For the use of Colleges, Schools, and Private Students. 
 
 NEW 
 
 GRAMMAR OF FRENCH GRAMMARS: 
 
 COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF 
 
 ALL THE MOST APPROVED FRENCH GRAMMARS EXTANT, 
 
 BUT MORE ESPECIALLY OF THE STANDARD WORK, 
 
 "GIUMMAIllE DES GRAMMAIRES," 
 
 SANCTIONED BY THE FRENCH ACADEMY AND THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS. 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS EXERCISES AND EXAMPLES 
 
 , , ILLUSTRATIVE OF EVERY RULE. 
 
 DE V. DE JTVAS, M.A, F.E.I.S. 
 
 MEMBER OF THE GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, ETC. 
 
 FORTY-SECOND EDITION. 
 
 TORONTO: COPP, CLARK, & CO. 
 
 LONDON: CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO., 
 
 7 STATIONERS' HALL COURT. 
 
 1878. 
 
The Copyright for Great Britain and Ireland, Frances 
 and Germany, is secured. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ** Grammar, as the master-key of the human mind, is the 
 first object in the cultivation of the understanding." 
 (The Linguist.) 
 
 "Presquepartout, deux hommes d'esprit, de nation diverse, 
 
 qui se rencontrent, s'accordent a parler fran^ais." 
 
 (Prtf. du. Diet, de VAcad.frang.) 
 
 WE read, in a recent London publication, that there are about 
 one hundred French Grammars for the use of English students. 
 But, How many of these exhibit the orthography and rules of 
 the language as they are fixed at the present day ? It is the im- 
 possibility of satisfactorily answering this question, that first 
 suggested to me the idea of producing a work which, without 
 being a mere compilation, should embody the substance of the 
 latest decisions of the French Academy, with the most lucid and 
 concise rules of the best modern French Grammarians. The 
 single fact of the French Academy having lately published 
 a new edition of their Dictionary, entirely revised and greatly 
 enlarged, shows in an obvious point of view the call that is 
 made for a new and improved French Grammar. 
 
 My plan, in this publication, has been to give everything 
 useful, and nothing superfluous.* I have studied to make the 
 
 * Some Grammarians devote fifty pages to the declensions of nouns and pro- 
 nouns, while the French language has no declension.! Many encroach on the 
 province of the Teacher, and encumber their pages by giving a repetition of all the 
 conjugations interrogatively and negatively, when one, as a model, is quite suffi- 
 cient. Others, give elaborate treatises on pronunciation, which can never be pro- 
 perly learned from books, and are quite unnecessary, since a good French -Teacher 
 can now be found in every town and village of the United Kingdom, from whom 
 more knowledge of pronunciation will be obtained in one lesson than in one year 
 from all the books ever published on this subject. 
 
 t La Langue francaisc n'a point, et ne peut avoir, de d6clinaisons ; on doit purger 
 nos Grammaires de tout ce fatras, detoutes ces superfluity qui sont plus propres 
 a, nuire qu' a servir a 1'intelligence de la Langue. 
 
 REj Diet, de I 1 Elocution /rac<ze. 
 
lY PREFACE. 
 
 definitions at once clear and precise, that they may be readily 
 understood and easily retained. When I judged it necessary, 
 I have also presented the rules in a new light, in order to adapt 
 them to the capacity of youthful students. I have further 
 endeavoured to arrange and distribute the matter, so as to 
 embrace, within a narrow compass, much more information than 
 is usually found in grammatical class-books. Indeed, there is 
 not a useful Rule or Observation in the largest grammar in 
 print that is not to be found in this. 
 
 The Exercises illustrate everything that can be reduced to 
 rules in the French language. This branch of the work has, 
 for several years, engaged my special attention. The phraseo- 
 logy is all founded on the highest French classical authorities ; 
 and it has been my study throughout to introduce a moral pre- 
 cept, an historical or a geographical fact, or a conversational 
 phrase ; and thus to impart useful information along with gram- 
 matical rules. 
 
 The present Edition of this Grammar has been carefully re- 
 vised, and a considerable number of words and remarks intro- 
 duced that are not to be found in any other Grammar. I have 
 also had the advantage of being able to avail myself of the 
 criticisms that the learned Authors of the " Orammaire 
 Nationale" have made on the " Grammaire des Grammaires" 
 and of the answers to those criticisms by M. Lemaire, Professor 
 of Rhetoric at the College Louis-le-Grand, in Paris. " Tout 
 homme qui veut bien eerire," says VOLTAIRE, "doit corriger 
 ses ouvra^es toute sa vie." 
 
 LONDON^ Juhj 1860. 
 
C 5 ] 
 
 The following are a few of the numerous Literary Notices 
 of this Work : 
 
 " At once the simplest and most complete Grammar of the French Language. 
 To the Pupil, the effect is almost as if he looked into a map, so well-defined is the 
 course of study as explained by M. de Fivas." (Literary Gazette.) 
 
 This Grammar is the most systematic and distinct that we have seen : the 
 work is simple in its arrangement ; clear and precise in its definitions ; and the 
 Exercises under each head, most appropriate and useful." (Chronicle.) 
 
 "Its precision and conciseness are admirable. We cordially recommend it to 
 Teachers and Students. Its excellence cannot fail to secure it an established 
 reputation." (Standard.) 
 
 " This Grammar is the cheapest, most concise, philosophical, and satisfactory 
 which has come under our notice" (Edinburgh Journal.) 
 
 " The distinguishing features of this work are, its embodiment of the latest 
 changes and modifications of the French Language. In the writing and arrange- 
 ment of the work, M. de Fivas has displayed great skill." (Scotsman.) 
 
 " This is an excellent book lucid and comprehensive. It contains the latest 
 improvements made by the French Academicians." (Gateshead Observer.) 
 
 ^ "In this work everything is plain and clear to the most obtuse understand- 
 ing ; the Exercises are excellent, being individually easily understood, and con- 
 secutively so arranged as to carry the pupil step by step to a thorough acquaint- 
 ance with the language. One of the best recommendations of this well-written 
 Grammar is, that it is framed on the orthography and practice of the language at 
 the present day, which we do not believe to be the case with 5 out of the 100 at 
 present in use. 1 ' (Tyne Mercury.) 
 
 " This Is, beyond comparison, the best French Grammar we have ever met 
 with. It contains everything necessary to a thorough knowledge of the Ian- 
 guage." (Dublin Monitor.) 
 
 From Professor MARCEL " J'ai parcouru votre dernier ouvrage ' Gramimure 
 des Grammaires,' et, frappe de sa clarte" et de sa concision, je lui ai reconnu sous 
 ce rapport une grande superiority sur les autres grammaires, aussi me su;s-je 
 
 empresse" de la recommander & tous ceux qui de'sirent se pe'ne'trer des vrais pi in- 
 cipes de notre langue." 
 From Professor VOGUE. " J'ai lu avec un vif interet votre Grammaire francaise. 
 
 Je me suis convaincu de son merite et de son utilite". Je ne manquerai pus de 
 
 la recommander comme claire, exacte, et complete." 
 From Professor DUMAS." Votre ouvrage bien que peu volumineux est clair ct 
 
 complet. Je ne recommanderai certainement jamais d'autre grammairc." 
 
 From Professor DUVAL. " J'approuve beaucottp votre ouvrage et je me pro- 
 pose d'en faire usage : il est deja entre les mains de plusieurs de mes Sieves." 
 From Professor MESSIEUX " Je me de'cide h donner la pre'fe'rence & votre gram- 
 
 maire, ayant le me'rite d'etre mieux arrange'e, plus claire, et plus correcte que 
 
 celle dont je me sers." 
 From Professor DE CANDOLE. " J'ai cherche" du mal dans votre ouvrage, mais je 
 
 n'en ai pas trouve' ; je me suis fait critique, j'y ai perdu ma peine, car tout e"tait 
 
 juste, vrai. Vous avez retranchd bien des Inutilites dansle commencement, ct dans 
 
 la syntaxe que j'ai parcourue avec soin vous avez franchcment abordd lea diffl- 
 
 Guile's ct fait admirablement sentir les delicatesses de notre langue." 
 
t e i 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE ABBREVIATIONS AND MARKS 
 
 USED IN THE EXERCISES. 
 
 m. stands for masculine. 
 
 ind-2 stands for imperfect. 
 
 f. . . 
 
 feminine. 
 
 ind-3 
 
 
 
 preterite definite. 
 
 sing, or s. 
 
 singular. 
 
 ind-4 
 
 
 
 preterite indefinite. 
 
 pi. . 
 
 
 plural. 
 
 ind-5 
 
 
 
 preterite anterior. 
 
 hm. 
 
 
 h mute. 
 
 ind-6 
 
 
 
 pluperfect. 
 
 h asp. 
 
 
 // aspirate. 
 
 ind-7 
 
 
 
 future absolute. 
 
 art. . 
 
 
 article. 
 
 ind-8 
 
 
 
 future anterior. 
 
 pr. or pi 
 
 ep. 
 
 preposition. 
 
 cond-1 
 
 
 conditional present- 
 
 pron. 
 
 
 pronoun. 
 
 cond-2 
 
 
 conditional past. 
 
 inf-1 . 
 
 
 present of the infmi- 
 
 imp. . 
 
 
 imperative. 
 
 inf-2 . 
 
 
 infinitive past. [tive. 
 
 subj-1. 
 
 
 present of the sub- 
 
 inf-3 . 
 
 
 participle present. 
 
 
 
 junctive. 
 
 inf-4 . 
 
 
 participle past. 
 
 subj-2. 
 
 
 imperfect. 
 
 ind-1 
 
 
 present of the indi- 
 
 subj-3. 
 
 
 preterite. 
 
 cative. 
 
 subj-4. 
 
 
 pluperfect. 
 
 ACAD. for Academle francaise (French Academy), a learned 
 Society, a literary Parliament, the highest authority on the French 
 language. 
 
 The small figures 1, 2, 3, point out the order of the French construc- 
 tion when it differs from the English. The larger figures 32, 47, etc. 
 refer to the rule with that number, and which the student will do well 
 to consult in cases of doubt. 
 
 * The asterisk, or little star, denotes that the English word under 
 which it is placed, is to be omitted in French. 
 
 The line placed under an English word indicates that it is the 
 
 same in French. 
 
 ( ) When several English words are included within a parenthesis, 
 they must be translated by the French word or words placed under them. 
 
 The English words printed in italics, are those to which the rules 
 prefixed must be applied. 
 
 The substantives are generally given in the singular, the adjectives in 
 the masculine singular, and the verbs in the present of the infinitive, 
 the student being expected to put them in their proper gender, number, 
 tense, and person. 
 
 N. B. The student should make himself well acquainted with the use 
 of the Apostrophe, page 9 with the Contraction of the article, p. 14 
 and, with the General rule for the place of personal pronouns, p. 237 
 The knowledge of these points will greatly facilitate his studies. 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 OF 
 
 FRENCH GRAMMARS. 
 
 Bien parler annonce la bonne Education ; 
 Bien e"crire annonce de 1'esprit. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. GRAMMAR is the art which teaches to speak and 
 write a language correctly. 
 
 To speak and to write, we make use of words. 
 Words are composed of one or more syllables ; and 
 syllables are composed of one or more letters. 
 
 2. The French Alphabet contains 25 letters, viz. : 
 
 ABCDEFGIIIJKLM 
 
 Names: ah bay say day a eff *jay ash e *jce kah ell emm 
 
 NOPQR STUVX Y Z. 
 
 enn o pay kuf err ess tay uf vay eeks eegrec zaid. 
 
 [Appellation A. BCDEFGHIJKLM 
 
 L usuelle: a b g cc - &<$ cffe ge - ac h e i ji ka elle emme 
 
 NOPQR STUVX YZ. 
 
 enne o p6 ku erre esse t6 u .ve" iks igrec zede.~l 
 
 Academic frangaise.j 
 
 3. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
 The vowels are A, E, I, 0, U, and Y, which sometimes 
 has the sound of one t, and sometimes of two. All the 
 other letters are consonants. 
 
 The French make use of the W only in words bor- 
 rowed from other languages ; as, Washington, whist. 
 
 *j lias here the sound of s mpleasure. 
 
 t The sound of u must be learned from the Teacher ; unless you know how to 
 pronounce u in the Scotch words gude (good), or schule (school). 
 
OF ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS. 
 
 OF ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS. 
 
 4. THE orthographical signs used in the French lan- 
 guage are, the accents, the apostrophe, the hyphen, the 
 di&resis, the cedilla, the parenthesis, and the different 
 marks of punctuation. 
 
 OF THE ACCENTS. 
 
 5. Accents are small marks placed upon vowels, either 
 to point out their true pronunciation, or to distinguish the 
 meaning of one word from that of another which is spelt 
 alike, but has a different meaning. Ex. pecke, peach ; 
 peche, sin ; pecker, to fish ; pecker, to sin. 
 
 6. There are three accents in French, the acute, the 
 grave, and the circumflex. 
 
 7. The acute accent (') is never used but over the 
 vowel e, as in verite, truth ; ete, summer ; cafe, coffee. 
 
 8. The grave accent ( ' ) is used over the vowels a, e, u, 
 as in voila, there is ; pere, father ; regie, rule ; ou, where. 
 It is placed 
 
 Over the preposition a, to, in order to distinguish it 
 from the third person singular of the verb avoir, il a, he 
 has; 
 
 Over the adverb la, there, to distinguish it from the 
 article la, the, or the pronoun la, her, it ; 
 
 Over the adverb or pronoun ou, (where, in which, to 
 which), to distinguish it from the conjunction ou, or ; 
 
 Over the preposition des, from, since, to distinguish it 
 from the compound article des, of the, some. 
 
 9. The circumflex accent ( A ) is used with any of the 
 vowels, the sound of which it always lengthens; as in 
 age, age ; tele, head ; e'ptire, epistle ; dome, cupola ; flute, 
 flute ; apotre, apostle. It is placed 
 
 Over the adjective sur, sure, to distinguish it from the 
 preposition sur, upon ; 
 
 Over the adjective mur, ripe, to distinguish it from 
 the substantive mur, wall; 
 
OF THE APOSTROPHE. 9 
 
 Over du, participle past of devoir, to owe, to distin- 
 guish it from the compound article du, of the, some ; but 
 the accent is only used in the singular masculine of the 
 participle, as there can be no mistake in the feminine 
 . singular, nor in the plural of either gender ; 
 
 Over tu, participle past of laire, to be silent, to dis- 
 tinguish it from the pronoun tu, thou ; 
 
 Over cru, past participle of croitre, to grow, to distin- 
 guish it from cru, past participle of croire, to believe. 
 
 OF THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 10. The Apostrophe is a small mark in the form of a 
 comma ( ' ), which is placed over the line between two 
 letters, to point out the elision or suppression of a vowel 
 at the end of a word before another word beginning with 
 a vowel, or h mute, as in Vdme, the soul ; I'homme, the 
 man ; s'il, if he ; instead of la dme, le homme, si il. 
 
 A, E, I, are the only vowels liable to be thus cut off. 
 
 11. The A is suppressed only in la, article or pronoun. 
 
 12. The elision of the E occurs, not only in the mascu- 
 line article and pronoun le, but also in the monosyllables 
 je, me, te, se, ce, de, ne, que ; and, moreover 
 
 (1.) Injusque, before a, au, aux, id; as, jusqu'a Rome. 
 
 (2.) In lorsque, puisque, and quoique, before il, Us, elle, 
 elles, on, un, une, or a word with which these conjunctions 
 are immediately connected; as Lorsqu'ils viendront. 
 Puisqu'ainsi est. Puisqu'il le vent. Quoiqu'elle soit. 
 
 (3.) In quelque, before un, une ; as, quelqu'un, quel- 
 qu'une ; and also in quel qu'il soit, quelle qu'elle soit. But 
 we write quelque autre ; quelque historien. 
 
 (4.) In presque, in the compound word presqu'ile, pen- 
 insula ; and likewise in grande, in the words grand'mere 
 and grand'tante. 
 
 We also say and write: La grand' messe. Avoir 
 grand 'faim. Faire grand' chere. C'est grand 'pitie. 
 II eut grand'peur. Ce rfest pas grand 'chose. 
 
 13. The I is cut off only in the conjunction si (if) 
 before the pronoun il and its plural z7s, but never before 
 elle or elles, nor any other word whatever. 
 
10 OF THE HYPHEN, DL&RESIS, AND CEDILLA. 
 
 14. But no elision of the a or e takes place in le, la, de, 
 ce, que, before oui, huit, huitame, huitieme, onze, and on- 
 zieme ; neither in the pronouns le or la, after a verb in 
 the imperative mood, nor in the adverb la : so we say, le 
 oui et le non ; le huit ou le onze du mois ; menez-le a Paris ; 
 ira-t-il la avec vous ? 
 
 15. The final e of the preposition entre is retained be- 
 fore the pronouns eux^ elles, and before autres ; and is 
 only retrenched when entre forms a compound word with 
 another word beginning with a vowel; as entr'acte, 
 entr'ouvrir, s'entr* accuser, ^entr 1 aider. 
 
 OF THE HYPHEN. 
 
 16. The Hyphen (in French, tiret or trait a" union) is a 
 short horizontal line, thus - , which is used principally 
 in connecting compound words, and between a verb and 
 a pronoun, when a question is asked, as in arc-en-del, 
 rainbow ; chef-d'oeuvre, master-piece ; parlez-vous f do 
 you speak ? avez-vous ? have you ? 
 
 OF THE DIAERESIS. 
 
 17. The Diaresis (in French, tre'ma or dierese) is a 
 mark of two points, thus , put over the vowels e, i, u, to 
 intimate that they form a distinct syllable from the 
 vowels that precede them, as in the words clgue, hem- 
 lock ; Mo'ise, Moses ; Saul, Saul j which are pronounced 
 Ci-gu-e, Mo-ise, Sa-ul. 
 
 OF THE CEDILLA. 
 
 18. The Cedilla is a small mark placed under the letter 
 (7, to indicate that it is to be pronounced like S, before 
 the vowels A, o, u, as in Franqais, French ; gar$on, 
 boy ; macron, mason ; regu, received. 
 
 The signs of punctuation, and all other marks and cha- 
 racters, are the same in French as in English. 
 
OF NUMBER, CASES, AND GENDER. 11 
 
 OF NUMBER. 
 
 19. There are two numbers in French ; the singular 
 and the plural. The singular denotes one person or thing ; 
 the plural denotes more than one. 
 
 OF CASES. 
 
 20. The French language has no Cases, properly so 
 called, and consequently no declensions. The French 
 express by prepositions, and especially by de (of or from), 
 and a (to or at), the relations which the Greeks and 
 the Romans indicated by the change of the different ter- 
 minations of their nouns. 
 
 OF GENDER. 
 
 21. The French language has only two genders, the 
 masculine and the feminine. The gender of animate or 
 living beings presents no difficulty, as all males are mas- 
 culine, and all females are feminine ; but it is only by 
 practice that one can learn the gender of inanimate ob- 
 jects, and of animals whose names are the same for the 
 male and female, such as elephant, elephant ; buffle, buf- 
 falo ; cygne, swan ; perdrix, partridge ; bakine, whale ; 
 twite, trout; saumon, salmon. 
 
 It is not possible to give general and precise rules by 
 means of which one may, on every occasion, distinguish 
 the gender of a noun from its mere aspect. Several 
 Grammarians, however, have given treatises on the 
 genders ; but those treatises are extremely incomplete ; 
 some of their rules are vague, and above all liable to 
 numberless exceptions. The truth is, the perfect know- 
 ledge of the gender of substantives can only be the work 
 of time. It is by reading with attention, and by having 
 recourse, in cases of doubt, to a dictionary, that one will 
 insensibly acquire a complete knowledge of the genders. 
 Nevertheless in cases of doubt, and in the absence of a 
 
12 OF GENDER. 
 
 dictionary, it may be of some practical utility to know 
 that about nine tenths of the nouns ending in e not ac- 
 cented are feminine ; the final e mute being, in French, 
 the distinctive mark of the feminine gender. 
 
 The French call the termination in e mute, a feminine 
 termination ; any other is called masculine. This dis- 
 tinction arises probably from the circumstance that most 
 nouns of the feminine gender end with an e mute ; thus, la 
 table, la rue, la plante, la tete, la fenetre, la chambre, la 
 plume, I'encre. 
 
 22. Names of states, empires, kingdoms, and provinces 
 are of the gender which their terminations indicate ; thus : 
 Danemarck, Pie'mont, Tyrol, Portugal, etc., are masculine ; 
 but : Angleterre, Irlande, Ecosse, France, Espagne, Italie, 
 Suisse, Belgique, Hollande, Allemagne, Prusse, etc. which 
 end in e mute, are feminine. Le Hanovre, le Bengale, le 
 Mexique, and perhaps a few more, are exceptions. 
 
 23. The preceding rule is applicable to towns ; every 
 name of a town ending with an e mute is generally femi- 
 nine, any other termination is masculine ; thus : Rorne, 
 Mantoue, Toulouse, Marseille, are feminine ; but : Paris, 
 Lyon, Rouen, Toulon, Amsterdam, are masculine. Jem* 
 salem is feminine ; Londres is masculine. So we say, 
 Londres est florissant; Marseille est jlorissante. 
 
 But, when one is uncertain of the gender of a town, 
 the best way to get out of the difficulty is to put the word 
 ville before the name of the town, and say : la ville de 
 Bruxelles, la ville de Lisbonne, etc. 
 
 24. To the student who understands Latin, it may not 
 be unimportant to know, that of nouns derived from that 
 language, those from feminine nouns are mostly feminine, 
 and those from masculine or neuter nouns, masculine ; as 
 foi from fides, loi from lex, fourmi from formica, genie 
 from genius, college from collegium, poeme from poema, 
 incendie from incendium, fleuve from fluvius, &c. 
 
 The gender of Nouns has been generally marked, in 
 the Exercises throughout this work, in order to facilitate 
 the acquirement of this part of French Grammar. 
 
13 
 
 PART I, 
 
 25. There are, in French, as in English, nine sorts of 
 words, usually called PARTS OF SPEECH ; namely, 
 
 1. ARTICLE. 
 
 2. SUBSTANTIVE or NOUN. 
 
 3. ADJECTIVE, 
 
 4. PRONOUN. 
 
 5. VERB. 
 
 6. ADVERB. 
 
 7. PREPOSITION. 
 
 8. CONJUNCTION. 
 
 9. INTERJECTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 26. The Article is a word placed before a noun, to 
 point it out, and to show the extent of its meaning. 
 
 The French article is le, la, les, the. 
 
 As the French language has borrowed much from the 
 Latin, there is every reason to think that we have formed 
 our le and our la from the pronoun ille, ilia, illud. From 
 the last syllable of the masculine word ille, we have made 
 le ; and from the last syllable of the feminine ilia, we 
 have made la- it is thus also that from the first syllable 
 of that word, we have made our pronoun il (he), which 
 we use with verbs, as likewise from the feminine ilia we 
 have made elle (she). 
 
 We use le before substantives masculine in the singu- 
 lar ; la before substantives feminine, also in the singular ; 
 and, as the letter s, in the French language, is the sign 
 of the plural when it is added to the singular, we have 
 formed les from the singular le. Les serves equally for 
 both genders. 
 
 When le or la comes before a noun beginning with a 
 vowel or h mute, the e or a is cut off, and an apostrophe 
 is put instead of the letter omitted, (See page 9.) 
 
14 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 27. From the foregoing remarks it follows that the 
 learner is to translate the English article 
 
 (le before a noun masculine singular. 
 
 \ la before a noun feminine singular. 
 The, by < r before a noun, either masculine or feminine 
 
 j singular, beginning with a vowel or h mute. 
 
 \les before any noun in the plural. 
 A or an is trans- f un before a noun masculine, 
 lated by : ( une before a noun feminine. 
 
 28. The English prepositions to and at are generally 
 rendered In French by a ; and of and from by de, or d 1 if 
 the word begins with a vowel or an h mute. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 The father. The mother. The children. The brother 
 
 pere m. mere f. enfants pi. frere m. 
 
 The sister. The uncle. The aunt. The relations. A son. 
 
 soeur f. oncle m. tante f. parents pi. fils m. 
 
 A daughter. The man. The women. . A boy. 
 
 fille f. homme h.m. femmes pi. gargon m. 
 
 The day. The night The sun. TAe moon. The 
 
 jour m. nuit f. so?ei7 m. Zw 
 
 stars. A history. The school. A book. The page. 
 etoiles pi. histoire f. ^coZe f. Zwre m. 
 
 29. CONTRACTION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Whenever the prepositions a (to or at) or de (of or from) 
 precede the article le before a noun masculine singular, 
 beginning with a consonant or h aspirate, a le is contracted 
 into au, and de le into du ; and before plural nouns of either 
 gender, a les is changed into aux, and de les into des. 
 
 A and de are not contracted with le before nouns 
 which begin with a vowel or h mute, but then the article 
 suffers elision. 
 
 Nor are d and de ever contracted with la. 
 
 The learner will therefore translate 
 
 (before a noun masculine singular, beginning 
 To the, 
 
 or 
 
 a tfAtf, 
 
 ( with a consonant, or h aspirate, 
 . 7 f before a noun feminine singular, beginning 
 
 <. with a consonant, or h aspirate^ 
 ^ 7, f before a noun masculine or feminine, in the 
 
 ( singular, beginning with a vowel, or h mute, 
 before any noun in the plural. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 1 5 
 
 f , f before a noun masculine singular, beginning 
 nf ,j \ with a consonant, or h aspirate. 
 
 * . ' I j 7 /before a noun feminine singular, beginning 
 f . 01 // { t with a consonant, or h aspirate^ 
 from me, I _ r before a noun masculine or feminine, in the 
 ( singular, beginning with a vowel, or h mute. 
 [ des before any noun in the plural. 
 
 To a, to an, ( ^ un before a noun masculine. 
 bcfore a noun femiuine ' 
 
 Of or from a f d' un before a noun masculine. 
 or an, by ( d' une before a noun feminine. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 To the king. To the queen. To the hero. To the scholars. 
 
 roi m. reine f. heros h asp. ecoliers pi. 
 
 Of the master. Of the house. Of the church. Of the coat. 
 
 maitre m. maison f. eglise f. habit h m. 
 
 Of the curtains. To a dictionary. Of a grammar. To a pen. 
 
 rideaux pi. dictionnairem. grammairef. plume f. 
 Of a penknife.^ the hotel. From the garden. To the 
 
 canif m. hotel h m. jar din in. 
 
 town. Of the harp. To a watch. From a clock. 
 mile f. harpe f. h asp. montre f. horloge f. 
 
 Of the ladies. At an inn. From a village to a town. 
 
 dames pi. auberge f. - m. 
 
 GENERAL RULES ON THE ARTICLE. 
 
 30. I. The article must always agree in gender and 
 number with its noun. 
 
 31. II. The article and the prepositions a and de, whe- 
 ther contracted or not, are generally repeated in French 
 before every noun, although often omitted in English. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Le Us est le symbole de la candeur, 
 de ^'innocence, et de la puretd. 
 
 The lily is the emblem of candour, 
 innocence, and purity* 
 
 EXERCISE HI. 
 
 The lion is the king of animals. The fox is the 
 
 m. est roi m. art. animaux pi. renardm. 
 emblem of cunning. The rose is the queen of flowers. 
 embleme m. art. ruse f. f. reine f. art. fleurs pi. 
 
16 OP THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Idleness is the mother of all vices. The love of 
 art. paresse f. mere f. de tons art. pi. amour m. 
 
 life is natural to man. She (is learning) 
 
 art. vie L naturel art. homme h m. Elle apprend 
 
 drawing 1 , music, and dancing I write to the 
 
 art. dessin m. art. musique f. et art. danse f . J'ecris 
 
 nephew and the niece. The Creator of heaven and 
 neveu m. pr. niece f. Createur m. art. del m. 
 
 earth The vigour of mind and body. 
 
 pr. art. terre f. vigueur f, art. esprit in. pr. art. corps m. 
 
 32. III. OF THE ARTICLE du } de la, de l\ deSj USED IN A 
 PARTITIVE SENSE, t. e. implying a part, not the whole. 
 
 Du for the masculine, de la for the feminine, de V be- 
 fore a vowel or h mute, des for the plural, answering to 
 the English words SOME or ANY, expressed or understood, 
 must be repeated before every noun in French. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Envoyez-nous du pain, de la viande, 
 
 et des pommes de terre. 
 Avez-vous de la monnaie ? 
 
 Send us some bread, meat, and 
 
 potatoes. 
 Have you got any change 1 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 
 Give me some paper, ink, and pens. Take 
 Donnez-moi papier m. encre f. et plumes pi. Prenez 
 
 some tea or coffee. Put in some sugar and cream. 
 the m. ou cafe m. Mettez-y sucre m. creme f. 
 
 Offer him some cheese, eggs, butter, and milk. 
 Offrez-lui fromage m. ozufs pi. beurre m. lait m. 
 
 Drink some wine, some beer, or some water. Eat 
 Buvez vin m. biere f. eau f. Mangez 
 
 some hash. Bring me some oil, mustard, 
 
 hacliis m. h asp. Apportez-moi huilehm. moutardef. 
 
 pepper, and salt Have you got any money ? Has she any 
 poivrera. selm. Avez-vous argent m. A-t-elle 
 
 wool or thread ? Is there any ripe fruit in the garden ? 
 laine f. fil m. Y a-t-il a miir 1 m. dans jardin m. 
 
 Yes ; there are apricots, peaches, pears, and apples. 
 il y a qbricots, peches t poiresj pommes, 
 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 17 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN. 
 
 33. A Substantive or Noun is the name of any person 
 or thing that exists, or of which we have any notion ; as, 
 Alexandre, Alexander; Londres, London; homme, man ; 
 maison, house ; vertu, virtue. 
 
 Substantives are either proper or common. 
 
 The substantive proper, or proper name, is the name 
 appropriated to one person, or one thing only ; as, Calvin, 
 Milton, France, Paris, Dublin. 
 
 The common noun is that which belongs to persons, or 
 things of the same kind ; as, homme, man ; arbre, tree ; 
 which appellation equally suits all men, all trees. 
 
 Among common nouns, we must distinguish the col- 
 lective nouns ; so called, because, although used in the 
 singular number, they present to the mind the idea of 
 several persons or things. 
 
 Collective nouns are divided into general and partitive. 
 The former express a whole body ; as, armee, army ; 
 foret, forest. The latter express only a partial number ; 
 as, multitude, multitude ; quantite, quantity. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF 
 FRENCH SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 34. THE plural of Substantives, either masculine or 
 feminine, is formed by adding an s to the singular ; as, 
 
 le pre, the father. 
 la mere, the mother. 
 1'enfant, the child. 
 le moment, the moment. 
 
 les peres, the fathers. 
 les meres, the mothers. 
 les enfants,* the children.' 
 les moments,* the moments. 
 
 * It was formerly a general practice, and it is still retained by some, to leave out 
 the / in the plural of nouns and adjectives ending in ant and ent, but at the present 
 day the adjective tout (all) is the only word in which the French Academy drops 
 the t in the plural masculine; as, 
 
 Tous les parents. All the relations. 
 
 Tous les habitants. (Acadtmie.) All the inhabitants. 
 
 To tout might be added gent, plural gens; but gent singular is only used in familiar 
 poetry ; as, la gent mar&cageuse, the marshy tribe. 
 
 B 
 
18 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS TO THE GENERAL RULE. 
 
 35. EXCEPTION I. Nouns ending in s, a?, or z, in the 
 singular, remain the same in the plural ; as, 
 
 le lis, the lily. 
 la voix, the voice. 
 le nez, the nose. 
 
 les liSj the lilies. 
 les voix, the voices. 
 les nez, the noses. 
 
 EXERCISE V. 
 
 The trees of their orchards. The flowers of our gardens. 
 
 arbre leurs verger fleur nos jar din 
 
 The palaces of the kings. Buy me four pounds of walnuts. 
 
 palais roi Achetez-moi quatre livre noix 
 
 The fashions of the French. The crosses of the knights. 
 
 mode Fran$ais croix chevalier 
 
 The laws of those countries. The movements of the armies. 
 
 loi ces pays mouvement armee 
 
 The spoons and forks are on the table. He has 
 
 cuiller et Sirt.fourchette sont sur f. II a 
 
 three sons and two daughters. The lilies of tlic fields, 
 trois fils deux fdle champ 
 
 36. EXCEPTION II. Nouns ending in aw, cu, 0211, or OM, 
 take an x instead of an s in the plural ; as, 
 
 cliapeau, hat. 
 jeu, game. 
 
 voeu, vow. 
 
 bijou, jewel. 
 
 "ou, owl. 
 
 bijc 
 hib 
 
 chapeaux, hats. 
 
 jeux, games. 
 
 vceux, vows. 
 
 bijoux, jewels. 
 
 hiboux, owls. 
 
 37. The following nouns in ow, conform to the general 
 rule, taking an s in the plural : 
 
 clou, nail. 
 
 coucou, cuckoo. 
 
 filou, pickpocket. 
 
 ton, fool. 
 
 licou, halter. 
 
 sou, penny. 
 
 trou, hole. 
 
 verrou, bolt. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. 
 
 A fleet of twenty ships. The boats of the sailors. 
 
 flotte f. vingt vaisseau bateau matelot 
 
 He (found himself) between two fires. Owls are 
 11 se trouva entre deux feu art. sont des 
 
 nocturnal birds. The knives are on the sideboard. 
 ^nocturnes l oiseau couteau sur buffet m, 
 (There are) many pickpockets in London and Paiis. 
 II y a beaucoup de filou a Londres el a 
 
OP THE SUBSTANTIVE. 19 
 
 Fill up those holes. Give him six pence. Our doors 
 lemplissez ces Donnez-lui sou Nos porte 
 
 ave bolts. He has sold the pictures and the jewels, 
 mt 32 verrou vendu tableau 
 
 38. EXCEPTION III. Most nouns ending in al or ail 
 a the singular, form their plural by changing the final 
 I or ail into aux; as, 
 
 canal, canal. 
 hopital, hospital. 
 travail, work. 
 
 canaux, canals. 
 hopitaux, hospitals. 
 travaux, works. 
 
 ttirail, apparatus, imple- 
 al, ball. [ments. 
 
 arnaval, carnival. 
 
 39. The following nouns in al and ail take an s in the 
 Jural : 
 
 eventail, fan. 
 gouvernail, nelm, rudder. 
 pprtail, portal, 
 detail, particulars. regal, treat. 
 
 40. AIEUL, CIEL, CEIL, have two plurals. 
 
 Hngular. Meaning. Plural. 
 
 a'eul -f ran( lfather, --...- a'ieuls. 
 
 \ ancestor, forefather, ----- aieux. 
 
 i fsky, heaven, deux. 
 
 \ sky in a picture ; or, tester of a bed, - - dels, 
 ceil eye, -------- i'ux. 
 
 (osil-de-bosuf, bull's-eye, (architectural term), makes in the 
 
 plural, ceils-de-bmuj.) 
 
 Betail, subst. masc. sing., and Bestiaux, subst. masc. pi., are 
 synonymous, both meaning cattle. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. 
 
 The horses of the generals. The marshals of France. 
 
 cheval general marechal 
 
 'he English admirals These corals are beautiful. The balls 
 ^anglais *amiral Ces corail sont superbes. bal 
 
 f the nobility. He sells fans. Our Saviour 
 
 noblesse f. II vend 32 eventail Notre Sauveur 
 scended into heaven in presence of his disciples Open 
 
 monta a art. del pi. en presence de ses Ouvrez 
 
 our eyes She has the portraits of her two grandfathers. 
 
 * art. ceil Elle a ses deux 
 
 - His forefathers have filled high stations. 
 
 qnt rempli de grandes charges. 
 
20 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 CHAPTER ITI. 
 OP THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 il. As Adjective is a word which expresses some 
 quality or distinction ascribed to a substantive. 
 
 Adjective, from the Latin adjectus, signifies added to. 
 
 A word is known to be an adjective, when it can be 
 properly joined with the word personne, person; or chose, 
 thing. Thus, fidcle, faithful, and agreable, agreeable, 
 are adjectives, because we can say, une personne fidele, a 
 faithful person ; une chose agredble, an agreeable thing. 
 
 In English, the adjectives never vary on account of 
 gender and number, but in French they change their 
 termination, in order to agree, in gender and number, 
 with the nouns or pronouns to which they relate, 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF THE FEMININE OF 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 4.2. The feminine of adjectives is formed by adding an 
 e mute to the masculine singular ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 prudent, prudonte, prudent. 
 
 grand, grande, great. 
 
 court, courte, short. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 joli, jolie, pretty. 
 
 age, agee, old, aged. 
 
 petit, petite, little, small. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 43. EXCEPTION I. Adjectives ending in e mute (that 
 is, e not accented), remain the same in the feminine ; as, 
 
 an jciuic garyon, a young boy. \ une jcune fillc. a young girl. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. 
 
 Their house is small, but it is very pretty.- 
 Leur maison f. est mats elle est tres 
 
 Tlrnt street is narrow and dark. The meat is cold; the 
 Celte rue f. etroit et obscur viande f. froid 
 
 water is hot. This pear (is not) ripe. Avoid 
 eau f. chaud Cette poire f. n'est pas miir Evitez \ 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 21 
 
 bad company. That girl is very cunning. She 
 
 art. mauvais compagnie, f. filie f. ruse!' Elle 
 
 has a black gown and a red scarf. The eldest sister 
 
 a *noir *robe f. 2 roitge l echarpe f. 2 aine l sosur 
 
 is a model of filial piety (She is) a clever woman. 
 
 modelem. 2 l pietef. C'est habile femme. 
 
 44. EXCEPTION II. Adjectives ending in / change 
 that letter into ve for the feminine ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 actif, active, active. 
 
 bref, breve, brief, short. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 neuf, neuve, new. 
 
 vif, vive, lively. 
 
 45. EXCEPTION III. Adjectives ending in x change 
 the x into se ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 heureux, heureuse, happy. 
 jaloux, jalouse, jealous. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 paresseux, paresseuse, idle. 
 vertueux, vertueuse, virtuous. 
 
 46. The following in x form their feminine thus : 
 
 Masc. Fein. 
 
 doux, douce, sweet, mild. 
 
 faux, fausse, false. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 roux, rousse, red. 
 
 vieux, vieille, old. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 
 Is she attentive f Catherine de Medicis was ambitious, 
 
 Est-elle attentif etait ambitieux 
 
 \impcripus, and superstitious; shewasanafa'pe of Florence. 
 
 imperieux et superstitieux * natif de 
 
 ! Joshua (brought down) the walls of the proud Jericho 
 
 | Josue fit tomber mur orgueilleux Jericho f. 
 
 iThe Italian language is sweet and harmonious. That 
 
 Htalienne Hangue f. doux harmonieux Cctle 
 
 news is false. The new tower is in the old town. 
 
 \nouvellef. faux 2 neuf Hour f. dans vieux ville f. 
 
 47. EXCEPTION IV. Adjectives ending in eZ, cil, icn, 
 on, and et, form their feminine by doubling the last con- 
 sonant, and adding an e mute after it ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 cruel, cruelle, cruel. 
 
 pareil, pareille, similar. 
 
 aucien, ancienne, ancient. 
 
 Masc. Fem. 
 chretien, chretienne, Christian. 
 bon, bonne, good 
 net, nette, clean 
 
 Fret, ready, makes prete in the feminine. 
 
22 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 48. The following adjectives in et and er follow the 
 general rule, but take a grave accent over the e before 
 the final t or r in the feminine : 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 complet, complete, complete. 
 
 incomplet, incomplete, incomplete. 
 
 discret, discrete, discreet. 
 
 indiscvet, indiscrete, indiscreet. 
 
 inquiet, inquiete, uneasy. 
 
 secret, secrete, secret. 
 
 cher, chere, dear. 
 
 fier, ^ fiere, proud. 
 
 premier, premiere, first. 
 
 dernier, derniere, last. 
 
 EXERCISE X. 
 The soul is immortal. I (am reading) ancient history. 
 
 dme f . est immortel Je Us &Yt,Jancien l histoiref.hm. 
 We are in the nineteenth century of the Christian 
 Nous sommes dans dix-neuvieme siecle m. Chretien 
 
 era. She (is not) pretty, but she is good. That poor 
 l ere f. Elle n'est pas joli mais est Cette pauvre 
 
 woman is dumb. Are you ready, my dear sister ? Your 
 femme muet Etes-vous ma sceur f Votre 
 
 mother is very uneasy That person is extremely indiscreet, 
 mere tres personnel, extremement 
 
 49. EXCEPTION V. Adjectives ending in eur, formed 
 from a participle present by the change of ant into eur % 
 make euse in the feminine ; as, 
 
 Participle. Masc. Fem. 
 
 connaisseur, connaisseuse, knowing, a judge. 
 
 flatteur, flatteuse, flattering, a flatterer. 
 
 menteur, menteuse, lying, a liar. 
 trompantf, trompeur, trompeuse, deceiving, deceitful. 
 
 OBSERVATION. Words of this sort are real adjectives, though for the most part 
 used as substantives. About a hundred of them follow this rule. 
 
 50. The following must be excepted, as they form their 
 feminine by changing ewrinto eresse: 
 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 demandeur, demanderesse, a plaintiff. 
 
 defendeur, defender esse, a defendant. 
 
 enchanteur, enchanteresse* enchanting. 
 
 pecheur, pecheresse, a sinner. 
 
 vengeur, vengeresse, avenging, an avenger. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 23 
 
 61. Inventeur, inventor; inspecteur, inspector; per- 
 secuteur, persecutor, make, in the feminine, inventrice, 
 inspectrice, and persecutrice. 
 
 52. As to the adjectives, or rather nouns used adjec- 
 tively, ending in teur, which, though derived from 
 verbs, are not formed from a participle present, by the 
 change of ant into eur, they change teur into trice for the 
 feminine ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 accusateur, accusatfnce, an accuser. 
 
 bienfaiteur, bienfaitfn'ce, a benefactor, a benefactress. 
 
 conducteur, conductfrute, a conductor, a conductress. 
 
 instituteur, institutfnce, a schoolmaster, a governess. 
 
 Upwards of fifty nouns follow this rule. 
 
 Those who know Latin will see that most nouns ending in teur and trice are 
 derived from the Latin words in tor and trix; as, accusator, accusatrix, etc. 
 
 53. Adjectives ending in eur, not derived from verbs, 
 and conveying an idea of opposition or comparison, follow 
 the general rule of taking an e mute in the feminine ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 apterieur, anterieure, anterior. 
 citerieur, citerieure, citerior. 
 exterieur, exterieure, exterior. 
 interieur, interieure, interior. 
 inferieur, inferieure, inferior. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 majeur, majeure, major. 
 mineur, mineure, minor. 
 
 superieur, superieure, superior. 
 ulterieur, ulterieure, ulterior. 
 
 meilleur, meilleure, better. 
 
 54. Empereur, 'emperor; ambassadeur, ambassador; 
 gouverneur, governor; serviteur, servant, make in the femi- 
 nine imperatrice, ambassadricej gouvernante, servante. 
 
 Chasseur, hunter, has two feminines chasseuse in 
 prose, and chasseresse in poetry. 
 
 Chanteur, singer, has also two feminines clianteuse 
 and cantatrlce. The latter is used in speaking of an emi- 
 nent professional female vocalist. 
 
 55. Words expressing professions, trades, &c., usually 
 followed by men, have no feminine, even when exercised 
 by women ; as, 
 
 graveur, an engraver. \ irnprimeur, a printer. 
 sculpteur, a sculptor. docteur, a doctor. 
 
24 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 professeur, 
 auteur, 
 
 a professor. 
 an author. 
 
 traducteur, 
 &c. 
 
 a translator. 
 &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mademoiselle de Schurman, ne'e & Co- 
 logne en 1G06, 6tait pcintre, graveur, 
 sculpteur, geometre.^icT. DE Bio- 
 GRAPHIE.) 
 
 Madame de Stael est un de nos plus 
 grands dcrivains. (BOISTE.) 
 
 Unc femme auteur. (Ac AD.) 
 
 Madame Deshouliercs tait un po'ete 
 aimable.(AcAD.) 
 
 Mademoiselle de Schurman, born at Co- 
 logne in 1606, was a painter, an en- 
 graver, a sculptor, and a geometri- 
 cian. 
 
 Madame de Stael is one of our greatest 
 writers. 
 
 A female author. 
 
 Madame Deshoulieres teas an amiable 
 poetess. 
 
 5" Poetesse, s. f. (a female poet) is a word seldom used (AcAD.) 
 
 EXERCISE XI. 
 
 She is a great talker and a great laugher. Is she 
 C'est grand parleur rieur Est-elle 
 
 quarrelsome ? Joan of Arc was the avenger of France. 
 querelleur Jeanne d'Arc fut vengeur art. - f. 
 
 She is the benefactress of the poor. She is a good actress, 
 C'est bienfaiteur pauvre pi. bon acteur 
 
 and a celebrated 
 celebre 
 
 . Minerva was the protectress of the 
 Minerve etait protecteur 
 
 fine arts -- The city of Troy was in Asia Minor. 
 
 beaux-arts. villef. Troie dans art. Asief. Mineur 
 
 (There is) a superior power That is a flattering promise. 
 II y a 2 supericur l puissance f. C' 2 l promessef. 
 
 56. There are seven adjectives ending in c which form 
 their feminine thus : 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 blanc, blanche, white. 
 caduc, caduque, infirm. 
 franc, franche, frank, open. 
 grec, grecque, Greek, Grecian. 
 
 57. The six following terminations in s take se in the 
 feminine : 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 public, publique, public. 
 sec, seche, dry. 
 turc, turque, Turkish. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 bas, basse, low. 
 
 epais, epaisse, thick. 
 
 exprus, expresse, express. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 gras, grasse, fat. 
 
 gros, grosse, big. 
 
 las, lasse, tired. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 25 
 
 58. The following adjectives form their feminine ir- 
 regularly : 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 beau, belle,* fine. 
 
 benin, benign e, benign. 
 
 favori, favorite, favourite. 
 
 foil, folle,* foolish. 
 
 frais, fraiche, fresh. 
 
 gentil, gentille, genteel. 
 
 jiniieau, jumelle, twin. 
 
 Masc. Fein. 
 
 long, longue, long. 
 
 malin, maligne, malignant 
 
 mou, molle,* soft. 
 nouvean, nouvelle,* new. 
 
 mil, nulle, null. 
 
 sot, sotte, silly. 
 
 traitre, traitresse, treacherous 
 
 * REMARK. The femmines, belle, folle, molle, nouvelle, are formed from the mas- 
 culines, bcl, fol) mol, nouvel, which are used before a vowel, or h mute. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 
 
 (Here is) a handsome white gown. His public life is 
 Void beau *blanc l robe f. Sa '^public l vie f. est 
 
 irreproachable. This table is too low. This board is 
 irrcprochable. Cette f. trop bas planche f. 
 
 too long and too thick. This soup is too fat. It is 
 long epais soupe f. gras C'est 
 
 a new discovery. Have you seen my favourite flower, 
 nouveau decouverte f. Avez-vous vu ma 2 favori l fleur f. 
 
 the rose, so fresh and so sweet? That is a fine tree. 
 f. si frais doux Voila arbre m. 
 
 PLURAL OF FRENCH ADJECTIVES. 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 59. Adjectives form their plural, like substantives, by 
 the simple addition of an s to the singular ; as, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 grand, masc. grands, \ ft 
 
 grande, fern. grandes, j y 
 
 savant, masc. savants, \- l(>nrr)p(1 
 
 savante,/em. savantes, j ie 
 
 This rule is without any exceptions for the feminine, 
 but the masculine has the three following : 
 
 60. EXCEPTION I. Adjectives ending in s or x do not 
 change their termination in the plural masculine ; as, 
 gras, fat ; gros, big ; heureux, happy. 
 
26 OP THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 61. EXCEPTION II. Adjectives ending in au take x in 
 the plural masculine; as, beau } handsome; nouveau, new; 
 plural, beaux, nouveaux. 
 
 62. EXCEPTION III. Adjectives ending in dl change 
 this termination into aux for the plural masculine; as, 
 egal, equal; moralj moral; plural, c'gaux, moraux. 
 
 A few adjectives ending in al follow the general rule, and take s in the plural, 
 and others have no plural masculine ; but these are adjectives seldom used, 
 
 63. Tout, all, is the only adjective that changes t into s 
 for the plur. masc., but it makes toutes in the plur. fern. 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. 
 
 Give some entertaining books to those pretty little girls. 
 Donnez ^amusant Hivrem. ces joli petit fille 
 
 He has powerful enemies, but their efforts (will be) 
 II a de puissant ennemi m. mais leurs m. seront 
 
 vain and useless. These chickens are big and fat, but those 
 vain et inutile Ces pouletm. sontgros gras 
 
 partridges are very lean. All the general officers were 
 perdrix f. tres maigre Tout * general } ojficier etaient 
 
 present. The old and the new soldiers did won- 
 present vieux soldat firent 32 mer- 
 
 ders. - I agree to all those conditions, they are reasonable. 
 veille Je consens ces f. elles raisonnable 
 
 OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 
 
 64. There are three degrees of comparison; the Positive^ 
 the Comparative, and the Superlative. 
 
 The Positive is the adjective itself, merely expressing 
 the quality of an object, without any comparison ; as, 
 
 Un enfant sage et studieux. \ A well-behaved and studious child. 
 
 EXERCISE XIV. 
 
 She is satisfied with her lot. Merit is modest. 
 Elle est content de son sort. art. merite m. modeste. 
 
 Socrates and Plato were two great philosophers 
 Socrate Platon etaient deux grand philasophe 
 
 Virgil had a fine and delicate taste. The style of 
 Virgile avait *fin *et *delicat l gout m. m. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 27 
 
 Funelon is harmonious The Alps are high and steep. 
 
 est harmonieux. Alpes f. pi. sont haut escarpe 
 
 The city of Rome is full of ancient and modern monuments. 
 mile f. rempli 2 ancien *et *moderne l m. 
 
 65. The Comparative Degree expresses a comparison 
 between two or more objects. There are three sorts of 
 comparatives, viz. of superiority, inferiority, and equality. 
 
 The comparative of superiority is formed by putting 
 the adverb plus, more, before the adjective, and the 
 conjunction que, than, after it ; as, 
 
 Athfenes a 6t6 plus iUustre que \ Athens was more illustrious 
 
 LacSd6mone. than Lacedcemon, 
 
 N.B. The comparative degree is often formed in 
 English by adding r or er to the positive; as, wise, 
 wiser ; great, greater ; and as these letters stand for the 
 adverb more, they must be rendered in French by its 
 corresponding adverb plus ; thus, wiser, plus sage ; 
 greater, plus grand. 
 
 Plus must be repeated before every adjective. 
 
 EXERCISE XV. 
 
 Virtue is more precious than riches. He is 
 
 art. vertu f. est precieux art. richesses pi. 11 
 
 happier than a king He is more fortunate than wise. It is 
 content roi. heureux sage. ll - 
 
 more noble .to forgive than to (avenge one's self). 
 de pardonner de se venger. 
 
 The simplicity of nature is more pleasing than Tall the 
 simpliciie f. art. f. agreable tout 
 
 embellishments of art. London is more populous 
 ornement m. art. Londres m. 
 
 an Paris, but France is larger and more populous than 
 
 mais art. f. grand et 
 
 England. The Thames is deeper than the Seine. 
 art. Angleterre. Tamise f. profond f. 
 
 66. The comparative of inferiority is formed by placing 
 the adverb moins, less, before the adjective, and que, 
 than, after it ; as, 
 
 L'Afrique est moins peuplde gue 1'Europe. I Africa is less populous than Europe. 
 
 Moins is to be repeated before every adjective. 
 
28 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The comparative of inferiority may also be formed by 
 putting the verb in the negative, with si, so, before the 
 adjective, and que, as, after it ; as, 
 
 L'Afriquen'estpasstpeupldetfwel'Europe. \Afnca is not so populous as Europe 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. 
 
 Death is less fatal than the pleasures which attack 
 art. mart f . est funeste plaisir qui attaquent 
 
 virtue. He is less polite and obliging than his brother. 
 art. vertu f. II poll obligeant son frere. 
 
 She is less amiable than her sister. Caesar (was not) less brave 
 
 Elle aimable sa sceur. Cesar n'etait pas 
 
 than Alexander. They are less happy than you think. He 
 
 Alexandre. Us heureux vous ne pensez. 
 
 (is not) so rich as his brother-in-law His familv is much 
 n 1 'est pas riche beau-frere. Sa famillcf. bien 
 
 less numerous than ours. He is less rich than you. 
 nombreux la notre. 
 
 67. The comparative of equality is formed by placing the 
 adverb aussi, as, before the adjective, and que, as, after 
 it; as, 
 
 Arisiide dtait auxi vaillant que juste. | Aristides was as valiant as just. 
 
 Aussi must be repeated before every adjective. 
 
 EXERCISE XVII. 
 Is he as clever, and as docile as his cousin? lie is as 
 
 Est-il habile son m. It est 
 
 tall as you. Your niece is as pretty as that girl. She is 
 grand vous. Votre niece joli cctte fille. 
 
 as good as beautiful. Socrates was as valiant as wise. 
 beau Socrate etait vaillant sage. 
 Cicero was as pious as eloquent. It is as easy to do 
 Ciceron pieux eloquent. II aise defawe 
 
 food as to do evil. History is as useful as 
 ten m. art. mal m. art. histoire h m. utile 
 
 agreeable. This house is as large as yours. 
 agreable. Cette maison f. grand la votre. 
 
 68. The Superlative Degree expresses the quality in 
 the highest or lowest degree. There are two sorts of 
 superlatives, the relative and the absolute. 
 
 The superlative relative expresses a relation or com- 
 parison with another object; it is formed by putting 
 the article fe, fa, les, before the comparative. 
 
OP THE ADJECTIVE. 29 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Le chicn est I'animal le plus fldele. The dog it the most faithful animal. 
 
 Ue sont les homines les plus sages 
 de l'assembl(5e (ACAD.) 
 
 They are the wisest men in the as- 
 sembly. 
 
 The superlative relative may also be formed by placing 
 before the comparative one of the possessive adjectives, 
 won, ma, mes, my; ton, ta, tes, thy; son, sa, ses, his or 
 her ; noire, nos, our ; v otre, vos, your ; leur, leurs, their. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Alonplus puissant protectcur. I My most powerful protector. 
 
 Votreplus grand ennerai. ' Your greatest enemy. 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 
 Gold is the purest, the most precious, the most ductile, 
 
 art. or m. est pur, precieux, 
 
 and, after platina, the heaviest of all metals. 
 
 apres art. platine m. pesant tout art. metal m. 
 
 The least excusable of all errors is that which is 
 
 art. erreur f. celle qui 
 
 wilful The elephant is the strongest of all animals. 
 volontaire. elephant m. fort art. animal m. 
 
 I prefer my house to the finest palace. Our greatest 
 Je prefere ma maison beau palais m. Nos grand 
 
 interests. Your most cruel enemies. My prettiest ring's. 
 interet m. Vos cruel ennemi m. Mes bague f. 
 
 69. The superlative absolute does not imply any relation 
 to another object, but merely expresses the quality in 
 the highest or lowest degree ; it is formed by putting be- 
 fore the adjective one of these words, tres* fortj Men, 
 very ; extremement, extremely ; infiniment, infinitely ; ex- 
 cessivement, excessively ; or any other adverb expressing 
 a very high degree. 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 Mr and Mrs Fox are very happy. They are both very 
 
 heureux. tous deux 
 
 capricious. Dublin is a very large and very fine city. That 
 
 capricieux. est grand beau mile f. Cette 
 
 lady is very charitable He is a very unfortunate man He 
 dame C'cst a s malheureux l homme II 
 
 * Tres, from the Greek r^/f , thrice ; trbs-heureux, thrice happy. 
 t Fort) abbreviation offortemcnt, strongly 
 
30 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 (is not) very clever. This soup is very hot. The 
 n'est pas habile. Cette soupe f. chaud 
 tea and the sugar are very bad. That work 
 the m. sucre m. mauvais. Cet ouvrage m. 
 is very much esteemed by the learned. Madame Dacier 
 * estime de savant m. pi. 
 
 was 
 etait 
 
 extremely 
 
 learned. God is infinitely just. 
 savant Dieu juste. 
 
 70. The adjectives, Ion, mauvais, and petit, and the 
 adverbs, bien, mal, and pen, form their degrees in the 
 following manner : 
 
 g Positive. 
 
 Comjoara^e. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 f bon, good. 
 
 meilleur, better. 
 
 le meilleur, the best. 
 
 o < mauvais, bad. 
 
 pire, tram. 
 
 le pire, Me worst. 
 
 ^ [petit, AWfe 
 
 moindre, less. 
 
 le moindre, Me JeasJ. 
 
 * fbien, well 
 
 mieux, better. 
 
 le mieux, the best. 
 
 o J mal, oac%. 
 
 pis, worse. 
 
 le pis, the worst. 
 
 a 1 peu, WWte. 
 
 moins, less. 
 
 le moins, Me least 
 
 Plus mauvais, plus petit, plus mal, are also used, but 
 never plus Ion, plus lien, plus peu. 
 
 EXERCISE XX. 
 
 That wine is good, but this is better. Lend me 
 
 Ce vinm. est mais celui-ci Pr&tez-moi 
 
 the, best book in your library. He writes ivell, but his 
 
 lime m. de votre bibliotheque. II ecrit sa 
 
 sister writes still better. The life of a slave is worse 
 
 sceur encore vie f. esclave m. 
 
 than death itself. He was a little better, but he is 
 
 que art. mart f. m&me. se portait mais cst 
 
 now worse than ever. She speaks little. Speak less 
 
 maintenant que jamais. parle Parlez 
 
 (It is) his least misfortune. The remedy is worse than 
 (fest son malheur m. remede m. est 
 
 the disease. Temperance is the best doctor. 
 mal m. art. temperance f. medecin m. 
 
 There are some adjectives which have neither compa- 
 ratives nor superlatives, because the qualities which they 
 express are in themselves the highest degree of perfec- 
 tion, worth, etc. ; such are eternel, immortel, supreme, etc, 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 31 
 
 OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 71. The Adjectives of Number are divided into Car- 
 \ dinal and Ordinal. 
 
 The Cardinal numbers are used to count and express 
 : the quantity or number of persons or things. 
 
 The Ordinal numbers mark the order or rank which 
 persons or things hold with regard to one another. 
 
 All numeral adjectives are of both genders, with the 
 exception of un, premier, and second, which take an e in 
 i the feminine. 
 
 CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 1 Un. 
 
 2 Deux. 
 
 3 Trois. 
 
 4 Quatre. 
 
 5 Cinq. 
 
 6 Six. 
 
 7 Sept. 
 
 8 Huit. 
 
 9 Neuf. 
 
 10 Dix. 
 
 11 Onze. 
 
 12 Douze. 
 
 13 Treize. 
 
 14 Quatorze. 
 
 15 Quinze. 
 
 16 Seize. 
 
 17 Dix-sept. 
 
 18 Dix-huit. 
 
 19 Dix-neuf. 
 
 20 Vingt. 
 
 21 Vingt et un. 
 
 22 Vingt-deux. 
 
 23 Vingt-trois. 
 
 24 Vingt-quatre. 
 
 25 Vingt-cinq. 
 
 26 Vingt-six. 
 
 27 Vingt-sept. 
 
 28 Vingt-huit. 
 
 29 Vingt-neuf. 
 
 30 Trente. 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 1 st Premier. 
 
 2 d Second, or Deuxieme. 
 
 3 d Troisieme. 
 
 4 th Quatrieme. 
 
 5 th Cinquieme. 
 
 6 th Sixieme. 
 
 7 th Septieme. 
 
 8 th Huitieme. 
 
 9 th Neuvieme. 
 10 th Dixieme. 
 11 th Onzieme. 
 12 th Douzieme. 
 13 th Treizieme. 
 14 th Quatorzieme. 
 15 th Quinzieme. 
 16 th Seizieme. 
 17 th Dix-septieme. 
 18 th Dix-huitieme. 
 19 th Dix-neuvieme. 
 20 th Vingtieme. 
 21 st Vingt et unieme. 
 22 d Vingt-deuxieme. 
 23 d Vingt-troisieme. 
 24 th Vingt-quatrieme. 
 25th Vingt-cinquieme. 
 26 th Vingt-sixieme. 
 27 th Vingt-sei>tieme. 
 28 th Vingt-huitieme. 
 29 th Viugt-neuvieme. 
 30 th Trentidme. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 31 Trent e et un. 
 
 32 Trente-deux. 
 
 33 Trente-trois. 
 
 34 Trente-quatre. 
 
 35 Trente-cinq. 
 
 36 Trente-six. 
 
 37 Trente-sept. 
 
 38 Trente-huit. 
 
 39 Trente-ncuf. 
 
 40 Quarante. 
 
 41 Quarante et un. 
 
 42 Quarante-deux. 
 
 43 Quarante-trois. 
 
 44 Quarante-quatre. 
 
 45 Quarante-cinq. 
 
 46 Quarante-six. 
 
 47 Quarante-sept. 
 
 48 Quarante-lmit. 
 
 49 Quarante-neuf. 
 60 Cinquante. 
 
 51 Cinquante et un. 
 
 52 Cinquante-deux. 
 
 53 Cinquante- trois. 
 
 54 Cinquante-quatre. 
 
 55 Cinquante-cinq. 
 
 56 Cinquante-six. 
 
 57 Cinquante-sent. 
 
 58 Cinquante-huit. 
 
 59 Cinquante-neuf. 
 
 60 Soixante. 
 
 61 Soixante et un.* 
 
 62 Soixante-deux. 
 
 63 Soixante-trois 
 
 64 Soixante-quatre. 
 
 65 Soixante-cinq. 
 
 66 Soixante-six. 
 
 67 Soixante-sent. 
 
 68 Soixante-huit. 
 
 69 Soixante-netif. 
 
 70 Soixante et dix. * 
 
 71 Soixante et onze. 
 
 72 Soixante-douze. 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBER'S. 
 
 31 st Trente et unieme. 
 32 d Trente-deuxieme. 
 33 d Trente-troisierne. 
 34 th Trcnte-quatrieme. 
 35 th Trente-cinquieme. 
 36 th Trente-sixieme. 
 37 th Trente-septiemc. 
 38 th Trente-lmitiemc. 
 39 th Trente-neuvieme. 
 40 th Quarantieme. 
 41 st Quarante et unieme. 
 42 d Quarante-deuxieme. 
 43 d Quarante-troisieme. 
 44 th Quarante-quatrieme. 
 45 th Quarante-cinqui^me. 
 4G th Quarante-sixieme. 
 47 th Quarante-septieme. 
 48 th Quarante-huitieme. 
 49 th Quarante-neuvieme. 
 50 th Cinquantieme. 
 51 st Cinquante et unierne. 
 52 d Cinquante-deuxieme. 
 63 d Cinquante-troisieme. 
 54 th Cinquante-quatrierae. 
 55 th Cinquante-cinquieme. 
 56 th Cinquante-sixieme. 
 57 th Cinquante-se^tieme. 
 58 th Cinquante-huitienie. 
 59 th Cinquante-neuvieme. 
 60 th Soixantieme. 
 61 st Soixante et unieme. 
 62 d Soixante-deuxieme. 
 63 d Soixante-troisieme. 
 64 th Soixante-quatrieme. 
 65 th Soixante-cinquieme. 
 66 th Soixante-sixieme. 
 67 th Soixante-seDtieme. 
 68 th Soixante-huitieme. 
 69 th Soixante-neuyieme. 
 70 th Soixante et dixieme. 
 71 st Soixante et onzieme. 
 72 d Soixante-douzieme. 
 
