They, from whom she asked help. I, who am victor. He, who has forgiven them. They, who have revolted. It is against me that they have revolted. B. He, who loves the peasants. He, whom the peasants love. He, of whom the peasants are speaking. He, whom the peasants obey. He, who thinks of the peasants. He, who honors us with his friendship. They, whom we honor with our friendship. She, whose friendship honors us. He, whose friendship we desire. 156 TEXTS AND EXERCISES In the expressions under B, suppose the commas omitted and repeat the expressions. (Celui qui aime, etc.) What kind of pronouns then take the place of the disjunctive personals? C. The king without whose friendship that industry would die. The mulberry-trees, the leaves of which feed the silk- worms; the mulberry-trees, the leaves of which the silkworms eat; the mulberry-trees, without whose leaves the silkworms would die. The victory of which they are so proud; the king, of whose friendship they are so proud. What enriches the country you are speaking of? What feeds the silkworms 3^ou are thinking of? The king wishes what the peasants desire. The king loves what will em-ich the kingdom. The nobles do not know what we are speaking of. Show us what you are doing. Show us what feeds the silk- worms. Tell us what they are planting. Tell us what makes them go to Italy. V. LOUIS QUATORZE Louis XIV (1643-1715) commeiiQa a gouverner par lui- meme en 1661. Ses principaux ministres furent alors Colbert et Louvois. Louis XIV a un grand nom dans I'histoire, parce qu'il a ete longtemps heureux dans son gouvernement et dans ses guerres, puis parce que de grands ecrivains et de grands artistes ont vecu de son temps et qu'il a et^ leur protecteur. Les plus grands ecrivains du siecle de Louis XIV sont: Corneille et Racine, poetes qui ont ecrit des tragedies; Moliere, qui a ecrit des comedies en vers et en prose; Boi- leau, poete qui a ecrit des lettres et des satires; La Fon- taine, poete qui a ecrit des fables; Descartes, qui a ete un grand philosophe; Pascal, qui a ete un grand savant en LOUIS QUATORZE 157 meme temps qu'un grand ecrivain; Bossuet, eveque de Meaux, qui a prononce d'admirables sermons et des orai- sons funebres, et qui a compose de beaux livres d'histoire et de philosophic pour Tinstruction de son eleve le dauphin, fils de Louis XIV ; Fenelon, archeveque de Cambrai, qui a compose de beaux livres pour I'instruction de son eleve, le due de Bourgogne, petit-fils de Louis XIV. II y a eu aussi de grands artistes au temps de Louis XIV. Les plus celebres sont les peintres Lesueur, Claude Lorrain, Poussin, Mignard; le sculpteur Paget; les archi- tectes Perrault, qui a construit la colonnade du Louvre, a Paris, et Mansard, qui a construit une grande partie du palais de Versailles. La plupart de ces ecrivains et de ces artistes ont celebre les gioires de Louis XIV. Mais les gloires de Louis XIV n'ont pas dure jusqu'a la fin de son regne. Louis XIV etait un roi trop absolu. II ne permettait a personne de discuter ses ordres. II disait que la volonte de Dieu est que les sujets obeissent sans discuter. Sa vie privee fut longtemps scandaleuse, et personne n'osait lui reprocher sa conduite. Louis XIV depensa sans compter I'argent de ses sujets pour satisfaire son orgueil; sa cour et les palais qu'il fit batir, surtout le palais de Versailles, couterent des sommes enormes, qui s'ajouterent a celles qu'il fallut depenser pour la guerre. Les souffrances du peuple furent epouvantables vers la fin du regne. Aussi Louis XIV, au moment ou il mourut (1715), etait maudit de tout son peuple. 158 TEXTS AND EXERCISES TWO OBJECTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS — PAST PARTICIPLES (See §§ 63-65; §§ 91-92. 110-180) (When possible, repeat sentences, inflecting the direct or the in- direct object; also changing from affirmative to negative.) Have you read the letters he has written? He wrote them to me — to you — to him, etc. Write them to her. Do not write us any. Didn't he write them any? Great authors have composed those books which you have read. I have seen the colonnade that Perrault has built for Louis XIV. It is in Paris, and I have seen it there. Permit it to me. I do not permit it to you. Do not allow it to them. Who told you so? Do not tell me so. They told him so. He regrets the conduct for which I reproached him. Don't reproach me for it. Reproach them for it. She has reproached herself for it. He has reproached himself for it. We have reproached ourselves for it. They have re- proached themselves for it. The books they have written; the tragedies they have written; the sermons they have written; the orations they have written. The great artists there have been; the pupils he has had; the poets there have been; the grandsons she has had; the comedies there have been. The sums they have cost. The orders we have discussed. The sums he has expended. The palaces he has had built for himself; the portions which Perrault has made; the portions which Louis has had constructed. The conduct he has allowed himself; the orders he has al- lowed himself to give; the pride with which she has reproached herself. They died this morning; she died accursed of her whole peo- ple; the people have cursed their ministers; which ministers did the people curse? LOUIS QUINZE 159 Fenelon has composed beautiful books. Which books has Fenelon composed? For whom did he compose them? Did he compose them for him in the time of Louis XIV? VI. LOUIS QUINZE Dans les dernieres annees du regne de Louis XV, I'Angleterre commandait sur toutes les mers, et elle avait conquis un empire colonial immense. La Prusse etait devenue redoutable, et elle allait etre constamment I'ennemie de la France. Une autre grande puissance etait nee. C'etait la Rus- sie, qui devint un des premiers Etats de 1' Europe a partir du regne de Pierre le Grand. En France, tout allait mal. Louis XV depensa tant d' argent que le gouvernement, a la fin, fit banqueroute, c'est-a-dire refusa de payer ce qu'il devait. Louis XIV avait abuse deja du pouvoir royal; mais Louis XV ne s'en servit que pour mener une vie honteuse. II rendit le pouvoir royal odieux a tous les bons Frangais. Alors tous les Frangais intelligents et patriotes de- manderent la reforme d'un gouvernement que personne n'aimait plus et qui ne faisait plus que du mal a notre pays. lis voulaient que le roi ne commandat plus a ses sujets comme un maitre a des esclaves. lis voulaient la liberte de la presse, c'est-a-dire la liberty pour les Frangais d'exprimer leurs opinions par les jour- naux et par les livres. lis voulaient la liberte du travail, c'est-a-dire que tous les Frangais pussent travailler comme ils I'entendraient, au lieu d'etre obliges d'entrer dans une corporation et de se soumettre a des reglements qui genaient le travail. 160 TEXTS AND EXERCISES lis voulaient aussi que tous les Frangais fussent ^gaux entre eux. Les nobles et le clerge avaient toutes sortes de privileges; ils ne payaient pas d'impots. Au contraire, les pauvres paysans, mines par les impots du roi, payaient aussi des redevances a leurs seigneurs et ils etaient obliges de travailler pour ceux-ci. Les ecrivains demandaient done que I'impot fut paye par tout le monde, et que les droits feodaux, que les pay- sans payaient aux seigneurs, fussent abolis. La France etait exploitee comine une propriete par le roi et par les nobles. Et pourtant le roi et les nobles avaient laisse perir le vieil honneur de la France. lis avaient montre qu'ils n'etaient plus capables de la gou- verner. Tous les Frangais intelligents voulaient que la France se gouvernat elle-meme, et que son gouvernement fut juste. Les ecrivains frangais du temps de Louis XV honorerent la France que le gouvernement de ce roi deshonorait. Ils furent admires et imites dans le monde entier. La France represente dans le monde, depuis ce temps-la, les idees de justice, de liberte et d'humanite. Louis XV mourut en 1774. La nouvelle de sa mort ne fit pleurer personne dans le royaume. Lui qu'on avait commence par tant aimer, on le meprisait. II a 6te le plus mauvais roi de toute notre histoire. Ce n'est pas assez de detester sa memoire, il faut Texecrer. FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL (See §§ 98-100, 163-164; §§ 114-116, 165-168) Thou shalt not abuse the royal power; thou shalt not spend so much money; thou shalt pay what thou owest; thou shalt not lead a life of shame. If he spends so much money, he will be bankrupt; when he is FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL 161 bankrupt, he will refuse to pay what he owes; if he should re- fuse to pay what he owes, he would make himself odious. Can he have failed? If he refuses to pay what he owes, he must have failed. Even if he has failed, he will not refuse to pay what he owes you; even though he had failed, he would not refuse to pay what he owes us. He has probably been leading a shameful life; no doubt he has already abused the royal power. From what the papers say, he has gone into insolvency. If the king will no longer govern France, she will govern her- self. If he has despoiled France, she will govern herself. When he is no longer able to govern her, she will govern herself. If he were no longer able to govern her, she would govern herself. If he had despoiled her, she would now be governing herself. If he had despoiled her, she would have governed her- self. As soon as all Frenchmen are equal, feudal rights will be abolished. They knew that as soon as all Frenchmen were equal, the tax would be paid by everybody. If all Frenchmen were equal now, the tax would be paid by everyone. If the feudal rights should be abolished to-morrow, the tax would be paid by everyone. If feudal rights had been abolished yesterday, the nobles would now be paying taxes. When France governs herself, her government will be just. If France is governing herself, she will no longer be despised. When the peasants can work as they please, France will be ad- mired the world over. Under Louis XV, they could not work as they pleased. They could not now work as they pleased, if they were forced to join a trade-guild. If the king had commanded them, as a master his slaves, they could not have worked as they pleased. Russia was to be one of the first states of Europe; she ought to have governed herself from the time of Peter the Great. Prussia ought not to be always the enemy of France; I should like to see her represent ideas of justice, hberty, and humanity. 162 TEXTS AND EXERCISES One cannot too strongly detest the memory of Louis XV. One cannot too strongly demand the liberty of the press and the liberty of labor. VII. LA REVOLUTION Les fitats generaux se reunirent a \^ersailles le 5 mai 1789. Les deputes du tiers etat etaient plus nombreux que ceux du clerge et de la noblesse reunis, et ils voulurent que les trois ordres deliberassent ensemble, et que les decisions des fitats generaux fussent prises a la majorite des votants. Les deputes de la noblesse et du clerge refuserent d'abord d'y consentir, et le roi appuya leur resistance. Le 20 juin 1789, les deputes du tiers etat jurerent dans la salle du Jeu de Paume de ne pas se separer sans avoir donne une Constitution a la France. Le roi, le clerge et la noblesse cederent successivement; les trois ordres delibererent ensemble, et les Etats gene- raux prirent le nom d'Assemblee nationale constituante. Les preparatifs militaires de la cour amenerent une in- surrection. La Bastille fut prise le 14 juillet 1789. Louis XXI essaya de s'enfuir, mais il fut arrete. II jura alors d'observer la constitution votee par I'Assemblee nationale constituante, qui se separa au mois de sep- tembre 1791. La Constituante a detruit le pouvoir absolu des rois, elle a donne a tons les Frangais la liberte et I'egalite. Elle a organise la France. L'Assemblee legislative succeda a I'Assemblee consti- tuante au mois de septembre 1791. Comme I'Autriche faisait des armements contre la France, Louis XVI lui declara la guerre; mais personne ne croyait a sa sincerite, et le peuple de Paris envahit les Tuileries le 10 aout 1792. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 163 La Convention nationale, qui se reunit en septembre 1792, etablit la Republique. Elle condamna a mort Louis XVI, qui fut execute le 21 Janvier 1793. La Terreur, pendant laquelle perissent des milliers de victimes, dure jusqu'a ce que Robespierre meure sur I'echafaud (juillet 1794). La Convention nationale se separe en 1795. En 1800 les guerres de la Revolution semblaient finies. Les pays de la rive gauche du Rhin, qui jadis apparte- naient a des princes allemands, appartenaient a la France. La Belgique, qui jadis appartenait a TAutriche, ap- partenait a la France. La Hollande, qui avait ete si longtemps notre ennemie, etait devenue la Republique batave, et elle etait notre alliee. La Republique suisse avait ete reorganisee par la France. En Italie, dans ce pays qui avait si longtemps appar- tenu a nos ennemis d'Autriche et d'Espagne, nous avions fonde des republiques, qui etaient nos alliees et nos pro- tegees. En huit ans, de 1792 a 1800, la Revolution frangaise avait fait pour la grandeur de la patrie plus que Fran- gois I", Henri IV, Richelieu, Mazarin, et Louis XIV. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (See§§ 117-125) He wishes the States General to meet at Versailles. He orders the decisions to be made by a majority vote. They will meet in the tennis court, although the king has refused it to them. The king \nll yield, that the Assembly may not separate without ha\dng given France a constitution. It is right for the three estates to deliberate together. 164 TEXTS AND EXERCISES I am glad the Bastille is captured. I am surprised that it was captured so easily. I am sorry the deputies of the nobility are so numerous. I am sorry they refused to deliberate together. I do not say the king is a wicked man. I am sorry he tried to run away. I do not believe he has been arrested. It is necessary for the deputies to give France a constitution. Do you believe the people has invaded the Tuileries? Do you believe the king is a prisoner in the Temple? I believe the Convention will meet, but I do not believe it will condemn the king to death. He is the only king of France who has died on the scaffold. Vahny is the most celebrated victory that that general has won. Robespierre and Marat are the most detestable men that I know. Louis IX is the best king who ever reigned in France. Riche- lieu is the greatest cardinal France has known. RicheUeu is the greatest of the cardinals who have governed France. Danton and Camille Desmoulins are the greatest of the Mon- tagnards who died on the scaffold. Change primary (present and future) tenses of the main verbs to the corresponding secondary (imperfect indicative and pres- ent conditional) tenses, and repeat the sentences. VIII. NAPOLEON Napoleon Bonaparte est ne a Ajaccio, le 15 aout 1769. Son pere avait cinq fils et trois filles. Napoleon etait le second de la famille. A dix ans il entra a I'ecole militaire de Brienne comme boursier, car son pere n'etait pas assez riche pour payer les frais de son education. Le jeune ecolier travaillait beaucoup, et a quinze ans il fut envoys k I'^cole militaire de Paris. A seize ans il etait lieutenant en second dans un regiment d'artillerie. NAPOLEON 165 II devint rapidement capitaine, puis commandant, et il avait ce grade quand il fut envoye a I'armee qui assiegeait Toulon, dont les Anglais s'etaient empares en 1793. Grace a lui, Toulon fut pris en quelques jours, et il fut fait general. II avait vingt-quatre ans. Quand Bonaparte pris le commanderaent de I'armee d'ltalie, en 1796, il avait \angt-six ans. On croit lire un roman en lisant cette histoire d'un homme, qui etait en 1785, a seize ans, un lieutenant d'ar- tillerie inconnu de tous; quinze ans apres, en 1799, pre- mier consul et maitre de la France; cinq ans apres, en 1804, empereur; en 1811, maitre de presque toute I'Europe. Mais I'Angleterre n'avait pas ei6 vaincue, I'Espagne resistait toujours, et bientot la guerre eclata avec la Russie. Napoleon envahit la Russie au mois de juin 1812. II fut vainqueur, sur le chemin de Moscou, a la bataille de la Moskova; il entra dans Moscou, mais les Russes bru- lerent la ville, et I'hiver vint. Napoleon fut oblige de battre en retraite. L'armee souffrit du froid et de la faim dans les plaines desolees et couvertes de neige. La cava- lerie russe harcelait nos soldats. Trois cent mille soldats de Napoleon perirent dans cette guerre. Le roi de Prusse et les princes allemands, qui trem- blaient naguere devant Napoleon, s'enhardirent alors et lui declarerent la guerre. L'empereur d'Autriche, bien qu'il fut le beau-pere de Napoleon, se joignit a ses enne- mis pour I'ecraser, et toute I'Allemagne se souleva contre nous, comme I'Espagne. A Leipzig (1813), Napoleon, avec 200,000 hommes, livra pendant trois jours, a 300,000 Russes et Allemands, une bataille qu'on a appelee la bataille des nations, parce que presque toutes les nations de I'Europe y furent repre- 166 TEXTS AND EXERCISES sentees. Napoleon fut vaincu. II abdiqua en faveur de son fils que les souverains allies ne voulurent pas laisser regner. Ce fut alors que le comte de Provence, frere et heritier de Louis XVI, rentra en France. II devint le roi Louis XVIII, et Napoleon se rendit a I'ile d'Elbe dont on lui avait donne la souverainete. Au mois de mars 1815, il quitta Tile d'Elbe; il debarqua sur les cotes de Provence et traversa la France sans que personne put I'arreter, parce que les soldats envoyes contre lui par Louis XVIII criaient, ((Vive I'empereur!)) Louis XVIII s'enfuit de Paris et I'empereur y rentra. Aussitot les souverains declarerent la guerre a Napo- leon, qui fut battu a Waterloo au mois de juin 1815. Le gouvernement anglais I'envoya prisonnier dans une ile d'Afrique, a Sainte-Helene, et Louis XVIII rentra en France. Napoleon laissa la France plus petite qu'elle n'etait a son avenement, plus petite meme que I'ancienne monarchie ne I'avait faite. SUBJUNCTIVES AND INFINITIVES (See §§ 171-178, 197, 222; §§ 202-206, 211-218) However young Napoleon is, he will know how to take Tou- lon. Whoever that young man is, he works hard. Whatever his family is, and however rich his father is, he wiU never have command of the army. Quite unknown as he is, he is entering the miUtary school. They are seeking a general who can take Toulon in a few days. Do you know the general who has just taken Leipzig? I do not want a friend who joins my enemies in (a) the day of battle. Let us choose a friend who tells us what he thinks. I have found a friend who always says what he thinks. I do not believe that he would burn the city if he should enter it. It is true that he would join our enemies if we were SUBJUNCTIVES AND INFINITIVES 167 beaten. It is not possible that he would join our enemies if we were beaten. Join us that we may crush him! We shall not crush him unless you join us. Before you join us, declare war against Napoleon! Before your friends join us, they must declare war against Napoleon. Although you tremble in Napoleon's presence, you must de- clare war against him. Provided that they do not die on the way, they wiU prevent the French from entering Waterloo. He will cross France without anyone being able to stop him. He Avill leave his island without either Russians or Enghsh knowing it. Let us send soldiers against him, that he may not land on the coast of Provence! (Repeat the preceding sentences, changing primary to the cor- responding secondary tenses in the main clauses.) We are not rich enough to go to France this sunamer. Send him to take Toulon. He has much to do. Do you think you are reading novels? The Russians wiU come and burn the city. The Russians are going to burn the city. The Russians have just burned the city. If the Russians happen to burn the city, we shall suffer from cold and hunger. It is time to beat a retreat. That is easy to say, but hard to do. Tell them to join us. Let us rise to crush our enemies. The government is ready to send him to Saint Helena. Shout to them to go to the island of Elba. That will teach him to invade Russia. In\-ite him to leave France. Twice has he seen France invaded. Those poor soldiers are to be pitied. They like better to die than to surrender. Let him study, that he may be a general at twenty-four! Let Spain resist him, let Russia burn her cities, let Prussia take courage, let Austria join his enemies! God forbid that we have to fight such battles! Would to God that he had not come back to France ! NOIRAUD LuDovic Halevy — N'ayez pas peur, monsieur, vous ne manquerez pas le train. Voila quinze ans que je mene des voyageurs au chemin de fer, et jamais je ne leur ai fait manquer le train! Entendez-vous, monsieur, jamais! — Cependant . . . — Oh! ne regardez pas votre montre. II y a une chose que vous ne savez pas et qu'il faut savoir et que votre montre ne vous dira pas. C'est que le train est toujours en retard d'un quart d'heure. II n'y a pas d'exemple que le train n'ait pas ete en retard d'un quart d'heure. II y en eut un ce jour-la. Le train avait ete exact et je le manquai. Mon cocher etait furieux. — II faut prevenir, disait-il au chef de gare, il faut pre- venir si vos trains, tout d'un coup, se mettent a partir a rheure. Jamais on n'a vu ga! Et prenant a temoin tons les assistants: — N'est-ce pas qu'on n'a jamais vu ga? Je ne veux pas paraitre fautif pres de monsieur. Un train a I'heure! Un train a I'heure! Dites-lui bien que c'est la premiere fois que c'est arrive. Ce fut un cri general. «0h oui! oh oui! ordinairement il y a du retard.)) Je n'en avais pas moins trois grandes heures a passer dans un tres melancolique village du can- ton de Vaud, au pied de deux melancoliques montagnes qui avaient deux petites houppettes de neige sur la tete. Comment tuer ces trois heures? A mon tour, j'invo- quai 1 'assistance. Et ce fut de nouveau un cri general: 168 NOIRAUD 169 — Allez voir le Chaudron! il n'y a que ga. a voir dans le pays. Et ou etait-il, ce Chaudron? Sur la montagne de droite, a mi-c6te; mais le chemin etait un peu complique; on me conseillait de prendre un guide, et la-bas, dans cette petite maison blanche avec des volets verts, je devais trouver le meilleur guide du pays, un brave homme, le pere Simon. Je m'en allai frapper a la porte de la petite maison. Une vieille femme vint m'ouvrir. — Le pere Simon? — C'est bien ici. Mais voila! si c'est pour aller au Chaudron? — Oui, c'est pour aller au Chaudron. — Eh bien ! II ne va pas bien depuis ce matin, le pere Simon. II n'a pas de jambes. II ne pent pas sortir. Seule- ment, ne vous inquietez pas, il y a quelqu'un pour le rem- placer; il y a Noiraud. — Va pour Noiraud. — Seulement il faut que je vous previenne. Ce n'est pas une personne, Noiraud. — Pas une personne? — Non, c'est notre chien. — Comment, votre chien? — Oui, Noiraud. Et il vous conduira tres bien, aussi bien que mon mari; il a I'habitude. — L'habitude? — Certainement, depuis des annees et des annees, le pere Simon I'emmene avec lui. Alors il a appris a con- naitre les endroits et maintenant il fait tres bien sa petite affaire tout seul. II a souvent conduit des voyageurs, et nous en avons toujours eu des compliments. Pour ce qui est de I'intelligence, n'ayez pas peur, il en a autant que 170 NOIRAUD vous et moi. II ne lui manque que la parole. Mais ga n'est pas necessaire, la parole. Si c'etait pour montrer un monument, oui, parce qu'alors il faut savoir faire des re- cits et dire des dates historiques. Mais ici, il n'y a que des beautes de la nature. Prenez Noiraud. Et puis, ga vous coutera moins cher. C'est trois francs, mon mari; Noiraud, ga n'est que trente sous; et il vous en fera voir pour trente sous autant que mon mari pour trois francs. — Eh bien, ou est-il, Noiraud? — II se repose au soleil, dans le jardin. II a deja mene des Anglais, ce matin, au Chaudron. Je I'appelle, pas vrai? — Oui, appelez-le. — Noiraud! Noiraud! II arriva d'un bond par la fenetre. C'etait un assez vilain petit chien noir a longs polls f rises et ebouriffes; mais il avait cependant, dans toute sa personne, un cer- tain air de gravite, de decision, d'importance. Son pre- mier regard fut pour moi; un regard net, precis, assure, qui m'enveloppa rapidement des pieds a la tete, un regard qui disait clairement: «C'est un voyageur. II veut voir le Chaudron. » Un train manque me suffisait, pour ce jour-la, et je tenais a ne pas m'exposer une seconde fois a pareille mesaventure. J'expliquai a cette brave femme que je n'avais que trois heures pour ma promenade au Chaudron. — ^Oh! je sais bien, me dit-elle, vous voulez prendre le train de quatre heures. Ne craignez rien. Noiraud vous ramenera a temps. AUons, Noiraud, en route, mon gar- gon, en route. Mais Noiraud ne paraissait pas du tout dispose a se mettre en route. II restait la immobile, regardant sa mai- tresse avec une certaine agitation. NOIRAUD 171 — Ah! je suis bete, dit la vieille femme. J'oubliais, j'oubliais le sucre. EUe alia prendre quatre morceaux de sucre dans un tiroir et, me les remettant: — • Voila pourquoi il ne voulait pas partir. Vous n'aviez pas les morceaux de sucre. Tu vols, Noiraud, le monsieur a le sucre. AUons, en route, mon gargon! Au Chaudron! au Chaudron! au Chaudron! Elle repeta ces mots trois fois en parlant tres lentement et tres distinctement, et pendant ce temps, moi, j'exami- nais Noiraud avec attention. II