 # We say also, but less frequently, and not so well for euphony, tcixante-im ( 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE, 
 
 33 
 
 CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 73 Soixante-treize. 
 
 74 Soixante-quatorze. 
 
 75 Soixante-quinze. 
 
 76 Soixante-seize. 
 
 77 Soixante-dix-sept. 
 
 78 Soixante-dix-lmit. 
 
 79 Soixante-dix-neuf. 
 
 80 Quatre-vingts. 
 
 81 Quatre-vingt-un. 
 
 82 Quatre-vingt-deux. 
 
 83 Quatre-vingt-trois. 
 
 84 Quatre-vingt-quatre. 
 
 85 Quatre-vingt-cinq. 
 
 86 Quatre-vingt-six. 
 
 87 Quatre-vingt-sept. 
 
 88 Quatre-vingt-huit. 
 
 89 Quatre-vingt-neuf. 
 
 90 Quatre-vingt-dix. 
 
 91 Quatre-vingt-onze. 
 
 92 Quatre-vingt-douze. 
 
 93 Quatre-vingt-treize. 
 
 94 Quatre-vingt-quatorze. 
 
 95 Quatre-vingt-quinze. 
 
 96 Quatre-vingt-seize. 
 
 97 Quatre-vingt-dix-se])t. 
 
 98 Quatre-vingt-dix-lmit. 
 
 99 Quatre-vingt-dix-neuf. 
 
 100 Cent. 
 
 101 Cent un. 
 
 102 Cent deux. 
 200 Deux cents. 
 1000 Mille. 
 10,000 Dix mille. 
 1,000,000 Million. 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 73 d Soixante-treizieme. 
 
 74 th Soixante-quatorzieme. 
 
 75 th Soixante-quinzieme. 
 
 76 th Soixante-seizieme. 
 
 77 th Soixante-dix-septieme. 
 
 78 th Soixante-dix-huitieme. 
 
 79 th Soixante-dix-neuvieuie. 
 
 80 th Quatre-vingtieme. 
 
 81 st Quatre-vingt-unieme. 
 
 82 d Quatre-vingt-deuxieme. 
 
 83 d Quatre-vingt-troisieme. 
 
 84 th Quatre-vingt-quatrienie. 
 
 85 th Quatre-vingt-cinqui^nie 
 
 86 th Quatre-vingt-sixieme. 
 
 87 th Quatre-vingt-seDtieme. 
 
 88 th Quatre-vingt-huiti^me. 
 
 89 th Quatre-vingt-neuvieme. 
 
 90 th Quatre-vingt-dixieme. 
 
 91 st Quatre-vingt-onzieme. 
 
 92 d Quatre-vingt-douzieme. 
 
 93 d Quatre-vingt-treizieme. 
 
 94 th Quatre-vingt-quatorzieme. 
 
 95 th Quatre-vingt-quinzieme. 
 
 96 th Quatre-vingt-seizieme. 
 
 97 th Quatre-vingt-dix-septieme. 
 
 98 th Quatre-vingt-dix-huitieme. 
 
 99 th Quatre-vingt-dLx-neuvieuie. 
 100 th Centieme. 
 101 st Cent-unieme. 
 102 d Cent-deuxieme. 
 200 th Deux centieme. 
 1000 th Millieme. 
 10,000 th Dix millierae. 
 1,000,000 th Millionieme. 
 
 Among the words which express number, there are 
 some which are real substantives ; these are divided into 
 three sorts, called collective, distributive, and proportional. 
 
 The collective denotes a certain quantity or collection 
 of things ; as, une douzaine, a dozen ; une vingtaine, a 
 score ; un million, a million. 
 
 The distributive expresses a part of a whole ; as, la 
 moitie, the half ; le quart, the quarter. 
 
34 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The proportional denotes the progressive increase of 
 things ; as, le double, the double ; le triple, the triple ; le 
 centuple, a hundred-fold. 
 
 72. REMARKS. -I. The ordinal numbers, the collective 
 and distributive nouns take an s in the plural ; as, 
 
 Les premieres douzaines 
 Les sept huitiemes. 
 
 The first dozens. 
 The seven eighths. 
 
 73. II. Vingt and cent are the only cardinal numbers 
 which take an s in the plural, that is, when preceded by 
 another number which multiplies them ; as, 
 
 chevaux. 
 Cinq cents soldats. 
 
 Eighty horses. 
 
 Five hundred soldiers. 
 
 The preceding remark holds good when the noun is 
 understood ; as, 
 
 Nous (Stions deux cents. 
 
 We were two hundred (persons.; 
 
 74. III. But, when vingt and cent are followed by 
 another number, or used for the date of the year, they do 
 not take an s / as, 
 
 Quatre-vmptf-dix chevaux. 
 Cinq cent vingt soldats. 
 L'an mil sept cent quatre- 
 vingt, 
 
 Ninety horses. 
 
 Five hundred and twenty soldiers. 
 In the year one thousand seven- 
 hundred and eighty. 
 
 75. IV. Mille^ a thousand, never takes an s in the 
 plural ; but, mille, a mile, takes one : thus, dix mille is 
 ten thousand, and dix milles means ten miles. In men- 
 tioning the Christian era, mille is abridged into mil as, 
 
 Napoleon mourut en MIL huit 
 cent vingt et un. 
 
 Napoleon died in one THOUSAND 
 eight hundred and twenty-one. 
 
 76. V. The French make use of the cardinal numbers, 
 \st, In mentioning all the days of the month, except 
 the first : thus we say, le deux mars, the second of 
 March ; le quatre mai, the fourth of May ; and, le premier 
 mai, the first of May ; le premier juin, the first of June. 
 
 .A'ote. Vouaire used to say, k deux de mars, le quatre de mai; and Racino U 
 deux mars, le quatre mai. With regard to grammatical correctness, the first con- 
 struction, is certainly preferable but if we follow usage, which, as to language, is 
 the rule of opinion, we must say le deux mars, le quatre mai. It is thus that our 
 good authors almost always express themselves, as well as those persons who 
 pi<iuc themselves on speaking purely, and who avoid every kind of affectaticr. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 35 
 
 2c7, In speaking of sovereigns ; as, Guillaume quatre, 
 William the fourth. The first of the series is excepted, 
 for we say Jacques premier, Henri premier, and not 
 Jacques un, Henri un ; but we say indifferently, deux or 
 second. 
 
 Henri deux, roi de France. 
 Catherine deux, impdratrice de 
 
 Eussie (ACAD.) 
 Frangois second sucoe'da & Henri 
 
 second. (GIKARD.) 
 
 Henry the second, king of France. 
 Catharine the second, empress o/ 
 
 Russia. 
 Francis the second succeeded Henry 
 
 the second. 
 
 In speaking of the Emperor Charles V, and of Pope 
 Sixtus V, we say Charles-Quint, Sixte- Quint. 
 
 EXERCISE XXL 
 
 America was discovered by Christopher Columbus, in 
 art. Amerique f.fut decouverte par Christophe Colomb * 
 the year one thousand four hundred and ninety-two. We have 
 
 cm in.* * Nousavons 
 
 eighty (men of war) ready to sail, we (shall soon have) 
 
 vaisseaux de guerre pr$ts f air e voile en aurons bientot 
 two hundred. Our troops took five thousand prisoners. 
 
 Nos troupes firent . prisonnier 
 
 (It is) four miles from this.. Send me the * fir si l lwo dozens. 
 II y a mille m. id. Envoyez-moi 
 
 Your letter of tiiefifteenth of January preached me) on 
 Votre lettre f. * Janvier mestparvenue * 
 
 the first of February. I arrived on the second. 
 * fevrier. suis arrive * 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 
 Louis the sixteenth) Louis the eighteenth) and Charles the tenth, 
 
 were brothers. Francis the first, king of France, and 
 etaient frere Francois 
 
 Frederick tf/ie second, king 1 of Prussia, were great warriors. 
 Frederic Prusse, etaient de grand gucrrier 
 
 Louis the thirteenth was the founder of the French Academy. 
 est fondateur 2 1 Academic f. 
 
 Charles the fifth, king of France, was surnamed the wise. 
 
 fut surnomme sage. 
 
 Pope Sixtus the fifth was contemporary to Philip the second, 
 art. pape etait contemporain de Philippe 
 
 son of the emperor Charles the fifth JainesI, and Henry IV. 
 78 
 
36 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS on WORDS which are alike in FRENCH 
 and ENGLISH. 
 
 77. There are many nouns and adjectives which are 
 alike in both languages, with the exception of the differ- 
 ence in pronunciation, and that some require accents in 
 French ; and there are others which differ merely in their 
 termination. 
 
 Most words are alike in both languages, when ending 
 in 
 
 ace ice as /P lace > P r ^ ace > race > tp 06 * face grimace, 
 ' ( avarice, justice, injustice, service, vice, etc. 
 
 ade ude f arcade, brigade, cavalcade, se*re*nade, forti- 
 
 ' ' " \ tude, multitude, prelude, prude, etc. 
 
 / distance, ignorance, temperance, Eloquence, 
 ' ' " I Evidence, patience, silence, etc. 
 
 ant ent -f constant > Elegant, Elephant, instant, absent, 
 
 \ accident, compliment, excellent, etc. 
 ;. f . 7/ , /docile, ductile, reptile, versatile, globule, 
 
 55 I bile, mule, ridicule, etc. 
 7, f miracle, obstacle, oracle, receptacle, spec- 
 
 " I tacle, tabernacle, etc. 
 7 / cardinal, fatal, local, moral, principal, general, 
 
 " \ naval, royal, liberal, radical, etc. 
 M / cable, charitable, m fable, table, probable, 
 
 99 \ Bible, eligible, visible, noble, double, etc. 
 / age, cage, charge, image, page, rage, college, 
 \ deluge, refuge, forge, orange, sidge, etc. 
 ine, - doctrine, famine, h^ro'ine, machine, etc. 
 
 n j action, education, instruction, le*gion, na- 
 
 " I tion, opinion, passion, question, etc. 
 
 78. Most English words ending in ary, ory, our, or, 
 oils, cy, ty, and #, become French by changing these 
 terminations in the following manner : 
 
 ary - into aire, as military, militaire. 
 
 or y - j> oire y victory, victoire. 
 
 our - cur, favour, faveur. 
 
 or - eur, doctor, docteur. 
 
 ous eux, famous, famcux. 
 
 cy - - Qfy constancy, Constance. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 37 
 
 ty (after a vowel) into te, as beauty, beaute. 
 
 ie ' fury, /^V; modesty, moctote. 
 
 79. Most proper names of women and goddesses ending 
 in a, become French by changing that a into e mute ; as, 
 
 Julia, Julie. Minerva, Minerve. 
 
 Sophia, Sophie. Diana, Diane. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIII. 
 
 The sagacity of that animal is admirable. That 
 
 f. ' cet m. est 
 
 instrument is very harmonious. The history of the Royal 
 
 m. tres h mu. 
 
 Society. The rector of an academy. He has the approbation 
 
 !f. f. a f. 
 
 of the nation. His memory is extraordinary. The valour of 
 
 f. Sa f. f. 
 
 that general is regulated by prudence. His courage is 
 ce reglee par art. f. Son m. 
 
 invincible. The number of stars is incalculable 
 
 nombre m. art. etoile 
 
 Give this nosegay to Maria or Louisa. Flora was the 
 Donnez ce bouquet m. a ou a etait 
 goddess of flowers, and Pomona, the goddess of fruits. 
 deesse art. fleur art. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. 
 
 The weathercock is the symbol of inconstancy. The 
 
 girouette f. symbole m. art. 
 
 prosperity of the wicked is not durable An ambitious 
 
 f. mechants pi. 
 
 soul is seldom capable of moderation. It is sometimes 
 *dme f. rarement quelquefois 
 
 difficult to distinguish the copy from the original. The sublimity 
 difficile de distinguer f. m. f. 
 
 of his sentiments is still superior to the energy of his 
 ses m. encore f. scs 
 
 expressions. Magistrates and physicians formerly rode 
 
 f. art. magistral art. medccin *autrefois } allaicnt 
 on mules. Thalia is the muse of comedy, Urania that 
 
 surd^s f. art. f. cclle 
 
 of astronomy. The unicorn is a fabulous animal, 
 art. f. licorne f. * 
 
38 OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 80. THE word Pronoun is formed of the word noun, 
 and of the Latin preposition pro, which means for or 
 instead of. 
 
 In the French language, there are five kinds of Pro- 
 nouns, viz. the Personal, the Possessive, the Demon- 
 strative, the Relative, and the Indefinite. 
 
 81. I. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal pronouns are used instead of the names of 
 persons or things, to avoid the repetition of the nouns 
 which they represent. 
 
 There are three persons: the first is, the person speak- 
 ing ; the second, the person spoken to ; the third, the 
 person or thing spoken of. 
 
 82. PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON. 
 
 Subject, 
 Object, 
 
 Subject, 
 Object, 
 
 The pronouns of the first and second persons are both 
 masculine and feminine, that is, of the same gender as 
 the person or persons they represent. 
 
 83. PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS.- The Personal Pro- 
 nouns are generally placed before the verb, except 
 
 (1.) When the pronouns take a preposition before them 
 in French ; as, il parle de nous, he speaks of us. 
 
 (2.) In interrogative sentences ; as, parlez-vous ? do 
 you speak ? 
 
 (3.) When the verb is in the first person plural, or 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Je, L 
 
 Je donne, 
 
 I give. 
 
 moi i me " 
 
 suivez-woi, 
 
 follow me. 
 
 n01 ' | to - 
 
 dcoutcz-wtot, 
 
 listen to me. 
 
 ( me. 
 
 il me flatte, 
 
 he flatters me. 
 
 me ' t to roe, 
 
 il me parle, 
 
 he speaks to me. 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 
 nous, tee. 
 
 nous donnons, 
 
 we give. 
 
 (us. 
 
 il nous voit, 
 
 he sees us. 
 
 nous ' [to* 
 
 il nous parle, 
 
 he speaks to us. 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 39 
 
 in either of the second persons of the Imperative, 
 without a negative; as, parlez-mvi, speak to me. But 
 if the Imperative is used with a negative, the personal 
 pronouns are placed before the verb ; as, ne me parlez 
 pas, do not speak to me. 
 
 EXERCISE XXV. 
 
 7 speak French. /have said that. Lend me your pencil. 
 parle francais. ai dit cela. Pretez votrecrayonm. 
 
 Help me. Believe me. .Write to me. Do not write to me. 
 
 Aidez Croyez Ecrivez 
 
 He hurts we. He sees me This picture pleases me 
 
 II blesse voit Ce tableau m. plait 
 
 more than the other. We praise God. He knows us 
 
 plus que autre. louons Dieu. connait 
 
 We tell him the truth, but he (will not) believe us . 
 
 2 disons l lui verite f. mais ne veut pas croire 
 
 He related to us the history of his misfortunes. 
 
 a raconte histoire h m. ses malheur 
 
 84. PRONOUNS OF THE SECOND PERSON. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Subject, 
 
 tu, thou. 
 
 tu es heureux, thou art "happy. 
 
 
 ( toi, thee. 
 
 je parle pour toi, I speak for thee. 
 
 Object, 
 
 4, jtkee. 
 
 Dieu te voit, GW sees thee. 
 
 
 ( te > ( to thee - 
 
 je te parle, I speak to thee. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Subject, 
 
 vous, you. 
 
 vows chantez, you sing. 
 
 Object, 
 
 V US> { to you. 
 
 il vows connait, he knows you. 
 je vows parle, I speak to you. 
 
 85. REMARK. When from politeness we use vous 
 (you), instead of the singular tu (thou), the verb is put 
 in the plural, but the adjective or participle following 
 remains in the singular, and takes the feminine termina- 
 tion if we speak to a female ; as, 
 
 Monsieur, vous etes bien bon. 
 Madame, vous etes bien bonne. 
 
 Sir, you are very good. 
 Madam, you are very good. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVI. 
 
 Thou fearest God. He (will do) it for thee. He praises 
 
 crains Dieu. II *fera l le pour lone 
 
 thee. He will speak to thee. You have spoiled this book. 
 parlera avez gdte ce livrem* 
 
40 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 1 low troublesome you are ! How good you are ! Ladies, 
 Que *importun 1 m. y etcs *bon ] f. 2 Mesdamcs, 
 
 how amiable you are ! I bring you the newspaper. You 
 
 3 aimable l 2 apporte journal m. 
 
 (are fond of) flowers ; if you like, 1 will give you this 
 aimez art. /tar si voulez donnerai ' ce 
 fine nosegay. Are you pleased, my dear little friend? 
 beau bouquet m. Etes content ma 48 amie f. 
 
 86. PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 
 
 Singular. Examples. 
 
 
 Jil, m. 
 
 Ae, . 
 
 il donne, 
 
 he gives. 
 
 Subject, 
 
 \ elle,/. 
 
 she, it. 
 
 elle donne, 
 
 she gives. 
 
 Oyect, 
 
 f lui, m, 
 1 hit,/. 
 
 f torn. 
 ( to him. 
 to her. 
 
 il parle de lui, 
 il lui parle, 
 je lui parleral, 
 
 he speaks of him. 
 he speaks to him. 
 1 will speak to her 
 
 
 telle,/. 
 
 her. 
 
 il parle tfelle, 
 
 he speaks o/her. 
 
 
 P 
 
 lural. 
 
 
 
 Subject, 
 
 ( ils, m. 
 1 elles,/. 
 
 they. 
 
 they. 
 
 ils raangent, 
 elles chantcnt, 
 
 they eat. 
 they sing. 
 
 
 feux. w. 
 
 them. 
 
 venez avec eux, 
 
 come with them. 
 
 Object, 
 
 < elles,/. 
 
 them. 
 
 c'est ponr dies, 
 
 it is for them. 
 
 
 (Jeur, m. &/. 
 
 to them. 
 
 je leur parlerai, 
 
 / will speak to them. 
 
 87. OF THE PRONOUNS le, la, les. 
 
 These pronouns always accompany a verb, and are 
 thus easily distinguished from the articles le, la, les, (see 
 p. 14), which constantly accompany a noun. 
 
 le, masc. 
 
 ]t\,fem. 
 
 les, for 
 bothgend. 
 
 t-them, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 je le connais, / know him. 
 
 {voilS, un bon livre, lisez- \ there is a good book, 
 
 fe, j read it. 
 
 je la vois, / see her. 
 
 f vous avez la clef, don- ") you have the key, give 
 
 ( nez-Za moi, j~ it me. 
 ( vous les trouverez dans ^ you will find them in 
 
 < mon tiroir, J my drawer. 
 
 (^il /es connatt, he knows them. 
 
 In this phrase, Je connais les princes et les princesses, 
 je les voz's souvent, (I know the princes and the princesses, 
 I see them often), the first two les are articles, the third 
 is a pronoun. 
 
 ^* These three personal pronouns, le, la, les, are called 
 " Relative" by some Grammarians 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 
 
 . EXERCISE XXVII. 
 
 He has done his duty. She sings well. I (am writing 1 ) 
 
 a fait son devoir. chante bien. ecris 
 
 to liim What (shall I say) to her? They speak to them. 
 
 Que dirai-je m. parlcnt 
 
 They will return with them (Do not come) without them. 
 
 f. remendront m. Ne venez pas sans f. 
 
 They prefer the country to the town. Prosperity 
 
 m. preferent campagnef. villef. &,rt.prosperitef. 
 
 gets us friends and adversity tries them* 
 fait 32 ami art. 6prouve 
 
 88. OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, SE, SOI. 
 
 Se, soz, Pronouns of the third person are used both 
 for persons and things. Se is placed before a verb, and 
 soi generally after a preposition. 
 
 
 
 himself, 
 herself, 
 itself, 
 oneself, 
 themselves, 
 to himself, 
 to herself, 
 to oneself, 
 
 f himself, 
 I itself, 
 
 he praises himself. 
 she flatters herself. 
 it destroys itself. 
 to praise oneself. 
 they flatter themselves. 
 he attributes to himself. 
 she attributes to herself. 
 to prescribe to oneself. 
 
 SOI, ^ oneself, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 il se loue, 
 
 elle se flatte, 
 
 il se detruit, 
 
 se louer, 
 
 ils or elles se flattent, 
 
 il s'attribue, 
 
 elle s'attribue, 
 
 se prescrire, 
 [ tothemselves, ils or elles se prescrivent, they prescribe to themselves. 
 
 chacun pour soi, every one for himself. 
 
 cela est bon en soi, that is good in itself. 
 
 il faut songer a soi, one must think of oneself, 
 (ondoitparlerraremenf) people should seldom speak 
 \ de soi, ) f themselves. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVIII. 
 
 He submits himself to your orders. That lady praises 
 
 soumet vos ordre Cette dame loue 
 
 herself (too much.) She gives herself (a, great deal) of 
 
 trop. donnc beaucoup 
 
 trouble. They expose themselves to danger. They 
 
 peine. exposent art. m. 
 
 will accustom themselves (to it.) (Every one) works for 
 *accoutumeront 2 y Chacun travaille pour 
 
 himself. The loadstone attracts iron to itself. 
 
 aimantm. attire art./erm. 
 Virtue is amiable mitself. He will soon correct himself. 
 
 ,. rprtu f. pst nimnhlf. dp. * *hirn tnl ^rnrrinpra, l 
 
 art. vertu f. est aimabie de 
 
 *bien tot *corrigcrq 
 
OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 89. II. OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 THE Possessive, as well as the Demonstrative Pronouns, 
 arc of a mixed nature, partaking of the properties both of 
 pronouns and adjectives ; therefore some Grammarians 
 class them among the adjectives ; others refuse them the 
 name of pronouns or adjectives, and place them in the 
 rank of articles. Indeed, it would be difficult to state, 
 within a moderate compass, the various opinions of Gram- 
 marians respecting this part of speech. As for us, we 
 shall follow here the classification adopted by the French 
 Academy, and by the most correct modern writers, and 
 divide the Possessive Pronouns of the old Grammarians 
 into two classes : 
 
 1st, Possessive Adjectives ; 
 2d, Possessive Pronouns; 
 
 And, from the affinity these two kinds of words have 
 with each other, we shall place them one after the other 
 in separate articles. 
 
 90. OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The Possessive adjectives denote possession or property, 
 and are called adjectives rather than pronouns, because 
 they do not stand for a noun, but, on the contrary, are 
 always joined to a noun. They are : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 For both genders. 
 
 mon 
 
 ma 
 
 mes 
 
 my 
 
 ton 
 
 ta 
 
 tes 
 
 thy 
 
 son 
 
 sa 
 
 ses 
 
 his, her, its 
 
 notre 
 
 notre 
 
 nos 
 
 our 
 
 votre 
 
 votre 
 
 vos 
 
 your 
 
 leur 
 
 leur 
 
 leurs 
 
 their 
 
 91. OBSERVE. (1.) The possessive adjectives, as well 
 as the preposition which may accompany them, must be 
 repeated before every noun, and agree with it in gender 
 and number. 
 
OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 43 
 
 92. (2.) The possessive adjectives always agree in 
 French with the noun following, and never with the 
 preceding one ; that is to say, they agree with the object 
 possessed, and not with the possessor, as in English. 
 
 93. (3.) For the sake of euphony, mon, ton, son, are 
 used instead of ma, ta, sa, before a feminine noun be- 
 ginning with a vowel or h mute. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIX. 
 
 My father, mother, and brothers are in the country 
 
 pere mere frere sont a campagne f. 
 
 His uncle, aunt, and cousins are in Wales. I 
 
 oncle tante m. sont dans lepays de Oalles. 
 
 have seen Paris, its theatres, and buildings Our perseverance 
 
 ai vu thedtre m. Edifice m. perseverance f. 
 
 and our efforts. Your country and your friends. Their 
 
 m. pays m. ami m. 
 
 house and their servants. Her son is learned. ffis sister 
 maisonf. domestique fits est savant. sceur 
 
 is married. My ambition, thy honesty, and his friendship. 
 
 mariee. f. honndtete f. h m. amitie f. 
 
 My brother has lost his pen, his pencil, and his books. 
 a perdu plume f. crayonm. livrem. 
 
 My mother has sold her house and her garden. 
 vendu jardin m. 
 
 94. OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns always relate to some noun spoken of 
 before, with which they agree in gender and number. 
 The possessive pronouns are : 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 le mien 
 
 la mienne 
 
 les miens 
 
 les miennes 
 
 mine 
 
 le tien 
 
 la tienne 
 
 les tiens 
 
 les tieimes 
 
 thine 
 
 le sien 
 
 la sienne 
 
 les siens 
 
 les siennes 
 
 his, hers, its 
 
 
 
 PL for both genders. 
 
 le notre 
 
 la notre 
 
 les notres 
 
 ours 
 
 le votre 
 
 la votre 
 
 les votres 
 
 yours 
 
 le leur 
 
 la leur 
 
 les leurs 
 
 theirs 
 
 (Here is) 
 Void 
 
 EXERCISE XXX. 
 
 your hat, (don't take) 
 
 chapeau m. ne prenez pas 
 
 - Ills 
 
44 OF DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 house and mine have been burnt, but theirs (has not) 
 maisonf. et out ete brulees mais ri a point 
 
 suffered. Your books are better bound than mine. My 
 souffert. livrem. sont relies que 
 
 watch (does not go) so well as hers.* Your garden is 
 montre f. nevapas si que jar din m. est 
 
 larger than ours, but our orcnard is larger than yours. 
 plus grand vergerm. 
 
 You have taken my gloves, and (I have) taken yours. 
 
 avcz pris gant m. moi fai 
 
 I know your relations, but I (don't know) theirs, 
 
 connais parent m. pi. ne connais pas 
 
 95. III. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 We shall divide the Demonstrative pronouns, as we 
 have done the Possessive, into two classes : 
 1st, Demonstrative Adjectives; 
 2d, Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 96. OF DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The Demonstrative adjectives always precede a substan- 
 tive, which they designate and point out. They are : 
 
 CE, before a noun masculine singular, begin- 
 ning with a consonant, or h aspirate. 
 
 This, or that, 
 
 CET, before ajioun masculine singular, begin- 
 
 ning with a vowel, or h mute. 
 CETTE, before any feminine noun. 
 / CES > before any noun in the plural, whether 
 > 1 masculine or feminine. 
 
 97. RULE. The Demonstrative adjectives must be 
 repeated in French before every noun, though in English 
 this, that, these, those, are frequently used before the first 
 noun only, and understood before the others ; as, 
 
 Ces hommes, ces ferames, et ces j These men, women, and children 
 enfantsjouent are playing. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXI. 
 
 This picture, that bird, this doll, these flowers, and 
 tableau m. oiseau m. poupee f. jleur et 
 
 those shells are (my sister's). Taste this wine. Take 
 coquillage sont dmasosur. Ooutez vinm.Prencz 
 
 one of these biscuits. Those boys and girls (are going) to 
 m. gar$on Jill* vont 
 
OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 45 
 
 school. Give him this book and that slate. These 
 art. ecole JDonnez-lui livre m. ardoise f. 
 
 cups and saucers (are not) clean This cake is for you. 
 tasse soucoupe ne sont pas propre gdteaum. pour 
 
 98. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns serve to point out the persons or 
 things which they represent. They are : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 ce 
 
 _ 
 
 this, that 3 it. 
 
 No plural. 
 
 cclui 
 
 celle 
 
 that. 
 
 ceux 
 
 celles 
 
 those. 
 
 celtii-ci 
 
 celle-ci 
 
 this. 
 
 ceux-ci 
 
 celles-ci 
 
 these. 
 
 celui-la 
 
 celle-la 
 
 that. 
 
 ceux-la 
 
 celles-la 
 
 those. 
 
 ceci 
 cela 
 
 ~ 
 
 85. [No plural 
 
 CE, demonstrative pronoun, differs from ce, demon- 
 strative adjective, in this, that the former is always joined 
 to the verb etre, to be, or followed by qui, or que ; 
 whereas the latter is always followed by a substantive. 
 Tims, in this phrase : CE qui me plait, C'EST sa modestie, 
 what (that which) pleases me is his modesty, CE is a 
 demonstrative pronoun ; and it is a demonstrative ad- 
 jective in the following : CE juge est incorruptible, that 
 judge is incorruptible. 
 
 When ce does not come immediately before a sub- 
 stantive, it answers for both numbers and genders; as, 
 
 De toutes les vertus celle qui se fait le 
 plus che"rir, c'cst l'humanit& 
 
 Ce furent les Phe'nicicns qui inven- 
 tereiit l'e"criture. (BOSSUET.) 
 
 Of all the virtues, that which makes itself 
 
 most beloved is humanity. 
 It was the Phoenicians who invented 
 
 writing. 
 
 The French Academy remark that ce joined to the 
 verb etre generally forms a gallicism. 
 
 99. The Pronouns celui, celle, ceux, celles, always relate 
 to a noun expressed before ; as, 
 
 Volci votre livre, oil est celui dc votre 
 
 frere? 
 J 'admire les traductions de Pope et 
 
 eetia de Delille. 
 
 Here is your book, where is that of your 
 
 brotJier f 
 1 admire the translations of Pope and 
 
 those of JJeliile. 
 
46 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 100. When two or more objects have been spoken of, 
 celui-ci, celle-cij ceux-ci, celles-ci are used with reference 
 to the nearest, and celui-la, celle-la, ceux-la, celles-la refer 
 to the most distant, or first-mentioned object ; as, 
 
 Here are two pistols, which do you 
 choose, this or that? 
 
 The body perishes, the soul is im- 
 mortal; yet we neglect the latter, 
 and sacrifice everything for the 
 former. 
 
 Voici deux pistolets, lequel choisis- 
 sez-vous, celui-ci ou celui-la f 
 
 Le corps pgrit, rame est immortelle ; 
 cependant nous ne'gligeons celle- 
 ci, et nous sacrifions tout pour 
 celui-la. 
 
 This last example shows also that the English words, 
 the former, are likewise expressed by celui-la, celle-la, 
 ceux-la, celles-la, and the latter by celui-ci, celle-ci, ceux- 
 ci, celles-ci, according to the gender and number of the 
 substantive to which they relate. 
 
 REMARK. LA means there, and ci is an abbrevia- 
 tion of ici, here ; so that CELUI-CI is equivalent to this 
 here, and CELUI-LA, to that there. 
 
 101. Ceci, this, and cela, that, are never followed by 
 a noun, nor used with reference to a noun mentioned 
 before; they stand for something pointed at, but not 
 named ; they have no plural, and are both masculine. 
 
 Ceci est bon, mais cela est mauvais. 
 Donnez-moi ceci, et gardez cela. 
 
 This is good, but that is bad. 
 Give me this, and keep that 
 
 EXERCISE XXXII. 
 
 It is a misfortune. (Here is) your umbrella, and that of 
 
 est malheurm. Voici parapluiem. 
 
 your cousin. Bring my scissors, and those of my 
 
 m. Apportez ciseaux m. pi. 
 
 sister. Which of these watches (will you have), this or 
 sceur. Laquelle montref. voulez-vous ou 
 
 that 9 (Here i are) fine pictures, buy these or those 
 
 Voici de beau tableau m. achetez 
 
 Give this to (the lady) and that to (the gentleman). An 
 Donnez madame monsieur. 
 
 upright magistrate and a brave officer are equally 
 
 Hntegre l magistrat m. officier m. sont egalement 
 
 estimable; the former makes war against domestic 
 
 fait art. guerre f. a zxifdomestique 
 
 enemies, the latter protects us against foreign enemies, 
 'iftn0fttni.pl. protege contre wi.*exl4rieur l 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 47 
 
 102. IV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Relative Pronouns are those which relate to a noun or 
 pronoun, or phrase going before, which is thence called 
 the antecedent. 
 
 The relative pronouns are : qui, que, quoi, lequel, dont, 
 ow, en } y. 
 
 OF qui, que, quoi, lequel, dont. 
 103. Qui, QUE, QUOI, are of both genders and numbers. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J Dieu qui est juste, God who is just. 
 
 (la dame qui parle, the lady who is speaking. 
 
 which, les oiseaux qui chantent, the birds which are singing. 
 a qui, said of per-> . , fie garcon a qui \ the boy to whom 
 sonUnlr, *$ to whom, -j ^ j. I am writing. 
 
 C 
 
 qui, < 
 
 ( whom, 1'homme que vous voyez, the man whom you see. 
 
 ^ ue ' ( which, les livres que vous lisez, the books which you read. 
 
 i j f voila de quoi je voulais ") that is what / wished to 
 
 quoi, what, ^ V ousparler, f speak to you about. 
 
 REMARK __ Que loses the e before a vowel ; qui never changes. 
 
 104. LEQUEL is a compound of quel, and of the article 
 le, with which it incorporates in the following manner : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 lequel 
 duquel 
 auquel 
 
 laquelle 
 de laquelle 
 a laquelle 
 
 lesquels 
 desquels 
 auxquels 
 
 lesquelles 
 desquelles 
 auxquelles 
 
 which, 
 of which, 
 to which. 
 
 This pronoun is used with reference to persons and 
 things, with which it always agrees in gender and num- 
 ber. 
 
 EXAMPLES of lequel. 
 
 , , 7 T ( le fauteuil sur lequel je suis f the arm - chair on 
 
 lequel, m. which, -j ^ | which 7am my. 
 
 laq 
 
 it is a reason to which 
 no re- 
 
 . ( it is one of his sisters, 
 
 ais { 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 105. DONT is of both genders and numbers, and is 
 used when speaking of persons or things : it supplies 
 the place of duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, de 
 quoi but is never used in asking a question. 
 
 yote.Dont is never used in asking a question, that is you never begin a ques- 
 tion with dont ; but, in the body of an interrogative phrase, the word is perfectly 
 correct ; as, Oil est lafemme DONT vous parlez ? Where is the woman of whom you 
 
 speak ? 
 
 dont , 
 
 f 1 ' T. 
 
 of which, 
 I of whom, 
 
 EXAMPLES of dont. 
 
 f c'est una maladie dont on 
 
 1'hoinme dont vous parlez, 
 
 (la nature dont nous igno- 
 
 it is an illness, the 
 
 cause of which is 
 
 unknown, 
 the man of whom you 
 
 speak, 
 nature, whose secrets 
 
 are unknown to us. 
 
 t "" \ rons les secrets, 
 
 106. Qui, que, quoi, lequel, are called relative pronouns 
 absolute, when they have no antecedent, and only pre- 
 sent to the mind a vague and indeterminate idea. 
 
 In this case qui is employed only in speaking of per- 
 sons, que and quoi in speaking of things. 
 
 Lequel marks a distinction, and is used in interrogative 
 sentences, when asking which person or thing among 
 several. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 qui, 
 
 q ue, 
 
 who, 
 
 ^ whom, 
 
 qui (quelle personne) est ] 
 la? J 
 
 je ne sais qui est arrive*, 
 ( qui appelez-vous ? 
 
 who is there ? 
 
 / don't know who 
 
 arrived. 
 whom do you call? 
 
 has 
 
 'TOT ^ V US V U " }*** wbamyMw* 
 
 quoi, what, 
 
 (je ne sais que faire, 1 don't know what to do. 
 
 !'a quoi (a quelle chose) \ what are you thinking 
 pensez-vous ? f of ? 
 
 quoi de plus aimable que 5 what more amiable than 
 la vertu ? f virtue ? 
 
 ( lequel pre'fe'rez-vous ? which do you prefer ? 
 loquol, 771. which, -c choisissez lequel vous ] 
 (^ voudrez, 
 
 a^1^ 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 49 
 
 107. Ov THE RELATIVE PRONOUN ou. 
 
 Oti is a relative pronoun when used instead of lequel, 
 laquette, lesqueis, lesquettes, preceded by a preposition. 
 This pronoun is employed only in speaking of things, and 
 is of both genders and numbers. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L'instant ou nous naissons est un 
 
 pas vers la mort. (VOLTAIRE.) 
 
 La maison ou je demeure. (AcAD.) 
 
 Les pays par ou j'ai passd. 
 
 The instant in which we are lorn 
 
 is a step towards death. 
 The house in which I live. 
 The countries through which / 
 
 have passed. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIII. 
 
 The man who reasons. The lady whom I see. The 
 
 raisonne. dame vois. 
 
 sciences to which he applies. Here is the gentleman 
 
 f. pi. s'applique. Void monsieur 
 
 of whom you speak. With whom do you live ? What 
 
 parlez. Avec demeurez-vous $ 
 
 (shall we do) to-day ? Which (do you like) best of those 
 fcrons-nous aujourd'hui? aimez-vous 
 
 three pictures? The child to ivhom everything yields 
 tableau m. enfant m. tout cede 
 
 is the most unhappy. The state in which I find myself. 
 
 malheureux. etat m. me trouve. \ 
 
 
 108. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN en. 
 
 EN, a pronoun of both genders and numbers, is some- 
 times used in speaking of persons, although it is chiefly 
 said of things, and places: its principal function is to 
 avoid the repetition of a word or phrase already ex- 
 pressed. It signifies of him, of her, of it, from it, of 
 them, some of it, some of them, any, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 11 aime les auteurs fran^ais, il EN 
 
 parle souvent. 
 Get to maladie est dangereuse, il 
 
 pourrait EN mourir. 
 A-t-il des protecteurs ? oui, il EN 
 
 a de trfcs-puissants. 
 Vous parlez d 'argent, EN avez- 
 
 voaa ? ooi, ' EN ai. 
 
 He likes French authors, he often 
 
 speaks of them. 
 That illness is dangerous, he might 
 
 die of it. 
 Has he any protectors ? yes, he has 
 
 some very powerful ones. 
 You talk of money, have you any ? 
 
 yes, I have some. 
 D 
 
50 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 109. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN y. 
 
 Y, a pronoun of both genders and numbers, is some- 
 times employed with reference to persons, but its use is 
 almost strictly confined to things : it corresponds to the 
 English to him, to her, to it, to them, in it, in them, 
 therein, &c. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je connais cet homme, je ne m'Y 
 
 fie pas. 
 II aime 1'etude et S'Y livre entiere- 
 
 ment. 
 J'ai reu sa lettre, J'Y re*pondrai. 
 
 V r os raisons sont bonnes, je m'y 
 
 rends. 
 J'Y ai remarque* quelques fautes. 
 
 / know that man, 1 do not trust to 
 
 him. 
 He loves study, and devotes him- 
 
 self entirely to it. 
 / have received his letter, I shall 
 
 answer (to) it. 
 Your reasons are good, I yield to 
 
 them. 
 I observed some faults in it, or in 
 
 them. 
 &3r Some Grammarians class en and y among the personal pronouns. 
 
 N. B. The pronouns en and y are always placed 
 before the verb, except with an Imperative affirmative. 
 
 [See, in the Chapter on the Adverb, what is said upon Y, adverb.] 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIV. 
 
 Read his letter, and tell me what you think of it. 
 Lisez lettre f. dites-moi ce que pensez 
 Give me that, I (am in want) of it. Are you going to 
 Donnez-moi ai besom AUez-vous 
 
 Edinburgh? 1 come from it. (Here are) strawberries, will 
 Ediiribourg viens Void 32 fraise voulez 
 
 you have any? I will give you some. Take some 
 
 * donnerai Prenez 
 
 more. I consent to it. Put your signature to it. 
 
 davantage. consens Mettez 
 
 Those arguments are conclusive; I see no reply 
 
 m. sont concluant n' vois point de replique 
 
 to them. The undertaking is difficult, but you 
 
 entreprise f. difficile metis 
 
 (will succeed) in it. They will gain nothing (by it), 
 reussirez n' gagneront rien y 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 51 
 
 HO. V. OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Some pronouns are called Indefinite, because they de- 
 note persons or things in an indefinite or general manner. 
 
 They are the following: on, quiconque, quelqiCun,chacun , 
 autrui, personne, Vun Vautre, I'un et Vautre. 
 
 111. ON, one, they, ive, people, it, &c. On is a contrac- 
 tion of the Latin word homo, man. This pronoun is of 
 very extensive use in the French language ; it is em- 
 ployed when speaking in general terms, without desig- 
 nating any particular person : it has commonly a plural 
 meaning, but always requires the verb to be in the 
 third person singular. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 ON ne peut lire Tdldmaque sans 
 
 devenir meilleur. 
 ON dit que nous aurons bientCt la 
 
 paix. 
 ON pense que la nouvelle est vraie. 
 
 ON apprend mieux ce que TON ccm- 
 prend, que ce que I'ON ne corn- 
 
 One cannot read Telemachus with- 
 out becoming better. 
 
 They, or people, say we shall soon 
 have peace. 
 
 It is thought that the news is 
 true. 
 
 We learn better what we under- 
 stand, than what we do not. 
 
 prend pas. 
 
 REMARK. For the sake of euphony, the pronoun on 
 takes an I, with an apostrophe (!'), after the words et, si, 
 oil, que, qui, and quoi ; as, 
 
 Et /'on dit, ^ f et on dit. 
 
 Si /'on savait, I si on savait. 
 
 Ou /'on veut, \ instead of i oil on veut. 
 
 Ce que /'on comprend, j I ce qu'on comprend. 
 
 Ceux qui /"on doit, J (^ ceux a qui on doit. 
 
 However, on remains the same when the word follow- 
 ing it is le, la, or les ; we say : et on le dit, si on le savait, 
 and not et Ton le dit, si Von le savait. 
 
 Uon for on should never begin a sentence, although 
 some authors have not always observed this rule. 
 
 112. QUICONQUE, whoever, whosoever, any person what- 
 ever. This pronoun has no plural, and is used only with 
 reference to persons ; as, 
 
 Quiconque a dit cela u'a pas dit la I Whoever said so, has not S2?oken 
 
 ve*riti. the truth. [punished. 
 
 Quiconque me trom era sera puni. | Whoever deceives me shall be 
 
52 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Quiconque is generally masculine; however, when it 
 evidently relates to a female, the adjective is put in the 
 feminine; as, 
 Mesdames, quiconque de vous sera Ladies, whoever of you shall be 
 
 assez hardie pour meMire de moi, 
 je Ten ferai repentir. (AcAD.) 
 
 bold enough to speak ill of me, 
 I will make her repent it. 
 
 113. QUELQU'UN, somebody, some one. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J 'attends quelqu'un. 1 wait for somebody. 
 
 Quelqu'un me Fa dit. Somebody told me so. 
 
 This pronoun takes gender and number ; thus : 
 e > *<* 
 
 Quelques-uns, m. pi. \ some, several, out of a 
 Quelques-unes, /. pi. f greater number. 
 
 Quelqu'un de ces messieurs. 
 Quelqu'une de ces dames. 
 Quelqu'un m'a dit. 
 J'ai lu quelques-uns de ces livres. 
 Connaissez-vous quelques-unes de 
 
 ces dames ? 
 Oui, j'en connais quelques-unes. 
 
 Some one of these gentlemen. 
 Some one of these ladies. 
 Somebody told me. 
 I have read some of those books. 
 Do you know any of those la- 
 dies ? 
 Yes, I know some of them. 
 
 114. CHACUN, m., CHACUNE, /., every one, each; with- 
 out plural. 
 
 Every one lives after his own way. 
 
 Chacun vit a sa maniere. 
 Chacune de ces demoiselles. 
 
 Each of these young ladies. 
 
 Un chacun, much used by old writers, is now obsolete. 
 [See page 55, what is said on chaque, every, each.] 
 
 115. AUTRUI, others, other people. (From the Latin 
 alterius, gen. of alter, other.) This pronoun is masculine, 
 and has no plural ; it is generally preceded by a prepo- 
 sition, and is used in speaking of persons only. 
 
 La charite* se rejouit du bonheur 
 
 d'autrui. 
 Ne faites pas a autrui ce que vous 
 
 ne voudriez pas qu'on vous fit. 
 
 Charity rejoices in the happiness 
 
 of others. 
 Do not to others, what you would 
 
 not wish others to do to you. 
 
 116. PERSONNE. This pronoun is always masculine 
 and singular. When it means no person, nobody, no one, 
 it requires the negative ne before the ved> 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 53 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Personne ne sera assez hardi. 
 Je n'ai vu personne. 
 
 Nobody will be bold enough. 
 I have seen nobody. 
 
 When personne is used without a negative in interro- 
 gative sentences, and those expressing doubt and uncer- 
 tainty, it means any person, any lody, any one. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Y a-t-il personne d'assez hardi ? 
 Je doute que personne y reus- 
 sisse. (AcAD.) 
 
 Is there any body bold enough ? 
 I doubt whether any one will suc- 
 ceed in it. 
 
 PERSONNE, as a noun, is always feminine, and is used 
 both in the singular and plural; it means a person, a 
 man or woman, people. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C'est une personne de merite. 
 C'est une personne tres-instruite. 
 Des personnes bien intentionnees. 
 
 He is a man of merit. 
 
 /She is a very well-informed person. 
 
 Well-intentioned people. 
 
 1 17. L'UN L'AUTRE, m., L'UNE L'ADTRE, /. ; LES UNS 
 
 LES AUTRES, m. pi., LES UNES LES AUTRES, /. pi. / One 
 
 another, each other. 
 
 This pronoun is employed in speaking of persons and 
 things. Uun Vautre is used with reference to two, and 
 les uns les autres with reference to more than two. 
 
 If there be any preposition, it must be placed between 
 run Vautre, and not before, as is the case in English 
 before one another or each other. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 They praise one another. 
 
 The soldiers excited one another. 
 
 They speak ill OF each other. 
 
 Us se louent Tun Vautre. 
 
 Les soldats s'excitaient les uns les 
 
 autres. 
 Us parlent mal Vun DE Tautre. 
 
 118. I/UN ET L'AUTRE, m., L'UNE ET L'AUTRE, /. ; LES 
 
 UNS ET LES AUTRES, m. pi, 
 
 f. pi. ; the one and the other, loth. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Uun et Tautre sont bons. [fait. 
 L'une et Vautre rapportent le memo 
 Us se reunissaient les uns et les 
 autres contre 1'ennemi. 
 
 Both are good. 
 
 Both relate the same circumstance. 
 They all united against the ene- 
 my. 
 
54 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, 
 
 When Vun el Vautre is followed by a noun, it is no 
 longer an indefinite pronoun, but an adjective ; as, Vun 
 et Vautre CHEVAL, both horses ; Vune et Vautre SAISON, 
 both seasons; Vune et Vautre DEMANDS, both requests. 
 
 (gf Many Grammarians class TEL among the Inde- 
 finite pronouns ; but it is a real adjective, and agrees in 
 gender and number with a noun either expressed or 
 understood ; as, une telle action, such an action ; de tcls 
 animaux, such animals ; tel (liomme understood) rit 
 aujourd huij such as laughs to-day ; telle (femme under- 
 stood) se croit belle, such a one thinks herself beautiful. 
 
 [For any further explanation respecting the Pronouns, see the Syntax.] 
 
 EXERCISE XXXV. 
 
 One lias often need of a (person inferior) to oneself. 
 a souvent besom plus petit m. que soi. 
 
 They say lie is learned God (will punish) whosoever 
 dit qu' est Dieu punira 
 
 transgresses his laws. Somebody has taken my umbrella 
 
 transgresse loi a pris parapluie m, 
 
 Every one (will read) in his turn. We (must not) covet 
 lira a tourm. II ne faut pas desirer 
 
 the property of other people Pride becomes nobody, 
 bien m. art. orgueil in. convient d, 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVI. 
 
 Fire and water destroy each other. I have 
 
 art. feu m. art. eau f. se detruiseni ai 
 
 read the Iliad and the ,Eneid, both have delighted me. 
 lu Iliade f. Eneide f. out enchanU 
 
 People who have (little to do) are very great talkers; 
 ait. gensw. peu d'affaires de parleur 
 
 the less one thinks, the more one speaks. Each of them resolved 
 moins pense plus parle. resolut 
 
 to live as a gentleman. He who chooses badly for himself, 
 de vivre en * gentilhomme. * choisit soi 
 
 chooses badly for others. Some assert the contrary. 
 
 assurent contraire m. 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 55 
 
 1 1 9. OF INDEFINITE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 We shall treat here of the indefinite pronominal adjec- 
 tives, on account of their affinity with the indefinite pro- 
 nouns ; these adjectives are : chaque, nul, aucun, pas im, 
 meme, plusieurs, tout, quelconque, quel, quelque. 
 
 120. CHAQUE, every, each, is of both genders, and with- 
 out plural. This word must not be confounded with 
 chacun ; chaque is always followed by a noun ; cliacun, 
 on the contrary, is never joined to a noun (see page 52). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Chaque age a ses plaisirs. I Every age has its pleasures. 
 
 Chaque science a ses principes. | Every science has its principles. 
 
 121. NUL, 77?., NULLE, /. J AUCUN, TYl., AUCUNE, /. ; PAS 
 
 UN, 777., PAS UNE, /. ; none, no, no one, not one, not any. 
 
 These expressions have nearly the same meaning when 
 accompanied by the negative ne placed before the verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 No man is perfect. 
 
 You have no proof; no, not 
 
 Nul homme n'est parfait. 
 Vous n'avez aucune preuve ; non, 
 pas une. 
 
 N.B. No, in answer to a question, is translated by 
 
 one. 
 
 non. 
 
 122. MEME, same, self, like, alike; plural, MEMES ; of 
 both genders. 
 
 C'est le meme homme, la mdme 
 
 personne. 
 Les cendres du berger et du roi 
 
 sont les memes. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 It is the same man, the same 
 
 person 
 
 The ashes of the shepherd and the 
 king are alike, 
 
 Meme is often placed after a substantive or a pronoun, 
 to give more energy to the expression. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 C'est la bonte* meme. She is kindness itself. 
 
 Le roi \ui-meme s'y opposa. The king himself opposed it. 
 
 Nous le ferons nona-memes. 
 
 We will do it ourselves. 
 
 Meme is also an adverb ; then it is invariable, an J 
 means tvtn, also. This is the etiam of the Latin. 
 
56 OF INDEFINITE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Les femmes et meme les cnfants 
 fnrent tu6s. 
 
 Women and even children were 
 killed. 
 
 123. PLUSIEURS, several, many. It is of both genders 
 and has no singular. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Plusieurs historiens ont raconte*. 
 En plusieurs occasions. 
 Plusieurs de vos amis. 
 
 Several historians have related. 
 On several occasions. 
 Many of your friends. 
 
 124. TOUT. There are various kinds of this word. 
 
 (1.) Tout, indefinite pronominal adjective, meaning 
 every, each, any, any one ; the quisque of the Latin. In 
 this sense, tout never takes an article nor a pronoun, and 
 is always singular. EXAMPLES : 
 
 Tout citoyen doit 'servir son 
 
 pays. 
 Toute peine me'rite salaire (Ac.) 
 
 Every citizen ought to serve his 
 
 country. 
 Every labour deserves a reward. 
 
 men. 
 
 The whole man does not die. 
 
 (2.) Tout, adjective, all, ivhole; in Latin, totus, omnis : 
 
 Tout le monde ; toute la terre ; All the world; all the earth ; all 
 
 tons les hommes. 
 Tout I'homme ne meurt pas. 
 
 (3.) Tout, adverb, quite, entirely, however; in Latin, 
 omninb, plane : 
 
 Elle fut tout e'tonne'e. I She was quite astonished. 
 
 Nos vaisseaux sont tout prets. | Our vessels are quite ready. 
 
 O- Tout, adverb, becomes adjective, or at least agrees like one, In gender and 
 number, when immediately followed by an adjective or participle feminine, be- 
 ginning with a consonant, or h aspirate ; as, 
 
 Elle etait toute changde. 
 Elle en est toute honteuse. 
 Toutes spirituelles qu'elles sont. 
 
 She was quite altered. 
 /She is quite ashamed of it. 
 Witty as they are. 
 
 (4.) Tout, substantive masculine, the whole; the totum 
 of the Latin : 
 
 Ne prenez pas le tout. \ Do not take the whole. 
 
 125. QUELCONQUE, whatever, whatsoever. When used 
 with a negative, it is nearly synonymous with nul, aucun ; 
 it is invariable, and is always placed after a noun ; as, 
 
 II n'y a homme quelconque. I There is no man whatever. 
 
 II n'y a raison quelconque. \ There is no reason whatsoever. 
 
 When used without a negative, it admits of a plural ; as, 
 Deux points quckonques.-(A.CAi>.) j Two points whatsoever. 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 57 
 
 126. QUEL, W., QUELLE, /. / QUELS, W. pi., QUELLES,/. 
 
 pi, what. This pronominal adjective is used principally 
 in interrogations and exclamations, or to express uncer- 
 tainty and doubt. It is always followed by a noun ex- 
 pressed or understood, with which it agrees in gender 
 and number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quel maitre? QueUe dame? 
 Quels livres, quelles brochures 
 
 lisez-vous ? 
 Quel bonheur ! 
 Quel homme vous 3tes ! 
 II ne salt quel parti prendre. 
 J'ai des nouvelles k vous apprendre. 
 
 Quelles (nouvelles) sont-elles ? 
 
 What master ? What lady ? 
 What books, what pamphlets do 
 
 you read? 
 What happiness I 
 What a man you are ! 
 He knows not -what course to take. 
 I have news to tell you. What is 
 
 it? 
 
 127. QUELQUE, 5., QUELQUES, pi., some, is of both gen- 
 ders, and is always joined to a noun. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quelque auteur en a parle*. 
 
 Some author has mentioned it. 
 
 II y a quelques difficulte's. There are some difficulties. 
 
 Quelque, in this sense, corresponds to the aliquis of the 
 Latin. (Acad., and the modern Grammarians.) 
 
 Quelque, with que before the succeeding verb, means 
 whatever. This is the quantuscunque, quantacunque of the 
 Latin. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quelque soin ^w'on prenne. 
 Quelque raison qu'il ait. 
 Quelques efforts que vous fassiez. 
 
 Whatever care one may take. 
 Whatever reason he may have. 
 Whatever efforts you may make. 
 
 But should quelque be followed by the verb fare, to be, 
 it is written in two words (quel que) ; in this case, quel 
 must agree in gender and number with the subject of the 
 verb. This expression answers to the qualiscunque of the 
 Latin. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 QueUe que soit votre intention. 
 Quels que soient vos desseins. 
 Quelles que soient vos vues. (ACAD.) 
 
 Whatever your Intention may be. 
 Whatever your designs may be. 
 Whatever your views may be. 
 
58 OF INDEFINITE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Quelque, followed by an adverb or an adjective without 
 a noun, is considered as an adverb, and is invariable ; it 
 corresponds to the English however, howsoever, and to the 
 Latin adverb quantumvis ; as, 
 Quelque bien Merits que soient ces 
 
 ouvrages, ils ont peu de succes. 
 
 Quelque puissants qu'ils soient, je 
 
 n-e les crains point. (AcAD.) 
 
 However well written these works 
 may be, they have little success. 
 
 However powerful they may be, 2 
 do not fear them. 
 
 Quelque, when immediately followed by a cardinal 
 number, is also considered as an adverb ; then, it means 
 about, nearly, some, and answers to the circiter of the 
 Latin. In this sense, quelque is of the familiar style ; as, 
 
 Alexandre perdit quelque trois cents 
 homines, lorsqu'il defit Porus. 
 
 Alexander lost some three hundred 
 men, when lie defeated Porus. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVH. 
 
 Every country has its customs. No one is dissatisfied with 
 pays m. a coutume n'est mecontent de 
 
 his own understanding 1 . No reason can justify a 
 
 # jugement m. raison f. ne pent justifier le 
 
 falsehood. It is the same sun that (gives light to) all 
 mensongem. C'est soleilm. qui eclaire 
 
 the nations of the earth. It is virtue itself. Divide the 
 
 f. pi. terre f. art. vertu f. Divisez 
 
 whole into several parts. The ivhole fleet is at sen,. Every 
 
 en partie 2 x flottef. est en mer. 
 
 truth (is not) proper (to be told) Any pretext whatever. 
 v6rite f . n'est pas bon a dire. Un pretexte m. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVIII. 
 
 No one is satisfied with his fortune, nor dissatisfied with his 
 
 n' content de f. ni 
 
 own wit. No road of flowers conducts to glory. 
 * esprit m. cheminm. ne conduit art. 78 
 
 What lesson have you learnt ? (There are) some defects in 
 leconf. avez- apprise? II y a def ant dans 
 
 that picture. Whatever your talents (may be), you 
 
 tableau m. m. pi. soient 
 
 (will not succeed) without application. She is quite wet. 
 
 ne reussirez pas sans mouillee 
 
 These ladies were quite surprised to see him. 
 furent surprises de *voir l 
 
OP THE VERB. 59 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 OF THE VERB, 
 
 128. FRENCH VERBS are divided into five kinds : 
 Active, Passive, Neuter, Pronominal, and Impersonal, or 
 rather Unipersonal, besides the two Auxiliary Verbs, 
 avoir, to have, and etre, to be. 
 
 There are FOUR CONJUGATIONS in French, which are 
 distinguished by the termination of the Present of the 
 Infinitive. 
 
 The first ends in ER, as, parler, to speak. 
 ... second ... IR, ...fair, to finish. 
 ... third ... OIR, ... recevoir, to receive. 
 
 ... fourth ... RE, ... vendre, to sell. 
 
 In each of these Conjugations, there are regular, ir- 
 regular, and defective verbs. 
 
 A verb is called regular, when all its tenses take ex- 
 actly the terminations of one of the four model conjuga- 
 tions, which are inserted hereafter in their proper places. 
 A verb is called irregular, when, in some of its tenses, 
 it takes terminations different from those of the conju- 
 gation to which it belongs ; and it is termed defective, 
 when it is not used in some tenses or persons. 
 
 As the compound tenses of all verbs are formed by the 
 help of avoir, to have, and etre, to be, for which reason 
 these two are called auxiliary verbs, they take precedence 
 of the four principal Conjugations, instead of being classed 
 among the irregular verbs to which they belong. 
 
 " It may not," says Lindley Murray, " be generally proper for young 
 persons beginning the study of grammar, to commit to memory all the 
 tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses be committed to memory, and 
 the rest carefully perused, the business will not be tedious to the scholars, 
 and their progress will be rendered more obvious and pleasing." 
 
 Without wishing to dictate any particular method of tuition, we think 
 the preceding remark of the celebrated English Grammarian peculiarly 
 applicable to the learning of French verbs. Let the scholar be first 
 made familiar with the simple tenses, and he will find the rest an ex- 
 tremely easy task. 
 
 The most part of Anglo-French Grammarians mix the simple and 
 compound tenses ; in this Grammar they are kept separate, but pre- 
 sented at one view, side by side ; so that while the student is learning a 
 simple tense, he also forms an acquaintance with its compound. 
 
60 
 
 AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. 
 
 129. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB 
 
 A VOIR, TO HAVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Avoir, to have. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Ayant, having. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 | Avoir eu, to have had. 
 
 COMPOUND OF PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 | Ayant eu, having had. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. Eu, 771., 6U6,/., had. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 J'ai,* / have. 
 
 J'ai eu, / have had. 
 
 tu as, thou hast. 
 
 tu as eu, thou hast had. 
 
 il, or elle a, he, or she has. 
 
 il a eu, he has had. 
 
 nous avons, we have. 
 
 nous avons eu, we have had. 
 
 vou3 avez,f you have. 
 
 vous avez eu, you have had. 
 
 ils, or elles out, they have. 
 
 ils ont eu, they have had. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J 'avals, I had. 
 
 J'avais eu, / had had. 
 
 tu avals, thou hadst. 
 
 tu avais eu, thouhadsthad. 
 
 il avait, he had. 
 
 il avait eu, he had had. 
 
 nous avions, we had. 
 
 nous avions eu, we had had. 
 
 vous aviez, you had. 
 
 vous aviez eu, you had had. 
 
 ils avaient, they had. 
 
 ils avaient eu, they had had. 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'eus,| / had. 
 
 J'eus eu, I had had. 
 
 tu eus, thou hadst. 
 
 tu eus eu, thou hadst had. 
 
 il eut, he had. 
 
 il eut eu, he had had. 
 
 nous eumes, we had. 
 
 nous eumes eu, we had had. 
 
 vous eutes, you had. 
 
 vous eutes eu, you had had. 
 
 ils eurent, . they had. 
 
 ils eurent eu, they had had. 
 
 * We write fai, and pronounce^. 
 
 f All the second persons plural of the simple tenses end with z or s with 2, when 
 the preceding e is pronounced with the sound of a in the English alphabet ; as, 
 vous avez, vous parliez and with s, when the same e is not pronounced at all ; as, 
 vous eutes, vousfaites, &c. 
 
 J J'eus is pronounced fu. 
 
 The first and second person plural of the Preterite Definite of all verbs take a 
 circumflex accent over the vowel that terminates the last syllabic but one. 
 
AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'aurai, I shall have. 
 
 J'aurai eu, 7 shall 1 
 
 tu auras, thou shall have. 
 
 tu auras eu, thou shaft ^ 
 
 \\ aura, he shall have. 
 
 il aura eu, he shall 
 
 nous aurons, we shall have. 
 
 nous aurons eu, we shall g" 
 
 vous aurez, you shall have. 
 
 vous aurez eu, you shall ?- 
 
 ils auront, tfiey shall have. 
 
 ils auront eu, they shall j 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 J'aurais, 1 should have. 
 
 J'aurais eu, I should ~) 
 
 tu aurais, thou shouldst have. 
 
 tu aurais eu, thou shouldst g* 
 
 il aurait, he should have. 
 
 il aurait eu, he should % 
 
 nous aurions, we should have. 
 
 nous aurions eu, we should g- 
 
 vous auriez, you should have. 
 
 vous auriez eu, you should s^, 
 
 ils auraient, they should have. 
 
 ils auraient eu, they should J 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Aie, Have (thou). 
 
 qu'il ait, let him have. 
 
 ayons, let us have. 
 
 ayez, have (ye). 
 
 qu'ils aient, let them have. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PBETEBITE. 
 
 Quej'aic, That 1 may ^ 
 
 Quej'aieeu, That J may ^ 
 
 que tu aies, that thou mayst \ 
 
 que tu aies eu, that thou mayst > 
 
 qu'fl ait, that he may ^ 
 
 qu'il ait eu, that he may % 
 
 que nous ayons, that we may % 
 
 que nous ayons eu, that we may > 
 
 que vous ayez, that you may I 
 
 que vous ayez eu, that you may ? 
 
 qu'ils aient, that they may J 
 
 qu'ils aient eu, that they may ) 
 
 IMPEKFECT. PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Quej'eusse, That I might ^ 
 
 Quej'eusse eu, That 1 might ~\ 
 
 que tu eusses, that thou mightst \ 
 
 que tu eusses eu, that thou mightst > 
 
 qu'il cut, # that he might & 
 
 qu'il eut eu, that he might ^ 
 
 que nous eussions, that we might S 
 
 que nous eussions eu, that we might > 
 
 que vous eussiez, that you might 1 
 
 que vous eussiez eu, that you might $*. 
 
 qu'ils eussent, that they might J 
 
 qu'ils eussent eu,t that they might J 
 
 * The third person singular of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive of all verbs takes 
 a circumflex accent over the vowel that precedes the final t ; as, qu'il eut, qu'il 
 chcntdt, qu'il finit) qu'il vicut, <fcc. 
 
 \ By omitting qus, this tense is also used for the Conditional pant 
 
62 EXERCISES ON AVOIR. 
 
 130. REMARK I. In the following Exercises, the noun 
 being used in a partitive sense, it will be necessary to 
 place before the noun either du, de la, de Z', or des, ac- 
 cording to the directions given, Rule III., page 16. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIX. 
 
 INDICATIVE. PRES. I have money. He has wealth. 
 
 argent m. bien m. 
 
 She has patience and sweetness. We have relations and 
 
 f. douceur f. parent 
 
 friends. You have gold and silver. They have ambition 
 
 ami or m. argent m. m. f. 
 
 and perseverance. They have pomegranates and pineapples. 
 perseverance f. f. grenade f. ananas m. 
 
 IMPERF. We had umbrellas and cloaks. You had 
 
 parapluie m. manteau m. 
 muskets, rifles, pistols, and artillery. They had 
 
 fusil m. carabine f, pistolet m. artillerie f. 
 
 swords, lances, pikes, pitchforks, bows, and arrows. 
 epee f. f. pique f. fourche f. arc m. fleche f. 
 
 PRETERITE DEFIN. I had strawberries. She had raspberries. 
 /raise f. framboise f. 
 
 We had gooseberries. You had cherries. They had grapes. 
 groseille f. cerise f. f. raisin m. 
 
 EXERCISE XL. 
 
 Peter has talent and experience. You have courage and 
 Pierre m. experience f. m. 
 
 firmness. John and James have walnuts and filberts. Jane 
 fermete f. Jean Jacques noix f. aveline f . Jeanne 
 
 had prudence and riches. He has had good luck We 
 
 ind-2 f. richesseyl. bonheurm. 
 
 shall have soup or fish. Andrew shall have oranges and 
 soupef. poissonm. Andre f. 
 
 lemons. Louisa and Martha shall have figs and plums 
 
 citron m. 79 79 figue f. prune f. 
 
 That we may have had snow, rain, and wind. Having 
 neige f. pluie f. vent m. 
 
 eyes, see ye not ? Having ears, hear ye not ? 
 
 40 newyez- point? . oreillef. n'entendcz- 
 
EXERCISES ON AVOIR. 63 
 
 131. REMARK II. The addition of an adjective, after 
 the noun, makes no difference as to the use of du, de la, 
 de I', des. But, the adjective "must agree with the noun, 
 in gender and number. See Rules, p. 20 and 25. 
 
 EXERCISE XLI. 
 
 INDIC. PRES I have red ink. She has clear and 
 *rouge l encre f. *clair 
 
 just ideas. -We have ripe pears. -You have sincere friends. 
 *juste Hdeef. 2 mdr l poire f. ^sincere l 
 
 Margaret and Sophia have green parasols and purple shawls. 
 Marguerite Sophie 2 vert 1 - m. 2 violet l chdlem. 
 
 FUT. ABS. We shall have white curtains. You will have 
 
 l rideau m. 
 
 true and real pleasures. They will have new houses. 
 *vrai s reel ^plaisirm. 9 neuf l maisonf. 
 
 SUBJ. PRES. In order that I may have ready money. 
 Afin *comptant * 
 
 That you may have enlightened judges and faithful servants. 
 2 'eclair e *jugem. 2 fidele l domestique 
 
 132. REMARK III. But, if the adjective comes before 
 the noun, then, only de, or d\ is to be used before the 
 adjective, instead of du, de la, de Z', des, without any 
 regard to the gender or number of the noun. 
 
 I have some good snuff. He has good brandy, and ez- 
 47 tabac m. eau-de-vie f. 
 
 cellent wine We have beautiful walks in our town. 
 77 vinm. beau promenade? . dans 
 
 She had great qualities. We shall have had long sufferings. 
 ind-2 grand qualitef. 58 souffrancef. 
 
 I should have fine pictures and pretty engravings You would 
 58 tableau m. joli gravuref. 
 
 have great advantages. That you may have good reasons to 
 avantage m. raison f. 
 
 give him. Have you not better pens to lend me? 
 donner lui N' pas 70 plume f. ct prdter 
 
 1 have very good pens, but bad ink, and bad paper. 
 ires metis mauvais papier m 
 
64 
 
 EXERCISE ON AVOIR. 
 
 Recapitulatory EXERCISE upon the three foregoing Remarks. 
 
 He has credit, power, authority, and riches. We 
 credit m. puissance f. autorite f. richesse f. pi. 
 
 shall have wine, beer, and cider. Let us have politeness. 
 biere f. cidre m. politesse f. 
 
 We have white bread, delicate meat, and delicious wines. 
 2 blanc l pain m. 2 delicat l viande f. *delicieux 1 
 
 That they may have prepossessing manners. She has excellent 
 2 prevenant l maniere f. 
 
 qualities. They have small apricots, but large peaches. 
 petit abricotm. gros 
 
 133. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB 
 
 ETRE, TO BE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 | Avoir e'te', to have been. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Etre, to be. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 COMPOUND OF PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Etant, being. \ Ayant &, having been. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. Etc*,* been. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. , PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Je suis, 
 
 I am. 
 
 J'ai 6t6, 
 
 / have been. 
 
 tu es, 
 
 thou art. 
 
 tu as t6, 
 
 thou hast been. 
 
 il, or elle est, 
 
 he, or she is. 
 
 il a &6, 
 
 he has been. 
 
 nous somraes, 
 
 we are. 
 
 nous avons ete, 
 
 we have been. 
 
 vous tes, 
 
 you are. 
 
 vous avez dt6, 
 
 you have been. 
 
 ils, or elles sont, 
 
 they are. 
 
 Us ont &e, 
 
 they have beeti. 
 
 IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J'etais, 
 
 I was. 
 
 J 'avals te, 
 
 I had been. 
 
 tu dtais, 
 
 thou wast. 
 
 tu avais et<, 
 
 thou hadst been. 
 
 il dtait, 
 
 he was. 
 
 il avait ete, 
 
 he had been. 
 
 nous etions, 
 
 we were. 
 
 nous avions 616*, 
 
 we had been. 
 
 vous 6tiez, 
 
 you were. 
 
 vous aviez e'te, 
 
 you had been. 
 
 ils ^taient, 
 
 they were. 
 
 ils avaient e*td, 
 
 they had been. 
 
 * tt never changes its termination. 
 
AUXILIAKY VEEB EIRE. 
 
 65 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je fas, 
 
 / was. 
 
 J'eus e*te*, / had been. 
 
 tu fus, 
 
 thou wast. 
 
 tu eus 616, thou hadst been. 
 
 il fat, 
 
 he was. 
 
 il cut e*te*, he had been. 
 
 nous fumes, 
 
 we were. 
 
 nous eumes e'te', we had been. 
 
 vous futes, 
 
 you were. 
 
 vous eutes e'te, you had been. 
 
 ils furent, 
 
 they were. 
 
 ils eurent e'te, they had been. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je serai, 
 
 I shall be. 
 
 J'aurai 6t6, I shall have 1 
 
 tu seras, 
 
 thou shalt be. 
 
 tu auras etc*, thou shalt have \ 
 
 il sera, 
 
 he shall be. 
 
 il aura ete, he shall have * 
 
 nous serons, 
 
 we shall be. 
 
 nous aurons ete, we shall have p 
 
 vous serez, 
 ils seront, 
 
 you shall be. 
 they shall be. 
 
 vous aurez ele*, you shall have \ 
 ils auront ete, they shall have j 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Je serais, 
 
 / should be. 
 
 J'aurais e'te, I should have 1 
 
 tu serais, 
 
 thou shouldst be. 
 
 tu aurais e*te*, thou shouldst have \ 
 
 il serait, 
 
 he should be. 
 
 il aurait e'td, he should have <j? 
 
 nous serions, 
 
 we should be. 
 
 nous aurions e'te', we should have p 
 
 vous seriez, 
 ils seraient, 
 
 you should be. 
 they should be. 
 
 vous auriez e'te', you should have 1 
 ils auraient ele*, they should have} 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Sois, 
 
 qu'il soit, 
 soyons, 
 soyez, 
 qu'ils soient. 
 
 Be (thou). 
 let him be* 
 let us be. 
 be (you), 
 let them be. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Que je soig, 
 que tu sois, 
 qu'il soit, 
 que nous soyons, 
 que vous soyez, 
 qu'ils soient, 
 
 That I may be. 
 that thou mayst be. 
 that he may be. 
 that we may be. 
 that you may be. 
 that they may be. 
 
 Que j'aie t. 
 que tu aies e'te", 
 qu'il ait 6t6, 
 que nous ayons e"te", 
 que vous ayez dt^, 
 qu'ils aient (He, 
 
 That J may 
 that thou mayst 
 that he may 
 that we may 
 that you may 
 that they may 
 
 Quejefusse, 
 que tu fusses, 
 qu'il fat, 
 
 que nous fussions, 
 que vous fussiez, 
 qu'ils fussent, 
 
 That I might be. 
 that thou mightst be. 
 that he might be. 
 that we might be. 
 that you might be. 
 thqt they might b 
 
 PLUPEKFECT. 
 
 Que j 'eusse #6, That I might ^ 
 
 que tu eusses 6te", that thou mightst * 
 
 qu'il eat ete, that he might 8 
 
 que nous eussions gte", that we might 
 
 que vous eussiez (Std, that you might 'ji 
 
 gu'ils eugsent e^, that they might J 
 
66 EXERCISES ON ETRE. 
 
 134. GENERAL RULE. The adjective must be of the same gender and 
 number as the noun or pronoun which is the subject of the verb dire. 
 See Rules, p. 20 and 25. 
 
 EXERCISE XLII. 
 
 INDIC. PRES. I am ready. She is inquisitive. We are 
 
 f. 47 curieux 
 
 busy. Your sisters are careful. Men are mortal. 
 occup& soigneux art. mortel 
 
 IMPERF. I was uneasy. Mary was tall. She was prudent 
 
 f. 48 Marie grand 
 
 and discreet. Her manners were full of dignity. We were 
 
 48 manieref. plein 78 f. 
 
 all present when the thing 1 happened. They were absent. 
 tout lorsque choseL arriva. m. 
 
 PRET. DEP. The country was not ungrateful to him. 
 
 patrie f. ne point ingrat envers 
 The ides of March were fatal to Julius Csesar 
 
 f. mars Jules Cesar. 
 
 PRET. INDEF Your aunts have always been good and 
 
 toujours 
 
 charitable. Ladies, you have not been disinterested enough. 
 Mesdames, n* pas *desinteresse l assez 
 
 EXERCISE XLIII. 
 
 PLUPERF. She had been too hasty. We had been idle 
 
 prompt paresseux 
 
 and prodigal. They had been economical and temperate. 
 
 prodigue econome sobre 
 
 FUT. ABS. His memory will be immortal. We shall be 
 
 memoir -e f. immortel f. 
 
 attentive and more diligent.' They will be very glad to see you. 
 
 plus bien aise de voir 
 
 FUT. ANT.-^ She will have been proud, whimsical, and jealous. 
 
 48 fantasque jaloux 
 They will have been very much pleased and very grateful. 
 
 f. tres * satisfait reconnaissant 
 
 IMPERA. Let us be poor in gold, and rich in virtues. 
 
 pauvre en riche 
 
 Rich people, be humane, kindhearted, and generous, 
 m. pi * humain tendre genereuz. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 67 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 135. (1.) There are, in French, as we have already 
 said (No. 128), but four conjugations, because all verbs 
 terminate in the Present of the Infinitive, in one of four 
 different manners : in er, ir, oir, or re. 
 
 136. (2.) To conjugate, with greater facility, one verb 
 by another, it is necessary to observe, that in all verbs 
 there are radical and/naZ letters. The first are like the 
 root of the verb, and contain its meaning : these never 
 change throughout all the different tenses and persons. 
 The final letters constitute the termination of the verb, 
 and vary according to tenses and persons. Thus, in 
 parler, to speak, the termination common to all verbs of 
 the first conjugation being er, the radical letters are parl. 
 
 137. (3.) Among the simple tenses of a verb, there 
 are five which serve to form all the others, and on that 
 account are called primitive: these are, the Present of the 
 Infinitive, the Participle present, the Participle past, the 
 Present of the Indicative, and the Preterite definite. 
 
 138. From the Present of the Infinitive are formed : 
 1st, The Future absolute, by changing r, oir, or re, 
 
 into rai ; as, Parler, je parlerai ; Finir, je finirai ; 
 Recevoir, je recevrai; Vendre,je vendrai. 
 
 2d, The Conditional present, by changing r, oir, or 
 re, into rais ; as, Parler, je parlerais ; Finir, je finirais ; 
 Recevoir, je recevrais ; Vendre, je vendrais. 
 
 Some Grammarians form the Conditional present, by adding an s to 
 the Future, which is the simplest way, when the Future is known. 
 
 139. From the Participle present are formed : 
 
 1st, The three persons plural of the Present of the In- 
 dicative, by changing ant into ons, ez, ent ; as, Parlant, 
 nous jwrlons, vous parlez, Us parlent ; Finissant, nous 
 finissons, voua finissez, ilsfinissent, &c. 
 
 EXCICPTION. Verbs of the Third Conjugation form the third person 
 plural of the Present of the Indicative, from the first person singular of 
 the same tense, by changing s into vent; as, Je refois, Us refoivcnt, 
 
68 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 2d, The Imperfect of the Indicative, by changing ant 
 into ais ; as, Parlant, je parlais ; Finissant, je finissais ; 
 Itecevant, je recevais ; Vendant, je vendais. 
 
 3d, The Present of the Subjunctive, by changing ant 
 into e; as, Parlant, qucjeparle; Finissant, quejefinisse; 
 Vendant, queje vende. 
 
 EXCEPTION. Verbs of the Third Conjugation form only the first 
 and second persons plural from the Participle present ; as, Recevant, 
 que nous recevions, que vous receviez. The others are formed from the 
 first person singular of the Present of the Indicative, by changing s 
 into ve; as, Je re$ois, que je re^oive, que tu re$oives, qu'il receive, 
 qu'ils resolvent. 
 
 140. From the Participle past are formed all the com- 
 pound tenses, by means of the auxiliary verbs avoir and 
 etre ; as, avoir parle, j'ai fini, j'avais requ, faurai vendu. 
 
 141. From the Present of the Indicative is formed the 
 Imperative, by omitting the pronouns ; as, je parle, 
 parle ; nous finissons, finissons ; vous recevez, recevez. 
 
 142. From the Preterite definite is formed the Imper- 
 fect of the Subjunctive, by changing ai into asse for the 
 first conjugation ; as, je parlai, que je parlasse ; and, by 
 adding se for the three others ; as, je finis, queje finisse ; 
 je regus, queje requsse ; je vendis, queje vendisse, 
 
 143. TABLE 
 
 OF THE PRIMITIVE TENSES OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 Present 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 Present 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 Past. 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 Present 
 
 PRETERITE 
 Dettnite. 
 
 FIKST CONJUGATION. 
 
 Parl-ey. [ 
 
 Parl-a>rt. | 
 
 Parl-e. 
 
 Je parl-e. 
 
 Je parl-ai. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 Fin-ir. | 
 
 J?m-issant. 
 
 Fin-i. 
 
 Je fin- is. 
 
 Je fin-is. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 Rec-evoiV. | 
 
 ~Rec-evant. 
 
 Re9-w. 
 
 Je TQ$-ois. 
 
 Je req-us. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 Ven-^re. | 
 
 Ven-c/ani. | 
 
 Ven-c/w. 
 
 Je ven-ds. 
 
 Je ven-dis. 
 
FIKST CONJUGATION IN &&. 69 
 
 144. I. CONJUGATION OF ACTIVE VERBS. 
 
 An Active verb expresses an action done by the sub- 
 ject, and has an object, either expressed or understood. 
 In this phrase : Jean aime Dieu, John loves God, Jean 
 is the subject, aime the verb active, and Dieu the object. 
 
 MODEL OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION IN ER. 
 
 145. FABLER, TO SPEAK. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Parler, to speak. \ Avoir parle*, to have spoken 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. COMPOUND OF PART. PRESENT. 
 
 Parlant, speaking. \ Ayant parle, having spoken, 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. Parle, spoken. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 (Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Je parle, / speak. * 
 
 J'ai parle, / have ^ 
 
 tu paries, thou speakcst. 
 
 tu as parle, thou hast > 
 
 il parle, he speaks. 
 
 il a parl, he has 
 
 nous parlons, we speak. 
 
 nous avons parle, we have g 
 
 vous parlez, you speak. 
 
 vous avez parle, you have . 
 
 ils parlent, they speak. 
 
 ila out pane, they have ' 
 
 IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Je parlais, / was "} 
 
 J'avais parle, I had ^ 
 
 tu parlais, thou wast * 
 
 tu avais parle, thou hadst ^ 
 
 il parlait, he was |^ 
 nous parlions, we were 
 
 il avait parle, he had o 
 nous avions parle, we had 
 
 vous parliez, you were *? 
 ils parlaient, they were J 
 
 vous aviez parle, you had \ 
 ils avaient parle, they had ' 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je parlai, I spoke. 
 
 J'eus parle, / had ^ 
 
 tu parlas, thou spokest. 
 
 tu eus parle, thou hadst^ 
 
 il parla, ^ he spoke. 
 
 il cut parle, f lie had ^ 
 
 nous parlames, we spoke. 
 vous parlates, you spoke. 
 ils parlerent, they spoke. 
 
 nous eumes parle, we had | 
 vous eutes parle, you had -. 
 ils eurent parle, they had ' 
 
 f I speak, I do speak, or, I am speaking. See N. B. p. 279. 
 
70 
 
 FIBST CONJtjaATION IS Sti. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 Je parlerai, I shall 1 
 tu parleras, thou shalt L 
 il parlera, he shall 
 nous parlerons, we shall g, 
 vous parlerez, you shall *i 
 ils parleront, they shall J 
 
 J'aurai parle,^ 
 tu auras parle*, 
 il aura parl<$, 
 nous aurons parle, 
 vous aurez parle*, 
 ils auront parle*, 
 
 r I shall > 
 have spoken. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 
 Je parlerais, I should 1 
 tu parlerais, thou shouldstL 
 il parlerait, he should 
 n ous parlerions, we should g* 
 vous parleriez, you should '\ 
 ils parleraient, they should J 
 
 J'aurais parle*, 
 tu aurais parle*, 
 il aurait parle*, 
 nous aurions parle, 
 vous auriez parle*, 
 ils auraient parle*, 
 
 7 should 
 have spoken. 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 
 Parle, Speak (thou). 
 qu'il parle, let him speak. 
 parlons, let us speak. 
 parlez, speak (you). 
 qu'ils parlent, let them speak. 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Queje parle, 
 que tu paries, 
 qu'il parle, 
 quo nous parlions, 
 que vous parliez, 
 qu'ils parlent, 
 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que j'aie parle*, 
 que tu aies parM, 
 qu'il ait parld, 
 que nous ayons parle*, 
 que vous ayez parle, 
 qu'ils aient paiie*, 
 
 r^ 
 3 
 
 TO a^ 
 *^ S 
 
 i-f 
 
 IMPERFECT 
 
 Que je parlasse, 
 que tu parlasses, 
 qu'il parlat, 
 que nous parlassions, 
 que vous parlassiez, 
 qu'ils parlasaent 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que j'eusse parM, 
 
 que tu eusses parl^, 
 
 qu'il eut parl^, 
 
 que nous eussions parle', *1 
 
 que vous eussiez parld, ^ 
 
 qu'ils eussent parld, 
 
 That 
 
 have 
 
EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 71 
 
 146. Conjugate in the same manner all the regular 
 Verbs terminating in er ; as, 
 
 Accepter, 
 chanter, 
 chercher, 
 danser, 
 demander, 
 donner, 
 eViter, 
 
 to accept, 
 to sing, 
 to seek, 
 to dance, 
 to ask. 
 to give, 
 to avoid. 
 
 fermer, 
 flatter, 
 g-arder, 
 louer, 
 montrer, 
 porter, 
 raconter, 
 
 to shut, 
 to flatter. 
 10 keep, 
 to praise, 
 to show, 
 to carry, 
 to relate. 
 
 EXERCISE XL1V. 
 
 INDICATIVE. PRESENT. I study geography and 
 
 etudier art. geographies. 
 
 history. He dines at five o'clock.: We admire the 
 tat.histoiref.hm. diner heure admirer 
 
 beauty of that landscape You forgive your enemies. 
 
 beaute f. paysage m. pardonner a ennemi 
 
 Your brothers and sisters sing and dance very well. 
 
 91 
 
 IMPERF I was accusing my friend He was listening 
 accuser ami ecouter 
 
 attentively. We were blaming our neighbours You were 
 attentivement. bldmer voisin 
 
 proposing a salutary advice. They were praising your prudence 
 
 proposer l avis m. f. 
 
 The ancient Peruvians worshipped the sun. 
 
 ancien Peruvien adorer soleilm. 
 
 EXERCISE XLV. 
 
 PIIET. DEF. I approved his action. She sung two or three 
 approuver 93 f. 
 
 songs. He borrowed money We declined his offer. 
 
 chanson emprunter 32 argent m. refuser 93 offre f. 
 
 You rewarded the servant. They declared war. 
 
 recompenser domestique m. declarer art. guerre f. 
 PJBET. INDEF. I have surmounted all the difficulties. . He 
 
 surmonter tout difficultef. 
 has offended his Majesty. We have bought an estate. They 
 
 offenser MajesteL acheter terref. 
 
 have considered the justice of his demand. At all times, 
 
 considerer f. demande f. Dans art. 
 
 gold has been looked upon as the most precious metal, 
 art. regarder comme des pi. 
 

 72 EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 EXERCISE XL VI. 
 
 PLUPERF. I had asked his consent. The queen had 
 
 demander consentement m. 
 manifested her displeasure. We had consulted men 
 
 montrer mecontentement m. consulter 32 
 
 of honour. You had emptied the bottle. They 
 
 honneur h m. vider bouteille f. 
 
 had repaired the house. He had tuned my piano, 
 
 r Sparer maison f. accorder m. 
 
 FUT. ABSOL. I shall cross the river. She will travel 
 
 traverser riviere f. voyager 
 
 with us. We will breakfast with you. You will shut the 
 
 avec dejeuner fermer 
 
 shutters. They will bring letters and newspapers. 
 
 volet m. apporter 32 lettre f. 32 journal m. 
 
 CONDJT. PRESENT. I would explain the rule. He would 
 
 expliquer regie f. 
 avoid his company. She would prepare the ball dresses. 
 
 compagnie f. preparer habit de bal. 
 
 We would walk faster. They would gain the victory. 
 marcher plus vite. remporter victoire f. 
 
 EXERCISE XL VII. 
 
 IMPERATIVE Give me his address and yours Let us 
 
 JDonner adresse f. 
 
 frequent good company James, carry this letter to the 
 frequenter art. porter lettre f. 
 
 post-office. Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and you 
 
 poste f. on ind-7 
 
 shall find ; knock, and it shall be opened unto you. 
 
 trouver frapper on ouvrira * 
 
 SUBJ. PRESENT. That I may re-enforce my party. That 
 
 renforcer parti m. 
 he may appease his anger. That you may find friends. 
 
 apaiser coiere f. des 
 
 IMPERF. That I might prove the truth. That she might 
 
 prouver verite f. 
 
 remain in town That they might take advantage of the 
 rester en mile. profiler 
 
 circumstances. That you might imitate his conduct. 
 circonstance f. imiter conduite f. 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION IN IR. 
 
 73 
 
 MODEL OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION IN IR. 
 147. FINIR,* TO FINISH. 
 
 Finir, 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 to finish. I Avoir fini, to have finished. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. COMPOUND OP PART. PRESENT. 
 
 Finissant, finishing. \ Ayant fini, having finished. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. Fini, finished. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Je finis, I finish. ' 
 
 J'ai fini, I have finished. 
 
 tu finis, thoufinishest. 
 
 tu as fini, thouhastfinished. 
 
 ilfinit, f he finishes. 
 
 il a fini, he has finished. 
 
 nous finissons, we finish. 
 vous finissez, you finish. 
 
 nous avons fini, we have finished. 
 vous avez fini, youhave finished. 
 
 ils finissent, they finish. 
 
 ils ont fini, they have finished. 
 
 IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Je finissais, I was ^ 
 
 J'avais fini, I had -\ 
 
 tu finissais, thou wast ^ 
 
 tu avais fini, thou hadst hk 
 
 il finissait, he was 
 
 il avait fini, he had 
 
 nous finissions, we were |? 
 
 nous avions fini, we had 
 
 vous finissiez, you were ^ 
 
 vous aviez fini, you had ?* 
 
 ils finissaient, they were } 
 
 ils avaient fini, they had J 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je finis, I finished. 
 
 J'eus fini, / had ^ 
 
 tu finis, thoufinishedst. 
 
 tu eus fini, thou hadst <i> 
 
 il finit, he finished. 
 
 il eut fini, he had ~. 
 
 nous finimes, we finished. 
 
 nous eumes fini, we had jf 
 
 yous finites, you finished. 
 ils finirent, they finished. 
 
 vous eutes fini, you had ^ 
 ils eurent fini, they had J 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Je finirai, I shall finish. 
 tu finiras, thou shalt finish. 
 il finira, he shall finish. 
 nousfinirons,we shall finish. 
 yous finirez, you shall finish. 
 ils finiront, they shall finish. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'auraifini, I shall have ^ 
 tu auras fini, thou shalt have^ 
 il aura fini, he shall have |. 
 nous aurons fini, we shall have ^ 
 yous aurez fini, you shall have * 
 ils auront fini, they shall have J 
 
 * The final B of the Infinitive of the 2d Conjugation is always sounded. 
 
74 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION IN IR. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je finirais, I should ^ 
 tu finirais, thou shouldst ^, 
 il finirait, he should ^' 
 nous finirions, we should g 
 yous finiriez, you should *i 
 ils finiraient, they should J 
 
 PAST. 
 
 J'aurais fini, I should 
 tu aurais fini, thou shouldst 
 il aurait fini, e he should * 
 nous aurions fini, we should 
 yous auriez fini, you should 
 ils auraient fini, they should 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Finis, Finish (thou). 
 
 qu'il finisse, let him finish. 
 
 finissons, let us finish. 
 
 finissez, finish (you). 
 
 qu'ils finissent, let them finish. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PEESENT. 
 
 Queje finisse, That I may ^ 
 que tu finisses, that thou mayst^ 
 qu'il finisse, that he may s 
 
 que nous finissions, that we may gi 
 quevousfinissiez, that you may '\ 
 
 ) 
 
 qu'ils finissent, that they may 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que j'aie fini, 
 que tu aies fini, 
 qu'il ait fini, 
 que nous ayons fini, 
 que vous ayez fini, 
 qu'ils aient fini, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je finisse, 
 que tu finisses, 
 qu'il finit, 
 
 que nous finissions, 
 que vous finissiez, 
 qu'ils finissent, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que j'eusse fini, ^ 
 que tu eusses fini, 
 qu'il eut fini, 
 que nous eussions fini, 
 que vous eussiez fini, 
 qu'ils eussent fini, 
 
 148. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Abolir, 
 
 to abolish. 
 
 enrichir, to enrich. 
 
 adoucir, 
 
 to soften. 
 
 e*tablir, to establish. 
 
 afiermir, 
 
 to strengthen. 
 
 fle'chir, to soften. 
 
 agir, 
 
 to act. 
 
 fournir, to furnish. 
 
 applaudir, 
 
 to applaud. 
 
 franchir, to leap over. 
 
 avertir, 
 
 to warn. 
 
 fre'inir, to shudder. 
 
 batir, 
 
 to build. 
 
 garantir, to warrant. 
 
 choisir, 
 
 to choose. 
 
 gue*rir, to cure. 
 
 demolir, 
 
 to demolish. 
 
 nourrir, to nourishy to feed. 
 
 divertir, 
 
 to divert. 
 
 ob&r, to obey. 
 
 embellir, 
 
 to embellish. 
 
 punir ; to punish. 
 
 emplir, 
 
 tofill. 
 
 r^ussu% &c. to succeed) fyc. 
 

 EXEKCISES ON THE SECOND CONJUGATION, 75 
 
 EXERCISE XL VIII. 
 INDICAT. PRES. I shudder when I think (of it). He 
 
 quand 2 penser l y 
 
 fulfils his promise. Your sister enjoys good 
 
 remplir promessef. jouir d'une 
 
 health You act as a master. They punish the idlers. 
 santeL en * maitre. paresseux 
 
 IMPERF. I was varnishing a picture. He was climbing 
 vernir tableau m. gravir 
 
 the hill. They were building a bridge and fortifications. 
 
 colline f . bdtir pont m. 32 f. 
 
 PRET. DEF. I warned my sister of her danger. You 
 
 avertir m. 
 
 chose a pretty colour. They succeeded in their undertaking 
 
 joli couleur f . reussir entreprise f. 
 
 That victory strengthened him on his throne. 
 
 trdne m. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIX. 
 PRET. IXDEF. I have chosen- it (out of) a thousand. 
 
 entre * 
 He has enriched science with new discoveries. You 
 
 enrichir art. f. de nouveau decouverte f. 
 
 have grown tall. The greatest empires have perished. 
 
 grandir m. perir 
 
 PRET. ANT. < I had done before him. - When he had 
 finir avant lui. Quand 
 
 filled his pockets with pears and apples, he went away. 
 remplir poche de poire de pomme s'en alia. 
 
 PLUPERF. That merchant had supplied this house 
 
 marchand m. fournir maison f. 
 with wine. The king had ennobled him They had disobeyed 
 de anoblir desobeir 
 
 my orders. He had warranted my watch for six months. 
 a ordrem. montref. mois. 
 
 EXERCISE L. 
 
 FUT. ABSOL I will search into that affair. That will 
 
 approfondir affaire f. 
 
 cure him. We will rebuild our country-house. I hope 
 guerir 87 rebdtir maison de campagne. esperer 
 
 you will succeed. They will obey the laws of the country. 
 que reussir obeir a loif paysm. 
 
76 EXERCISES ON THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 FDT. ANT. I shall have finished my exercise before dinner 
 
 theme m. avant diner. 
 That bad news will have cooled his ardour. 
 
 nouvdle f. refroidir 93 ardeur f. 
 
 CONDIT. PIIES. I would mitigate the punishment 
 
 adoucir punition f. 
 
 If he (were to do) that good action, everybody would 
 
 faisait f. tout le monde 
 
 'applaud x him. He would stun the neighbourhood. 
 appiaudir lui etourdir voisinage m. 
 
 EXERCISE LI. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. Let us banish vice and cherish 
 bannir art. m. cherir 
 
 virtue. Act as a man of honour. Choose of the 
 art. vertuf. en * honneurhm. 
 
 two. Reflect for a moment. Blush with shame. 
 
 Reflechir * m. rougir de honte h asp. 
 
 SUBJ. PRES. That I may accomplish my design. That 
 
 accomplir dessein m. 
 
 you may establish communications between these two towns. 
 etablir 32 entre 
 
 IMPERF. That she might match the colours. That you 
 assortir couleur f. 
 
 might enjoy your glory. That they might soften his heart. 
 jouirde gloire. attendrir cceurm. 
 
 EXERCISE LII. 
 
 That we might have fathomed that mystery. That they 
 
 approfondir mystere m. 
 
 might have fed the poor, and cured the sick. All 
 pauvre pi. malade pi. Tout 
 
 that we build is of short duration Let him bless 
 ce que court duree f. benir art. 
 
 Providence God will punish the ungrateful. I shall finish 
 
 f. Dieu ingrat m. pi. 
 
 my translation this evening. I have converted him. That 
 
 traduction f. soir m. convertir 
 
 town was swallowed up by an earthquake. The 
 
 engloutir un tremblement de terre. 
 
 torpedo benumbs the hand of him who touches it. 
 torpillef. engourdir celui toucher 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION IN OIK, 
 
 77 
 
 MODEL OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION IN OIR. 
 149. RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Recevoir, to receive. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Eecevant, receiving. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. Regu, received. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Avoir regu, to have received. 
 
 COMPOUND OF PART. PRESENT. 
 
 Ayant regu, having received. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je regois, 
 tu regois, 
 il regoit, 
 nous recevons, 
 vous recevez, 
 ils regoivent, 
 
 / receive, 
 thou receivest. 
 he receives, 
 we receive, 
 you receive, 
 they receive. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 J'ai regu, / have 
 
 tu as regu, thou hast 
 
 il a regu, he has 
 
 nous avons regu, we have 
 vous avez regu, you have 
 ils ont regu, they have 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je recevais, 
 tu recevais, 
 il recevait, 
 nous recevions, 
 vous receyiez, 
 ils recevaient, 
 
 I was 
 thou wast 
 he was 
 ive were 
 you were 
 they were 
 
 \ 
 
 .a, 
 ) 
 
 1 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Je regus, 
 ta regus, 
 il regut, 
 nous regarnes, 
 vous regutes, 
 ils regureut, 
 
 / received, 
 thou receivedst 
 he received, 
 we received, 
 you received, 
 they received. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Je recevrai, 
 tu recevras, 
 il recevra, 
 nous recevrons, 
 vous rccevrez, 
 i3a recevront, 
 
 / shall 1 
 thou shalt 4 
 he shall o 
 we shall 
 you shall ^ 
 they shall ) 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J'avais regu, I had 
 tu avais regu, thou hadst TO 
 
 il avait regu, he had ^ 
 
 nous avions regu, we had $*' 
 
 vous ayiez regu, you had p- 
 
 ils avaient regu, they had ) 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'eus regu, / had 1 
 
 tu eus regu, thou hadst & 
 
 il eut regu, he had f 
 
 nous eumes regu, we had " 
 
 vous eutes regu, you had & 
 
 ils eurent regu, they had J 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'aurai regu, I shall g* 
 
 tu a'aras regu, thou shalt 
 
 il aura regu, he shall % 
 
 nous aurons regu, we shall 
 
 vous aurez regu, you shall | 
 
 ils auront regu, they shall * 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION IN OIR. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound T&nses. 
 
 CONDITIONAL, 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 / should ^ 
 thou shouldst 
 
 Jc recevrais, 
 
 tu recevrais, 
 
 il recevrait, he should 
 
 nous recevrions, we should 
 
 yous recevriez, you should 
 
 ils recevraient, they should 
 
 J'aurais re9U, 
 tu aurais re9U, 
 il aurait re9U, 
 
 / should s* 
 thou shouldst 
 he should 
 
 nous aurionsre9U,t0e should | 
 yous auriez re9U, you should | 
 Us auraient re9U, they should 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Recois, 
 
 recevons, 
 recevez, 
 qu'ils re9oivent, 
 
 Receive (thou). 
 let him receive, 
 let us receive, 
 receive (you), 
 let them receive. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Que je regoive, 
 que tu re^oiyes, 
 qu'il reQOive, 
 que nous recevions, 
 que vous receviez, 
 qu'ils re9oivent, 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que j'aie re9U, 
 que tu aies re9U, 
 qu'il ait re9U, 
 que nous ayons re9U, 
 que vous ayez 16911, 
 qu'ils aient re9U, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je re9usse, 
 que tu re9usses, 
 qu'il re9ut, 
 que nous re9ussions, 
 que vous re9ussiez, 
 qu'ils re9ussent, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que j'eusse re9u, 
 que tu eusses re9u, 
 qu'il eut re9U, 
 que nous eussions re9ii, 
 que vous eussiez re9u, 
 qu'ils eussent re9U, 
 
 This Conjugation has only seven verbs, which are : 
 Recevoir, to receive, which is given as a model ; and, 
 
 redevoir, to remain in debt; 
 
 to owe still. 
 percevoir, to collect (rents, in- 
 
 Apercevoir, 
 concevoir, 
 
 dcceyoir, 
 devoir, 
 
 to petveive. 
 to conceive. 
 to deceive, 
 to owe. 
 
 come, taxes.) 
 
 #& In all tenses In which c comes befbre o or o, it takes a cedilla, In order that 
 it may retain the soft sound of 8 which It has in the Infinitive Present 
 
EXERCISES ON THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 79 
 
 EXERCISE LIU. 
 
 INDICAT. PRES, 1 perceive the steeple of the village. 
 apercevoir clocherm. m. 
 
 From his window, he perceives the top of a mountain. 
 fenfire f. sommet m. montagne f. 
 
 IMPERF. He owed a large sum to his partner, You 
 devoir grand sommef. associew. 
 
 were collecting the taxes. They owed a thousand pounds. 
 percevoir imp6t m. livres sterling. 
 
 PRET. DBF. We perceived several men coming towards 
 123 quivenaient a 
 
 us. The besieged received succour. 
 
 assiege m. pi. 32 secours pi. 
 
 PRET. INDEF. I received a letter this morning. That 
 
 lettre f. matin m. 
 
 regiment has received recruits. We have perceived 
 regiment m. 32 recrue f. 
 
 you from afar. The soldiers have received provisions for 
 loin. soldat 32 vivre m. 
 
 three days. My sister has received your parcel. 
 
 paquet m. 
 EXERCISE LIV. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOL. I shall receive your letter on the fifteenth, 
 
 * 76 
 
 She will receive some visits. He will still owe thirteen 
 
 visite redevoir 
 
 guineas. < They will owe their misfortunes to their faults. 
 guineef. devoir malheurm. fautef. 
 
 COND. PRES. I would conceive the greatest hopes. You 
 
 concevoir esperance f. 
 
 ought to behave differently. He would receive a blow. 
 devoir vousconduire autrement. coupm. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. Receive this as a mark of my 
 101 comme marque f. 92 
 
 confidence and esteem. Let us receive his apology. 
 
 confiance f. de mon estime f. 93 excuse f. 
 
 Conceive the horror of his situation. . Receive him 
 
 Concevoir horreur h 771. 92 f. 
 
 kindly. Receive everybody with civility. 
 avec bontt. tout le monde honn&eii. 
 
80 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION IN RS. 
 
 MODEL OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION IN RE. 
 150. VEND RE ', TO SELL. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Vendre, to sell. \ Avoir vendu, to have sold 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Vendant, selling. \ 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 COMPOUND OF PART. PRESENT. 
 
 Ayant vendu, having sold 
 Vendu, sold. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Jo vends, / sell. 
 
 tu vends, thou sellest. 
 
 il vend, he sells. 
 
 nous vendons, we sell. 
 
 yous vendez, you sell. 
 
 ils vendent, they sell. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je.vendais, / was selling. 
 tu vendais, thou wast selling. 
 il vendait, he was selling. 
 nous vendions, we were selling. 
 yous vendiez, you were selling. 
 ils vendaient, they were selling. 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 J'ai vendu, / have 
 
 tu as vendu, thou hast 
 il a vendu, he has 
 
 nous avons vendu, we have 
 yous avez vendu, you have 
 ils ont vendu, they have 
 
 Je vendis, 
 tu vendis, 
 il vendit, 
 nous vendirnes, 
 yous venditea, 
 ils vendirent, 
 
 7 sold, 
 thou s oldest, 
 he sold, 
 we sold, 
 you sold, 
 they sold. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Je vendrai, I shall sell. 
 
 tu vendras, thou shalt sell. 
 
 il vendra, he shall sell. 
 nous vendrons, we shall sell. 
 
 yous vendrez, you shall sell. 
 
 Us vewlront, they shall sell 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J'avais vendu, I had "] 
 
 tu avais vendu, thou hadst \ 
 
 il avait vendu, he had ^ 
 
 nous avions vendu, we had S 
 yous ayiez vendu, you had 
 
 ils avaient vendu, they had J 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'eus vendu, 7 had "] 
 
 tu eus vendu, thou hadst \ 
 
 il eut vendu, he had % 
 
 nous eumes vendu,w;e had .S 
 yous eutes vendu, you had 
 
 ils eurent vendu, they had j 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J'aurai vendu, 7 shall } 
 
 tu auras vendu, thou shalt " 
 
 il aura vendu, he shall 
 
 nous aurons vendu, we shall 
 
 yous aurez vendu, you shall 55 
 
 i|s auront vewV they shall | 
 
FOURTH CONJUGATION IN RE. 
 
 81 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je vendrais, / should -\ 
 tu vendrais, thou shouldst | 
 il vendrait, he should 
 nous vendrions, we should r^ 
 yous vendriez, you should 
 ils vendraient, they should J 
 
 PAST. 
 
 J'aurais vendu, I should 1 
 tu aurais vendu, thou shouldst |* 
 il aurait vendu, he should i 
 nousaurionsvendu,t06 should 
 yous auriez vendu, you should is 
 ils auraient vendu, they should} 
 
 IMPERATIVE, 
 
 Vends, 
 qu'il vende, 
 vendons, 
 vendez, 
 qu'ils vendent, 
 
 Sell (thou). 
 let him sell, 
 let us sell, 
 sell (you), 
 let them sell. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Que je vende, 
 que tu vendes, 
 qu'il vende, 
 que nous vendions, 
 que vous vendiez, 
 qu'ils vendent, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je vendisse, 
 que tu vendisses, 
 qu'il vendit, 
 que nous vendissions, 
 que vous vendissiez, 
 qu'ils vendissent, 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que j'aie vendn, 
 que tu aies vendu, 
 qu'il ait vendu, 
 que nous ayons vendu, 
 que vous ayez vendu, 
 qu'ils aient vendu, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que j'eusse vendu, ^ g 
 que tu eusses vendu, 
 
 qu'il eut vendu, ^ ^ 
 
 que nous eussions vendu, 
 
 que vous eussiez vendu, p^- 
 
 qu'ils eussent vendu, ' ? 
 
 151. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Attendre, 
 correspondre, 
 defendre, 
 d^pendre, 
 descendre, 
 entendre, 
 fendre, 
 fondre, 
 mordre, 
 
 to wait for. 
 to correspond, 
 to defend, 
 to depend, 
 to descend, 
 to hear, 
 to split, 
 to melt. 
 to bite. 
 
 pendre, 
 perdre, 
 pre*tendre, 
 rendre, 
 repandre, 
 repondre, 
 suspendre, 
 torore, 
 &c. 
 
 to hang, 
 to lose, 
 to pretend 
 to render, 
 to spread, 
 to answer, 
 to suspend, 
 to twist. 
 fa 
 
82 EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 EXERCISE LV. 
 
 INDICAT. PRESENT, I hear the children. That depends 
 
 enfant 
 
 on circumstances. He understands English (a little.) That 
 des circonstancef. entendre H 9 anglais 
 
 dog bites. - He defends his sister. We expect several 
 chien m. attendre 
 
 friends to dinner. You claim a half. They confound 
 4 diner. pretendre moitief. confondre 
 
 the arts with the sciences. He is splitting some wood. 
 
 m. f. bois m. 
 
 IMPERF.. I was waiting for the steam-boat. He \/as 
 
 attendre * bateau d vapeur m. 
 
 coming down with David.' They were wasting their tin.e. 
 descendre perdre tern] ism. 
 
 EXERCISE LVI. 
 
 PRET. DEF I alighted at the hotel de France He 
 
 descendre h m. 
 
 answered in a few words. We aimed at an honest end. 
 
 en peu de mots. tendre 2 honnete l but m. 
 
 They lost their lawsuit. . The storm burst upon the town. 
 
 procesm. oragem. fondre 
 
 PRET. INDEF. I have heard that musician. He has 
 
 entendre musitien m 
 
 restored the money. < The sun has melted the snow. : The 
 rendre fondre neigef. 
 
 thermometer has fallen four degrees since yesterday. 
 thermometrem. descendre de degre m. depuis Her. 
 You have defended him with much talent. Ladies, 
 
 defendre beaucoup de Mesdames 
 
 have you heard the music of the new opera ? 
 musiquef. nouvel opera m. 
 
 EXERCISE LVII. 
 
 FUTURE. . Make haste, I will wait for you. It is a 
 
 Dep$chez-vous attendre * C* 
 
 thing to which he will never condescend. You will 
 chose f. ne 2 jamais ^condescendre 
 
 wait a long time. They will shear their sheep. 
 attendre * long temps. tondre brebis pi. 
 
VERB WITH A NEGATIVE. 83 
 
 COND. PEES. I .would correspond regularly with 
 
 correspondre regulierement 
 iny friends. Your hens would lay eggs every day. 
 
 poulef. pondre tousles jours. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. Let us answer their letter. Wait 
 
 repondre ct Attendrc 
 
 . till to-morrow. Hang up your hat and your 
 jusqu'd demain. Pendre * chapeaum. 
 
 cloak. Render uiito Caesar (the things which are Caesar's.) 
 manteau m. d Cesar ce qui appartient ft C6sar. 
 
 152. CONJUGATION 
 OF A VERB WITH A NEGATIVE. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 153. The English negatives no and not are rendered 
 in French by tie, which is placed immediately after the 
 subject or nominative, whether it be a noun or pronoun, 
 and pas or point after the verb in simple tenses, and be- 
 tween the auxiliary and the participle in compound 
 tenses. 
 
 " When the verb is in the Present of the Infinitive, 
 it is optional to place pas and point before or after the 
 verb. Pour ne POINT souffrir. Pour ne souffrir POINT. 
 The first manner of speaking, however, is more used." 
 
 (FE. ACAD. " Diet crit de Ftraud," <fcc.) 
 
 The same rules are applicable to other negatives, such 
 as, nejamatSj never; nerien, nothing; ne plus, no more, 
 not any more, no longer. 
 
 154. When the negative is followed by a noun, de is 
 used instead of the definite article ; as, Je rial pas DE 
 livres, I have no books ; elle n'a point DE place, she has 
 no room. 
 
 155. The words do or did, which precede an English 
 verb in some tenses, are not expressed in French. 
 
VERB WITH A NEGATIVE* 
 
 156. MODEL 
 
 FOR THE CONJUGATION OF A VERB USED 
 NEGATIVELY. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Ne pas parler, not to spea&.|N'avoirpas parl,wotf to have spoken. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. COMPOUND OP PART. PRESENT . 
 
 Ne parlant pas, not speaking. [N'ayant pas parle, not having spo ken. 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je ne parle pas, 
 tu ne paries pas, 
 il ne parle pas, 
 nous ne parlons pas, 
 yous ne parlez pas, 
 ils ne parlent pas, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je ne parlais pas, 
 tu ne parlais pas, 
 il ne parlait pas, 
 nous ne parlions pas, 
 vous ne parliez pas. 
 ils ne parlaient pas, 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Je ne parlai pas, 
 tu ne parlas pas, 
 il ne parla pas, 
 nous ne parlames pas, 
 vous ne parlates pas, 
 ils ne parlerent pas, 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Je ne parlerai pas, 
 tu ne parleras pas, 
 il ne parlera pas, 
 nous ne parlerons pas, 
 vous ne parlerez pas, 
 ils ne parleront pas, 
 
 ;& 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Je n'ai pas parle*, 
 tu n'as pas parle*, 
 il n'a pas parle*, 
 nous n'avonspas parle*, 
 yous n'avez pas parle, 
 ils n'ont pas parle, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Je n'avais pas parle, 
 tu n'avais pas parle, 
 il n'avait pas parle, 
 nous n'avions pas parle, 
 yous n'ayiez pas parle, 
 ils n'avaient pas parle, 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je n'eus pas parle, 
 tu n'eus pas parle, 
 il n'eut pas parle, 
 nous n'eumes pas parle*, 
 yous n'eutes pas parle, 
 ils n'eureut pas parle, 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je n'aurai pas parle, 
 tu n'auras pas parle*, 
 il n'aura pas parle, 
 nous n'aurons pas parle, 
 yous n'aurez pas parle, 
 ils n'auront pas parle, 
 
 8 
 
VERB WITH A NEGATIVE. 
 
 85 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Je ne parlerais pas, 
 tu ne parlerais pas, 
 il ne parlerait pas, 
 nous ne parlerions pas, 
 yous ne parleriez pas, 
 Us ne parleraient pas, 
 
 Je n'aurais pas parle, 
 
 tu n'aurais pas parle, 3 ^ 
 
 il n'aurait pas parle*, 
 
 nous n'aunons pas parle, *g g 
 
 yous n'auriez pas parle, ^ ^ 
 
 ils n'auraient pas parle, 
 
 ot 
 
 n. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Ne parle pas, 
 qu'il ne parle pas, 
 ne parlons pas, 
 ne parlez pas, 
 qu'ils ne parlent pas, 
 
 Do not speak, 
 let him not speak, 
 let us not speak, 
 do not speak, 
 let them not speak. 
 
 Quej< 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 ue je ne parle pas, 
 que tu ne paries pas, 
 qu'il ne parle pas, 
 que nous ne parlions pas, 
 que vous ne parliez pas, 
 qu'ils ne parlent pas, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je ne parlasse pas, 
 que tu ne parlasses pas, 
 qu'il ne parlat pas, 
 que nous ne parlassions pas, 
 que vous ne parlassiez pas, 
 qu'ils ne panassent pas, 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que je n'aie pas parle, - 5 
 que tu n'aies pas parle, I 
 qu'il n'ait pas pane*, 
 que nous n'ayons pas parle*, | 
 que vous n'ayez pas parle, *< 
 qu'ils n'aient pas parle*, ? s 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que je n'eusse pas parle, > 5 
 que tu n'eusses pas parle, I 
 qu'il n'eut pas parle, [parle* t 
 que nous n'eussions pas ^ J 
 que vous n'eussiez pas parld g* 5 
 qu'Us n'eussent pas parl^, s 5 
 
 EXERCISE LVIII. 
 
 INDICAT. PRES. I have no change. The butcher has 
 monnaie. boucher m. 
 
 no mutton. My sister does not sing. We do not speak of 
 mouton. chanter 
 
 that You do not answer his letters. They are not playing. 
 repondre d lettre jouer 
 
86 EXERCISES UPON VERBS WITH A NEGATIVE. 
 
 IMPERF. I did not expect that of you. She was not 
 attendre 
 
 dancing. You were not thinking of him. They were not 
 danser penser a 
 
 happy. The king was penniless, the queen had no money. 
 heureux sans le sou argent. 
 
 EXERCISE LIX. 
 
 PRET. DEF. I did not receive his note in time. He 
 
 billet m. a temps. 
 
 did not forget his promise. She did not hear him. 
 oublier promesse f . entendre 
 
 PRET. INDEF. I have not yet received his answer. 
 encore reponse f. 
 
 He has never spoken to his colonel. You have not brought 
 
 apporter 
 
 the parcel. Your brothers have not passed this way. 
 paquet m. passer par ici. 
 
 PLUPERF. I had not finished my exercise when you came. 
 
 theme m. quand vintes. 
 
 EXERCISE LX. 
 
 Fur. I shall not speak to him any wiora We will not travel 
 86 voyager 
 
 this year. You will never succeed in that undertaking. 
 anneef. reussir entreprisef. 
 
 COND. PRES. I would owe nothing. You would not 
 devoir 
 
 wait long. They would never pardon him. 
 
 attendre longtemps. pardonner lui. 
 
 IMPERA Let us not imitate his conduct. Do not lose 
 imiter conduite f. perdre 
 
 your tune. Don't shut the window. Don't wait for me. 
 temps m. fermer f entire f. attendre 
 
 Never yield to the violence of thy passions. Let us 
 f abandonner f. f . 
 
 not act against him. Receive no more of his letters. Do 
 agir lui. 
 
 not spread that bad news. Do not be so idle. 
 repandre mauvais nouvellef. paresscux 
 
tERB CONJUGATED INTERROGATIVELY. 87 
 
 157. CONJUGATION 
 OF A VERB INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 158. (1.) To conjugate a verb interrogatively, which 
 can be done only in the Indicative and Conditional 
 Moods, we place the pronoun, which serves as the sub- 
 ject or nominative, after the verb, connecting them by a 
 hyphen; as, Avez-vous* have you ? Jouez-vous? do you 
 play? 
 
 159. (2.) In compound tenses, the pronoun is placed 
 between the auxiliary' and the participle, joined to the 
 former by a hyphen ; as, Ai-je parle? have I spoken ? 
 Ont-ils dine? have they dined ? 
 
 160. (3.) When the third person singular of a verb 
 ends with a vowel, for the sake of euphony, we place 
 between the verb and the pronoun, the letter t, preceded 
 and followed by a hyphen ; as, Aura-t-il ? will he have ? 
 Danse-t-elle ? does she dance ? 
 
 161. (4.) When the subject or nominative of a verb 
 is a noun, that noun comes first, and one of the pronouns 
 t7, elle, Us, elles, is placed after the verb, and joined to it 
 by a hyphen ; as, Mesfreres parlent-ils ? do my brothers 
 speak ? Votre sceur aurait-elle chante? would your sister 
 have sung ? 
 
 162. (5.) When the first person singular of a verb 
 ends with an e mute, an acute accent is placed over that 
 e, which is a sign to pronounce it ; as, Parle'-je ? do I 
 speak ? Chante-je ? do I sing ? 
 
 163. (6.) Questions are often asked by Est-ce que, 
 and then the subject or nominative precedes the verb ; 
 as, Est-ce que vous lisez Horace ? do you read Horace ? 
 This mode of interrogation is also used with verbs that 
 have but one syllable in the first person singular of the 
 Present of the Indicative ; so instead of saying, Vends-je ? 
 rends-je ? mens-je ? perds-je ? fonds-je ? pars-je ? and the 
 like, we say, Est-ce que je vends? est-ce queje rends? 
 &c. By employing the former mode of expression, we 
 
88 
 
 VERB CONJUGATED INTERROGATIVELY- 
 
 sometimes could not even be understood ; as, for instance, 
 Vends-je ? rends-je ? mens-je ? might be mistaken for the 
 Imperative venge, range, mange. Usage, however, per- 
 mits us to say, Ai-je ? suis-je ? dis-je ? fais-je ? dois-je I 
 vois-je ? vais-je ? because there is no ambiguity nor any 
 harshness of sound. 
 
 164. MODEL 
 
 FOR THE CONJUGATION OF A VERB USED 
 INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Donne*-j e ? Do I give f 
 doimes-tu ? dost thou give f 
 donne-t-il ? does he give ? 
 donnons-nous ? do we give ? 
 donnez-vous? do you give? 
 domient-ils ? do they give ? 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Ai-je donne ? Have I 1 
 as-tu donn4 ? hast thou ^ 
 a-t-il donne ? has he 
 avons-nous donne* ? have we 
 avez-vous donne ? have you "j* 
 ont-ils donne* ? have they J 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Donnais-je? Was I 
 donnais-tu ? wast thou 
 donnait-il? was he 
 donnions-nous ? were we 
 donniez-vous ? were you 
 donnaient-ils ? were they 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Avais-je donue' ? Had I "\ 
 avais-tu donn^ ? hadst thou 4 
 avait-il donn^ ? had he 
 
 avions-nous donn^ ? had we 
 
 aviez-vous donne ? had you "j* 
 
 avaient-ils donn^ ? had they J 
 
 Donnai-je ? 
 
 donnas-tu ? 
 
 donna-t-il ? did he give ? 
 
 donnames-nous? did we give? 
 
 donnates-vous?- did you give? 
 donnerent-ils ? did they give ? 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Donnerai-je ? Shall I 
 
 donneras-tu ? shalt thou, 
 
 donnera-t-il ? shall he ^ 
 
 donnerons-nous ? shall we ^ 
 
 donnerez-vous ? shall you I 
 
 donneront-ils? shall they * 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Did I give ? \ Eus-je donne* ? Had I 
 didst thou give ? eus-tu donn6 ? hadst thoi 
 eut-il donne ? had he 
 
 eumes-nous donne ? had we 
 
 eutea-vous donne ? had you 'J* 
 eurent-ils donne ? had they } 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Aurai-je donne ? Shall I z* 
 auras-tu donne ? shalt tho u 
 aura-t-il donn4 ? shall he 
 
 aurez-rpus &oim6? shall you 
 auront-ils donne* ? shall they 
 
EXERCISES ON VERBS WITH INTERROGATION. 89 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Donnerais-je ? Should I 
 donnerais-tu ? shouldst thou ~] 
 donnerait-il ? should he *|. 
 donnerions-nous ? should we 
 donneriez-vous ? should you j* 
 donneraient-ils ? should they 
 
 
 Aurais-je donne ? j> , 
 
 aurais-tu donne ? 52 
 
 aurait-il donne ? ^ 
 
 aurions-nous donne* ? * g< 
 
 auriez-vous donne ? j 
 
 auraient-ils donne ? * ) 
 
 EXERCISE LXL 
 
 INDICATIVE. PRES. Hare I friends? Is she pleased? 
 
 satisfait 
 Does he bring good news? Does she dance well? 
 
 apporter nouvelle f. danser 
 
 Has she a watch? Is breakfast ready? Do you call? 
 
 montreL dejeuner m. pret appeler 
 
 IMPERF. Was he waiting for your arrival? Were you 
 
 attendre * arrivee f. 
 
 speaking to our captain ? Had the traveller a pistol ? 
 
 capitaine voyageur m. pistolet m. 
 
 PRET. DEF. Did he prefer your house to hers ? Did 
 
 preferer maison f. 
 
 they clear up his doubts? Was he bold enough? 
 eclair cir doute m. y hardi x 
 
 EXERCISE LXII. 
 
 PRET. INDEF. Has the king rewarded his services ? 
 
 recompenser m 
 
 Has your mother received my letter ? Have your partners 
 
 associe UL 
 sold my goods? Have you bought a pencil-case? 
 
 marchandise f. porte-crayonm.' 
 
 PLUPERF. Had she offended her mistress ? Had you 
 
 offenser maitresse 
 
 forgotten the date? Had he lost his pocket-book? 
 oublier f. perdre portefeuille m. 
 
 Fur. Shall I have that pleasure ? Will Miss Isabella 
 
 plaisir m. 
 
 sing? Shall we alight here? When shall we dine? 
 chanter descendre diner 
 
90 
 
 VERB INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 
 
 165. MODEL 
 
 FOR THE CONJUGATION OF A VERB USED 
 INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 
 
 REMARK. To add the negative form to a verb used 
 interrogatively, ne is placed before the verb, and pas or 
 point after the personal pronoun, both in the simple and 
 compound tenses. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Est-ce que je ne perds pas ? 
 
 (for ne perds-je pas?) 
 ne perds-tu pas ? ? 
 
 ne perdMl pas ? 
 
 ne perdons-nous pas ? 
 ne perdez-vpus pas ? 
 ne perdent-ils pas ? 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Ne perdais-je pas ? 
 
 ne perdais-tu pas ? 
 
 ne perdait-il pas ? 
 
 ne perdions-nous pas ? <f 
 
 ne perdiez-vous pas ? 
 
 ne perdaient-ils pas ? 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Ne perdis-je pas ? 
 
 ne perdis-tu pas ? 
 
 neperdit-ilpas? 
 
 ne perdimes-nous pas ? 2 
 
 ne perdites-vous pas ? 
 
 ne perdirent-ils pas ? 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 N'ai-je pas perdu ? 
 
 n'as-tu pas perdu ? < 
 
 n'a-t-il pas perdu ? 
 n'avons-nous pas perdu ? 
 n'avez-vous pas perdu ? 
 n'ont-ils pas perdu ? 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 N'avais-je pas perdu? 
 n'avais-tu pas perdu ? 
 n'avait-il pas perdu ? 
 n'avions-nous pas perdu ? 5 *^ 
 n'aviez-vous pas perdu ? 
 n'avaient-ils pas perdu ? 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 N'eus-je pas perdu ? . 
 n'eus-tu pas perdu ? 
 
 n'eut-il pas perdu ? - a* 
 
 n'eumes-nous pas perdu ? ^ S 
 
 n'eutes-vous pas perdu ? | 
 n'eurent-ils pas perdu ? 
 
 , 
 1 ^ 
 
 * D takes the sound of t, when at the end of a verb followed by one of the pro- 
 nouns it, elle, on.(Dumar$ais, Ftraud, BouiUette, Demandre* etc ; 
 
VERB INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 91 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 Ne perdrai-je pas ? 
 ne perdras-tu pas ? 
 ne perdra-t-il pas ? 
 ne perdrons-nous pas ? 
 ne perdrez-vous pas ? 
 ne perdront-ils pas ? 
 
 4 
 
 <>* 3-i 
 
 l~ 
 
 -r 
 
 N'aurai-je pas perdu ? 
 n'auras-tu pas perdu ? 
 n'aura-t-il pas perdu ? 
 n'aurons-nous pas perdu ? 
 n'aurez-vous pas perdu ? 
 n'auront-ils pas perdu ? 
 
 rt 
 
 (* 
 
 r^ 
 
 **a o 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 
 Ne perdrais-je pas ? 
 ne perdrais-tu pas ? 
 ne perdrait-il pas ? 
 ne perdrions-nous pas ? 
 ne perdriez-vous pas ? 
 ue perdraient-ils pas ? 
 
 r-Sh&uldl-, 
 not lose? 
 
 N'aurais-je pas perdu ? 
 n'aurais-tu pas perdu ? 
 n'aurait-il pas perdu ? 
 n'aurions-nous pas perdu ? 
 n'auriez-vous pas perdu ? 
 n'auraient-ils pas perdu ? 
 
 Should 1 not 
 
 have lost f 
 
 EXERCISE LXHL 
 
 INDICAT. PRES. Am I not troublesome ? Is she not 
 
 importun 
 
 attentive ? Does your sister not draw ? Do we not walk 
 
 dessiner marcher 
 
 too fast? Do you not hear the drum? Do they not 
 tropvitef entendre tambour m. 
 
 ask (too much ?) Has he not enough money ? 
 demander trop? assez d' 
 
 IMPERF. Did he not deserve your esteem and mine? 
 meriter estime f. 
 
 Had he not a short coat and a cloak above it ? 
 
 *court ^hdbitm. manteaum. par-dessus * 
 
 EXERCISE LXIV. 
 
 PRET. DEF AVliy did he not answer your question ? 
 Pourquoi repondre d 
 
 Did she not turn the box topsyturvy? 
 
 renverser boite f. sens dessus dessous f 
 
 PRET. INDEF. Has he not sold again his country-house? 
 revendre maison de campagne f . 
 
 Have you not signed the letter? Have they not been here? 
 signer ici ? 
 
CONJUGATION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 FUT. ABS. Will he not betray your confidence? Will you 
 trahir confiance f. 
 
 not consult your lawyer ? Will she not invite your sister ? 
 consulter avocat f inviter 
 
 166. II. CONJUGATION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 The Passive verb expresses an action received or suf- 
 fered by its subject or nominative. 
 
 There is only one mode of conjugating passive verbs ; 
 it is by adding to the verb etre through all its tenses, the 
 past participle of the active verb. 
 
 167. Every past participle employed with the verb 
 etre, must agree in gender and number with the subject 
 of etre. To form the feminine, an e is added, and to 
 form the plural, an s. 
 
 168. It has already been said (page 39), that the 
 participle must be put in the singular, when the pronoun 
 vous is used instead of tu ; thus, we must say, in speak- 
 ing to a man, vous etes loue; and, in speaking to a 
 female, vous etes loue'e. 
 