repondait aux paroles de sa maitresse par de petits signes de tete qui allaient en s'accentuant et ou il entrait evidemment, a la fin, un peu d'impatience et de mauvaise humeur. On pouvait les traduire ainsi: ((Oui, oui, au Chaudron; j'ai compris. Le monsieur a les morceaux de sucre, et nous allons au Chaudron. C'est entendu. Me prenez-vous pour une bete?)) Et sans laisser finir le troisieme ((au Chaudron)) de madame Simon, Noiraud, evidemment blesse, tourna les talons, vint se planter en face de moi et, du regard, me montrant la porte, me dit aussi nettement qu'il etait per- mis a un chien de le dire: — Allons, venez, vous! Je le suivis docilement. Nous partimes tous les deux, lui devant, moi derriere. Nous traversames ainsi tout le village. Des gamins qui jouaient dans la rue reconnurent mon guide. — Eh, Noiraud! Bonjour, Noiraud! lis voulaient jouer avec le chien; mais il tourna la tete d'un air dedaigneux, de I'air d'un chien qui n'a pas le temps de s'amuser, d'un chien qui est en train de faire son devoir et de gagner trente sous. Un des enfants s'ecria: 172 NOIRAUD — Laissez-le done. II conduit le m'sieu au Chaudron. Bonjour, m'sieu! Et tous eclaterent de rire, en repetant: — Bonjour, m'sieu! Je souriais, mais gauchement, j'en suis sur. Je me sen- tais embarrasse, un pen humilie meme. J'etais, en somme, domine par cet animal. II etait, pour le moment, mon maitre. II savait ou il allait, et moi je ne le savais pas. J'avais hate de sortir du village et de me trouver seul avec Noiraud, en face de ces beautes de la nature qu'il avait pour mission de me faire admirer. Ces beautes de la nature furent, pour commencer, une affreuse route poudreuse, sous un soleil brulant. Le chien marchait d'un pas alerte et je me fatiguais a le suivre. J' essay ai de moderer son allure: — Noiraud, allons; Noiraud, mon gargon, pas si vite. Noiraud faisait la sourde oreille et fut pris brusquement d'un veritable acces de colere, quand je voulus m'asseoir, au coin d'un champ, sous un arbre qui donnait une ombre grele. II aboyait d'une petite voix furieuse, me jetait des regards irrites. fividemment, ce que je faisais etait con- traire a la regie. On n'avait pas la coutume de s'arreter la. Et les jappements etaient si aigus que je me levai pour reprendre ma route. Noiraud se calma aussitot et se remit a trottiner gaiement devant moi. Je I'avais com- pris. II 6ta\t content. Quelques minutes apres, nous entrions dans un deli- cieux chemin, tout fleuri, tout ombreux, tout parfume, tout plein de la fraicheur et du murmure des sources. Noiraud se glissa aussitot sous bois, prit le galop et dis- parut dans le petit sentier. Je le suivais, un pen haletant. Je n'avais pas fait une centaine de pas, que je trouvai mon Noiraud qui m'attendait, la tete haute et I'oeil brillant. NOIRAUD 173 dans une sorte de salle de verdure egayee par la chanson d'une mignonne cascade. II y avait la un vieux banc rustique, et le regard de Noiraud allait avec impatience de mes yeux a ce banc et de ce banc a mes yeux. Je com- mengais a comprendre le langage de Noiraud. — A la bonne heure, me disait-il, voila une place pour se reposer. II fait bon, ici; il fait frais. Tu etais bete; tu voulais t'arreter en plein soleil. AUons, assieds-toi; tu peux t'asseoir, je te le permets. Et je m'arretai, je m'assis et j'allumai un cigare. Je fis presque le mouvement d'en offrir un a Noiraud. II fu- mait peut-etre. Mais je pensai qu'il prefererait un mor- ceau de sucre. II I'attrapa au vol fort adroitement, le croqua a belles dents, se coucha et s'assoupit a mes pieds. II etait evidemment habitue a faire a cette place une petite halte et une petite sieste. II ne dormit guere qu'une dizaine de minutes. J'etais, d'ailleurs, parfaitement tranquille; Noiraud commengait a m'inspirer une confiance absolue. J'etais resolu a lui obeir aveuglement. II se leva, s'etira, me jeta ce petit regard de cote qui signifiait: ((En route, mon ami, en route.)) Et nous voila, comme deux vieux amis, cheminant sous bois, d'une allure plus lente; Noiraud goutait le charme, le silence et la douceur du Ueu. Sur la route, tout a I'heure, ayant hate d'echapper a cette chaleur, a cette poussiere, il s'avangait d'un petit pas, serre, presse. II marchait pour arriver. Et maintenant, rafraichi, detendu, Noiraud marchait pour le plaisir de se promener dans un des plus jolis petits sentiers du canton de Vaud. Un chemin se presente a gauche. Courte hesitation de Noiraud. II reflechit. Puis il passe et continue sa route, droit devant lui, mais non sans quelque trouble et sans quelque incertitude dans sa demarche. Et voici qu'il s'ar- 174 NOIRAUD rete. II a du se tromper. Oui, car il revient sur ses pas et nous prenons ce chemin a gauche qui, tout d'un coup, au bout d'une centaine de pas, nous conduit a une sorte de cirque; et Noiraud, le nez en I'air, m'invite a contempler la tres respectable hauteur de I'infranchissable muraille de rochers qui forme ce cirque. Lorsque Noiraud pense que j'ai suffisamment contemple, il fait volte-face, et nous reprenons notre petit sentier sous bois. Noiraud avait oublie de me montrer le cirque de rochers, une legere faute qui avait ete bien vite reparee. La route bientot devient tres montueuse, tres acciden- tee, tres dure. Je n'avance plus que lentement, avec des precautions infinies. Noiraud, lui, saute lestement de roche en roche, mais il ne m'abandonne pas. II m'attend, en attachant sur moi des regards charges de la plus tou- chante sollicitude. Enfin, je commence a entendre comme un bouillonnement; Noiraud se met a japper joyeusement. — Courage, me dit-il, courage. Nous arrivons, tu vas voir le Chaudron. C'est, en effet, le Chaudron. Une source assez modeste, d'une hauteur egalement modeste, tombe avec des rejail- lissements et des rebondissements dans une grande roche legerement creusee. Je ne me consolerais pas d'avoir fait cette laborieuse ascension pour voir cette mediocre mer- veille si je n'avais eu pour compagnon de route ce brave Noiraud qui est, lui, bien plus interessant et bien plus remarquable que le Chaudron. De chaque cote de la source, dans des petits chalets suisses, sont installees deux laiteries tenues par deux petites Suissesses, Tune blonde, I'autre brune; toutes deux en costume national, guettant avidement mon arrivee, sur le seuil de leurs maisonnettes. II me semble que la petite blonde a de tres jolis yeux et NOIRAUD 175 j 'avals deja fait trois ou quatre pas de son cote, lorsque Noiraud, eclatant en aboiements furieux, me barre resolu- ment le passage. Aurait-il une preference pour la petite brune? Je change de direction. C'etait bien cela. Noi- raud s'apaise comme par enchantement quand il me voit assis a une table devant la maison de sa jeune protegee. Je demande une tasse de lait. L'amie de Noiraud rentre dans son petit chalet et Noiraud se faufile a sa suite dans la maison. Par une petite fenetre entr'ouverte, je suis des yeux mon Noiraud. Le miserable! On le sert avant moi. C'est lui qui, le premier! a sa grande jatte de lait frais. II est vendu! Apres quoi, avec des gouttes blanches suspendues a ses moustaches, Noiraud vient me tenir compagnie et me re- garder boire mon lait. Je lui donne un morceau de sucre, et, tous deux, absolument satisfaits I'un de I'autre, respi- rant a pleins poumons I'air vif et leger de la montagne, nous passons, a trois ou quatre cents metres d'altitude, une demi-heure delicieuse. Noiraud commence a donner quelques signes d'impa- tience et d'agitation. Je lis maintenant dans ses yeux a Uvre ouvert. II faut partir, Je paie, je me leve, et, pen- dant que je m'en vais a droite vers le chemin qui nous a amenes sur la montagne, je vols mon Noiraud qui va se planter a gauche a I'entree d'un autre chemin. II attache sur moi un regard serieux, severe. Que de progres j'ai faits depuis deux heures et comme la silencieuse eloquence de Noiraud m'est devenue famihere! — Quelle opinion as-tu de moi? me dit Noiraud. Crois- tu que je.vais te faire passer deux fois par la meme route? Non pas, vraiment. Je suis un bon guide. Je sais mon metier. Nous allons redescendre au village par un autre chemin. 176 NOIRAUD Nous redescendons par cet autre chemin qui est beau- coup plus joli que le premier. Noiraud se retourne sou- vent vers moi avec un petit air de triomphe et de joie. Nous traversons le village et, sur la place de la gare, Noi- raud est assailli par trois ou quatre chiens de ses amis qui paraissent fort en humeur de bavarder et de jouer un peu avec leur camarade. lis veulent I'arreter au passage, mais le brave Noiraud, grognant, grondant, repousse vivement toutes leurs avances. — Vous voyez bien que j'ai a faire. Je conduis ce mon- sieur a la gare. Ce n'est que dans la salle d'attente qu'il consent a se separer de moi, apres avoir croque gaiement les deux der- niers morceaux de sucre, et voici comment je traduis le regard d'adieu que mon guide me jette en partant pour la maison de sa maitresse: — Nous sommes en avance de vingt minutes. Ce n'est pas moi qui t'aurais fait manquer le train! Allons! bon voyage! bon voyage! EXERCISES BASED ON «NOIRAUD» (Brackets [ ] indicate that the words enclosed are to be omitted in translation; references are to sections.) I. BEGINNING TO «ET Ot ETAIT-IL)) Val Perdu, Canton of Vaud, Switzerland, (144), 19 Dear Cousin: Do you know where (152, 2) Val Perdu is? It (147) is the most melancholy (138) little village in (135) Switzerland (137, 2c/), asleep at the foot of its two lofty mountains, each of which (75) wears a pretty little snow-cap on its (137, 2e) head. And how does it happen that I am (119, 5) at Val Perdu? That is what I am going to teU you during the half -hour (130) that I must NOIRAUD 177 (186) wait here for my train, if it is not late as [it is] always — or almost always. I say "almost always" for (227) to-day, for (218) the first time in (depuis) fifteen years, a train was seen (85) here on time! That is why I missed it. My driver, who reckoned on a quarter of an (136) hour's delay, was furious. All those present looked at the station-master, who seemed to them to blame for (216) not having warned the driver that [on] that day the train was going to be prompt. The poor station-master did not know (196a) what to say; in turn (187) he looked at the driver, the traveler, and the train which had just (219) left. All at once he began to laugh: "Don't be afraid, sir; by taking (110) the four o'clock (143) express you will still get to Lausanne in (219) time for dinner (136). Mean- while, Noiraud will take you to the Caldron. You must (186) see that." And appeaUng to the driver, "Isn't it [true], John, that he must (186) see the Caldron?" There was a general cry, "Oh yes, oh yes! That is the only thing to (205) see in the place!" That, then, is why I am at Val Perdu. I came in (210) a carriage to (218) take the quarter past one (143) train, my driver made (158) me lose it; I have remained here until four o'clock, and I have had time to (213) go (218) and see the Cal- dron. I will teU you about that to-morrow. Meanwhile, be- lieve me always (crois toujours aux meilleures amities de) your affectionate cousin. II. «ET OtJ fiTAIT-IL)) TO ((UN TRAIN MANQUfi» Lausanne, Canton de Vaud, Switzerland, , 19 Dear Cousin: This morning I am going to tell you how I made the acquaint- ance of Noiraud. I was advised (85) to (216) take a guide to (218) go to the Caldron, and I was told (85) that father (137, 2c) 178 NOIRAUD Simon was (115) the best guide in (135) the place. I went (92, 2) and knocked (218) at the door of a pretty little white house; an old woman came and opened [the door] for me (56), and I asked for father Simon. "It is here, su', but he has not been (103) feeUng well since this morning. If it is to (218) go to the Caldron, you should (167) take Noiraud, who often takes his place and who will guide you as well as my husband." "Noiraud wiU do." She called, "Noiraud! Noiraud!" and a httle black (138) dog came in through (219) the window at (211) a single leap. He was not handsome, with his long, curly, shaggy hair; but his confident eye and his look of decision and importance said plainly, "I don't lack intelligence (138), and to (218) show you the beauties of nature, speech (136) isn't necessary." It seems that for a long time father Simon has taken (103) Noiraud with him, and now the honest dog knows the places, and guides travelers (136) wdth as much (199) intelligence as a person. This evening I will tell you how he managed his httle task. In (210) half an hour (130) we start for Lucerne, where we ex- pect to spend a few days. Write often to your httle cousin who thinks of (56) you every day and who sends you his best love. III. ((UN TRAIN MANQUfi)) TO ((JE LE SUIVIS)) Lucerne, Switzerland, Seven o'clock in the evening, day , 19 [My] Dear Cousin: Here we are in (202) Lucerne. The train was an hour and a half (130) late, and we were aU very tired on reaching the hotel. IMama has gone (92, 2) to rest in her room. When she is (100) a little recovered from her weariness, we shall take a little walk in the town. Meanwhile, I am going to tell you an incident NOIRAUD 179 which will show you the great intelligence of my Uttle friend Noiraud. Before (227) setting (108) out for the Caldron, he went and planted himself before (207) his mistress whom (73) he looked at (91) with a certain excitement into which (73) there evidently (190) entered a little impatience and (220) ill humor. "Oh," said the old woman, "How stupid I am (229)! He is bound to (219) see his sugar before starting. We (85) give him some sugar each time (228) he guides a traveler, and there I was forgetting (112) it." She went to a drawer and took (218) four pieces of sugar, which she handed me, saying slowly (190): "Come, my boy, to the Caldron!" This time Noiraud gave a little nod, faced about, and swiftly taking me in from head to foot with his clear, calm eye, said to me as plainly as it was possible for (202) a dog to say it (62), "All right! Come on, you!" I will write you again before leaving Lucerne. For to-day, I clasp your hand, begging you to accept a thousand affectionate wishes (choses) from your cousin, IV. «JE LE SUIVIS)) TO «IL NE DORMIT GUERE)) Lucerne, , 19 [My] Dear Cousin: You ask me how a dog can make (158) himself understood (178). If you had gone with me to the Caldron, you would (116) know (62). As we passed (111) through the village, we met some urchins who knew Noiraud and wished to play with him, but his scornful air and the way in which (75) he turned aside his (137, 2e) head replied to them plainly: "Let me [alone], pray! I have not time to play. I am busy (en train de) doing my duty and earning money. I am guiding a gentleman to the Caldron." Do you understand that I felt myself a little humiliated? For the moment, I was dominated by that animal, whom I followed 180 NOIRAUD obediently, smiling at the children who all burst out laughing as they shouted to me, "Good morning, sir!" A little further, as Noiraud was trotting gaily along in the burning sun, I tried to make him go more slowly (190), but he turned a deaf ear, and when I sat down a moment in (202) the shade of a little tree, the angry little voice with which he barked, the vexed glances that he gave me, and his sharp yelps made me understand at once that what (67) I was doing was against the rule, that I must not stop on the horrible, dusty road. In order to calm him, I rose, and he at once went on again with (208) a look which said, "Well! (230) I am pleased with (212) you!" A few minutes after, I found liim waiting (113) for me before (207) an old rustic bench, in a delightful bower full of the cool- ness of a darling little cascade; and his shining eyes spoke a language that I was beginning to understand. "Rest," they said (152, 1) to me. "It is cool here: it is not well (183) to stop in the hot sun. Let us sit down; give me a piece of sugar; and I will take a Uttle nap at your feet." Good night, dear; it is growing (183) late, and I must go to bed; but to-morrow you shall have another (89) letter from your affectionate cousin, V. «IL NE DORMIT GUERE)) TO kAPRES QU0I)> Lucerne, , 19 ^. [My] Dear Cousin: You think, perhaps, that Noiraud has all the [good] qualities without having the failings of men (136). Why, no! He (57) too, has his little weaknesses, as you shall (101) see (62). Only once did he miss his way (219). He forgot to (216) show me an amphitheater of impassable rocks, and he had to retrace his steps [and] take a road that appeared at [the] left; but he very quickly made up for this slight error and when the road grew steeper (133) and harder, the anxiety of his looks inspired in me absolute (137, 1) confidence. NOIRAUD 181 He knew very well, too, which of the two little Swiss [girls] who were selling milk, each at the door of her little cottage, on either side of the Caldron, was the more (135) disposed to give him a great bowl of fresh milk. I had turned (92, 1) to the right, toward (217) a httle blonde who was eagerly (188) watching for my coming, when Noiraud barred my (137, 2e) passage, and by his angry barks make me take the path to [the] left and sit down at the table of a little brunette who rewarded him by (HI) serving him before (207) me. The wretch! He was bribed! That is why he had cahned down so quickly (187) on seeing me change direction (219). He preferred his bowl of fresh milk to the pretty eyes of the httle brunette. Shall we (186) praise his wisdom or blame his greediness? Tell me what you think of it (202) ; and wTite frequently and at length to (the) one (68) who thinks every day of (56) you. Your devoted cousin, VI. ((APRES QUOI)) TO END Lucerne, , 19 Dear Cousin: This evening we are (186) to leave Lucerne to go to Paris. We leave with regret this dehghtful (138) city, which has be- come (92, 2) familiar to us, and with (212) which we are per- fectly satisfied. For three days we have been (103) fiUing our lungs with the sharp, clear, mountain-air, at an altitude of more than (191) four hundred meters. We shall return here next sum- mer (19), and I hope (228) you will come then and (218) keep us company. For a fortnight ("fifteen days") mamma has shown (103) signs of impatience to go and meet papa who will be de- tained (106) in Paris by his business a long time yet. So we must go. To-morrow we shall rise early, and the ten o'clock train that brought us from Val Perdu will carry us off toward (217) Paris. Yesterday we made the ascent of Pilatus (19). We had a good guide who knew his business well. We went up on (de) the 182 NOIRAUD northern side. Passing (110) through Hergiswyl the guide wished to stop a moment on the way. In the depot square, he entered a httle inn where he stayed five minutes. Through a half-open window we saw him sitting (111) very close to a pretty blonde Swiss girl in national costume. They looked perfectly satisfied with each other; and the guide, when he came out (110), with a httle look of triumph and joy (220) was wiping [off] a few drops still hanging (111) from his mustache. At first he had seemed to us silent, serious, a little stern even, but now he was much inclined to gossip. It seems that the little Swiss girl's father had just died (219), leaving her the inn and some thousands (141) of francs; and the guide was to marry her in (202) the spring. From the top of Pilatus (19) we saw a wonderful panorama. The weather was magnificent, a (136) rare thing, for (227) too often Pilatus wears (se coififer de) a cap of fog. We went down (92, 2) ]:)y another road to Alpnach-Stad where we wished to take the boat for Lucerne. On leaving the guide, mamma slipped into his (137, 2e) hand a piece of silver ("a white piece") and I [can] still hear the "Pleasant journey!" that he sent back to us as he departed (110). Write soon, and think often of Your devoted cousin, LA DERNIERE CLASSE Alphonse Daudet Ce matin-la j'etais tres en retard pour aller a I'ecole, et j 'avals grand'peur d'etre gronde, d'autant plus que yi. Hamel nous avait dit qu'il nous interrogerait sur les participes, et je n'en savais pas le premier mot. Un mo- ment I'idee me vint de manquer la classe et de prendre ma course a travers champs. Le temps etait si chaud, si clair! On entendait les merles siffler a la lisiere du bois, et dans le pre Rippert, derriere la scierie, les Prussiens qui faisaient I'exercice. Tout cela me tentait bien plus que la regie des participes; mais j'eus la force de resister, et je courus bien vite vers I'ecole. En passant devant la mairie, je vis qu'il y avait du monde arrete pres du petit grillage aux afRches. Depuis deux ans, c'est de la que nous sont venues toutes les mau- vaises nouvelles, les batailles perdues, les requisitions, les ordres de la commandature; et je pensai sans m'arreter: ((Qu'est-ce qu'il y a encore?)) Alors, comme je traversais la place en courant, le forge- ron Wachter, qui etait la avec son apprenti en train de lire I'affiche, me cria: ((Ne te depeche pas tant, petit; tu y arriveras toujours assez tot, a ton ecole!)) Je crus qu'il se moquait de moi, et j'entrai tout essouffle dans la petite cour de M. Hamel. D'ordinaire, au commencement de la classe, il se faisait un grand tapage qu'on entendait j usque dans la rue, les 183 184 LA DERNIERE CLASSE pupitres ouverts, fermes, les legons qu'on repetait tres haut tous ensemble, en se bouchant les oreilles pour mieux apprendre, et la grosse regie du maitre qui tapait sur les tables : ((Un peu de silence!)) Je comptais sur tout ce train pour gagner mon banc sans etre vu; mais justement ce jour-la tout etait tran- quille, comme un matin de dimanche. Par la fenetre ouverte je voyais mes camarades deja ranges a leur place, ct M. Hamel, qui passait et repassait avec la terrible regie en fer sous le bras. II fallut ouvrir la porte et entrer au milieu de ce grand calme. Vous pensez si j'etais rouge, et si j 'avals peur! Eh bien, non. M. Hamel me regarda sans colere et me dit tres doucement : «Va vite a ta place, mon petit Frantz; nous allions com- mencer sans toi.)) J'enjambai le banc et je m'assis tout de suite a mon pupitre. Alors seulement, un peu remis de ma frayeur, je remarquai que notre maitre avait sa belle redingote verte, son jabot plisse fin et la calotte de sole noire brodee qu'il ne mettait que les jours d 'inspection ou de distribution de prix. Du reste, toute la classe avait quelque chose d'ex- traordinaire et de solennel. Mais ce qui me surprit le plus, ce fut de voir au fond de la salle, sur les bancs qui restaient vides d'habitude, les gens du village assis et si- lencieux comme nous, le vieux Hauser avec son tricorne, I'ancien maire, I'ancien facteur, et puis d'autres personnes encore. Tout ce monde-la paraissait triste; et Hauser avait apporte un vieil abecedaire mange aux bords qu'il tenait grand ouvert sur ses genoux, avec ses grosses lu- nettes posees en travers des pages. Pendant que je m'etonnais de tout cela, M. Hamel LA DERNIERE CLASSE 185 etait monte dans sa chaire, et, de la meme voix douce et grave dont il m'avait regu, il nous dit: ((Mes enfants, c'est la derniere fois que je vous fais la classe. L'ordre est venu de Berlin de ne plus enseigner que Tallemand dans les ecoles de 1' Alsace et de la Lor- raine . . . Le nouveau maitre arrive demain. Aujour- d'hui c'est votre derniere legon de frangais. Je vous prie d'etre bien attentifs.)) Ces quelques paroles me bouleverserent. Ah! les mise- rables, voila ce qu'ils avaient afficlie a la mairie: Ma derniere legon de frangais! Et moi qui savais a peine ecrire! Je n'apprendrais done jamais! II faudrait done en rester la! Comme je m'en voulais maintenant du temps perdu, des classes man- quees a courir les nids ou a faire des glissades sur la Saar! Mes livres que tout a I'heure encore je trouvais si en- nuyeux, si lourds a porter, ma grammaire, mon histoire sainte, me semblaient de vieux amis qui me feraient beau- coup de peine a quitter. C'est comme M. Hamel. L'idee qu'il allait partir,. que je ne le verrais plus, me faisait oublier les punitions, les coups de regie. Pauvre homme! C'est en I'honneur de eette derniere classe qu'il avait mis ses beaux habits du dimanche, et maintenant je com- prenais pourquoi ces vieux du village etaient venus s'asseoir au bout de la salle. Cela semblait dire qu'ils regrettaient de ne pas y etre venus plus souvent, a eette eeole. C'etait aussi comme une fagon de remercier notre maitre de ses quarante ans de bons services, et de rendre leurs devoirs a la patrie qui s'en allait. J'en etais la de mes reflexions, quand j'entendis appeler mon nom. C'etait mon tour de reciter. Que n'aurais-je pas donne pour pouvoir dire tout au long eette fameuse 186 LA DERNIERE CLASSE regie des participes, bien haut, bien clair, sans une faute; mais je m'embrouillai aux premiers mots, et je restai de- bout a me balancer dans mon banc, le coeur gros, sans oser lever la tete. J'entendais M. Hamel qui me parlait: «Je ne te gronderai pas mon petit Frantz, tu dois etre assez puni. Voila ce que c'est. Tous les jours on se dit: Bah! j'ai bien le temps. J'apprendrai demain. Et puis tu vois ce qui arrive . . . Ah! g'a ete le grand malheur de notre Alsace de toujours remettre son instruction a de- main. Maintenant ces gens-la sont en droit de'nous dire: Comment! Vous pretendiez etre Frangais, et vous ne savez ni parler ni ecrire votre langue! . . . Dans tout 9a, mon pauvre Frantz, ce n'est pas encore toi le plus cou- pable. Nous avons tous notre bonne part de reproches