 169. MODEL 
 
 FOR THE CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VERB. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Etre loud, to le praised. \ Avoir e*te loud, to have been praised. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Etant loud, being praised. 
 Simple, Tenses. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 Ayant dtd loud, having been praised. 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Je suis 
 
 tu es 
 
 il or elle est 
 
 3ious sommes 
 
 vous dtes 
 
 ila or elles sont 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 loud, i 
 
 ! louee,/. 
 f loues, m. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 J'ai dtd ("loud, m. 
 
 tu as dtd 
 
 il or elle a dtd 
 
 nous avons dtd flouds, m. 
 
 vous avez dtd 
 
 ils or eiles ont dtd / loudes, /. 
 
CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VERB, 
 
 93 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 J'dtais floud, m. 
 
 tu dtais K ^3 
 
 U or elle dtait ' 1A f ' 
 
 nous etions 
 
 vous dtiez 
 
 ils or elles etaient ( loudes, /. 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Je fus f loud, m. 
 
 tu fus 
 
 ilorellefut (loude,/. 
 
 nous fumes f louds, 
 
 vous futes 
 
 ils or elles furent 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 J'avais dtd (loud, m. 
 
 tu avais dtd 
 
 il or elle avait dtd 
 
 nous avions dtd 
 
 vous aviez did [dtd 
 
 ils or elles avaient (loudes, /. 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 loude,/. ^ 
 
 m. a 
 
 
 J'eus dtd 
 
 r loud, m. <& 
 
 ] 
 
 tu eus dtd < 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 il or elle eut dtd 
 nous eumes dtd 
 
 loude,/. ^ 
 I louds, m. g 
 
 T 
 
 vous eutes dtd H 
 
 ' 
 
 
 ils or elles eurent dtd 
 
 [loudes,/. *- 
 
 Je serai 
 tu seras 
 
 ( loud, m. 
 
 1^ 
 
 il or elle sera 
 nous serons 
 
 (loude,/. 
 Houds, m. 
 
 -* GO 
 
 a ?2" 
 
 vous serez 
 ils or elles seront 
 
 ( loudes, /. 
 
 i,f 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 J 'aurai dtd f loud, m. 
 
 tu auras dtd 
 
 il or elle aura dtd 
 
 nous auroiis dtd 
 
 vous aurez dtd 
 
 ils or elles auront dtd ( loudes,y. 
 
 < 
 
 ( loude, f. ^ 
 ( louds, m. lj> 
 ' 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 J'aurais dtd 
 
 tu aurais dtd 
 
 il or elle aurait dtd 
 
 nous aurions dtd ( louds, m. & 
 
 1 >. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je serais f loud, m. 
 
 tu serais < 
 
 il or elle serait ( loude,/. 
 
 nous serions ( louds, m. 
 
 vous seriez < 
 
 ils or elles seraient ( loudes,/ 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Sois ( loud, m. 
 
 qu'il or qu'elle soit ( loude, / 
 soyons ( louds, m. 
 
 soyez < 
 
 qu'ils or qu'elles soient ( loudes, /. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 i. 
 
 ( loud, m. & 
 ) 
 
 f loude, /^ 
 > . .** > 
 
 vous auriez dtd [dtd < 
 
 ils or elles auraient ( loudes,/. 
 
 Que je sois 
 
 loud. 771. 
 
 - H3 
 
 que tu sois 
 qu'il or qu'elle soil 
 que nous soyons 
 
 loude,/. *! 
 
 louds, 771. 5 
 
 
 que vous soyez 
 qu'ils or qu'elles 
 soient 
 
 p 
 
 loudes, /. " 
 
 "< 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que j'aie dtd ( loud, TO. 
 
 que tu aies dtd [dtd < 
 qu'il or qu'elle ait ( loude,/. ; 
 que nous ayons dtd \ louds, m. j 
 que vous ayez dtd I 
 qu'ils or qu'ellea { 
 alent dt6 ) 
 
94 
 
 EXERCISE ON PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que Je fiisse 
 
 f Iou6, m. j 
 
 Que j 'eusse 6t6 / Iou6 , m. g 
 
 que tu fusses 
 
 J 
 
 que tu eusses 6t6 
 
 qu'il or qu'elle fut 
 
 \lou6e, /. N 
 
 qu'il or qu'elle eflt 6t6 ( Iou6e, /. 
 
 que nous fussions 
 que vous fussicz 
 qu'ils or qu'elles fus- 
 sent 
 
 ~\lou6s, m. 
 fl6u6es,/. ' 1 
 
 que nous eussions 6t6 ^ Iou6s, m. ^ 1. 
 que vous eussiez 616 f ." 
 qu'ils or qu'elles eussent flou6es,/. S > 
 6t6 J 
 
 EXERCISE LXV. 
 
 rNDICAT. PRES. He is loved and esteemed by everybody. 
 aimer estimer de tout le monde. 
 
 PRET. DBF. The citv of Rome was several times sacked. 
 villef. foisf. saccage 
 
 He was saved from a great danger by (his youngest son.) 
 delivrer m. par le plus jeune de sesfils. 
 
 She was accused of theft by her mistress. The Gauls 
 
 accuser vol m. par Oaules f. pi. 
 
 were conquered by Caesar The two generals were wounded. 
 conquis par blesser 
 
 PRET. INDEP. Your work has been praised in a very 
 ouvrage m. d* *fort 
 
 delicate manner by an academician. The Jews have been 
 8 ^maniereLpar academicien Juif 
 
 punished by God. She has not been well rewarded. 
 de recompenser 
 
 FUT. ABS You will be recognised. Your conduct will 
 reconnu conduite f. 
 
 be approved by wise and enlightened 
 de art. 2 *telaire 
 
 people. 
 ^personne f. pi. 
 
 170. 
 
 III. OF NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 The Neuter verb expresses merely the state of its sub- 
 ject; as, J'existe, I exist; or else an action limited to 
 the subject which produces it ; as, Je marche, I walk. 
 
 A neuter verb may be easily known by its not ad- 
 mitting immediately after it the words quclqdun, some- 
 body, or quelque chose, something. We cannot say : Je 
 
CONJUGATION OF NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 95 
 
 marche quelqu un, je languis quelque chose ; marcher and 
 languir, therefore, are neuter verbs. 
 
 There are, in French, nearly six hundred neuter verbs ; 
 about five hundred take the auxiliary avoir in their com- 
 pound tenses. 
 
 171. The following form their compounds with etre: 
 
 Aller, 
 
 to go. 
 
 parvenir, 
 
 to attain. 
 
 arriver, 
 
 to arrive. 
 
 provenir, 
 
 to come from. 
 
 de'ce'der, 
 
 to die. 
 
 redevenir, 
 
 to become again. 
 
 d^choir 
 
 to decay. 
 
 rentrer, 
 
 to come in again. 
 
 devenir, 
 
 to become. 
 
 repartir, 
 
 to set out again. 
 
 disconvenir, 
 echoir, 
 
 to deny, to disown, 
 to become due. 
 
 rester, 
 retomber, 
 
 to remain, to stay, 
 to fall again. 
 
 eclore, to 
 
 blow, to be hatched. 
 
 retourner, 
 
 to go back. 
 
 entrer, 
 
 to come in. 
 
 revenir, 
 
 to come back. 
 
 mourir, 
 naitre, 
 
 to die. 
 to be born. 
 
 survenir, 
 tomber, 
 
 to happen, 
 to fall. 
 
 partir, 
 
 to set out. 
 
 yenir, 
 
 to come. 
 
 172. The following neuter verbs take avoir or etre in 
 their compound tenses, according to the idea one wishes 
 to express. Avoir is used when we consider, the action, 
 and etre when regard is had to the result of the action. 
 
 Aborder, 
 
 accourir, 
 
 accroitre, 
 
 apparaitre, 
 
 croitre, 
 
 deborder, 
 
 demeurer, 
 
 to land, 
 to run to. 
 to increase, 
 to appear, 
 to grow, 
 to overflow. 
 to remain. 
 
 descendre, 
 
 disparaitre, 
 
 e*chapper, 
 
 grandir, 
 
 monter, 
 
 passer, 
 
 remonter, 
 
 to go down. 
 
 to disappear 
 
 to escape. 
 
 to grow. 
 
 to go up. 
 
 to pass. 
 
 to go up again. 
 
 173. IV. OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 Pronominal Verbs are those which are conjugated 
 with two pronouns of the same person ; as, je me repens, 
 I repent ; il se propose, he intends ; nous nous flattens, 
 we flatter ourselves. 
 
 174. Pronominal Verbs are called reflected, when they 
 express an action or a state which relates only to 
 the subject of the verb ; as, se blesser 3 to hurt oneself; 
 
96 
 
 CONJUGATION OF A PRONOMINAL VERB. 
 
 se rejouir, to rejoice. They are called reciprocal, when 
 they express a reciprocity of action between two or 
 more subjects; as, s' entr' aimer, to love each other; 
 s 1 entr' aider, to help one another. 
 
 175. Pronominal Verbs have no conjugation peculiar 
 to themselves ; they follow the one to which they belong, 
 which is known by the termination of the Infinitive. In 
 their compound tenses, they take the verb etre, to be, 
 contrary to the English expression, which requires have. 
 
 176. CONJUGATION OF A PRONOMINAL VERB. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Se promener, to walk, to take a 
 walk. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Se promenant, walking. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 S5H3 }* 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je me promene, / walk. 
 tu te promenes, thou walkest. 
 
 il se promene, he walks. 
 
 nous nous promenons, we walk. 
 vous vous promenez, you walk. 
 ils se promenent, they walk. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 j e me promenais, S 
 
 tu te promenais, 
 il se promenait, 
 nous nous promenions, 
 vous vous promeniez, gt 
 
 ils se promenaient, <Q 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Je me promenai, ^ 
 
 tu te promenas, N 
 
 il se promena, | 
 
 nous nous promen&mes, g* 
 
 vous vous promenates, c* 
 
 ils se promenerent, ) 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 Je me suis promene*, ^ 
 
 tu t'es promene*, ^ 
 
 il s'est promene*, fi, ^ 
 
 nous nous sommes promens, & a 
 vous vous 6tes promene's, 
 ils se sont promene's, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Je mMtais promen6, 
 
 tu t'etais promene*, ^ ^i 
 
 il s'e'tait promene*, 
 
 nous nous 6tions promene's, fr 
 
 vous vous 6tiez prornene's, B-j 
 
 ils s'e'taient promene's, 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 Je me fus promene', 
 tu te fus promene', ^ 1 
 
 il se fut promene*, 
 nous nous fumes promene's, 
 vous vous futes promene's, ^ J 
 Us se furent promene's, 
 
CONJUGATION OF A PRONOMINAL VERB. 
 
 97 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 Je me promSnerai, 
 tu te promeneras, 
 il se promenera, 
 nous nous promenerons, 
 vous vous promenerez, 
 ils se promeneront, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Je me promenerais, 
 tu te promenerais, 
 il se promenerait, 
 nous nous promenerions, 
 vous vous promeneriez, 
 ils se promeneraient, 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 Je me serai promene, 
 tu te seras promene, 
 il se sera promene, 
 nous nous serons promenes, 
 vous vous serez promenes, 
 ils se seront promenes, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Je me serais promene*, 
 tu te serais promene', 
 il se serait promene", 
 nous nous serions promenes, 
 vous vous seriez promenes, 
 ils se seraient promenes, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 I 
 
 Promne-toi, 
 qu'il se promene, 
 promenons-nous, 
 promenez-vous, 
 qu'ils se promenent, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Walk(fhou). 
 let him walk, 
 let us walk, 
 walk (you), 
 let them walk. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Que je me promene, 
 que tu te promenes, 
 qu'il se promene, 
 que nous nous promenions, 
 que vous vous promeniez, 
 qu'ils se promenent, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 Que je me promenasse, 
 que tu te promenasses, 
 qu'il se promenat, 
 
 I 
 
 que nous nous promenassions, f? 
 
 <* 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que je me sois promene, a* ^ 
 que tu te sois promene*, 
 qu'il se soit promene, ^ ^ 
 
 que nous nous soyons promene's, a^ ^ 
 que vous vous soyez promenes, ^" | 
 qu'ils se soient promene's, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que je me fusse promene', a- S 
 que tu te fusses promene', a 
 qu'il se fut promene", [menes, ^ ^" 
 que nous nous fussions pro- g^ 
 que vous vous fussiez promenes, j"J-. 
 
 que vous vous promenassiez, 
 
 qu'ils se promenassent, T qu'ils se fussent promene's, 
 
 177. Conjugate in the same manner: 
 
 S'accorder, to agree. 
 s'adresser, to appl\ 
 
 s'avancer, to come or go forward. 
 
 se baigner, 
 se baisser, 
 se de"pecher, 
 
 to bathe, 
 to stoop, 
 to make haste. 
 
 ge determiner, to resolve upon. 
 
 s'emporter, to fly into apassion. 
 
 s'enrnumer, to catch cold. 
 
 s'envoler, to fly away. , 
 
 se facher, to be angry. 
 
 se hater, to make haste. 
 
 s'imaginer, to fancy. 
 
 se lever, &c. to rise, tyc* 
 
y EXERCISES ON PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 EXERCISE LXVI. 
 
 ENDIC. PRES. That woman nurses herself too much. 
 
 s'ecouter trap. 
 
 You wonder at that. We take a walk (every day). 
 s'etonner de 101 sepromener tons les jours. 
 
 IMTERF. I was riding 1 (on horseback) We were 
 
 se promener a cheval. 
 
 fatiguing ourselves (to no purpose). You were amusing 
 sefatiguer inutilement. s'amuser 
 
 yourself in the garden. They quarrelled with everybody. 
 dans se disputer tout le monde. 
 
 PRET. DEF. I presented myself to the assembly. He 
 se presenter assemllee f. 
 
 lost himself in the crowd. She laughed at his advice. 
 seperdre foulef. semoquer de avism. 
 
 We applied to the prime minister. You perceived 
 s'aaresser premier ministre. s'apercevoir de 
 
 the snare. They met several times in the street 
 piege m. se rencontrer 123 fois rue f. 
 
 EXERCISE LXVH. 
 
 PRET. IXDEF. I have exposed myself. He has amused 
 s'exposer s'amuser 
 
 himself. She has revenged herself. Where did you stop? 
 se venger s'arreter 
 
 PLUPERF. I had fallen asleep. They had grown rich 
 s'endormir s'enrichir 
 
 at your expense. He had got up at four o'clock. 
 depens pi. se lever heures. 
 
 Fur. AES. I shall bathe to-morrow. - You will 
 se baigner demain. 
 
 catch cold. I shall warm myself. He will grow bold 
 s'enrhumer se chauffer s'enhardir 
 
 They will defend themselves well. They will fly away. 
 se defendre 
 
 IMPERA. Let us rest under the shade of thifl 
 se reposer d ombre f. 
 
 tree. Rise from there, that is not your place. 
 $e lever fa ce - f. 
 
REFLECTED VERB CONJUGATED NEGATIVELY. 99 
 
 178. MODEL 
 
 OF A REFLECTED VERB CONJUGATED 
 NEGATIVELY 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Ne passe lever, 
 
 Ne s'etre pas Iev6, ) not to have 
 or leve*e, f. / risen. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 Ne so levant pas, not ruin,. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 *fc$tft 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 - 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je ne me leve pas, 
 tu ne te leves pas, 
 il ne se leve pas, 
 nous ne nous levons pas, 
 yous ne vous levez pas, 
 ils ne se levent pas, 
 
 IMPERFECT 
 
 Je ne me levels pas, 
 
 tu ne te levais pas, 
 
 il ne se levait pas, 
 
 nous ne nous levions pas, , 
 
 yous ne vous leviez pas, 
 
 ils ne se levaient pas, ** 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Je ne me levai pas, 
 
 tu ne te levas pas, 
 
 il ne se leva pas, 3.I& 
 
 nous ne nous levames pas, % ** 
 
 yous ne vous levates pas, | 
 
 ils ne se leverent pas, 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Je ne me leverai pas, s 
 
 tu ne te leveras pas, 
 il ne se levera pas, 3. |T 
 
 nous ne nous leverons pas, & 52 
 yous ne vous leverez pas, g 
 Us ne se leveront pas, 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Je ne me suis pas leve, ^ 
 tu ne fes pas lev^, ^ >. 
 
 il ne s'est pas leve*, [leves, | 
 nous ne nous sommes pas p > 
 yous ne vous tes pas lev^s, * 
 ils ne se sont pas leves, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Je ne m'etais pas leve*, ^ 
 tu ne totals pas leve", ^ ^ 
 il ne s'e*tait pas lev^, [love's, g- a 
 nous ne nous e*tions pasp B- 
 yous ne vous 6tiez pas lev^s, ' | 
 Us ne s'^taient pas leve's, * 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je ne me fus pas leve, j^ 
 
 tu ne te fus pas leve*. ^ 
 il ne se fut pas leve*, [leve's, s* a 
 nous ne nous fumes pasp e- 
 yous ne vous futes pas lev^s, ' g 
 ils ne se furent pas leve's, ** 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je ne me serai pas leve*, 
 tu ne te seras pas leve*, 
 il ne se sera pas leve'jpeve's, j 
 nous ne nous serons pasg 
 yous ne vous serez pas leve's S 
 Us ne se seront pas levgs, ' 
 
100 REFLECTED VERB CONJUGATED flEGATIVELX. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je ne me leverais pas, 
 tu ne te leverais pas, 
 il ne se leverait pas, 3. 
 
 nous ne nous leverions pas, 
 yous ne vous leveriez pas, 
 ils ne se leveraient pas, 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Je ne me serais pas leve, ^ K< 
 tu ne te serais pas leve, f g 
 il ne se seraitpas leve, [leves a 
 nous ne nous serions pasg-g 
 yous ne vous seriez pas leves 2 
 ils ne se seraient pas leves, r S. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Ne te leve pas, 
 qu'il ne se leve pas, 
 ne nous levons pas, 
 ne yous levez pas, 
 qu'ils ne se levent pas, 
 
 Do not rise, 
 let him not rise, 
 let us not rise, 
 do not rise, 
 let them not rise. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may not rise, fyc. 
 Que je ne me leve pas , 
 que tu ne te leves pas. 
 qu'il ne se leve pas. 
 que nous ne nous levions pas. 
 que vous ne vous leviez pas. 
 qu'ils ne se leverit pas. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not rise, fyc. 
 Que je ne me levasse pas. 
 que tu ne te levasses pas. 
 qu'il ne se levat pas. 
 que nous ne nous levassions 
 
 pas. 
 que vous ne vous levassicz 
 
 pas. 
 qu'ils nc sc ievassent pas. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 That I may not have risen, $c. 
 Que je ne me sois pas leve. 
 que tu ne te sois pas leve*. 
 qu'il ne se soit pas leve. 
 que nous ne nous soyons pas 
 
 leves. 
 que vous ne vous soyez pas 
 
 leves. 
 qu'ils ne se soient pas leves. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not have risen, fyc. 
 Que je ne me fusse pas leve. 
 que tu ne te fusses pas leve. 
 qu'il ne se fut pas leve. 
 que nous ne nous fussions paa 
 
 leves. 
 que vous ne vous fussiez pas 
 
 leves. 
 qu'ils ne se fussent pas levs, 
 
REFLECTED VERB, INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 101 
 
 179. REFLECTED 
 
 VERB, INTERROGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Me coupe-je ? or, 
 Est-ce quo je me coupe ? 
 te coupes-tu ? 
 se coupe-t-il ? 
 nous coupons-nous ? 
 vous coupez-vous ? 
 se coupent-ils ? 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 "5 3 
 
 r 
 
 Me suis-je coupd ? . 
 t'es-tu coup6 ? * 
 s'est-ilcoupe'? 
 nous sommes-nous coupe's ?- KJ 
 vous etes-vous coupes f g 
 se sont-ils coupes ? 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Me coupais-je ? 
 te coupais-tu ? 
 se coupait-il ? 
 nous coupions-nous t 
 vous coupiez-vous ? 
 se coupaient-ils ? 
 
 Was I cut- 
 ting myself? 
 
 M'etais-je coupe? K, 
 t'etais-tu coupe? 
 s'e'tait-il coupe ? *g ^ 
 nous e'tions-nous coupe's ? ^ ^ 
 vous etiez-vous coupes ? ^ 
 s'e'taient-ils coupe's? 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Me coupai-je ? 
 te coupas-tu ? 
 se coupa-t-il ? 
 nous coupames-nous ? 
 vous coupates-vous ? 
 se couperent-ils ? 
 
 Did I cut 
 myself? 
 
 Me fus-je coupe ? ^ 
 te fus-tu coup^ ? g< 
 se f ut-il coupe ? * A 
 nous fumes-nous coupes ? - ^ 
 vous futes-vous coupes ? 
 se furent-ils coupes? 
 
 FUTURE ABSOULTE. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Me couperai-je ? 
 te couperas-tu ? 
 se coupera-t-il ? 
 nous couperons-nous ? 
 vous eouperez-vous ? 
 se couperont-ils ? 
 
 Shall I cut 
 myself? 
 
 Me serai-je coupe ? g g 
 te seras-tu coupe ? 
 se sera-t-il coupe'? 
 nous serons-nous coupes ? * ^ 
 vous serez-vous coupes ? ^ a" 
 se seront-ils coupe's ? * ^ 
 
 CONDITIONAL 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Me couperais-je ? 
 te couperais-tu ? 
 se couperait-il ? 
 nous couperions-nous ? 
 vous couperiez-vous ? 
 se couperaient-ils ? 
 
 Me serais-je coupe ? 
 
 te serais-tu coupe* ? g. 
 
 se serait-il coupe' ? 
 nous serions-nous coupes ? *| 
 vous seriez-vous coupes ? *; g* 
 se seraient-ils coupes ? 
 
 ** 
 
102 REFLECTED VERB. 
 
 180. REFLECTED VERB CONJUGATED 
 INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 
 Ne me flatte-je pas ? 
 Do I not flatter myself 1 ? 
 ne te flattes-tu pas ? &c. 
 dost fhou not flatter thyself? 
 
 Ne me suis-je pas flatte ? 
 Have I not flattered myself* 
 ne t'es-tu pas flattd ? &c. 
 hast thou not flattered thyself* && 
 
 IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Ne me flattais-je pas ? &c. Ne m'gtais-je pas flatte* ? &c. 
 
 Was 1 not flattering myself? &c. Had I not flattered myself? 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Ne me flattai-je pas ? &c. 
 
 Ne me fus-je pas flatte? &c. 
 
 Did I not flatter myself? <kc. Had I not flattered myself? &c. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Ne me flatterai-je pas ? &c. 
 
 Ne me serai-je pas flatt^ ? &c. 
 
 Shall I not flatter myself? &c. Shall I not have flattered myself? c. 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 Ne me flatterais-je pas ? &c. I Ne me serais-je pas flatte ? &c. 
 Should 1 not flatter my 'self '? &c. \ Should I not have flattered my self? <kc. 
 
 EXERCISE LXVIII. 
 
 I do not flatter myself. She is not getting up. We 
 se flatter se lever 
 
 do not intend to travel this year. You do not 
 se proposer de voyager annee f. 
 
 make haste. She will not catch cold. . I would not 
 se depecher s'enrhumer 
 
 expose myself so rashly. Is he washing himself? Do 
 s'exposer si temerairement. se laver 
 
 you hide yourself? Are they amusing themselves? 
 se cacher s' am user 
 
O* IMPERSONAL OR UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 103 
 
 Was he rejoicing at his good fortune? Do you not 
 se rejouir de f. 
 
 deceive yourself ? Have we not flattered ourselves without 
 se tromper sans 
 
 foundation ? Will they not lose themselves in the wood ? 
 fondement se perdre bois m. 
 
 We never rise before seven o'clock in winter. Is she not 
 avant heures hiver. 
 
 getting up? Have they not risen too late this morning? 
 ind-4 tard matin m. 
 
 181. V. OF IMPERSONAL OR UNIPERSONAL 
 
 . VERBS. 
 
 The Verbs to which the old Grammarians give gene- 
 rally the name of impersonal, and the modern that of 
 Unipersonal,* are those which are used only in the third 
 person singular of their tenses ; as, ilfaut, it is necessary ; 
 il y a, there is, there are. 
 
 Unipersonal Verbs have their inflections according to 
 the conjugation to which they belong ; and, in their 
 compound tenses, some take avoir, as, il a plu, il a 
 tonne; and others take etre, as, il est re'sulte, il est arrive ; 
 but in either case, the past participle is invariable. 
 
 182. LIST of the Unipersonal Verbs of most general 
 occurrence : 
 
 H pleut, 
 
 it rains. 
 
 il convient, it becomes. 
 
 il neige, 
 
 it snows. 
 
 il faut, it is necessary. 
 
 il grele, 
 
 it hails. 
 
 il importe, it matters. 
 
 il tonne, 
 
 it thunders. 
 
 il parait, it appears. 
 
 il e*claire. 
 
 it lightens. 
 
 il semble, it seems. 
 
 il gele, 
 il de*gele, 
 il arrive, 
 
 it freezes, 
 it thaws, 
 it happens. 
 
 il s'ensuit que, it follows that. 
 il sied, it is becoming. 
 il y a, there is, there are. 
 
 ' IMPEBSONAL means, without a person ; UNIPESSONAL, with one person. 
 
104 UNIPERSONAL VERBS PLEUV01R, NEWER, ETC. 
 
 183. CONJUGATION OF THE UNIPERSONAL VERB 
 
 PLEUVOIR, TO RAIN. 
 
 Pres. Part, pleuvant, raining. Past Part, plu, rained. 
 
 IND. Pres. il pleut, it rains. Pret. Indef. il a plu. 
 
 Imperf. il pleuvait, it was raining. Pluperf. il avait plu. 
 
 Pret. Def. il plut, it rained. Pret. Ant. il eut plu. 
 
 Fut. Abs. il pleuvra, it will rain. Fut. Ant. il aura plu. 
 
 COND. Pres. il pleuvrait, it would rain. Past, il auraitplu. 
 
 (No Imperative.) 
 
 SUBJ. Pres. qu'il pleuve, that it may rain. Pret. qu'il ait plu. 
 
 Imperf. qu'il plut, fhatit might rain. Pluperf. qu'il eut plu. 
 
 184. CONJUGATION OF THE UNIPERSONAL VERB 
 
 NEIGER, TO SNOW. 
 
 IND. Pres. il neige, it snows. Pret.Tndef.il a neige*. 
 Imperf. il neigeait, it was snowing. Pluperf. il avait neige*. 
 Pret. Def. il neigea, it snoived. Pret. Ant. il eut neige*. 
 Fut. Abs. il neigera, it will snow. Fut. Ant. il aura neige*. 
 COND. Pres. il neigerait, it would snow. Past 9 il aurait neige*. 
 
 (No Imperative.) 
 
 SUBJ. Pres. qu'il neige, that it may snow. Pret. qu'il ait neige*. 
 Imperf. qu'il neigeat, that it might snow. Pluperf. qu'il eut neige*. 
 
 185. CONJUGATION OF THE UNIPERSONAL VERB 
 
 GELER, TO FREEZE. 
 
 IND. Pres. il gele, it freezes. Pret. Indef. il a gele*. 
 
 Imperf. il gelait, itwasfreezing. Pluperf. il avait gele. 
 
 Pret. Def. il gela, it froze. Pret. Ant. il eut gele". 
 
 Fut. Abs. il gelera, it will freeze. Fut. Ant. il aura gele. 
 
 COND. Pres. il gelerait, it would freeze. Past, il aurait gele. 
 
 (TVb Imperative.) 
 
 SUBJ. Pres. qu'il gele, that it may freeze. Pret. qu'il ait gele*. 
 
 Imperf. qu'il gelat, that it might freeze. Pluperf. qu'il eut gel& 
 
CONJUGATION OF f AVOIR AND FALLOIR. 
 
 105 
 
 186. Y AVOIR, THERE TO BE. 
 
 Pres. Part, yayant, 
 Past Part. y ayant eu, 
 IND. Pres. il y a, 
 Pret. Indef. il y a eu, 
 
 there being, 
 there having been, 
 there is, or there are. 
 there has been, or there have been. 
 Imperf. ' il y avait, there was, or there were. 
 Pluperf. il y avait eu, there had been. 
 Pret. Def. il y eut, there was, or there were. 
 
 Pret. Ant. il y eut eu, there had been. 
 Put. Abs. il y aura, there will be. 
 Put. Ant. il y aura eu, there will have been. 
 COND. Pres. il y aurait, there would be. 
 
 Past, il y aurait eu, there would have been. 
 
 (No Imperative.) 
 SUBJ. Pres. qu'il y ait, that there may be. 
 
 Pret. qu'il y ait eu, that there may have been. 
 Imperf. qu'il y eut, that there might be. 
 Pluperf. qu'il y eut eu, that there might have been. 
 Examples of the same verb used interrogatively, negatively, &c. 
 
 Ya-t-il? 
 il n'y a pas, 
 y avait-il ? 
 n'y a-t-il pas eu ? 
 il n'y avait pas eu, 
 y aura-t-il ? 
 il n'y aura pas, 
 y aura-t-il eu ? 
 
 is there ? 
 
 there is not. 
 
 was there, or were there ? 
 
 has there not been 
 
 there had not been. 
 
 will there be ? 
 
 there will not be. 
 
 will there have been 1 
 
 N.B. This verb remains always in the singular in French, although it is used 
 in the plural in English, when followed by a substantive plural. 
 
 1ST. FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. 
 
 Pres. Part. none. [it must. Past Part. fallu. 
 
 IND. Pres. il faut, it is necessary, Pret. Indef. il a fallu. 
 
 Imperf. il fallait. Pluperf. il avait fallu. 
 
 Pret. Def. il fallut. Pret. Ant. il eut fallu. 
 
 Fut. Abs. il faudra. Put. Ant. il aura fallu. 
 
 COND. Pres. il faudrait. Past, il aurait fallu. 
 
 (No Imperative.) 
 
 SUBJ. Pres. qu'il faille. Pret. qu'il ait fallu. 
 
 Imperf. qu'il fallut. Pluperf. qu'il eut fallu. 
 
 188. REMARKS. The usual construction of the verb 
 falloir is to place the conjunction que after il faut, il 
 fallait -, &c. then to use the subject or nominative of the 
 English verb must, as a subject to the second verb in 
 
106 EXERCISES ON DNIPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 French, which must be put in the subjunctive; as, II 
 faut que je vende ma maison, I must sell my house. II 
 aut que nous allions a la douane, We must go to the 
 custom-house. 
 
 Another construction is to allow the second verb to 
 remain in the infinitive, as in English ; then the personal 
 pronoun which is the subject of the verb must, is to be 
 expressed by one of the pronouns me, te, lui, nous, vous, 
 leur, placed after the impersonal pronoun il; as, II me 
 faut commencer mon ouvrage, I must begin my work. 
 
 All expressions implying necessity, obligation, or want, 
 may be rendered by falloir ; as, 
 
 II lui faut un habit. (AcAD.) 
 II me faut un clictionnaire. 
 
 He wants a coat. 
 I want a dictionary, 
 
 EXERCISE LXIX. 
 N.B. The Tenses will now be used promiscuously. 
 
 Does it rain? Was it not raining? I think it thunders. 
 
 crois qu' 
 Does it not lighten? Did it freeze last night? 
 
 ind-4 art. ^dernier hiuitL 
 Does it snow this morning'? There is nothing to dp. 
 
 matin m. faire. 
 
 There are many people. There were more than a 
 beaucoup de gens. de * 
 
 thousand persons There has been a great battle. There 
 
 bataille f. 
 would be no harm. In Australia there are black swans. 
 
 mal. Australie 32 2 l cygne m. 
 
 EXERCISE LXX. 
 
 Children tnust obey their parents. I must sell iny horse. 
 
 obeir a cheval rn. 
 
 You must speak to him How much do you want? They 
 
 Combien 
 must answer. Must I show you my work? It 
 
 repondre montrcr ouvrage m. 
 
 was necessary to consent to that bargain. It would be 
 
 * consentir marche in. 
 
 necessary (to inquire about it.) / want a French grammar 
 s'en informer 
 
EXERCISES ON UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 107 
 
 EXERCISE LXXI. 
 
 Go and see if it rains. It does not rain, but it will rain 
 Allez * voir mais 
 
 soon. It does not snow. It will snow to-morrow. Do you 
 bientot. demain. 
 
 think it freezes? It is freezing very hard. I do not think so: 
 croyez- subj-1 tres fort. *crois l le 
 
 it seems, on the contrary, that it thaws. It often JiaiU in this 
 a 78 *souvent l 
 
 country. There arrived some persons whom we did not 
 paysm. II ind-3 personne que 
 
 expect. It appears that you (have not attended) to that 
 attendre ind-2 ne vous dtes pas occupe de 
 
 business. It is not becoming in you to contradict your father. 
 affaire f. de contrarier 
 
 There are crocodiles in the Nile and in some other rivers. 
 32 Nilm. quelques fleuve 
 
 EXERCISE LXXII. 
 
 Is there anyone here? There is nobody Were there any 
 
 quelqu'un 116 
 
 cavalry at the review ? There would be more happiness 
 cavalerief. revue f. plus de bonheur 
 
 if everyone knew how to moderate his desires. There would 
 
 chacun savait * * moderer desir 
 not be so many duels, if people were to reflect that 
 
 tant de Von * * reflechir ind-2 
 
 one of the first obligations of a Christian is to forgive 
 
 f. f. chretien de pardonner art. 
 
 injuries. I wish that there were more order in his conduct. 
 injure voudrais subj-2 d* conduitef. 
 
 It is not necessary to be a conjurer to guess his motives 
 
 * * sorcier pour deviner motif 
 Somebody asked Diogenes at what hour people should 
 
 On ind-2 a Diogene if falloir ind-2 
 
 dine : If one is rich, replied he, when one likes ; if one is 
 Von repondre quand on veut 
 
 poor, when one can. 
 pent. 
 
 
108 
 
 CONJUGATION OF VERBS ENDING IN OER. 
 
 BEFORE giving the conjugation of the Irregular Verbs, 
 we shall give examples of several verbs, which, although 
 regular in their conjugation, present a peculiarity in the 
 orthography of some of their tenses. 
 
 189. I. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS 
 ENDING IN OER. 
 
 MANGER, TO EAT. 
 
 Part. Pres. mangeant. 
 
 IND. ) 
 Pres. j 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Pret. 
 Put. 
 
 COND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 SUBJ. \ 
 
 Pres. j 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je mange, 
 nous mangeons, 
 Je mangeais, 
 nous mangions, 
 Je mangeai, 
 nous mangeames, 
 Je mangerai, 
 nous mangerons, 
 Je mangerais, 
 nous mangerions, 
 
 mangeons, 
 g je mange, ^ 
 O'nous mangioiiSj 
 je mangeasse, 
 O*nous mangeassions. 
 
 Part. Past, mange. 
 
 tu manges, 
 vous mangez, 
 tu mangeais, 
 vous mangiez, 
 tu mangeas, 
 vous mangeates, 
 tu mangeras, 
 vous mangerez, 
 tu mangerais, 
 vous mangeriez, 
 mange, 
 mangez, 
 tu manges, 
 vous mangiez, 
 tu mangeasses, 
 vous mangeassieZj 
 
 il mange ; 
 ils mangent. 
 il mangeait ; 
 ils mangeaient. 
 il mangea ; 
 ils mangerent. 
 il mangera ; 
 ils mangeront. 
 il mangerait ; 
 ils mangeraient. 
 qu'il mange ; 
 qu'ils mangent. 
 il mange ; 
 ils mangent. 
 il mangeat ; 
 , ils mangeassent. 
 
 190. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Abreger, to abridge. 
 arranger, to arrange. 
 bouger, to stir. 
 cornger, to correct. 
 deranger, to disorder. 
 diriger, to direct. 
 encourager, to encourage. 
 
 engager, to engage. 
 gager, to bet. 
 juger, to judge. 
 ngliger, to neglect. 
 partager, to divide, to share. 
 songer, to think. 
 venger, to revenge, fyc. 
 
 REMARK. Verbs ending in ger, require an e mute 
 after the g, when that consonant is followed by the vowel 
 a or o, in order that the g may preserve its soft sound ; 
 as, mangeant, mangeons, mangeais ; but we write without 
 e mute, mangions, mangerent, because the g is not fol- 
 lowed by the vowels a, o. 
 
EXERCISES ON VERBS ENDING IN GER. 
 
 109 
 
 EXERCISE LXXIII. 
 
 The eye judges of colours; the ear judges of 
 ceil m. art. couleur f. oreille f. 
 
 sounds. Where do you direct your steps? He disturbed 
 art. son m. pas m. deranger 
 
 everybody. The example of the general encouraged the 
 tout le monde. exemple m. 
 
 army. Have you corrected your exercise ? I would wager 
 armee f. theme in. gager 
 
 a hundred francs (that it is not so.) Abridge your speech. 
 * m. que cela riestpas. discours m. 
 
 Don't stir. We protect the widow and the orphan. 
 proteger veuve orphelin 
 
 191. II. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS 
 ENDING IN EER. 
 
 AGREER, TO ACCEPT, TO PLEASE. 
 
 Part. Pres. agreant, 
 
 Part. Past, agree. 
 
 LND. ) J'agree, 
 
 tu agrees, 
 
 il agree ; 
 
 Pres. f nous agreons, 
 
 vous agre*ez, 
 
 ils agreent. 
 
 Imp. J'agreais, 
 
 tu agreais, 
 
 il agreait : 
 
 nous agr&ons, 
 
 vous agreiez, 
 
 ils agr^aient. 
 
 Pi'et. J'agreai, 
 
 tu agreas, 
 
 il agrea ; 
 
 nous agreames, 
 
 vous agreates, 
 
 ils agr^^rent. 
 
 Put. J'agreerai, 
 
 tu agreeras, 
 
 il agreera ; 
 
 nous agreerons, 
 
 vous agreerez, 
 
 ils agreeront. 
 
 COND. J'agreerais, 
 
 tu agreerais, 
 
 il agreerait ; 
 
 nous agreerions, 
 
 vous agreeriez 
 
 ils agreeraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 agree, 
 
 qu'il agree ; 
 
 agreons, 
 
 agreez, 
 
 qu'ils agreent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ j'agree, 
 Pres. JGPnousagreions, 
 
 tu agrees, 
 vous agreiez, 
 
 il agre*e ; 
 ils agreent. ' 
 
 Imp. gj'agreasse, 
 O*nous agreassions, 
 
 tu agreasses, 
 vous agre'assiez, 
 
 il agreat ; 
 ils agreassent. 
 
 192. Conjugate in the same manner: 
 
 Creer, 
 
 to create, 
 to divert. 
 
 suppleer, to supply. 
 
110 
 
 CONJUGATION OF VERBS ENDING IN CER. 
 
 REMARK. The Past Participle of verbs in eer requires 
 an additional e to form the feminine. In the Future 
 and Conditional where there are two, the poets usually 
 suppress one. 
 
 Votre coeur d'Ardaric agrerait-i\ la flamme ? (CORNEILLE.) 
 Nos hotes agreront les soins qui leur sont dus (LA FONTAINE. } 
 
 In prose, that suppression would be an error. 
 
 193. in MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
 VERBS ENDING IN CER. 
 
 A VANCER, TO ADVANCE. 
 
 IND. 
 Pres. 
 
 Part. Pres. avangant 
 
 ) J'avance, 
 
 \ nous avan9ons, 
 J'avan9ais, 
 nous avan9ions, 
 J'avangai, 
 nous avan9ames, 
 J'avancerai, 
 nous avancerons, 
 J'avancerais, 
 nous avancerions, 
 
 Part. Past, avance. 
 
 Imp, 
 Pret 
 Put. 
 COND. 
 
 IMTER. 
 
 avangons, 
 SUBJ. \ gj'avance, 
 Pres. f O'nous avancions, 
 Imp. gj'avan9asse, 
 
 O'nous avan9assions, 
 
 tu avances, 
 
 il avance ; 
 
 vous avancez, 
 
 Us avancent. 
 
 tu avangais, 
 vous avanciez, 
 
 il avan9ait ; 
 ils avan9aient. 
 
 tu avan9as, 
 
 il avan9a ; 
 
 vous avangates, 
 
 ils avancerent. 
 
 tu avanceras, 
 
 il avancera; 
 
 vous avancerez, 
 
 ils avanceront. 
 
 tu avancerais, 
 
 il avancerait ; 
 
 vous avanceriez, 
 
 ils avanceraient. 
 
 avance, 
 
 qu'il avauce ; 
 
 avancez, 
 
 qu'ils avancent. 
 
 tu avances, 
 
 il avance ; 
 
 vous avanciez, 
 
 ils avancent. 
 
 tu avangasses, 
 
 il avancat ; 
 
 vous avan9assiez, 
 
 ils avan9assent. 
 
 194. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Amorcer, to bait. 
 annoncer, to announce. 
 bercer, to rock. 
 commencer, to begin, 
 devancer, to outrun. 
 enfoncer, to sink, break open. 
 
 gnoncer, 
 percer, 
 pincer, 
 rincer, 
 sucer, 
 &c. 
 
 to express, utter, 
 to pierce, 
 to pinch, 
 to rinse, wash, 
 to suck. 
 &c. 
 
 REMARK. In all these verbs the c takes a cedilla* 
 when followed by the vowel a or 0, 
 
EXERCISE ON VEBBS ENDENQ Of &ER AND CEfL 111 
 
 The same rule applies to those verbs in which it is 
 followed by w, whenever it is required to give the c the 
 soft pronunciation of s ; as, il regut, il a aperqu. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXIV. 
 
 God created man after his own image. God has created 
 art. a * f. 
 
 heaven and earth. His proposal was accepted. 
 art. cielm. art. proposition f. agreer 
 
 I shall make up the rest. He annoimced that news to all 
 suppleer nouvelle f. 
 
 his friends. It was beginning to rain when we set out. A 
 
 quand partimes. 
 
 hall pierced his clothes. Wash these glasses. 
 ballef. habit m. pi. Rincer verreio. 
 
 195. IV. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
 VERBS ENDING IN UER. 
 
 JOUER, TO PLAY. 
 
 Part. Pres. jouant. 
 
 IND. \ Jejoue, 
 es. J nous 
 
 nousjouons, 
 
 Imp. Je jouais, 
 
 nous jou'ions, 
 
 Pret. Je jouai, 
 
 nous jouames, 
 
 Ful. Je jouerai, 
 
 nous jouerons, 
 
 COND. Je joiierais, 
 
 nous jouerions, 
 
 LMTEK. 
 
 jouons, 
 
 SLTJJ. \ gje joue, 
 Pres. f <$nous jouions, 
 
 Imp. gjejouassc, 
 
 C?nous jouasaious, 
 
 Part. Pasty joue. 
 
 tu joues, 
 vous jouez, 
 
 iljoue; 
 ils jouent. 
 
 tu jouais, 
 vous jou'iez, 
 
 il jouait ; 
 ils jouaient. 
 
 tu jouas, 
 vous jouates, 
 
 il joua ; 
 ils jouerent 
 
 tu joueras, 
 vous jouerez, 
 
 il jouera ; 
 ils joueront. 
 
 tu jouerais, 
 vous joueriez, 
 
 il jouerait ; 
 ils joueraient 
 
 joue, 
 jouez, 
 
 qu'il joue ; 
 qu'ils jouent. 
 
 tu joues, 
 vous jou'iez, 
 
 il joue ; 
 ils jouent. 
 
 tu jou asses, 
 vous jouassiez, 
 
 il jouat ; 
 
112 CONJUGATION OF VERBS ENDING IN 
 
 196. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Avouer, to avow, confess. 
 
 attribuer, to attribute. 
 
 clouer, to nail. 
 
 contribuer, to contribute. 
 
 de*nouer, to untie. 
 
 distribner, 
 nouer, 
 secouer, 
 tuer, 
 &c. 
 
 to distribute, 
 to tie. 
 
 to shake off. 
 to kill. 
 &c. 
 
 
 REMARK. In verbs of the first conjugation, when the 
 termination er of the infinitive is preceded by a vowel, 
 as 'mjouer, prier, avouer, etc. the e of the termination 
 may be preserved or suppressed, in poetry, in the Future 
 and Conditional ; but, if it be suppressed, a circumflex 
 accent is placed over the vowel preceding. So poets 
 write jejouerai or je jourai; favouerai or f 'avourai ; je 
 prierais orje prirais. 
 
 197. V. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
 VERBS ENDING IN ELER. 
 
 APPELER, TO CALL. 
 
 Part. Pres. appelant. 
 IND. ) J'appelle, 
 Pres. f nous appelons, 
 Imp. J'appelais, 
 
 nous appelions, 
 Pret. J'appelai, 
 
 nous appelames, 
 Fut. J'appellerai, 
 
 nous appellerons, 
 COXD. J'appellerais, 
 
 nous appellerions, 
 
 blFEB. 
 
 appelons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) gj'appelle 
 Pres. f O'nous appelions, 
 Imp. g J'appelasse, 
 
 Part. Past, appele. 
 tu appelles, il appelle ; 
 
 vous appelez, 
 tu appelais, 
 vous appeliez, 
 tu appelas, 
 vous appelates, 
 tu appelleras, 
 vous appellerez, 
 tu appellerais, 
 vous appelleriez, 
 appelle, 
 appelez, 
 tu appelles, 
 vous appeliez, 
 tu appelasses, 
 
 O'nous appelassions, vous appelassiez, 
 
 ils appellent. 
 il appelait; 
 ils appelaient. 
 il appela ; 
 ils appelerent. 
 il appellera ; 
 ils appelleront. 
 il appellerait ; 
 ilsappelleraient 
 qu'il appelle ; 
 qu'ils appellent 
 il appelle ; 
 ils appellent. 
 il appelat ; 
 ils appelassent. 
 
 198. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 Amonceler, to heap up. 
 atteler, to put horses to. 
 
 chanceler, to totter, stagger. 
 dgteler, to unyoke. 
 
 epeler, to spell. 
 
 niveler, to level. 
 
 rappeler, to recall. 
 
 renouveler, &c, to renew, 
 
REMARKS ON VERBS ENDING IN ELBE. 113 
 
 199. REMARKS. As has been exemplified in appeler, 
 verbs ending in eler, double the I before an e mute : 
 J'appelle, tu nivelles, il etincelle, Us renouvelleraient, etc. ; 
 but we write with a single I: nous appelons, vous nivelez, 
 Us e'tincelaient, etc., because the vowel which follows tiie 
 I is not an e mute. 
 
 200. Geler, to freeze ; degeler, to thaw ; harceler, to 
 harass ; peler, to peel, do not double the Z, but the e, 
 which precedes it, takes a grave accent: II gele, il 
 degelera, il harcele, je pele, Us peleraient, etc. 
 
 201. Receler, to receive and conceal stolen things, to 
 contain ; reveler, to reveal, &c. being terminated by eler, 
 and not eler, never double the I : Je recele, tu reveles, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXV. 
 
 Do you play on the violin ? The children are playing at 
 de violon m. d, 
 
 blindman's buff. He was killed by a (cannon 'shot). The 
 colin-maillard. de coup de canon m. 
 
 bells call to church. Call them (as you please.) 
 cloche f. art. eglisef. commeilvous plaira. 
 
 lie is (near falling), he staggers. We have renewed 
 pres de tomber 
 
 acquaintance. Spell that word. She is peeling an apple. 
 connaissance. mot m. 
 
 202. VI. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
 
 VERBS ENDING IN ETER. 
 
 JETER, TO THROW. 
 
 Part. Pres. jetant. Part. Past, jete. 
 
 IND. Pres. Jejette, tujettes, iljette; 
 
 nousjetons, vousjetez, ilsjettent 
 
 Imp. Jejetais, tujetais, iljetait; 
 
 nousjetions, vousjeticz, ils jetaieut. 
 
 Pret. Jejetai, tujetas, iljeta; 
 
 nous jetames, vous jctates, ils jeterent. 
 
 Put. Jcjetterai, tujetteras, iljettera; 
 
 nous jetterons, vous jctterez, ils jetteront. 
 
 
114 CONJUGATION OF VERBS ENDING IN ETER. 
 
 COND, Je jetterais, 
 nous jetteriona, 
 
 tu jetterais, 
 vous jetteriez, 
 
 il jetterait ; 
 ils jetteraient. 
 
 IMPEE. 
 jetons, 
 
 jette, 
 jetez, 
 
 qu'il jette ; 
 qu'ils jettent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje jette, 
 Pres. jc?nous jetions, 
 
 tu jettes, 
 vous jetiez, 
 
 il jette; 
 ils jettent. 
 
 Imp. gjejetasse, 
 G?nous jetassions, 
 
 tu jetasses, 
 vousjetassiez, 
 
 iljetat; 
 ils jetassent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner : 
 Cacheter, to seal \ Projeter, to project, &c. 
 
 203. Acheter, to buy; e'tlqueter, to ticket, make fachete, 
 facheterai, ils etiquetent, &c. a,n&notfachette,fachetterai, 
 ils etiquettent. (AcAD.) 
 
 204. VII- MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
 
 VERBS ENDING IN YER. 
 
 EMPLOYER, TO EMPLOY. 
 
 Part. Pres. employant. Part. Past, employe. 
 
 IND. ) J'emploie, tu emploies, il emploie ; 
 
 Pres. ) nous employons, vous employez, ils eniploient. 
 
 Imp. J'employais, tu employais, il employait ; 
 
 nous employions, vous employiez, ils employaient. 
 
 Pret. J'employai, tu employas, il employa ; 
 
 nous employames, vous employates, ils employerent. 
 
 Fut. J'emploierai, tu emploieras, il emploiera ; 
 
 nous eniploierons, vous emploierez, ils emploieront. 
 
 COND. J'emploierais, tu emploierais, il emploierait ; 
 
 nous emploierions, vous einploieriez, ils emploieraient, 
 
 IMPEE. emploie, qu'il emploie ; 
 
 employons, employez, qu'ils emploient. 
 
 SUBJ. > j'emploie, tu emploies, il emploie ; 
 
 Pres. j O'nous employions, vous employiez, ils eniploient. 
 
 Imp. gj'employasse, tu employasses, ilemployat; 
 
 C?nous employassions, vous employassiez, ils employas- 
 
 sent 
 
CONJUGATION OF VEKBS ENDING IN YER. H5 
 
 205. Conjugate in the same manner verbs In yer, and 
 in general all those whose Present Participle ends in 
 yant; as: 
 
 Balayer, to sweep. 
 
 effrayer, to frighten. 
 
 essayer, to try. 
 
 payer, to pay. 
 
 nettoyer, to clean. 
 
 appuyer, to prop ; to rest upon . 
 
 essuyer, to wipe. 
 
 ennuyer, to tire. 
 
 206. Envoyer, to send ; and renvoyer, to send back, 
 deviate from the preceding model of conjugation in the 
 Future and Conditional, making J'enverrai, fenverrais ; 
 je renverrai, je renverrais, instead of j'envoierai, &c. 
 
 207. REMARK. In the preceding verbs, the y is pre- 
 served in every part of the verb, except before the mute 
 terminations e, es, entj where it is changed into i; Je 
 paie* tu nettoies, Us appuient. Moreover, these verbs 
 take a y and an f in the two first persons plural of the 
 Imperfect of the Indicative and Present of the Subjunc- 
 tive ; that is, the y of the radical part (as employ), and 
 the i of the final part ions, iez. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXVI. 
 
 That throws me into a great dilemma. He threw himself 
 dans embarras m. 
 
 into the midst of the enemy. Have you sealed your 
 a milieu m. ennemi m. pi. 
 
 letter? He is cleaning his gun. All that he takes, he 
 fusil m. ce qu' prend 
 
 pays (ready money). I shall endeavour to persuade 
 le argent comptant. essayer de persuader 
 
 them. He will support you with all his credit. - He 
 appuyer de credit m. 
 
 employs everybody to obtain that placeThat tires me 
 tout le monde pour f. 
 
 to death. Don't frighten the child. I shall send a man. 
 art. mort f. enfant. 
 
 The French Academy leaves the choice of writing if paye, or il paie; Je 
 payercfi, orjfpaierai, or even,;* pairai; but the best modern Grammarians are 
 agreed on the change of the y into t, and present usage is conformable to their 
 opinion. 
 
116 
 
 CONJUGATION OF VERBS ENDING EH IES, 
 
 208. VIII. MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
 VERBS ENDING IN IER. 
 
 PRIER, TO PRAY, TO REQUEST. 
 
 Part. Pres. priant. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Past, pri. 
 
 IND. \ Je prie, 
 
 tu pries, 
 
 il prie ; 
 
 Pres. f nous prions, 
 
 vous priez, 
 
 ils prient 
 
 Imp. Je priais, 
 
 tu priais, 
 
 il priait ; 
 
 nous priions, 
 
 vous priiez, 
 
 ils priaient. 
 
 Pret. Je priai, 
 
 tu prias, 
 
 il pria ; 
 
 nous priames, 
 
 vous priates, 
 
 ils prierent. 
 
 Fut . Je prierai, 
 
 tu prieras, 
 
 il priera ; 
 
 i nous prierons, 
 
 vous prierez, 
 
 ils prieront. 
 
 OOND. Je prierais, 
 
 tu prierais, 
 
 il prierait ; 
 
 nous prierions, 
 
 vous prieriez, 
 
 ils prieraient 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 prie, 
 
 qu'il prie ; 
 
 prions, 
 
 priez, 
 
 qu'ils prient. 
 
 SUBJ. \ je prie, 
 Pres. f o?nous priions, 
 
 tu pries, 
 vous priiez, 
 
 il prie ; 
 ils prient. 
 
 Imp. g je priasse, 
 
 tu priasses, 
 
 il priat ; 
 
 C?nous priassions, 
 
 vous priassiez, 
 
 ils priassent. 
 
 209. Conjugate in the same manner all verbs ending 
 in ier ; as, 
 
 Certifier, 
 crier, 
 6tudier, 
 Her, 
 manier, 
 
 to certify, 
 to cry. 
 to study, 
 to tie. 
 to handle. 
 
 nier, 
 oublier, 
 plier, 
 relier, 
 remercier, 
 
 to deny, 
 to forget, 
 to bend, 
 to bind, 
 to thank. 
 
 REMARK. Prier and all verbs whose Present Parti- 
 ciple ends in iant, take ii in the first and the second 
 person plural of the Imperfect of the Indicative and Pre- 
 sent of the Subjunctive ; that is, the i of the radical part 
 (as pri], and the i of the termination : Nous priions, 
 wus priiez ; que nous liions, que vous liiez. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXVII. 
 
 I thank you for the honour you do me He studies 
 
 de que faites 
 
 night and day. The plank was bending under him. 
 planche f. so-us 
 
EXERCISE ON VEEBS ENDING IN 1EB, 
 
 117 
 
 1 shall never forget (what I owe you). Request him to 
 
 ce queje vous dois. de 
 
 come and (speak to me) One (does not become) learned 
 
 * me parler. On ne dement pas 
 without studying. In handling that vase, he broke it. 
 sans inf-1 m. briser ind-4 
 
 OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 210. However irregular a verb may be, its irregula- 
 rities never occur in the compound tenses, for which 
 reason we shall, except in a very few instances, dispense 
 with these tenses in the various conjugations of irregular 
 
 verbs. 
 
 I. IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 The only irregular verbs of this conjugation are aller, 
 to go; s'en aller, to go away; envoy er, to send ; and 
 renvoyer, to send back. 
 
 211. ALLER, TO GO. 
 Part. Pres. allant. Part. Past, alle*. 
 
 IND. ) Je vais, 
 Pres. f nous allons, 
 
 tu vas, 
 vous allez, 
 
 il va; 
 
 ils vont. 
 
 Imp. J'allais, 
 nous allions, 
 
 tu allais, 
 vous alh'ez, 
 
 il allait ; 
 ils allaient. 
 
 Fret. J'allai, 
 nous allames, 
 
 tu alias, 
 vous allates, 
 
 il alia ; 
 ils allerent. 
 
 Fut. J'irai, 
 nous irons, 
 
 tu iras, 
 vous irez, 
 
 il ira ; 
 
 ils iront. ', 
 
 COND. > J'irais^ 
 Pres. f nous irions, 
 
 tu irais, 
 vous iriez, 
 
 il irait ; 
 ils iraient. 
 
 LVIPER. 
 allons, 
 
 va, 
 allez, 
 
 qu'il aille ; 
 qu'ils aillent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ j'aille, 
 Pres. f o*nous allions, 
 
 tu ailles, 
 vous alliez, 
 
 il aille ; 
 ils aillent. 
 
 Imp. gj'allasse, 
 O'nous allassions, 
 
 tu allasses, 
 vous allassiez, 
 
 il allat ; 
 ils allasseut 
 
118 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB S'EN ALLgR. 
 
 212. REMARKS. Aller is conjugated with the auxil- 
 iary etre, in all its compound tenses ; Je sws alle, fetais 
 alle, &c. 
 
 The Imperative va takes an 5, when followed by en or 
 y ; as, vas en savoir des nouvelles; vas-y. 
 
 We sometimes say, jefus, fai ete, favats e'te] f aurais 
 ete', instead of j'allai, je suis alle] fetais alle, je serais 
 alle. These expressions, however, have this difference, 
 that avoir ete implies the return, and etre alle does not. 
 Thus : il a ete a Rome, means, that he went to Rome, 
 and is returned, or that he has been in Rome, and has 
 left it ; but il est alle' a Rome means only, that he is gone 
 to Rome. (AcAD.) 
 
 213. S'EN ALLER, TOGO AWAY. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. " PAST. 
 
 S'en aller, to go away. \ S'en etre alle, to have gone away. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. COMP. OF PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 S'en allant, going away. \ S'en&iant alle*, having gone away. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. En alle, gone away 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je m'en vais, <g 
 
 tu t'en vas, 
 il s'en va, 
 
 nous nous en aliens, | 
 yous vous en allez, 
 ils s'en vont, 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je m'en allais, 
 
 tu t'en allais, 
 
 il s'en allait, 
 
 nous nous en allions, <| 
 
 yous vous en alliez, 
 
 ils s'en allaient, 
 
 PRETERITE DEFINITE. 
 
 Je m'en allai, 
 
 tu t'en alias, ; 
 
 il s'en alia, 
 
 nous nous en allames, : 
 
 vous vous en allates, 
 
 ils s'en allerent, * 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Je m'en suis alle*, K, 
 
 tu t'en es all^, >- 
 
 il s'en est alle, 
 
 nous nous en sommes alles, <| ^ 
 
 yous vous en etes alles, 
 
 ils s'en sont alle*s, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Je m'en 6tais alle, K, 
 
 tu t'en ^tais alle, _ > 
 
 il s'en etait aUe, 
 
 nous nous en etions all^s, ^ 
 
 yous vous en ^tiez all^s, 
 
 ils s'en etaient all^s, 
 
 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Je m'en fus all^, K 
 
 tu t'en fus all^, ^ >- 
 il s'en fut aU^, 
 
 nous nous en fumes alle*s, t CQ 
 
 yous vous en futes all^s, 
 ils s'en furent alle*s, 
 
CONJUGATION OF 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Je m'en irai, k 
 
 tu t'en iras, a ^ 
 il s'en ira, 
 
 nous nous en irons, 
 
 vous vous en irez, * Q 
 ils s'en iront, 
 
 LE VERB S'EN ALLER. Jjg 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOB. 
 
 Je m'en serai alle, K 
 
 tu t'en seras alle, *> 
 
 il s'en sera alle, 
 nous nous en serous ally's, | s 
 vous vous en serez alles, < g" 
 ils s'en seront alles, 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Je m'en irais, 
 tu t'en^irais, 
 il s'en irait, 
 nous nous en irions, 
 vous vous en iriez, 
 ils s'en iraient, 
 
 i s 
 S 
 
 < 
 
 3 S 
 a o 
 5 * 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Je m'en serais alle, K - 
 
 tu t'en serais alle, | & 
 il s'en serait alle\ 
 nous nous en seriqns alles, | S 
 
 vous vous en seriez all^s, ^ g 1 
 
 ils s'en seraient allds, ' 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Affirmatively. 
 
 Va-t'en, 
 qu'il s'en aille, 
 allons-nous-en, 
 allez-vous-en, 
 qu'ils s'en aillent, 
 
 Negatively. 
 
 Ne t'en va pas, 
 qu'il ne s'en aille pas, 
 ne nous en aliens pas, 
 ne vous en allez pas, 
 qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Que je m'en aille, K^ 
 
 que tu t'en ailles, * g* 
 
 qu'il s'en aille, a ~ 
 
 que nous nous en allions, | ^ 
 
 que vous vous en alliez, < S 
 
 qu'ils s'en aillent, < 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Que je m'en allasse, g 
 
 que tu t'en allasses, * a 
 
 qu'il s'en allat, a K, 
 que nous nous en allassions, | 
 que vous vous en allassiez, *? J. 
 qu'ils s'en allassent, 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Que je m'en sois alle, 
 que tu t'en sois alle, 
 qu'il s'en soit alle, 
 nous nous en soyons 
 & vous vous en soyez 
 s'en soient 
 
 < S 
 
 ^ ^s 
 
 1 & 88 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que je m'en fusse alle, 
 que tu t'en fusses alle, 
 qu'il s'en rut alls', 
 (Q nous nous en fussions 
 ^vous vous en fussiez 
 qu'ils s'en fussent 
 
 214. When S'en oiler is used interrogatively, we say, 
 M'en irai-je, fen iras-tu, s j en ira-t-U^ nous en irons-nous, 
 vous en irez-wus* s'en iront-ils ? 
 
120 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERSS. 
 
 215. Envoy er, to send, and renvoyer, to send back, to 
 dismiss, are regular, except in the Future and the Con- 
 ditional, which, as we have already said (p. 115), make 
 fenverraiy fenverrais ; je renverrai, je renverrais. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXVIII. 
 
 I am going to pay some visits. He goes from town to town. 
 
 * faire visitef. en 
 
 They are going to the country. Blue and pink go 
 
 campagne f. art. bleu m. art. rose m. 
 well together. We went hy land. She is gone to church. 
 
 terre. art. eglisef. 
 
 Let us go away from here. Why do you go away so soon ? 
 
 Pourquoi t6t 
 
 I will send my servant to the post-office. She would 
 
 domestique m. poste f. 
 
 dismiss her chambermaid. They would send back their horses. 
 femme de chambre. 
 
 216. H. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS OF 
 THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 ABSTENIR (S J ), to abstain, is conjugated like Tenir, 
 which is exemplified farther on. 
 
 ACCOURIR, to run to, is conjugated like Courir, with 
 this difference, that its compound tenses are sometimes 
 formed with avoir, and sometimes with etre, according as 
 it denotes state or action. (See No. 172.) 
 
 ACCUEILLIR, to receive ; see Cueillir. 
 
 217. ACQUERIR, TO ACQUIRE. 
 
 Part. Fres. acqurant. Part. Past, acquis. 
 
 IND. \ J'acquiers, tu acquiers, il acquiert ; 
 
 Pres. f nous acqudrons, vous acquerez, ils acquierent. 
 
 Imp. J'acque'rais, tu acqu^rais, il acque*rait ; 
 
 nous acque*rions, vous acque*riez, ils acque'raient. 
 
 Pret. J'acquis, ^ tu acquis, il acquit ; 
 
 nous acquimes, vous acquites, ils acquirent. 
 
 Fut. J'acquerrai, tu acquerras, ilacquerra; 
 
 nous acquerrons, vous acquerrez, ils acquerront. 
 