a nous faire. «Vos parents n'ont pas assez tenu a vous voir instruits. lis aimaient mieux vous envoyer travailler a la terre ou aux filatures pour avoir quelques sous de plus. Moi- meme, n'ai-je rien a me reprocher? Est-ce que je ne vous ai pas sou vent fait arroser mon jardin au lieu de tra- vailler? Et quand je voulais aller pecher des truites, est-ce que je me genais pour vous donner conge?)) . . . Alors, d'une chose a I'autre, M. Hamel se mit a nous parler de la langue frangaise, disant que c'etait la plus belle langue du monde, la plus claire, la plus solide, qu'il fallait la garder entre nous et ne jamais I'oublier, parce que quand un peuple tombe esclave, tant qu'il tient bien sa langue, c'est comme s'il tenait la clef de sa prison. Puis il prit une grammaire et nous lut notre legon. J'etais etonne de voir comme je comprenais. Tout ce qu'il me disait me semblait facile, facile. Je crois aussi que je n'avais jamais si bien ecoute et que lui non plus n'avait jamais mis autant de patience a ses explications. On LA DERNIERE CLASSE 187 aurait dit qu'avant de s'en aller le pauvre homme voulait nous donner tout son savoir, nous le f aire entrer dans la tete d'un seul coup. La legon finie, on passa a I'ecriture. Pour ce jour-la M. Hamel nous avait prepare des exemples tout neufs, sur lesquels etait ecrit en belle ronde: France, Alsace, France, Alsace. Cela faisait comme des petits drapeaux qui flot- taient tout autour de la classe pendus a la tringle de nos pupitres. II fallait voir comme chacun s'appliquait, et quel silence ! On n'entendait que le grincement des plumes sur le papier. Un moment des hannetons entrerent; mais personne n'y fit attention, pas meme les tons petits, qui s'appliquaient a tracer leurs batons avec un coeur, una conscience, comme si cela encore etait du frangais . . . Sur la toiture de I'ecole, des pigeons roucoulaient tout bas, et je me disais en les ecoutant: ((Est-ce qu'on ne va pas les obliger a chanter en alle- mand, eux aussi?)) De temps en temps quand je levais les yeux de dessus ma page, je voyais M. Hamel immobile dans sa chaire et fixant les objets autour de lui, comme s'il avait voulu em- porter dans son regard toute sa petite maison d'ecole . . . Pensez! depuis quarante ans, il etait la a la meme place, avec sa cour en face de lui et sa classe toute pareille, Seulement les bancs, les pupitres s'etaient polls, frottes par I'usage; les noyers de la cour avaient grandi, et le hou- blon qu'il avait plante lui-meme enguirlandait mainte- nant les fenetres jufequ'au toit. Quel creve-coeur ga devait etre pour ce pauvre homme de quitter toutes ces choses, et d'entendre sa soeur qui allait, venait, dans la chambre au-dessus, en train de f ermer leurs malles ! car ils devaient partir le lendemain, s'en aller du pays pour toujours. Tout de meme il eut le courage de nous faire la classe 188 LA DERNIERE CLASSE jusqu'au bout. Apres I'ecriture, nous eumes la legon d'his- toire; ensuite les petits chanterent le ba be bi bo bu. La- bas au fond de la salle, le vieux Hauser avait mis ses lunettes, et, tenant son abeeedaire a deux mains, il epelait les lettres avec eux. On voyait qu'il s'appliquait, lui aussi; sa voix tremblait d'emotidn, et c'etait si drole de I'entendre, que nous avions tons envie de rire et de pleurer. Ah! je m'en souviendrai de cette derniere classe . . . Tout a coup riiorloge de Teglise sonna midi, puis I'An- gelus. Au meme moment, les trompettes des Prussiens qui revenaient de Texercice eclaterent sous nos fenetres . . . M. Hamel se leva, tout pale, dans sa chaire. Jamais il ne m'avait paru si grand. ((Mes amis, dit-il, mes amis, je . . . je . . .» Mais quelque chose I'etouffait. II ne pouvait pas ache- ver sa phrase. Alors il se tourna vers le tableau, prit un morceau de craie, et, en appuyant de toutes ses forces, il ecrivit aussi gros qu'il put: «ViVE LA France!)) Puis il resta la, la tete appuyee au mur, et, sans parler, avec sa main il nous faisait signe: ((C'est fini . . . allez-vous-en.)) EXERCISES BASED ON ((LA DERNIERE CLASSE » (Study especially the sections on the subjunctive) I. BEGINNING TO ((EN PASSANT)) Although little Frantz is much afraid that his master uill scold him, he is- not going to be absent from the class. Do you think he can hear the blackbirds piping on the edge of the wood, without the thought coming to him of running off across the fields? It is time for the little feUow to be running to school LA DERNIERE CLASSE 189 fast, if he does not wish to get there late. Although the weather is warm and bright, our little Frantz must not stay behind the sawmill watching the Prussians (206). He must resist, and must go to school and learn the rule about participles. What do you wish him to do? II. «EN PASSANT)) TO «P'ORDINAIRE)) There he is passing the town-hall, without anyone thinking of speaking to him. That is because everyone is looking at the little bulletin-board, to see if there is another piece of bad news. It is unfortunate that the_ French have lost so many battles. Provided you see two or three persons reading an order from headquarters, you wonder "What's up now?" However, before Frantz has crossed the square, I fear the blacksmith's apprentice will see him and shout "Somebody stop him! Don't let hun hurry so! I don't wish him to get to his school too soon!" Do you beheve the apprentice wishes to have him stopped? Is it possible that he is making fun of Frantz, and that he wishes to make him enter the httle court- yard all out of breath? III. ((D'ORDINAIRE)) TO «EH BIEN, NON!)) Do you know what happens usually at the beginning of the class? If you should ask the pupils to make a racket that will make itself heard as far as the street, they would not act otherwise. "Let eveiybody open and shut the desks! Let the lessons be repeated aloud; all together! Let those who are afraid of the teacher's big ruler stop their ears to learn better!" Do you think that is the right way to get a little silence? Usually our little Frantz could have counted on all this up- roar to reach his seat without being seen. How sorry he was that that morning everything was so quiet! He would have liked Mr. Hamel to be pounding on the desks. However red the httle boy was, and however frightened he felt, the poor child had to open the door and go in amid that great calm. 190 LA DERNIERE CLASSE IV. <(EH BIEN, NON!)) TO ((PENDANT QUE)) I should like Mr. Hamel to say to him verj'^ gentlj^, "Let the one who has just come in go very quickly to his place! Let him sit down at once; and let him hold his book wide open m front of him! When he has recovered from his fright a little, he will tell us the rule about participles." Frantz felt much surprised that Mr. Hamel had put on his handsome green frock-coat. You would have thought it was an inspection day, the class was so still. But however sad the pupils were, the most solemn faces Uttle Frantz had ever seen were those of old Hauser and the former mayor. The latter was sitting quite at the back of the room, and the former had just put on his big spectacles to see better the old primer whose pages he was turning. V. ((PENDANT QUE)) TO ((PAUVRE HOMME)) Are you surprised that Mr. Hamel's voice was gentle and serious? Unless little Frantz is a wretch, he will long remember the last words his teacher spoke in that little school. Do you wonder that they upset him? Whatever they do in BerUn, and whatever language they teach in the Alsatian schools, in their homes the httle Alsatians will always speak French. Although they have wasted their time running after nests and making sUdes, one must not hold it against them. At present, their books, hea\'y as they are, seem old friends to them. Wait untU Mr. Hamel has gone, and the pupils no longer see him; they will soon have forgotten the punishments he has inflicted upon them. VL ((PAUVRE HOMME)) TO ((VOS PARENTS)) While waiting for the old men of the \dllage to come and sit at the end of the room, Mr. Hamel had gone and put on his fine Sunday clothes. He is sorry they have not come there oftener. Before they go away, he wishes them to have the pupils recite. If only the latter do not get snarled up at the first words! He LA DERNlfiRE CLASSE 191 would not like them to stand swaying in their seats without say- ing anything. Let the old men ask little Frantz for a rule that will be very clear; he will tell them the famous rule about parti- ciples without a mistake, quite loud, at full length. Did they think he would not dare to look up? How unfortunate that some pupils have put off their educa- tion until the morrow, and that they scarcely know how to read and write! Now, the least they can do is to be attentive and listen to the teacher. Still, they are not the guiltiest people I know; and it is right for their parents to assume their fair share of reproaches. VIL ((VOS PARENTS)) TO «DE TEMPS EN TEMPS)) I am bound to have you educated. Although you might earn a few cents more by working on the land or in the mills, you would be sorry later that your parents had not sent you to school longer. No doubt you like to go trout-fishing better than to work, but it is time for you to know your own language, that beautiful French language, the clearest, the strongest there is in the world. Even if you had to fall into slavery, as long as you kept your language well, it would be as if you held the key of your prison. Let me take this grammar and read you your lesson. You will be surprised that you found it hard. Before you go away, I wish you to hear me patiently. If only I can make a httle knowledge enter your heads! Let us go on writing! To-day you must apply yourselves conscientiously, copjdng in a fine round hand the new models I have prepared for you. The little boys must not pay attention to the June-bugs nor to the pigeons. Do you think they are going to make them sing in German? VIIL ((DE TEMPS EN TEMPS)) TO END Is it possible that Mr. Hamel has remained for forty years teaching such youngsters? Must (not) he have wonderful patience and courage! Tell the Uttle fellows to chant their ba. 192 LA DERNlfiRE CLASSE BE, Bi, BO, BU more softly, so that the big (boys) may hear plainly all that Mr. Hamel says to them. Do you wonder that old Hauser feels like crying? Do you hear him speUing the letters with the little ones? Oh, he will remember this last class! I hope that Mr. Hamel can hold out till the end. Although he is very pale, and liis voice is trembling with emotion, I think he will hear our history class. I do not think he will go away without saying a few words to us about the great men who have loved France and labored for her. He turns to the board and takes a piece of chalk, but, before he has begun to write, the trumpets of the Prussians burst out under the windows. Noon! Let everyone rise ! Let us shout all together, "Hurrah for Mr. Hamel! Hurrah for France!" Then let us go away, without speaking, leaving there, leaning against the wall, that poor man who has worked so hard to make us worthy of the fatherland. ESSENTIAL VERB-FORMS Irregular derived forms are printed under the principal part from which the particular form is usually derived. Infinitive Pres. Participle Past Participle Pres. Ind. Past Def. dormer, give dormant donne donne donnai finir, finish finissant fini finis finis rompre, break rompant rompu romps rompis 1. absoudre, absolve So dissoudre, ; absolvant dissolve. absous (absoute) absous absolus 2. acquerir, acquire acquerant acquis acquiers acquis acquerrai acquiere(nt) So conquerir, conquer. 3. aller, go aUant (etre) alle vais allai irai vont aille(nt) vas, va va 4. assaillir, assail So tressaillir, assaillant tremble. assailli assaille assaillit 5. asseoir, seat assierai asseyant assis assieds assis So rasseoir, seat again. 6. avoir, have ayant eu ai eus aurai avons, ont avals ayons aie, ait ayons, aient as, a aie 7. battre, heat battant battu bats battis 8. boire, drink buvant boive(nt) bu bois bus 9. . boiiillir, boil bouillant bomlli bous bouillis 10. . conclure, conclude concluant conclu conclus conclus So exclxire, exclude. 193 194 ESSENTIAL VERB-FORMS TwFiwTTTvp Pres. Past Pres. t> t-. INFINITIVE Participle Participle Ind. ^-^^^ ^ef. 11. conduire, conduct condxiisant condviit conduis condmsis So cuire and verbs in -duire and -tniire. 12. confire, preserve confisant confit confis confis So deconfire, discomfit. 13. connaitre, knoiv connaissant connu connais connus Connaitre has i in the stem everywhere before t. So reconnaitre, recognize, and paraitre, appear, with its com- pounds; also paitre, graze, and repaitre, /eed, which lack the past definite. 14. coudre, seiv cousant cousu couds cousis So decoudre, rip, and recoudre, sew again. 15. courir, run courant couru cours courus courrai So compounds of courir. 16. couvrir, cover couvrant couvert couvre couvris So offrir, offer, ouvrir, open, souflfrir, suffer, and compounds. 17. craindre, /ear craignant craint crains craignis So all verbs in -alndre, -eindre, and -oindre. 18. croire, believe croyant cru crois cms croie(nt) 19. croitre, grow croissant cru crois cnis (crue) crusse Compounds of croitre except surcroitre take no (*) in past participle or past definite. 20. cueillir, pick cueillant cueilli cueille cueillis cueillerai So accueillir, welcome, and recueillir, gather. 21. devoir, owe devant du (due) dois dus devrai doive(nt) 22. dire, say disant dit dis dis dites So redire, to say again. In other compounds of dire, the derived parts are regularly formed. Maudire has present participle maudissant. ESSENTIAL VERB-FORMS 195 Pres. Participle Past Participle Ind. dormir, sleep dormant dormi dors So mentir, lie, partir, leave, se repentir, repent, sortir, go out, and most of their compounds, sortir are conjugated with etre. echoir, fall due echeant echu echois echerra echoyait echoie ecrire, write ecrivant ecrit ecris So compounds of ecrire, inscrire, inscribe, etc. Past Def. dermis sentir, feel, Partir and echus envoyer, send envoyant enverrai envoie(nt) So renvoyer, send back. envoye envoie envoyai etre, be etant ete suls fus serai sommes etes, sont soyons sois, soyons soient es, est sois faire, do faisant fait fais fis ferai faites, font faites fasse fassions So compounds of faire. falloir, be neces- not used fallu faut fallu sary faUait faudra faille fuir, flee fuyant fuie(nt) fui fuis fuis hair, hate haissant hai hais hais lire, read lisant lu lis lus So compounds of lire. mettre, put mettant mis mets mis So compounds of mettre. moudre, grind moiilant moulu mouds moul So compounds of moudre. 196 ESSENTIAL VERB-FORMS Infinitive 35. mourir, die mourrai 36. mouvoir, move mouvrai Pres. Participle mourant meure(nt) Past Participle Pre8. Ind. (etre)mort mexirs Past Def. mourus mu (mue) meus mus mouvant meuve(nt) So promouvoir, promote, and emouvoir, excite, except past participle promu, emu. 37. naitre, he horn naissant (etre) ne nais naquis Naitre has i in the stem everywhere before t. So renaitre, he horn again. 38. nuire, harm nuisant nui mils nuisis So luire, shine, except that past definite and imperfect sub- jmictive are wanting. 39. plaire, -please plaisant plu plais plus plait So compounds of plaire ; and taire, he silent, except 3d sin- gular present indicative tait. 40. pleuvoir, rain pleuvant plu pleut plut 41. •poxiTvoir, provide pourvoyant pourvu pourvois pourvus pourvoirai pourvoie(nt) So depoiu-voir, leave destitute. 42. pouvoir, be able pouvant poiurai peuvent puisse puissions pu 13. prendre, take prenant pris premie (nt) So compounds of prendre. [4. recevoir, receive recevant refu recevrai refoive(nt) So verbs in -cevoir. [5. resoudre, resolve resolvant resolu (resous) 16. rire, laugh riant ri peux pus or puis no im- perative prends pns refois refus resous resolus So sourire. smile. ESSENTIAL VERB-FORMS 197 Pres. Participle Past Participle Pres. Ind. Past De: sachant su sals sus Savons sache savais suffisant suffi suffis suffis suivant suivi suis suivis Infinitive 47. savoir, k7iow 48. suffire, suffice 49. suivre, follow So poursuivre, pursue. 50. tenir, hold tenant tenu tiens tins tiendrai tienne(nt) So compounds of tenir; also venir, come, and its compounds (auxiliary etre). 51. traire, milk trayant trais no past def. So compounds of traire. 52. vaincre, conquer vainquant So convaincre, convince. valu vainc vauiquis valus 53. valoir, be worth valant vaudrai valent vaille(nt) So equivaloir, equal; re valoir, pay back; and prevaloir, prevail, except that present subjunctive of prevaloir is regular. 54 vetu vets vetis vetir, clothe vetant So compounds of vetir. 55. vivre, live vivant vecu vis vecus So revivre, revive; survivre, survive. 56. voir, see voyant vu vois vis verrai voie(nt) So compounds of voir; except prevoir, foresee, which has future prevoirai._ 57. vouloir, wish voulant voulu veux voulus voudrai veulent Imp. reg. veuille(nt) also veuillez. INDEX TO IRREGULAR VERBS The figures refer absoudre, 1 abstenir, 50 abstraire, 51 accourir, 15 accroire, 18 accroltre, 19 accueillir, 20 acquerir, 2 admettre, 33 advenir, 50 aller, 3 apercevoir, 44 apparaitre, 13 apparteiiir, 50 apprendre, 43 assaillir, 4 asseoir, 5 astreindre, 17 atteindre, 17 attraire, 51 avenir, 50 avoir, 6 boire, 8 bouillir, 9 ceindre, 17 circonscrire, 25 circonvenir, 50 commettre, 33 comparaitre, 13 complaire, 39 to the numbers of the verbs in the preceding list. comprendre, 43 compromettre, 33 concevoir, 44 conclure, 10 concourir, 15 conduire, 11 confire, 12 conjoindre, 17 connaitre, 13 conquerir, 2 consentir, 23 construire, 11 contenir, 50 contraindre, 17 contredire, 22 contrefaire, 28 contrevenir, 50 convaincre, 52 convenir, 50 coudre, 14 courir, 15 couvrir, 16 craindre, 17 croire, 18 croitre, 19 cueillir, 20 cuire, 11 d^cevoir, 44 deconfire, 12 d^coudre, 14 198 decouvrir, 16 decrire, 25 decroire, 18 d^croitre, 19 d^dire, 22 deduire, 11 d^faire, 28 d^joindre, 17 dementir, 23 demettre, 33 d^partir, 23 depeindre, 17 deplaire, 39 d^pourvoir, 41 desapprendre, 43 desservir, 23 deteindre, 17 d^tenir, 50 d^truire, 11 devenir, 50 d^vetir, 54 devoir, 21 dire, 22 disconvenir, 50 discourir, 15 disjoindre, 17 disparaitre, 13 dissoudre, 1 dorrnir, 23 distraire, 51 INDEX TO IRREGULAR VERBS 199 11 ^bouillir, 9 ^choir, 24 6conduire, 6crire, 25 6Ure, 32 emboire, 8 6mettre, 33 ^moudre, 34 ^mouvoir, 36 empreindre, 17 enceindre, 17 encourir, 15 endormir, 23 enduire, 11 enfreindre, 17 enfuir, 30 enjoindre, 17 enquerir, 2 ensuivre, 49 entreprendre, 43 entretenir, 50 entrevoir, 56 entr'ouvrir, 16 envoyer, 26 ^preindre, 17 ^prendre, 43 ^quivaloir, 53 ^teindre, 17 etre, 27 etreindre, 17 exclure, 10 extraire, 51 faire, 28 falloir, 29 fcindre, 17 forfaire, 28 fuir, 30 geindre, 17 hair, 31 imboire, 8 induire, 11 inscrire, 25 instruire, 11 interdire, 22 intervenir, 50 introduire, 11 joindre, 17 lire, 32 luire, 38 maintenir, 50 malfaire, 28 maudire, 22 meconnaitre, medire, 22 mefaire, 28 mentir, 23 meprendre, 43 messeoir, 5 mettre, 33 moudre, 34 mourir, 35 mouvoir, 36 naitre, 37 nuire, 38 obtenir, 50 offrlr, 16 oindre, 17 omettre, 33 ouvrir, 16 paitre, 13 paraitre, 13 parcourir, 15 13 parfaire, 28 partir, 23 parvenir, 50 peindre, 17 percevoir, 44 permettre, 33 plaindre, 17 plaire, 39 pleuvoir, 40 poindre, 17 poursuivre, 49 pourvoir, 41 pouvoir, 42 predire, 22 prendre, 43 prescrire, 25 pressentir, 23 prevaloir, 53 prevenir, 50 prevoir, 56 produire, 11 promettre, 33 promouvoir, 36 proscrire, 25 provenir, 50 querir, 2 rapprendre, 43 rasseoir, 5 ratteindre, 17 reboire, 8 rebouillir, 9 recevoir, 44 reclure, 10 reconduire, 11 reconnaitre, 13 reconquerir, 2 200 INDEX TO IRREGULAR VERBS reconstruire, 11 recoudre, 14 recourir, 15 recouvrir, 16 recrire, 25 recroitre, 19 recueillir, 20 recuire, 11 redeveiiir, 50 rede voir, 21 redire, 22 redormir, 23 reduire, 11 reelire, 32 refaire, 28 rejoindre, 17 relire, 32 remettre, 33 reluire, 38 remoudre, 34 rendormir, 23 renaitre, 37 rentraire, 51 renvoyer, 26 repaitre, 13 repartir, 23 repeindre, 17 repentir, 23 reprendre, 43 requerir, 2 r^soudre, 45 ressentir, 23 ressortir, 23 ressouvenir, 50 restreindre, 17 reteindre, 17 retenir, 50 retraire, 51 revaloir, 53 revenir, 50 revetir, 54 revivre, 55 revoir, 56 rire, 46 rouvrir, 16 satisfaire, 28 savoir, 47 secourir, 15 seduire, 11 sentir, 23 seoir, 5 servir, 23 sortir, 23 souffrir, 16 soumettre, 33 sourire, 46 souscrire, 25 soustraire, 51 soutenir, 50 souvenir, 50 subvenir, 50 suffire, 48 suivre, 49 surcroitre, 19 surf aire, 28 surprendre, 43 surseoir, 5 survenir, 50 survivre, 55 taire, 39 teindre, 17 tenir, 50 traduire, 11 traire, 51 transcrire, 25 transmettre, 33 tressaillir, 4 vaincre, 52 valoir, 53 venir, 50 vetir, 54 vivre, 55 voir, 56 vouloir, 57 VOCABULARY FRENCH-ENGLISH a [a], see avoir. a [a], to, toward, at, for, in, with, by, from. § 202. abandonner [abadone], to aban- don. abbe [abe], tn., abbot. abesse [abes], /., abbess. abecedaire [abesedeir], m., primer. aboiement [abwama], m., bark- ing. abolir [aboliir], to abolish. abominable [abominabl], abom- inable. abord (d') [daboir], at first. aboyer [abwaje], to bark. absent [apsa], absent, away. absolu [apsoly], absolute; — ment, absolutely. abuser [abyze], to abuse. accentuer (s') [sakscltqe], to be- come stronger. acces [akse], m., fit. accident [aksida], m., accident. accidente [aksidate], uneven, ir- regular, hilly. accusateur, -trice [akj'zata?:r, -tris], m.., /., accuser. accuser [akyze], to accuse; les accuses, the defendants. acheter [a^te], to buy. achever [a$ve], to finish, com- plete. acquerir [akeriir], irr., to acquire. acta [akt], m., act. acteur, -trice [aktoeir, -tris], m., /., actor, actress. actif, -ve [aktif, -ti:v], active, alert. action [aksjS], /., act, action. adieu [adjo], good-by, farewell. adjectif [adsektif], m., adjective. admirable [admirabl], admirable. admirer [admire], to admire. adresser [adrese], s' — a, to ad- dress, speak to. adroit [adrwa], adroit, clever. adroitement [adrwatma], clever- ly, adroitly. adverbe [adverb], m., adverb. affaire [afeir], /., affair, matter, business; ses — s, his business. afSche [afi^], /., poster, bill. afficher [afi^e], to post up. afin de [afe da], in order to. afin que [afe ka], in order that. affreux [afro], frightful. Afrique [afrik], /., Africa. age [0:5], m., age; quel — avez- vous? how old are you? age [a3e], old; moins — , younger. agilite [asilite],/., agility, nimble- ness. agir [asiir], to act; s' — , imper- sonal, to concern, be a question of. agitation [asitasjo],/., uneasiness, excitement. 203 204 VOCABULARY agiter [a5ite], to shake, stir. agneau [ajio], m., lamb. agriculture [agrikyltyir], /., agri- culture. ai [e], see avoir. aide [ed],/., aid, relief, assistance. aider [ede], to help, aid. aigu, -e [egy], sharp, piercing. ailleurs [ajoeir], elsewhere; d' — , moreover. aimer [eme], to love, like. ainsi [esi], thus, so. air [e:r], m., air, look, manner. Ajaccio [asaksjo], Ajaccio, city of Corsica. ajouter [asute], to add; s' — , to be added. alerte [alert], alert, swift. Alice [alls], Alice. Allemagne [almaji],/., Germany. Allemand [alma], German. aller [ale], irr., to go; s'en — , to go away; allons! come!; — - chercher (trouver), to go for, go to get ; comment allez-vous? how are you?; il y va de, there is at stake. alliance [alja:s], /., alliance. allie [alje], m., ally. allumer- [alyme], to light. allure [aly:r], /., pace. alors [abir], then, at that time. Alpes [alp], /. pi., Alps. Alsace [alsas], /., Alsace. altitude [altityd], /., altitude, height. ambassadeur, -drice [ubasadoeir, -dris], lit., f., ambassador. amener [amne], to bring, con- duct, escort. americain, -e [amerike, -en], American. Amerique [amerik], /., America. ami [ami], m., friend. amitie [amitje], /., friendship. amour [amu:r], m., love. amovible [amovibl], removable, subject to transfer. amuser [amyze], to amuse; s' — bien, to have a good time. an [a], m., year; avoir seize — s, to be sixteen years old; jour de r — , New-year's-day. ancien, -ne [asje, -jen], old; for- mer. Angelus [aselys], Angelus. anglais, -e [agle, -e:z], English. Angleterre [aglte:r], /., England. angoisse [agwas], /., agony. animal [animal], m., animal. aout [u], m., August. annee [ane], /., year. apaiser [apeze], to appease, calm. apercevoir [apersovwa:r], irr., see recevoir, to see, perceive. appartenir [apartaniir], irr., see tenir, to belong. appeler [aple], to call; s' — , to be named; comment vous ap- pelez-vous? what is your name? appetit [apeti], m., appetite; 1' — ■ vient en mangeant, appetite comes as one eats. appliquer [aplike], to apply. apporter [aporte], to bring. apprendre [apraidr], irr., see prendre, to learn, teach, in- form. apprenti [aprati], 771., apprentice. approbation [aprobasjo], /., ap- probation, approval. approcher [apro^e], to bring near; s' — ■ de, to approach. approuver [apruve], to approve. appuyer [apqije], to support, bear down; s' — a, to lean against, support oneseK by. FRENCH-ENGLISH 205 apres [apre], after; — {with past inf.), — que (with indie), after; d' — , according to. apres-demain [apredme], m., day after to-morrow. apres-midi [apremidi], 771. or /., afternoon. arbre [arbr], 771., tree. arbuste [arbyst], j/i., bush, shrub, small tree. archeveque [ar^aveik], m., arch- bishop. architecte [ar^itekt], m., archi- tect. argent [arsa], m., silver, money. Armagnac [armajiak], m., Ar- magnac, follower of the Count of Armagnac. armee [arme], /., army. armement [armgma], m., arma- ment, military preparations. arreter [arete], to arrest; s' — , to stop. arrivee [arive], /., arrival. arriver [arive], to come, arrive. arroser [aroze], to water. arsenal [arsenal], m., arsenal. article [artikl], ?»