IftREGULAK AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 121 
 
 COND. "> J'acquerrais, 
 Pi*es. j" nous acquerrions, 
 IMPER. 
 
 acque*rons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) gj'acquiere,^ _ 
 Pres. f o*nous acquerions, 
 Imp. gj'acquisse, 
 
 G?nous acquissions, 
 
 tu acquerrais, 
 vous acquerriez, 
 acquiers, 
 acque*rez, 
 tu aequieres, 
 vous acqueriez, 
 
 tu acquisses, 
 vous acquissiez, 
 
 il acquerrait; 
 ils acquerraient. 
 qu'il acquiere ; 
 qu'ils acquierent. 
 il acquiere ; 
 ils acquierent. 
 il acquit ; 
 ils acquissent. 
 
 218. Conjugate in the same manner: 
 
 ( seldom used but in the infinitive, the pre- 
 Conquerir, to conquer A terite definite, the imperfect of the sub- 
 ( junctive, and the compound tenses. 
 
 }chieflysedinlaw. 
 
 Querir, to fetch, is used after the verbs aller, venir, en- 
 wyer ; as, allez querir, go and fetch ; envoyez querir, 
 send for. It is confined to familiar conversation, and is 
 getting obsolete. (Querir is better than Que'rir.) 
 
 219. ASSAILLIR, TO ASSAULT. 
 
 Part. Pres. assaillant. 
 
 Part. Past, assailli. 
 
 IND. ) 
 
 Pres. j 
 Imp. 
 
 Pret. 
 Put. 
 
 COND. *) 
 Pres. f 
 IMPER. 
 
 SUBJ. \ 
 
 Pres. f 
 
 Imp. 
 
 J'assaille, 
 nous assaillons, 
 J'assaillais, 
 nous assaillions, 
 J'assaillis, 
 nous assaillimes, 
 J'assaillirai, 
 nous assailh'rons, 
 J'assaillirais, 
 nous assaillirions, 
 
 assaillons, 
 gj'assaille, 
 O'nous assaillions, 
 gj'assaillisse, _ 
 
 O'nous assaillissions, vous assaillissiez, ils assaillissent. 
 
 tu assailles, 
 vous assaillez 
 tu assaillais, 
 vous assailliez, 
 tu assaillis, 
 vous assaillites, 
 tu assailliras, 
 vous assaillirez, 
 tu assaillirais, 
 vous assailliriez, 
 assaille, 
 assaillez, 
 tu assailles, 
 vous assailliez, 
 tu assaillisses, 
 
 il assaille ; 
 ils assaillent. 
 il assaillait ; 
 ils assaillaient. 
 il assaillit ; 
 ils assaillirent. 
 il assaillira ; 
 ils assaiUiront. 
 il assaillirait ; 
 ils assailHraient 
 qu'il assaille ; 
 qu'ils assaillent. 
 il assaille ; 
 ils assaillent. 
 il assaillit ; 
 
122 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner tressaillir, to start. 
 
 Note.J. J. Rousseau, and other writers, have, for the sake of euphony, wnttca 
 In the present of the Indicative, il tressaillit, instead of il tressaiUe. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXIX. i! 
 
 He had acquired great influence over his contemporaries. 
 line f. sur contemporain m. 
 
 He would acquire honour and reputation. 
 
 32 honneur m. h m. 32 reputation f. 
 
 Alexander conquered a great part of Asia A conquered 
 ind-3 partie f. art. 
 
 a furious storm. At 
 tempdte f . 
 
 they said to him about his son, the good 
 on disait * de 
 
 province, We were overtaken b; 
 1 f. ind-3 assaillir d 
 
 every word 
 chaque qu* 
 
 old man leaped for joy. She started with fear. 
 
 vieillard tressaillir ind-2 de jote. ind-3 de peur. 
 
 220. BiNiR, to bless, is conjugated like^m'r (see p. 73), 
 and is only irregular in its past participle, which makes 
 benit, be'nite; and be'ni, be'nic. 
 
 Benit, benitc, is used only in speaking of things con- 
 secrated by a religious ceremony ; as, du pain 
 consecrated bread ; de I'eau be'nite, holy water. 
 
 221. BOUILLIR, TO BOIL. 
 
 Part. Pres. bouillant. 
 
 Part. Past 9 bouilli. 
 
 iND. \ 
 
 Pres. f 
 
 Je bous, 
 nous bouillons, 
 
 tu bous, 
 vous bouillez, 
 
 il bout ; 
 ils bouillenl. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je bouillais, 
 nous bouillions, 
 
 tu bouillais, 
 vous bouilliez, 
 
 il bouillait ; 
 ils bouillaient. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Je bouillis, 
 nous bouillimes, 
 
 tu bouillis, 
 vous bouillitesj 
 
 il bouillit; 
 ils bouillirent. 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Je bouillirai, 
 nous bouilHrons, 
 
 tu bouilliras, 
 vous bouilhrez, 
 
 il bouillira ; 
 ils bouiQiront. 
 
 COND. ) 
 Pres. j 
 
 Je bouiilirais, 
 nous bouiJlmons, 
 
 tu bouillirais, 
 voua bouilUriez, 
 
 il bouillirait ; 
 ils bouilhraient. 
 
 IMPEE. 
 
 bouillons. 
 
 bous, 
 bouiuezj 
 
 qu'il bouille ; 
 qu'ils bouiJlent. 
 
OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 123 
 
 tu bouilles, il bouille ; 
 
 vous bouilliez, ils bouillent. 
 Imp. je bouillisse, tu bouillisses, ilbouillit; 
 
 O'noua bouillissions, vous bouillissiez, us bouillissent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) gje bouille, 
 l*res. jo'nous bomllions, 
 
 This verb is seldom used in French, except in the 
 third persons singular and plural ; as, Ueau boutj the 
 water boils ; ces choux ne bouillaient pas, these cabbages 
 did not boil. But when to boil has a noun or pronoun 
 for its object, the French then make use of the different 
 tenses of the verb faire before the infinitive bouillir; as, 
 Je fais bouillir, nous faisons bouillir , &c. Therefore say, 
 Je fais bouillir de la viande, I boil some meat, and not 
 je bous. 
 
 Rebouillir, to boil again, is conjugated in the same 
 manner, and follows the same rules. 
 
 Ebouillir, to boil away, is seldom used but in the In- 
 finitive and past participle ebouilli } m ; ebouillie, f. 
 
 222. UU 
 
 (JKIK, TO RUN. 
 
 Part. Pres. eourant. 
 
 Part. Past, couru. 
 
 IND. ) Je cours, 
 
 tu cours, il court ; 
 
 Pres. } nous courons, 
 
 vous courez, ils courent. 
 
 Imp. Je courais, 
 
 tu courais, il courait ; 
 
 nous courions, 
 
 vous couriez, ils couraient. 
 
 Pret. Je courus, 
 
 tu courus, il courut ; 
 
 nous courumes, 
 
 vous courutes, ils coururent. 
 
 Fut. Je courrai, 
 
 tu courras, il courra ; 
 
 nous courrons, 
 
 vous courrez, ils courront. 
 
 COND. ) Je courrais, 
 Pres. \ nous courrions, 
 
 tu courrais, il courrait ; 
 vous courriez, ils courraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 cours, qu'il coure ; 
 
 courons, 
 
 courez, qu'ils courent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) je coure, 
 Pres. \ Q?nous courions, 
 
 tu coures, il coure; 
 vous couriez, ils courent. 
 
 Imp. je courusse, 
 
 tu courusses, il courut ; 
 
 O'nous courussions, 
 
 vous courussiez, ils courussent. 
 
 223. Conjugate 
 
 in the same manner : 
 
 Accourir, to run to. 
 
 encourir, to incur. 
 
 concourir, to concur. 
 
 parcourir, to run over. 
 
 discourir, to discourse. 
 
 secourir, to succour. 
 
124 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VE&B8 
 
 EXERCISE LXXX. 
 
 God had blessed the race of Abraham. Does the water 
 
 boil? We were boiling some potatoes. Boil that 
 
 pommes de terre. 
 
 meat again, it is not (done enough). You run faster 
 viande f. assez cuite. plus vite 
 
 than I. Will men always run after shadows? 
 
 moi. art. 32 chimere f. pi. 
 
 Socrates passed the last day of his life in discoursing 
 
 passer a inf-1 
 
 on the immortality of the soul. You would incur the 
 
 immortalite 
 displeasure of the prince. I have run over the whole town 
 
 disgrace f. 2 * 
 
 to find him. This sauce has ^boiled away Hoo much, 
 pour trouver 87 f. est f. trop 
 
 COUVRIR, to cover; see Ouvrir. 
 
 224. CUEILLIR, TO GATHER. 
 Part. Pres. cueillant. Part. Past, cueilli. 
 
 IND. ) Je cueille, 
 Pres. ) nous cueillons, 
 Imp. Je cueillais, 
 nous cueillions, 
 Fret. Je cueillis, 
 nous cueillimes, 
 Put. Je cueillerai, 
 nous cueillerons, 
 COND. \ Je cueillerais, 
 Pres. j nous cueillerions, 
 IMPER. 
 cueillons, 
 SUBJ. \ je cueille, 
 Pres. f Canons cueillions, 
 Imp. je cueillisse, 
 
 tu cueilles, 
 vous cueillez, 
 tu cueillais, 
 vous cueilliez, 
 tu cueillis, 
 vous cueillites, 
 tu cueilleras, 
 vous cueillerez, 
 tu cueillerais, 
 vous cueilleriez, 
 cueille, 
 cueillez, 
 tu cueilles, 
 vous cueilliez, 
 tu cueillisses, 
 
 il cueille ; 
 ils cueillent. 
 il cueillait ; 
 ils cueillaient. 
 il cueillit ; 
 ils cueillirent. 
 il cueillera ; 
 ils cueilleront. 
 il cueillerait ; 
 ils cueilleraient. 
 qu'il cueille ; 
 qu'ils cueillent. 
 il cueille ; 
 ils cueillent. 
 il cueillit ; 
 
 225. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 Accueillir, to receive, to welcome. | recueillir, to collect, 
 
OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION* 
 
 125 
 
 226. DORMIR, TO SLEEP. 
 Part. Pres. dormant. Part. Past, dormi. 
 
 IND. ) Je dors, 
 
 tu dors, 
 
 il dort ; 
 
 Pres. f nous dormons, 
 
 vous dormez, 
 
 ils dorinent. 
 
 Imp. Je dormais, 
 nous dormions, 
 
 tu dormais, 
 vous dormiez, 
 
 il dormait ; 
 ils dormaient. 
 
 Fret. Je dormis, 
 
 tu dormis, 
 
 il dormit ; 
 
 nous dormimes, 
 
 vous dormites, 
 
 ils dormirent. 
 
 Put. Je dormirai, 
 
 tu dormiras, 
 
 il dormira ; 
 
 nous dormirons, 
 
 vous dormirez, 
 
 ils dormiront. 
 
 COND. ) Je dormirais, 
 
 tu dormirais, 
 
 il dormirait ; 
 
 Pres. f nous dormirions, 
 
 vous dormiriez, 
 
 ils dormiraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 dors, 
 
 qu'il dorme ; 
 
 dormons, 
 
 dormez, 
 
 qu'ils dorment. 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje dorme, 
 
 tu dormes, 
 
 il dorme ; 
 
 Pres. j Qfnous dormions, 
 
 vous dormiez, 
 
 ils dorment. 
 
 Imp. gje dormisse, 
 
 tu dormisses, 
 
 il dormit ; 
 
 C?nous dormissions, 
 
 vous dormissiez, 
 
 ils dormissent, 
 
 227. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Endormir, to lull asleep. I [se rendprmir, to fall asleep 
 s'endormir, to fall asleep. \ again. 
 
 228. FAILLIR, to fail. This verb is used only in the 
 present of the Infinitive ; in the Participle past failli ; 
 in the Preterite definite, je faillis, tu faillis, il faillit; 
 nous faillimes, wus faillites, ils faillirent ; and in the 
 compound tQns>QS,fai failli, favaisfailli, &c. 
 
 Its derivative defaillir, to faint, to fail, is scarcely ever 
 used but in the first and third persons plural of the pre- 
 sent of the Indicative, nous defaillonSj ils defaillent ; in 
 the Imperfect, je defaillais, &c. ; in the Preterite definite, 
 je defaillisj &c. ; in the Preterite indefinite, fai defaillij 
 &c. ; and in the Infinitive defaillir. 
 
 229. FLEURIR, to blossom, in its literal sense, is regular; 
 but used figuratively, signifying to be in a prosperous 
 State, to flourish, to be in repute, it makes florissant in 
 the present Participle, and florissait, ftorissaient, in the 
 Imperfect of the Indicative, 
 
126 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VER3S 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXI. 
 
 I will gather you some fine flowers. We shall collect in 
 fleur f. dam 
 
 ancient history, important and valuable facts. 
 art. 2 32 2 *precieux l faitm. 
 
 The hare generally sleeps with its eyes open 
 
 lievre m. 2 ordinairement 1 * * art. ouvert 
 
 That song lulls one asleep. I fell asleep about three o'clock. 
 * ind-4 vers art. 
 
 He (was near) 
 
 faillir ind-3 
 
 losing his life. His strength 
 inf-l * art. force?, pi 
 
 (every day). Athens flourished under Pericles, 
 defaillir tons les jours. Athenes ind-2 sous PericUs. 
 
 230. FUIE, TO FLY, TO RUN AWAY, TO SHUN. 
 
 Part. Pres. fuyant. 
 
 Part. Past, M. 
 
 IND. \ Je fuis, 
 
 tu fuis, 
 
 ilfuit; 
 
 Pres. f nous fuyons, 
 
 vous fuyez, 
 
 ils fuient. 
 
 Imp. Je fuyais, 
 nous fuyions, 
 
 tu fuyais, 
 vous fuyiez, 
 
 il fuyait ; 
 ils fuyaient. 
 
 Pret. Je fuis, 
 
 tu fuis, 
 
 il fuit ; 
 
 nous fuimes, 
 
 vous fuites, 
 
 ils fuirent. 
 
 Put. Je fuirai, 
 
 tu fuiras, 
 
 il fuira ; 
 
 nous fuirons, 
 
 vous fuirez, 
 
 ils fuiront. 
 
 COND. ) Je fuirais, 
 
 tu fuirais, 
 
 il fuirait ; 
 
 Prts. ) nous fuirions, 
 
 vous fuiriez, 
 
 ils fuiraient. 
 
 IMFER. 
 
 fuis, 
 
 qu'il fuie ; 
 
 fuyons, 
 
 fuyez, 
 
 qu'ils fuient. 
 
 SUBJ. \ je fuie, 
 Pres. j o*nous fuyions, 
 
 tu fuies, 
 vous fuyiez, 
 
 il fuie ; 
 ils fuient 
 
 Imp. gje'fuisse, 
 
 tu fuisses, 
 
 ilfuit; 
 
 G^nous fuissions, 
 
 vous fuissiez, 
 
 ils fuissent. 
 
 231. Conjugate after the same manner, s'enfuir, to run 
 away. In the Imperative we say, enfuis-toi, and not 
 enfuis-t'erij nor fuis-t'en. 
 
 232. GSIR, to lie, to lie down, is obsolete. We, however, 
 still say, II git, nous gisons, vous gisez, ils gisent. Je gir 
 
OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 127 
 
 sais, tu gisais, il gisait; nous gisions, vous gisiez, ils 
 gisaient. Gisant. (Ac AD.) 
 
 Ci-git (here lies) is the usual form by which an epitaph 
 is begun. 
 
 233. HAIR, TO HATE. 
 Part. Pres. haissant. Part. Pasty haL 
 
 IND. \ Je hais, 
 Pres. f nous ha'issons. 
 
 tu hais, 
 vous haissez, 
 
 il hait ; 
 ils haissent. 
 
 Imp. Je haissais, 
 nous haissions, 
 
 tu haissais, 
 vous ha'issiez, 
 
 il haissait ; 
 ils haissaient. 
 
 Pret. Je hais, 
 nous haimes, 
 
 tu hais, 
 vous ha'ites, 
 
 il hait ; 
 ils ha'irent 
 
 Fut. Je hairai, 
 nous hairons, 
 
 tu hairas, 
 vous hairez, 
 
 il haira ; 
 ils hair on t. 
 
 COND. \ Je hairais, 
 Pres. j nous hakions, 
 
 tu hairais, 
 vous hairiez, 
 
 il hairait ; 
 ils halraient. 
 
 LMPER. 
 haissons, 
 
 hais, 
 haissez, 
 
 qu'il haisse ; 
 qu'ils haissent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) je haisse, 
 Pres. f G?nous haissions, 
 
 tu haisses, 
 vous ha'issiez, 
 
 il haisse ; 
 ils haissent. 
 
 Imp. gje haisse, 
 Onous haissions, 
 
 tu haisses, 
 vous ha'issiez, 
 
 ilhalt; 
 ils haissent. 
 
 234. REMARKS. The h is aspirated in this verb, and a 
 diaeresis () is placed over the , throughout all the tenses, 
 to show that it is to be pronounced separately from the 
 preceding vowel a; as, ha-'i; except, however, the three 
 persons singular of the present of the Indicative, and 
 the second person singular of the Imperative, which, 
 forming only one syllable, are written without the diaeresis, 
 thus : Je hais, tu hais, il hait ; hais, and pronounced 
 Je he, tu he, il he ; he. 
 
 This verb is seldom used in the second person singular 
 of the Imperative, the Preterite definite, or the Imperfect 
 of the Subjunctive, and in these two last tenses, instead 
 of making use of the circumflex accent : nous haimes. 
 
128 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 vows haites ; qu'il hait, we use the diaeresis, nous haimes } 
 vous haites ; qu'il hait. 
 
 MENTIR, to lie, to utter falsehood, is conjugated like 
 sentir. 
 
 235. HOURIR, TO DIE. 
 Part. Pres. mourant. Part. Past, mort. 
 
 IND. ) Je meurs, 
 
 tu meurs, 
 
 il meurt ; 
 
 Pres. j nous mourons, 
 
 vous mourez, 
 
 ils meurent. 
 
 Imp. Je mourais, 
 
 tu mourais, 
 
 il mourait ; 
 
 nous mourioas, 
 
 vous rnouriez, 
 
 ils mouraient. 
 
 Pret. Je mourus, 
 
 tu mourus, 
 
 il mourut ; 
 
 nous mourumes, 
 
 vous mourutes, 
 
 ils moururent. 
 
 Put. Je mourrai, 
 
 tu mourras, 
 
 il mourra ; 
 
 nous mourrons, 
 
 vous mourrez, 
 
 ils mourront. 
 
 COND. ) Je mourrais, 
 
 tu mourrais, 
 
 il mourrait ; 
 
 Pres. f nous mourrions, 
 
 vous mourriez, 
 
 ils mourraient 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 meurs, 
 
 qu'il meure ; 
 
 mourons, 
 
 mourez, 
 
 qu'ils meurent 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje meure, 
 
 tu meures, 
 
 il meure ; 
 
 Pres. j c^nous mourions, 
 
 vous mouriez, 
 
 Us meurent. 
 
 Imp. gje mourusse, 
 
 tu mourusses. 
 
 il mourut ; 
 
 G?nous mourussions, 
 
 vous mourussiez, 
 
 ils inoiirussent. 
 
 Mourir is conjugated with the auxiliary etre in its 
 compound tenses. The double r of the Future and 
 Conditional must be sounded strongly. 
 
 When this verb takes the reflected form, se mourir, it 
 means to be at the point of death ; but, in this sense, it is 
 seldom used except in the present and imperfect of the 
 Indicative. ( ACAD. ) 
 
 236. OuiR, to hear. (Active and defective verb.) 
 Part, pas^ oui'. IND. pret. j'ouis, tu oui's, &c. SUBJ. 
 
 imperf. que j'oui'sse, qu tu ouisses, qu'il oui't, &c. 
 
 This verb is chiefly used in the compound tenses, 
 
 which are generally followed by another verb in the 
 
 infinitive ; as, 
 
 Je I'ai'oui pitcher. (AcAn.) 
 Je Tavais oui dire. 
 
 I have heard him preach. 
 I had heard it said. 
 
OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 129 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXII. 
 
 (Let us make haste), timers I cannot meet him, 
 
 Hdtons-nous art. nepuis rencontrer 
 
 he shuns me. I hate falsehood. Let us hate vice. 
 
 art. mensongem. art. m. 
 
 He died some time after. John Calvin, the celebrated 
 
 127 celebre 
 
 reformer, died at Geneva, on the 27th May 1664. He 
 reformateur * 
 
 is dying. All the witnesses have been heard. Anger 
 se mourir temoin m. art. colere f. 
 
 soon dies in a kind heart. Here lies an honest man. 
 2 promptement 1 bon honnete 
 
 237. OUVRIR, TO OPEN. 
 
 Part. Pres. ouvrant. Part. Past, ouvert 
 
 IND. ) J'ouvre, 
 Pres. f nous ouvrons, 
 Imp. J'ouvrais, 
 
 nous ouvrions, 
 Pret. J'ouvris, 
 
 nous ouvrimes, 
 J'ouvrirai, 
 nous ouvrirons, 
 J'ouvrirais, 
 nous ouvririons, 
 
 Fut. 
 
 COND. " 
 
 Pres. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 ouvrons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) gj'ouvre, 
 Pres. f o*nous ouvrions, 
 Imp. gj'ouvrisse, 
 
 C?nous ouvrissions, 
 
 238. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 tu ouvres, 
 
 il ouvre ; 
 
 vous ouvrez, 
 
 ils ouvrent 
 
 tu ouvrais, 
 
 il ouvrait ; 
 
 vous ouvriez, 
 
 ils ouvraient. 
 
 tu ouvris, 
 
 il ouvrit ; 
 
 vous ouvrites, 
 
 ils ouvrirent. 
 
 tu ouvriras, 
 
 il ouvrira ; 
 
 vous ouvrirez, 
 
 ils ouvriront. 
 
 tu ouvrirais, 
 
 il ouvrirait ; 
 
 vous ouvririez, 
 
 ils ouvriraient. 
 
 ouvre, 
 
 qu'il ouvre ; 
 
 ouvrez, 
 
 qu'ils ouvrent. 
 
 tu ouvres, 
 
 il ouvre ; 
 
 vous ouvriez, 
 
 ils ouvrent. 
 
 tu ouvrisses, 
 
 il ouvrit ; 
 
 vous ouvrissiez, 
 
 ils ouvrissent. 
 
 Couvrir, to cover. 
 
 decouvrir, to discover, to uncover. 
 
 offrir, to offer. 
 
 recouynr, 
 
 rouvrir, 
 
 souffrir, 
 
 to cover again, 
 to open again, 
 to suffer. 
 
 239. PARTIR, TO SET OUT, TO GO AWAY. 
 
 Part. Pres. partant. Part. Past, parti. 
 
 IND. ) Je pars, tu pars, il part ; 
 
 Pres. j nous par tons 
 
 I 
 
 tu pars, 
 vous partez, 
 
 ils partent. 
 
130 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 Imp. Je partais, 
 nous partions, 
 
 tu partais, 
 vous partiez, 
 
 il partait ; 
 ils partaient. 
 
 Pret. Je partis, 
 
 tu partis, 
 
 il partit ; 
 
 nous partimes, 
 
 vous partites, 
 
 ils partirent. 
 
 Fut. Je partirai, 
 
 tu partiras, 
 
 il partira ; 
 
 nous partirons, 
 
 vous partirez, 
 
 ils partiront. 
 
 COND. Je partirais, 
 
 tu partirais, 
 
 il partirait ; 
 
 nous partirions, 
 
 vous partiriez, 
 
 Us partiraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 pars, 
 
 qu'il parte ; 
 
 partons, 
 
 partez, 
 
 qu'ils partent. 
 
 SUBJ. gjeparte, 
 
 tu partes, 
 
 il parte ; 
 
 Pres. c?nous partions, 
 
 vous partiez, 
 
 ils partent. 
 
 Imp. gje partisse, 
 
 tu partisses, 
 
 il partit ; 
 
 G?nous partissions, 
 
 vous partissiez, 
 
 ils partissent. 
 
 240. Conjugate in the same manner, repartir, to go 
 back, to set out again, to reply. 
 
 Repartir (with an accent over the e\ to divide, to 
 distribute, is regular, and conjugated like fair. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXIII. 
 
 Open this press. Harvey discovered the circulation of the 
 
 armoire f. f . 
 
 blood. I offer you my services with all my heart. The 
 
 sangm. de coeurm. 
 
 house has not been covered again since the roof 
 maison f. depuis que toit m. 
 
 was burnt down. That effort opened his wound again. 
 ind-4 brtile * m. plaie f. 
 
 He suffers more than you think We set out to-morrow for 
 
 plus que nepensez. demain 
 
 the country. - He will set out in two or three days. 
 
 campagne f. dans 
 
 That coach ' starts every day at (twelve o'clock.) 
 ooituref. tousles jours midi. 
 
 241. SENTIR, TO FEEL, TO SMELL. 
 
 Part. Pres. sentant. Part. Past, senti. 
 
 IND. \ Je sens, tu sens, il sent ; 
 
 Pres. f nous sentons, vous sentez, ils sentent. 
 
 Imp. Je sentais, tu sentais, il sentait ; 
 
 nous sentions, vous sentiez, ils sentaient. 
 
OF THK SECOND CONGUQATION. 
 
 131 
 
 Pret. Je sentis, 
 
 nous sentimes, 
 
 Fut. Je sentirai, 
 
 nous sentirons, 
 
 Je sentirais, 
 nous sentirions, 
 
 sentons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) je sente, 
 Pres. j c?nous sentions, 
 
 Imp. je sentisse, 
 
 Gfnous sentissions, 
 
 OND. ) 
 
 Pres. j" 
 IMPKR. 
 
 tu sentis, 
 vous sentites, 
 
 tu sentiras, 
 vous sentirez, 
 
 tu sentirais, 
 vous sentiriez, 
 
 sens, 
 sentez, 
 
 tu sentes, 
 vous sentiez, 
 
 tu sentisses, 
 vous sentissiez, 
 
 ilsentit; 
 ils sentirent 
 
 il sentira ; 
 ils sentiront. 
 
 il sentirait ; 
 ils sentiraient. 
 
 qu'il sente ; 
 qu'ils sentent. 
 
 il sente ; 
 ils sentent. 
 
 il sentit; 
 ils sentissent. 
 
 242. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Consentir, to consent. 
 mentir, to lie. 
 pressentir, to foresee. 
 
 ressentir, 
 se repentir, 
 &c. 
 
 to resent. 
 
 to repent. 
 
 &c 
 
 INI). ) 
 
 Pres 
 Imp. 
 
 Pret. 
 Fut. 
 
 243. SERVIR, TO SERVE, TO HELP TO. 
 Part. Pres. servant. Part. Past, servi. 
 
 tu sers, 
 vous servez, 
 tu servais, 
 vous serviez, 
 tu servis, 
 vous servites, 
 tu serviras, 
 vous servirez, 
 tu servirais, 
 vous serviriez, 
 sers, 
 servez, 
 tu serves^ 
 vous serviez, 
 tu servisses, 
 vous servissiez, 
 
 Je sers, 
 nous servons, 
 Je servais, 
 nous servions, 
 Je servis, 
 nous servimes, 
 Je servirai, 
 nous servirons, 
 
 ED..> 
 
 Pres. f 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 servons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) je serve, 
 Pres. JG^IOUS servions, 
 Imp. gje servisse, 
 
 C?nous servissions. 
 
 nous servu-ions, 
 
 il sert ; 
 ils servent. 
 il servait ; 
 ils servaient. 
 il servit ; 
 ils servirent. 
 il servira ; 
 ils' serviront. 
 il servirait ; 
 ils serviraient 
 qu'il serve ; 
 qu'ils servent. 
 il serve ; 
 ils servent. 
 il servit ; 
 ils servissent. 
 
 244. Conjugate in the same manner, desscrvir, to 
 clear the table. 
 
 Asservir, to enslave, to subject, is regular, and conju- 
 gated likefinir. 
 
132 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXIV. 
 
 He who serves well his country (has no need) of ancestors 
 
 * n'a pas besoin 40 
 
 You will feel the effects of it. Smell this rose. Shall we 
 effetm. 108 _ f . 
 
 consent to that bargain? Never (tell a falsehood). I foresaw 
 marchem. mentir 
 
 all those misfortunes. He repents of his bad conduct. 
 malheur m. mauvais conduite f. 
 
 He serves his friends with warmth. Help the gentleman 
 chaleur. s d * ^monsieur 
 
 to some partridge. Shall I have the honour to help you to 
 1 *perdrix f. de 
 
 a wing of a chicken ? Clear the table, 
 ailef. * 
 
 245. SORTIE, TO GO OUT, TO COME OUT. 
 
 Part. Pres. sortant. 
 
 Part. Past, sorti. 
 
 IND. > Je sors, 
 Pres. f nous sortons, 
 
 tu sors, 
 vous sortez, 
 
 il sort ; 
 ils sortent. 
 
 Imp. Je sortais, 
 nous sortions, 
 
 tu sortais, 
 vous sortiez, 
 
 il sortait ; 
 ils sortaient. 
 
 Pret. Je sortis, 
 nous sortimes, 
 
 tu sortis, 
 vous sortites, 
 
 il sortit ; 
 ils sortirent. 
 
 Fut. Je sortirai, 
 nous sortirons, 
 
 tu sortiras, 
 vous sortirez, 
 
 il sortira ; 
 ils sortiront. 
 
 COND. \ Je sortirais, 
 Pres. f nous sortirions, 
 
 tu sortirais, 
 vous sortiriez, 
 
 il sortirait ; 
 ils sortiraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 sortons, 
 
 sors, 
 sortez, 
 
 qu'il sorte ; 
 qu'ils sortent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje sorte, 
 Pres. ) G?nous sortions, 
 
 tu sortes, 
 vous sortiez, 
 
 il sorte ; 
 ils sortent. 
 
 Imp. gje sortisse, 
 O?nous sortissions, 
 
 tu sortisses, 
 vous sortissiez, 
 
 il sortit ; 
 ils sortissent. 
 
 246. Conjugate in the same manner, ressortir, to go 
 out again. 
 
OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 133 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXV. 
 
 I go out every morning before breakfast. The. 
 
 tout art. matin m. pi. avant 
 
 fox comes out of his hole. We went out of the town 
 renard m. terrier m. 
 
 after him. Everybody is gone out. I shall go out in half 
 apres Tout le monde 
 
 an hour. If I were as ill as you, I would not go out. 
 
 malade 
 Do not go out to-day. He (is just) gone out. He went 
 
 aujourd'hui. vient de inf-1 
 
 out again immediately. I will not go out again this evening. 
 sur-le-champ. soir m. 
 
 IND. 
 Pres. 
 
 247. TEN IE, TO HOLD, TO KEEP. 
 Part. Pres. tenant. Part. Past, tenu. 
 
 ,} 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Fut. 
 
 COND. \ 
 Pres. j 
 
 IMPERP. 
 
 Je tiens, 
 nous tenons, 
 
 Je tenais, 
 nous tenions, 
 
 Je tins, 
 nous tinmes, 
 
 Je tiendrai, 
 nous tiendrons, 
 
 Je tiendrais, 
 nous tiendrions, 
 
 tenons, 
 
 tu tiens, 
 vous tenez, 
 
 tu tenais, 
 vous teniez, 
 
 tu tins, 
 vous tintes, 
 
 tu tiendras, 
 vous tiendrez, 
 
 tu tiendrais, 
 vous tiendriez, 
 
 tiens, 
 tenez, 
 
 il tient ; 
 ils tiennent. 
 
 il tenait ; 
 ils tenaient. 
 
 il tint ; 
 ils tinrent. 
 
 il tiendra ; 
 ils tiendront. 
 
 il tiendrait ; 
 ils tiendraient 
 
 qu'il tienne ; 
 qu'ils tiennent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) g je tienne, 
 Pres. j GPnous tenions, 
 
 il tienne ; 
 ils tiennent. 
 
 tu tiennes, 
 vous teniez, 
 
 tu tinsses, 
 vous tinssiez, 
 
 248. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Imp. gje tinsse, 
 
 Onous tinssions, 
 
 il tint ; 
 ils tinssent. 
 
 maintenir, to maintain. 
 obtenir, to obtain, [retain. 
 retenir, to get hold again; to 
 soutenir, to sustain. 
 
 Observe that in these verbs the n is doubled, 
 whenever it is followed by e mute ; but in no other case. 
 
 S'abstenir, to abstain. 
 appartenir, to belong. 
 contenir, to contain, [verse. 
 entretenir, to keep up ; to con- 
 
134 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXVI. 
 
 I hold it fast, it shall not escape from me. Liberality 
 
 bien echapper * art, 
 
 holds a medium between prodigality and avarice 
 
 le milieu m. entre art. art. f. 
 
 This garden is well kept. He abstained from drinking on 
 jardin m. boire * 
 
 that day. These horses belong to our general England 
 c&jour-ld. art. 
 
 and the principality of Wales contain fifty-two counties. 
 
 principaute f. Galles comte m. 
 
 They conversed about trifles. I shall maintain it 
 
 s' de bagatelles 
 
 everywhere. Do not maintain so absurd an opinion. Has 
 
 partout. 2 si 3 absurde l f. 
 
 he obtained permission ? Detain not the wages of a 
 
 f. retenir gages m. pi. 
 
 servant. . That column supports all the building. 
 domestiquem. colonnef. soutenir bdtimentm. 
 
 249. VENIR, TO COME. 
 
 Part. Pres. venant. 
 
 Part. Past, venu. 
 
 IND. ) 
 Pres. \ 
 
 Je viens, 
 nous venons, 
 
 tu viens, 
 vous venez, 
 
 il vient ; 
 ils viennent. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je venais, 
 nous venions, 
 
 tu venais, 
 vous veniez, 
 
 il venait ; 
 ils venaient. 
 
 Pret 
 
 . Je vins, 
 nous vinmes, 
 
 tu vins, 
 vous vintes, 
 
 il vint ; 
 ils vinrent. 
 
 Put. 
 
 Je viendrai, 
 nous viendrons, 
 
 tu viendras, 
 vous viendrez, 
 
 il viendra ; 
 ils viendront. 
 
 COND. | 
 
 Pres. < 
 
 !Je viendrais, 
 nous viendrions, 
 
 tu viendrais, 
 vous viendriez, 
 
 il viendrait ; 
 ils viendraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 venons, 
 
 viens, 
 venez, 
 
 qu'il vienne ; 
 qu'ils viennent. 
 
 SUB.T. ) 
 Pres. \ 
 
 je vienne, 
 O*nous venions, 
 
 tu viennes, 
 vous veniez, 
 
 il vienne ; 
 ils viennent. 
 
 Imp. 
 250 
 
 g je vinsse, tu vinsses, 
 C?nous vinssions, vous vinssiez, 
 
 . Venir is conjugated like temr; 
 
 il vint ; 
 ils vinssent. 
 
 but with this 
 
OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 135 
 
 difference, that in its compound tenses it always takes 
 the auxiliary etre. 
 
 251. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Convenir, to agree ; to suit. 
 devenir, to become. 
 disconvenir, to deny, [terfere. 
 to intervene; to in- 
 
 to attain. 
 
 prevenir, to anticipate ; to pre- 
 se ressouvenir, to recollect, [vent. 
 revenir, to come back. 
 
 se souvenir, 
 
 subvenir, 
 
 to remember, 
 to relieve. 
 
 intervenir, 
 parvenir, 
 
 252. Prevenir and Subvenir are conjugated in their 
 compound tenses with the auxiliary avoir. Convcnir, 
 when it signifies to agree, takes etre; but avoir, when it 
 signifies to suit. 
 
 253. VETIR, TO CLOTHE. 
 
 Part. Pres. vtant. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Past, vetu. 
 
 IND. ) Je vts, 
 
 tu vets, 
 
 ilvet; 
 
 Pres. f nous vetons, 
 
 vous vetez, 
 
 ils vetent. 
 
 Imp. Je vetais, 
 nous vetions, 
 
 tu vetais, 
 vous vetiez, 
 
 il vetait ; 
 ils vetaient. 
 
 Fret. Je vetis, 
 
 tu vetis, 
 
 Hvetit; 
 
 nous vetimes, 
 
 vous vetites, 
 
 ils vetirent. 
 
 Fut. Je vetirai, 
 
 tu vetiras, 
 
 il vetira ; 
 
 nous vetirons, 
 
 vous vetirez, 
 
 ils vetiront. 
 
 COND. ) Je vetirais, 
 
 tu vetirais, 
 
 il vetirait ; 
 
 Pres. f nous vStirions, 
 
 vous vetiriez, 
 
 ils vetiraient 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 vets, 
 
 qu'il vete ; 
 
 vetons, 
 
 vetez, 
 
 qu'ils vetent 
 
 SUBJ. ) je vete, 
 
 tu vtes, 
 
 il v^te ; 
 
 Pres. j <5nous vetioiis, 
 
 vous vetiez, 
 
 ils vetent. 
 
 Imp. g je vetisse, 
 C?nous vetissions, 
 
 tu vetisses, 
 vous vetissiez, 
 
 il veYit ; 
 ils v^tissent. 
 
 254. Vetir, in the singular of the Present of the Indi- 
 cative, and in the singular of the Imperative, is seldom 
 used. It is most frequently reflected, and then it signi- 
 fies to dress oneself. In this sense it is conjugated in its 
 compound tenses, like all other pronominal verbs, with 
 the auxiliary etre : Je me suis vetu ; nous nous SOMMES vetus* 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner : 
 De'vetir, to divest, to strip. \ Revetir. to clothe, to invest. 
 
136 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXVII 
 
 I come from London. You come very seasonably. He 
 
 fort a propos. 
 
 came on foot. Come on Saturday morning, at ten o'clock. He 
 ind-4 a pied. * heures. 
 
 will come back before the end of this month. We have agreed 
 fin f. mois m. 
 
 about the conditions. That she might become more prudent. 
 de f. 
 
 Do you deny the fact ? - He will not interfere with that 
 de fait m. dans 
 
 affair. We shall attain our end. Remember your 
 affaire f. a butw. de 
 
 promises. They have relieved all his wants. He only 
 promesse f. On III a besoin m. ne 
 
 passed for a traveller, but lately he has assumed the 
 ind-2 que voyageur depuis pen revetir 
 
 character of an envoy. He dressed himself in haste. 
 caracterem. * envoy em. a art. hdtef.ha. 
 
 255. III. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS OF 
 THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 256. ASSEOIR, to set, is an active verb ; but it is prin- 
 cipally used as a reflected verb, and is conjugated as 
 follows : 
 
 S'ASSEOIR, TO SEAT ONESELF, TO SIT, TO SIT DOWN. 
 
 Part. Pres. s'asseyant. Part. Past, assis. 
 
 IND. ) Je m'assieds, tu t'assieds, il s'assied ; 
 
 Pres. f nous nous asseyons, vous vous asseyez, ils s'asseient. 
 Imp. Je rn'asseyais, ^ tu f asseyais, il s'asseyait ; 
 
 nous nous asseyions, vous vous asseyiez, ils s'asseyaient. 
 Fret. Je m'assis, tu t'assis, il s'assit ; 
 
 nous nous assimes, vous vous assites, ils s'assirent. 
 Put. Je m'assie*rai. ^ tu t'assieras, il s'asstera : 
 
 nous nous assierons, vous vous assie*rez, ils s'assieroiit. 
 
OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 137 
 
 Je m'assierais, 
 nous nous assierions, 
 
 asseyons-nous, 
 
 je m'asseie, 
 
 O nous nous asseyions, 
 
 je m'assisse, 
 
 O* nous nous assissions, 
 
 il s'assierait ; 
 ils s'assieraient. 
 
 qu'il s'asseie ; 
 qu'ils s'asseient. 
 
 il s'asseie ; 
 ils s'asseient. 
 
 il s'assit ; 
 ils s'assissent. 
 
 COND. Prcs. 
 tu t'assie*rais, 
 vous vous assie*riez, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 assieds-toi, 
 asseyez-vous, 
 
 SUBJ. Pres. 
 tu t'asseies, 
 vous vous asseyiez, 
 
 Imperfect. 
 tu t'assisses, 
 vous vous assissiez, 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner, rasseoir, to set again, 
 to sit down again, to calm. 
 
 AVOIR, to have, is conjugated at length, p. 60. 
 
 257. CHOIR, to fall. This verb is not much used ; it 
 is sometimes employed in the Infinitive, especially in 
 poetry, where it is a very expressive term, when well 
 brought in. 
 
 The Past Participle, chu } chue, is also used, but rather 
 in verse than in prose, and rather in the jocular and 
 familiar than in the serious and dignified style. 
 
 DECHOIR, to decay, to fall off. Past participle, de'chu. 
 This verb is seldom used in any other tense. 
 
 258. ECHOIR, to fall to ; to expire, to be due. Part, 
 pres. echeant. Part, past, echu, echue. Indie, pres. 
 il e'choit, sometimes pronounced, and even written, il 
 echet. Pret. j'echus. Fut. j'e'cherrai. Cond. j'e'cherrais. 
 Imperf. Subj. que fechusse. (AcAD.) 
 
 FALLOIR, to be necessary, is a unipersonal verb, the 
 conjugation of which has been given, page 105. 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXVIH. 
 
 Set the child in an arm-chair. Why do you not sit 
 
 fauteuilm. Pourquoi 
 down ? He sat down under the shade of a tree. Shall 
 
 a ombre f. arbre m. 
 
 we sit down here ? Let us sit down, my friends. Sit down 
 
138 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 on this form. I (had risen) to go out, but he made ine 
 sur bane m. m'etats leve pour 2 fit 1 
 
 sit down again He is much fallen in the esteem of the 
 
 fort aechoir estimef. 
 
 public. This bill of exchange is due to-day. 
 m. lettref. change aujourd'hui. 
 
 259. MOUVOIR, TO MOVE. 
 Part. Pres. mouvant. Part. Past, mu. 
 
 IND. > Je meus, 
 Pres. f nous mouvons, 
 
 tu meus, 
 vous mouvez, 
 
 il meut ; 
 Us meuvent. 
 
 Imp. Je mouvais, 
 nous mouvions, 
 
 tu mouvais, 
 vous mouviez, 
 
 il mouvait; 
 ils mouvaient. 
 
 Pret. Je mus, 
 nous mumes, 
 
 tu mus, 
 vous mutes, 
 
 il mut; 
 ils murent. 
 
 Fut. Je mouvrai, 
 nous mouvrons, 
 
 tu mouvras, 
 vouz mouvrez, 
 
 il mouvra ; 
 ils mouvront. 
 
 COND. ) Je mouvrais, 
 Pres. ) nous mouvrions, 
 IMPER. 
 mouvons, 
 
 tu mouvrais, 
 vous mouvriez, 
 meus, 
 mouvez, 
 
 il mouvrait ; 
 ils mouvraient. 
 qu'il meuve ; 
 qu'ils meuvent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ g je ttieuve, 
 Pres. j O'nous mouvions, 
 
 tu meuves, 
 vous mouviez, 
 
 il meuve ; 
 ils meuvent. 
 
 Imp. gje musse, 
 G?nous mussions, 
 
 tu musses, 
 vous mussiez, 
 
 il mut ; 
 ils mussent. 
 
 260. Conjugate in the same manner, emouvoir, to stir 
 up, to move; and promouvoir, to promote. This last 
 verb is seldom used but in the Infinitive, and in the 
 compound tenses. 
 
 PLEUVOIR, to rain; see page 104. 
 
 261. POURV01R, TO PROVIDE. 
 Part. Pres. pourvoyant. Part. Past, pourvu. 
 
 Je pourvois, tu purvois, il pourvoit ; 
 
 IND. 
 
 Pres. } nous pourvoyons, vous pourvoyez, ils pourvoient. 
 Imp. Je pourvoyais, tu pourvoyais, il pourvoyait ; 
 nous pourvoyions, vous pourvoyiez, ils pourvoyaient 
 
OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 139 
 
 Je pourvus, 
 nous pourvumes, 
 
 Je pourvoirai, 
 nous pourvoirons, 
 
 Je pourvoirais, 
 nous pourvoirions, 
 
 pourvoyons, 
 
 SUBJ. J gje pourvoie, 
 Pres. \ c?nous pourvoyions, 
 
 Imp. gje pourvusse, 
 
 O*nous pourvussions, 
 
 Pret. 
 Fut. 
 
 COND. | 
 Pres. f 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 tu pourvus, 
 TOUS pourvutes, 
 
 tu pourvoiras, 
 vous pourvoirez, 
 
 tu pourvoirais, 
 vous pourvoiriez, 
 
 pourvois, 
 pourvoyez, 
 
 tu pourvoies, 
 vous pourvoyiez, 
 
 tu pourvusses, 
 vous pourvussiez. 
 
 il pourvut ; 
 Us pourvurent. 
 
 il pourvoira ; 
 ils pourvoiront. 
 
 il pourvoirait ; 
 ils pourvoiraient. 
 
 qu'il pourvoie ; 
 qu'ils pourvoient. 
 
 il pourvoie ; 
 ils pourvoient. 
 
 il pourvut ; 
 ils pourvussent. 
 
 IND. ) Je puis, or je peux, tu peux, 
 Pres. f nous pouvons, 
 
 Fut. 
 
 COND. 
 Pres. 
 
 vous pouvez, 
 
 tu pouvais, 
 vous pouviez, 
 
 tu pus, 
 vous putes, 
 
 tu pourras, 
 vous pourrez, 
 
 tu pourrais, 
 vous pourriez, 
 
 (To can. Walker.) 
 
 Part. Past, pu. 
 
 il peut ; 
 ils peuvent. 
 
 262. POUVOIR, TO BE ABLE. 
 
 Part. Pres. pouvant. 
 
 ro. ) 
 '. f 
 
 Imp. Je pouvais, 
 
 nous pouvions, 
 
 Pret. Je pus, 
 
 nous pumes, 
 
 Je pourrai, 
 nous pourrons, 
 
 Je pourrais, 
 nous pourrions, 
 (No Imperative.) 
 
 tu puisses, 
 vous puissiez, 
 
 tu pusses, 
 pussons, vous pussiez, 
 
 263. REMARKS. In the Future and Conditional of 
 this verb, one r only is pronounced, although written 
 with two. 
 
 In the Present of the Indicative, we say je puis or je 
 peux ; however, je puis is much more used, and ought to 
 be preferred, since interrogatively we always say puis-je ? 
 
 Quela voeux puis-je former? (La Harpe.) 
 
 aj outer & cet 61oger (C. foefavigne.) 
 
 SUBJ. ) gje puisse, 
 
 . j O'nous puissions, 
 
 Pres 
 Imp. gje pusse, 
 
 il pouvait ; 
 ils pouvaient. 
 
 il put ; 
 
 ils purent. 
 
 il pourra ; 
 ils pourront. 
 
 il pourrait ; 
 ils pourraient. 
 
 il puisse ; 
 ils puissent. 
 
 il put ; 
 ils pussent. 
 
140 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 Moreover, je puis, and not je peux, is the expression 
 employed in the writings of the best French authors. 
 
 . . . Enfin je puis parler en liberte* ; 
 
 Je puis dans tout son jour mettre la ve'rite' (Baeine.) 
 
 Je ne puis bien parler, et ne saurais me taire (Boileau.) 
 
 Je ne puis songer 
 
 Que cette horloge existe, et n'ait point d'horloger. (Voltaire.) 
 Jepuis 6tre un serviteur inutile (Massillon.) 
 
 We say : je ne puis, and je ne puis pas. In the first 
 phrase, the negative is less strong: Je ne puis implies 
 difficulties. Je ne puis pas expresses impossibility. 
 
 PRE* VALOIR, to prevail ; see Valoir. 
 PROMOUVOIR, to promote ; see Mouvoir. 
 
 264. RAVOIR, to have again, to get again, is only used 
 in the Present of the Infinitive. 
 
 Figuratively, and familiarly, we say se ravoir, in the 
 sense of to recover, to gather new strength : 
 
 Allons, monsieur, tachez un peu de vous ravoir. (/. J. Rousseau.} 
 
 EXERCISE LXXXIX. 
 
 The spring which moves the whole machine is very 
 ressortm. mouvoir 3 x f. 
 
 ingenious.-xHe moved the heart of that unfeeling man. 
 emouvoir cosurm. insensible x 
 
 He has been promoted to the dignity of chancellor. 
 
 chancelier. 
 
 He will provide for all your wants. I cannot answer you. 
 a besoin m. 
 
 Can I be useful to you ? Save himself who can Can you 
 utile Sauve * 
 
 lend me au umbrella ? I could not foresee that event. 
 preter ind-2 prevoir evenement m. 
 
 1 shall never be able to persuade him. We would be able 
 * persuader 
 
 to go out. Try to get it again 
 * 245 Tocher de 
 
OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 141 
 
 265. SA VOIJRj TO KNO^\ 
 
 
 Part. Pres. sachant. Part. 
 
 Past, su. 
 
 IND. ) Je sais, tu sais, 
 Pres. ( nous savons, vous savez, 
 
 il sait ; 
 ils savent. 
 
 Imp. Je savais, tu savais, 
 nous savions, vous saviez, 
 
 il savait ; 
 ils savaient. 
 
 Pret. Je sus, tu sus, 
 nous sumes, vous sutes, 
 
 il sut; 
 ils surent. 
 
 Fut. Je saurai, tu sauras, 
 nous saurons, vous saurez, 
 
 il saura ; 
 ils sauront. 
 
 COND. ) Je saurais, tu saurais, 
 Pres. \ nous saurions, vous sauriez, 
 
 il saurait; 
 ils sauraient 
 
 IMPER. sache, 
 sachons, sachez, 
 
 qu'il sache ; 
 qu'ils sachent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) gje sache, tu saches, 
 Pres. \ c?nous sachions, vous sacliiez, 
 
 il sache ; 
 ils sachent. 
 
 Imp. g Je susse, tu susses, 
 C^nous sussions, vous sussiez, 
 
 il sut ; 
 ils sussent. 
 
 Note. We find savoir written SG avoir in some old and esteemed works ; but now, 
 the French Academy, and all the modern Grammarians, suppress the letter f as 
 useless, because It does not affect the pronunciation of the word, nor does it even 
 serve to point out its Latin derivation, since all the best French etymologists 
 derive savoir from sapere, and not from scire. 
 
 266. We sometimes employ the Subjunctive of savoir 
 instead of the Indicative, but never without a negative ; 
 as, JE NE SACHE rien de plus digue d'eloge, I know 
 nothing more praiseworthy. 
 
 267. Je ne saurais is often used for je ne puis (I cannot) ; 
 yet we do not say, je ne saurais for je ne pourrais, nor 
 je saurais for je puis. 
 
 268. The student must not confound savoir with 
 connaitre, which also signifies to know. We do not say 
 savoir quelqu'un, but connaitre quelqu'un, to know, or be 
 acquainted with some one. 
 
 269. SEOIR, to become, to befit, is never used in the 
 present of the Infinitive, It has only the participle 
 
142 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 present seyant, and the third persons of some of the simple 
 tenses : il sied. Us sie'ent ; il seyaitj Us seyaient ; il sie'ra, 
 Us sieront ; il sie'rait, Us sie'raient ; qu'il sie'e, qu'ils sie'ent. 
 
 270. When seoir signifies to sitj it has only the two 
 Participles, seant and sis, which last is used in law as an 
 adjective, and generally translated into English by 
 situate or situate ~ 
 
 SURSEOIR, to suspend, to put off ; see No. 275. 
 
 EXERCISE XC. 
 
 I know that he is not your friend, but I know likewise 
 
 de pi. aussi 
 
 that he is a man of probity The wise man knows how to 
 
 * bien. sage * * * 
 
 regulate his taste, his labours, and his pleasures. Do you 
 
 regler gout pi. travail 
 
 know French ? They do not know their lessons. Milton 
 
 art. lecon 
 
 knew Homer almost by heart. I shall know well how to 
 Homere presque cceur. 
 
 (defend myself). (In order) that you may know it The 
 
 me defendre. Afin 
 
 head-dress which that lady wore ^ became her very well. 
 coiffure f. que porter ind-2 ind-2 lui 
 
 Colours that are too gaudy will not become you. 
 art. couleurf. * * voyant 
 
 271. VALOIR, TO BE WORTH. 
 Part. Pres. valant. Part. Past, valu. 
 
 IND. ) 
 
 Je vaux, 
 
 tu vaux, 
 
 il vaut ; 
 
 Pres. f 
 
 nous valons, 
 
 vous valez, 
 
 ils valent. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je valais, 
 
 tu valais, 
 
 il valait ; 
 
 
 nous valions, 
 
 vous valiez, 
 
 ils valaient. 
 
 Prei. 
 
 Je valus, 
 
 tu valus, 
 
 il valut ; 
 
 
 nous valumes, 
 
 vous valutes, 
 
 ils valurent. 
 
 Put. 
 
 Je vaudrai, 
 
 tu vaudras, 
 
 il vaudra ; 
 
 
 nous va udrons, 
 
 vous vaudrez, 
 
 ils vaudront. 
 
 COND. > 
 Pres. j 
 
 Je vaudrais, 
 nous vaudrions, 
 
 tu vaudrais, 
 vous vaudriez, 
 
 il vaudrait ; 
 ils vaudraient. 
 
OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 143 
 
 IMPER. vaux, qu'il vaille ; 
 
 valons, valez, qu'ils vaillent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje vaille, tu vailles, il vaille ; 
 
 Pres. j O'nous valions, vous valiez, ila vaillent. 
 
 Imp. g je valusse, tu valusses,, il valut ; 
 
 G?nous valussions, voua valussiez, ils valussent. 
 
 In the compound tenses, valoir takes the auxiliary avoir. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner : 
 fequivaloir, to be equivalent. \ revaloir, to return like for like. 
 
 272. Prevaloir, to prevail, follows the same conjuga- 
 tion, excepting that in the Subjunctive Present it makes, 
 que je pre'vale, que tu prevales, qu'il pre'vale ; que nous 
 prevalions, que vous prevaliez, qu'ils prevalent ; and not, 
 queje prevaille, que tu pre'vailles, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE XCI. 
 
 This cloth is worth twenty shillings a yard Actions 
 
 drap m. schelling I' aune. art. effet m. 
 
 are better than words. His horse was not worth ten 
 valoir art. parole f. 
 
 guineas. That victory procured him the staff of a marshal 
 guinee victoiref. valoir lui bdtonm. *marechal 
 
 of France. One ounce of gold is equivalent to fifteen ounces 
 
 once f . or 
 
 of silver. That answer will be equivalent to a refusal. 
 argent. reponse f. refus m. 
 
 Favour often prevails over merit. His advice 
 art. 2 1 sur art. merite m. avis m. 
 
 prevailed. That consideration has prevailed over all 
 
 consideration f. art 
 
 others. Doubt not that truth will prevail at last. 
 
 douter art. * ne subj-1 d la longue 
 
 273. VOIfi, TO SEE. 
 Part. Pres. voyant. Part. Past 9 vu. 
 
 IND. ) Je vois, tu vois, il voit ; 
 
 Pres. j nous voyons, vous voyez, ils voient. 
 
 Imp. Je voyais, tu voyais, il voyait ; 
 
 nous voyions, vous voyiez, ils voyaient 
 
144 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 Fret. Je vis, 
 
 tu vis, 
 
 il vit; 
 
 nous vimes, 
 
 vous vites, 
 
 ils virent. 
 
 Fut. Je verrai, 
 
 tu verras, 
 
 il verra ; 
 
 nous verrons, 
 
 vous verrez, 
 
 ils verront. 
 
 COND. ) Je verrais, 
 Pres. j" nous verrions, 
 
 tu verrais, 
 vous verriez, 
 
 il verrait ; 
 ils verraient. 
 
 LMPER. 
 
 vois, 
 
 qu'il voie ; 
 
 voyons, 
 
 voyez, 
 
 qu'ils voient. 
 
 SUBJ. 1 je voie, 
 
 tu voies, 
 
 il voie ; 
 
 Pres. ) C?nous voyions, 
 
 vous voyiez, 
 
 ils voient. 
 
 Imp. gjevisse, 
 O*nous vissions, 
 
 tu visses, 
 vous vissiez, 
 
 ilvit; 
 ils vissent. 
 
 274. Conjugate in the same manner, entrevoir, to have 
 a glimpse of ; revoir, to see again ; and, prevoir, to fore- 
 see. Observe, however, that this last verb makes in the 
 Future, je prevoirai, tu prevoiras, &c., and in the Con- 
 ditional, je prevoirais, &c. 
 
 Note Many poets, ancient and modern, for the sake of rhyme, write without 
 s, je rot, faperfoi, je prtvoi, etc. 
 
 275. Surseoir, to put off (a law term), though a com- 
 pound of seoir, is conjugated like voz'r, except in the 
 Future, ,/e surseoirai, and in the Conditional,^ surseoirais. 
 
 EXERCISE XCII. 
 
 1 see it now. I saw it with my own eyes. That 
 
 maintenant. ind-4 de propre 
 reform (will take place), but we shall not see it. You shall 
 reforme f. aura lieu 
 see what I can do. Let us see your purchases. See the 
 
 ce que sais faire. emplette f. 
 
 admirable order of the universe: does it not announce a 
 
 2 l ordrem. universm. annoncer 
 
 supreme architect? When shall we see your sisters again f 
 
 Quand 
 To finish then 1 affairs, it would be necessary that they 
 
 Pour affaire f. falloir 
 
 should see each other. Wise men foresee events. 
 
 s'entrevoir subj-2 art. 2 l art. 
 
 I shall not put off the pursuit of that affair. 
 
 pour suite f. pi. 
 
OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 145 
 
 276. VOULOIR) TO WILL; TO BE WILLING: TO WISH. 
 Part. Pres. voulant. Part. Past, voulu. 
 
 JND. ) 
 Pres. f 
 
 Je veux, 
 nous voulons, 
 
 tu veux, 
 vous voulez, 
 
 il veut ; 
 ils veulent. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je voulais, 
 nous voulions, 
 
 tu voulais, 
 vous vouliez, 
 
 il voulait ; 
 ils voulaient. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Je voulus, 
 nous voulumes, 
 
 tu voulus, 
 vous voulutes, 
 
 il voulut ; 
 ils voulurent. 
 
 Put. 
 
 Je voudrai, 
 nous voudrons. 
 
 tu voudras, 
 vous voudrez, 
 
 il voudra ; 
 ils voudront. 
 
 COND. ) 
 
 Pres. \ 
 
 Je voudrais, 
 nous voudrions, 
 
 tu voudrais, 
 vous voudriez, 
 
 il voudrait ; 
 ils voudraient. 
 
 SUBJ. ) 
 
 Pres. f 
 Imp. 
 
 Veuillez, 
 
 jje veuille, 
 Qnous voulions, 
 
 gje voulusse, 
 
 ( The second pers. pi. is the only one used, and Big- 
 \ nifles, be so good as, be so kind as to.* 
 
 tu veuilles, 
 vous vouliez, 
 
 il veuille ; 
 ils veuillent. 
 
 tu voulusses, il voulut ; 
 oFnous voulussions, vous voulussiez, ils voulussent. 
 
 &gf Observe that the Subjunctive Present is que, je veuille; but the plural Is 
 que nous voulions, que vous vouliez; and not gue nous veuillions, que vous veuilliez, 
 as some writers have it. 
 
 EXERCISE XCIII. 
 
 I can and will tell the truth. He wishes to set out 
 
 pron. dire veritef. * 
 
 to-morrow. If you are willing, he will be willing also. 
 demain. le le aussi. 
 
 We wish to be free. He wished to accompany me. They 
 * libre * accompagner On 
 
 will give you whatever you wish. I should wish (him to come). 
 tout ce que ind-7 qu'il vint. 
 
 He would wish to speak to you in private. 
 * * en particulier. 
 
 Have the goodness to read this letter. Heaven wills it so. 
 Vouloir * lire art. ainsi. 
 
 * Some admit of a second Imperative, veux, voulons, voulez, but they use it 
 only in very rare instances, as in this phrase, VOULONS, et nous pourrons. 
 
 K 
 
146 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VEKB8 
 
 IV. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS OF 
 THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 277. ABSOUDRE, TO ABSOLVE. 
 Part. Pres. absolvant. Part. Past, absous, m. ; absoute,/. 
 
 LND. > J'absous, tu absous, 
 Pres. f nous absolvons, vous absolvez, 
 
 Imp. J'absolvais, tu absolvais, 
 nous absolvions, vous absolviez, 
 
 (No Preterite Definite.) 
 
 Fut. J'absoudrai, tu absoudras, 
 nous absoudrons, vous absoudrez, 
 
 COND. \ J'absoudrais, tu absoudrais, 
 Pres. j nous absoudrions, vous absoudriez, 
 
 IMPEB. absous, 
 absolvons, absolvez, 
 
 SUBJ. \ j'absolve, tu absolves, 
 Pres. j"c?nous absolvions, vous absolviez, 
 
 (No Imperfect of the Subjunctive.) 
 
 il absout ; 
 ils absolvent. 
 
 il absolvait ; 
 ils absolvaient. 
 
 il absoudra ; 
 ils absoudront. 
 
 il absoudrait ; 
 ils absoudraient. 
 
 qu'il absolve ; 
 qu'ils absolvent. 
 
 il absolve ; 
 ils absolvent. 
 
 
 278. Conjugate in the same manner, dissoudre, to dissolve 
 
 .ABSTRAIRE, to abstract, is conjugated like traire, but 
 is little used ; it is more customary to say faire abstrac- 
 tion de. 
 
 ACCROIRE is used in the Present of the Infinitive only, 
 with any of the tenses of the verb faire, when it signifies, 
 faire croire ce qui n'est pas, to make one believe what is 
 not true, to impose upon one. 
 
 AccRoiTRE, to increase, is conjugated like croitre. 
 ADMETTRE, to admit, like mettre. 
 ATTEINDRE, to reach. See Peindre. 
 
 279. ATTRAIRE, to attract, to allure, is used only in 
 the Infinitive : Le sel est bon pour attraire les pigeons, 
 salt is good for attracting pigeons. Attirer often sup- 
 plies its place, and is more harmonious. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 147 
 
 280. BATTRE, TO BEAT. 
 
 Part. Pres. battant. 
 
 IND. \ Je bats, 
 
 . f nous battons, 
 
 Imp. Je battais, 
 
 nous battions, 
 
 Pret. Je battis, 
 
 nous battimes, 
 
 Fut. Je battrai, 
 
 nous battrons, 
 Je battrais, 
 nous battrions, 
 
 battons, 
 SUBJ. ) je batte, 
 Pres. f c?nous battions, 
 Imp. je battisse, 
 
 C?nous battissions, 
 
 Part. Past, battu. 
 
 COND. 
 
 Pres. 
 IMPER. 
 
 tu bats, 
 
 ilbat; 
 
 vous battez, 
 
 ils battent. 
 
 tu battais, 
 
 il battait ; 
 
 vous battiez, 
 
 ils battaient. 
 
 tu battis, 
 
 il battit ; 
 
 vous battites, 
 
 ils battirent. 
 
 tu battras, 
 
 il battra ; 
 
 vous battrez, 
 
 ils battront. 
 
 tu battrais, 
 
 il battrait ; 
 
 vous battriez, 
 
 ils battraient. 
 
 bats, 
 
 qu'il batte ; 
 
 battez, 
 
 qu'ils battent. 
 
 tu battes, 
 
 il batte; 
 
 vous battiez, 
 
 ils battent. 
 
 tu battisses, 
 
 il battit; 
 
 vous battissiez, 
 
 ils batissent. 
 
 Abattre, 
 
 combattre, 
 
 de*battre, 
 
 281. Conjugate in the same manner: 
 to pull down. 
 
 to fight, 
 to del 
 
 'ebate. 
 
 rabattre, 
 rebattre, 
 se de"battre. 
 
 to abate. 
 
 to beat again. 
 
 EXERCISE XCIV. 
 
 I pardon you in consideration of your repentance. 
 
 absoudre faveur repentir. 
 
 She was acquitted These acids dissolve metals. After the 
 
 ind-3 absoudre acide art. 
 
 death of Alexander, his empire was dissolved. Why do you 
 
 m. 
 
 beat my dog ? Our left wing beat the right wing 
 
 Men m. ^gauche l aile f. ind-3 Adroit l 
 
 of the enemy. Believe me, general, we shall beat them 
 
 pi. Croyez-moi 87 
 
 The cannon beat down the walls of the fortress. 
 canon m. abattre ind-3 muraille f. forteresse f. 
 
 They fought bravely on both sides. They have 
 On ind-4 vaillamment de part et d'autre. Ils 
 discussed that question. Beat these mattresses again, 
 debattre f. matelas m. 
 
148 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 282. B01RE, TO DRINK. 
 
 Part. Pres. buvant. 
 
 IND. ) Je bois, 
 Pres. f nous buvons, 
 Imp. Jebuvais, 
 
 nous buvions, 
 Pret. Je bus, 
 
 nous bumes, 
 Fut. Je boirai, 
 
 nous boirons, 
 COND. \ Je boirais, 
 Pres. j nous boirions, 
 
 IAIPER. 
 
 buvons, 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje boive, 
 Pres. jo'nous buvions, 
 Imp. gje busse, 
 
 G?nous bussions. 
 
 Part. Past, bu. 
 
 tu bois, 
 
 ilboit; 
 
 vous buvez, 
 
 ils boivent. 
 
 tu buvais, 
 
 il buvait ; 
 
 vous buviez, 
 
 ils buvaient 
 
 tu bus, 
 
 ilbut; 
 
 vous butes, 
 
 ils burent. 
 
 tu boiras, 
 
 il boira ; 
 
 vous boirez, 
 
 ils boiront. 
 
 tu boirais, 
 vous boiriez, 
 
 il boirait ; 
 ils boiraient. 
 
 bois, 
 
 qu'il boive ; 
 
 buvez, 
 
 qu'ils boivent. 
 
 tu boives, 
 
 il boive ; 
 
 vous buviez, 
 
 ils boivent. 
 
 tu busses, 
 
 il but ; 
 
 vous bussiez, 
 
 ils bussent. 
 
 283. CONCLURE, TO CONCLUDE. 
 Part. Pres. concluant. Part. Past, conclu,w. ; conclue,/. 
 
 IND. ) 
 Pres. ) 
 
 Je conclus, 
 nous concluons, 
 Imp. Je concluais, 
 
 nous concluions, 
 Pret. Je conclus, 
 
 nous conclumes, 
 Fut. Je conclurai, 
 
 nous conclurons, 
 COND. ) Je conclurais, 
 Pres. f nous conclurions, 
 IMPER. 
 
 concluons, 
 SUBJ. \ gje conclue, 
 Pres j onous concluions, 
 Imp. gje conclusse, 
 
 O*nous conclussions, 
 
 tu conclus, 
 vous concluez, 
 
 il conclut ; 
 ils concluent. 
 
 tu concluais, 
 vous concluiez, 
 
 il concluait ; 
 ils concluaient. 
 
 tu conclus, 
 vous conclutes, 
 
 il conclut ; 
 ils conclurent. 
 
 tu concluras, 
 vous conclurez, 
 
 il conclura ; 
 ils concluront. 
 
 tu conclurais, 
 vous concluriez, 
 
 il conclurait ; 
 ils concluraient. 
 
 conclus, 
 concluez, 
 
 qu'il conclue ; 
 qu'ils concluent 
 
 tu conclues, 
 vous conclu'iezj 
 
 il conclue ; 
 ils concluent. 
 
 tu conclusses, 
 vous conclussiez, 
 
 i] conclut; 
 ils conclussent 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner, exclure, to exclude. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 EXERCISE XCV. 
 
 149 
 
 I have the honour of drinking your health. His best 
 
 de inf-1 a santef. 
 
 wine is drunk. This paper blots. They drank two bottles 
 vin m. boire bouteille 
 
 of champaign. I shall drink a glass of white wine. Let us 
 
 champagne. verre m. 2 
 
 drink to the health of our friends. Come, drink I never 
 
 sante f. Aliens 
 
 drink wine.- Since he has not arrived, I conclude that he will 
 
 154 Puisqu' est en 
 
 not come. What do you conclude from all this ? They have 
 
 Que 101 
 
 concluded the bargain. He was excluded from the assembly. 
 marche m. assemblee f. 
 
 284. CONDUIRE, TO CONDUCT; TO LEAD. 
 Part. Pres. conduisant. Part. Past, conduit, m. ; conduite,/. 
 
 IND. \ Je conduis, 
 Pres. f nous conduisons, 
 Imp. Je conduisais, 
 
 tu conduis, il conduit ; 
 
 vous conduisez, ils conduisent. 
 
 Je conduisais, tu conduisais, il conduisait ; 
 
 nous conduisions, vous conduisiez, ils conduisaient. 
 
 Pret. Je conduisis, tu conduisis, il conduisit ; 
 
 nous conduisimes, vous conduisites, ils conduisirent. 
 
 Je conduirai, tu conduiras, il conduira ; 
 
 nous conduirons, vous conduirez, ils conduiront. 
 
 Je conduirais, tu conduirais, il conduirait ; 
 
 nous conduirions, vous conduiriez, ils conduiraient. 
 
 conduis, qu'il conduise ; 
 
 conduisons, conduisez, quails conduisent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) je conduise, tu conduises, il conduise ; 
 
 Pres. f o*iious conduisions, vous conduisiez, ils conduisent. 
 
 Imp. gje conduisisse, tu conduisisses, il conduisit ; 
 
 C?nous conduisissions, vous conduisissiez, ils conduisissent. 
 
 285. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Fut. 
 
 COND.) 
 Pres. \ 
 IMPEE. 
 
 Construire, 
 cuire, 
 ddduire, 
 d^truire, 
 instruire, 
 
 to construct, 
 to cook, to bake, 
 to deduct, 
 to destroy, 
 to instruct. 
 
 introduire, 
 produire, 
 reconduire, 
 re*duire, 
 traduire, 
 
 to introduce, 
 to produce, 
 to reconduct 
 to reduce. 
 to translate. 
 
150 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 286. Nuire, to hurt, is conjugated like conduire ; but 
 its past participle is nui, which has no feminine. 
 
 EXERCISE XCVI. 
 
 This road leads to the town. Moses conducted the 
 chemin m. Mo'ise 
 
 people of Israel. They built several ships. This 
 peuplem. Israel. construire vaisseaum. 
 
 baker bakes twice a day Deduct what you have 
 boulanger deuxfois par ce que 
 
 received. Time destroys everything. The overflowing- 
 art, tout. debor dement m. 
 
 of the river destroyed his crop. Those who instruct 
 
 riviere f . recolte f. art. 
 
 youth, (must arm themselves) with patience I shall inform 
 jeunesse f. doivent s'armer de instruire 
 
 his family of his conduct. He introduced me into the king's 
 famille f. conduite f. dans 
 
 closet. This country has produced many great men 
 l cabinet m. pays m. beaucoup de 
 
 What book are you translating ? This is well translated. 
 livre m. 101 
 
 Translate this. That affair has hurt his reputation. 
 96 affaire f. a 
 
 287. CONFIRE, TO PICKLE, TO PRESERVE. 
 Part. Pres. confisant. Part. Past 9 confit, m. ; confite,/. 
 
 IND. ) Je confis, 
 Pres. f nous confisons, 
 
 tu confis, 
 vous confisez, 
 
 il confit ; 
 Us confisent. 
 
 Imp. Je confisais, 
 nous confisions, 
 
 tu confisais, 
 vous confisiez, 
 
 il confisait ; 
 ils confisaient. 
 
 Pret. Je confis, 
 nous confimes, 
 
 tu confis, 
 vous confites, 
 
 il confit ; 
 ils confirent. 
 
 Fut. Je confirai, 
 nous confirons, 
 
 tu confiras, 
 vous confirez, 
 
 il confira ; 
 ils confiront. 
 
 COND. \ Je confirais, 
 Pres. f nous confirions, 
 
 tu confirais, 
 vous confiriez, 
 
 il confirait ; 
 ils confiraient 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 151 
 
 IMPER. confis, qu'il confise ; 
 
 confisons, confisez, qu'ils confisent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ je confise, tu confises, il confise ; 
 
 Pres. j O*nous confisions, vous confisiez, ils confisent. 
 
 Imp. je confisse, tu confisses, il conflt ; 
 
 O*nous confissions, vous confissiez, ils confissent. 
 
 288. Suffire, to suffice, to be sufficient, is conjugated 
 like confire ; but its past participle is suffi, which has no 
 feminine. 
 
 EXERCISE XCVII. 
 
 I shall preserve some fruits this year. Will you preserve 
 annee f . 
 
 these cherries with sugar or with brandy? Preserve 
 cerise f. a art. art. eau-de-vie f. 
 
 some apricots and peaches. Have you pickled any 
 abricotm. 32 peche f. 
 
 cucumbers ? Little suffices to the wise. A hundred 
 concombre m. Peu de bien s. * 
 
 pounds a year suffice him for his maintenance. 
 limes sterling par an subsistance f . 
 
 If he lose that lawsuit, all his property will not suffice. 
 perd procesm. bienm. y 
 
 That would not suffice me. That sum is not sufficient to 
 
 somme f. pour 
 
 pay your debts. Here are three thousand francs, will that 
 dette f. Void 
 
 be enough f That is enough. Do you like * pickled walnuts ? 
 suffire aimer art. 2 *noix f . 
 
 289. CONNAITRE, TO KNOW. 
 
 Part. Pres. connaissant. Part. Past, connu. 
 
 IND. \ Je connais, tu connais, ^ il connait ; 
 
 Pres. ) nous connaissons, vous connaissez, ils connaissent. 
 Imp. Je connaissais, tu connaissais, il connaissait ; 
 
 nous connaissions, vous connaissiez, ils connaissaient. 
 Pret. Je connus, tu connus, il connut ; 
 
 nous connumes, vous connutes, ils connureat. 
 
152 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 IND. j Je connaitrai, tu connaitras, il connaitra ; 
 Fut. \ nous connaitrons, vous connaitrez, ils connaitront 
 
 COND. ) Je connaitrais, tu connaitrais, il connaitrait ; 
 Pres. \ nous connaitrions, vous connaitriez, ils connaitraierit 
 
 IMPBR. connais, qu'il connaisse ; 
 
 connaissons, connaissez, qu'ils counaissent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) g je connaisse, tu connaisses, il connaisse ; 
 
 Pres. \ c?nous connaissions, vous connaissiez, ils connaissent, 
 
 Imp. g je connusse, > tu connusses, il connut ; 
 
 G?nous connussions, vous connussiez, ils connusseiit. 
 
 4^- See No. 268, for Remark on Savoir and Connaltre. 
 
 290. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Disparaitre, to disappear. I reconnaitre, to know again. 
 paraitre, to appear. \ reparaitr'e, to appear again. 
 
 EXERCISE XCVIIL 
 
 I know him perfectly. He knows his (weak side.) 
 parfaitement. foible m. 
 
 We know nobody in this neighbourhood. Do you know our 
 116 voisinage m. 
 
 house ? He knew me by my voice. I would know him 
 d * art. voix f. 
 
 among a thousand. The compass was not known to the 
 entre * boussolef. de 
 
 ancients. At the approach of our troops, the enemy disappeared, 
 approchef. pi. 
 
 It seems you are wrong. You do not appear 
 
 paraitre que avoir tort. 
 
 convinced. Do you not recognise me? I recognise you. 
 convaincu reconnaitre 
 
 Do they acknowledge their errors ? He knew his horse again, 
 reconnaitre 
 
 CONTREDIBE, to contradict ; see Dire. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 291. COULEE, TO SEW. 
 
 153 
 
 Part. Pres. cousant. 
 
 Part. Past, cousu. 
 
 IND. ) Je couds, 
 
 tu couds, 
 
 il coud : 
 
 Pres. \ nous cousons, 
 
 vous cousez, 
 
 ils consent. 
 
 Imp. Je cousais, 
 
 tu cousais, 
 
 il cousait ; 
 
 nous cousions, 
 
 vous cousiez, 
 
 ils cousaient. 
 
 Pret. Je cousis, 
 
 tu cousis, 
 
 il cousit ; 
 
 nous cousimes, 
 
 vous cousites, 
 
 ils cousirent. 
 
 Fut. Je coudrai, 
 
 tu coudras, 
 
 il coudra ; 
 
 nous coudrons, 
 
 vous coudrez, 
 
 ils coudront. 
 
 COND. ) Je coudrais, 
 Pres. \ . nous coudrions. 
 
 tu coudrais, 
 vous coudriez, 
 
 il coudrait ; 
 ils coudraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 couds, 
 
 qu'il couse ; 
 
 cousons, 
 
 cousez, 
 
 qu'ils cousent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) gje couse, 
 
 tu couses, 
 
 il couse ; 
 
 Pres. ) O'nous cousions, 
 
 vous cousiez, 
 
 ils cousent. 
 
 Imp. gje cousisse, 
 Onous cousissions, 
 
 tu cousisses, 
 vous cousissiez, 
 
 il cousit ; 
 ils cousisserit. 
 
 292. Decoudre, to urisew, and recoudre, to sew again, 
 are conjugated in the same manner. 
 
 293. CRAINDKB, TO FEAR. 
 
 Part. Pres. craignant. 
 
 Part. Past, craint, m.\ crainte,/. 
 
 IND. ) Je crams, 
 
 tu crains, 
 
 il craint ; 
 
 Pres. \ nous craignons, 
 
 vous craignez, 
 
 ils craignent. 
 
 Imp. Je craignais, 
 
 tu craignais, 
 
 il craignait ; 
 
 nous craignions, 
 
 vous craigniez, 
 
 ils craignaient. 
 
 Pret. Je craignis, 
 
 tu craignis, 
 
 il craignit ; 
 
 nous craignimes, 
 
 vous craignites, 
 
 ils craignirent. 
 
 Fut. Je craindrai, 
 
 tu craindras, 
 
 il craindra ; 
 
 nous craindrons, 
 
 vous craindrez, 
 
 ils craindront. 
 
 COND. ) Je craindrais, 
 
 tu craindrais, 
 
 il craindrait ; 
 
 Pres. j nous craindrions, 
 
 vous craindriez, 
 
 ils craindraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 craignons, 
 
 crains, 
 craignez, 
 
 qu'il craigne ; 
 qu'ils craignent. 
 
 SUBJ. j gje craigne, 
 
 tu craignes, 
 
 il craigne ; 
 
 Pres. \ canons craignions, 
 
 vous craigniez, 
 
 ils craignent. 
 
 Imp. gje craigiiisse, 
 
 tu craignisses, 
 
 il craignit ; 
 
154 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 294. Conjugate after the same manner, all verbs ending 
 in amdre and oindre ; as, plaindre, to pity, and joindre, 
 to join. When plaindre is used reflectedly, it signifies 
 to complain : Je vous plains, mais JE ne ME PLAINS pas 
 de vous, I pity you, but I do not complain of you. 
 
 EXERCISE XCIX. 
 
 That girl sews well.- 
 
 -My sisters were sewing all yesterday. 
 ind-3 hier. 
 
 Sew a button on this waistcoat. That is badly sewed. 
 
 boutonm. & giletm. mat 
 
 His coat was torn, but his tailor sewed it again very 
 
 habit m. dechire tailleur 
 neatly. He is afraid of being- discovered. He was a man 
 proprement. craindre d y inf-1 decouvert. C' 
 who feared nothing I pity his family. He complains 
 ind-2 famitte f. se plaindre 
 without cause. They were always complaining. They united 
 sujet. *toujours 1 ind-2 joindre 
 their efforts. Let us unite prudence with courage. 
 m. art. f. & art. m. 
 
 295. CROIRE, TO BELIEVE. 
 Part. Pres. croyant. Part. Past 9 cru, m. ; crue, /. 
 
 IND. ) Je crois, 
 
 tu crois, 
 
 il croit ; 
 
 Pres. { nous croyons, 
 
 vous croyez, 
 
 ils croient. 
 
 Imp. Je croyais, 
 
 tu croyais, 
 
 il croyait ; 
 
 nous croyious, 
 
 vous croyiez, 
 
 ils croyaient. 
 
 Pret. Je crus, 
 
 tu crus, 
 
 il crut ; 
 
 nous cruines, 
 
 vous crutes, 
 
 ils crurent. 
 
 Put. Je croirai, 
 
 tu croiras, 
 
 il croira ; 
 
 nous croirons, 
 
 vous croirez, 
 
 ils croiront. 
 
 COND. ) Je croirais, 
 Pres. \ nous croirions, 
 
 tu croirais, 
 vous croiriez, 
 
 il croirait ; 
 ils croiraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 crois, 
 
 qu'il croie ; 
 
 croyons, 
 
 croyez, 
 
 qu'ils croient. 
 
 SUBJ. ) je croie, 
 
 tu croies, 
 
 il croie ; 
 
 Pres. \ Gfnous croyions, 
 
 vous croyiez, 
 
 ils croient. 
 
 Imp. gje crusse, 
 Of nous missions, 
 
 tu crusses, 
 vous crussiez, 
 
 il crut ; 
 ils crussent. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 155 
 
 296. REMARK. Some people put the preposition de 
 after the verb croire, when followed by an infinitive ; but 
 this is contrary to the practice of the best writers ; we 
 must say : fai cru lien faire, and not fai cru DE bien 
 faire, I thought I was doing well. 
 
 297. CROITRE, TO GROW. 
 Part. Pres. croissant. Part. Past, cru, m. ; crue,/. 
 
 TND. ) Je crols, 
 
 tu crois, 
 
 il crolt ; 
 
 Pres. > nous croissons, 
 
 vous croissez, 
 
 ils croissent. 
 
 Imp. Je croissais, 
 
 tu croissais, 
 
 il croissait ; 
 
 nous croissions, 
 
 vous croissiez, 
 
 ils croissaient. 
 
 Pret. Je crus, 
 
 tu crus, 
 
 il crut ; 
 
 nous crumes, 
 
 vous crutes, 
 
 ils crurent. 
 
 Fut. Je croltrai, 
 
 tu croitras, 
 
 il croitra ; 
 
 nous croitrons, 
 
 vous croitrez, 
 
 ils croitront. 
 
 COND. \ Je croltrais, 
 Pres. f nous croitrions, 
 
 tu croitrais, 
 vous croitriez, 
 
 il croitrait ; 
 ils croitraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 crois, 
 
 qu'il croisse ; 
 
 croissons, 
 
 croissez, 
 
 qu'ils croissent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ je croisse, 
 Pres. ) c?nous croissions, 
 
 tu croisses, 
 vous croissiez, 
 
 il croisse ; 
 ils croissent. 
 
 Imp. je crusse, 
 G?nous crussions, 
 
 tu crusses, 
 vous crussiez, 
 
 ilcrut; 
 ils crussent. 
 
 298. Conjugate in the same manner, accrottre, to in- 
 crease, and decrottre, to decrease. 
 
 Accru and d&cru, past Participles of accroitre and cttcroitre, are written with- 
 out any accent (Acad.) 
 
 EXERCISE C. 
 
 I believe you. She believes only what she sees. Do 
 
 ne que ce qu 9 
 
 you think that I wish to deceive you? He thought 
 
 croire vouloir subj-1 * tromper ind-2 
 
 to gain his lawsuit. They thought they heard some cries. 
 * gagner ind-3 * inf-1 crim. 
 
 I should think (I would be wanting) in my duty. Believe 
 
 manquer a devoir m. 
 
 nothing of all that. He thought he was doing well. The 
 ind-4 
 
156 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 vine does not grow in cold countries. These plants 
 vigne f . art. 2 l pays m. plants i. 
 
 grow on the margin of streams His fortune increases 
 bord m. art, ruisseau m. f. s' 
 
 every day. The river has fallen two inches. 
 tons les jours. riviere f, decroitre de pouce m 
 
 After Midsummer, the days begin to shorten, 
 la Saint-Jean decroitre 
 
 299. DIRE, TO SAY, TO TELL. 
 
 Part. Pres. disant. 
 
 Part. Past, 
 
 dit, m. ; dite, /. 
 
 IND. \ Je dis, 
 
 tu dis, 
 
 ildit; 
 
 Pres. j nous disons, 
 
 vous dites, 
 
 ils disent. 
 
 Imp. Je disais, 
 
 tu disais, 
 
 il disait ; 
 
 nous disions, 
 
 vous disiez, 
 
 ils disaient. 
 
 Pret. Je dis, 
 
 tu dis, 
 
 ildit; 
 
 nous dimes, 
 
 vous dites, 
 
 ils dirent. 
 
 Fut. Je dirai, 
 
 tu diras, 
 
 il dira ; 
 
 nous dirons, 
 
 vous direz, 
 
 ils diront. 
 
 COND. \ Je dirais, 
 Pres. j nous dirions, 
 
 tu dirais, 
 vous diriez, 
 
 il dirait ; 
 ils diraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 disons, 
 
 dis, 
 dites, 
 
 qu'il dise ; 
 qu'ils disent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) je disc, 
 
 tu dises, 
 
 il dise ; 
 
 Pres. f caucus disions, 
 
 vous disiez, 
 
 ils disent. 
 
 Imp. gje disse, 
 
 tu disses, 
 
 ildit; 
 
 C?nous dissions, 
 
 vous dissiez, 
 
 ils dissent. 
 
 300. Redire, to say again, is conjugated like dire ; but 
 
 contredire, to contradict,'} * . f i 9r i f contredisez. 
 
 dedire, to disown, ' ' 1X ^ : 
 
 mterdire, to prohibit, 
 
 me"dire, to slander, 
 
 pre"dire to foretell, 
 
 301. Maudire, to cursa, is conjugated like dire, except 
 that it takes double s in the Part. pres. maudissant ; in the 
 IND. pres. nous maudissons, vous maudissez, Us maudisserit; 
 in the Imperf. je maudissais, etc. ; in the IMPER. qu'il 
 maudissej maudissons, etc., and in the SUBJ. que je mau- 
 disse, que tu maudis&es, etc. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 157 
 
 EXERCISE CL 
 
 He tells all he knows. Those who say : I shall not 
 
 ce qu' savoir Ceux 
 
 work, are the most miserable. Tell us which you would 
 travailler 
 
 prefer. You always contradict me That physician prohibits 
 
 preferer 8 2 * medecin 
 
 wine to all his patients He slanders everybody . 
 art. malade de tout le monde. 
 
 The makers of almanacs foretell rain and fine 
 
 faiseur almanack art. pluie f. art. 
 
 weather. Do not say: That man is of one people, and 
 temps m. Celui-ld peuple m. 
 
 I am of another people : for all people have had on 
 moi car art. 
 
 earth the same father, who was Adam, and have in 
 
 art. ind-2 
 
 heaven the same father, who is God. 
 art. del m. 
 
 DISSOUDRE is conjugated like absoudre ; see p. 146. 
 
 302. ECLORE, to be hatched, as birds, or to blow like a 
 flower, is used only in the present of the Infinitive ; in 
 the Part, past, eclos, L e'close, and in the third persons of 
 the following tenses: IND. pres. il eclot, Us eclosent; 
 Fut. il edora, Us e'cloront ; COND. il e'clorait, Us e'cloraient ; 
 SUBJ. pres. qu'il e'close, qu'ils eclosent. But its compound 
 tenses, which are formed with etre, are much in use. 
 
 The primitive of eclore is clore, to close, to shut. 
 Another compound is enclore, to enclose. 
 
 303. ECRIRE, TO WRITE. 
 Part. Pres. e"crivant. Part. Past, e"crit. 
 
 IND. ") 
 Pres. f 
 
 J'ecris, 
 nous ecrivons, 
 
 tu ecris^ 
 vous ^crivez, 
 
 il ^crit ; 
 ils fervent. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 J'ecrivais, 
 nous feivions, 
 
 tu ecrivais, 
 vous dcriviez, 
 
 il ecrivait ; 
 ils feivaient. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 J'ecrivis, 
 nous feiviraes, 
 
 tu ecrivis, 
 vous e*crivites, 
 
 il ^crivit ; 
 ils dcrivirent. 
 
L58 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 Fut. J'ecrirai, 
 
 tu e*criras, 
 
 il e*crira ; 
 
 nous ecrirons, 
 
 vous e'crirez, 
 
 Us eeriront. 
 
 COND. > J'e*crirais, 
 Pres. j nous ecririons, 
 
 tu e'crirais, 
 vous e*cririez, 
 
 il crirait ; 
 ils e*criraient 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 ecris, 
 
 qu'il derive ; 
 
 ecrivons, 
 
 e*crivez, 
 
 qu'ils ecrivent 
 
 STJBJ. ) gj'ecrive, 
 
 tu derives, 
 
 il derive ; 
 
 Pres. jo'nous ecrivions, 
 
 vous e*criviez, 
 
 ils Ecrivent. 
 
 Imp. gj'ecrivisse, 
 
 tu ecrivisses, 
 
 il e*criv!t ; 
 
 C?nous (Scrivissions, 
 
 vous e*crivissiez, 
 
 ils crivissent. 
 
 304. Conjugate in the same manner :- 
 
 Circonscrire, to circumscribe. 
 
 d^crire, to describe. 
 
 inscrire, to inscribe. 
 
 prescrire, to prescribe. 
 
 proscrire, to proscribe. 
 
 recrire, to write again. 
 
 souscrire, to subscribe. 
 
 transcrire, to transcribe. 
 
 EXERCISE CH. 
 
 Silk-worms are hatched in the beginning of 
 
 art. ver a sole ind-1 a commencement m. art. 
 
 spring. These flowers will soon blow. That man 
 
 printemps m. 2 bient6t * 
 
 speaks well, but, he writes badly. Saint John wrote his 
 
 mal. ind-3 
 
 gospel at the age of ninety, and joined the quality of an 
 evangilem. ans ind-3 qualite" f. * 
 
 evangelist to that of an apostle and a prophet. I shall 
 
 * apdtre de 
 write to you from Naples. Write that on a sheet of paper. 
 
 feuille f. 
 This poet describes a battle well. His physician has 
 
 2 s bataillef. l medecin 
 
 prescribed to him another regimen. Sylla proscribed three or 
 
 86 regime m. ind-3 
 
 four thousand- Roman citizens. He is not writing again, it is 
 
 domain l citoyen m. c' 
 
 a sign that he is coming. I shall subscribe for that atlas. 
 * signe m. 
 
 I have transcribed several passages from Cicero and Tacitus. 
 
 Ciceron de Tacite. 
 
 ENSUIVRE (S T ) } to follow from, to ensue ; see Suivre. 
 ETRE, to be, is conjugated at length, p. 64. 
 
OP THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 159 
 
 305. FAIRE, TO DO, TO MAKE. 
 
 Part. Pres. faisant. Part. Past, fait. 
 
 il fait ; 
 ils font. 
 
 il faisait ; 
 ils faisaient. 
 
 ilfit; 
 ils firent. 
 
 il fera ; 
 ils feront. 
 
 il ferait ; 
 ils feraient. 
 
 qu'il fasse ; 
 qu'ils fassent. 
 
 il fasse ; 
 ils fassent. 
 
 ilfit; 
 ils fissent. 
 
 Note. The diphthong ai having the sound of e mute, in faisant, nous faisons, je 
 faisais, as well as in the derivatives bienfaisant, bienfaisance, contrefaisant, etc. 
 Voltaire, and many writers, after his example, have substituted e mute instead of 
 ai. But Dumarsais, Condillac, Girard, Beauzte, & 'Olivet, and Domergue, have con- 
 stantly opposed the adoption of this change, and the French Academy, the best 
 judges in this matter, have formally rejected it 
 
 306. Conjugate like faire: 
 
 refaire, to do again. 
 
 satisfaire, to satisfy. 
 
 surfaire, to exact, to overcharge. 
 
 IND. > Je fais, 
 Pres. f nous faisons, 
 
 tu fais, B 
 vous faites, 
 
 Imp. Je faisais, 
 nous faisions, 
 
 tu faisais, 
 vous faisiez, 
 
 Pret. Je fis, 
 nous fimes, 
 
 tu fis, 
 vous fites, 
 
 Fut. Je ferai, 
 nous ferons, 
 
 tu feras, 
 vous ferez, 
 
 COND. ) Je ferais, 
 Pres. ) nous ferions, 
 
 tu ferais, 
 vous feriez, 
 
 IMPER. 
 faisons, 
 
 fais, 
 faites, 
 
 SUBJ. > gje fasse, 
 Pres. j emeus fassions, 
 
 tu fasses, 
 vous fassiez, 
 
 Imp. gje fisse, 
 O*nous fissions, 
 
 tu fisses, 
 vous fissiez, 
 
 contrefaire, to counterfeit, to 
 
 [mimic. 
 
 defaire, to undo, to defeat. 
 
 EXERCISE CHI. 
 
 I do my duty; do yours. Everything she does, she 
 devoir m. Tout ce qu' 
 
 does well. Pliny relates that Caesar too k ahove 
 le Pline rapporter faire ind-3 plus de 
 
 800,000 prisoners The emperor has made him a knight 
 
 * chevalier 
 
 of the legion of honour. She mimics everybody. What 
 
 tout le monde. Ce que 
 
160 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 the one does, the other undoes. Penelope undid, at night, 
 le Penelope ind-2 * art. 
 
 the work she had done during the day The fleet 
 
 ouvrage m. qu' flotte f. 
 
 of the enemy was completely defeated. If it were 
 pi. ind-3 completement c' ind-2 
 
 to do again, I would not do it. That scholar pleases all 
 a satisfaire 
 
 his masters. You ask too much for your goods. 
 
 surfaire * marchandise f. 
 
 FEINDRE, to feign, is conjugated like peindre. 
 
 307. FRIRE, to fry, besides the Present of the Infinitive, 
 is used only in the singular of the Present of the Indica- 
 tive, Je fris, tu fris, il frit ; in the Future, Je frirai, tu 
 friras, ilfrira, nousfrirons, vousfrirez, ilsfriront; in the 
 Conditional, JefriraiSj tufrirais, ilfrirait, nous fririons, 
 vous fririez, Us friraient ; in the second person singular of 
 the Imperative, fris ; and in the compound tenses, which 
 are formed with the Participle past, frit, frite. 
 
 To supply the persons and tenses which are wanting, 
 we make use of the verb faire prefixed to the Infinitive 
 frire ; as, Nous faisons frire, vous faites frire, its font 
 frire ; je faisais frire, etc. 
 
 308. LIRE, TO READ. 
 Part. Pres. lisant. Part. Past, lu. 
 
 IND. ) 
 
 Je lis, 
 
 tu lis, 
 
 illit; 
 
 Pres. f 
 
 nous lisons, 
 
 vous lisez, 
 
 ils lisent. 
 
 Imp 
 
 Je lisais, 
 
 tu lisais, 
 
 il lisait ; 
 
 
 nous lisions, 
 
 vous lisiez, 
 
 ils lisaient. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Je lus, 
 
 tu lus, 
 
 illut; 
 
 
 nous lilmes, 
 
 vous lutes, 
 
 ils lurent. 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Je Krai, 
 
 tu liras, 
 
 il lira ; 
 
 
 nous lirons, 
 
 vous lirez, 
 
 ils liront. 
 
 COND. ) 
 
 Pres. } 
 
 Je lirais, 
 nous lirions, 
 
 tu lirais, 
 vous liriez, 
 
 il lirait ; 
 ils liraieiit. 
 
 Uireu. 
 
 
 lis, 
 
 qu'il lise ; 
 
 
 liHons, 
 
 lisez. 
 
 qu'ils lisent 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 161 
 
 SUBJ. > je lise, tu Uses, il Use ; 
 
 Pres. j Gtoous Hsions, vous lisiez, ils lisent. 
 
 Imp. je lusse, tu lusses, il hit ; 
 
 G?nous lussions, vous lussiez, ils lussent. 
 
 Note. The regular mode of Interrogation is, lis-je bienl and not M&.je'bicn 1 If 
 lis-je Men be thought harsh to the ear, another turn of expression may be adopted. 
 <ACAD., Th. Corneille.) See page 87, Rem. 6th. 
 
 309. Mire, to elect, and retire, to read again, are con- 
 jugated like lire. 
 
 310. LUIRE, TO SHINE. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Pres. luisant. Part. Past, lui, m. 
 
 No feminine. 
 
 INC. ) 
 
 Je luis, 
 
 tu luis, 
 
 il luit ; 
 
 Pres. \ 
 
 nous luisons, 
 
 vous luisez, 
 
 ils luisent. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je luisais, 
 
 tu luisais, 
 
 il luisait ; 
 
 
 nous luisions, 
 
 vous luisiez, 
 
 ils luisaient. 
 
 
 (No Preterite Definite.) 
 
 
 
 Fut. 
 
 Je luirai, 
 
 tu luiras, 
 
 il luira ; 
 
 
 nous luirons, 
 
 vous luirez, 
 
 ils luiront. 
 
 COND. | 
 
 Je luirais, 
 
 tu luirais, 
 
 il luirait ; 
 
 Pres. ] 
 
 nous luirions, 
 
 vous luiriez, 
 
 ils luiraient. 
 
 
 (No Imperative.) 
 
 
 
 SUBJ. ) 
 Pres. \ 
 
 Que je luise, 
 que nous luisions, 
 
 que tu luises, 
 que vous luisiez, 
 
 qu'il luise ; 
 qu'ils luisent. 
 
 (No Imperfect of the Subjunctive.) 
 
 311. Reluire, to shine, to glitter, is conjugated like 
 luire, but the Participle present has never been used in a 
 figurative sense. 
 
 MAUDIRE, to curse ; see page 156. 
 
 EXERCISE CIV. 
 
 Get that fish fried. The soles are not yet fried. 
 Faites 3 s poisson m. Mnf-l f. encore 
 
 I am reading the Roman history. She read's well. They read 
 2 i ' 
 
 distinctly. What author do you read in your class? 
 distinctement. auteur m. classe f. 
 
 We are reading Don Quixote. He is a man who has read 
 Quichotte, ' 
 
 
162 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 (a great deal). He can neither read nor write. Read that 
 l beaucoup ne salt ni ni 
 
 letter again. They elected him for their representative. We 
 ind-3 representant. 
 
 shall elect the most worthy.. The sun shines for everybody. 
 
 tout le monde. 
 
 Everything 1 shines in that house. All that glitters is not gold. 
 Tout ce gui 
 
 312. METTRE, TO PUT. 
 
 Part. Pres. mettant. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Past 9 mis. 
 
 IND. 1 Je mets, 
 
 tu mets, 
 
 il met; 
 
 Pres. f nous mettons, 
 
 vous mettez, 
 
 ils mettent. 
 
 Imp. Je mettais, 
 
 tu mettais, 
 
 il mettait ; 
 
 nous mettions, 
 
 vous mettiez, 
 
 ils mettaient. 
 
 Pret. Je mis, 
 
 tu mis, 
 
 il mit ; 
 
 nous mimes, 
 
 YOUS mites, 
 
 ils mirent. 
 
 Fut. Je mettrai, 
 
 tu mettras, 
 
 il mettra ; 
 
 nous mettrons, 
 
 vous mettrez, 
 
 ils mettront. 
 
 COND. \ Je mettrais, 
 
 tu mettrais, 
 
 il mettrait ; 
 
 Pres. j nous mettrions, 
 
 vous mettriez, 
 
 ils mettraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 mettons, 
 
 mets, 
 mettez, 
 
 qu'il mette ; 
 qu'ils mettent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje mette, 
 Pres. joyous mettions, 
 
 tu mettes, 
 vous mettiez, 
 
 il mette ; 
 ils mettent. 
 
 Imp. je misse, 
 
 tu misses, 
 
 ilmit; 
 
 G?nous missions, 
 
 vous missiez, 
 
 ils missent. 
 
 313. Conjugate in the same manner: 
 
 Admettre, to admit. 
 commettre, to commit. 
 compromettre, to compromise. 
 
 s'entremettre, to intermeddle 
 
 emettre, 
 
 permettre, 
 
 promettre, 
 
 remettre, 
 
 soumettre, 
 
 to omit, 
 to permit, 
 to promise, 
 toput again; to put 
 to submit. [off. 
 
 transmettre,tfo transmit. 
 
 EXERCISE CV. 
 
 Put on your hat. You have put (the cart before the 
 chapeau m. la charrue devant Us 
 
 horse). I do not admit that principle. They committed 
 bceufs. principe m. ind-3 de 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 163 
 
 great excesses. I shall not compromise you. Diocletian 
 
 exces m. Diocletien 
 
 resigned the empire. I shall omit nothing that depends 
 
 ind-3 de m. de ce qui dependre 
 
 upon me to serve you. The law of Mahomet does not 
 ind-7 de pour 
 
 allow wine. Allow me to tell you. He promises enough, 
 permettre art. de assez 
 
 but he seldom keeps his word. Do not defer till to- 
 
 2 rarement 1 parole f. remettre a 
 
 morrow what you can do to-day. They submit to your 
 
 ce que aujourdhui. se 
 decision. His actions will transmit his name to posterity. 
 art. 
 
 314. MOUDRE, TO GRIND (corn, coffee, &c.) 
 Part. Pres. moulant. Part. Past, moulu. 
 
 IND. ) Jemouds, 
 
 tu mouds, 
 
 il moud ; 
 
 Pres. \ nous moulons, 
 
 yous moulez, 
 
 ils moulent. 
 
 Imp. Je moulais, 
 
 tu moulais, 
 
 il moulait ; 
 
 nous moulions, 
 
 vous mouliez, 
 
 ils moulaient. 
 
 Pret. Je moulus, 
 
 tu moulus, 
 
 il moulut ; 
 
 nous moulumes, 
 
 vous moulutes, 
 
 ils moulurent. 
 
 Fut. Je moudrai, 
 
 tu moudras, 
 
 il moudra ; 
 
 nous moudrons, 
 
 vous moudrez, 
 
 Us moudront. 
 
 COND. ) Je moudrais, 
 
 tu moudrais, 
 
 il moudrait ; 
 
 Pres. \ nous moudrions, 
 
 vous moudriez, 
 
 ils moudraient. 
 
 IMPEB. 
 
 mouds, 
 
 qu'il moule ; 
 
 moulons, 
 
 moulez, 
 
 qu'ils moulent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) je moule, 
 
 tu monies, 
 
 il moule ; 
 
 Pres. \ Gtoous mouh'ons, 
 
 vous mouliez, 
 
 ils moulent. 
 
 Imp. gjemoulusse, 
 
 tu moulusses, 
 
 il moulut ; 
 
 <nous moulussions, vous moulussiez, ils moulussent. 
 315. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 6moudre, to grind (knives, razors, &c. ) re'moudre, to grind again 
 remoudre, to grind again (corn, &c.) (knives, razors, &c.) 
 
 316. NAITRE, TO BE BORN. 
 
 Part. Pres. naissant. Part. Pasty n6. 
 
 END. \ Je nais, tu nais, il nait ; 
 
 Pres. f nous naissons, vous naissez, ils naissent. 
 
164 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 IND. ) Je naissais. 
 
 tu naissais, 
 
 il naissait ; 
 
 Imp. j nous naissions, 
 
 vous naissiez, 
 
 ils naissaient. 
 
 Pret. Je naquis, 
 
 tu naquis, 
 
 il naquit ; 
 
 nous naquimes, 
 
 vous naquites, 
 
 ils naquirent. 
 
 Fut. Je naitrai, 
 
 tu naitras, 
 
 il naitra ; 
 
 nous naitrons, 
 
 vous naitrez, 
 
 ils naitront. 
 
 COND. ) Je naitrais, 
 
 tu naitrais, 
 
 il naitrait ; 
 
 Pres. j nous naitrions, 
 
 vous naitriez, 
 
 ils naitraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 nais, 
 
 qu'il naisse ; 
 
 naissons, 
 
 naissez, 
 
 qu'ils naissent. 
 
 SUBJ. { gje naisse, 
 
 tu naisses, 
 
 il naisse ; 
 
 Pres. ) O'nous naissions, 
 
 vous naissiez, 
 
 ils naissent. 
 
 Imp. gje naquisse, 
 
 tu naquisses, 
 
 il naquit ; 
 
 O?nous naquissions, 
 
 vous naquissiez, 
 
 ils naquissent. 
 
 317. This verb takes the auxiliary etre ; but renaitre. 
 to be born again, has no participle past, and, therefore. 
 no compound tenses. 
 
 NUIRE, to hurt ; see page 150, No. 286. 
 INSTRUIRE, to instruct, is conjugated like Conduire. 
 
 This mill 
 moulin m. 
 
 EXERCISE CVI. 
 
 does not grind fine enough. Grind some 
 
 pepper. Are my scissors ground ? From labour 
 
 poivre m. ciseaux m. pi. art. travail m. 
 
 springs health; from health contentment, source of 
 naitre art. art. art. 
 
 every joy. Abraham was born about three hundred and 
 tout joief. ind-3 environ * 
 
 fifty years after the deluge. Moses was born a hundred years 
 an m. Mo'ise * 
 
 after the death of Jacob. Napoleon Bonaparte was born at 
 
 - Napoleon - 
 
 Ajaccio, in Corsica, on the 15th of August 1769. They 
 - en Corse * * 
 
 were born on the same day. Many diseases spring 
 * Beaucoup de maladie 
 
 from intemperance. Everything 1 revives in spring. 
 r fout renaitre a art. 
 
OF TOE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 165 
 
 318. PAITRE, TO GRAZE. 
 Part. Pres. paissant. Part. Past, pu, m. No feminine. 
 
 IND. ) Je pais, 
 Pres. f nous paissons, 
 
 tu pais, 
 vous paissez, 
 
 il pait ; 
 ils paissent. 
 
 Imp. Je paissais, 
 nous paissions, 
 
 (No Preterite Definite.) 
 
 Fut. Je paitrai, 
 nous paitrons, 
 
 tu paissais, 
 vous paissiez, 
 
 tu paitras, 
 vous paitrez, 
 
 il paissait ; 
 ils paissaient. 
 
 il paitra ; 
 ils paitrout. 
 
 COND. ) Je paitrais, 
 Pres. j nous paitrions, 
 
 tu paitrais, 
 vous paitriez, 
 
 il paitrait ; 
 ils paitraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 paissons, 
 
 pais, 
 paissez, 
 
 qu'il paisse; 
 qu'ils paissent. 
 
 JSiiBJ. ) gje paisse, 
 Pres. f O'nous paissions, 
 
 tu paisses, 
 vous paissiez, 
 
 qu'il paisse ; 
 qu'ils paissent. 
 
 (No Imperfect of the Subjunctive.) 
 
 319. Repaitre, to feed, is conjugated in the same 
 manner, and has, besides, a Preterite Definite, je repus. 
 and an Imperfect of the Subjunctive, que je repusse. 
 
 PARAITRE, to appear, is conjugated like Connaitre. 
 
 320. PEINDRE, TO PAINT. 
 Part. Pres. peignant. Part. Past, peint, m. ; peinte,/. 
 
 IND. > Je peins, 
 
 tu peins, 
 
 il neint ; 
 
 Pres. f nous peignons, 
 
 vous peignez, 
 
 ils peignent. 
 
 Imp. Je peignais, 
 
 tu peignais, 
 
 il pei^nait ; 
 
 nous peignions. 
 
 vous peigniez, 
 
 ils peignaient. 
 
 Pret. Je peignis, 
 nous peignimes, 
 
 tu peignis, 
 vous peignites, 
 
 il peignit ; 
 ils peignirent. 
 
 Fut. Je peindrai, 
 
 tu peindras, 
 
 il peindra ; 
 
 nous peindrons, 
 
 vous peindrez, 
 
 ils peindront. 
 
 COND. ) Je peindrais, 
 
 tu peindrais, 
 
 il peindrait ; 
 
 Pres. } nous peindrions, 
 
 vous peindriez, 
 
 ils peindraient. 
 
 biPER. 
 
 peins, 
 
 qu'il peigne ; 
 
 peignons, 
 
 peignez, 
 
 qu'ils peignent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ gje peigne, 
 
 tu peignes, 
 
 il peigiie ; 
 
 Pres. f o*nous peignions, 
 
 vous peigniez, 
 
 ils peignent. 
 
 Imp. g je peignisse, 
 
 tu peignisses, 
 
 il peignit ; 
 
 O^nous peignissions, 
 
 vous peignissiez, 
 
 ils peignissent. 
 
166 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 321. Conjugate after the same manner all verbs ending 
 in eindre ; as, 
 
 Astreindre, to bind, to subject. 
 atteindre, to attain, to reach. 
 
 e*teindre, to extinguish, to put 
 feindre, to feign. {out. 
 
 EXERCISE CVH. 
 
 The sheep quietly feed on the grass 
 
 moutonm. Hranquillement l paitre * 2 herbehm. 
 under the care of the shepherd and the dogs. The 
 sous garde f. berger m. pr. 
 
 flocks were grazing in the meadows. He feeds himself 
 troupeau m. prairie f. se repaitre 
 
 with vain hopes. She paints from nature. Joy 
 
 d" 2 l esperance f. d'apres art. se 
 
 was painted in his eyes. He has attained his fifteenth year 
 
 ind-2 annee f. 
 
 We shall reach that village before night. Put out all 
 
 m. art. 
 
 the candles. The fire is out. He feigns to be sick. 
 
 chandelle f. d' malade. 
 
 He pretended not to see him. 
 
 feindre ind-3 de ne pas * 
 
 322. PLAIRE, TO PLEASE. 
 
 Part. Pres, plaisant. Part. 
 
 Past, plu 
 
 IND. | Je plais, 
 
 tu plais, 
 
 il plait; 
 
 Pres. \ nous plaisons, 
 
 vous plaisez, 
 
 ils plaisent. 
 
 Imp. Je plaisais, 
 
 tu plaisais, 
 
 il plaisait ; 
 
 nous plaisions, 
 
 vous plaisiez, 
 
 ils plaisaient. 
 
 Pret. Je plus, 
 
 tu plus, 
 
 il plut ; 
 
 nous plumes, 
 
 vous plutes, 
 
 ils plurent, 
 
 Fut. Je .plairai, 
 
 tu plairas, 
 
 il plaira ; 
 
 nous plairons, 
 
 vous plairez, 
 
 ils plairont. 
 
 COND. ) Je plairais, 
 Pres. f nous plairions, 
 
 tu plairais, 
 vous plairiez, 
 
 il plairait; 
 ils plairaient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 plais, 
 
 qu'il plaise ; 
 
 plaisons, 
 
 plaisez, 
 
 qu'ils plaisent. 
 
 SUBJ. \ je plaise, 
 
 tu plaises, 
 
 il plaise ; 
 
 Pres. f O"'nous plaisions, 
 
 vous plaisiez, 
 
 ils piaisent. 
 
 Imp. gje plusse, 
 
 tu plusses, 
 
 il plut ; 
 
 O>nous plussions, 
 
 vous plussiez. 
 
 Us plussenf 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 167 
 
 IND. ) Jeprends, 
 es. j 
 
 Pres, 
 Imp. 
 
 323. Conjugate in the same manner, de'plaire, to 
 displease, and complaire, to humour. 
 
 324. PRENDRE, TO TAKE. 
 
 Part. Pres. prenant. Part. Past, pris. 
 
 tu prends, il prend ; 
 
 vous prenez, ils prennent. 
 
 tu,prenais, il prenait ; 
 
 vous preniez, rls prenaient. 
 
 tu pris, il prit ; 
 
 vous prites, ils prirent. 
 
 tu prendras, il prendra ; 
 
 vous prendrez, ils prendront. 
 
 tu prendrais, il prendrait ; 
 
 vous prendriez, ils prendraient. 
 
 prends, qu'il prenne ; 
 
 prenez, qu'ils prennent. 
 
 tu prennes, il prenne ; 
 
 vous preniez, ils prennent. 
 
 tu prisses, il prit ; 
 
 vous prissiez, ils prissent. 
 
 nous prenons, 
 Je prenais, 
 nous prenions, 
 Pret. Je pris, 
 
 nous primes, 
 Je prendrai, 
 nous prendrons. 
 Je prendrais, 
 nous prendrions. 
 
 Fut. 
 
 COND. 
 Pres. 
 IMPER. 
 
 prenons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) gje prenne, 
 Pres. fo'nous prenions, 
 
 Imp. g je prisse, 
 
 O?nous prissions, 
 
 325. Conjugate in the same manner : 
 
 Apprendre, to learn. [prehend. 
 comprendre, to understand, to com- 
 d^sapprendre, to unlearn, to forget. 
 entreprendre, to undertake. 
 
 se mSprendre, to mistake. 
 reprendre, to take back, 
 to reply ; to censure. 
 surprendre, to surprise 
 
 __ The n of the above verbs is always doubled, as 
 in prendre, when it comes before the mute terminations 
 e, 68, ent. 
 
 EXERCISE CVH1. 
 
 That painting pleases me more than the other. Let us 
 tableau m. 
 
 not give offence by airs of haughtiness. He took 
 
 deplaire 32 hauteur, ha. 32 
 
 guides who conducted him. I shall take a hackney-coach. 
 
 fiacre m. 
 
 Take the first street on the right. The cat has caught a 
 rue f. d * droite. prendrc 
 
168 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 mouse. The place ^was taken. Let us learn our lesson. 
 sourisf. f. ind-2 
 
 I do not understand these two words. Philosophy 
 
 motm. art. 
 
 comprehends logic, ethics, physics, and 
 
 oxi.logique f. art. morale f. s. oxi. physique f. s. 
 
 metaphysics. They undertake (too many) things at 
 art. metaphysique f. s. trop de a 
 
 once. I took up my gun again You surprise me 
 art. fois f. * fusil m. 
 
 very much by telling me that. Virtue pleases everybody. 
 beaucoup en art. a 
 
 326. RESOUDRE, TO RESOLVE. 
 
 Part. Pres. re*solvant. Part. Past, re*solu, or re"sous. 
 IND. \ Je resous, 
 Pres. f nous re*solvons, 
 Imp. Je re*solvais, 
 
 nous resolvions, 
 Pret. Je resolus, 
 
 nous re*solumes, 
 Fut. Je re*soudrai, 
 
 nous resoudrons, 
 
 Je re*soudrais, 
 nous re*soudrions, 
 
 COND. 1 
 
 Pres. j 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 resolvons, 
 
 SUBJ. \ je resolve, 
 Pres. j o*nous r^solvions, 
 
 Imp. gje re*solusse, 
 
 G?nous resolussions, 
 
 tu re*sous, 
 
 il resout ; 
 
 vous resolvez, 
 
 ils resolvent. 
 
 tu r^solvais, 
 
 il r^solvait ? 
 
 vous resolviez, 
 
 ils re*solvaient. 
 
 tu resolus, 
 
 il r^solut ; 
 
 vous resolutes, 
 
 ils re"solurent. 
 
 tu resoudras, 
 
 il r^soudra ; 
 
 vous resoudrez, 
 
 ils resoudront. 
 
 tu re*soudrais, 
 
 il resoudrait ; 
 
 vous r^soudriez, 
 
 ils resoudraient. 
 
 resous, 
 
 qu'il resolve ; 
 
 re*solvez, 
 
 qu'ils resolvent. 
 
 tu resolves, 
 
 il resolve ; 
 
 vous resolviez, 
 
 ils resolvent. 
 
 tu re"solusses, 
 
 il resolut ; 
 
 vous resolussiez, ils resolussent. 
 
 327. N.B. When resoudre signifies to determine, to 
 decide, the Part, past, re'solu, m. re'solue, f. is to be em- 
 ployed ; but if it mean to change, to reduce, or turn one 
 thing into another, then the Participle resous (without 
 feminine), is to be used : 
 
 Ce jeune homme a re"solu de 
 
 changer de conduite. 
 Le soleil a resous le brouillard 
 
 en pluie. 
 
 This young man has resolved to 
 
 change his conduct. 
 The sun has turned the fog 
 
 into rain. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 328. EIRE, TO LAUGH. 
 
 169 
 
 Part. Pres. riant. 
 
 Part. Past, ri, m. 
 
 No feminine 
 
 IND. ) Jeris, 
 
 tu ris, 
 
 ilrit; 
 
 Pres. ) nous rions, 
 
 vous riez, 
 
 ils rient. 
 
 Imp. Je riais, 
 
 tu riais, 
 
 il riait ; 
 
 nous riions, 
 
 vous riiez, 
 
 ils riaient. 
 
 Pret. Je ris, 
 
 tu ris, 
 
 ilrit; 
 
 nous rimes, 
 
 vous rites, 
 
 ils rirent. 
 
 Put. Je rirai, 
 
 tu riras, 
 
 il rira ; 
 
 nous rirons, 
 
 vous rirez, 
 
 ils riront. 
 
 COND. ) Je rirais, 
 Pres. f nous ririons, 
 
 tu rirais, 
 vous ririez, 
 
 il rirait ; 
 ils riraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 ris, 
 
 qu'il rie ; 
 
 rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 qu'ils rient 
 
 SUBJ. ) je rie, 
 Pres. j c?nous riions, 
 
 tu ries, 
 vous riiez, 
 
 il rie ; 
 
 ils rient. 
 
 Imp. g Je risse, 
 
 tu risses, 
 
 ilrit; 
 
 emeus rissions. 
 
 vous rissiez, 
 
 ils rissent. 
 
 Eire is also used with a double pronoun, in the sense 
 of to laugh at, to ridicule ; as, JE ME RIS dt ses menaces, 
 I laugh at his threats. 
 
 Sourire, to smile, is conjugated in the same manner. 
 SUFFIRE, to suffice, to be sufficient ; see No. 288. 
 
 EXERCISE CIX. 
 
 We resolved to set out immediately. Have they resolved 
 
 ind-3 de sur-le-champ. A-t-on 
 
 on peace or war? Everybody is laughing at his 
 * art. art. Tout le monde d 
 
 expense. She was laughing most heartily. They were 
 depens m. pi. de tout son coeur. 
 
 laughing (in their sleeves). They laughed even to tears. 
 
 sous cape. * art. larme 
 
 You make me laugh. Fortune smiles on him. She smiled 
 
 art. f. * lui ind-2 
 
 at my embarrassment. He smiled to him, in sign of approbation. 
 de embarrasm. ind-3 en 
 
 He came up to me smiling. 
 
 ind-3 au-devant de moi en 
 
170 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 329. SUIVRE, TO FOLLOW. 
 
 Part. Pres. suivant. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Past, suivi. 
 
 IND. > Je suis, 
 
 tu suis, 
 
 il suit ; 
 
 Pres. f nous suivons, 
 
 vous suivez, 
 
 ils suivent. 
 
 Imp. Je suivais, 
 nous suivions, 
 
 tu suivais, 
 vous suiviez, 
 
 il suivait ; 
 ils suivaient. 
 
 Pret. Je suivis, 
 
 tu suivis, 
 
 il suivit ; 
 
 nous suivimes, 
 
 vous suivltes, 
 
 ils suivirent. 
 
 Fut. Je suivrai, 
 
 tu suivras, 
 
 il suivra ; 
 
 nous suivrons, 
 
 vous suivrez, 
 
 ils suivront 
 
 COND. ) Je suivrais, 
 
 tu suivrais, 
 
 il suivrait ; 
 
 Pres. j nous suivrions, 
 
 vous suivriez, 
 
 ils suivraient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 suis, 
 
 qu'il suive ; 
 
 suivons, 
 
 suivez, 
 
 qu'ils suivent. 
 
 SUBJ. ) gje suive, 
 
 tu suives, 
 
 il suive ; 
 
 Pres. j o'nous suivions, 
 
 vous suiviez, 
 
 ils suivent. 
 
 Imp. je suivisse, 
 
 tu suivisses, 
 
 il suivit ; 
 
 O*nous suivissions, 
 
 vous suivissiez, 
 
 ils suivissent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner, poursuivre, to pursue, 
 to prosecute. 
 
 tfensuivre, to ensue, to result, follows the same con- 
 jugation, but is used only in the third persons singular 
 and plural of every tense ; as, 
 Un grand bien s'ensuivit. (AoAD.) [ Much good resulted from it. 
 
 SURVIVRE, to survive, is conjugated like Vivre. 
 
 330. TAIRE, TO 
 Part. Pres. taisant. 
 
 CONCEAL, TO KEEP SECRET. 
 
 Part. Past 9 tu, m. ; tue,/ 
 
 IND. > Je tais, 
 
 tu tais, 
 
 il tait ; 
 
 Pres. j nous taisons, 
 
 vous taisez, 
 
 ils taisent. 
 
 Imp. Je taisais, 
 
 tu taisais, 
 
 il taisait ; 
 
 nous taisions, 
 
 vous taisiez, 
 
 ils taisaient. 
 
 Pret. Je tus, 
 
 tu tus, 
 
 il tut ; 
 
 nous tumes, 
 
 vous tutes, 
 
 ils turent. 
 
 Fut. Je tairai, 
 
 tu tairas, 
 
 il taira ; 
 
 nous tairons, 
 
 vous tairez, 
 
 ils tairont 
 
 COND. ) Je tairais, 
 
 tu tairais, 
 
 il tairait ; 
 
 Pres. j nous tairions, 
 
 vous tairiez, 
 
 ils tairaient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 tais, 
 
 qu'il taise ; 
 
 taisoriH, 
 
 taisez, 
 
 qu'ils taisent. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 171 
 
 SUBJ. \ je taise, 
 Pres. f c?nous taisions, 
 Imp. je tusse, 
 
 tu taises, il taise ; 
 
 vous taisiez, ils taisent. 
 
 tu tusses, il tilt ; 
 
 O*nous tussions, vous tussiez, ils tussent. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner, se taire, to be silent, 
 to hold one's tongue. 
 
 EXERCISE CX. 
 
 An ass-driver said: I am not what I follow, for if I were 
 dnier m. ce que car etais 
 
 what I follow, I would not be what I am. Trouble 
 
 art. embarras m. 
 
 attends riches. Several princes of Germany 
 
 suivre art. richesses f. pi. Allemagne 
 
 follow the doctrine of Luther. I shall follow you very 
 
 f. de fort 
 
 closely. Always follow the advice of your father. 
 
 pres. 2 avism. monsieur 
 
 Let us pursue our journey. Well ! what (is the consequence) f 
 
 chemin m. Eh bien! que s'ensuivre 
 I shall not conceal from you my way of thinking. After 
 
 * facon f. inf-1 
 
 having said that, he held his tongue. Let us be silent. 
 inf-1 
 
 331. TRAIRE, TO MILK. 
 Part. Pres. trayant. Part. Past, trait, m. ; traite,/. 
 
 IND. ) Je trais, 
 
 tu trais, 
 
 il trait ; 
 
 Pres. ] nous trayons, 
 
 vous trayez, 
 
 ils traient. 
 
 Imp. Je trayais, 
 nous trayions, 
 
 tu trayais, 
 vous trayiez, 
 
 il trayait ; 
 ils trayaient. 
 
 (No Preterite Definit 
 
 e.) 
 
 
 Fut. Je trairai, 
 
 tu trairas, 
 
 il traira ; 
 
 nous trairons, 
 
 vous trairez, 
 
 ils trairont. 
 
 COND. ) Je trairais, 
 Pres. i nous trairions, 
 
 tu trairais, 
 vous trairiez, 
 
 il trairait ; 
 ils trairaient. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 trais, 
 
 qu'il traie ; 
 
 trayons, 
 
 trayez, 
 
 qu'ils traient. 
 
 SUBJ. ) g je traie, 
 
 tu traies, 
 
 il traie ; 
 
 Pres. j odious trayions, 
 
 vous trayiez. 
 
 ils traient. 
 
 (No Imperfect of the Subjunctive.) 
 
 332. Conjugate in the same manner: 
 
 Abstraire, to abstract. 
 distraire, to distract, to divert. 
 extraire, to extract. 
 
 rentraire, tofinedraw, to darn. 
 retraire, to redeem. 
 soustraire, to subtract. 
 
 ( See Remarks on Abstraire and Attraire, p. 146.) 
 
172 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 333. VAINCRE, TO VANQUISH, TO CONQUER. 
 Part. Pres. vainquant. Part. Past, vaincu. 
 
 IND. ) Je values, tu vaincs, il vainc ; 
 
 Pres. \ nous vainquons, vous vainquez, ils vainquent. 
 
 Imp. Je vainguais, tu vaincpais, il vainquait; 
 
 nous vainquions, vous vamquiez, ils vainquaient 
 
 Pret. Je vain^uis, tu vainguis, il vainquit ; 
 
 nous vamquimes, vous vamquites, ils vainquirent. 
 
 Fut. Je vaincrai, 
 nous vaincrons, 
 COND. | Je vaincrais, 
 Pres. ) nous vaincrions, 
 IMPER. (The 2dpers. 
 vainquons, 
 SUBJ. ) gje vainque, 
 Pres. { c?nous vainquions, 
 Imp. gje vainquisse, 
 
 tu vaincras, 
 vous vaincrez, 
 tu vaincrais, 
 vous vaincriez, 
 s. is not in use.) 
 vainquez, 
 tu vainques, 
 vous vamquiez, 
 tu vainquisses, 
 
 il vaincra ; 
 ils vainer ont. 
 il vaincrait ; 
 ils vaincraient. 
 qu'il vainque ; 
 qu'ils vainqueut. 
 il vainque ; 
 ils vainqueut. 
 il vainquit ; 
 
 The Present and Imperfect of the Indicative of this verb are seldom used. 
 
 Convaincre, to convince, to convict, is conjugated in 
 the same manner. 
 
 EXERCISE CXI. 
 
 Is the cow milked ? The least thing diverts his 
 vache f . moindre le 
 
 attention. He has extracted that passage from a dialogue of 
 * m. m. 
 
 Plato. Arithmetic teaches to add, 
 
 Platon. art. arithmetiquef. a additionner 9 
 
 subtract, multiply, and divide. Scipio vanquished 
 pr. pr. multipher 9 pr. diviser. Scipion md-3 
 
 Hannibal at the battle of Zama, in Africa. The Greeks 
 Annibal Afrique. Orec 
 
 vanquished the Persians at Marathon, Salamis, 
 
 ind-3 Perse a pr. Salamine, 
 
 Platea, and Mycale. How many people cannot be 
 pr. Platee, pr. Combien de gens ne peuvent 
 
 convinced but by experience ! He was convicted of treason 
 m. pi. que art. 
 
OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 173 
 
 Part. 
 IND. > 
 Pres. f 
 Imp. 
 
 Pret. 
 Fut. 
 
 COND. ) 
 
 Pres. f 
 
 334. 
 Pres. vivant. 
 Je vis, 
 nous vivons, 
 Je vivais, 
 nous vivions, 
 Je ve*cus, 
 nous ve"cumes, 
 Je vivrai, 
 nous vivrons, 
 Je vivrais, 
 nous vivrions, 
 
 VIVRE, TO LIVE. 
 