., article. artillerie [artijri],/., artillery. artiste [artist], )n., /., artist. Artois [artwa], ??;., Artois. ascension [asasjo], /., ascent. Asie [azi],/., Asia. assailUr [asajiir], to assail, attack. assassin [asase], 711., murderer. assemblee [asable], /., assembly. asseoir [aswair], irr., to seat; s' — , to sit {the act) ; etre assis, to be seated or sitting {the positio/i). assez [ase], enough; rather. assidument [asidyma], diligently. assieger [asje3e], to besiege. assistance [asistais], /., those present. assister [asiste], to be present; les assistants, those present. assoupir (s') [sasupiir], to fall asleep. assure [asyre], confident. attacher [ata^e], to tie, lash, make fast, fix. attendre [ataidr], to wait, await, wait for; s' — a, to expect. attente [ata:t], /., waiting, ex- pectation; salle d' — , waiting- room. attentif, -ve [atatif, -ti:v], atten- tive. attention [atasjS], /., attention; faire — , to pay attention. attirer [atire], to draw, attract. attraper [atrape], to catch. au [o], contractlo7i of a and le. aucun [okde], any, none, no {neg- ative if verb is preceded by ne, or is o/7iitted). aucunement [okynma], in no wise, not at all. au-dessous [od.>su or otsu], be- low, beneath; — de, below. au-dessus [odasy or otsy], above, over; — de, over. augmenter [.)gmdte], to increase, grow longer. aujourd'hui [osurdqi], to-day. aupres de [opre da], near, very close to, beside. auquel [okel], contractio7i of k and lequel. aurore [oro:r], /., dawn; adj., golden (in color). aussi [osi], also, so, as, too. aussitot [osito], immediately, at once. autant [ota], as much, as many; d' — plus, so much the more. automne [oton], /n., autumn, fall. autour de [otuir da], around. 206 VOCABULARY autre [oitr], other. §§ 88, 89a. autrefois [otrfwa], formerly. autrement [otrma], otherwise. Autriche [otri^], /., Austria. autrul[otrqi], other people. §896. Auvergne [overji], /., Auvergne. avaler [avale], to swallow, gobble down. avance [ava:s],/., advance; en — , ahead of time. avancer (s') [savase], to advance. avant [ava], before; — de, be- fore (with inf.); en — , for- ward. avant-hier [ava(t)je:r], m., day before yesterday. avant que [ava ka], conj., before (ivith subj.). avec [avek] with; — les mains, hand over hand. § 208. avenement [avenma], m., acces- sion. avenir [avniir], ?m., future. aventiu-er [avatyre], to adven- ture, risk; s' — , to venture. avertir [averti:r], to warn. aveuglement [avoegbma], to., blindness. aveuglement [avoeglema], blind- ly- avide [avid], greedy; — ment, greedily. avis [avi], m., opinion. avocat [avokat], m., lawyer. avoir [avwair], to have, get; y — , to be (impersonal); qu'est-ce qu'il a? what is the matter with him?; — froid, to be cold; — quinze ans, to be fifteen years old. avril [avril], to., April. Azincourt [asekuir], to., Agin- court, village in northwest of France. B bachelier [baSalje], bachelor (of arts, law, etc.). bague [bag], /., ring. bah [ba], bah! balancer [balase], to balance, swing, hesitate. balle [bal], /., ball, bullet. banc [ba], m., bench, seat. banque [ba:k], /., bank. banqueroute [bakrut], /., bank- ruptcy, insolvency. barbare [barbair], barbarous; barbarian. barrer [baire], to bar, obstruct. bas [ba], m., stocking. bas, -se [ba, bas], low; la , yonder; en — , down-stairs; parler — , to speak softly. bastille [bastiij], /., prison, fort- ress; La Bastille, the Bastile St. Antoine. batave [bataiv], Batavian, Dutch. bateau [bato], to., boat. batir [batiir], to build. baton [bats], to., stick, straight line. battre [battr], irr., to beat, buffet; se — , to fight. bavarder [bavarde], to chatter, gossip. beau, bel, belle, pi. beaux, belles [bo, bel], beautiful, fine, hand- some, noble. beaucoup [boku], much, many, a great deal. beau-pere [bope:r], to., father-in- law. beaute [bote], /., beauty. Belgique [bel3ik], /., Belgium. benin, -igne [bene, -iji], benign. berger, -ere [berse, -5e:r], shep- herd, shepherdess. FRENCH-ENGLISH 20; Berlin [berle], m., Berlin. besoin [bezwe], m., need; avoir — , to need. bete [belt],/., beast, animal, block- head, silly; adj., foolish. beurre [boeir], tn., butter. bien [bje], well, very, really, surely,of course; — que (subj.), although; — des choses, many tilings. bien [bje], ?«., good(s), property. bientot [bjeto], soon. bienvenu [bjevany], m., welcome; soyez le —, (be) welcome ! biere [bje:r], /., beer. bille [bi:j], /., marble. billet [bije], m., note, ticket. blamer [blame], to blame. blanc, -he [bla, bla:^], white, clean. blanchir [bla^iir], to grow white, make wliite. blesser [blese], to wound. bleu [bio], blue. blond [bl5], blonde, light-com- plexioned. Boileau [bwalo], m., Boileau. boire [bwair], irr., to drink. bois [bwa], 7n., wood, woods, forest. boiteux, -se [bwato, -0iz], lame. bon, -ne [bo, bon], good, kind; sentir — , to smell sweet; de bonne heure, early. Bonaparte [bonapart], m., Bona- parte. bond [bo], m., bound, leap. bonheur [bonoeir], m., happiness, good fortune. bonhonune [bonom], m., old fel- low. boimet [bone], m., cap. bonte [bSte], /., kindness. bord [bo:r], edge, margin; mange aux — s, worn at the edges, dog-eared. Bossuet [bosqe], m., Bossuet. bouc [buk], 7n., buck, he-goat. boucher [bu^e], to stop up, cork. bouger [buse], to stir, move. bouillonnement [bujonma], w., boiling, roaring. bouleverser [bulverse], to upset, overturn. bouquet [buke], m., bouquet. bourgeois [burswa], m., well-to- do commoner; pi., middle Bourgogne [burgoji], /., Burgun- dy. Bourguignon [burgijio], w., Bur- gundian, follower of the Duke of Burgundy. boursier [bursje], m., scholarship- pupil; pupil whose tuition-fee is remitted. bout [bu], m., end. branche [bra:S], /., branch. bras [bras], m., arm. brave [braiv], brave, gallant, worthy, honest. brebis [brobi], /., sheep. bref, breve [bref, breiv], short, brief. Brienne [brijen], /., Brienne, town in northeast of France, on the Aube. briller [brije], to shine. brin [bre], m., straw, blade of broder [brode], to embroider. brosser [brose], to brush. bruit [brqi], m., noise. bruler [bryle], to burn. brun [brden], brown; — e, bru- nette. brusquement [bryskama], sud- denly. 208 VOCABULARY brutal [larytal], brutal. buisson [bqiso], ?«., bush. bureau [byro], m., flat-top desk, writing table; office. fa [sa], contraction of cela. cafe [kafe], m., coffee, cage [kais], /., cage. Calais [cale], m., Calais. calme [kalm], m., calm, quiet, calmer [kalme], to calm, calotte [kalot], /., skull-cap. camarade [kamarad], m., com- rade. Cambrai [kabre], m., Cambrai, city of North France, campagne [kapaji], /., country, not city; campaign. Canada [kanada], m., Canada, canard [kana:r], m., duck, drake. cane [kan], /., duck {female). canif [kanif], m., penknife, pocket knife. canton [kato], m., canton, district, capable [kapabl], capable, able, capitaine [kapiten], ?»., captain, capitale [kapital], /., capital, seat of government. car [kar], for, because, since. cardinal [kardinal], ?«., cardinal. carre [kare], square, rectangular. carte [kart], /., card, map. cas [kci], case; dans le (au) — oh, in case; au — que, {ivith subj.), in case that; en — , in case, cascade [kaskad], /., cascade, water-fall, casser [kcise], to break, cause [koiz], /., cause; a — de, because of. cavalerie [kavalri], /., cavalry. ce [so], pron., this, that, it, those; — qui (que), what. ce, cet, cette, ces [sa, set, set, se], adj., this, that. ceci [sasi], tliis. ceder [sede], to jdeld. cela [s(3)la], that. celebre [selebr], famous, cele- brated. celebrer [selebre], to celebrate. celui, celle, ceux, celles [salqi, sel, S0, sel], this or that (one); the one, he, him. celui-ci [salqisi], this one, the lat- ter. celui-la [salqila], that one, the former. cent [sa], a hundred; pour — , per cent. centaine [saten], /., a hundred. centimetre [satimetr], m., centi- meter, ^■'o of an inch. cependant [sapada], however, nevertheless, meanwhile, yet. cerise [sariiz], /., cherry. certain [serte], certain; — ement, certainly. Cervin [serve], m., le mont — , the Matterhorn. cesser [sese], to cease, stop. § 196a. chacim [$akce], pron., each, each one, every one. chair [^cir], /., flesh. chaire [Se:r], /., pulpit, official chaise [Se:z], /., chair. chalet [Sale], m., cottage. chaletir [Saltt-:r], /., heat. champ [Sa], m., field. chance [Sa:s], /., fortune, good luck. chanceler [Susie], to totter, stag- ger. FRENCH-ENGLISH 209 changer [Sage], to change. chanson [$as5], /., song. chanter [Sate], to .sing, chant, crow. chanteur, -se or cantatrice [$&- ttr:r, -0:2, katatris], singer. chapeau [Sapo], m., hat, bonnet. chapitre [^apitr], m., chapter. chaque [^ak], each, every. charger [^arse], to charge, com- mission; charge de, full of. Charles [^arl], m., Charles. channe [^arm], vi., charm. chasse [^as], /., hunting; aller a la — , to go hunting. chasser [^ase], to hunt, drive away, chase. chat [Sa], m., cat; tigre, tiger- cat. chateau [^ato], m., castle. chatte [Sat],/., cat {female). chaud [^o], warm, hot. chaudron [^odro], m., caldron. chaux [5io], /., lime. chef [Sef], TO., leader; — d'ceuvre [Ssdoeivr], to., masterpiece; — de gare, station-master. chemin [S^me], to., road; — de fer, railroad. cheminer [famine], to travel. cher, chere [Se:r], dear. chercher [Ser^e], to search, look for, seek, get. cheval [^aval], to., horse. chevalier [^avalje], to., knight. cheveu [^avo], m., hair (of the head). chevre [Se:vr], /., goat {fe- male). chez [Se], to, at or in the house, shop or office of someone; — • nous, at our house; — M. X, at Mr. X's; — le dentiste, at the dentist's; among, in; — les Remains, among the Ro- mans; — elle, in her. chien [Sje], m., dog. chienne [Sjen], /., dog {female). chose [So:z], /., thing. Chretien, -ne [kretje, -tjen], Clmstian. ciel, pi. cieux [sjel, sjo], to., sky, heaven. cigare [sigan-], ??i., cigar. cinq [sfk], five. cinquante [seka:t], fifty. cinquieme [sekjem], fifth. cirque [sirk], ?n., circus, amphi- theater. citoyen [sitwaje], to., citizen. civil [sivil], civil. clair [kle:r], clear; — ement, clear- ly classe [kla:s],/., class, classroom, recitation, lesson. Claude Lorrain [kloid lore], to., Claude Lorrain. cle or clef [kle], /., key. clerge [klerse], m., clergy. clin d'ceil [kle doeij], yn., wink, twinkling. cocher [ko^e], to., cabman, driver. coeur [kce:r], to., heart, courage. cogner [kope], to knock, bump. coin [kwe], m., corner. Colbert [kolbeir], to., Colbert. colere [kole:r],/., anger, wrath. colonial [kolonjal], colonial. colonnade [kolonad], /., colon- nade, row of columns. combattre [kobatr], irr., see battre, to fight. combien [kobje], how much, how many; — de temps, how long. comedie [komedi], /., comedy. commandant [komada], 7n., ma- jor. 210 VOCABTTLARY commandature [komadatyir], /., hoadquarters. commandement [komadma], //;., command. commander [komade], to com- mand. comme [kom], as, like. commencement [komasmci], in., beginning. commencer [komase], to begin. commerce [kamers], m., com- merce. communion [komynjo], /., com- munion. compagne [kopaji],/., companion (female), wife. compagnie [kSpajii],/., company. compagnon [kopajio], w., com- panion. Compiegne [kopjeji], /., Com- piegne. complet, -ete [kople, -plet], full, complete. compliment [koplima], m., com- pliment. compliquer [koplike], to compli- cate. composer [kopoze], to compose. comprendre [k5pra:dr], irr., see prendre, to understand, com- prehend, include. comte, -sse [k5:t, kotes], m., /., count, countess. compter [kSte], to count, reckon. concert [k5s8:r], m., concert. concevoir [kosavwair], irr., see recevoir, to conceive. condamner [kodane], to condemn. condition [kodisjS], /., condition; a — que, on condition that. conduire [kodqiir], irr., to con- duct, take, drive; se — , to be- have. conduite [kSdqit], /., conduct. confiance [k5fja:s], /., confidence. confus [kSfy], confused. confusement [kofyzema], con- fusedly, dimly. conge [kose], m., leave, holiday. conjonction [kosoksjS], /., con- junction. connaissance [konesais], /., ac- quaintance. coimaitre [koneitr], irr., to know (by perception), recognize, be acquainted with. conquerir [kokeriir], irr., see ac- querir, to conquer. conscience [kosjais], /., con- science; avec — , conscien- tiously. conseil [koseij], m., counsel. conseiller [koseje], to counsel, advise. consentir [k5sati:r], irr., see dor- mir, to consent. consoler [kosale], to console. constamment [kostamaj, con- stantly. constant [kosta], constant. constituant [kostitqa], constitu- tional. constitution [k5stity.sj5], /., con- stitution. construire [kostrqiir], irr., see conduire, to construct. consul [kosyl], m., consul. contempler [kotuple], to contem- plate, watch. content [koto], happy, glad, satis- fied, pleased. conter [kote], to tell, relate. continuer [kotinqe], to continue. contraire [kotreir], contrary, op- posite. contre [koitr], against. controleur [k5:troloe:r], m., in- spector. FRENCH-ENGLISH 211 convenir [k5vni:r], to agree. convention [kSvasjo], /., conven- tion. convoquer [kovoke], to assemble, summon, convoke. corde [kord], /., rope. Corneille [k.3rne:j], m., Corneille. corporation [korporasjo], /., trade guikl, trade union. corps [ko:r], m., body. costume [kostym], ??;., costume. cote [ko:t], /., side, coast, ridge, rib, shore. cote [kote], m., side, direction; a — de, beside; de — , sidewise, sidelong. coucher [ku^e], to lay flat, put to bed; se — , to lie down, go to bed. couleur [kuloeir], /., color. coup [ku], m., blow, stroke, move- ment; — de pied, kick; — de tete, wiKul act ; tout a — , sud- denly; — de vent, gust of wind; — d'etat, revolutionary act; tout d'un — , all at once. coupable [kupabl], guilty, culpa- able. couper [kupe], to cut. couple [kupl],/., two; m., a pair, span, yoke. cour [ku:r], /., court, yard. courage [kiu-a:3], m., courage. courir [kuriir], irr., to run; — (apres) des nids, to hunt birds' nests. couronne [kuron], /., crown. course [kurs], /., run, race. cotu^: [kuir], short. courtois [kurtwa], courteous. court-vetu [kurvety], in short clothes, short-skirted. cousin [kuze], m., cousin {mascu- line). cousine [kuzin], /., cousin {femi- nine). couteau [kuto], m., knife. couter [kute], to cost; — cher, to cost df ar. coutxime [kutym], /., custom. couvrir [kuvriir], irr., to cover. craindre [kre:dr], iir., to fear. craie [kre], /., chalk. crayon [krejo], m., pencil. createm-, -trice [kreatoc:r, -tris], m., /., creator. Crecy [kresi], Crecy, Cressy. creer [kree], to create. creuser [kroze], to hollow. creve-cceur [krevkoeir], m., agony, heart-breaking experience. cri [kri], ?»., cry, shout, scream. crier [krie], to cry, shout, scream. crista! [kristal], m., crystal, flint glass. croire [krwair], irr., to believe. croix [krwa], /., cross. croquer [krake], to crunch, de- vour. cruaute [kryote], /., cruelty. cruel, -le [kryel], cruel. cueillir [koejiir], irr., to pick, gather. cuiller [kqijeir], /., spoon. ciu-e-dent [kyrda], m., tooth- pick. curieux, -se [kyrjo, -joiz], curi- ous. cuvette [kyvet], /., bowl, basin. dahlia [dalja], 7n., dahlia. d'aillevu-s [dajoe:r], moreover, be- sides. dame [dam], /., lady. Danemark [danmark], m., Den- mark. 212 VOCABULARY dangereux, -se [dasare, -roiz], dangerous. dans [da], in, into, inside of, within. danser [da.se], to dance, danseur, -se [dasoe:r, -0:z], m., /., dancer. date [dat], /., date, dauphin [dofe], m., dauphin, heir apparent. davantage [davatars], more. de [da], of, from, with, for, to, in, on, by. § 211. debarquer [debarke], to land, debattre [debatr], irr., see battre, to discuss; se — , to struggle. debout [dabu], erect, standing; se tenir — , to remain standing. decembre [desaibr], ??i., Decem- ber. decidement [desidema], decided- ly. decider [deside], to decide. decision [desizj5], /., decision. dedans [dada], inside, within. dedaigner [dedejie], to despise, disdain. dedaigneux [dedejio], scornful. deesse [dees], /., goddess. defendre [defaidr], to forbid, de- fend. defenseur [defasoeir], m., de- fender, attorney. defier [defje], to defy; se — de, to distrust. defiler [defile], to march. deji [desa], already. dejeuner [desone], m., breakfast. dejeuner [desone], to breakfast, eat breakfast. deli [dala], beyond. deliberer [delibere], to deliberate. dellcieux, -se [delisjo, -oiz], de- licious, delightful. delivrer [delivre], to deliver, re- lieve, set free. demain [dame], to-morrow. demander [damade], to ask, de- mand. demarche [demar^],/., preceding, behavior. demi [dami], ?«., or demie, /., one half. demi [dami], half. demi-heure [damioe:r], /., half hour. dent [da], /., tooth; croquer a belles — s, to eat with great relish. depecher [depe^e], to hurry; se — , to make haste. depens [depa], m. pi.; aux — de, at the expense of. depenser [depose], to spend. depuis [dapqi], since; for; — dix minutes, for the last ten min- utes; — que, conj., since. depute [depj^te], m., deputy, representative. dernier, -ere [dernje, -je:r], last. derriere [derjeir], behind. des [de], contraction of de and les, of the, some. desastre [dezastr], m., disaster. Descartes [dekart], m., Descartes, descendre [desa:dr], to descend, go down. deshonorer [dezonare], to dis- honor. desir [dezi:r], 7?i., desire. desirer [dezire], to desire. desole [dezole], dreary, desolate. desoler [dezole], to ravage; se — , to grieve, be in deep sorrow. dessin [dese], m., drawing, plan. dessiner [desine], to draw, design. dessous [dasu], under, beneath; au — de, below. FRENCH-ENGLISH 213 dessus [cbsy], on, over; au — de, above. detendre [detaidr], to relax. determination [determinasjo], /., decision, determination. determiner [determine], to de- termine. detester [deteste], to hate, de- test. detniire [detrqiir], irr., see con- duire, to destroy. deux [do], two. deuxieme [dozjem], second. devant [dava], m., front. devant [dava], before, in front of. devenir [davaniir], irr., see tenir, to become, grow. deviner [dovine], to guess. devoir [d9^^\'a:r], m., duty, task, exercise; rendre ses — s, to pay one's respects. devoir [davwair], irr., to owe, to be (intending or under obliga- tion to); must; ought, have to. dieu [djo], m., god. different [difera], different. difficile [difisil], hard, difficult. difficulte [difikylte], /., difficulty. digne [diji], worthy. dimanche [dima:^], m., Sunday. diminuer [diminqe], to diminish, grow smaller. diner [dine], m., dinner. diner [dine], to dine. dire [di:r], irr., to say, tell; vou- loir — , to mean; c'est-a , that is (to say) ; on dit, people say, it is said. directeur, -trice [direktoeir, -tris], m., /., director. direction [direksjS], /., direction. discipline [disiplin], /., discipline. discuter [diskyte], to discuss, argue. disparaitre [disparritr], irr., see connaitre, to disappear. disposer [dispoze], to dispose. distance [distais], /., distance. distinctement [distektma], dis- tinctly. distinguer [distege], to distin- guish, perceive. distribution [distribysjo], /., dis- tribution, presentation. dites [dit], see dire. divers [diveir], various, diverse. dix [dis], ten. dixieme [dizjem], tenth. dizaine [dizen], ten, half score. docile [dosil], obedient; — ment, obediently. doigt [dwa], to., finger. dois [dwa], see devoir. dollar [dola:r], m., dollar. domestique [domestik], m., /., servant, domestic. dominer [domine], to domi- nate. done [do(k)], then, so. donner [done], to give. dont [do], of which, of whom, whose, from which, with which. dormir [dormi:r], irr., to sleep. dot [dot], /., dowTy. doucement [dusma], gently. douceur [dusoeir], /., gentleness, peacefulness. doute [dut], TO., doubt; sans — , undoubtedly, probably. douter [dute], to doubt. doux, douce [du, dus], sweet, gentle. douzaine [duzen],/., dozen, group of twelve. douze [du:z], twelve. drap [dra], m., cloth. drapeau [drapo], to., flag. 214 VOCABULARY dresser [drese], to set up; se — , to rise, straighten up. droit [drwa], right, straight; a — e, to the right; tout — , straight ahead; m. pi., rights, obligations, taxes; etre en — , to have a right. drole [droil], droll, queer, funny, comical. du [dy], contraction of de and le, of the, some. due [dyk], m., duke, duchesse [dy^es], /., duchess. duquel [dykel], contraction of de and lequel. dur [dy:r], hard, severe, duffer [dyre], to last, endure. E eau [o], /., water. eboiuiffe [eburife], rough, shaggy. echafaud [e^afo], m., scaffold. echapper [e^ape], to escape. eclatant [eklata], striking, shi- ning. eclater [eklate], to burst forth. ecole [ekol], /., school; a 1' — , to or at school. ecolier [ekolje], m., scholar. ecouter [ekute], to listen, listen to {with direct object). ecraser [ekraze], to crush. ecrire [ekri:r], irr., to wTite. ecriture [ekrityir], /., writing. ecrivaln [ekrive], ?«., author, writer. Edouard [edwair], m., Edward. education [edykasjo], /., educa- tion. effacer [efase], to efface, erase. effort [efoir], m., effort. affrayer [efreje], to frighten; effrayant, frightful. egal [egal], equal; — ement, equally. egalite [egalite], /., equality. egayer [egeje], to enliven, brighten. eglise [egliiz], /., church; a 1' — , to or at church. egoiste [egoist], selfish. eh bien [e bje], well! Elbe [elb], /., Elba, island be- tween Corsica and Italy. election [eleksjS], /., election. eleve [ele:v], m.,f., pupil. elever [elve], to raise, produce. elire [eliir], irr., see lire, to elect, choose. Elisabeth [elizabet],/., Elizabeth. elle, [el], she, it, her. eloquence [elokdis],/., eloquence. embarrasser [abarase], to em- barrass. embrouiller [abruje], to tangle; s' — , to become confiLsed. emmener [amne], to take away. emotion [emosjo], /., emotion. emouvoir [emu\'wa:r], irr., see mouvoir, to affect, excite. emparer (s') [sapare], to seize, take possession of. empecher [ape^e], to prevent. empereur [ap9rcE:r], m., em- peror. empire [api:r], m., empire. employer [ciplwaje], to employ. emporter [dporte], to carry off, overbalance. en [a], adv. or pron., of it, of them; some, any; from them. en [a], in, into; of; as a, like a; urith pres. part., while, on, by; — haut, up-stairs; — bas, down-stairs. enchantement [a^atma], 7n., en- chantment, magic. FRENCH-ENGLISH 215 enchanteur, -eresse [aSatoeir, -ares], m., /., enchanter, en- chantress. encore [akoir], yet, still, more; — deux jours, two days more. encourager [akurase], to encour- age. encre [a:kr], /., ink. encrier [akrje], m., ink-well. endroit [cldrwa], m., place, spot. enfance [afa:s], /., childhood. enfant [afa], m., /., child. enfin [ofe], at last, finally. enfuir (s') [safqi:r], irr., see fuir, to flee, rmi away. enguirlander [cigirlade], to en- wreathe, twine about. enhardir (s') [saardiir], to take coiu-age, grow bold. enjamber [asabe], to step or straddle over. ennemi [enmi], m., enemy. ennuyeux [anqijo], wearisome. enorme [enorm], enormous, vast. enricher [ari^e], to enrich. enseigner [asejie], to teach. ensemble [asaibl], together. entendre [ata:dr], to hear, under- stand; s' — , to agree. entier [atje], m., whole, unit; adj., whole, entire, all. entre [a:tr], between. entree [atre], /., entrance. entrer [atre], to enter; — dans le jardin, to enter the garden. entr'ouvert [atruveir], half-open. envahir [avaiir], to invade. envelopper [avbpe], to envelop, take in. envers [ave:r], toward. envie [dvi], /., desire, envy; avoir — , to feel like. envieux, -se [avjo, -vjoiz], en- vious. envoyer [avwaje], irr., to send. epais, -se [epe, -pes], thick. epaule [epol], /., shoulder; aux larges — s, broad-shouldered. epeler [eple], to spell. epouvantable [epuvatabl], fright- ful. epoux [epu], m., husband. epouse [epu:z], /., spouse, wife. epreuve [eproeiv], /., proof; k toute — , proof against every- thing. epuisement [epqizma], m., ex- haustion. epuiser [epqize], to exhaust. equilibre [ekihbr], w., equilib- rium, balance. errer [ere], to wander. escabeau [eskabo], to., stool. escalier [eskalje], m., staircase, flight of .stairs. esclave [esklaiv], slave. Espagne [espaji], /., Spain. esperance [esperais], /., hope. esperer [espere], to hope. essayer [eseje], to try. essouffler [esufle], to put out of breath; to wind; s' — , to lose one's breath. essuyer [esqije], to wipe. est [e], see etre. estimer [estime], to esteem. et [e], and; — ... — , both . . . and. etat [eta], m., state, trade; Etats- Unis [etazyni]. United States; Etats generaux, States Gen- eral, Parliament. etau [eto], m., vise. ete [ete], see etre. ete [ete], m., summer. etendre [eta:dr],to extend, stretch out. etirer (s') [satire], to stretch. 216 VOCABULARY etoffe [etof], /., cloth, goods. etoile [etwal], /., star. etonnement [etonmd], m., as- tonishment, surprise. etonner [etone], to astonish, sur- prise; s' — , to wonder. etouffer [etufe], to choke, stifle, smother. etranger, -ere [etrcise, -5E:r], stranger, foreigner. etre [c:trj, m., being. etre [8:tr], irr., to be; as aux- iliary in active voice, to have; — a, to belong to. etudier [etydje], to study. eu [y], see avoir. Europe [oerop], /., Europe. eux [o], pi. of lui, they, them. eveiller [eveje], to waken, rouse, wake up. eveque [eve:k], m., bishop. evidemment [evidama], evident- ly- evident [evida], evident. eviter [evite], to avoid. exact [egza(kt)], exact, on time. examiner [egzamine], to exam- ine. excuser [ekskyze], to excuse, par- don. execrer [egzekre], to execrate. executer [egzekyte], to execute. executeuLT, -trice [egzekytoe:r, -tris], executor. exemple [egzapl], m., copy, ex- ample; par — , for instance. exercice [egzersis], m., exercise; faire 1' — (nulitaire), to drill. exister [cgziste], to exist. explication [eksplikasjo], /., ex- planation. expliquer [eksplike], to explain. exploiter [eksplwate], to exploit, work, cheat. exposer [ekspose], to expose. expres, -presse [ekspre, -pres], express; adv., purposely. expression [ekspresjo], /., ex- pression. exprimer [eksprime], to express. extraordineiire [ekstr(a)ordine:r], extraordinary. extremite [ekstremite], /., e.x- tremity, end. fable [fnbl], /., fable. fabrique [fabrik],/., mill, factory; cloth, fabric. fabriquer [fabrike], to make, manufacture. face [fas], /., face, front; en — de, in front of, opposite. facher (se) [sa fci^e], to get angry. facheux, -se [fa^o, 0:z], vexa- tious, unfortunate. facile [fasil], easy. fafon [faso], /., waj^, manner; de — que, so that. facteiu- [faktccir], m., postman, letter-carrier. faible [febl], weak. faim [fe], /., hunger; avoir — , to be hungry. faire [fe:r], irr., to do, make, cause; say; , to have done; — attention, to pay attention; — froid, to be cold (imper- sonal); — ime question, to ask a question; — beau (temps), to be fine (weather); il fait bon, it is pleasant ; si fait, yes indeed; se — , to be; to take place, occur, happen; — une classe, to hear a lesson, con- duct a recitation; — comme, to seem like, act like. FRENCH-ENGLISH 217 falloir [falwair], irr. impersonal, to be necessary, have to; must; il me faut, I must, I need; il lui faudra, he will have to; il fallait voir, you ought to have seen; il ne faut pas, one must not. falloir (s'en) [safalwair], to be wanting; peu s'en faut, it lacks but little, fameux, -se [fame, -oiz], fa- mous. familiar [familje], familiar, famille [fami:j], /., family; en — , informally, with no strangers present. fanfare [fcifair], /., flourish of trumpets. fatigue [fatigo], weary. fatiguer [fatige], to weary, tire; se — , to grow weary. faufiler [fofile], to slip in. faute [fo:t], /., fault, mistake. fautif [fotif], at fault, to blame. faux, — sse [fo, fo:s], false; — marchepied, foot-rope. faux [fo], /., scythe. favori, -te [favori, -rit], favorite. feindre [fe:dr], irr., see craindre, to feign, pretend. femme [fam], /., wife, woman. fenetre [faneitr], /., window. feodal [feodal], feudal. fer [fe:r], m., iron; chemin de — ; railroad. feral [fare], see faire. Ferdinand le Catholique [ferdina lo katolik], Ferdinand, king of Aragon (1452-1516). ferme [ferme], closed. fermer [ferme], to close, shut. feu [fo], m., fire. feu [fo], late, recent; — la reine, or la — e reine, the late queen. feuille [foe:j], /., leaf. fevrier [fevri(j)e], m., February. fier, -ere [fjeir], proud. figure [figy:r], /., face, figure. fil [fil], m., tliread. filature [filaty:r], /., (spinning) mill. fille [fi:j], /., girl, daughter. fils [fis], m., son. fin [ft], /., end. fin, -e [fg, fin], fine. finir [fini:r], to fini.sh. fis [fi], see faire. fixer [fiksc], to fix, settle; look steailily at, stare at. fiacon [flako], m., bottle. fiatteur, -se [flatoeir, oiz], flatter- ing. fieur [floeir], /., flower. fieurir [AcltIu-], to flourish, grow (well) ; fieuri, full of flowers. flotter [flote], to float. foi [fwa], /., faith, word. fois [fwa], /., time; une — , deux — -, once, twice. fence [fose], dark. fond [fo], m., back, bottom, rear. font [f5], see faire. fontaine [foten], /., fountain, spring. forfat [forsa], m., convict; — a vie, convict sentenced for life. force [fors], /., strength, force. forcer [forse], to force, compel. foret [fore], /., forest. Forez [forez], in., Forez, old French province near Lyons. forgeron [forsoro], to., black- smith. forme [form], /., form, formality. former [forme], to form. fort [fo:r], strong. fort [fo:r], adv., very. fou, fol, folle [fu, fol], crazy. 218 VOCABULARY foixle [fill], /., crowd, throng, mob. fourmi [furmi], /., ant. fraicheur [freSoeir], /., coolness, freshness. frais [fre], m. -pi., expenses, cost. frais, fraiche [fre, fre:^], fresh, cool, f raise [fre:z], /., strawberry. franc [fra], m., franc ( = 19.3 cents). franc, -he [fra, fra:;ji], frank, hon- est; Franche-Comte, province of Eastern France, "Free County." franc, franque [fra, fra:k], Frank- ish. Frangais [frass], m., Frenchman, frangais [frase], French. France [fra:s], /., France. Franfois [fraswa], m., Francis. Frantz [frants], ?«., Frantz. f rapper [frape], to strike. frayeur [frejceir], /., fear, fright, terror. frere [freir], m., brother. friser [frize], to cm-1. froid [frwa], cold, fromage [froma:^], m., cheese. fronde [fr5:d], /., sling; la Fronde, conspiracy against Mazarin. frotter [frote], to rub. fruit [frqi], m., fruit. fuir [ft[i:r], irr., to flee, fly. fumer [fjane], to smoke. fxmebre [fjaieibr], funeral. furieiix, -se [fjTJo, -0:z], fiu-ious. fusil [fyzi], m., gmi. fusilier [fyzije], to shoot, fut [fy], see etre; il s'en — , he went oflf. future [fytyrr], m., future (tense); — , adj., future. gabier [gabje], m., topman. gagner [gajie], to gain, earn, win, reach. gai [ge], gay, merry. gaiement or gaiment [gema], gaily. galamment [galama], gallantly. galant [gala], gallant. galop [galo], gallop. gamin [game], vi., street ur- chin. gant [ga], m., glove. garfon [garso], m., boy, waiter, bachelor. garde [gard], m., /., guard. garde [gard],/., guard; prendre — ■ (de), to take care (not to); n' avoir — de, to be careful not to. garder [garde], to keep, guard, protect, retain. gare [ga:r], /., depot, railway sta- tion (terminal); — ! beware! gateau [goto], m., cake. gauche [goi^], left; a — , to the left; — ment, awkwardly. Gaulois [golwa], m., Gaul; adj., Gallic. geant [5eu], m., giant. geler [sale], to freeze. gener [sene], to impede, em- barrass, vex, disturb; se — , to hesitate. general [seneral], m., general; adj., general. genereux, -se [senero, -roiz], generous. genie [seni], m., genius. genou [5onu], m., knee; {pi. for- merly — x). gens [3a], pi., people, men. § 126, 7. FRENCH-ENGLISH 219 gentil, -lie [sati, -tiij], pretty, pleasing, attractive. gUssade [glisad], /., slide. glisser [glise], to glide. gloire [glwair], /., glor3\ glorieux, -se [gbrjo, -rJ0!z], glorious. gouflfre [gufr], /«., gulf, abyss. gouter [gate], to taste, enjoy. goutte [gut], /., drop. gouvemement [guvernama], m., government. gouvemer [guverne], to govern. gouvemeur [guvernoeir], m., gov- ernor. grace [gra:s], /., favor, mercy, pardon, thanks. grade [grad], ni., grade, rank. grammaire [grameir], /., gram- mar. grand [gra], large, tall; les — s, the great; — ement, greatly. grandeur [gradoeir], /., greatness, grandeur. gras, -se [gra, gras], fat, rich. grasseyer [graseje], to speak with uvular r, "speak thick." grave [graiv], grave, serious. gravite [gravite], /., seriousness. gre [gre], m., good-will, gratitude; savoir — , to be grateful. grec, — que [gxek], Greek. greement [grema], m., rigging. grele [grcil], slight, scanty. grenouille [granuij], /., frog. grief [grief], m., injury, cause of complaint. grillage [grija:3], m., grating; — aux affiches, bulletin-board (covered by a grating). grimper [grepe], to climb. grincement [gresmu], m., scra- ping, scratching. gris [gri], gray. grogner [grajie], to growl. gronder [grade], to scold, grumble. gros, -se [gro, gro:s], big, bulky, large. guere [ge:r]; ne — , not much, but little; hardly. guerre [ge:r], /., war. guerrier'[gerje], tji., warrior, sol- dier. guetter [gete], to watch for, lie in wait for. guide [gid], m., guide. Guillaiune [gijomi], m., William. Guise [gqiiz], Guise, famous noble family. guitare [gita:r], /., guitar. (h aspirate is indicated thus: 'h) habile [abil], clever, skilful. habiller [abije], to dress; s' — -, to dress oneself. habit [abi], m., coat; pi., clothes. habitude [abityd], /., custom; d' — -, customarily. habituer [abitqe], to accustom. 'haine (en], /., hatred. 'hair [ai:r], irr., to hate. 'haleter [alte], to pant. 'halte [alt],/., halt. 'hanneton [anto], m., beetle, June-bug. 'harceler [arsale], to harass, 'hate [a:t], /., haste. 'hater [a:te], to hasten; se — , to hurry, make haste. 'Hauser [oze:r], Hauser. 'haut [o], high; loud; m., top, height; en — , up-stairs; adv., — , loud(ly). 'hauteiu- [otoe:r], /., height. hebreu [ebro], Hebrew, 'heler [ele], to hail, call. 220 VOCABULARY Henri [ari], m., Henry. Henriette [ariet], /., Henrietta. heriter [erite], to inherit. heritier [eritje], m., heir. 'heros [ero], m., hero. heroine [eroin], /., heroine. heroiquement [eroikma], heroic- ally. hesitation [ezitasjo], /., hesita- tion. hesiter [ezite], to hesitate. heure [oe:r], /., hour; quelle — est-il, what time is it; de bonne — , early; a neuf — s, at nine o'clock; a la bonne — ! good! all right!; a 1' — , on time. henreusement [rerozma], hap- pily, fortunately. heureux, -se [a>r0, -roiz], happy, fortunate. hier [je:r], yesterday. histoire [istwair], /., history, story. historique [istorik], historical. hiver [ive:r], m., winter. 'Hollande [ola:d], /., Holland. honune [om], m., man. honneur [onoeir], m., honor. honorer [onore], to honor. 'honte [5:t], /., shame. 'honteux, -se [oto, -torz], shame- ful; ashamed. horloge [orb:3], /., clock. horreur [oroeir], /., horror. 'hors [a:r], outside, beyond. 'houblon [ublo], m., hop-vine. 'houpette [upct], /., tuft. 'hint [qit], eight; — jours, a week. 'huitaine [qiten], group of eight, some eight. humanite [ymanite], /., human- ity. humilier [ymilje], to humiliate, humeur [yma-ir], /., humor. I ici [isi], here. idee [ide], /., idea. idiot [idjo,-jot], idiotic, imbecile. ignorer [ijiore], to be ignorant, not to know. il [il], he, it, there. lie [il], /., island. il y a [ilja], there is, there are; ago; for. image [imais], /., image, picture. imiter [imite], to imitate. immense [ima:s], immense. immobile [imobil], motionless, still. impatience [epasjais], /., impa- tience. imperatrice [eperatris], /., em- press. impetueux, -se [epetqo, -0iz], impetuous. impoli [epoli], impolite, rude, importance [eportdis], /., impor- tance. importer [eporte], to be impor- tant; n'importe! no matter!; qu'importe? what matters it? impossible [eposibl], impossible, impot [epo], m., tax. imprimer [eprime], to print. incendie [esadi], w., fire, confla- gration. incertitude [esertityd], /., uncer- tainty. inconnu [ekony], unknown, individu [edividu], m., individual, individuellement [edividijelma], individually. Industrie [edystri], /., industry, manufacturing. infini [efini], infinite. FRENCH-ENGLISH 221 infiniment [efinima], infinitely. infranchissable [efraSisabl], im- passable. inquiet, -ete [ekje, -kjet], un- easy. inquieter (s') [sekjete], to be anx- ious, worry. inspecteur, -trice [espektoeir, -tris], tn., /., inspector. inspection [espeksjo], /., inspec- tion. inspirer [espire], to inspire. installer [estale], to establish. Institut [estity], m., Institute. instruction [estryksjo], /., in- struction. instruit [estrqi], educated. insurrection [esyreksjo],/., insur- rection. intelligence [etelisais], /., intelli- gence. intelligent [et8li3a], intelligent. intention [etasjo], /., intention; avoir 1' — , to intend. interessant [eteresa], interesting. interesser [eterese], to interest. interjection [eterseksjo], /., in- terjection. interroger [etero3e], to question. inventevir, -trice [evatoe:r], in- ventor. inviter [evite], to invite. invoquer [evoke], to invoke, call upon. irai [ire], see aller. irriter [irite], to vex. Isabelle [izabel], /., Isabel. Italie [itali], /., Italy. ivoire [ivwa:r], m., ivory. jabot [3abo], m., frill. jadis [5adi(s)], formerly. jaloux, -se [3alu, -lu:z], jealous. jamais [3ame], ever; ne . . . — , never; — ! never! jambe [3a:b], /., leg. Janvier [scivje], m., January. Japon [5ap5], m., Japan. jappement [sapma], yelps, barks. japper [sape], to bark, yelp, jar din [3arde], m., garden, jatte [3at], /., jar, bowl, jaune [50:11], yellow, jaunir [3oni!r], to grow yellow, je [39], I- Jean [3a], John. Jeanne [5a:n], /., Joan; — d'Arc [dark], Joan of Arc. Jeter [sate], to throw, utter; se — , to rush, spring; — un cri, to cry out, shout, scream, jeu [30], m., game. jeudi [30di], m., Thursday. jeune [soen], young. joie [3wa],/., joy; avec— , gladly. joindre [3\ve:dr], irr., see craindre, to join. joli [3oli], pretty. joliment [3olima], finely, prettily, very. jonquille [35ki:j],/., jonquil; adj., light yellow. jouer [swe], to play; — aux billes, to play marbles ; — du violon, to play the violin. jouet [3 we], m., plaything, toy. joxiir [3wi:r]; — de, to enjoy. jovir [3U!r], m., day, light; tons les — s, every day. journal [3urnal], vi., newspaper, journee [3urne], /., day. joyau [3wajo], m., jewel. joyeusement [3waJ0zma], gladly, happily. joyeux,-se[3waJ0, -J0:z], joyous, happy. 222 VOCABULARY juger [syse], to judge, try. juillet [5qije], ?n., July. juin [5qe], m., June. Jules [syl], m., Julius. jiuneau, -melle [symo, -mel], twin. jure [syre], m., judge, juryman. jurer [5yre], to swear. jusqu'a [3yska] or jusques a, [syskza], until, as far as. juste [3yst], right, just; — ment, exactly, precisely. justice bystis], /., law, justice. kilo [kilo] = kilogramme [kilo- gram], m., kilogram = 2.2 lbs. la [la], the; it, her. la [la], there; ce sont — , those are. la-bas [laba], yonder. labeur [laboe:r], m., toil, labor. laborieux, -se []ab3rJ0, -0:z], la- borious, difficult. lac [lak], m., lake. lacher [la^e], to let go of, drop, release. La Fontaine [lafSten], m., La Fontaine. laid [Ic], homely. laisser [lese], to let, leave, al- low; — voir, to show, displaj'. lait [Ic], m., milk. laiterie [Ictri], /., dairy. langage [lagais], m., speech, lan- guage. langue [la:g], /., tongue, language. large [lar5], broad, wide. largeur [larstt'ir], /., width, breadth. larmoyer [larmwaje], to whine, snivel, shed tears. las, -se [la, las], weary. layer [lave], to wash. le, la, r, las [b, la, 1, le], the. le, la, r, les [b, la, 1, le], pron., him, her, it; them; qui le dit, who says so. lefon [bso], /., lesson. legal [legal], legal. leger [lese], light, slight; legere- ment, slightly. legislatif, -ve [lesislatif, -tiv], legislative. Leipzig [kpsik], Leipzig, city of Saxony. lendemain [ladme], m., morrow, next day. lent [la], slow. lentement [Icitma], slowly. lequel, laquelle, lesquels, les- quelles [lokel, lakel, lekel], who, whom, which. lestement [lestma], nimbly, briskly. Lesueiu- [bsqoeir], m., Lesueur. lettre [letr], /., letter. leiu" [loe:r], their; le — , pron., theirs. leur [loe:r], pers. pron., to them, for them, them. lever [lave], to lift; se — , to rise; — la tete, to look up. lever [bve], m., rising; — du soleil, sunrise. liberte [liberte], /., liberty. libre [libr], free. lieu [Ijo], ?«., place; au — de, in- stead of. lieue [Ijo], /., league, four kilo- meters, 2^ miles. lieutenant [Ijetanrx], ?«., lieuten- ant. FRENCH-ENGLISH 223 ligue [lig], /., league; la Ligue, party of the Guises. Limousin [limuze], m., Limousin, province containing Limoges. lion, -ne [Ijo, lion], m., /., lion. lire [li:r], irr., to read; en lisant, by or while reading. lisiere [lizje:r], /., edge, border. livre [liivr], m., book; a — ouvert, like an open book, livre [li:vr], /., pound, demi-kilo, 500 grams. livrer [livre], to deliver; — ba- taille, to give battle. loi [Iwa], /., law. loin [Iwe], far. long, -ue [15, l5:g], long; le — de, along; tout au — , at full length. longtemps [lota], long, a long time. longueiu- [logoeir], /., length. Lorraine [loren], /., Lorraine, lors [b:r], then. lorsque [lorsk], when. louer [Iwe], to rent, hire, let. louer [Iwe], to praise. Louis [Iwi], TO., Louis. Louise [Iwiiz], /., Louise, loup [lu], m., wolf. lourd [lu:r], heavy. louve [lu:v], /., she-wolf. Louvois [luvwa], m., Louvois. Louvre [lu:vr], Louvre, palace, also a store. loyal [Iwajal], loyal. lueur [IqcEir] /., hght, glow. lui [Iqi], him, her, to him, to her, he, it. luire [Iqiir], irr., see nuire, to shine, gleam, glitter. lundi [Idedi], to., Monday. lunette [lynet], /., telescope, spy- glass; pi., spectacles. lut [ly], see lire. lycee [Use], to., public high school. lyre [li:r], /., lyre, music. M ma [ma], feminine of mon, my. madame, pi. mesdames [madam, medam], /., madam, Mrs. magnifique [majiifik], magnifi- cent. mai [me], m., May. main [me], /., hand; fait a la — , made by hand. maint [me], many a, many a one. maintenant [metona], now. maire [me:r], /«., mayor. mairie [meri], /., mayor's office, town-hall. mais [me], but; why. maison [mezo], /., hou.se. maisonnette [mezonet], /., cot- tage. maitre [me:tr], m., master, teach- er (in lower schools). maitresse [metres], /., mistress, teacher. majeur [masceir], major, greater. majorite [masorite], /., majority. mal [mal], adv., ill, badly; le — , TO., evil. malade [malad], ill, sick. malheur [maloeir], to., misery, misfortune. malheureusement [maloer0zma], unfortunately. malheureux, -se [malo^ro, -roiz], unhappy, wretched, miserable. malhonnete [malonet], dishonest. malin, -igne [male, -liji], cunning, mischievous, slu-ewd. malle [mal], /., trunk. manche [ma:^], to., handle. 224 VOCABULARY manche [maiS], /., sleeve; la Manche, English Channel. manger [mclse], to eat, wear away. maniere [manjeir], /., manner. mannequin [manke], w., puppet, manikin, dummy. manquer [make], to lack, miss, be wanting; qui lui manque, which he lacks. Mansard [masair], m., Mansard. marchandise [marSadiiz], /., goods, merchandise. marchepied [mar^apje], m., foot- rope, step; faux — , foot-rope. marcher [mar^e], to walk. mardi [mardi], m., Tuesday. mari [mari], m., husband. Marie [mari],/., Mary. marier [marje], to marry. marquis, -e [marki, -ki:z], m., /., marquis, marchioness. marron [maro], vi., chestnut. mars [mars], m., March. masse [mas], /., mass, body; en — , collectively, all together. matelot [matlo], m., sailor. matin [mate], m., morning. maudire [modi:r], irr., see dire, to curse. mauvais [move], bad, naughty. Maximilien [maksimilje], m., Maximilian. Mayenne [majen], Mayenne, brother of the duke of Guise. Mazarin [mazare], m., (Cardinal) Mazarin. me [ma], me, to me, for me. Meaux [mo], m., Meaux, city 20 miles east of Paris, mechamment [me^ama], wicked- ly, maliciously. mechant [me^d], wicked, cross, ugly. medecin [metse], m., doctor. medecine [metsin], /., medicine. mediocre [medjokr], mediocre. meilleur [mejoerr], adj., better; le — , best. melancolique [melakolik], melan- choly, depressing, sad. meler [mc:le], to mix; se — de, to meddle, interfere; melez- vous de vos affaires, mind your own business. melon [malo], m., melon. membre [ma:br], vi., member, limb. meme [memi], same, even, very, self; tout de — , just the same. § 89c. memoire [memwair], /., memory. menace [manas], /., tlireat. menacer [monase], to tlireaten. mener [mane], to lead, take. menteur, -euse [matoe:r, -o:z], lying, deceitful. mentir [matiir], irr., see dormir, to lie, tell falsehoods. menuisier [manqizje], ?«., car- penter, cabinet-maker. mepriser [meprize], to despise. mer [me:r], /., sea, ocean. merci [mersi], /., favor, grace, mercy, thanks; grand — , m., many thanks. mercredi [merkradi], tn., Wednes- day. mere [meir], /., mother. merle [merl], /«., blackbird. merveille [merveij], /., marvel, wonder. mesaventure [mezavaty:r], /., ac- cident, mishap. messieurs [mesjo], gentlemen, Messrs. mesurer [mazyre], to naeasure, estimate. FRENCH-ENGLISH 225 metal [metal], m., metal. metier [metje], ?«., trade, busi- ness. metre [metr], m., meter, 39.37 inches. mettre [mctr], irr., to put, place, put on; se — a, to begin to; mettez-vous la, sit (stand) there!; se — a table, to go to the table, come to dinner; — des souliers, to put on some shoes. meubler [moeble], to furnish. meunier [monje], //;., miUer. Mexique [meksik], m., Mexico. mi-c6te [miko:t], half way up the hill. midi [midi], ni., noon, twelve o'clock. mien [mje], mine. miette [nijet], /., crmub. miexix [nijo], better; poixr le — , for the best. Mignard [mijiair], Mignard. mignon [mijio], pretty, little, darling. mil [mil], a thousand (in dates between 1000 and 2000 a.d.). militaire [militeir], military. mille [mil], m., mile. mille [mil], a thousand. milliard [miljair], /«., a billion. millier [milje], m., a thou.sand. million [miljo], m., a million. ministre [ministr], iti., minister. minuit [mimji], in., midnight, twelve o'clock. minute [minyt], /., minute, in- stant. miserable [mizerabl], ^\Tetched; WTetch. mission [misjo], /., mission. mit [mi], see mettre. mode [mod], /., fashion, style. moderer [modere], to moderate. modeste [m,idest], modest. moi [mwa], me, I, to me, for me; meme, myself. moindre [mwe:dr], adj., less; le — , least. moine [mwan], m., monk. moins [mwf], adv., less; le — , the less, the least; — beau, not so handsome; au — , at least; a — que, unless {with ne and subj.). mois [mwci], w., month. moitie [mwatje], /., half. MoUere [moljeir], m., Moliere. moment [numfi], ni., moment. mon, ma, mes [mo, ma, me], my. monarchie [mouar^i], /., mon- archy. monde [m.5:d], m., world, com- pany, society; tout le — , everyone. monsieur, pi. messieiu-s [masjo, mesjo], ni., gentleman, sir, Mr. mont [mo], m., moimt, mountain, peak. montagnard [motajia:r], //;., momitaineer. montagne [motaji], /., momitain. monter [mote], to go up, step up into, enter. montre [mo:tr], /., watch. montrer [motre], to show. montueux -se [motijo, -0:z], steep. monimient [monyma], m., monu- ment, public building. moquer (se) [so moke], to ridi- cule, laugh at. morceau [morso], m., piece, frag- ment. mordre [mordr], to bite. mort [nio:r],/., death; m., dummy. 226 VOCABULARY mort, see motorir. mortel, -le [mortel], mortal, deadly. Moscou [mosku], Moskow, an- cient capital of Russia. Moskova [moskova], /., Mos- kowa, river by Moskow. mot [mo], m., word. mou, mol, molle [mu, mol], soft. mouchoir [mu;^\va:r], //*., hand- kerchief. moiulle [muje], wet; anchored, moored. mouiller [muje], to wet, anchor. moulin [mule], m., mill. mourir [muri:r], irr., to die. moustache [musta^j, /., mus- tache, whiskers (of animals). mouton [muto], m., sheep. mouvement [muvma], m., move- ment, impulse. mouvoir [muvwair], irr., to move. muet, -te [mqe, -et], mute, dumb, silent. multitude [myltityd], /., multi- tude, crowd. mur [niyir], //;., wall. mur [my:r], ripe. muraille [myrcnj],/., wall. murier [myrje], m., mulberry tree. murmure [myrmyir], m., mur- mur. musee [myze], m., museum. N nage [na:3], /., swimming, row- ing. nager [nase], to swim, float, row. naguere [nage:r], just before. naitre [ne:tr], irr., to be born, spring up. Naple [napl], Naples. Napoleon [napoleo], m., Napo- leon. nation [nasjo],/., nation. national [nasjjnal], national. nature [natyir], /., nature. Navarre [navair], /., Navarre. ne [na], not; — ... pas, not; — . . . ni . . . ni, neither . . . nor; — ... rien, nothing; — . . . que, only. ne [ne], see naitre. necessaire [nesese:r], necessary. negre, negresse [ne:gr, negres], m., /., negro, negress. neige [ne:5], /., snow. net, -te [net], neat, clean, clear, distinct. nettement [netma], plainly, dis- tinctly. nettoyer [netwaje], to clean. neuf [noe(f), noev], nine; a — heures, at nine o'clock. neuf, -ve [noef, noe:v], new, just made; tout — , brand new. neuvieme [novjem], ninth. neveu [navo], m., nephew. nez [ne], in., nose. ni [ni], neither, nor; ne . . . — , neither . . . nor. nier [nje], to deny. noble [nobl], noble. noblesse [nobles], /., nobility. noir [nwa:r], black. Noiraud [nwaro], to., Blacky. noix [nwa], /., nut, w^alnut. nom [no], m., noun, name. nombreux, -se [nobro, -0:z], numerous. nommer [name], to name, ap- point. non [no], no, not. Normandie [normadi], /., Nor- mandy. FRENCH-ENGLISH 227 notre, pi. nos [notr, no], our. notre [no:tr], ours. nourrir [nuri:r], to feed. nous [nu], we, us, ourselves. nouveau, nouvel, nouvelle [nuvo, nuvt'l], new; de — , again, anew. nouvelle [nuvcl], /., a piece of news; de vos — s, news of you. novembre [nova:br], m., Novem- ber. noyer [nwaje], m., walnut-tree. nu [ny], bare, naked. nuee [nqe], /., cloud, swarm. nuit [nqi], /., night; de — , by night. nixl, -le [nyl], no, no one. ntillement [nylma], not at all. oasis [oazis], /., oasis. obeir [,>bei:r] (a), to obey, objet [.jbje], m., object, thing, obliger [oblise], to oblige. obscurcir [opskyrsiir], to obscure, darken. observer [opserA^e], to observe. occuper [okype], to busy, occupy. octobre [oktobr], m., October, odeur [odoeir], /., odor, odieux, -se [odjo, — 0:z], odious, ceil, pi. yeux [ce:j, jo], m., eye. oeillet [oeje], m., carnation, pink, offrir [ofri:r], irr., see couvrir, to offer oiseau [wazo], m., bird. Olivier de Serres [olivje da se:r], 01i\-er de Serres, adviser of Henry IV. ombre [3:br], /., shade. ombreux [obro], shady. on [3], one, someone, they, folks, people, we, you, men. § 85. oncle [oikl], m., uncle. ont [3], see avoir. onze [3:z], eleven. opinion [opinj5], /., opinion. or [oir], m., gold. or [o:r], now. oraison [orez5], /., oration. orange [orais], /., orange. ordinaire [ordineir], ordinary; d' — , usually. ordonner [ordone], to order, com- mand. ordre [ordr], m., order. oreille [ore:j], /., ear. organiser [organize], to organize. orgueil [orgoeij], m., pride. Orion [orjo], m., Orion, name of a constellation and of a ship. oser [oze], to dare {in negative, ne . . . often without pas). ou [u], or; — ... — , either ... or. oh [u], where, in which, at which, when; d'— , whence. oublier [ublie], to forget. otii [wi], yes. Guir [wi:r], to hear, used in in- finitive and past participle only. outil [uti], m., tool, instrument. ouvert [uve:r], (ouvrir), open; grand — , wide open. ouvrier [uvrie], 7n., workman, laborer. ouvrir [uvriir], irr., see couvrir, to open. page [pa:3], /., page. Paget [pa38], m., Paget, pain [pe], m., bread. paille [pa:j], /., straw. paire [pe:r], /., pair. paix [pe], /., peace. palais [pale], m., palace, pale [pa:l], pale. 228 VOCABULARY palir [paliir], to grcfw pale. pantalon [patalo], m., trousers. papier [papje], m., paper. par [par], ijy, through, on, per. paraitre [pareitr], irr., see con- naitre, to appear, seem. parapluie [parapkp], m., um- brella. parce que [parsaka], because. parcourir [parkuriir], to run along, run over. pardon [pardo], m., pardon. pardonner [pardone] (a), to for- give, pardon. pareil, -le Jpareij], similar, like, equal, the same. parent [para], m., relative, parent. paresseux, -se [pareso, -0:z], lazy, idle. parfait [parfe], perfect; — ement, perfectly, completely. parfum [parfde], m., perfume. parfumer [parfyme], to perfume. Paris [pari], to., Paris. parlement [parlama], m., parlia- ment. parler [parle], to speak. parole [parol], /., speech. part [pair], /., part, share. parti [parti], to., part, side, party, match; prendre un — , to make a decision. participe [partisip], m., partici- ple. partie [parti], /., part, portion. partir [partiir], irr., see dormir, to set out, leave. partout [partu], everywhere. parvenir [parvaniir], irr., see venir, to arrive, succeed; par- venu a, having reached. pas [pa], TO., step, pace. pas [pa], no, not; ne . . . — , not. Pascal [paskal], /«., Pascal. passage [pasa:3], m way; au — , as he passed. passe [pase], to., past. passer [pase], to pass; se — , to do without; — et re — , to go back and forth. patience [pasjais], /., patience. patiner [pat ine], to skate. patrie [patri], /., native land, fatherland, patriote [patriot], patriotic, patron [patro], m., employer, master. Paul [pjl], TO., Paul, pauvre [poivr], poor, payer [peje], to pay, pay for; — quelque chose deux sous a quelqu'un, to pay someone two cents for something. pays [pei], to., country, place; Pays-Bas, Low Countries, Holland and Belgium. paysan, -ne [peiza, peizan], m., /., peasant. peau [po], /., skin. peche [pei'j;], /., fishing; la — aux truites, trout-fishing. pecher [pc^e], to fish, catch, pecheresse [pe^rcs], /., sinner. pecheur [pe^ceir], m., sinner. peine [pen], /., pain, trouble; a — , scarcely. peintre [pe:tr], m., painter. peler [pole], to peel. penchant [pa^a], m., tendency. pencher [pa^e], to lean. pendant [pada], during; — que, while. pendre [paidr], to hang, hang down. penser [pase], to think, imagine; — a, to think of. perce-neige [persneis], /., snow- drop. FRENCH-ENGLISH 229 perdre [perdr], to lose. perdrix [perclri], /., partridge. pere [pe:r], m., father. perir [periir], to perish. pennettre [permetr], irr., see mettre, to permit. permission [permisjo], /., per- mission. Perrault [pero], m., Perrauk. persecuteur, -trice [persekytoeir, -tris], persecutor. persomie [person], /., person; pron., ne . . . — , m., no one, nobod}'. persuader [perswade], to per- suade, convince. peser [paze], to weigli. petit [pati], small; fils, grand- son. peu [po], little. peuple [poepl], vi., people, nation. peur [pa?ir], /., fear; avoir — , to be afraid; de — , for fear. peut-etre [pceteitr], perhaps, maj'-be. phrase [fra:z], /., sentence. Philippe le Beau [filip b bo], Pliilip the Fair. philosophe [fibsof], m., philoso- pher. Pie [pi], Pius, name of pope. piece [pjes], /., piece (of money, cloth, etc.). pied [pje], m., foot. pierre [pjeir], /., stone. Pierre [pje:r], >n., Peter. pire [pi:r], adj., worse; le — , worst. pis [pi], adu., worse; le — , worst. pitie [pitje], /., pity. pivoine [pi\'wan],/., peony. place [plas], /., place, square. placer [plase], to place. plage [pla:5], /., beach, shore. plaindre [pleidr], to pity; se — , to complain. plaine [plcn], /., plain. plainte [ple:t], /., complaint. plaire [plc:r], irr., to please; — ■ a Jean, to please John; cela me plait, I lilce that. plaisir [pleziir], ///., pleasure; avec — , gladly; faire un — , to do a favor, planter [plute], to plant, plein [pie], full, pleiu-er [plcere], to weep, pleuvoir [plcevwair], irr., to rain, plisser [plise], to fold, pleat, plomb [plo], m., lead, plonger [plo5e], to plunge, dive, pluie [plqi], /., rain. plume [plym], /., pen, feather. plupart [plypair], /., most; la — des hormnes, most men. plus [ply], more; u-Uh negation, no more, no longer; — de temps, no more time; le — , the more, the most. plusieurs [plusjojir], several, poche [poS], /•, pocket; la — ■ pleine, with a full pocket. poete [poe:t], /«., poet. poids [pwa], m., weight; vendre au — , to sell by weight. poll [pwal], m., hair, poinfonner [pwesone], to punch. point [pwe], m., dot, point; ne . . . — , not, not at all. pointe [pwe:t], /., point, tip, end. poire [pwa:r], /., pear. poison [pwazo], m., poison. Poitiers [pwatje], /«., Poitiers, poix [pwa], /., pitch, wax. poll [poli], polite, polished. polir [poli:r], to polish, smooth. pomme [pom], /., apple; — (de terre), potato. 230 VOCABULARY pommier [ponije], m., apple-tree, ponceau [p5so], m., bright red. porcelaine [porsalen], /., porce- laine, china. porte [port], /., door, gate; — de sortie, exit. porter [porte], to carry, bear, wear. Portugal [portygal], m., Portugal, posseder [posede], to possess. poste [post], /., post-office. pot [po], m., pot, kettle. poudreux [pudro], dusty. poule [pul], /., hen. poulet, -te [pule, -et], ?«., /., chicken. poumon [pumo], m., lung. poupee [pupe], /., doll. pour [pu(:)r], for, in order to; — ■ que, in order that, so that. pourpre [purpr], m., purple, poiirquoi [purkwa], why? pourtant [purta], still, neverthe- less, yet. pourvoir [purvwa:r], irr., to pro- vide. potu-vii que [purvy ka], provided that, only let! pousser [puse], to push, urge, utter. poussiere [pusjeir], /., dust. Poussin [puse], m., Poussin. pouvoir [puvwair], m., power, pouvoir [puvwa:r], irr., to be able, can, may. pre [pre], /«., meadow. precaution [prekosjo], /., pre- caution, care. precis [presi], e.xact, precise, precisement [presizema], pre- cisely. preference [preferais], /., prefer- ence. preferer [prefere], to prefer. prelude [prelyd], m., prelude, premier, -ere [promje, -e:r], first. prendre [pra:dr], to take, seize, catch; — a temoin, to appeal. preparatif [preparatif], ni., prep- aration. preposition [prepozisjo], /., prep- osition. pres [pre], near; — de, near to; a peu — , nearly, about, present [preza], present. presentement [prezatma], at present. presenter [prezate], present, of- fer, hand; se — , to appear, presque [presk], almost, presse [pres], /., press. presser [prese], to hurry, pret [pre], ready. pretendre [preta:dr], to aspire, claim. preter [prete], to lend, pretre [pre:tr], m., priest. prevenir [pre\Tii:r], irr., see tenir, to warn, give notice in advance. prier [prie], to pray, beg. priere [prie:r], /., prayer. prince [pre:s], m., prince, princesse [preses], /., princess. principal [presipal], principal, chief. printemps [preta], )n., spring. pris [pri], see prendre, prise [pri:z], /., capture, prison [prizo], /., prison. prisonnier, -ere [prizonje, -e:r], m., /., prisoner. prive [prive], private. privilege [privile:5], m., privilege, prix [pri], m., price, prize; a tout — , at any cost. professeur [profesoerr], m., teach- er, professor. FRENCH-ENGLISH 231 profession [profesjS], /., profes- sion. profond [profo], deep. profondeur [prof 5doe:r], /., depth. progres [progre], m., progress. promenade [promnad], /., walk, trip. promener [promane], to take about; se — , to walk, go about (for pleasure); — ■ en voiture, — en bateau, etc. promettre [pr.jmetr], irr., see mettre, to promise. pronom [prono], m,., pronoun. prononcer [pronose], to pro- nounce. proprete [proprate], /., neatness, cleanliness. propriete [propriete],/., property, estate. prose [pro:z], /., prose. protecteur [protektoeir], m., pro- tector. proteger [protese], to protect. Provence [provais], /., Provence, province of southern France. province [proveis], /., province. prudenunent [prydama], pru- dently. prudent [pryda], prudent. Prusse [prys], /., Prussia. Prussien [prysje], m., Prus- sian. public, -que [pyblik], public. ptiis [pqi], then, next, after- ward. puisque [pqiska], since. puissance [pqisais], /., power. puissant [pqisa], powerful. punir [pyni:r], to punish. punition [pynisjo], /., punish- ment. pupitre [pypitr], ?n., slant-top desk, pupil's desk. quand [ka], when. quant a [kata], as for. quarante [karciit], forty. quart [kair], vi., quarter. quatorze [katorz], fourteen. quatre [katr], four. quatre-vingts [katrave], eighty. que [ko], pron., whom, which, that, what. §§ 73, 80, 81. que [ka], conj., that, than, as; with subj., let; {replaces other conjunctions in a following co-ordinate clause). §§ 133, 228. que [ka], adv., how, what, how much, why; ne . . . — , only, but. §§ 201, 229. quel, -le [kel], what, which; who; what a. quelconque [kelkoik], whatever, whatsoever. quelque [kelk], some; pi., a few; — ... que, whatever, how- ever (ivith subjunctive). quelque chose [kelko^oiz], 7n., something. quelquefois [kelkafwa], some- times. quelqu'un, quelques-uns [kelkoe, kelkazde], someone, some, a few. question [kestjo], /., question. qui [ki], who, which, that whom; a — , whose; ce — , what; — que, whoever. Quint (Charles) [^arl ke], Charles V (of Spain). quinze [ke:z], fifteen; — jours, a fortnight. quitter [kite], to leave. quoi [kwa], what, which; de — , whereof, wherewith; il n'y a 23: VOCABULARY pas de — , you are welcome, don't mention it; — que, whatever. quoique [kwako], although. Racine [rasin], /»., Racine. rafraichir [rafre^iir], 1o refresh. rage [ra:5],/., madness, fury. raisonner [rezone], to reason, argue, object. ramener [ramne], to bring back. ranfon [ras.i], /., ransom. rang [rci], in., rank. ranger [rose], to draw u{), place, seat, arrange. rapidement [rapidma], rapidly. rappeler [raple], to call back; se — , to remember. rebondissement [rgbodismci], m., leap. recemment [resama], recently. recent [resa], recent. recevoir [rasavwair], irr., to re- ceive. recit [resi], m., story. reciter [resite], to recite. recommencer [rakomase], to be- gin again, repeat. recompense [rckopais],/., reward. reconnaitre [rgkoneitr], irr., see connaitre, to recognize. redescendre [radesa:dr], to go down again. redevance [rodavdis], /., dues, taxes. redingote [radcgot], /., frock-coat. redoutable [radutabl], dreadful, formidable. reduire [redqiir], irr., see con- duire, to reduce. reflechi [refle^i], thoughtful. refiechir [retle$i:r], to reflect. reflexion [refleksja],/., reflection. reforme [reform], /., reform. refuser [rofyze], to refuse. regard [ragair], m., look, eye. regarder [ragairde], to watch, look, look at; cela ne vous regarde pas, that does not concern you. regiment [re3ima], m., regiment. regie [rt-rgl], /., ruler, rule; ex- ample. reglement [reglama], )n., regula- tion. regne [reji], m., reign. regretter [ragrete], to regret, feel sorry. reine [rcn], /., queen. rejaillissement [rasajisma], m., spurt. reluire [ralyiir], irr., see nuire, to glitter. remarquable [ramarkabl], re- markable. remarquer [ramarke], to notice. remede [ramed], /., remedy. remercier [ramersje], to thank. remettre [rametr], irr., see mettre, to give up, put back, hand, re- cover, postpone. remonter [ramote], to raise, roll up, wind up; to go up (again). remplacer [raplase], to replace, take the place of. remporter [raporte], to carry off, win. remuer [ramqe], to move, stir. rendre [ra:dr], to make, render; give back; restore; se — , to go. rentrer [rntre], to re-enter, re- turn. renvoyer [ravwaje], irr., .see en- voyer, to send back, send away. reparer [repare], to repair, make amends for. FRENCH-ENGLISH 233 repasser [rapase], to pass again; to iron. repeter [repete], to repeat. repondre [repoidr], to reply, re- spond, answer. reponse [rep5:s], /., reply. reposer (se) [sa rgpoze], to rest. repousser [rapuse], to repulse. reprendre [rapraidr], irr., see prendre, to take back, resume. representer [raprezate], to rep- resent . reprimander [reprimade], to re- prove, reprimand. reproche [rapro^], /., reproach. reprocher [rapro^e], to reproach. republique [repyblik],/., republic. requisition [rekizisjo], /., requisi- tion. resistance [rezistais], /., resis- tance. resister [reziste], to resist. resolument [resolyma], resolutely. resoudre [rezudr], irr., to re- solve. respectable [respektabl], respec- table. respecter [respekte], to respect. respirer [respire], to breathe. ressemblance [rasdblais], /., re- semblance. reste [rest], m., rest; du — , moreover. raster [reste], to remain, stay. retabli [retabli], well again. retard [rata:r], m., delay; en — , late. retenir [ratniir], irr., see tenir, to retain, delay, keep. retoumer [raturne], to turn around. retraite [ratret], /., retreat. retrouver [ratruve], to find (again). reunion [reynjo], /., union, meet- ing, assembly. reunir [reyniir], to assemble, col- lect. reussir [reysiir], to succeed. revenir [ra\Tii:r], irr., see tenir, to come back, recover. revolter (se) [sa revoke], to rebel. revolution [revolysj5], /., revolu- tion. Rheims [re:s], m., Rheims; city where the kings of France were c^o^^led. Rhin [re], m., Rhine. riche [ri^j, rich. Richelieu [ri^ljo], m., (Cardinal) Richelieu. rien [rje], anything; ne . . . — , nothing; — ! nothing! Rippert [ripeir], Rippert; le pre — , Rippert's meadow. rire [ri:r], ?«., laughter. rire [ri:r], irr., to laugh. risque [risk], m., risk, danger. risquer [riske], to risk, venture. robe [rob], /., dress, gown, robe. Robespierre [robaspjeir], m., Robespierre. roche [ro^], /., stone, mass of stone. rocher [ro$e], m., rock, cliff, boulder. roi [rwa], rn., king. Remain [rome], m., Roman. reman [roma], m., romance, novel. Rome [rom], /., Rome. rompre [ro:pr], to break, tear. rend [ro], round. rende [ro:d], /., round, round hand. rose [ro:z], /., rose. roucouler [rukule], to coo. Rouen [rwu], Rouen. 234 VOCABULARY rouge [ru:3], red; vetu de — , dressed in red. rougir [ru3i:r], to grow red, blush, make red. Roussillon [rusijo], m., Roussil- lon, province of Southern France. route [rut], /., road, way; en — ! start! royal [rwayal], royal, royaume [rwajo:m], m., kingdom, nie [ry], /., street. miner [rqine], to ruin, ruse [ryze], cunning, tricky. russe [rys], Russian. Russie [rysi], /., Russia, rustique [rystik], rustic. sacrer [sakre], to anoint, conse- crate. sage [sa:3], wise, good. saint [se], holy. Sainte-Helene [seitelen], St. Helena, island west of Africa. saisir [sEziir], to seize, catch. salle [sal],/., hall, large room; — a manger, dining-room; — d'attente, waiting-room. samedi [samdi], vi., Saturday. sang [sa], m., blood; froid, m., coolness. sanglant [sugla], bloody. sans [sa], without; — que, conj., without. sante [sate], /., health. Sarre [sar], /., Sarre (river). satire [sati:r], /., satire. satisfait [satisfe], satisfied, con- tented. sauter [sote], to jump, leap. sauver [sove], to save; se — , to run away, escape. savant [sava], m., scholar, learned man, scientist. savoir [savwa:r], m., knowledge, wisdom. savoir [savwair], irr., to know, be able; je ne saurais vous le dire, I can't tell you; il le sut trop tard, he learned it too late; — gre, to be grateful. Saxe [saks], /., Saxony. scandaleux, -se [skadalo, -oiz], scandalous. scelerat [sclera], m., villain. scierie [siri], /., saw-mill. sculpteiu- [skyltoeir], m., sculp- tor. se [sa], himself, herself, itself, themselves, oneself. sec, seche [sek, se^], dry. sechement [se^ma], dryly. second [sogo], second. seconde [sago:d], /., second. secours [sakuir], m., help, aid. secret, -ete [sakre, -kret], secret. seigneur [sejioeir], m., lord. seize [.seiz], sixteen. selon [sals], according to. semaine [samen], /., week. sembler [scible], to seem, appear; ce me semble, it seems to me, I think. semer [same], to sow, plant. sentier [satje], m., path. sentiment [satimu], nt., senti- ment, feeling. sentir [sdti:r], irr., see dormir, to feel, smell; — bon, to smell sweet. separer [separe], to separate; se — , to adjourn. sept [set], seven. septembre [septa :br], jn., Sep- tember. serai [sare], see etre. FRENCH-ENGLISH 235 sergent de ville [sersa da vil], m., policeman. serieux [serjo], serious, severe. sermon [sermS], m., sermon, serrer [sere], to press, clasp; serre, steady, regular, servante [servait], /., servant. service [servis], m., service, servir [serviir], to serve; se — de, to use. serviteur [servitoerr], m., servant. seiiil [soe:j], w., sill, threshold, seul [sceI], single, sole, only, alone. seulement [soelma], only, severe [seveir], stern. si [si], if, whether, si [si], so; yes; — fait, yes indeed; — bien que, so "that. siecle [sjekl], m., century. sien [sje], his, hers, sieste [sjest], /., nap, siesta. siffler [sifie], to whistle. signe [siji], m., sign. signer [sijie], to sign. silence [silais], m., silence, silencieux [silasjoe], silent. Simon [simo], m., Simon. sincerite [seserite], /., sincerity, singe [se:3], w?., monkey, six [sis], six. societe [sosjete], /., company, society. sceur [soeir], /., sister. soi [swa], oneself, himself, soie [swa], /., silk, soif [swaf], /., thirst; avoir — , to be thirsty. soir [swa:r], m., evening, sois [swa], see etre. soit [swa]; — ... — , either . . . or; ainsi — il! so be it!; see etre. soixante [swasa:t], sixty. soldat [solda], m., soldier, soleil [soleij], m., sun. solennel [solanel], solemn, solide [solid], strong. Soliman [solima], m., Soliman. sollicitude [solisityd], /., tender interest, solicitude. somme [sam], /., sum; en — , in short. sommer [some], to summon, call upon, sommes [som], see etre. son, sa, ses [so, sa, se], his, her, its. songer [sose], to think, dream, meditate. sent [so], see etre. sorte [sort], /., sort, kind; de — que, so that. sortie [sorti], /., exit. sortir [sorti:r], irr., see dormir, to go out. sot, -te [so, sot], silly, foolish. sou [su], m., cent, penny. souflfrance [sufrdis], /., suffering. souffrir [sufriir], irr., see courir, to suffer. souhaiter [swete], to wish. soulever (se) , [sa sulve] to arise. Soulier [sulje], m., shoe. soumettre [sumetr], irr., see mettre, to submit. soupfonneux, -se [supsono, -0:z], suspicious. source [surs], /., spring, brook, sourd [su:r], deaf. sourd-muet [surmqe], deaf and dumb. sourire [siiriir], irr., see rire, to smile. souris [suri], /., mouse, sous [su], under, •soutenir [sutniir], irr., see tenir, to sustain, maintain. 236 VOCABULARY souvenir [suvniir], se — de, to remember. sou vent [suva], often. souverain [suvrt], m., sovereign, souverainete [suvrente], /., sov- ereignty. soyez [swaje], see etre. special [spesjal], special, store [stjir], 7n., window shade, curtain (to roll on fixture). studieux, -se [stydjo, -0:z], studious. succeder- [syk.sede], to succeed, follow. successeur [syksesa?:r], m., suc- cessor. successivement [sykscsivmci], successively, in turn. Sucre [sykr], ?n., sugar. suffire [syfi:r], irr., to be enough. sufiisamment [syfizama], suf- ficiently. Suisse [sqis], Swiss. Suisse [sqisj, /., Switzerland. Suissesse [sqLses], /., Swiss girl, suite [sqit],/., successive; tout de — , at once, immediately; a sa — , after him or her. suivant [sijivd], following, ac- cording to. suivre [sqiivr], irr., to follow, sujet [syse], vi., subject. Sully [syli], m., Sully, minister of Henry IV. sultan [sjdtu], m., sultan, superieur [syperjoeir], superior, upper. supplier [sj^pUe], to beseech, supprimer [syprime], to suppress. sur [sy:r], sure. sur [syr], on, upon, by, about, in. §219. surprendre [syrpra:dr], irr., se& prendre, to surprise. surtout [syrtu], especially, suspendre [syspa:dr], to suspend, hang; suspendu, hanging. syllabe [silab], /., syllable. table [table], /., table. tableau [tablo], m., picture; — (noir), blackboard. tacher ita:|Je], to try. taire [te:r], irr.; se — , to keep silent. talon [talo], m., heel; toumer les — s, to face about, tandis que [tadi(s) kg], while, tant [ta], so much, so many; — que, as long as. tante [ta:t], /., aunt. tapage [tapa:3], m., noise, racket, tumult. taper [tape], to hit, pound, strike, tap. tapis [tapi], m., carpet, table- cloth, tapestry. tard [ta:r], late. tasse [ta:s], /., cup. taureau [toro], 7n., bull, te [ta], thee, you, to thee, to you, for thee, for you. tel, -le [tel], such, like; M. un — , Mr. So and So; — quel, just as Jtis. §89/. temoin [temwe], m., witness; prendre a — , to appeal, call someone to witness. temps [ta], m., time, weather; quel — fait-il, what sort of weather is it; faire beau — , to be fine weather. tenir [taniir], irr., to hold; — a, to insist on, depend on; tenez! here!; se — debout, to stand; — de, to take after. FRENCH-ENGLISH 237 tenter [tate], to tempt, terre [te:r], /., ground, earth; s'asseoir a — , to sit on the ground. terrexir [tera^ir], /., terror; La Terreur, the Reign of Terror, terrible [terribl], terrible, fear- ful. territoire [teritwair], m., terri- tory. tete [teit], /., head. the [te], m., tea. tien [tjc], thine, yours, tiers, tierce [tjc:r, tjcrs], third, tige [ti:3], /., stem, trunk, stalk, tigre, -sse [tigr, -gres], tiger. titer [tire], to draw, fire. tiroir [tirwa:r], rn., drawer, titre [titr], to., title, toi [twa], thee, you, to thee, for thee, to you, for you. toit [twa], m., roof. toiture [twatyir], J., roof, entire roof, including gables, etc. tomber [t5be], to fall; conj., xvith etre. ton, ta, tes [t5, ta, te], thy, your. tordre [tordr], to twist. tort [to:r], m., wrong. t6t [to], soon. toucher [tu^e], to touch; — a, to touch, reach, interfere with, injure. toujours [tu3u:r], always, still. Toulon [tulo], m., Toulon, city of Southern France, toupie [tupi], /., top. tour [tu:r], /., tower. tour [tu:r], m., turn, stroll, trip. toumer [turne], to turn, twist. tout, m. pi. tous [tu, tu(s)], all, any, every, quite, everything; — le monde, everyone; — e la ville, the whole city; tous les jours, every day; — a fait, completely; — a I'heure, soon, recently; — a coup, suddenly; rien du — , nothing at all. § m- toux [tu], /., cough. tracer [trase], to trace, draw. traduire [tradqiir], irr., see con- duire, to translate. tragedie [trasedi], /., tragedy. train [tre], rn., train; confusion, uproar; en — de, in the act of. trait [tre], hi., arrow, shaft. trajet [trase], to., trip, distance, tranquille [trakil], quiet, peace- ful, tranquil, travail [travciij], 7n., work; pi. travaux, labors. travailler [travaje], to work, toil, labor, study. travers [traveir], m., width; a — , across; en — de, across. traverser [traverse], to pass through, pass over. treize [tre:z], thirteen, trembler [trable], to tremble, trente [trait], thirty. tribu [triby], /., tribe. tricorne [trikorn], ?/;., cocked hat, three-cornered hat. tringle [treigi], /., rod, frame, triomphe [trijif], m., triumph, triste [trist], sad. trois [trwa], three. troisieme [trwasjem], third. tromper [trope], to deceive; se — , to mistake. trompette [tropet], /., trumpet; m., trumpeter. trompeur, -euse [tropoeir, -o:z], deceptive. trop [tr,i], too, too much, trottiner [trotine], to trot. trouble [trubl], to., confusion. . 