 Part. Past 9 vecu. No feminine. 
 tu vis, 
 vous vivez, 
 
 tu vivais, 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 vivons, 
 
 SUBJ. ) g je vive, 
 Pres. j o^nous vivions, 
 Imp. gje ve*cusse, 
 
 O"nous vecussions, 
 
 il vit; 
 ils vivent. 
 il viyait ; 
 ils vivaient. 
 il vecut ; 
 ils vecurent. 
 il viyra ; 
 ils vivront. 
 il viyrait ; 
 ils vivraient. 
 qu'il vive ; 
 qu'ils vivent. 
 il vive ; 
 ils vivent. 
 il ve*cut ; 
 ils vecussent. 
 
 vous viviez, 
 tu vecus, 
 vous vecutes, 
 tu vivras, 
 vous vivrez, 
 tu vivrais, 
 vous vivriez, 
 vis, 
 vivez, 
 tu vives, 
 vous viviez, 
 tu vecusses, 
 vous vecussiez, 
 
 So are conjugated, revivre, to revive ; and survivre, to 
 survive. 
 
 Ils ont vecu, in the sense of ils sont marts (they are dead), is an ex- 
 pression purely Latin : the Romans avoided, from superstition, the use 
 of words reckoned, inauspicious. We say more generally, Us sont morts 
 however, ils ont vecu has become a French phrase, owing to its adoption 
 by a great number of authors ; besides, it produces a finer effect than 
 the expression for which it stands. 
 
 335. To live on or upon, is expressed by vivre DE ; as, 
 II vit DE legumes (AcAD.), he lives upon vegetables. 
 
 C'est une fille accoutume'e a vivre DE salade, DE lait, DE froniage et 
 DE pommes. (Moliere.) 
 
 VIVE le Roi ! is an exclamation to express that we wish 
 the king long life and prosperity. Vive is also a term 
 made use of to mark that we highly esteem a person, or 
 set a great value upon something. 
 
 Vive la liberte! Vivent nos liberateurs! (Acad.) 
 Malgre tous les chagrins, vive la vie! (Gresset.) 
 Vivent les gens d'esprit! (Palissot.) 
 Vivent les gens qui ont de 1'industrie ! (P/wcAe.) 
 
 Vive or vivent, in the above and similar phrases, is the 
 third person of the present of the Subjunctive of the verb 
 vivre. (AcAD., Feraud, Trewux, etc.) 
 
174 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 EXERCISE CXH. 
 
 1 live with economy. He lives like a great lord. She 
 
 en * seigneur, 
 lives upon her income. We live in the country Those 
 
 rentes f . pi. a 
 
 animals live upon herbs and roots. Saint Louis (Louis 
 
 herbe f. pr. racine f. 
 IX.) lived in the thirteenth century. So good a prince will 
 
 ind-2 a sieclem. 2 s l 
 
 live for ever in history. . It is dear living in this 
 
 eternellement dans art. fait inf-1 dans 
 
 town. The people shouted, Long live the Emperor! 
 
 peuple m. cn'er ind-3 
 
 Fathers live again in their children. He will never 
 art. revivre dans 
 
 survive the loss of his reputation. The husband has 
 
 a perte f . 
 survived his wife He did not long survive a person who 
 
 d ind-3 a f. 
 
 was so dear to him. Let us live as good Christians. 
 ind-2 86 en 
 
 EXERCISE CXIH. 
 
 He was in great dejection of mind; but the news 
 
 ind-2 un accablement m. 
 
 which he has just received, have revived him. Homer 
 vient de inf-1 fait inf-1 Homere 
 
 lived probably about eight hundred and fifty years before 
 ind-2 environ avant 
 
 the Christian era. - That man lives on little. He lives from 
 
 peu. au 
 
 hand to mouth. She lives on bread and water. They live at 
 jour le jour. d' 
 
 the expense of others. She lived more than a hundred years. 
 
 depens pi. 115 ind-4 
 
 The Latin tongue will live for ever. Long live Champagne 
 
 toujours. 
 and Burgundy for good wines. They called out to him, Who 
 
 crier 
 
 yoes there? he replied, France. This work will live, 
 vivre 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 175 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 336. The Adverb is an invariable word, so called, 
 because it is most frequently added to a verb, to express 
 some quality, manner, or circumstance ; as, il ecrit BIEN, 
 he writes well ; elle park DISTINCTEMENT, she speaks 
 distinctly. 
 
 The adverb serves also to modify an adjective, and 
 even another adverb ; as, il est TRES eloquent, he is very 
 eloquent ; elle chante FORT bien, she sings very well." 
 
 Some adverbs consist of a single word, as bien, well ; 
 toujourSj always; others are compound, and consist of 
 two or more words, and are commonly called, adverbial 
 expressions; such are, pele-mele, promiscuously; sur-le- 
 j immediately ; tout-a-coup, suddenly. 
 
 337. PLACE OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 Adverbs, in French, are generally placed after the 
 verb, in simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and the 
 participle, in compound tenses ; as, 
 
 II parle souvent de vous. I He often speaks of you. 
 II a souvent parld de vous. I He has often spoken of you. 
 
 But adverbial expressions are placed after the participle 
 in compound tenses ; as, 
 
 Vous avez juge a la hate. \ You have judged hastily. 
 
 338. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs may be classified according to their different 
 uses ; we shall give a list of those most in use. 
 
 339. Adverbs of Affirmation and Consent. 
 
 Certes, certainly. 
 
 oui, yes. 
 
 sans doute, undoubtedly. 
 
 soit, be it so. 
 
 volontiers, willingly. 
 d'accord, done, agreed 
 
 
176 EXERCISE ON ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION, ETC. 
 
 340. Adverbs of Denial. 
 
 Non, ne, ne pas, ]_ . nullement, by no means. 
 
 ne point, f point du tout, not at all. 
 
 341. Adverbs of Doubt. 
 
 Peut-etre, perhaps. \ probablement, probably. 
 
 EXERCISE CXIV. 
 
 That is undoubtedly a very fine action. You wish it : be it 
 C'est la f. 
 
 so. I willingly consent to that bargain. No, no, 1 shall not 
 
 marche m. 
 consent to it. Will you give up your rights to him ? By no 
 
 109 ceder droitm. 
 
 means. Do you fear his resentment? No, not at all. 
 
 ressentiment m. 
 
 You perhaps think that he is one of your friends ; you are in a 
 croire * * 
 
 mistake. He will probably succeed in his undertaking, 
 art. erreurf. reussir 
 
 342. Adverbs of Interrogation. 
 
 O3f These adverbs are always placed before the verb. 
 
 Combien, how much, how 
 comment, how. [many. 
 ou, where. 
 
 d'ou, whence. 
 
 pourquoi, why. 
 quand, when. 
 
 343. Adverbs of Quantity. 
 
 Assez, enough. 
 
 beaucoup, much, very much. 
 bien, fort, tres, very. 
 davantage, more. 
 
 peu, little. 
 
 presque, almost. 
 
 tant, so much, so many. 
 
 trop, too, too much, too 
 
 [many. 
 EXERCISE CXV. 
 
 How much have you got in your purse ? How many 
 
 verbs have you learned ? How is he ? Where do you 
 de verbe m. se porter 
 
 live? Whence do you come? Why do you make so much 
 dcmeurer faire 
 
 noise ? When shall I have the pleasure of seeing you 
 de irif-1 
 
EXERCISE ON ADVERBS OF COMPARISON. 177 
 
 again ? You have played enough Gentlemen, where are you 
 
 jouer monsieur 
 
 running to? I am very glad to meet you Science is 
 
 courir * de art. f. 
 
 estimable, but virtue is much more so. Almost all the 
 
 art. V bien * 
 
 philosophers think so. He has so many friends ! He 
 
 ainsi. d' 
 
 drinks too much. She speaks much and reflects little. 
 
 344. Adverbs of Comparison. 
 
 [better. 
 
 Ainsi, 
 
 thus, so. 
 
 de mieux en mieux, better 
 
 aussi, 
 
 as, too, also. 
 
 moins, less. 
 
 autant, 
 
 as much, as many. 
 
 pis, worse. 
 
 comme, 
 
 as, like. 
 
 plus, more. 
 
 mieux, 
 
 better 
 
 si, so. 
 
 EXERCISE CXVI. 
 
 The president spoke thus. That book has merit ; but 
 president du 
 
 there are others as good If he has done that, I can do 
 en * d' en 
 
 as much. There were as many ladies as gentlemen 
 
 ind-2 de que de monsieur 
 
 Don't read like him. Women speak better than they 
 art. qu' 
 
 write. She sings better and better. Since the invention of 
 n' Depuis f. 
 
 powder, battles are less bloody than they were. 
 art. poudre f. art. sanglant qu' ne V ind-2 
 
 His affairs are going from bad to worse. You do not offer 
 mal en 
 
 enough, give something more. I was so far from them! 
 de ind-2 loin 86 
 
 345. Adverbs of Order, or Rank. 
 
 Premierement, first. 
 secondement, &c. secondly, $c. 
 d'abord, at first, first. 
 
 M 
 
 apres, after. 
 
 ensuite, afterwards. 
 
 auparavant, before. 
 
178 EXERCISE ON ADVERBS OF ORDER, AND PLACE. 
 
 346. Adverbs of Place. 
 
 Ailleurs, elsewhere. 
 ici, here. 
 
 la, there. 
 
 loin, far. 
 
 partout, everywhere. 
 y, there. 
 
 REMARK. Y adverb comes from the Latin ibi, there ; it must not 
 be confounded with the relative pronoun Y, which has the sense of to 
 him, to her, to it, to them, &c See No. 109. 
 
 EXERCISE CXVII. 
 
 Do first what we have agreed upon. Work first, you 
 
 ce dont 252 * dabord 
 
 will amuse yourself afterwards. You will go before, and he 
 
 devant lui 
 after. The painter had brought together in the same picture 
 
 ind-2 r assembler un 'tableaux. 
 
 several different objects; there a troop of bacchants, here a 
 
 2 l bacchante 
 
 group of young people ; there a sacrifice ; here a disputation of 
 
 gens m. dispute f. 
 
 philosophers. Alexander gave to Porus a kingdom larger 
 
 Alexandre ind-3 plus grand 
 
 than the one he had before. Don't go far. I have 
 
 celui qu 1 ind-2 
 
 looked for it everywhere. Will you go there after dinner ? 
 chercher Vouloir y 
 
 347. Adverbs of Time. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Aujourd'hui. to-day. \ maintenant, now, 
 
 Past. 
 
 Autrefois, formerly. hier, y ester day. [terday. 
 
 dernierement, lately. avant-hier, the day before yes- 
 
 Future. 
 
 Demain, to-morrow, 
 apres-demain, the day after 
 to-morrow. 
 
 bientot, soon, very soon. 
 desormais, hereafter. 
 dore"navant, henceforth. 
 
 Indeterminate. 
 
 Alors, then. 
 
 long-temps, long. 
 quelquefois, sometimes. 
 
 rarement, seldom. 
 souyent, often. 
 toujours, always. 
 
EXERCISE ON ADVERBS OF TLME. 179 
 
 EXERCISE CXVIIL 
 
 We expect him to-day or to-morrow. Formerly, the 
 
 attendre 
 
 education of females was neglected, but now it is very much 
 art. femme ind-2 neglige on * *beaucoup 
 
 (attended to). He set out the day before yesterday. Let us 
 l s'en *occupc est parti 
 
 be wiser hereafter. Be more exact henceforth. Where were 
 
 8 * ind-2 
 
 you then ? He goes sometimes on foot, sometimes in a coach. 
 
 a en * voiture. 
 
 That seldom occurs. People often deceive themselves by 
 
 arriver On se tromper en 
 
 judging from appearances. The wisest kings are often 
 
 sur art. apparencef. 
 
 deceived. The moon always revolves round the earth 
 tromver tourner autour de 
 
 348. Adverbs of Manner and Quality. 
 
 Bien, well. 
 
 mal, badly, ill. 
 
 a la hate, hastily. 
 
 a la mode, fashionably. 
 a tort, wrongfully. 
 expres, on purpose. 
 
 To this class must be added the adverbs formed from 
 adjectives, by annexing ment. There are, in French, few 
 adjectives, from which adverbs of this nature have not 
 been formed. This termination in ment corresponds to 
 the ly of the English, and comes from the Italian sub- 
 stantive mente, itself derived from the Latin substantive 
 mcnSj mentis, which signifies mind, intention, manner; so 
 that tendrement, fortement, have the same meaning as 
 "in a tender manner," "in a strong manner." 
 
 These adverbs are formed from adjectives in the fol- 
 lowing manner : 
 
 349. RULE I. When the adjective ends with a vowel, 
 in the masculine, the adverb is formed by simply adding 
 ment to it ; as, 
 
 
 poli, polite; poliment, politely. 
 
 sage. wise ; sagement, wisely, 
 
 true; vraiment, truly 
 
180 
 
 ADVERBS OF MANNER AND QUALITY* 
 
 Exception. Impuni, unpunished, makes impunemem 
 with impunity. 
 
 The six following adverbs take an e accented before the 
 termination ment, instead of the e mute of the adjectives : 
 Aveuglement, blindly. dnorme'ment, enormously. 
 
 couforme'ment, conformably. 
 
 opiniatre'ment, obstinately. 
 
 Bellement, softly ; foUement, foolishly ; moUement, 
 effeminately ; and nouvellement, newly, are formed from 
 the adjectives, bel, fol, mol, nouvel, according to the 
 following rule. 
 
 350. RULE II. When the adjective ends with a con- 
 sonant, in the masculine, the adverb is formed from the 
 feminine, by adding ment to it ; as, 
 
 franc, m. franche,/. frank; franchement, frankly 
 heureux, m. heureuse,/ happy; heureusement, happily. 
 naif, m. naive,/. artless; naivement, artlessly 
 
 Exception. Gentil, makes yentiment, prettily. 
 
 The six following adverbs take an e accented, instead 
 of the e mute of the feminine of the adjectives from 
 which they are formed : 
 
 Commune* raent, commonly. 
 confusement, confusedly. 
 expr easement, expressly. 
 
 obscurement, obscurely. 
 precisement, precisely. 
 profondement, profoundly 
 
 351. RULE III. Adjectives ending in ant or ent, in the 
 masculine, form their adverbs by changing ant into 
 ammcntj and ent into emment ; as, 
 
 constant, constant; constamment, constantly. 
 
 eloquent, eloquent; e'loquemment, eloquently. 
 
 Lent, slow, and present, present, are the only excep- 
 tions to this rule ; they follow the second rule, making 
 Icntemcnt, slowly, and presentement, presently. 
 
 N.B. Most ab verbs of manner, and a few of the other 
 classes, have the three degrees of comparison, which are 
 formed as in the adjectives. 
 
EXERCISE ON ADVERBS OK MANNER, ETC. 181 
 
 352. The following adverbs are irregular in French. 
 AS well as in English : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 bien, well. mieux, better. le mieux, the best. 
 
 mal, badly. pis, worse. le pis, the worst 
 
 peu, little. moins, less. le moins, the least. 
 
 fSee previous Remarks on these Adverbs, No. 70.) 
 
 EXERCISE CXIX. 
 
 (.#. B In the two following Exercises, some Adjectives are given, from which 
 the Student will form Adverbs, according to the foregoing rules.) 
 
 All goes well. I say it on purpose. He has done that 
 
 aller dire faire 
 
 very cleverly. He acts conformably to your orders. Speak 
 fort habile agir 
 
 to me frankly. He is dangerously wounded. Corneille and 
 
 dangereux 
 
 Racine are the two best French tragic poets ; the pieces of 
 8 *tragique 1 piece f. 
 
 the former are strongly, but incorrectly written ; those of the 
 
 premier 2 fort 3 ^incorrect 
 
 latter are more regularly beautiful, more purely expressed, 
 dernier regulier beau pur exprime 
 
 and more delicately conceived. You walk too slowly, 
 delicat pense 
 
 EXERCISE CXX. 
 
 I want shoes that I can put on easily. He receives 
 
 vouloir 32 subj-1 * aise 
 
 Everybody *(very politely). Read attentively. The lion is 
 tout le monde attentif 
 
 naturally courageous. The ancients believed that the swan 
 naturel ancien ind-2 cygnem. 
 
 sang 1 melodiously, when it was about to die. We see evidently 
 ind-2 melodieux lorsqu* ind-2 pres de evident 
 
 that three times three make nine. That affair goes badly. 
 
 fois affaire f. 
 
 Sit upon this sofa ; you will be better than on that 
 
 Asseyez-vous m. 
 
 chair. Of all our great writers, he is the one I like best, 
 chaise f. fcrivain c' celui que le 
 
182 
 
 OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 353. The Preposition is an invariable part of speech, 
 so called, because, as its Latin derivation implies, it is 
 generally placed before the word whose relation to other 
 words it points out. 
 
 It is by means of prepositions that we supply the cases 
 which are wanting in the French language ; for instance, 
 the preposition de often corresponds to the genitive or 
 ablative of the Latin. Le livre DE Pierre. Je viens DE 
 Rome. 
 
 Prepositions are either simple or compound. The simple 
 consist of a single word; as, a, to; de, of; avec, with. 
 Compound prepositions consist of two or more words ; 
 such are, quant a, as to ; vis-a-vis, opposite ; a Vegard 
 de, with regard to. 
 
 The prepositions are divided into classes, according to 
 the manner in which they express relation or connexion. 
 
 354. To denote Place. 
 
 Aupres, near. 
 
 pr&s, near. 
 
 autour, round, around. 
 
 proche, near. 
 
 chez, at. 
 
 sous, under. 
 
 dans, in. 
 
 sur, on, upon, over. 
 
 devant, before. 
 
 vers, towards. 
 
 derriere, behind. 
 
 (Vers is also a prep. 
 
 entre, between. 
 
 of time.) 
 
 hors, out. 
 
 vis-a-vis, opposite. 
 
 jusque, till, until. 
 
 voici, behold, here is or are. 
 
 parmi, among. 
 
 voila, behold, there is or are. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXI. 
 
 Chicanery prowls incessantly around justice, envy 
 art. chicane f. rdder sans cesse de Themis art. 
 
 around prosperity, calumny around virtue, 
 
 de art. art. de art. art. 
 
EXERCISES ON PREPOSITIONS. 183 
 
 error around the mind of man, and injustice around 
 de esprit m. art. art. f. 
 
 his heart : what ravages do these monsters not commit 
 de m. * ne font-ils pas, 
 
 when once they can gain access ! In prosperity it is 
 fois penetrer! art. il 
 
 agreeable to have a friend ; in misfortune it is a necessity. 
 d' art. malheurm. c' besoinm. 
 
 Write injuries upon sand, and benefits upon 
 
 art. art. art. bienfait m. art. 
 
 brass. The loadstone points towards the north. 
 airainm. aimantm. se tourner 
 
 Paper was invented towards the end of the fourteenth 
 art. ind-4 fin f. 
 
 century; and printing towards the middle of the 
 
 siecle m. art. imprimerie f. milieu m 
 
 fifteenth century. Go before me, and not behind him. 
 
 355. To denote Order. 
 Avant, before. depuis, since. 
 
 apres, after. 
 
 from. 
 
 356. To denote Union. 
 
 Avec, with. outre, besides 
 
 durant, during. 
 pendant, whilst, during. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXH. 
 
 Augustus began to reign forty-two years before Jesus Christ. 
 
 Auguste ind-3 J6sus 
 
 I fear God, and after God, I fear principally those who do not 
 
 ceux 
 fear him. Man /row his birth has the feeling of 
 
 art. sentiment m. art. 
 
 pleasure and of pain. The soldier defends his country 
 art. douleur f. * art. patrie f. 
 
 with his sword ; the man of letters enlightens it with his pen. 
 
 eclairer 
 
 It is during youth that we must lay the foundations of 
 pendant art. il faut poser fondement 
 
184 EXERCISES ON PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 an honourable and happy life. The wise man acts 
 
 2 8 * * se conduire 
 
 according to the dictates of reason. Talents 
 maxime f. art. art. m. 
 
 (are productive) according to their cultivation. 
 produisent * art. culture f. 
 
 357. To denote Separation or Privation. 
 
 Sans, without. hors, except, save. 
 
 excepte*, except. hormis, except, but. 
 
 358. To denote Opposition. 
 
 Contre, against. 1 nonohstant, notwith- 
 
 malgre*, in spite of. [standing. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXHI. 
 
 No virtue without religion, no happiness without virtue. 
 Point de 
 
 A child without innocence is a flower without perfume. Where 
 
 parfum. 
 
 (will you find) roses without thorns ? We must always be 
 trouver inf-1 des II faut 2 
 
 ready to serve our friends, except against our conscience. 
 ses sa f . 
 
 All is lost save honour. Truth, notwithstanding 
 art. art. 
 
 prejudice, error and falsehood, (clears its way) 
 
 art. prejuge m. art. art. mensonge m. se fait jour 
 
 and penetrates at last. The hedgehog knows how to 
 
 percer a la fin. herisson m. h a. 265 * * 
 
 defend himself without fighting. He has done it in spite of me. 
 se . combattre. 
 
 359. To denote the End. 
 
 Envers, towards. I concernant, concerning. 
 
 pour, for. I touchant, about, respecting. 
 
 360. To denote Cause and Means. 
 
 Par, by. 
 
 moyennant, by means of. 
 
 attendu, on account of. 
 vu, considering. 
 
EXERCISES ON PREPOSITIONS. 185 
 
 EXERCISE CXXIV. 
 
 Fulfil your duties towards God, towards your parents, 
 
 Remplir 
 
 and towards your country. That letter is not for you. 
 
 * art. patrie f. 
 It was at the entrance of Edward III. into Calais, 
 
 Ce ind-3 entree f. Edouard dans 
 
 in 1347, that (the drum was heard to beat) for the first 
 I'an Von entendit battre le tambour 
 
 time. He has written to him respecting that business. She 
 fois f . affaire f . 
 
 charms everybody by her kindness and her gentleness. 
 
 tout le monde bonte f. douceur f. 
 
 They will succeed by means of your counsels. The fleet 
 
 reussir avis m. 
 
 cannot sail on account of contrary winds. 
 partir art. 2 
 
 361. The preposition A is used to express several re- 
 lations, the principal of which are : 
 
 1. place; as, aller a Paris, to go to Paris; demeurer & 
 
 Londres, to live in London. 
 
 2. time; as, se lever a six heures, to rise at six o'clock. 
 
 3. matter; as, bdtir a chaux, to build with lime. 
 
 4. manner; as, s'habiller a la franqaise, to dress after 
 
 the French fashion. 
 
 5. cause; as, un moulin a vent, a windmill ; des armes 
 
 hfeu, firearms. 
 
 6. use, destination; as, un moulin a papier, a paper- 
 
 mill ; un sac a ouvrage, a work-bag. 
 
 7. means; as, peindre a Vhuile, to paint m oil. 
 
 8. possession; as, ce Zwre es a Alfred, this book belongs 
 
 to Alfred. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXV. 
 
 There are two railways from Paris to Versailles. How far 
 
 186 chemin defer Combien 
 
 is it from London to Edinburgh ? The neglect of all religion 
 
 ya-t-il Edimbourg? oublim. f. 
 
 soon leads to the neglect of all the duties of man. 
 bientot 284 devoir m. art. 
 
186 EXERCISES ON THE PREPOSITIONS A AND D* 
 
 Hypocrisy is a homage that vice pays to 
 art. ' hommage m. art. m. rendre art, 
 
 virtue. Come back at six o'clock. We left him 
 
 Revenir heure quitter ind~4 
 
 at (twelve o'clock). That is at the rate of five per cent. 
 
 midi. C' * raison pour 
 
 The walls of this ancient castle are built with lime and 
 
 murm. chdteaum. bdtir prep, 
 
 cement. It is a steam-engine of (twenty-horsepower). 
 ciment. C 3 machine a vapeur f. la force de vingt chevaux. 
 
 362. The principal use of DE is to express : 
 
 1. place; as, venir de Lyon, to come/rom Lyons. 
 
 2. time; as, il est parti dejour, he went away in the 
 
 day-time. 
 
 3. matter; as, une table de marbre, a marble table ; une 
 
 tabatiere d'or, a gold snuffbox. 
 
 4. possession; as, fe ftwe de Berthe, Bertha's book. 
 
 5. subject ; as, parlons de cefte affaire, let us speak q/ 
 
 that affair. 
 
 6. cause, motive ; as, je suis charme&Q sa fortune, I am 
 
 happy at his fortune. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXVI. 
 
 We come from Dublin, where we have spent a week very 
 
 ou passer huit jours 
 
 agreeably. I intend to go from France to Switzerland ; 
 
 se proposer d' en Suisse 
 
 and from Switzerland to Italy. The seven wonders of the 
 
 Italie. merveille f. 
 
 world were, the walls and gardens of Babylon; the 
 
 ind-2 muraillef. art. Babylone ; 
 
 pyramids of Egypt; the pharos of Alexandria; the 
 pyramide f. Egypte ; phare m. 
 
 mausoleum which Artemisia erected for Mausolus, her husband ; 
 tombeau m. Artemise fit elever Mausole 
 the temple of Diana at Ephesus ; the statue of Jupitej 
 
 m. Ephese; f. 
 
 Olympius, by Phidias; and the colossus at Rhodes. 
 Olympien, colossc m. de 
 
EXERCISES ON THE PREPOSITION EN. 187 
 
 363. The preposition EN serves to mark the relations 
 of place, time, situation, $c., and is variously expressed in 
 English. 
 
 1. place; as, voyager en Allemagne, to travel in Ger- 
 
 many ; alter en Italie, to go to Italy. 
 
 2. time ; as, en hiver, in winter ; en temps de paix, in 
 
 time of peace. 
 
 3. situation, manner ; as, etre en bonne sante, to be in 
 
 good health ; agir en maitre, to act as a master. 
 
 364. REMARK. The noun which follows en seldom 
 admits of the article, whereas the noun which comes 
 after dans is generally preceded by the article. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXVII. 
 
 2 (The same prejudices) J (are found) in Europe, in Asia, in 
 
 prejuge m. on trouve - 
 
 Africa, and even in America. I have travelled in England, 
 
 jusqu* Amerique. 
 
 Scotland, and Ireland. Queen Elizabeth was born 
 
 pr. Ecosse pr. Monde, art. Elisabeth naitre ind-3 
 
 'in 1533, and died in 1603. Narcissus was metamorphosed 
 
 ind-3 Narcisse ind-3 metamorphose 
 
 into a flower. He has acted, on this occasion, like a great 
 
 * agir dans f. * 
 
 man. Conscience warns us as a friend before punishing 
 art. f. avertir * de inf-1 
 
 Us as a judge. My grandmother is alive and in good health. 
 4t 
 
 EXERCISE CXXVIIL 
 
 My father is in Russia, my brother in Prussia, and my sister in 
 
 Russie Prusse 
 
 Austria. (It is computed) that there are in France four hundred 
 Autriche. On compte * * * 
 towns, and forty- three thousand villages. I can go in one 
 
 pouvoir 
 day from Edinburgh to London, and in two days from London to 
 
 a 
 Geneva. He spends the whole day in going from house to 
 
 passer a inf-1 
 
 house, from street to street, and from place to place. 
 
188 
 
 OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 365. The Conjunction is an invariable part of speech, 
 which serves to connect words or sentences. When I 
 say: 
 
 Travaillons, si nous voulons ac- 
 querir des talents, CAR le temps 
 s'enfuit, ET persuadons-nous bien 
 Qu'il ne revient plus. 
 
 Let us work, if we wish to pos- 
 sess acquirements, for time flies, 
 and let us never forget that it 
 returns no more. 
 
 In this phrase the words si, if, car, for, et, and, que, 
 that, are conjunctions, as they serve to unite the different 
 parts of the sentence. 
 
 366. Some conjunctions are simple, that is, they con- 
 sist of a single word ; as, on, or ; mais, but ; others are 
 compound, that is, composed of two or more words, such 
 are, au reste, besides ; a moins que, unless. 
 
 Some grammarians reckon as many sorts of conjunc- 
 tions as there are ways in which the sentence is affected 
 by them, but as these properties are common to both 
 languages, we shall content ourselves with giving here 
 a list of the conjunctions most in use in the French lan- 
 guage. 
 
 367. TABLE OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Aim de, to, in order to. 
 afin que, that,in order that. 
 ainsi, so, thus. 
 car, for. 
 cependant, however, yet. 
 c'est-a-dire, that is to say. 
 comrae. - as. 
 d'ailleurs, besides. 
 de plus, moreover. 
 de sorte que, so that. 
 done, then, therefore. 
 et, and. 
 jusqu' a ce que, till, until. 
 lorsque, when. 
 mais, but. 
 ne"anmoins, nevertheless. 
 
 ni, nor, neither. 
 or, now, then. 
 ou, or. 
 ou bien, or else. 
 parce que, because. 
 pendant que, while, whilst. 
 pourtant, however, yet. 
 pourvu que, provided that. 
 puisque, since. 
 quand, though, although. 
 que, that. 
 quoi^ue, though, although. 
 savoir, namely, to wit, viz. 
 si, if. 
 sinon, if not, or else. 
 soit, whether. 
 
EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS. 189 
 
 EXERCISE CXXIX. 
 
 I have brought this book in order to consult it. To listen 
 
 lime m. Ecouter 
 
 with joy to a slanderer, and to applaud him, is to cherish 
 
 * medisantm. lui c' rechauffer 
 
 the serpent that sting's, in order that he may sting 1 more 
 
 m. piquer 
 
 effectually. David was a king and a prophet. All the 
 
 sdrement. ind-2 * * 
 
 evils are (long- ago) out of the box of Pandora, but 
 mal m. depuis longtemps hors boite f. 
 
 hope is yet within. The compass was not 
 
 art. encore dedans. boussolei. n' ind-4 point 
 
 invented by a mariner, nor the telescope by an astronomer, nor 
 trouvee ' marinm. telescope m. 
 
 the microscope by a (natural philosopher), nor printing 1 
 
 m. physicien m. art. imprimerie f . 
 
 by a man of letters, nor gunpowder by a military man. 
 homme de lettres art. poudre a canon f. * 
 
 EXERCISE CXXX. 
 
 Which of the two was most intrepid, Caesar or Alex- 
 
 ind-3 le 
 ander? The memory of Henry IV. is and always will be 
 
 Henri 
 dear to the French, because he placed his glory and 
 
 pi. mettre ind-2 91 
 
 happiness in rendering his people happy. Provided you 
 
 a inf-1 qu' on 
 
 know the ruling passion of anyone you are sure to 
 
 sache ^dominant * f. quelqu'un, on assure de 
 
 please him. The Gauls worshipped Apollo, Minerva, 
 
 lui Oaulois adorer ind-2 Apollon, 
 
 Jupiter, and Mars; they believed that Apollo kept off 
 
 ind-2 chasser ind-2 
 
 diseases ; that Minerva presided over works ; that 
 art. maladief. ind-2 a art. travail m. 
 
 Jupiter was the sovereign of heaven ; and Mars the arbiter 
 
 ind-2 art. pi. 
 
 of war. If you wish to be happy, love virtue. 
 art. 276 * 
 
190 
 
 OF THE INTERJECTION. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF THE INTERJECTION. 
 
 368. The Interjection is a word which serves to ex- 
 press some sudden emotion of the mind. 
 
 The interjections most commonly used in French, 
 are : 
 
 I. For Joy. 
 
 Ah! ah! 
 
 bon ! well ! 
 
 II. For Grief and Pain, 
 ah! 
 
 Ah! 
 aie ! 
 helas! 
 
 ay! oh dear! 
 alas ! 
 
 III. For Fear. 
 
 Ah! 
 he"! 
 
 ah! 
 
 oh! 
 
 IV. For Aversion, Contempt, 
 and Disgust. 
 
 Fi! fy! 
 
 fi done ! fy ! fy ! 
 
 V. For Derision. 
 
 Oh! 
 he! 
 zest ! 
 bah! 
 
 oh! 
 hah! 
 pshaw ! 
 nonsense ! 
 
 VI. For Surprise. 
 
 Oh! oh! 
 
 ha! ha! 
 
 VII. For Admiration. 
 
 Oh! oh! 
 
 ah ! ha ! 
 
 VIII. For Silence. 
 
 Chut! hush! 
 st! hist! 
 
 IX. For Encouraging. 
 
 Ca! \ now! well! 
 oh9a! f goon! 
 
 X. For Warning. 
 
 Gare ! take care ! 
 
 hola! hold! 
 
 hem ! hem ! 
 
 oh! oh! . 
 
 XI. ^or Calling. 
 
 Hola! Aofla/ 
 hS! eA/ ho! 
 
 XII. O (with a circumflex 
 accent) is an interjection which 
 serves to express various emo- 
 tions of the mind ; it is seldom 
 used but in conjunction with a 
 substantive. 
 
 Although several of the preceding interjections are the 
 same for different emotions, yet they vary much in the 
 utterance; 
 
EXERCISES ON INTEKJECTIONS. 191 
 
 Certain words and phrases that are not interjections in 
 their nature, become such when expressed with emotion, 
 and in an unconnected manner ; as, paix I peace ! 
 courage I cheer up ! tout beau ! gently 1 not so fast \ 
 Such are also many words used by the great dramatist 
 Moliere ; as, morbleu ! parbleu J corbleu I 
 
 EXERCISE CXXX1. 
 
 Ah! how glad I am to see you! Ah! the cowards, 
 
 que 2 aise * de Idche 
 
 exclaimed Pompey Ay! you hurt me ! Alas ! I have 
 s'ecrier Pompee. blesser 
 
 lost everything. Ha! you (are there). Oh, oh! 1 
 
 2 Hout voild. 
 
 thought the contrary. Hush ! some one is coming 
 croire ind-2 quelqu'un 
 
 Holla! who is there? O my son, adore God. O supreme 
 
 Zd? 
 
 pleasure to practise virtue ! Come, my friends, cheer up ! 
 de pratiquer art. Allons, 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXII. 
 
 Ha! how beautiful that is! Now! do tell me what 
 
 que l cela 2 * ce que 
 
 you think. Hush! peace! Hah! I think your lordship 
 
 penser croire que 
 
 (is making game) of me. Holla ! where are you ? Ah my 
 
 se moque 
 
 friend! why dost thou wish to undertake that fatiguing 
 vouloir * *fatigant 
 
 journey? Beware of the bomb! - Fy! what infamy! 
 ^voyage m. * bombe f. 
 
 plague take the rogue, to wish to beat his wife. Fy ! fy / 
 
 soil du coquin de 
 Gently, Sir, speak of him with more respect. Courage- 
 
 lui 344 de 
 
 soldiers, fear nothing! 
 
 END OF PART 1. 
 
[ 192 
 
 PART 11. 
 OP SYNTAX. 
 
 369. The word Syntax comes from a Greek word 
 which means arrangement, construction. Syntax teaches 
 the regular construction of the different parts of speech, 
 conformably to the rules of grammar, and the genius of 
 a language. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 370. GENERAL PRINCIPLE. The article is to be used, 
 in French, before every common noun, taken in a deter- 
 minate sense^ unless there be another word , performing 
 the same office ; but it is not to be used before nouns 
 taken in an indeterminate sense. 
 
 CASES IN WHICH THE ARTICLE IS TO BE USED. 
 
 371. RULE I. The article is used, in French, before 
 all nouns employed in a general sense, or in the full 
 extent of their signification, although not used in English ; 
 as. 
 
 L'homme est mortel. j Man is mortal. 
 
 LA guerre est un fl^au. War is a scourge. 
 
 Man is here employed in a general sense for all man- 
 kind, and War is taken for war in general, and not for 
 any particular war. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 193 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXIII. 
 
 Ladies have always reverenced fashion. Liberty is the 
 reverer mode f. 
 
 natural state of man. Heroes have their moments of fear, 
 2 l etatm. heros crainte, 
 
 and cowards their moments of bravery. Children owe 
 Idche bravoure. doivent 
 
 respect to their masters. Fear and ignorance are the sources 
 maitre 
 
 of superstition. Interest is the touchstone of friendship. 
 f. interU m. pierre de louche f. 
 
 Honour is badly guarded, when religion is not at the 
 honneurhmu. mal garde, lorsque 
 
 out-posts. Contentment prolongs life. Vice is odious. 
 avant-postes. prolonger ' m. odieux. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXIV. 
 
 Bread is the staff of life. Necessity is the mother of 
 soutien m. 
 
 invention. Custom is the legislator of 
 
 usage m. legislateur m. langue f. 
 
 Success repays us for all our troubles. There is nothing 
 succes m. paie de peine f. II 
 
 that man gives so liberally as counsel. Innoculation 
 que aussi IMralement que conseil pi. f. 
 
 passed from Constantinople to London in 1721, and to 
 passer ind-3 a en 
 
 Paris in 1755. The Persians who worshipped fire, and the 
 Perse qui adorer ind-2 
 
 Egyptians who worshipped crocodiles, were idolaters. 
 Egyptien m. ind-2 idoldtre 
 
 372. RULE II. The article is used in both languages 
 before nouns denoting a particular thing or object, one 
 particular individual or class ; as, 
 
 LA terre tourne autour du soleil, et 
 LA lune tourne autour de la terre. 
 
 L'homme dont vous parlez, est un 
 de mes amis. 
 
 The earth turns round the sun, and 
 the moon turns round the earth. 
 
 The man of whom you speak is a 
 friend of mine. 
 
 N 
 
194 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXV. 
 
 The diseases of the mind are more difficult to cure than 
 maladie f. dme f. difficile guerir que 
 
 those of the body The empire of Alexander was divided 
 
 99 m. m&-3partage 
 
 among his generals. The Parthenon was in the citadel of 
 entre Parthenonm. ind-2 citadellef. 
 
 Athens. The city of Rome was founded 753 years before 
 Athenes. villeL a ete fonde anm. 
 
 Jesus Christ. Fabius was appointed dictator in the war 
 Jesus-Christ. ind-3 nomme dictateur 
 
 against Hannibal. The Roman empire extended from the 
 Annibal. 2 - 1 s'etendait depuis 
 
 Western Ocean to the Euphrates. (According to) 
 
 ^occidental 1 Ocean m. jusqu' d, Euphrate. Selon 
 
 the poets, the car of Venus was drawn by doves. 
 poete m. char m. Venus ind-2 attele de colombe f. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXVI. 
 
 The birth of JESUS CHRIST is the era of the Christians, 
 naissance f. ere f. 
 
 and the flight of Mahomet is that of the Mahometans, 
 fuite f. 99 mahometan 
 
 commonly called the hegira. The first year of 
 2 ordinairement l appelee hegire h mu. annee f. 
 
 the hegira corresponds to the year 622 of JESUS CHRIST. 
 repond 
 
 In the time of Philip the Fairf, there were only the dukes, 
 De Philippe-le-Bel, il n'y avait que due 
 
 the counts, and the barons whose ladies had the 
 comte dont mi.femme eussent 
 
 right to (treat themselves) with four gowns a year. 
 droit m. de se donner * robe f. par an. 
 
 The invention of the barometer is due to Pascal. 
 f. barometre m. 
 
 t Ascended the throne in 1285 ; died in 1314. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 195 
 
 373. RULE III. The article is used, in French, before 
 the names of arts, sciences, virtues, vices, metals ; and 
 also before adjectives, infinitives, adverbs, prepositions, 
 and conjunctions, used substantively ; as, 
 
 L/ivrognerie est un vice affreux. 
 LE vert plait aux yeux. 
 LE savoir a son prix. 
 
 Drunkenness is a dreadful vice. 
 Green pleases .the eye. 
 Knowledge has its value. 
 
 374. N.B. Adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc. used sub- 
 stantively, are masculine in French. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXVH. 
 
 Before studying navigation said, fortification (it is necessary to) 
 Avant d' etudier f. pi. ilfaut 
 
 know mathematics. Grammar teaches to speak correctly, 
 265 mathematiques pi. apprendred correctement 
 
 rhetoric to speak elegantly. Chronology and geography 
 rhetorique f. elegamment. chronologic f. geographic f. 
 
 are the eyes of history. Faith, hope, and charity are . 
 yeux art. foif. esperancef. des 
 
 cardinal virtues. Intemperance and idleness are the two 
 Hheologale x paresse f. 
 
 most dangerous enemies of life. The principal metals are : 
 plus ennemim. art. f. 
 
 gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and lead. He 
 or m. argent m. cuivre m. etain m. fer m. plomb m. 
 
 knows Latin and French She (is fond of) blue Eating, 
 savoir aime bleu. manger 
 
 drinking, and sleeping, are necessary to man. 
 boire dormir art. 
 
 375. RULE IV. The article is put before the names of 
 countries, provinces, islands, mountains, rivers, and 
 winds; but countries having the same name as their 
 capitals do not take the article ; as, 
 
 L'Angleterre et LA France sont 
 
 deux etats puissants. 
 Naples est un pays delicieux. 
 
 England and France are two 
 
 powerful states. 
 Naples is a delightful country. 
 
196 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXVUI. 
 
 Europe contains the following states: on the north, 
 
 contenir *suivant ^tatm. d nord m. 
 
 Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, and the British 
 Norwegef. Suede f. Danemarkm. Russief. *Britanniques 
 
 Islands; in the middle, France, Belgium, Holland, 
 Hies d milieu m. f. Belgique f. Hollande f. 
 
 Germany or the (German States), Prussia, Poland, 
 Allemagne f. * Confederation germanique, Prusse f . Pologne f . 
 
 Hungary, Austria, and Switzerland ; on the south, 
 
 HongrieLhos^. AutricheL Suissef. a midim. 
 
 Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Turkey in Europe. 
 EspagneL m. Itahef. Gfrecef. Turquiei. d' 
 
 Lapland is the country of the reindeer. Burgundy 
 Laponie f. patrie f. renne m. Bourgogne f. 
 
 produces excellent wine. Sicily is the granary of Italy, 
 produire d' Sidle f. grenier m. 
 
 EXERCISE CXXXIX. 
 
 France is separated from Italy by the Alps, and from 
 
 separe Alpes f. pi. 
 
 Spain by the Pyrenees. The principal rivers of Europe 
 
 Pyrenees f. pi. riviere f. 
 
 are : the Volga, the Dnieper or Boristhenes, the Don or 
 
 m. Dnieper m. Borysthenes in. 
 
 Tanais, in Russia ; the Danube, the Rhine, and the Elbe, 
 
 en m. Rhinm. - m 
 
 in Germany ; the Vistula, in Poland ; the Loire, the Seine, 
 
 Vistulef. f. f. 
 
 the Rhone, and the Garonne, in France; the Ebro, the 
 
 Rhone m. f. Ebre m. 
 
 Tagus, and tfAe Douro, in Spain ; tffoPo, and the Tiber, 
 
 Tage m. m. P6 m. Tibre m. 
 
 in Italy; the Thames, the Mersey, and^e Severn, in England; 
 
 Tamise f. f. Saverne f. 
 
 and the Shannon, in Ireland The first pheasants came 
 
 m. Irlande. faisanm.sontvenus 
 
 from the banks of the Phasis, a river of Colchis. 
 bordm. Phase m. * fleuvem. Oolchidef. 
 
SYNTAX Otf THE ARTICLE. 197 
 
 EXCEPTIONS AND REMARKS. 
 
 376. (1.) The article is not used before the names of 
 countries when they are preceded by the preposition en ; 
 as, Demeurer en Angleterre, to live in England ; Alter en 
 AUemagne, to go to Germany. 
 
 With the names of towns, the proposition a, and not en, is used ; as, 
 Demeurer a Londres, to live in London/ Eire a Paris, to be in Paris. 
 
 377. (2.) When the names of countries are governed 
 by some preceding noun, and have the meaning of an 
 adjective, they are used without the article ; as, roi 
 d'Espagne, king of Spain ; vim de France, French wines ; 
 laine d 1 Angleterre, English wool. 
 
 378. (3.) The article is not used when we speak of 
 countries as of places one comes or sets out from ; as, II 
 vient d'ltalie, he comes from Italy ; f arrive de France, 
 I am just arrived from France. In this case, however, we 
 use the article before the names of the five great divisions 
 of the world ; as, je viens de VAsie, il arrive de I'Ame'rique. 
 
 379. (4.) Most names of countries out of Europe, keep 
 the article ; therefore, instead of the prepositions en and 
 de, used alone, as in the preceding cases, we employ the 
 prepositions a and de, with the article; thus we say, 
 je vais au Japon (and not en Japon), I am going to 
 Japan ; j' arrive du Canada (and not de Canada), I am 
 just arrived from Canada. 
 
 EXERCISE CXL. 
 
 In Norway 9 they cover the houses with the bark of the 
 En on couvrir avec ecorcef. 
 
 birch-tree. We intend going to Switzerland and 
 bouleau m. se proposer d ' inf-1 en 
 
 Italy. Three English miles are a little more than 
 *d' Angleterre ^millem.font plus d' 
 
 one French league. My brother will soon return from 
 *de France Hieue f. revenir 
 
 Russia. I sailed from Holland for the Cape of 
 
 ca-pm. 
 
198 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE* 
 
 Good Hope. We had set out from Africa, when he 
 
 Bonne- Esperance. ind-2 partir 
 
 arrived there. He is gone to China. Chocolate was 
 ind-3 y aller Chine f. chocolat m. ind-3 
 
 brought from Mexico to Europe by the Spaniards. 
 
 apporter Mexique m. en Espagnol 
 
 380. RULE V. Nouns used in a partitive sense, that is, 
 denoting only a part of anything, which is marked in 
 English by the words some or any, sometimes expressed 
 and oftener understood, must be preceded in French by 
 du, de la, de V, des, according to the gender and number 
 of the noun. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Donnez-moi du pain, de la viande, 
 
 et des habits. 
 A-t-il de r argent ou des amis? 
 
 Give me some bread, meat, and 
 
 clothes. 
 Has he any money or any friends f 
 
 381. Exception. When a noun in the partitive sense 
 is preceded by an adjective, instead of du, de la, de V, 
 des, the preposition de only is used ; as, 
 
 Donnez-moi de bon pain, de bonne 
 viande, et de bons habits. 
 
 Give me some good bread, good 
 meat, and good clothes. 
 
 (For farther explanations, see No. 32, and the Remarks, p. 63.) 
 
 In these expressions : des petits pois, des petites raves, 
 des petits-pdtes, des petits-maitres, des jeunes gens, etc., 
 the substantives are so united with the adjectives, as to 
 form but one and the same word, and take the article 
 according to Rule V. 
 
 We likewise say: I 'opinion DES anciens philosophes; 
 la suite DES grandes passions ; le propre DES belles actions, 
 etc., because, in expressions of this kind, the nouns are 
 not used in a partitive but in a general sense. 
 
 EXERCISE CXL1. 
 
 I have bought some books. Have you any change ? 
 
 monnaie f. 
 
 Provence and Languedoc produce oranges, olives, almonds, 
 - f. m. produire f. f . amande f 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 199 
 
 chesnuts, figs, peaches, apricots, and grapes. He asks 
 chdtaigne y f.figuef. p&cheL abricotm. raisin m. 
 
 for red wine. To write well, one must have good paper, good 
 * 2 * Pour 2 * il faut * 
 
 ink) and good pens. A great heart, said a king of Persia, 
 encre f. cceur m. ind-2 Perse 
 
 receives little presents with one hand, and makes large ones 
 d' en faire grand * 
 
 with the other. (He is always seen) with wits or 
 de On le voit toujours beaux-esprits 
 
 great lords. Have you any green peas f 
 grands-seigneurs. petits pois 
 
 382. RULE VI. The English make use of the indefinite 
 article a or an, before nouns of measure, weight, and 
 number ; but the French use the article le, la ; as, 
 
 Un schelling L'aune. 
 Six sous LA livre. 
 Cinq schellings LE cent. 
 
 A shilling a yard. 
 Six-pence a pound. 
 Five shillings a hundred. 
 
 383. But, in speaking of time, a or an is expressed in 
 French by par ; as, so much a- week, tant PAR semaine. 
 
 A-head, is rendered by par ttte;80 much each, tant par personne;so much 
 a lesson, tant par lefon. 
 
 EXERCISE CXLII. 
 
 Corn sells at seven shillings a bushel. The best 
 art. ble m. se vend * boisseau m. 
 
 French wines sell for five shillings a bottle. That 
 2 de France l se vendent * bouteille f . 
 
 grocer, sells sugar at three pounds a hundred- weight, 
 epicierm. vend art. * livres sterling quintal m. 
 
 coffee at two shillings a pound, and pepper at two-pence 
 art. * livre f. art. poivre m. * 
 
 an ounce How much a dozen ? (Here are) excellent 
 once f. douzaine f. Void 
 
 oysters at one shilling a hundred. He gives him a hundred 
 huttref. * 
 
 pounds a year ; it is more than eight pounds a month. 
 iivrcff sterling (f de 
 
400 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 384. RULE VII. When the article is used before the 
 first of a series of nouns, it must be repeated before 
 each ; as, 
 
 re vis hier le roi, a reine, et les I / saw the king, queen, andprinces, 
 princes. yesterday. 
 
 So you will not say : les officiers et soldats ; le p$re et 
 Yfiere ; les frdres et soeurs ; but you will say : les officiers 
 et les soldats ; le pere et la mere ; lesfreres et les soeurs. 
 
 Sote This rule applies to the prepositions d and de, and to all the words which 
 hold the place of the article. We must therefore say : /'at" partt, & la reine et a 
 la princesse, I have spoken to the queen and the princess. Son pere et sa mere. 
 lis father and mother. 
 
 EXERCISE CXLIII. 
 
 The gentleman and lady are gone. Gold, silver 
 monsieur dame partis, art. 
 
 health, honours, and pleasures, cannot make a man happy, 
 write f . ne peuvent rendre V 
 
 without virtue. Self-love and pride are 
 
 art. art. amour-propre m- orgueil m. 
 
 always the offspring of a weak mind. Innocence of 
 partage m. *faible * esprit m. art. f. 
 
 manners, sincerity, and abhorrence of vice 
 art. mceurs pi. horreur h mu. art. m. 
 
 inhabit this happy region. Poetry, painting, and music 
 habiter region f. art. poesief. peinturei. musiquef. 
 
 are (sister arts). The love for one's father and mother is 
 soeurs. amour m. son 
 
 the basis of every virtue The city of Andrew and Peter. 
 
 basef. tout art. pi. villef. 
 
 385. RULE VIII. When two adjectives are united by 
 the conjunction et (and), and one of them is intended to 
 qualify a substantive expressed and the other a substan- 
 tive understood, the article must be repeated, in French, 
 before each adjective ; as, 
 
 l/histoire ancienne et LA moderne. 
 Le premier et LE second 6tage. 
 Les philosophes anciens et LES mo- 
 dernes. 
 
 Ancient and modern history. 
 The first and the second floor. 
 Ancient and modern philosophers. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 201 
 
 There are two histories, two floors, philosophers both 
 ancient and modern ; the one expressed, the other under- 
 stood ; therefore the article must be repeated. 
 
 AS* Observe that the substantive is not put in the plural : Fhistoire ancienne et 
 fa moderne, le premier et le second ktage, because these phrases are elliptical, and 
 stand for Fhistoire ancienne et Phistoire moderne, le premier dtage et le second itage, 
 
 386. But, when the adjectives united by et (and), qua- 
 lify only one substantive, and no other is understood, the 
 article is not repeated; so we say with the modern 
 grammarians : Le sage et pieux Fenelon, the wise and 
 pious Fenelon ; and with Boileau : 
 
 Le doux et tendre ouvrage (The sweet and tender workj 
 
 because it is the same person that is wise and pious, 
 and the same work which is sweet and tender. 
 
 Note. This rule, on the repetition or non-repetition of the Article, applies also 
 to won, ton, o, leur< ce, cet, un, unt, etc. 
 
 EXEKCISE CXLIV. 
 
 The first and the second volume. The first and the fourth 
 m. 
 
 class. The fifteenth and the sixteenth century were marked 
 classed. sieclem. ind-4 marque 
 
 by great discoveries. The faults of Peter the Great 
 381 decouvertef. defautm. Pierre 
 
 tarnished his great and admirable qualities. Can anyone 
 ternir ind-4 qualite f. Peut-on 
 
 contemplate the heavens, without being convinced that 
 contempler del m. sing 1 . inf-1 convaincre 
 
 the universe is governed by a supreme and divine Intelligence ? 
 gouverner f. 
 
 Homer has described men such as they were with their 
 Homere peindre tel qu' ind-2 
 
 and bad qualities. My brother and sister are going to Pan. 
 qualite f. 
 
202 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 CASES IN WHICH THE ARTICLE IS NOT USED. 
 387. RULE I. The article is omitted before substantives, 
 when, in using them, nothing is said as to the extent of 
 their signification. 
 
 EXAMPLES. [friends. 
 
 Un tyran n'a ni parents ni amis. 
 
 Les chemins sont horde's de lauriers, 
 de grenadiers, de jasmins, et 
 d'autres arbres toujours verts et 
 toujours fleuris. (Fenelon.} 
 
 A tyrant has neither relations no: 
 
 The highways are bordered with 
 
 laurels, pomegranates, jessamines, 
 
 and other trees which are always 
 
 green, and always in bloom. 
 
 It follows from this rule that the article is not used 
 before substantives : 
 
 388. (1.) When they are in the form of a title or an 
 address ; as, 
 
 Observations on the situation of 
 
 OBSERVATIONS sur I'&at de 1'Eu- 
 
 rope. 
 II demeure RUE Piccadilly, QUAR- 
 
 Europe. 
 He lives in Piccadilly, St James's. 
 
 TIER Saint-James. 
 
 389. (2.) When they are governed by the preposition 
 en; as, 
 
 Etre en vitte. > To be in town. 
 
 Vivre en prince. To live like a prince. 
 
 390. (3.) When they are used as an apostrophe or in- 
 terjection ; as, 
 
 Courage, soldats, tenez ferme! | Courage, soldiers, stand firm! 
 We say, however, to a person whom we do not know, and with whom we are 
 on no ceremony: JEcoutez, Fhommel Hark ye, my manl Lafille, arrttezl Stop, 
 girl! etc (Diet, de F 'Elocution Frangaise.) 
 
 391. No article is used, but simply the preposition de, 
 after the words sorte, genre, espece, melange, and such 
 like ; as, une sorte DE fruit, a kind of fruit. 
 
 EXERCISE CXLV. 
 
 (We see there) neither marble, nor columns, nor pictures, nor 
 
 On n'y voit marbre colonne tableau 
 
 statues. The fleets of Solomon, under the conduct of the 
 
 flotte f . Salomon conduite f. 
 
 Phoenicians, made frequent voyages to the land of Ophir and 
 
 Phenicien ind-2 m. terref. 
 
 Tharsis, in Ethiopia, whence they returned at the end 
 de en d'ou revenir ind-2 boutm 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 203 
 
 of three years, laden with gold, silver, ivory, precious 
 charge de ivoire m. 
 
 stones, and other kinds of merchandise. I will pay you in 
 espece f. marchandises. en 
 
 gold He lived and died like a philosopher Come, 
 vivre ind-3 ind-3 Allans, 
 
 children, work That kind of work does not please 
 genre m. ouvrage plaire 
 
 everybody. History of the Roman emperorb 
 a tout le monde. 2 l 
 
 392. RULE II. No article is used before proper names 
 of deities, persons, animals, towns, and particular places. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Dieu est tout-puissant. 
 
 Jupiter et Venus dtaient des divi- 
 
 nite's paiennes. 
 Edimbourg est une belle ville. 
 
 God is all-powerful. 
 
 Jupiter and Venus were heathen 
 
 divinities. 
 Edinburgh is a fine city. 
 
 Some proper names of towns and particular places always keep the article as an 
 inseparable part of the name ; as, La Rochelle, La Ffeche, la Haye. le Caire, la 
 Afecque, <fec. 
 
 393. Proper names, however, take the article, when 
 used in a particular sense, or to denote an individual dis- 
 tinction; as, 
 
 Le Dieu des Chretiens. 
 Le Jupiter d'Homere. 
 La Ve'nus de Me'dicis. 
 
 The God of the Christians. 
 Homer's Jupiter. 
 The Venus de' Medici. 
 
 394. Observation. In imitation of the Italians, the 
 French use the article before the names of several cele- 
 brated Italian poets and painters, the word poete or 
 peintre, being then understood ; as, le Dante, le Tasse, 
 I'Arioste, le Titien, le Guide. However, we say Petrarque, 
 Bocace, Michel-Ange, Raphael, etc. ; it is usage that de- 
 cides here, as in many other cases. 
 
 EXERCISE CXLVI. 
 
 God said . let there be light, and there was tight The 
 
 ind-3 que la lumiere soit, * 2 ind-3 l 
 
 God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, was the only true God. 
 
 ind-2 seul vrai 
 
 Plato, Aristotle, Homer, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and 
 Pfaton. Aristote* Demosthene. Ciceron. Virgile* 
 
204 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Livi/i are classical authors. Achilles is the hero 
 Tite-Live, des 2 classique 1 Achille heros h asp. 
 
 of the Hiad; JEneas is the hero of the Eneid. Helen was 
 Iliadef. Enee Entidef. Helene ind-4 
 
 the ruin of Troy Bucephalus (would carry none but) Alex- 
 
 Troie. Bucephale ne voulait porter qu' 
 ander. Carthage was the rival of Rome. Dante, Tasso, 
 
 ind-2 rivalef. 
 
 and Ariosto, hold the first rank among the Italian poets 
 tenir rangm. parmi 
 
 395. RULE III. The article is not used, in French, 
 before the ordinal numbers first, second, third, fourth, 
 etc., when they come after the name of a sovereign, or 
 after the words book, chapter, or such like ; as, 
 
 Edouard premier. 
 Richard trois. 
 Livre premier. 
 Chapitre second. 
 
 Edward the first. 
 Richard the third. 
 Book the first. 
 Chapter the second. 
 
 396. Observe that, in French, we make use of the 
 cardinal numbers instead of the ordinal, in speaking of 
 sovereigns, with the exception of the first of the series. 
 With the second, it is optional to use deux or second, for 
 we say indifferently Henri deux or Henri second. (Acad.) 
 
 397. The cardinal or ordinal numbers are indifferently 
 used, the first excepted, after the words livre, chapitre, 
 page, or such like. We say, livre premier, section premiere, 
 and not lime un, section une. But we say either livre 
 huit or huitidme ; chapitre dix or dixieme ; page trois or 
 troisidme ; tome second or tome deux, etc. (A cad.) 
 
 (For farther Remarks, see pages 34, 35.) 
 
 EXERCISE CXLVII. 
 
 Pope Leo the tenth and Luther were cotemporaries. 
 art. pape Leon contemporain 
 
 William the third married the princess Mary, daughter 
 Guillaume epouser ind-3 Marie 
 
 of James the second, and granddaughter of Charles the first 
 Jacques petite-filk 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE 205 
 
 Louis the eleventh had a Scotch guard. Louis the fifteenth 
 ind-2 2 ecossais l garde f. 
 
 was the great grandson of Louis the fourteenth Book the 
 ind-2 arriere-petit-fils 
 
 sixth, chapter the fifth Volume the third, section the seventh, 
 
 article the first. Rule the fourth, page the ninth. 
 regie f . 
 
 398. RULE IV. No article is used before nouns pre- 
 ceded by any of the possessive, demonstrative, or inde- 
 finite adjectives won, ton, son, notre, wire, leur, ce, nul, 
 aucuHj chaque, tout (used for chaque], certain, plusieurs, 
 tel, nor before those which are preceded by a cardinal 
 number; as, 
 
 I/on frere et ma sceur apprennent 
 
 la geographic. 
 Cette montre est boniie ; donnez-la 
 
 votre sceur. 
 Tout homme pent mentir, mais 
 
 tout homme ne inent pas. 
 J'ai trois clievaux. 
 
 My brother and sister are learning 
 
 geography. 
 This watch is good ; give it to your 
 
 sister. 
 
 Every man can lie, but every man 
 
 does not lie. 
 I have three horses. 
 
 (See Observations, pp. 42, 43, and Rule, p. 44.) 
 
 EXERCISE CXLVIII. 
 
 It is my turn to speak Give me the number of his 
 
 C" a tour m. d> numero m. 
 
 house. The Seine has its source in Burgundy, and its 
 
 f. f. en 
 
 mouth at Havre-de-Grace. All the husbands were at 
 embouchure f. au mari ind-2 
 
 the ball with their wives These ladies (are waiting for) 
 
 bal m. femme dame attendent 
 
 their carriages. Those two boys have lost their hats. 
 
 voiture f. 
 The Saracens occupied Spain during several centuries. 
 
 Sarrasins ontoccupe pendant sieclem. 
 
 The city of Troy sustained a siege of ten years. - 
 mile f Tr&ic soutint an m. 
 
 The pound sterling (is worth) about twenty -five francs. 
 vaut environ 
 
206 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE, 
 
 399. RULE V. The indefinite article, a or cm, used in 
 English, before nouns expressing title, profession, trade, 
 country, or any attribute of the noun preceding, is omitted 
 in French ; as, 
 
 Le due d'York, prince du sang. 
 
 Je suis me*decin. 
 II est libraire. 
 Etes-vous Fran^ais ? 
 Je viens de Caen, ville de Nor- 
 mandie. 
 
 TJie Duke of York, a prince of 
 the blood. 
 
 I am a physician. 
 
 He is a bookseller. 
 
 Are you a Frenchman ? 
 
 I come from Caen, a town of Nor- 
 mandy. 
 
 400. But when an adjective is joined to the noun, or 
 when it is specified by some circumstance, then a or an 
 must be expressed in French ; as, 
 
 Je suis UN prince infortune*. 
 M. Walewski est UN Polonais 
 d'une illustre maison. 
 
 I am an unfortunate prince. 
 M. Walewski is a Pole of an illus- 
 trious family. 
 
 A or an is also expressed in French after c'est ; as, 
 (Test UN eVe"que. | He is a bishop. 
 
 401. RULE VI. The English indefinite article a or an 
 is omitted in French, after quel, q'aelle, what, used as an 
 exclamation ; as, 
 
 Quel malheur! 
 Quelle beaute* ! 
 Quelle belle maison ! 
 Quelle folie d'agir ainsi 1 
 
 What a misfortune I 
 What a beauty ! 
 What a beautiful house, ! 
 What & folly to act thus! 
 
 EXERCISE CXLIX. 
 
 Napoleon was (at once) an emperor, a warrior, and a 
 
 ind-2 dlafois guerrier, 
 
 statesman. Socrates was a philosopher; Apelles, a 
 homme d'etat.- Socrate ind-2 Apelle 
 
 painter; Phidias, a sculptor; Cicero, an orator; Livy, an 
 
 peintre Tite-iive 
 
 historian ; and Virgil, a poet. His father was a barrister. 
 historien poete. ind-2 avocat. 
 
 I am an Englishman, and a merchant. The best coffee 
 
 negociant. cafe in. 
 
 comes from Mocha, a town of Arabia Felix. I am an 
 Moka, heurcuse. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 207 
 
 unhappy Spaniard, who seek an asylum, where 1 may 
 malheureux Espagnol, cherche asile m. oil puisse 
 
 end my days in peace He is an officer He is a captain 
 
 finir en C' officier. II 
 
 What a noise you make ! What a beautiful morning 1 ! 
 bruit m. matinee f . 
 