238 VOCABULARY troupe [trup], /., band, troop, troupeau [trupo], 7n., flock, herd, trouver [truve], to find, think; se — , to be. truite [trqit], /., trout, tsar, tsarine [tsa:r, tsarin], tsar, tsarine. tu [ty], thou, you {to a child, an intimate friend, or an animal) . tuer [tqe], to kill. tuilerie [tt[ilori], /., tile-works; Les Tuileries,Tuileries Palace. turc, turque [tyrk], Turkish. U un, une [ce, yn], one, a, an; 1' — et I'autre, both; 1' — ou I'autre, either. § 88. unique [ynik], only. usage [yzaij], m., use, wear. utile [ytil], useful. va [va], see aller; — pour N., I'll take N.; N. will do. vache [va^], /., cow. vaillanunent [vajama], bravely, valiantly. vaillant [vaja], valiant, brave. vaincre [ve:kr], irr., to vanquish, conquer. vainqueur [vekoeir], m., victor, conqueror. vais [ve], see aller. vaisseau [veso], m., vessel, man- of-war. vallee [vale], /., valley. valoir [valwair], irr., to be worth; — bien, to be as good as; — mieux, to be better; autant vaut, as well. vanter [vote], to praise; se — , to boast, brag. Vaud [vo], m., Vaud, Swiss can- ton, capital Lausanne, vautrer [votre], to wallow, roll, vehement [veenid], vehement; — ement, vehemently. vendeur, -se [vcidtvir, -oiz], seller, vender. vendre [va:dr], to sell; vendu, bribed. vendredi [vadrodi], m., Friday. venir [vaniir], irr., see tenir, to come; — faire, to come and do; — a faire, to happen to do; — de faire, to have just done, vent [vci], m., wind, ver [vsir], m., worm; — a sole, silk-worm. verbe [verb], m., verb. verdure [verdy:r], /., verdure, vergue [verg], /., yard. verite [verite], /., truth. vermeil, -le [v8rme:j], vermilion, bright red. verre [ve:r], m., glass. vers [veir], m., verse. vers [veir], toward. Versailles [versa: j], /., Versailles, verser [verse], to turn out, pour out. vert [ve:r], green, vertigineux, -se [vertisino, -0:z], dizzy, giddy. vertu [verty], /., virtue, valor, vestale [vestal], /., vestal, virgin, veste [vest],/., jacket, short coat. vetir [vet i:r], irr., to clothe, dress. veuf [va'f], m., widower. veuillez [vocje], see vouloir, please, have the kindness to. veuve [voe:v], /., widow. veux [vo], see vouloir. viande [vja:d], /., meat. FRENCH-ENGLISH 239 victoire [viktwair], /., victory. vide [vid], empty, unoccupied, void. vie [vi], /., life. vieil [vJ8:j], see vieux. vieillesse [vjejes], /., old age. vieillir [vjei:r], to grow old. vieux, vieil, vieille [vjo, vje:j], old, aged. vif, -ve [vif, vi:v], lively, quick. vilain [vile], homely. village [vilais], /«., village. ville [vil], /., city, town. vin [ve], m., wine. vingt [ve], twenty. vint [ve], see venir. vis [vis], /., screw. vis-a-vis [vizavi] ; — de, opposite. visage [vizais], m., face. visite [vizit], /., visit; faire — a, to visit, pay a visit to. vite [vit], fast, quickly. vivement [vivma], quickly, vigor- ously. vivre [vi:\T], irr., to live; vive le roi! long live the king; vive Henri! hurrah for Henry! qui vive? who goes there? {sentry's challenge). voici [vwasi], see here, here is, here are, this is. voila [vwala], behold, see there, there is (are), that is (are); — quinze ans, for fifteen years. voir [\T\'a:r], irr., to see; faire — , to show; se — , to be seen, occur. voisin [vwaze], m., neighbor. voisin [vwaze], adj., neighboring. voiture [vwaty:r], /., carriage. voix [vwa], /., voice; a haute — , aloud. vol [v.il], /?;., flight; au — , on the fly- volet [vole], tn., wooden shutter, blind. voleur [voloeir], m., thief. volonte [volote], /., will. volontiers [volotje], willingly, gladly. volte-face [voltfas], /.; faire — , to turn about. vont [v5], see aller. voter [vote], to vote. votre, pi. vos [votr, vo], your. votre [vo:tr], yours. vouloir [vulwair], irr., to will, wish, try; — bien, to be will- ing; — dire, to mean; en — a, to be vexed with. vous [vu], you. voyage [vwajais], m., journey. voyageur [i-wajasoeir], m., trav- eler, passenger. vrai [vre], true; — ment, truly. vu [vy], see voir. vue [vy], /., sight. W Wachter [va^teir], Wachter, y [i], there, to it, at it, in it, of it; il — a, there is, there are. yeux [jo], pi. of ceil. VOCABULARY ENGLISH-FRENCH a, an, un; — franc — dozen, un franc la douzaine. abbot, abbe, m. able, capable; be —, pouvoir. abolish, abolir. abominable, abominable. about, de, autour de, environ, sur; — it, en; set — , se mettre a. absent, absent. absolute, absolu. abuse, abuser. abyss, gouffre, m., abime, m. accept, accepter. according to, selon. account ; on — of, a cause de. accurse, maudire. acquaintance, connaissance, /. across, a travers. act, acte, m. act, agir. add, ajouter. admirable, admirable, admire, admirer. advice, avis, m., conseil, m. advise, conseiller. affectionate, affectueux, affec- tionne. afraid; to be — (of), avoir peur (de), craindre; — of, effraye de; to be much — { = to be in great fear), avoir grand'- peur. after, prep, and adv., apres. after, conj., apres que. again, encore, encore une fois, de nouveau. against, centre. Agincourt, Azincourt, m. ago, il y a; two months — , il y a deux mois. agony, angoisse, /. aid, aide, /., secours, m., assist- ance, /. aid, aider, secourir, assister. air, air, m. all, tout; not at — , pas du tout; — at once, tout d'un coup, tout a coup. allow, laisser, permettre. almost, presque. aloud, haut, a haute voix. already, deja. Alsatia, Alsace, /. also, au.ssi. although, bien que, quoique. altitude, altitude, /. always, toujours. amid, au milieu, among, parmi, entre, chez. amphitheater, cirque, m. ancient, ancien, antique. and, et; to go — visit, aller visiter. angry, irrite, fache, furieux. animal, animal, m. another, un autre, une autre; one — , I'un I'autre. 240 ENGLISH-I^RENCH 241 answer, reponse, /. answer, repondre. anxiety, sollicitude, /. any, de+def. art.,de; en; aucun, quelconque, tout; — thing {with neg.), rien; — one (mth neg.), personne. anyone, quelqu' un. anything, quelque chose, m., not — , ne . . . rien. appeal (to), invoquer. appear, paraitre, sembler, com- paraitre. apple, pomme, /. apple-tree, pommier, m. apply, appliquer; — oneself, s'appliquer. apprentice, apprenti, m. approach, approche, /. approach, approcher, s'appro- cher de. approval, approbation, /. archbishop, archeveque, m. army, armee, /. around, autour de. arrest, arreter, saisir. arrival, arrivee, /. artist, artiste, m. as, comme; aussi, si; pendant que, en; — . . . — , aussi . . . que; — long — , tant que; — soon — , aussi tot que; — if, comme si; — well — , aussi bien que; — to, quant a. ascent, ascension, /. ask, demander, prier; — '- for, demander; — ■ oneself, se de- mander; — (a question), faire, poser. asleep, endormi; be — , etre en- dormi, dormir; fall — -, s'en- dormir. assembly, assemblee, /. assistance, secours, m. assume, assumer, prendre siir soi, s'arroger, se faire. astonish, etonner, surprendre. at, a, chez, de; — the house of, chez; — home, chez moi, chez toi, etc.; — my house, cliez moi; — oiu- house, chez nous. attention, attention, /.; pay — , give — , faire attention. attentive, attentif. aunt, tante, /. Austria, Autriche, /. Austrian, Autrichien, m. author, ecrivain, m., auteur, m. avoid, eviter. awake, tr., eveiller, reveiller; inlr., s'eveiller, se reveiller. B back, dos, m.; at the — of, au fond de; give — , rendre; come — , revenir; go — , re- toumer. bad, mauvais, mechant. balance, equilibre, m. ball, balle, /., boule, /., pe- lote, /. bank, banque, /. bankrupt; to be — , faire ban- queroute. bar, barrer. barbarian, barbare, m. bark, aboyer. barking, aboiement, m. BastUe, Bastille, /. battle, bataille, /. be, etre, y avoir, se trouver; — about to, aller; — (0/ health), se porter, aller; — bom, naitre; — {of weather), faire; ^ {of age), avoir; — {of time), y avoir; — afraid, avoir peur. beat, battre. 242 VOCABULARY beautiful, beau. beauty, beaute, /. because, parce que. become, devenir, se faire; — { = suit), seoir, aller. bed, lit, 7n. before, prep., avant (of time); devant (of place); avant de + infiri. before, conj., avant que. before, adv., auparavant. beg, prier. begin, commencer, se mettre a. beginning, commencement, m. behind, derriere. believe, croire; it is believed, on croit. bench, banc, m. Berlin, Berlin, rn. berry, bale,/.; pi., petits fruits, best, adj., le meilleiu-. best, adv., le mieux. better, adj., meilleiu". better, adv., mieux; be — { = be worth ?tiore), valoir mieux; be — {of health), se porter mieux, aller mieux; like — { = prefer), aimer mieux. between, entre. big, gros. bind, lier, obliger; relier. bird, oiseau, m. bishop, 6veque, m. black, noir. blackbird, merle, m. blacksmith, forgeron, m. blame, blame, m.; to be to — , etre en faute. blame, blamer, reprendre. blond, blonde, /. bloom, fleurir. blue, bleu. board, tableau, m. boat, bateau, m., barque, /. body, corps, m. book, livre, ??i. bom ; to be — , naitre. both, tous (les) deux, I'un et I'autre; — ... and, et . . . et. bound; to be — { = to in.'iist on), tenir a; — {of books) relie. bower, berceau de verdure, m., salle de verdure, /. bowl, jatte, /. box, boite, /. boy, enfant, m., gargon, m. bread, pain, 7n. break, casser, rompre; — out, eclater; — off, casser, oter; — up, se dissoudre; — in, enf on- cer. breath, souffle, m.; out of — , essouffle. breathe, respirer. bribe ; to take a — , se vendre. bright, clair. bring, apporter; { = carry) trans- porter; { = lead) amener; — back, ramener; — down, des- cendre; — up { = rear), elever. brother, frere, tn. bnmette, brunette, /. build, construire, batir. bulletin-board, grillage aux af- fiches, m. bum, brdler. burst out, eclater; — laughing, Eclater de rire. business, metier, commerce, m.; affaires, /. pi. busy, occupe, en train de. but, mais; nothing — , ne . . . rien . . . que; — few, ne . . . guere. butter, beurre, to. buy, acheter. by, par, de, sur, a, en; go — , - sight, de vue. ENGLISH-FRENCH 243 Calais, Calais, m. caldron, chaudron, rn. call, appeler; faire venir; be — ed, s'appeler. calm, calme, ?«. calm, calme, tranquille. calm, calmer; become — , se calmer, s'apaiser. can, pouvoir, savoir. canton, canton, m. cap, casquette, /., bonnet, m., chapeau, m. capture, prendre. cardinal, cardinal, m. care; take — , prendre garde; — for, soigner; take — of, avoir soin de. carefully, soigneusement, avec soin. carnation, oeillet, m. carriage, voiture, /. carry, porter; — off, emporter. cascade, cascade, /. cat, chat, m. catch, attraper, saisir, prendre. celebrated, celebre. cent, sou, to. certain, certain. chair, chaise, /. chalk, craie, /. change, changer, changer de. chant, chanter. cheese, fromage, 7n. cherry-tree, cerisier, to. child, enfant, to. and f. choose, choisir. Christmas, Noel, to. citizen, citoyen, to., bourgeois, TO. city, ville, /. ; in the — , a la ville, en ville. civil, civil. clasp, embrasser. class, classe, /. clean, nettoyer. clear, clair, net, leger. clergy, clerge, m. climb, grimper. close, clos, f erme ; — to, pres de. close, fermer, clore. clothes, vetements, habits, ?m. pi. coast, cote, /. coffee, cafe, to. cold, froid; be — {of living be- ings), avoir froid; be — (of weather), faire froid; catch (a) — , s'enrhumer. colonnade, colonnade, /. color, couleur, /., teint, m. come, venir, arriver; — • back, revenir; — again, revenir; — to see, — and see, venir voir; — down, descendre; — up, monter; — • in, entrer; — out, sortir; — ! voyons! allons! comedy, comedie, /. command, commandement, to. command, commander. comedy, comedie, /. company, compagnie, /. compose, composer. comrade, camarade, to. condemn, condamner. condition, condition, /. conduct, conduite, /. conduct, conduire, mener. confidence, confiance, /. confident, assure. conquer, vaincre, conquerir. conqueror, vainqueur, to,. conscientiously, consciencieuse- ment. constitution, constitution, /. construct, construire, batir. convention, assemblee, /., con- vention, /. 244 VOCABULARY convict, format, m. cool, frais; it is — , il fait frais. coolness, fraicheur, /. ; with — , de sang-froid. copy, copier. correct, amender, corriger. cost, colater. costume, costume, m. cottage, chalet, m., nfaisonnette,/. cotton, coton, m. count, compter. country, pays, m.; (as opposed to town), campagne, /.; ^ { = native land), patrie, /.; in the — , a la campagne. courage, courage, in.; take — , prendre courage. court, cour, /., salle, /. courtyard, cour, /. cousin, cousin, m., cousine, /. crazy, fou. cross, traverser. crowd, foule, /. cruelty, cruaute, /. crush, ecraser. cry, cri, m. cry, pleurer, crier; — out, crier. cup, tasse, /., coupe, /. cupboard, armoire, /. curly, frise. curse, maudire. custom, coutume, /. danger, danger, m. dare, oscr. darling, mignon. day, jour, m., journee, /.; every — , tous les jours, chaque jour; the — before yesterday, avant-hier; the — after to- morrow, apres-demain. dead, mort. deaf, sourd; turn a — ear, faire la sourde oreille. dear, cher, cheri. death, mort, /.; put to — , mettre a mort. decision, decision, /., parti, m. declare, declarer. defend, defendre, proteger. delay, retard, m. deUberate, deliberer. dehghtful, delicieux. demand, demander. depart, partir. depot, gare, /. deputy, depute, m. desire, desirer, vouloir. desk, pupitre, bureau, m. despise, dedaigner, mepriscr. despoil, depouiller, priver. detain, detenir, retenir. detest, detester. detestable, detestable. devoted, devoue. dictation, dictee, /. die, mourir; — away, se mourir. different, different. dinner, diner, ni. direction, direction, /. disaster, desastre, m. discipline, discipline, /. discipline, discipliner. discuss, discuter. displease, deplaire. dispose, disposer. divers, divers, plusieurs. do, faire; — (0/ health), se porter; — without, se passer de. dog, chien, m., chienne, /. dollar, dollar, ni., piastre, /. dominate, dominer. door, porte, /.; next — , a cote. doubt, doute, w.; no — , sans doute. ENGLISH-FRENCH 245 doubt, douter. drawer, tiroir, m. dread, craindre, redouter. dress (in), vetir (de); well — ed, bien mis. drink, boire. driver, cocher, m. drop, goutte, /. drop, Jeter, laisser tomber. duke, due, m. dummy, mannequin, m. during, pendant, dusty, poudreux. duty, devoir, ?«. E each, chaque, tout. each one, chacun. each other, reflex, pron. pi., nous, vous, se; indef., Tun I'autre, I'un de I'autre, etc. eagerly, ardemment, avidement. ear, oreille, /. early, de bonne heure. earn, gagner. easily, facilement. easy, facile. eat, manger, edge, lisiere, /., bord, m. educated, instruit. education, instruction, /. either. Fun ou I'autre; either . . . or, ou . . . ou, soit . . . soit. Elba, Elbe, /. elm, orme, m. emotion, emotion, /. emperor, empereur, m. end, fin, /., bout, m. ; at the — of, au bout de. enemy, ennemi, 7n. England, Angleterre, /. English, anglais; — (the lan- guage), I'anglais, anglais, m.; — man. Anglais, m. enjoy, jouir de; — oneself, s'amuser. enough, assez (de); not — , pas assez; kind — , assez bon. enrich, enrichir, embellir. enter, entrer (dans). equal, egal. equal { = be — to), egaler. error, faute, /. estate, etat, m. Europe, Europe, /. even, menie; — -if, — though, quand meme. evening, soir, m., soiree, /.; in the — , le soir; last — , yes- terday — , hier (au) soir. ever, jamais. every, tout, chaque; — Simday, tous les dimanches, — thing which, tout ce qui; — other day, tous les deux jours. everybody, tout le monde, m. everyone, chacun. everything, tout, m. evidently, evidemment. exactly, exactement, precis6- ment; — ten, dix heures pre- cises. example, exemple, m.; for — , par exemple. excitement, excitation, /., agi- tation, /. exercise, exercice, w. exhaust, epuiser. expect, attendre, s'attendre (k), compter, esp^rer. expend, depenser. expensive, couteux, cher. express (train), express, tn. expression, expression, /. eye, oeil, m., pi. yeux; regard, m. 246 VOCABULARY face, figure, /., visage, 7n. face about, se touruer. fail, faillir; to — in, manquer a. failing, faute, /., defaut, ?«. fair, bon, beau, juste. fairy, fee, /. faithful, fidele. fall, tomber; — asleep, s'en- dormir; — due, 6choir; — out, se brouiller. familiar, familier. family, famille, /. famous, fameux. far, loin; — away, loin, loin d'ici; — from, loin que, loin de; farther oflf, plus loin; far- ther on, plus loin; as — as, jusqu'a; how — is it? combien y a-t-il? fast, vite. father, pere, 7n. fatherland, patrie, /., pays na- tal, 711. fault, faute, /. fear, crainte, /., peur, /.; for — that, de crainte que; for — of, de crainte de. fear, craindre, avoir peur. fearless, intrepide, sans crainte, sans peur. feed, nourrir. feel, sentir; to — like, avoir envie de. fellow, gargon, ???.; Uttle — , petit, 771. feudal, feodal. few, peu, peu de, quelques; a — , quelques-uns; but — , ne . . . guere, ne . . . que peu. field, champ, m. fifteen, quinze. fifth, cinquieme. fight, combattre. fill, remplir; — the lungs with, respirer a pleins poumons. find, trouver; be foimd, se trouver; — out, decouvrir. fine, beau; it is — (weather), il fait beau (temps). finish, finir. first, adj., premier. first, adv., d'abord; at — , d'abord. fish, poisson, m. fish, pecher. five, cinq. flee, fuir, s'enfuir. flower, fleur, /. ; in — , en fleurs. fog, brouiUard, m. follow, suivre. foot, pied, m., patte, /.; on — , k pied. foot-rope, marchepied, rti. for, prep., pour, pendant, de, centre, par; — { = during), pendant; — a moment, un moment; — i=si7ice), depuis; — a long time, depuis long- temps. for, cotij., car. forbid, defendre; God — , a Dieu ne plaise. force, force, /. force, forcer, obliger. foreigner, etranger, m. forever, (pour) toujours. forget, oublier. forgive, pardonner. formahty, formalite, forme, /. former, ancien; the — , celui-la. forty, quarante. forward, en avant. four, quatre. franc, franc, ?«. France, France, /.; in — , to — , en France. ENGLISH-FRENCH 247 Francis, Francois, m. free, libre. freeze, geler. French, frangais; — {the lan- guage), le frangais, frangais; — man, Frangais, m. frequently, fr^quemment, sou- vent. fresh, frais. friend, ami, m., amie, /. friendship, amitie, /. fright, effroi, m., frayeur, /. frighten, eflfrayer; to be — ed, avoir peur, s'effrayer. frock-coat, reclingote, /. frog, grenouille, /. from, de, a, a partir de, dans, d'apres, depuis; — day to day, de jour en jour; — it, — there, en. front; in — of, devant. full, plein; at — length, tout au long. fim ; make — of, se moquer de. furious, furieux. further, plus loin. gaily, gaiement. garden, jardin, m. Gaul, Gaulois, m. general, general, m. general, general. gentle, doux. gentleman, monsieur, m. gently, doucement. German, allemand; (language), I'allemand, allemand, m.; (per- son), Allemand, m. Germany, Allemagne, /. get, obtenir, gagner, avoir, pren- dre; ( = reach) atteindre, ar- river. give, donner; — away, donner; — back, rendre. glad; — at, of, content de, charme de. glance, regard, m. glove, gant, m. go, aller, se rendre; — away, s'en aller, partir; — in, — into, entrer dans; — out, sortir; — ■ with, accompagner; — by, — past, passer (devant); — up (stairs), aller en haut, monter; — down (stairs), aller en has, descendre; — and see, aller voir; — to bed, se coucher; — (out) for a walk, aller se promener; — for, — - after, — and get, aller chercher; — back, retourner; — home, aUer chez soi, rentrer; — on, passer, continuer (a); — - to sleep, s'endormir; — to France, aller en France. God, Dieu, m. gold, or, m.; adj. ( = of gold), d'or, en or. good, bon, brave, sage. good, bien, m.; do — , faire du bien. gossip, bavarder. govern, gouverner, regir. government, gouvernement, m. gown, robe, /. grammar, grammaire, /. grandson, petit-fils, m. great, grand, gros; — deal, beaucoup. greediness, avidrte, /. green, vert. grow, croitre; devenir; — larger, grandir. guide, guide, m. guide, conduire. guilty, coupable. 248 VOCABULARY hair, cheveu, m., poil, m., cheveux, m. pi. half, demi, m., moitie, /.; — an hour, line demi-heure, /. half, adv., a demi. half-open, entr'ouvert. hand, main, /. ; on the right — , a droit e; on the left — a gauche; — over — , avec les mains. hand, remettre. handsome, beau, bel, belle, handwriting, ecriture, /. hang, suspendre. happen, arriver; venir a. happiness, bonheur, m., bonne fortune, felieite, /. happy, heureux, content. hard, ferine, dur, penible, difficile, hate, hair, detester. hatred, haine, /. have, avoir; obtenir; — {as auxiliary), avoir, etre; — just, venir de; — to, etre oblige de, devoir, falloir; — him go, faites-le partir. he, il, lui; ce; — who, celui qui; — himself, lui-meme. head, tele, /. headquarters, commandature, /. health, sante, /. hear, entendre, heavy, lourd. help, secours, m. hen, poule, /. Henry, Henri, m. her, adj., son, sa, ses; lui . . . le; h elle. her, -pers. pron., la, elle; to — , lui, a elle; — own, le sien, a elle. here, ici, y; — is, — are, voici. heroically, heroiquement. heroine, heroine, /. hers, le sien, a elle. herself, se, elle-meme. high, haut. him, le, lui; to — , for — , lui, ^ lui; — who, celui qui. himself, se, soi, lui, lui-meme; to — , en lui-meme; he — , lui- meme. his, adj., son, sa, ses; lui . . . le; a lui. his, pron., le sien, a lui; — own, le sien. history, histoire, /. hold, tenir; — out, tendre, en- durer, tenii- (bon). holy, saint, benit. home, maison, /., patrie, /.; (at) — , chez moi, chez toi, etc., a la maison. honest, honnete. honor, honneur, m. honor, honorer. hope, esperance, /., espoir, m. hope, esperer. horrible, horrible, affreux. horror, horreur, /. horse, cheval, m. hot, chaud; in the — sun, en plein soleil. hotel, hotel, m. hour, heure, /. house, maison, /. ; at (to) our — , chez nous; in the — , a la maison, dans la maison. how, comment, comme, coin- bien; — many, — ■ much, com- bien; — many! — much! combien (de)! que de! however, cependant; — good, quelque bon que; — • little, pour poll que; — that may be, quoi qu'il en soit. ENGLISH-FRENCH 249 humanity, humanite, /. humiliate, humilier. hundred; a (one) — , cent. hunger, faim, /. hungry; be (feel) — ; avoir faim. hiurah for! vive(nt)! hurry, se depecher; be in a — ; etre presse. husband, mari, m. I I, je, moi. idea, idee, /. if, si. ill himior, mauvaise humeur, /. impassable, impassable, infran- chissable. impatience, impatience, /. impoUte, impoli. importance, importance, /. in, dans, a, en, de, sur, entre; — it, y; be — , y etre; — the evening, le soir; — the west, a I'ouest; — the reign of, sous. incident, incident, m. inclined; be — to, etre en humeur de. industry, Industrie, /. inflict, infliger, imposer. inherit, heriter de, succeder a. ink, encre, /. ink-well, encrier, m. inn, auberge, /. insolvency; go into — , faire banqueroute, /. inspection, inspection, /. inspire, inspirer; — in, inspirer a. intelUgence, intelligence, /. intelligent, intelligent, into, dans, en; — it, y, la dedans. introduce, presenter, introduire. invade, envahir. invasion, invasion, /. invite, inviter. island, lie, /. it, il, elle, ce; le, la; cela; in — , y, dedans; of — , for — -, en; to — , y; — is you, c'est vous; — is they, ce sont eux; think of — , y penser. Italy, Italie, /. its, son, sa, ses; en . . . le. itself, se, soi; lui-meme; meme. ivory, ivoire, m. Jane, Jeanne, /. John, Jean, m. join, tr., joindre; intr., se joindre. journey, voyage, vi.; pleasant — ! bon voyage! joy, joie, /. June-bug, hanneton, m. just, adj., juste, precis, just, adv., justement, done; to have — , venir de, ne faire que de; — then, a ce moment; — as, au moment ou. justice, justice, /. E keep, garder, tenir; — on, aller en. key, cle or clef, /. kill, tuer, faire mourir. king, roi, vi. kingdom, royaume, m.; United Kingdom, Royaume-Uni. knight, chevalier, m. knock, frapper. know, savoir, cormaitre; — how, savoir. knowledge, science, /., savoir, m., connaissances, /. pi. 250 VOCABULARY labor, travail, m. labor, travailler. lack, manquer. lady, dame, /.; yoxmg — , de- moiselle, /.; jeune dame, /. land, terre, /. land, dcbarquer. language, langue, /. large, grand, gros; grow — , grandir. last, dernier, passe; — evening, hier (au) soir; — night, cette nuit; — year, I'annee der- niere; at — , enfin, a la fin. last, durer. late, tard, en retard; be — for, manquer; later on, plus tard; it is getting — , il se fait tard. latter; the — , celui-ci. laugh, rire; — at, rire de, se moquer de. law, loi, /. lead, mener, conduire. leaf, feuille, /. lean, tr., appuyer; intr., s'ap- puyer. leap, bond, m. learn, apprendre, savoir. learned, instruit. least; the — , adj., le moindre. least; the — , adv., le moins. leave, tr., quitter, laisser; intr., partir. left, gauche. leg, jambe, /. length, longueur, /. ; at — , beau- coup, longuement; at full — , tout au long. less, adj., moindre. less, adv., moins. lesson, legon, /. let, laisser, permettre; — us go, allons; — him finish, qu'il finisse; — in, laisser entrer; — go, lacher. letter, lettre, /. liberty, liberte, /. library, bibliotheque, /. lie {= s peak falsely) , mentir. lie; — down, se coucher. life, vie, /.; — convict, forgat a vie. lift, lever, soulever, Clever, eriger. like, comme. like, aimer; desirer, vouloir; — better, aimer mieux; — to, aimer a. listen; — (to), ecouter. httle, adj., petit; — , adv., peu; a — , un peu (de); however — , pour peu que; a — while ago, il y a quelques moments, tout a I'heure; — by — , peu a peu; — one, petit, m. live, demeurer, vivre; — in, demeurer a, dans, habiter; — on, vivre de; long — ! vive(nt) ! lofty, haut. London, Londres, m. long, adj., long. long, adv., longtemps; a — time, a — while, longtemps; how — ? depuis quand?; as — as, tant que; a — way off, loin. longer; no — , ne . . . plus. look, regard, m. look; — (at), regard er; — aroimd, regard er autour; — for, chercher; — out of the window, regarder par la fe- netre; — up, lever la tete; ~ (=appear), avoir I'air, sem- bler, paraitre. lord, seigneur, m. ENGLISH-FRENCH 251 lose, perdre; — sight of, perdre de vue. loud, haut. Louisa, Louise, /. love, amour, in., affection, /. love, aimer, loveless, insensible. Low Countries, Pays-Bas, m. pi. lung, poumon, m. M magnificent, magnifique. majority, majorite, /. make, faire, rendre; be made, SB faire; — use of, se servir de; — up for, reparer; — a de- cision, prendre un parti. mamma, maman, /. man, homme, ?«. ; old — , vieillard, 771.; young men, jeunes gens. manage, menager, conduire, manier. manner, maniere, /. many ; very — , a great — , beau- coup (de), beaucoup de per- sonnes; so — , tant (de); — a, tel, maint; as — , autant (de); how — ? combien (de)? marble, marbre, m.; {for play- ing), bille, /. marry, marier, se marier, cpouser. Mary, Marie, /. master, maitre, m. matter; what is the quy a-t-il? de quoi s'agit-il?; no — , that does not t-, n'im- porte. may, pouvoir. mayor, maire, m. me, me, moi; to — , for — , me, moi; for — , pour moi; with — , avec moi. mean, vouloir dire. meanwhile, cependant. measure, mesurer. meet, se rcunir, rencontrer. meeting, assemblee, /.; call a — , convoquer une assemblee. melancholy, melancolique. memory, memoire, /. mend, tr., raccommoder, re- parer, corriger; intr., se cor- riger. mention; don't — it, il n'y a pas de quoi. meter, metre, m. midnight, minuit, 7n. mighty, puissant, fort. mile, mille, m. miUtary, militaire. milk, lait, m. mill, filature, /., moulin, m. mind; to make up one's — , prendre un parti. mine, le mien; a moi; a friend of — , un de mes amis. minister, ministre, m. minute, minute, /. miss, manquer. mistake, meprise, /., erreur, /., faute, /. mistake { = make a — ), se trom- per. mistress, maitresse, /. model, exemple, m. moment, moment, m. money, argent, m. monk, moine, m., religieux, m. month, mois, m. more, plus (de), encore, davan- tage; I have no — , I have not any — , je n'en ai plus; — money than, plus d'argent que; I have some — , j'en ai encore; no — , ne . . . plus; it is worth — , il vaut mieux; — than one, plus d'un. 252 VOCABULARY morning, matin, m. ; good — , bon- jour; in the — , le matin. morrow, demain, lendemain, m. most, bien, fort, tres; the — , le plus; — people, la plupart des gens. mother, mere, /. mountain, montagne, /. Mr., monsieur, -m., M. Mrs., madame, /., Mme. much, beaucoup (de), bien, tres, grand' chose; very — , beaucoup; as — as, autant que; so — , tant, tellement; how — ? combien (de)?; too — , trop; as — , autant (de). mulberry-tree, miirier, m. must, falloir, devoir. mustache, moustache, /. my, mon, ma, mes; me (dat.), . . . le; — own, le mien, a moi. N name, nom, ??i. name, appeler; be named, s'ap- peler; what is the — of? comment s'appelle? nap, sieste, /., somme, ni. Napoleon, Napoleon, rn. national, national. nature, nature, /. necessary, necessaire; be — , etre necessaire, falloir. need, besoin, m. need, falloir, avoir besoin de. neighbor, voisin, m., voisine, /. neither, ni I'un ni I'autre . . . ne; — ... nor, (ne . . .) ni . . . ni. nest, nld, m. never, ne . . . jamais, new, nouveau, neuf. news, nouvelle(s), /. New-year's-day, le jour de Tan. next, adj., prochain, premier; — year, I'annee prochaine; the — day, le lendemain; — time, la prochaine fois. next, adv., apres, ensuite. night, nuit, /. ; last — , hier soir, cette nuit. ninety, quatre-vingt-dix. no, non, pas de, ne . . . pas, aucun; — man, — one, per- sonne, — longer, — more, ne . . . plus. nobility, noblesse, /. noble, noble, m. nobody, (ne . . .) personne. nod, signe de tete, m. none, pas, nul; I have — , je n'en ai pas; there are — , il n'y en a pas. noon, midi, m. nor, ni, et ne . . . pas. Norman, normand. Normandy, Normandie, /. northern, septentrional, du nord. not, ne . . . pas (point), non; — that, non (pas) que; — one (ne . . .) pas un; — at all, pas du tout. nothing, (ne . . .) rien; — at all, rien du tout; do — but, ne faire que. novel, roman, m. now, main tenant, a present, deja, tiens!; — and then, de temps en temps. numerous, nombreux. nut, noisette, /., noix, /. oak, ch^ne, m. obediently, avec ob^issance. obey, ob6ir (k). ENGLISH-FRENCH 253 observe, observer, remarquer. occxir, se trouver. o'clock, heure(s), /. odious, odieux, detestable. of, de; — it, — them, en, y. often, souvent; how — , com- bien de fois. oh! oh! old, age, vieux; (=for))icr), an- cien; — man, vieillard, m.; how — is he? quel age a-t-il? on, sur, a, de, en. once, une fois, autrefois; at — , tout de suite, aussitot. one, 7ium., un, une. one, indef. pron., on, vous (obj.); no — , (ne . . .) per- sonne; the white — s, les blancs; a small — , un petit; the — who, celui qui. only, ne . . . que, seulement; not — , non seulement; — (one), seul. open, ouvert; wide — , grand (e) ouvert(e) ; half — , entr'ouvert. open, ouvrir; s'ouvrir, eclore. opinion, opinion, /. or, ou; (after sans) ni; no . . . — , ne . . . ni . . . ni. orange, orange, /. oration, oraison, /. order, ordre, m.; in — to, pour, afin de; in — that, pour que, afin que. order { = give orders), ordonner; ( = send for), faire venir. other, autre; — s, d'autres, au- trui ; write to each, — , s'ecrire. otherwise, autrement. ought, devoir; he — to do it, il devrait le faire; he — to have done it, il aurait dii le faire. our, notre, nos; at — house, chez nous. ours, le notre. ourselves, nous, nous-memes. out; come — , go — , sortir. owe, devoir. own, propre; my — , le mien; of his — , a lui. page, page, m. palace, palais, m. pale, pale. panorama, panorama, m. pansy, pensee, /. papa, papa, m. paper, papier, m.; ( = newspaper) feuille, /., journal, m. parent, parent, m. Paris, Paris, m. ; in — , a Paris. participle, participe, m. pass i = go past), passer (devant, pres de); — through, tra- verser; as he — ed, au passage, en passant. passage, passage, m. past, passe, m. past, adj., passe; at half — one, a une heure et demie. path, sentier, m. patience, patience, /. patiently, avec patience, patiem- ment. pay { = pay for), payer; — atten- tion, faire attention. pear-tree, poirier, m. peasant, paysan, m. pen, plume, /. pencil, crayon, m. people, peuple, m., on, gens, m. or /., monde, in., personnes, /. pL; few — -, peu de gens; most — , la plupart des gens; other — , les autres, autrui. perfect, parfait. 254 VOCABULARY perfectly, parfaitement. perhaps, peut-etre. permit, permettre (a). person, personne, /. Peter, Pierre, m. Philip, Philippe, ?«. pick, cueillir; — out, choisir; — up, ramasser. pictiu-e, tableau, m., peinture, /. piece, morceau, m. pigeon, pigeon, m. pink, ccillet, m. pipe, siffler. pity, plaindre. place, endroit, m., lieu, vi., place, /.; take — , avoir lieu. place, mettre, placer, plainly, franchement, claire- ment. plant, plante, /. plant, planter. play, jouer; — at {games), jouer a; — on {instruments), ]o\iqv de. pleasant, agreable, aimable; — journey! bon voyage! please, plaire a; iif you — , s'il vous plait; as we — , comma il nous plaira. plunge, plonger, (s')enf oncer. poet, poete, m. point, point, vi., pointe, /.; the — is, il s'agit de. Poitiers, Poitiers, m. poor, pauvre, mauvais. portion, part, /. possess, posseder. possible, possible. post-office, poste, /. poimd, livre, /. pound, taper. power, puissance, /., pouvoir, m. powerful, puissant, fort. powerless, impuissant. praise, louer. pray, adv., done. prefer, preferer. prepare, preparer. presence, presence, /. ; in the — of, devant; into his — , aupres de lui. present, cadeau, m.; person — , assistant, m. present, present; at — , a present; be — at, etre present a, assister a. press, presse, /. pretty, adj., joli. pretty, adv., assez. prevent, empecher. pride, orgueil, to. primer, abecedaire, m. prince, prince, to. prison, prison, /. prisoner, prisonnier, m. privilege, privilege, m. probably, probablement. ' prompt, prompt, exact. property, bien, m. proud, tier, orgueilleux. provide {for), pourvoir a; {loith), fournir a. province, province, /. provincial, provincial, de pro- vince. Prussia, Prusse, /. Prussian, Prussien, to. Prussian, prussien. pull, tirer, haler, hisser. punish, punir. punishment, punition, /. pupil, eleve, to., /. put, mettre, attacker; — on {clothing), mettre; — out {fire), eteindre; — out {of doors), mettre a la porte; — to death, mettre a mort; — off, remettre. ENGLISH-FRENCH 255 quality, qualite, /. quarter, quart, m.; — of an hour, quart d'heure. question, question, /.; ask a — , faire une question. quickly, vite. quiet, tranquille. quite, tout, tout a fait. racket, tapage, m. rain, pluie, /. rain, pleuvoir. rank, rang, m. rare, rare. reach, arriver a or chez, at- teindre, gagner. read, lire, ready, pret. receive, recevoir. recite, reciter. reckon, calculer, compter, recognize, reconnaitre. recover, recouvrer, se remettre. red, rouge, refuse, refuser, regret, regret, m. regret, regretter. reign, regno, to. reign, regner. remain, rester. remember, se souvenir de, se rappeler, retenir. repeat, repeter. reply, reponse, /. reply, repondre. represent, representor. reproach, reproche, m. reproach, reprocher. resist, resister a. respect, respect, to. respect, respecter. rest, se reposer. retrace, retracer, revenir sur; — his steps, revenir sur ses pas. retreat, retraite, /. return, retourner, revenir, rendre. revolt, revolte, /., soulevement, TO. revolt, se revolter, se rebeller. reward, recompense, /. reward, recompenser. rich, riche. rigging, greement, m. right, droit, ?n.; be (in the) — , avoir raison; all — ! a la bonne heure! right, droit; on the — hand, to the — , a (la) droite. rise (up), se lever, se dresser. road, route, /., chemin, m. rock, roc, m., roche, /., rocher, to. Roman, Romain, to. room, chambre, /., salle, /. rope, corde, /. rose, rose, /. rose-bush, rosier, to. round, rond. royal, royal. ruin, ruine, /. ruin, ruiner, detruire. rule, regie, /. ruler, regie, /. run, courir; — • away, se sauver; — over, parcourir; — after, courir apri'S. Russia, Russie, /. Russian, Russe, to., /. Russian, russe. rustic, rustique. sad, triste. sailor, marin, to., matelot, to. Saint Helena, Sainte-Helene, /. 256 VOCABULARY same, meme. satisfy, satisfaire. save, sauver, conserver; (money), epargner. saw-mill, scierie, /. say, dire; it is said, on dit; — to each other, — to oneself, se dire; — again, redire. scaffold, echafaud, m. scarcely, a peine. school, ecole, /.; at or to — , k Fecole. scold, gronder. scornful, dedaigneux. scream, crier. seat, banc, m. second, seconde, /. see, voir; — again, revoir. seek, chercher. seem, sembler, paraltre. seize, saisir. sell, vendre. senate, senat, m. send, envoy er; — for, envoyer chercher, faire appeler, faire venir. sentence, sentence, /., plirase, /. separate, separer, se separer. serious, serieux, grave, sermon, sermon, m. serve, servir. set out, partir. seven, sept. seventeen, dix-sept. several, plusieurs (invariable). shade, ombre, /. shaggy, herisse, ebouriffc. shame, honte, /.; it is a — , c'est honteux. shameful, honteux. share, part, /. sharp, aigu, vif. sharpen, tailler, aiguiser. she, elle, ce. shining, brillant. shoe, Soulier, m. shout, crier. show, spectacle, to. show, montrer, faire voir; — itself, se montrer; — in, faire entrer. shut, fermer. side, coti, TO. siege, siege, m. sign, signe, to. silence, silence, m. silent, muet, silencieux; be o? become — , se taire. silk, soie, /. silk-worm, ver a soie, to. silver, argent, ??t. silver, d'argent, en argent. since, prep., depuis. since, co?ij., depuis que, puisque. que. sing, chanter, single, seul. sir, monsieur, ?n. sister, soeur, /. sit (down), s'asseoir. skate, patiner; go — ing, (aller^ patiner. slave, esclave, m., f. slavery; to fall into — , tombei esclave. sleep, dormir; go to — , s'en- dormir. slide, glissade, /. slight, leger. slip, glisser. slowly, lentement. small, petit. smell, sentir. smile, sourire. snarl, brouiller; get — ed up s'embrouiller. snow, neige, /. snow, neiger. ENGLISH-FRENCH 257 snow-cap, houppette de neige, /. so, si, ainsi, par consequent, aussi, c'est pourquoi; — many, — much, tant (de), telle- ment; not — ... as, ne . . . pas si . . . que; I think — , je le crois; I am — , je le suis; — as to, afin de, de ma- niere a; — that, afin que, de sorte que; — well, si bien, tant. softly, doueement, moUement. soldier, soldat, m., militaire, m. solemn, solennel, grave. some, adj., du, de la, des; quel- que(s); for — time, pendant quelque temps. some, pron., en, quelqu'un, quelques-uns; — of it, en; I have — , j'en ai. somebody, quelqu'un, on. someone, quelqu'un, on. something, quelque chose, m. sometimes, quelquefois. son, fils, m. soon, bientot; as — as, aussitot que. sorry, fache, desole; be — (for), regretter. sort, sorte, /., espece, /.; what — of weather? quel temps? Spain, Espagne, /. speak, parler; French is spoken, on parle fran^ais; so to — , pour ainsi dire, spectacles, lunettes, /. speech, parole, /. spell, epeler. spend (money), depenser, (time), passer. spring, printemps, m.; in — , au printemps. square (of a city), place, /. stake, enjeu; jalon, ?«.; be at — , y aller de, s'agir de; my life is at — , il y va de ma vie. stand, etre debout, rester debout. start { = svl out), partir. state, etat, m. station-master, chef de gare, m. stay, rester, s'arreter. steep, montueux, raide. step, pas, ??i. ; take a — , faire uu pas. stem, severe. stick, baguette, /., baton, m. still, adj., calme, tranquille. still, adv., encore, toujours. stool, escabeau, m. stop, tr., arreter, boucher; intr. s'arreter. story, histoire, /., conte, m. street, rue, /. strength, force, /. stretch, (s')etendre. strong, solide. strongly, fortement. studious, studieux. study, etude, /. study, etudier. stupid, bete, stupide. succeed, succeder a, reussir. such, tel; — a, un tel. suffer, souffrir. sugar, Sucre, ?n. sultan, sultan, m. sum, somme, /. summer, ete, to. sun, soleil, to. Sunday, dimanche, to. support, appuyer, soutenir; — oneself, s' appuyer, se sou- tenir. suppress, supprimer, reprimer, etouffer. surprise, surprendre, etonner. surprised, surpris, etonn6. surrender, (se) rendre. 258 VOCABULARY sway, balancer. sweet, doux; smell — , sentir bon. swiftly, vite. swim, nager. swing, balancer; — back and forth, aller et venir. Swiss, Suisse; — girl, Suissesse,/. Switzerland, Suisse, /. table, table, /. take, prendre, porter, emporter, mener, emmener, conduire; — off, oter; — • in, envelopper. talent, talent, m. talk, parler. tall, grand, haut. task, tache, /., affaire, /. tax, imput, m., taxe, /. tea, the, ?m. teach, enseigner, apprendre. teacher, professeur, m., maitre, m. tell, raconter, dire, annoncer. temple, temple, w. ten, dix. tennis, jeu de paume, m. terrible, terrible. territory, territoire, m. than, que, {before numerals) de. that, dem. adj., ce, cet, cette; ce . . . -la. that, dem. pron., ce, cela, celui; — is, voila, c'est. that, rel. pron., qui, que, lequel. that, conj., que. the, le, la, les. their, leur, leurs. theirs, le leur. them, les, leur, eux, elles; of — , d'eux, en; to — , a eux, leur, y. themselves, se, eux, eux-memes. then, alors, ensuite, puis. there, la, y; — is, — are, voila, il y a; — it is, le (la) voila. these, adj., ces; ces . . . -ci. these, pron., ceux, ceux-ci; — are, ce sont, voici. they, ils, elles, on, ce; there — are, les voila; it is — , ce sont eux. thing, chose, /., affaire, /., objet, m. think, penser, croire, songer. third, troisieme, trois. thirsty; be — , avoir soif; be very — , avoir bien soif, mourir de soif. this, adj., ce, cet, cette; ce . . . -ci. this, pron., ce, ceci, celui(-ci); — one, celui-ci. those, adj., ces, ces . . . -la. those, pron., ceux(-la); — who, ceux qui; — are, voila. thou, tu, toi. thought, pensce, /., idee, /. thoughtful, reflechi, pensif. thousand, mille, mil. three, trois. through, par, a travers, au travers de. throw, Jeter. tie, attacher. till, prep., jusqu'a, avant. till, conj., jusqu'a ce que, que. time, temps, m., fois, /., mo- ment, m.; at — s, quelquefois. tire, fatiguer, ennuyer; be or get tired, s'ennuyer, se fatiguer. to, a, chez, de, pour, en, jusqu'a, envers, vers. to-day, aujourd'hui. together, ensemble. to-morrow, demain; day after — , apres-demain. tongue, langue, /.; hold one's — , se taire. ENGLISH-FRENCH 259 too, aussi, trop; — much, — many, trop. top, sommet, ?n.; spimiing — , toupie, /. topman, gabier, m. toward, vers. town, ville, /.; in — , down — , en ville; to — , a la ville. town-hall, mairie, /., hotel de ville, m. trace, tracer. trade, metier, m. trade-guild, corporation, /. tragedy, tragedie, /. train (railroad), train, m. translate, traduire. traveler, voyageur, m. . tree, arbre, m. tremble, trembler, triumph, triomphe, m. troops, troupes, /. pi. trot (along), trottiner. trout, truite, /. true, vrai, fidele. trumpet, trompette, /. truth, verite, /. try, essayer. turn, tour, m.; in — , a tour, turn, tourner. twelve, douze; — (o'clock), midi, 771., minuit, ?n. twenty, vingt. twenty-four, vingt-quatre. twice, deux fois. twinkling, clin d'oeil, m. twist, tourner. two, deux. ugly, laid, vilain. tmibrella, parapluie, m. imcle, oncle, m. under, sous, au-dessous de. understand, comprendre. undiscipUned, indiscipline, unfortunate, malheureux. imhappy, malheureux. United States, Etats-Unis, m. pi.; in the — , aux Etats-Unis. unJmown, inconnu. unless, a moins que . . . (ne). until, prep., jasqu'a. until, co/ij., jusqu'a ce que, que. up, en haut; come — , monter; get — , se lever; — to, jusqu'a. upon, sur. uproar, train, m. upset, bouleverser. urchin, gamin, m. us, nous. use, usage, to.; be of some — , etre de quelque utilite; have — for, avoir besoin de; make — of, se servir de, employer. dse, se servir de, employer, useless, inutile; be — , ne valoir rien. usually, d'ordinaire, ordinaire- ment, usuellement. utter, pousser, prononcer. vanquish, vaincre. verb, verbe, to. very, tres, bien, fort; — • much, beaucoup, bien, tres; that — evening, le soir meme. vex, vexer, irriter, agacer. victor, vainqueur, to. victory, victoire, /. village, village, /7i. violet, violette, /. voice, voix, /. vote, voix, /., suffrage, to. voter, votant, ?n. 260 VOCABULARY W wait, wait for, attendre. walk, promenade, /. ; go for a — , take a — , (aller) se promener, faire une promenade. walk, marcher, se promener; — in, entrer. wall, mur, m. walnut-tree, noyer, m. want, avoir besoin de, desirer, vouloir; I — , il me faut. war, guerre, /.; make — , faire la guerre. warm, chaud; be — {of living beings), avoir chaud; be — (of weather), faire chaud. warn, prevenir. waste, tr., perdre, dissiper, pro- diguer; inlr., deperir, s'epuiser. watch, montre, /. watch, contempler, regarder; — for, guetter. water, eau, /. way, route, /., chemin, m.; ma- niere, /., moyen, m.; on the — , en route; by the — -, a propos; a long — off, bien loin. we, nous, on. weakness, faiblesse, /. wear, porter. weariness, lassitude,/., fatigue,/. weather, temps, mi.; the — is warm, il fait chaud. week, semaine, /., huit jours, VI. pi. weigh, peser. welcome, accueiUir; be — , etre le bienvenu. well, bien, tres; so — , si bien; very — , tres bien; be — , se porter bien; do — , faire le bien; as — as, aussi bien que; well! eh bien! wet, humide. what, adj., quel; — time is it? quelle heure est^il? what, proJi., que, quoi, ce qui, ce que, ce a quoi, ce dont, qu'est-ce que? qu'est-ce qui? qu'est-ce que c'est que? ce que c'est que; — is up now? qu'est-ce qu'il y a encore? whatever, tout ce qui (que), quoi que, quel que, quel- conque. when, quand, lorsque, que. whenever, quand, lorsque. where, ou; from — , d'ou. which, adj., quel. which, pron., qui, que, lequel; of — , dont, duqu,el; at — , ou, auquel; in — , ou, dans lequel; from — , dont, du'quel. while, prep., en. while, conj., pendant que, tandis que, tant que. while ; a long — , longtemps. white, blanc. who, qui, quel, lequel. whoever, qui que, quiconque, qui que ce soit. whole, tout, entier; the — eve- ning, toute la soiree; the — year, toute I'annee. whom, qui, que, lequel; of — , dont, de qui, duquel. whose, a qui, de qui, dont, duquel; at — house, chez qui. why, pourquoi. wicked, mechant. wide, large; — open, grand (e) ouvert(e). will, volonte, /. win, gagner, remporter. window, fenetre, /.; out of the — , par la fenetre. ENGLISH-FRENCH 261 wine, vm, m. wipe, essuyer. wisdom, sagesse, /. wish, desir, m. wish, desirer, souhaiter, vou- loir. with, avec, chez, a, de, envers, par; go or he — , accom- pagiier. without, prep., sans; — ... and, — ... or, sans . . . ni; do — , se passer de. without, conj., sans que {with suhj.). woman, femme, /. ^wonder, se demander, s'etonner. wonderful, merveilleux, eton- nant. wood, bois m. word, mot, m., parole, /.; send — , faire savoir. work, travail, m., ouvrage, m., ceuvre, m. or f. work, travailler. world, monde, m. worth; be — , valoir; — the trouble, — while, valoir la peine. worthy, digne. would {past tense of will); — to God! pliit a Dieu! wretch, miserable, m. write, ecrire; — ■ to each other, s'ecrire. writing, ecriture, /. wrong, mal, tn.; be (in the) — , avoir tort. yard {of a ship), vergue, /. year, annee, /., an, m.; last — , I'annee derniere, I'annee passee. yelping, jappement, //;. yes, oui, si. yesterday, hier. yet, encore, cependant; not — , pas encore. yield, ceder. yonder, la-bas. you, vous, tu, te, toi. young, jeune. youngster, jeune homme, m. your, votre, vos, ton, ta, tes. yours, le votre, le tien; a vous, k toi. INDEX All numbers refer to sections. A, 202-206, 219-221. abbreviations, 232. accents, 4. See also stress. adjectives, feminine, 21-25, 128, 129; plurals, 26-28, 31; pos- sessives, 32; demonstratives, 30, 31, 67, 69; indefinites, 84-89; invariable, 130, 131; agreement, 132; comparison, 133; superlative, 135; posi- tion, 138; numeral, 139, 140; with a, 205; with de, 212. adverbs, 187-201, 229. age, 145. agreement of verb, 153-155. aller, 56, 101, 182, 218. alphabet, 2; phonetic, 18. apposition, 136. apres, with infinitive, 109. article, 19, 29, 34, 136, 137. au, 29; prefix, 199. autre, 88, 89. autrui, 89. auxiliary verb, 90, 92. avant, 207; avant que, 1976, 2 ; 227. avec, 208. avoir, 36, i; 90-92, 145, 146, 184. beaucoup, 27, 197. bel, 25. bien, 133, 137, 2/. bien que, 222. bon, 133. bouger, 196. g, cedilla, 48. ca, 67. capitals, 144. cardinal numbers, 139. ce, 29-31, 67, 147. ceci, 67. cedilla, 48. cela, 67. celui, 68-71. cent(s), 139. -cer verbs, 48. cesser, 196a. cet, 25. chacun, 87. chaque, 87. Chez, 209. -ci, 69. ciel, 28. circumflex. 4. close vowel, 4, 45. collectives, 153. collocation, 63, 64. comme, 229, 231. comment, 231. comparison, 133-135, 191. complement of verbs, 157- 162. composite subject, 153-155. compound tenses, 90-92, 102- 105. conditional, 114, 116, 165-168, 173-175. conjunctions, 222-228. consonants, final, 13, 16. craindre, 1976, 1. 263 264 INDEX d in liaison, 17. dans, 210, 219. dates, 144. davantage, 200. de, 36, 37, 146, 176, 191, 211- 216, 219-221. definite article, 19, 27, 29, 37, 135-137. demi, 130, 142. demonstratives, 67-71. depuis, 103. depuis que, 196, 226. des, 29. deixxieme, 140. devant, 207. devoir, 168, 186. dieresis, 12. dimensions, 146. disjunctives, 53, 56, 57. dont, 75. du, 29. e mute, 9, 46. -eler verbs, 46. elision, 24. elle, 19, 55. -ement, 189. empecher, 1976, 2. en, preposition. 111, 202, 210, 219, 220. en, pronoun, 61, 65, 150. encore, 89. envers, 217. -eter verbs, 46. etre, 92. -eur, feminine of, 128. eviter, 1976, 2. f in liaison, 17. faire, 157-159, 180a, c, 183. falloir, 180a, 186, 1976, 2. fol, 25. fractions, 142. fraiche-cueillie, 131. future, 98-101, 163, 164, 166. future anterior, 102, 103. g in liaison, 17; becomes ge, 48. gender, 19, 126-128. generic noun, 137, 2o. gens, gender, 126, 7. gerund, 110. glide, vowel, 7. government of verbs, 156. grande ouverte, 131. h aspirate, 16. hiatus, 25. however, 171. a, 19, 55, 147. a y a, 103, 184, 185. imperative, 50, 58, 169, 170. imperfect indicative, 94, 95, 103, 116, 173. imperfect subjunctive, 122. impersonal verbs, 181-186. indefinite nouns, 33, 34. indefinite adjectives and pro- nouns, 84-89. indicative. Chap. II; Chap. IV; 118. indirect discourse, 115. indirect object, 56. infinitive, 38, 108, 109, 168, 176-178; with a, 204-206; with de, 214-216; with pour, 218. interrogation, 51-53. interrogative adjectives, 73. interrogative pronouns, 81-83. invariable adjective, 130, 139. inversion, 151, 152. jumeau, 129. INDEX 265 laisser, 157. la plupart, 137, 2/, 153. le, 19, 62, 148, 149. lequel, 73-78. liaison, 17. lip-rounding, 5. lorsque, 224. I'un I'autre, 88. mauvais, 133. meilleur, mievix, 133. -ment, 188. moindre, moins, 133. moins de, 191. mol, 25. monsieur, 194. motion, verbs with a, 56. muscle tension, 6. mute e, 9, 46. narrow vowels, 6. ne, 54, 134, 196-198, 223. ne . . . que, 201. negation, 54, 192, 19fr-198. ni, 223. non, 192, 194. nouns, definite, 19; indefinite and partitive, 33-35; gender, 126- 128; numerals, 141. nu, 130. numerals, 139-146. objective pronouns, 55-58, 63, 64. ceil, 28. oi, 11. on, 85. 07ily, 201. open vowel, 4, 45. or translated by ni, 223. ordinals, 140. oser, 196a. oui, 192, 194. par, 211, 219. participles, 91, 92, 110-113, 179, 180. partitives, 33-37. parts of speech, 1. pas, 198; pas de, 36, 2. passive verb, 60, 85, 105-107, 211. past anterior, 104. past definite, 96, 97. past indefinite, 90, 173. past participle, 91, 92, 110, 161, 180. pendant que, 225. penser a, 56, 202. personal pronouns, 55-64. petit, peu, 133. phonetic alphabet, 18. pire, pis, 133. pleonastic ne, 197. plupart, 137, 2/, 153. pluperfect indicative, 102-104; subjunctive, 122, 125. plurals, 26-28, 31, 130. plus, 149, 191. position, of pronouns, 63-65; 170; of adverbs, 187. See also word-order and inver- sion. possession, etre a, 205. possessives, 32, 66. pour, 218, 219. pouvoir, 161, 168, 196a. prepositional phrases, 221. prepositions, 202-221. present indicative, 41-49, lOO- 103. present participle, 111-113, 179. primitive tenses, 38, 39. pronouns, personal, 55-57; posi- tion, 58, 63-65; reflexive, 59; possessive, 66; demonstrative, 67-71; relative, 72-80; inter- 266 INDEX rogative, 81-83; indefinite, 84-89. pronunciation, 3-18. proper nouns, 130, 136, 137, 2C. pu, 161. puisque, 226. quand, 224; quand meme, 1656. que, pronoun, 73, 80. que, conjunction, 133, 228. que, adverb, 229. quel, 73; quel que, 171. quelque, 86; quelque . . . que, 171. qui, 73, 81, 83; qui que, 171. quoique, 222; quoi que, 171. reflexive pronoun, 59, 159; verb, 59, 60, 89, 91, 92, i. relative clauses, 171, 172. relative pronoun, 72-80. repetition of preposition, 220. s in liaison, 17. sans que, 222. savoir, 168, 196a. se, 59. second, 140. sequence of tenses, 120-122. seulement, 201. si, adverb, 192; si . . . que, 171; conjunction, 21, 100, 125. simple tenses for continuing ac- tion, 104. soi, 89. sounds, 2-18. sous, 219. strengthening vowel, 45, 46, 99. stress, 5, 14, 45, 46. stressed personal pronoun, 65, 57. subjunctive, 117, 118; present, 120, 121; imperfect, 122; as imperative, 123, 124; pluper- fect, 125; uses, 171-175; with conjunction, 222. superlatives, 135. sur, 146, 219. syllabication, 12. -t- in inversion, 53. tandis que, 225. tant, 199. tel, 89. -teur, feminine, 128, 2. time, 143. titles, 137, 2c; 144. tout, 89, 131. tout . . . que, 171, 172. trema, 12. tu, 55. u, pronunciation, 8. un, 88, 139. valoir, 160, 1806. venir, 218, 219. verbs, principal parts, 38, 39; present indicative, 41^9, 100- 103; imperative, 50-58, 169, 170; imperfect indicative, 94, 95, 103, 116, 173; past defi- nite, 96, 97; past indefinite, 90, 173; participles, 91, 92, 110-113, 179, 180; future, 98- 101, 163, 164, 166; compound tenses, 102-104; agreement, 153-155; government, 156; complement, 157-162; con- ditional, 114-116, 165-168, 173-175; subjunctive, 117- 125, 171-175, 222; infinitive, 108, 109, 168, 176-178, 204- 206, 214-216, 218; imper- sonals, 181-186. vers, 217. voUa. 185. INDEX 267 voir, 158, 160. vouloir, 162, 168. vowels, 3-11, 15. tchat, 67. with, 208, 211. word-order. 138, 151, 229. X in liaison, 17; in syllabication, 12. y, between vowels, 10; changed to i, 47. y, adverb and pronoun, 61. -yer verbs, 47. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. j7Apr'566B iVIAV;^ 1956 LB LD 21^^-^.^(0^^16)4120 u UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY :^/ -^#' ', -Msii^^V, --^r- --^