 402. RULE VII. No article is used, but only the pre- 
 position de, after the following adverbs : 
 
 assez, 
 
 enough. 
 
 moms, 
 
 less, fewer. 
 
 autant, 
 
 as much, as many. 
 
 pas or point, 
 
 no. 
 
 beaucoup, 
 
 much, very much, 
 
 peu, 
 
 little, few. 
 
 
 many. 
 
 plus, 
 
 more. 
 
 combien, i 
 
 how much, how 
 
 rien, 
 
 nothing. 
 
 que, 
 
 many. 
 
 tant, 
 
 so much, so many 
 
 jamais, . 
 
 never. 
 
 trop, 
 
 too much, too 
 
 
 
 many. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Beaucoup DE nations. 
 
 Plus D'effets et moins DE paroles. 
 
 Trop DE peine. 
 
 Many nations. 
 
 More deeds and fewer words. 
 
 Too much trouble. 
 
 Bien, in the sense of beaucoup, is the only adverb of 
 quantity which, besides the preposition de, requires the 
 article; as, 
 
 Elle a Men DE i/esprit. 
 II a bien DBS amis. 
 
 She has a great deal of wit. 
 He has many friends. 
 
 But, should the substantive that comes after the ad- 
 verb be particularized by what follows, it requires the 
 article; as, 
 
 J'ai encore beaucoup DE i/argent 
 que j'ai apporte* de France. 
 
 / have still a good deal of the 
 
 money which 
 France. 
 
 I brought from 
 
 EXERCISE CL. 
 
 1 have enough money. The elephant has much intelligence. 
 elephant f. 
 
 For one Plato in opulence, how many Homers and JSsops 
 dans f . Homeres h mu. Esopes 
 
 in indigence ! The honest man is esteemed, even by those 
 dans f. horw&e estime dc 
 
208 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 who have no probity. There is no church (that can be) 
 pas II n'yapoint eglise qu'onpuisse 
 
 compared to Saint Peter's of Rome. He has few friends. 
 inf-1 
 
 Mothers have often too much indulgence for their children. 
 371 f. 
 
 Study presents so many advantages that one cannot 
 371 etude f. offrir avantage m. on ne saurait 
 
 (give himself up to it) with too much ardour. 
 s'y livrer 
 
 403. RULE VIII. No article is used before nouns 
 joined to verbs with which they express but one idea, 
 and form idiomatical expressions ; as, 
 
 Ajouter foi, to give credit. 
 Avoir besoin, to want, to be in 
 need of. 
 
 carte blanche, to have full 
 
 power. 
 
 chaud, to be warm. 
 
 froid, to be cold. 
 
 compassion, to commiserate. 
 
 dessein, to intend. 
 
 envie, to wish. 
 
 faim, to be hungry. 
 
 soif, to be thirsty. 
 
 honte, to be ashamed. 
 
 patience, to have patience. 
 
 - peur, to be afraid. 
 
 - pitie, to pity. 
 
 raison, to be in the right. 
 
 tort, to be in the wrong. 
 
 soin, to take care. 
 Donner carte blanche, to give 
 
 full power. 
 
 Faire attention, to attend, to 
 mind. 
 
 peur, to frighten. 
 
 Faire plaisir, to do a favour. 
 
 semblant, to pretend, to 
 
 tort, to wrong. {feign. 
 
 voile, to set sail. 
 Mettre fin, to put an end. 
 Parler allemand, to speak Ger- 
 man. 
 
 anglais, to speak English. 
 
 francais, to speak French. 
 Porter oonheur, to bring good 
 
 luck. 
 
 malheur, to bring bad luck. 
 
 envie, to bear envy. 
 Prendre courage, to take cou- 
 rage, to cheer up. 
 
 garde, to take care. 
 
 jour, to appoint a day. 
 
 patience, to take patience, 
 
 to bear or wait patiently. 
 
 plaisir, to delight. 
 
 racine, to take root. 
 Rendre visite, to pay a visit. 
 Tenir tete, to cope with one, to 
 
 oppose. 
 
 404. REMARK. The article is sometimes omitted before substantives, 
 is order to render the language more striking and expressive. When 
 we say, Pauvrete n'est pas vice / Contentement passe richesse, we ex- 
 press ourselves with more life than if we were to say, La pauvrete" n'est 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 209 
 
 pas un vice ; Le contentement passe la richesse. See also this phrase 
 of FLf CHIER : Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, peuples, rois, empereurs, 
 le plaignent et le reverent. It has much more liveliness, energy, and 
 grace, than it would have by re-establishing the articles : Les citoyens, 
 les Strangers, etc., le plaignent et le reverent. 
 
 EXERCISE CLI. 
 
 I want a hat We intend to travel. We must always 
 
 d' de II faut 
 
 pity the unfortunate. I (do not know) who is in the wrong. 
 
 de malheureux pi. ne sais qui 
 The king has given full power to that general. That man 
 
 pretends to sleep. The night put an end to the battle. 
 
 de ind-3 combat m. 
 
 Take care of yourself. He will come in a moment, have 
 
 Prendre d vous. ind-7 dans prendre 
 
 patience Towers, spires, trees, flocks, huts, houses, 
 
 Tour f. clocher m. troupeau m. cabane f. 
 palaces, everything was swallowed up by the waves of the sea. 
 tout ind-3 englouti flotm. merf. 
 
 EXERCISE CLH. 
 
 You are wrong, it is he who is right. -The fox sometimes 
 
 c' lui 
 feigns to be dead. Speak French to us. She speaks Italian, 
 
 d' 
 
 Spanish, German, arid English. Let us say no ill of Boileau, 
 espagnol, de mal 
 
 said Voltaire, that brings bad luck.Mj vine wants cutting. 
 cela d" ebre taillee. 
 
 Are you cold $ I am neither cold nor warm. Are you hungry, 
 
 ni 
 my boy? No, but I am very thirsty. Mind what he says to 
 
 mais d 
 
 you. We must not wrong our neighbour. The service that 
 
 II a son prochain. m. 
 
 I have rendered him seems to have brought me good luck. 
 
 sembler * 
 
 Vice cannot take root in a heart like his. 
 art. m. ne saurait comme 94 
 
210 SYNTAX OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN. 
 I. FUNCTIONS OF THE SUBSTANTIVE 
 
 405. The Substantive is either the subject of the 
 verb, or is governed by the verb, in which case it is 
 called the regimen. 
 
 In this phrase : la mere aime ses enfants, the mother 
 loves her children ; la mere is the subject, or nominative 
 case ; and enfants is the regimen, object, or accusative 
 case. Ses enfants is also called the regimen direct, be- 
 cause there is no preposition intervening between it and 
 the verb aime. 
 
 In les enfants obeissent a la mere, the children obey the 
 mother ; les enfants is the subject, and a la mere is the 
 regimen ; and this regimen is called indirect because it 
 has a preposition (a) before it. 
 
 H. OF THE GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 406. We have already said (p. 11) that there are in 
 French only two genders, the masculine and the feminine. 
 
 The masculine gender expresses the male kind, and 
 the feminine gender denotes the female kind. 
 
 The French language has no neuter; consequently, 
 inanimate objects are either masculine or feminine. 
 
 407. Generally speaking, French substantives have but 
 one gender ; a few of them, however, are masculine in 
 one signification, and feminine in another. The following 
 are those most in use : 
 
 AIGLE (eagle) is feminine in the sense of a standard, 
 an ensign in war: Vaigle ROMAINE, I'aigle IMPERIALS. 
 In every other sense it is masculine : Aigle NOIR ; aigle 
 ROYAL ; Vaire D'UN aigle. C'est UN aigle, in speaking of 
 a man of genius, of superior talent. 
 
OF THE GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 211 
 
 COUPLE is feminine when it means a brace, two of a 
 sort ; as, UNE couple de perdrix ; UNE couple d'ceufs. It is 
 masculine when speaking of a man and wife ; as, Ce fut 
 
 UN HEUREUX COUple. 
 
 CREPE, masc. crape; fern, pancake. 
 
 ENFANT is masculine, when speaking of a boy : c'est 
 UN Ion enfant; and feminine, when it is said of a girl: 
 voila UNE belle enfant. 
 
 GENS (people) requires all words preceding it and re- 
 lating to it to be in the feminine, and all words following 
 it to be in the masculine : Us VIEILLES gens sont SOUP- 
 90NNEUX; TOUTES les ME"CHANTES gens. However, in- 
 stead of toutes, tons is employed, 1st, When that adjective 
 is the only one that precedes the substantive gens : TOUS 
 les gens qui raisonnent ; TOUS les gens pieux. 2dly, When 
 gens is preceded by an adjective 'which has only one and 
 the same termination for both genders, such as aimable, 
 brave, honnete, etc. TOUS les honnetes gens; TOUS les ha- 
 biles gens. (Acad.) 
 
 LIVRE, masc. a book ; fern, a pound. 
 
 MANCHE, masc. the handle of a tool ; fern, a sleeve, 
 the English Channel. 
 
 M^MOIRE, masc. a memoir, a bill ; fern, the memory. 
 
 MOUSSE, masc. a young apprentice sailor; fern, moss, 
 froth. 
 
 PAGE, masc. a page, an attendant ; fern, the page of a 
 book. 
 
 PERSONNE (nobody, a person), see No. 116, p. 52. 
 
 PIQUE, masc. spade at cards; fern, a pike, or long 
 lance. 
 
 QUELQUE CHOSE is masculine, when it signifies some- 
 thing : Quelque chose m'a ete BIT ; quelque chose de MER- 
 VEILLEUX. It is feminine, when it means whatever thing : 
 Quelque chose qrfil ait DITE, etc. (Acad.) 
 
 AS- Observe that when Quelque chose (something) is immediately followed by 
 an adjective, it takes the preposition de before that adjective; as, Quelqite chose 
 DE curieux, something curious. (Acad.) 
 
212 EXERCISES ON THE GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES, 
 
 SOURIS, masc. a smile ; fern, a mouse. 
 TOUR, masc. a tour, turn, trick; fern, a tower. 
 TROMPETTE, masc. a trumpeter ; fern, a trumpet. 
 VOILE, masc. a veil ; fern, a sail. - 
 
 (For the gender of some particular words, see pp. 22, 23, and 24.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLIII. 
 
 Several Roman eagles were taken by the Germans, after the 
 ind-3 Germains 
 
 defeat of Varus, under the reign of Augustus A couple 
 
 d'efaitei. regnew. Auguste. 
 
 of sheep which they roasted themselves, composed the 
 
 mouton m. qu* faisaient rdtir ind-2 
 
 feasts of the heroes of Homer. We have shot a brace of 
 festinm. heros d' tue 
 
 pheasants. Dear child, said a mother to her daughter, without 
 
 ind-2 
 
 thee there is no happiness for me. What wicked people! 
 toi il n' point Quel mechant 
 
 They are the best people in the world. Young people arc 
 
 Ce . de art. 
 
 often lazy. Military men wear the crape (round their) arm. 
 art. * porter au 
 
 EXERCISE CLIV. 
 
 We have eaten excellent pancakes. This book in stereotyped. 
 
 stereotype. 
 
 At Paris and in the greatest part of France, the pound 
 partie f. art. 
 
 was sixteen ounces The Memoirs of Sully are (very much) 
 
 ind-2 de fort 
 
 esteemed. That passage is at the bottom of page 164 
 
 bas m. art. 
 Nobody is more unhappy than a miser. Have you seen the 
 
 qu' avare m. 
 person that 1 sent to you ? I will give you something 
 
 que 2 ai s envoyee * l 
 good. The tower of Cordouan serves as a lighthouse at 
 
 de * 
 
 the mouth of the Gironde. 
 embouchure f. f . 
 
OF NUMBER IN SUBSTANTIVES. 213 
 
 III. OF NUMBER IN SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 408. Although there be plurality in the idea, certain 
 French substantives do not take the mark of the plural ; 
 these are : 
 
 409. (1.) Proper names ; as, VEspagne s'honore d' avoir 
 vu naitre les deux SENEQUE. Les deux CORNEILLE sont 
 nes d, Rouen. Except when they are used as common 
 nouns, that is to say, to designate individuals similar to 
 those whose name is employed ; as, la France a eu ses 
 CE*SARS et ses POMPE"ES ; that is, generals such as Caesar 
 and Pompey. Les Corneilles et les Miltons sont rares ; 
 that is, poets such as CORNEILLE and MILTON. 
 
 REMARK. It sometimes happens that poets and 
 orators place the article les before proper names which 
 designate but one individual. This is an irregularity, 
 or at least a license, which can only be tolerated when 
 productive of a fine effect, as in the following phrase of 
 Voltaire : 
 
 II manque a CAMPISTRON ces expressions heureuses qui 
 font I 'dme de la poesie et le merite des HOMERE, des VIR- 
 GILE, des TASSE, des MILTON, des POPE, des CORNEILLE, 
 des RACINE, des BOILEAU. 
 
 You discover that there is unity in the idea when the 
 sense permits to suppress the article les ; here we might 
 say : le merite d 'Homere, de Virgile, etc. 
 
 S3F Although a proper name cannot, in French, take 
 the mark of the plural, with the exception of the case in 
 which it is used as a common noun, yet we write with 
 the sign of the plural les Stuarts, les Bourbons, and some 
 others, for the same reason that we say les Allemands, 
 les Italiens, because these words are no longer the proper 
 name of an individual, but the proper name of a class of 
 individuals. 
 
214 EXERCISE ON NUMBER IN SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 410. (2.) Words taken from the Latin, or from any 
 foreign language, and which have not yet been natura- 
 lized by frequent use ; as, 
 
 des adagio. 
 des alibi. 
 des auto-da-fe.^ 
 des post-scriptum. 
 
 des quiproquo, 
 des solo. 
 des Te Deum. 
 des vade-mecum. 
 
 &3T The French Academy write des bravos, des duos, des op&ras, des pen&ums, 
 because these words are frequently used. 
 
 411. (3.) Words naturally invariable, and which are 
 only accidentally employed as substantives ; such as, les 
 pourquoi, les car, les cm, les non, les on dit, etc. 
 
 Les &7, les car, les pourqnoi, sont la porte 
 
 Par ou la noise entra dans 1'univers (La Fontaine.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLV. 
 
 Spain is proud of having 1 produced Lucan, Martial, the 
 s'honore inf-1 Lucain y 
 
 two Senecas, etc. The first of the four Williams came 
 Seneque Guillaume est venu 
 
 from Normandy Ciceros and Virgils will always be 
 art. art. 
 
 scarce. The mistakes of apothecaries are very 
 
 rare quiproquo m. apothicaire sing. ires 
 
 dangerous. After the victory, they sung Te Deums in all the 
 
 on ind-3 
 
 churches. It was Cardinal Mazarin who introduced in 
 eglisef. C'est art. ind-3 
 
 France the taste for operas. -That violinist performed 
 gout m. de art. violiniste m. a execute 
 
 several solos at the last concert. He puts postscripts to all 
 m. 32 
 
 his letters. Where shall we now find Bonapartes and 
 
 trouver 
 Wellingtons 'f He was the friend of the Bourbons. 
 
 t Aitto~dar-/t : torre Hpanmr, words which signify Act of Faith. 
 
OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES, 215 
 
 IV. OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL 
 OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 412. Compound substantives which have not yet passed 
 to the state of words, that is to say, whose distinct parts 
 are connected by a hyphen, are written in the singular 
 or in the plural, according as the nature and particular 
 sense of the words of which they are composed require 
 the one or the other number. t Such is the general prin- 
 ciple, whose application will be facilitated by the follow- 
 ing rules. 
 
 413. RULE I. When a word is composed of a substan- 
 tive and an adjective, both take the mark of the plural ; as, 
 
 un petit-maitre, a dandy, pi. des petits-maitres. 
 
 une chauve-souris, a bat, des chauves-souris. 
 
 une basse-cour, a poultry-yard, des basses-cours. 
 
 To this rule there are a few exceptions; as, UNE 
 and' mere, plural DES grand' m^rcs. 
 
 &3T GBAND, without apostrophe, always agrees in gender and number with its 
 substantive, but GEAND* is always invariable. 
 
 414. RULE II. When a compound word is formed oi 
 two substantives placed immediately one after the other, 
 both take the mark of the plural ; as, 
 
 un chef-lieu, a county town, pi. des chefs-lieux. 
 
 un chou-fleur, a cauliflower, des choux-fleurs. 
 une dame-jeanne, a large bottle, des dames-jeannes 
 
 The exceptions to this rule are but few, among which 
 is UN Hdtel-Dieu (un hdtel de Dieu), a name given to 
 the principal hospital, or infirmary, of several towns in 
 France ; plural DES Hdtels-Dieu. 
 
 415. RULE III. When a compound word is formed of 
 two substantives joined by a preposition, the first only 
 takes the mark of the plural ; as, 
 
 un arc-en-ciel, a rainbow, pi. des arcs-en-ciel. 
 
 un chef-d'oeuvre, a master-piece, des chefs-d'oeuvre. 
 
 t In compound nouns, the only words susceptible, by their nature, of taking tb 
 mark of tb utarai. r the fwbstcmtwe and the cx&ttttve. 
 
216 OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 Exceptions. UN tete-d-tetej a conversation or interview 
 between two persons; plural DES tete-a-tete. UN coq-a- 
 Vdne, an unconnected, nonsensical speech, passing from 
 one thing to another quite opposite, as from a cock to an 
 ass ; plural DES coq-d,-l'dne. 
 
 EXERCISE CLVI. 
 
 Those two men are brothers-in-law. I know his two 
 beau-frere 
 
 grand-fathers There are in France eighty-six capitals of 
 grand-pere Y avoir chef -lieu m. 
 
 departments. Rainbows are formed by the reflection of the 
 sing-. art. reflexion f. 
 
 (rays of the sun) in the clouds. In warm countries 
 rayons solaires dans nuage m. Dans art. 2 l pays m. 
 
 ^silk-worms *(are reared) upon (mulberry trees). 
 art. ver-d-soie m. on eleve sur des mdrier m. 
 
 Ihe great nightshade (originally came) from Mexico. 
 belle de nuit pi. sont originaires art. Mexique m. 
 
 He is always making cock and bull stories. 
 * fait 32 coq-d-l'dne 
 
 416. RULE IV. When a compound word is formed of 
 a substantive joined either to a verb, a preposition, or an 
 adverb, the substantive only takes the sign of the plural, 
 if there be plurality in the idea. So we write with an 
 in the plural : 
 
 un avant-coureur, a forerunner, pi. des avant-coureurs. 
 
 un contre-coup, a counter-blow, des contre-coups. 
 une contre-danse,t a country-dance, des eontre-danses. 
 
 But we write without an s in the plural, because the 
 expressions are elliptical, and there is unity in the idea : 
 
 Des reveille-matin (clocks which > alarm . dockSf 
 awake m the morning), f 
 
 ^unter-poisons. 
 
 f On croit que ce mot est une alteration de 1'anglais, country-dance (danse de 
 La contre"e, de la campagne). 
 
OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 217 
 
 Finally, we write with an s, in the singular as well as 
 in the plural, because there is always plurality in the 
 idea: 
 ^ess^ains^aatwhichj ^ pl . essui , main , 
 
 un porte-mouchettes (that) A snuffers \ des porte-mou- 
 which carries the snuffers} ) stand, f chettes. 
 
 417. RULE V. When a compound substantive contains 
 only such parts of speech as the verb, preposition, or adverb, 
 none of its components takes the mark of the plural ; as, 
 
 un passe-passe, a sleight of hand, pi. des passe-passe. 
 
 un passe-partout, amaster-key, a pass-key, des passe-partout. 
 
 EXERCISE CLVIL 
 
 The Cossacks are generally the scouts of the Russian 
 Cosaque ordinairement avant-coureur 2 russe 
 
 armies. Rear-admirals are below vice-admirals. 
 
 contre-amiral au-dessous de art. vice-amiral 
 Snow-drops bear flowers in the midst of the 
 
 perce-neige f. porter de art. a milieu m. 
 
 rigours of winter In time of war, the savages of 
 
 rigueurf. art. En sauvagem. art. 
 
 America are armed with tomahawks. Gold is the surest of all 
 
 de casse-Ute 
 
 pass-keys. These (are mere) hearsays. 
 
 art. Ce ne sont que de art. ou'i-dire 
 
 V. THE KING'S PALACE; THE QUEEN'S 
 CROWN, ETC. 
 
 418. This form of the possessive or genitive case, is ren- 
 dered in French in an inverted manner, the last word com- 
 ing first, as if it were the palace OP THE king, le-palais DU 
 roi ; the crown OF THE queen, la couronne DE LA reine. 
 
 EXERCISE CLVIH. 
 
 (Here are) Josephine's gloves and Alfred's hat. Where is 
 
 Void 
 
 John's book ? My uncle's house. The mayor's authority. 
 maison f. maire autorite f. 
 
218 OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 The king of England's palaces. The queen's presence of 
 
 palais m. 
 
 mind. Helen's beauty (was the cause of) Troy's 
 
 esprit Helenehmu. causa Troie 
 
 destruction Have you read Milton's Paradise Lost ? Will 
 
 Paradis m. Vouloir 
 
 you lend me La Fontaine's Fables ? Are you going to Mrs 
 
 prater f 
 
 Bell's party ? Paul's sister's son entered into the castle. 
 
 soiree f . dans forteresse f. 
 
 VI. EAR-RINGS; DINING-ROOM, ETC. 
 
 419. These are a kind of compound words, the order 
 of which is likewise inverted in French. Boucles 
 d'oreilles. Salle a manger. 
 
 Here also, two different prepositions are used, a and 
 de, the choice of which depends upon the nature of the 
 expression. 
 
 420. De is used when of, of the, made of, composed of, 
 coming from, can be understood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Boat-toilder, i. e. builder o/| Constructeur de bateaus . 
 
 EXERCISE CLIX. 
 
 The golden age is one of the (most agreeable) fictions 
 
 dge m. 2 les plus agreables l f. 
 
 of mythology. He has bought a country-house. He is a 
 
 art. campagne 
 
 wne-merchant.The garden-seat is broken. My uncle has 
 
 marchand bane m. 
 
 given me a gold watch, and a silver chain. Do you like 
 
 chatne f . 
 
 
OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 219 
 
 Newfoundland cod f I like Burgundy wine. The English 
 Terre-Neuve moruef. Bourgogne 
 
 import a great quantity of Malta oranges and Turkey figs. 
 importer Matte figue f. 
 
 421. A is used in compound words, when for, for the 
 purpose of, by means of, with, may be understood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Moulin * papier - 
 
 Bateau a vapeu, 
 
 BM k trois fik 
 
 M>te. Some compound words take the article besides the preposition dt ; as, 
 un pot AD toit, a milk-jug. In the following Exercise, when the article is re- 
 quired it has been pointed out. 
 
 EXERCISE CLX. 
 
 The inventor of gunpowder was a German monk, named 
 canon poudref. ind-2 a l moine 
 
 Schwartz __ I have always fire-arms in my bed-room. Give 
 
 coucher chambre f. 
 
 me a wine glass, and a soup spoon. The hay-market 
 
 verre m. cuiller f. au foin marche m. 
 
 is on your left, and the horse-fair is before you. There 
 a gauche aux pi. foire f. devant 
 
 are (a great many) windmills in France. Have you ever 
 beaucoup de jamais 
 
 seen a steam-mill ? No ; but I have seen several water-mills. 
 mais plusieurs eau 
 
 Honour to the inventor of the steam-engine ! I like rice-soup. 
 Honneur machine f. au riz 
 
 Take the coffee cups into the dining-room. Where is 
 Porter cafe tasse manger salle f. Ou 
 
 my sister's work-bag f My brother has given me a penknife 
 ouvrage sac m. canifm. 
 
 with an ivory handle. The waiter has broken the milk-jug. 
 * ivoire mancheio.. 
 
220 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 I. CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE 
 
 NOUN. 
 
 422. GENERAL RULE. The Adjective, in French, must 
 be of the same gender and number as the noun or pro- 
 noun to which it relates, for which purpose it often 
 changes its termination. In English, on the contrary, the 
 adjective is never varied on account of gender or number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le BON pere. 
 La BONNE mere. 
 De BEAUX jardins. 
 De BELLES fleurs. 
 
 The GOOD father. 
 The GOOD mother, 
 FINE gardens. 
 FINE flowers. 
 
 Bon is masculine singular, because pere is masculine, 
 and in the singular ; bonne is feminine singular, because 
 mere is feminine, and in the singular. 
 
 Beaux is masculine plural, because jardins is masculine 
 and plural ; belles is feminine plural, because fleurs is 
 feminine and plural. 
 
 (For the formation of the feminine, and plural of the adjectives, see p. 2025.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLXI. 
 
 The formidable empire which Alexander conquered, 
 2 l avait conquis 
 
 (did not last) longer than his life, which was very short, 
 ne dura pas plus longtemps f. ind-3 court 
 
 The victory which Caesar obtained on the plains 
 
 f. remporter ind-3 dans plaine f. 
 
 of Pharsalia was baneful to his country, pernicious to the 
 Pharsale ind-3 fnneste pai/sm. pernicieux 
 
OONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE, 221 
 
 Romans, and disastrous to mankind. (It is believed; 
 
 Romain desastreux pour art. genre humainm. On croit 
 that the first bayonets were made at Bayonne. That 
 
 baionnette f. ind-3 fabriquer 
 
 custom is very ancient among 1 us. It is a mere evasion, for 
 coutumef. parmi C' franc defaitef. car 
 
 the thing is public. Give these fine roses to those good girls. 
 
 423. 1st REMARK. When the adjectives demi, half, nu, 
 bare, are placed before a substantive, and when the ad- 
 jective feu, late, comes before the article or a pronominal 
 adjective, they always remain invariable ; as, une DEMI- 
 livre, half-a-pound ; il va wu-pieds, he goes bare-foot; 
 FEU la reine, the late queen. But the agreement takes 
 place, if demi and nu be placed after the substantive, and 
 feu after the article or pronominal adjective ; as, une 
 livre et demie, one pound and a half; 'il a les pieds nus, 
 his feet are bare ; la feue reine, the late queen ; ma feue 
 niece } my late niece. 
 
 Observation The adjective demi, placed after the substantive, never 
 
 takes the mark of the plural ; because it does not agree with the sub- 
 stantive which precedes it, but with a substantive following, which is un- 
 derstood, and which is always of the singular number. This phrase : 
 77 a tudi quatre ans et demi, he has studied four years and a half, is 
 equivalent to this : II a etudi quatre ans et un demi an, he has studied 
 four years and one half year. 
 
 424. 2d REMARK. Adjectives used adverbially are 
 invariable, that is to say, remain always in the masculine 
 singular ; as, Ces dames parlent BAS, those ladies speak 
 low ; ces fleurs sentent BON, these flowers smell well. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXII. 
 
 An Irishman said to a Scotchman: Lend me three guineas. - 
 Irlandais ind-2 Ecossais Preter guineef. 
 
 That is impossible, for J (only possess) half a guinea. Well, 
 Cela car ne possede qu' 
 
 lend it me, and you will owe me two guineas and a 
 
 toujours devoir 
 
 half. They go ftare-foot and fcare-headed. I have heard 
 
 tdte f . oui din 
 
222 CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 your late sister say that her daughter and 1 were born the 
 d, 2 l * moi naquimes 
 
 same year. The late princess was universally regretted 
 
 annee f. ind-3 
 
 She sings (out of tune). They spoke loud. Mary, speak low. 
 faux fern, ind-3 haut 
 
 425. Besides the general rule upon the agreement of 
 the Adjective with the substantive which it qualifies, 
 there are particular rules which it is indispensable to 
 know, because they serve to explain the general rule. 
 
 426. (I.) An adjective referring to two or more sub- 
 stantives singular, of the same gender, must be put in 
 the plural, and agree with them in gender ; as, 
 
 Le riche et le pauvre sont 6gaux 
 
 devant Dieu. 
 La rose et la tulipe sont belles. 
 
 The rich and the poor are equal 
 
 before God. 
 The rose and the tulip are beautiful. 
 
 427. If the substantives are of different genders, the 
 adjective is to be put in the masculine plural ; as, 
 
 Ma soeur et mon frere sont at- My sister and brother are at- 
 
 tentifs. 
 II a montre* une prudence et un 
 
 courage etonnants. 
 
 tentive. 
 
 He has shown astonishing pru- 
 dence and courage. 
 
 428. REMARK. When the substantives are of different 
 genders, and the adjective qualifying them has not the 
 same termination for the masculine and feminine, the ear 
 requires that the masculine substantive should be placed 
 last in French, that is to say, immediately before the 
 adjective; so it is better to say: la bouche et les yeux 
 OUVERTS, than, les yeux et la louche OUVERTS. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXin. 
 
 Pilpay and Confucius are very celebrated among the nations 
 
 celebre parmi peuple m. 
 of Asia. Uprightness and piety are (very much) esteemed, 
 
 art. "Ydroiture \piete f. ires 
 
 even by the wicked. Ignorance and self-love are 
 meme de mechant pi. t f. -^amour-propre m. 
 
 t See tto. 971 page 193 
 
CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 228 
 
 equally presumptuous. The inhabitants of (Davis' Strait) 
 
 presomptueux habitant art. detroit de Davis m . 
 
 eat their flesh and their fish raw. The room and 
 viandef. poissonm. cru chambref. 
 
 the closet are open, but the window and the drawer are 
 cabinet m. ouvert f entire f. tiroirm. 
 
 shut. His sister and brother are very polite, 
 ferme poll 
 
 429. (II.) The Adjective placed after two or more sub- 
 stantives which are synonymous or nearly so, agrees with 
 the last substantive only ; as, 
 
 Toute sa vie n'a 6te* qu'un tra- 
 vail, qu'une occupation CON- 
 TINUELLE. (Massillon.') 
 
 His whole life has been nothing 
 but continual labour and occu- 
 pation. 
 
 In this case, there is really but one word to qualify, 
 because there is only one and the same idea expressed, 
 and it is with the last substantive that the agreement 
 takes place, as striking the mind most. 
 
 430. (III.) When substantives are united by the con- 
 junction ou (or), the adjective agrees with the last ; as, 
 
 Un courage ou une prudence 
 
 ETONNANTE. 
 
 An astonishing courage or pru- 
 dence. 
 
 That conjunction ou gives the exclusion to one of the 
 substantives, and it is upon the last, as fixing the atten- 
 tion most, that the qualification falls. 
 
 431. REMARK.- -When an adjective relates to two or 
 more substantives, and is one of those that must absolutely 
 be placed before the substantive, it is repeated, in French, 
 before each substantive, and agrees with it ; as, 
 
 De GRANDS e*ve*nements, et de 
 GRANDES revolutions suivirent 
 
 la mort de Ce*sar. 
 
 GREAT events and revolutions fol- 
 lowed the death of Ccesar. 
 
 EXERCISE CLX1V 
 
 Our Queen honours literature with that attachment and 
 
 les lettres de m. attachernent, * de 
 
224 PLACE OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 patronage capable of 2 making *it flourish Birds 
 
 cctte protection f. inf-1 -fles fleurir. oiseau m. 
 
 build their nests with Admirable *art and 2 address. 
 
 construire nid m. avec un art,* uneadressef. 
 
 The demi-gods of the ancients were only men who 
 
 ancien m. ind-2 ne que des 
 (had distinguished themselves) by ^extraordinary Valour 2 or 
 
 s'etaient distingues une 
 
 8 virtue. Louis XIV. had in France an ^absolute 
 une ind-2 un absolu 
 
 1 power and Authority. 
 
 pouvoir, * une 
 
 II. PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 432. Some Adjectives are placed before the noun, and 
 some after it ; others are either put before or after, ac- 
 cording as taste or ear may require. However, it may 
 be laid down as a rule that the French more generally 
 place the Adjective after the noun. 
 
 ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE PLACED BEFORE THE NOUN. 
 
 433. (1.) Adjectives of one syllable, as beau, bon, grand* 
 gros, etc., generally precede their substantive. We say, 
 un BEAU jardinj un BON ouvrage, un GRAND chapeau, un 
 SAINT personnage, etc. 
 
 434. (2.) Plural Adjectives generally unite harmo- 
 niously with substantives beginning with a vowel ; as, 
 RRILLANTS atours. It is the same with the Adjectives 
 which, although singular, terminate with an x which is 
 pronounced like a z; as, HEUREUX artifice, etc. 
 
 (See Remark 5th, p. 227.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLXV. 
 
 Have you seen the beautiful lake of Geneva ? The Loire 
 
 lac m . Geneve 
 is a fine river. You arrive at a good moment. The Turks 
 
 riviere f. le m. Turc 
 
 make a great use .of opium. The big fishes eat the 
 usage m. gros poisson m. 
 
 f It is only when les is an article, that the contraction of eft le* into den tabes 
 pLice. The same rule aDDlIes to de I* and to d le, d let,. 
 
PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 225 
 
 little ones. What a holy man father Bernard is ! 
 
 * saint que art. 
 
 He is an old soldier. My dear friend, you are mistaken. 
 C" vieux cher se meprendre 
 
 He is in continual alarms. That child has fine eyes. 
 II dans de alarmef. 132 
 
 ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE PLACED AFTER THE NOUN. 
 
 435. The Adjectives which are placed after the sub- 
 stantive are : 
 
 1st, Adjectives which express names of nations ; as, Le 
 gouvernement ANGLAIS, the English government ; La revo- 
 lution FRANCAISE, the French revolution. 
 
 REMARK When the name of a nation is an adjective, it does not 
 require a capital letter in French, but it takes one if it be a substantive. 
 So we write: La nation franfaise, anglaise, espagnole, italienne, alle- 
 mande. And, with a capital, un Anglais (an Englishman), un Espagnoi 
 (A Spaniard), etc f ACAD.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLXVI. 
 
 English bravery ; Spanish gravity ; Italian policy ; Roman 
 
 bravouref. f. politiquef. 
 
 beauty; German music; Dutch manners; Prussian 
 
 f. hollandais mosurs f. pi. prussien 
 
 troops; Swedish soldiers; Chinese ceremonies The French 
 troupe f. suedois soldat chinois f. 
 
 monarchy began under Pharamond, hi the year 420. That 
 monarchic f. ind-3 en V an 
 
 young German requests you to inscribe your name in his 
 
 prier d' inscrire sur 
 
 alhum. Paul spoke to them in the Hebrew tongue. I have 
 
 m. 86 en * hebra'ique 
 
 seen Moscow with its Chinese pagodas, its Italian terraces, and 
 
 Moscou pagode f. terrasse f. 
 
 its Dutch farms. Nothing stops the Russian coachman, his 
 
 fermef. n' russe cocker 
 
 driving is a steeple chase; ditch, hillock, overturned tree. 
 course f. course au docker fosse tertre inverse l 
 he leaps over everything. Long live the Irish nation ! 
 
 franchir tout. 335 irlandais f. 
 
 p 
 
PLACE OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 436. 2dly, Adjectives denoting colour are placed aitei 
 the noun ; as, un habit NOIR, a black coat ; une robe 
 BLANCHE, a white dress ; un ruban BLEU, a blue ribbon. 
 
 In poetry, and in a figurative sense, Noir may be placed before the 
 substantive ; as, un NOIE attentat, a black crime. 
 
 Some compound words, as, rouge-gorge, a Robin-redbreast; du 
 blanc-manger^ blancmange, can scarcely be considered as exceptions to 
 this rule. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXVII 
 
 She has blue eyes. The Spanish soldiers wear a red 
 
 art. porter 
 
 cockade. (Here is) a beautiful statue of white marble. 
 
 cocarde f. Void f. blanc marbre m. 
 
 The marigold is a yellow flower. Saddle my black horse I 
 
 souci m. jaune Seller 
 
 shall put on my brown coat, and my American boots. 
 
 mettre * brun americain bottef. 
 
 Almost all the trees of Florida, particularly the 
 
 arbre m. art. Floride f. en particulier 
 cedar and the green oak, are covered with a white moss. 
 cddrem. vert ch&nem. d' mousse f. 
 
 437. 3e%, Adjectives formed from the present participle 
 of verbs, are generally placed after the substantive ; as, 
 
 Un ouvrage divertissant. I An entertaining work. 
 La mode regnante. \ The reigning fashion. 
 
 438. But, Adjectives formed from the past participle 
 are always placed after the substantive ; as, 
 
 Dn homme instruit. I A well-informed man. 
 
 Une figure arrondie. \ A round figure. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXVin. 
 
 (That is) an amusing book. The smiling images of 
 
 Voild riant f. 
 
 Theocritus, Virgil, and Gessner, excite in the soul a gentle 
 
 Theocrite t f porter doux 
 
 feeling. There are striking examples of English 
 sensibilitef. des frappant 
 
 \ See Note to ftolo V1L p. 200. 
 

 PLACE OK ADJECTIVES, 227 
 
 generosity. Grateful people are like those 
 
 78 f. art. reconnaissant personnel, ressemblent a 
 
 fruitful lands which give more than they receive. He has 
 ^fertile . 1 f. rendre . ne 
 
 made astonishing progress. An affected simplicity is a 
 des etonnant progres m. pi. affecte f. 78 
 
 refined imposture. She is a well-informed woman. 
 'delicat l f. C' 
 
 439. Mhly, Adjectives are placed after the substantive, 
 when expressing some physical or natural quality, such 
 as chaud, hot ; froid, cold ; humide, damp ; and when 
 expressing form, as une table carre'e, a square table. 
 
 440. 5thly, Adjectives of several syllables seldom go 
 well before substantives of one syllable ; so, instead of 
 saying les champetres airs, rural airs ; les imaginaires lois, 
 imaginary laws, say les airs champetres, les lots imaginaires. 
 
 441. Gthly, When two or more adjectives qualify the 
 same noun, they are almost always placed after that noun. 
 So, instead of adopting the English construction, ces deux 
 rivales et guerrieres nations, those two rival and warlike 
 nations, say : ces deux nations guerrieres et rivales. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXTX. 
 
 Will you give me some warm water ? Bring me some cold 
 chaud 
 
 milk. Put it on the round table. Never sleep in a damp 
 lait m. rond coucher 
 
 room 3 Arts ! (are divided) into liberal Arts and mechanical 
 
 art. on divise en m. mecanique 
 
 Arts. The king of Spain is styled the Catholic king. She 
 appeler catholique Elle 
 
 has an harmonious voice. She is a good and charitable woman. 
 voix f. C' 
 
 lie is an amiable and virtuous man. Do you not know him ?_ 
 C' vertueux 289 
 
 Denmark is, in general, an agreeable and f&'tile country. 
 375 pays in. 
 
228 PLACE OF ADJECTIVKa. 
 
 442. FINALLY, the placing of a great many Adjectives, 
 before or after the substantive, holds so much to the 
 genius of the French language, that from their being 
 placed before or after, often depends the meaning of the 
 substantive ; and usage dictates so imperiously the law, 
 that by infringing it we would not be understood. 
 
 LIST OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 which impart a different meaning to the noun, according 
 as they are placed before, or after it. 
 
 bon, a 
 
 homme brave, a fimw: marc. 
 
 Line commune voix, a unani- Une yoix commune, a common 
 
 mous voice. voice. 
 
 Une fausse clef, a false key. Une clef fausse, a wrong key. 
 Unejuusse porte, a private J. Une porte fausse , a false door. 
 
 Un furieux menteur, a ter- Un fou furieux, a furious mad- 
 
 rible liar. man. 
 
 Un grand homme, a great \ Un homme d a tM man 
 
 man. J 
 
 Le grand air, noble manners. L'air grand, a noble look. 
 Une grosse femme, a big stout Une femme grosse, same as une 
 
 woman. femme enceinte. 
 
 Le haut ton, an arrogant Le ton haut, a loud tone of 
 
 manner. voice. 
 
 Un honnete homme, an ho- Un homme honnete, a polite 
 
 nest man. man. 
 
 Des honnetes gens, respect- Des gens honnetes, polite 
 
 able people. people. 
 
 Mauvais air, a vulgar appear- L'air mauvais, an ill-natured 
 
 ance. look. 
 
 Une mechante e"pigramme, a Une e*pigramme mechante, a 
 
 bad epigram. wicked epigram. 
 
 Uu mort bois, wood of little \ Du bois mort dead trees 
 
 value. ) 
 
 Morte eau, ebb tides. Eau morte, still water. 
 
 Le nouveau vin, the wine Le vin nouveau, the wine newly 
 
 newly come. made. 
 
PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 229 
 
 ( Un habit nouveau, a new- 
 Un nouvel habit, another coat. < fashioned coat. 
 
 (Un habit neuf, a new coat. 
 
 Un plaisant homme, a whim- Un homine plaisant, a pleasant 
 
 sical ridiculous man. facetious man. 
 
 Un plaisant personnage, a Un personnage plaisant, an 
 
 contemptible person. amusing person. 
 
 Un plaisant conte, an unlikely Un conte plaisant, an amusing 
 
 story. story. 
 
 Un petit homme, a little man. Un homme petit, a mean man. 
 
 Les propres termes, the exact Les termes propres, correct ex- 
 
 words. pressions. 
 
 Un seul homme, a single man. Un homme seul, a man alone. 
 
 parable. 
 
 
 homme vilain, a mean man. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXX. 
 
 He opened the presses with false keys. As an actor 
 ind-3 armoire f . de 
 
 was walking on tiptoe to represent the great 
 
 marcher ind-2 le bout des pieds pour 
 
 Agamemnon, they cried out to him that he was making him a 
 on ind-3 * 86 
 
 tall man, and not a great man. Bonaparte had a loud 
 non pas ind-2 
 
 tone of voice. He has (got on) a new-fashioned coat. A lady, 
 mis 
 
 seeing Chapelaiu and Patru, said that the first was an author 
 ind-3 ind-2 auteur 
 
 without genius, and the second a poor author. 
 pauvre 
 
230 GOVERNMENT OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 III. GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 One of the difficulties of the French language is to 
 know what preposition must be used after an adjective, 
 as the French prepositions are not always in this instance 
 correlative to the English prepositions. 
 
 443. Adjectives which govern the preposition A. 
 
 Adeline* a, addicted to. 
 
 ardent a, ardent in. 
 
 bon a, good for. 
 
 cher a, dear to. 
 
 conforme a, conformable to. 
 
 e*gal a, equal to. 
 
 enclin a, inclined to. 
 
 lent a, slow to, and in. 
 
 nuisible a, hurtful to. 
 
 pareil &, like. 
 
 pre't a, ready to. 
 
 prompt ft, prompt in, quick at. 
 
 propre a, fit for. 
 semblable a, similar to. 
 
 sensible a, sensible of. 
 
 sourd a, deaf to. 
 
 suiet a, subject to. 
 
 sujet 
 utile 
 
 useful to. 
 
 And in general all adjectives denoting inclination, habit, 
 aptness, fitness. And, when followed by a verb, it is 
 most commonly put in the present of the infinitive. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXI. 
 
 Your intentions are conformable to my wishes. He is slow 
 
 desir m. 
 
 to punish, and prompt in rewarding. Are you ready to g-o out ? 
 recompenser. sortir 
 
 He is fit for (anything). He is deaf to remonstrances. 
 tout. art. remontrancef. 
 
 Sicily is subject to great earthquakes. That man is useful 
 Sidle f. fm. tremblement de terre. 
 
 and dear to his family. That is easy to say. It is ridiculous 
 famillef. Cela facile II ridicule 
 
 to put oneself in a passion against objects which are insensible 
 de set en* colere objet-m. 
 
 of our anger. Your dress is like mine. 
 colere. robe f . 
 
 1 Place of Se, p. 88. J Bule V. No. 881. No. 380i 
 
GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 231 
 
 444. Adjectives which govern the preposition DE. 
 
 Agreable de, 
 aise de, 
 
 agreeable to. 
 glad to. 
 
 exempt de, exempt from, 
 fatigue de a fatigued with. 
 
 avide de, 
 
 greedy of. 
 
 heureux de, happy to. 
 
 capable de, 
 charge de, 
 
 able to. 
 loaded with. 
 
 inconsolable j incOTWoZaW , at . 
 
 charme de, 
 
 charmed with. 
 
 inquiet de, uneasy about. 
 
 cheri de, 
 
 beloved by. 
 
 libre de, /ree from. 
 
 content de, 
 
 pleased with. 
 
 mecontent de, dissatisfiedvfith. 
 
 coupable de, 
 
 guilty of. 
 
 plein de, /w# of. 
 
 curieux de, 
 
 curious to. 
 
 reconnaissant 1 / 7 /. 
 
 digne de, 
 
 worthy of. 
 
 ^ r grateful for. 
 
 enchante de, 
 
 delighted with. 
 
 satisfait de, satisfied with 
 
 ennuye* de, 
 
 weary of. 
 
 sur de, swre of. 
 
 As likewise adjectives expressing plenty and scarcity, 
 and in general all those which are followed in English 
 by the prepositions of, from, with, or by. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXII. 
 
 1 am very glad to see you in good health. Voltaire was 
 bien sanU f. ind-3 
 
 always greedy of praise. The vine is loaded with grapes. 
 louange pi. vigne f. raisin 
 
 I am pleased with your answer. Virtuous men are always 
 reponse f. art. 2 vertueux l 
 
 worthy of esteem. lam tired with running after him. A 
 estime. fatigue inf-1 
 
 heart free from cares enjoys the greatest felicity possible. 
 soin m. jouir de f. 
 
 He is very grateful for the services you have rendered him. 
 fort que 2 s rendus l 
 
 Here is a purse full of louisf and napoleons. 1 I am 
 bourse f. m. napoleon m. 
 
 satisfied with my lot. Are you pleased with your horse ? 
 sort m. 
 
 445. SOME Adjectives are often followed in French by 
 the preposition envers, and in English by the preposition 
 
 t A gold coin of France, worth about twenty shillings ; so called, since Louis 
 XIII., from the name of the kings who coined it. 
 
 + A gold piece of twenty or forty francs, with the effigy of Napoleon. It is more 
 commonly said of pieces of twenty francs. 
 
232 GOVEKNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 to; such are, affable. Ion, complaisant, cruel, ge'ne'reux, 
 indulgent, or any other expressing kindness or unkind- 
 ness of feeling towards individuals ; as, 
 
 D faut etre poll ENVERS tout le We must be civil TO every- 
 
 monde. 
 
 body. 
 
 446. Adjectives expressing gladness or regret at u 
 thing, such as aise, ckarme, enchante, fdche, contrarie, etc., 
 require the infinitive with DE, or the subjunctive mood; as, 
 
 Je suis bien aise D'etre de re- 
 tour a temps. 
 
 Je suis bien aise que vous soyez 
 de retour. 
 
 / am very glad that 1 have re- 
 turned in time. 
 
 I am very glad that you have 
 returned. 
 
 In the first example, there is only one subject, Je, 
 and the second verb is in the infinitive. 
 
 In the second example, there are two subjects, Je 
 and vous ; the verb, therefore, is put in the subjunctive 
 mood. 
 
 447. IL EST, impersonal, joined to an adjective, requires 
 de before an infinitive. C'EST requires a; as, 
 
 11 est horrible DE penser, DE voir. I It is horrid to think, to aee. 
 C'est horrible A penser, A voir. | It is horrid to think of, to be seen, 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXIII. 
 
 We must be charitable to the poor. I do not like people 
 II faut pauvrepl. aimer ceux 
 
 who are cruel to animals. Scipio Africanus was respectful 
 Scipion VAfricain ind-2 respectueux 
 
 to his mother, liberal to his sisters, good to his servants, just 
 
 domestique juste 
 and affable to everybody. He will be delighted to see you. 
 
 enchante 
 L am very sorry you cannot come. It is agreeable to 
 
 bien fdche pouvoir subj-1 II 
 
 live with one's friends. It is noble to die for one's country. 
 vivre ses II beau sa patrie. 
 
 This is painful to see and to hear. Be kind to every- 
 (7 penible entendre. obligeant 
 
 body, It is easy to prove it to you. That is easy to be proved 
 
 (7 vrouver 
 
ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 233 
 
 IV. ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 
 
 (The numbers are given at full length, page 31.) 
 
 448. (1.) Of all the cardinal numbers, un is the only one 
 that takes an e for the feminine: UN homme, mEfemme. 
 
 449. (2.) Unieme, first, is never used but after vingt, trente, 
 quarante, cinquante, soixante, quatre-vingt, cent, and mille. 
 C'est la vingt et UNIEME /o/s, it is the twenty-first time. 
 
 450. (3.) We say second, or deuxieme, but we cannot 
 say vingt-second, tr ente- second ; we must say vingt-deuxieme, 
 trente- deuxieme, quarante- deuxieme, etc. 
 
 There is this difference between le second, and le 
 deuxieme, that this last makes you think on the third, it 
 awakens the idea of a series, whereas le second awakens 
 the idea of order without that of series. We say, there- 
 fore, of a work which has only two volumes : Void le 
 SECOND tome, and not le deuxieme; and, of a work which 
 has more than two volumes : Void le DEUXIEME tome, or 
 also void le SECOND tome. (Chapsal, Boniface, etc.) 
 
 451. (4.) We say, le onze, le onzieme, du onze, du 
 onzieme, au -onze, au onzieme, vers les onze heures, vers 
 les une heure, or sur les une heure, pronouncing the 
 words onze, onzieme, and une, as if they were written 
 with an h aspirate. 
 
 NOTE Dumarsais thinks, that if we write and pronounce le onze, 
 it is in order not to confound I'onze with I'once. 
 
 Vers les une heure is an elliptical phrase, for, vers les moments qu\ 
 precedent ou qui suivent une heure. The article is allowed to remain 
 in the plural, although the substantive is not expressed. 
 
 452. (5.) When a cardinal number is preceded by the 
 pronoun en, the adjective or participle which follows that 
 number must be preceded by the preposition de; as, 
 
 Sur mille habitants, il n'y EN a 
 pas un DE riche. 
 
 Of one thousand inhabitants, 
 there is not a rich one. 
 
 453. (6.) Cent and mille are sometimes used for an in- 
 definite, but very large number ; as, 
 
 II nous fit cent caresses. 
 
 He showed us a hundred 
 
 marks of kindness. 
 Heureux, heureux mille fois, 
 
 I/enfant que le Seigneur rend docile a ses lois ! (Racine.} 
 3~ For several important Remarks on Nouns and Adjectives of Number, see 
 pp 33, 34, 35. 
 
234 EXEliCISE ON ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXIV. 
 
 One of the nine Muses is called Terpsichore. It was IL 
 
 f. s'appeler Ce ind-3 
 
 the thirty-first year after the peace, that war ("broke out again). 
 
 annee f. paix f . se rallumer ind-3 
 
 William, surnamed the Conqueror, king of England and 
 
 Guillaume, surnomme Conquerant, 
 duke of Normandy, was one of the greatest generals of the 
 
 ind-3 
 
 eleventh century. Of ten thousand combatants, there were 
 siecle m. Sur combattant il y EN eut 
 
 one thousand killed, and five hundred wounded. The admiral 
 * blesse 
 
 showed me a. thousand civilities. About eleven o'clock. 
 faire * caresse 
 
 V. ADJECTIVES OF DIMENSION. 
 
 454. Adjectives of dimension, such as haut, high ; long, 
 long; large , wide or broad; e'pais, thick; profond, deep; 
 which come after the word of measure in English, come 
 before it in French, and are followed by the preposition 
 de; as, 
 
 Un mur haut DE sept pieds. 
 Une chambre longue DE vingt 
 
 A wall seven feet high. 
 A room twenty feet long. 
 
 pieds. 
 
 Another construction, frequently used, is to let 
 the words remain in French as in English, and to put 
 de both before the number and before the word of 
 measure or dimension. In this case, the substantive of 
 dimension is often used instead of the adjective ; as, 
 
 Un mur DE sept pieds DE haut, 
 
 or DE hauteur. 
 Une chambre DE vingt pieds 
 
 A wall seven feet high. 
 A room twenty feet long. 
 
 DE long, or DE longueur. 
 455. The English manner of expressing dimension is to 
 use the verb to be; but the French, in general, make use 
 of the verb avoir. In this case, de is left out before the 
 number, and the phrase is rendered thus : 
 
 Ce mur A sept pieds de haut, j TJio,t wall is seven feet high, 
 or de hauteur 
 
EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES OF DIMENSION. 235 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXV. 
 
 The walls of Babylon were two hundred feet high and fifty 
 Babylone avaient + 
 
 broad. The great wall, on the north of China, is about 
 largeur. muraille f. a Chine f. a environ 
 
 twelve hundred miles long. The highest of the pyramids of 
 t pyramide f. 
 
 Egypt is, at least, fire hundred feet high The Monument of 
 
 a au moins t m. 
 
 London is a round pillar two hundred feet high. The Tiber 
 $rond pilier m. t 
 
 is three hundred feet wide at Rome. The famous mine of 
 a t largeur f. 
 
 Potosi, in Peru, is more than fifteen hundred feet deep. 
 
 dansPeroum.a de t profondeur. 
 
 VI. ADJECTIVES IN THE COMPARATIVE 
 DEGREE. 
 
 456. (1.) BY, after a comparative, is expressed by DE ; 
 as, 
 
 II est plus grand DE deux pouces. | He is taller BY two inches. 
 
 457. (2.) In English, when the adverbs more and less 
 are repeated to express a comparison, they are preceded 
 by the article ; as, THE MOKE difficult a thing is, THE MORE 
 glorious it is to do it well But, in French, the article is 
 omitted ; as, PLUS une chose est difficile, PLUS il est glo- 
 rieux de la bienfaire. 
 
 VII. ADJECTIVES IN THE SUPERLATIVE 
 DEGREE. 
 
 458. (1.) An adjective in the superlative degree go- 
 verns the preposition DE ; as, 
 
 Le plus grand empire DU I The greatest empire in the 
 monde. world. 
 
 t See Remarks on Cent, p. 34. t See No. 438, p. 227. 
 
236 ADJECTIVES IN THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 459. (2.) When the substantive precedes the superlative, 
 both take the article ; but the substantive takes no 
 article, if the superlative goes first ; as, 
 
 460. (3.) The article placed before plus and moins is always invariable, when 
 there is no comparison ; as, La lune nenous fdaire pas autantque lesoleil, m&me 
 quand elle est LE PLUS brillante. The moon does not light us so much as the sun, 
 even when it shines brightest. But the article takes gender and number, when 
 there is a comparison; as, La lune est LA PLUS brillante de toutes les planetes, The 
 moon is the most brilliant of all the planets. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXVI. 
 
 She is taller than her sister by the whole head. The more 
 
 2 l tout tetef. 
 
 one reads La Fontaine, the more one admires him. Seneca 
 on Seneque 
 
 was the richest man in the empire. The highest mountains 
 ind-2 2 l montagnef. 
 
 are the reservoirs (from which) issue the largest rivers. 
 reservoir m. d'ou sortir grand fleuve m. 
 Those whom 1 have always seen most struck with the writings 
 Geux que vus f rapper de ecrit in. 
 
 of Homer, Virgil, Horace, and Cicero, are minds of the first 
 
 f f * t des esprit m. 
 
 order. Although the Chinese boast of being the most ancient 
 
 Quoique Chinois se vanter inf-1 
 nation, they are far from being the most enlightened. 
 1 -~ f. loin inf-1 eclaire 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXVII. 
 
 That man is the best creature in the world. That is the 
 f. Voila 
 
 cleverest boy in the school. His father is the most learned 
 
 habile savant 
 
 man in the kingdom __ His mother is the most sensible wo- 
 
 spirituel 
 man in the whole town. Her grandfather is the richest 
 
 92 
 
 merchant in London. The more you study, the more you 
 negociant 
 learn. Astronomy is one of the sciences which does most 
 
 honour to the human mind. 
 
 t See Note to Rule vii., p. 200. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 237 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 I. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Place of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 461. THE Personal Pronouns, whether subjects or objects, 
 are placed before the verb in simple tenses, and before 
 the auxiliary in compound tenses; except, 1st, When 
 the pronouns take a preposition before them in French ; 
 2dly, In interrogative sentences ; 3c%, When the verb is 
 in the imperative affirmative (the third persons excepted). 
 Such is the general principle of the position of personal 
 pronouns, which will be fully developed in this chapter. 
 
 (See what has already been stated on this subject, p. 38.) 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS. 
 
 462. (I.) The personal pronouns, /, thou, he or it, she or 
 it, we, you, they, are expressed in French by je, tu, il, 
 elle, nous, vous, Us m., elles f., when they are the subjects 
 or nominatives of the verb ; as, 
 
 Je parle, I speak; il chante, Elle danse, she dances; 
 
 he sings. nous jouons, \v splay. 
 
 463. (II.) I, thou, he, they m. are rendered by moi, toi, 
 lui, eux: 
 
 1st, When used in answer to a question ; as, 
 
 Qui a fait cela ? Moi. \ Who lias done that ? I. 
 
 2d, When joined to a noun or pronoun by a con- 
 junction, or when a verb has two or more pronouns as 
 subjects; as, 
 
 Mon frere ct moi. 
 
 Lui et moi. 
 
 FOMS, lui, et moi, nous irons. 
 
 My brother and /. 
 
 He and /. 
 
 You, he, and I roill go. 
 
238 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 3d, When they come after a comparative ; as, 
 II est plus riche que lui, qu'ewor et moi. \ He is richer than he, they, and I. 
 
 4th, When followed by the relatives qui, que, the 
 adjective seul, or a present participle ; as, 
 
 Moi QUI suis son fils, 
 Eux QUE j'aimais tant. 
 Lui SEUL respecte la vertu. 
 Eux, VOYANT qu'ils avaient 
 tort. 
 
 I who am his son. 
 They whom / loved so much. 
 He alone respects virtue. 
 They, seeing that they were in 
 the wrong. 
 
 5th, When they mark opposition or distinction, or 
 point out the part taken in an action by different per- 
 sons; as, 
 
 Eux 1'ont releve', et LUI 1'a | They raised him up, and ha 
 panse. i dressed his wounds. 
 
 6th, When coming after these expressions, It is, it 
 was, it will be, it would be, or similar ones, whether in 
 the affirmative, negative, or interrogative ; as, 
 
 It is I, (Test moi. I It is thou, C'est toi. 
 
 It is he, C'est lui. I It is they, Ce sont eux, m. elles, f. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXVIIL 
 
 / come from Dover. You like the town, and 7 the 
 Douvres. 
 
 country. Who read last ? - He /am not so tall 
 
 campagne f. ind-4 le dernier fern. si grand 
 
 as your sister, but she is older than 7. They alone have 
 que dge seul 
 
 fought the enemy ; they alone deserve to be rewarded. 
 combattre meriter d' recompense 
 
 He, perceiving their intentions, gave up his project. 
 
 sapercevoir de f abandonner projet m. 
 
 Your uncles and your brother take charge of the enterprise; 
 
 se charger 
 
 they find the money, and he will manage the work. - 
 
 fourmr fonds pi. conduire ind-7 travail m, 
 
 Was it he that was singing ? - No, it was /. 
 ind-2 ce qui ind-2 c' ind-2 
 
 t Most words ending in ion arc alike in both languages. See p. S& 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 239 
 
 464. (III.) Personal pronouns used as subjects, are 
 placed after the verb, although no interrogation is meant: 
 
 1st, When the verb is in the present or imperfect of 
 the Subjunctive without any conjunction being expressed. 
 Tn such a case, the final e of the first person is marked 
 with an acute accent, for the sake of euphony ; as, 
 
 Pwss6-je de mes yeux, &c. (COKNEILLE.) i May I with my eyes, &c. 
 DusstS-je mourir ! (RACINE.) | Were 1 to die! 
 
 2d, When the verb is preceded by any of these 
 words, aussi, peut-Stre, encore, en vain, du moins, an 
 moms, apeine; as, 
 
 Peut-etre &VQZ-VOUS raison. I Perhaps you are right. 
 
 En vain prdtendons-nows. j It is in vain that we pretend. 
 
 We might also say: Peut-etre vous avez raison; en 
 vain nous pretendons, but then the expression possesses 
 neither the same grace, nor the same energy. 
 
 3d, In narrations, as in English : 
 
 Ou allez-vous ? lui dis-je. I Where are you going f said I to him. 
 Je le veux bien, lui rdpondit-&7. | / am very willing, replied he to him. 
 
 $ZJjT Observe that in the foregoing examples a hyphen 
 is put after the verb when followed by the pronoun its 
 subject. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXIX. 
 
 (Oh that I may) see him! (Though you were) more 
 
 Puisse-je Fussiez-vous 
 
 numerous, you will meet with resistance. This 
 
 nombreux eprouver ind-7 32 
 
 lace is beautiful, (but then) it is dear. The rose is 
 
 dentellef. aussi cottier + $ f. 
 
 the queen of flowers ; therefore it is the emblem of 
 
 art. aussi emblemem. art. 
 
 beauty. Perhaps I shall go. You were hardly gone whet 
 
 Peut-etre ind-2 apeinepartir que 
 
 your brother arrived What would you have ? said he to me 
 
 ind-3 ind-1 * 
 
 Life, replied I. Scarcely had I arrived 
 art. repondre fus 
 
 \ See the 3d Remark p 87. t See the 2d Remark, p. 22L 
 
240 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 465. IV. Personal pronouns, when subjects or nomina- 
 tives, must be repeated : 
 
 1st, When we pass from negation to affirmation; 
 as, JE ne pile pas et JE romps (I do not bend and I 
 break.) But we can say : JE plie et JE ne romps pas, or 
 je plie et ne romps pas, the first verb being in the affir- 
 mative. 
 
 2d, When the verbs are connected by any conjunction 
 except et (and), ou (or), ni (nor), mais (but). 
 
 Except in those two cases, the personal pronouns 
 subjects, are either repeated or not, according as the 
 harmony, energy, and especially the perspicuity of the 
 phrase may require. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXX. 
 
 You gain nothing, and you spend (a great deal)./ 
 
 gagner depenser beaucoup. 
 
 (am not ignorant) that one cannot be happy without virtue, 
 
 n'ignorepas on ne saurait art. 
 
 and / (am firmly resolved) always to practise it We detest 
 
 me propose bien de * a i 
 
 the wicked, because we fear them. He is learned although 
 
 mechantparce que craindre quoique 
 
 he is very young. I wish to see you happy, because I ain 
 
 subj-1 bien desirer * 
 
 attached to you. You will be truly esteemed, if you are wise 
 attache * vraiment 
 
 and modest You are not happy, and you have saved Rome. 
 modeste 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS OBJECTS. 
 
 466. A Personal pronoun, when the regiment or object 
 of the verb, is either direct or indirect. A pronoun is 
 the direct object of the verb, when it is governed by the 
 verb without any preposition, either expressed or un- 
 derstood ; as, Je la vois, I see her. But, when a pronoun 
 is the indirect object, it is always governed by a prepo- 
 sition, which may be either expressed, as in Je parle 
 pour lui, I speak for him ; or simply understood, as in 
 Je Im parle, I speak to him. 
 
 t See page 270. 
 
SYNTAX OP PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 241 
 
 467. (I.) When personal pronouns are in the accusative, or in 
 other words, the direct objects of the verb, they are expressed in 
 French thus : me, by me;t thee, by te ; him, it, by U\ her, 
 it, by la; us, by nous; you, by wus; them, by les y m. and /., 
 and placed before the verb in simple tenses, and before the auxili- 
 ary in compound tenses, whether the sentence be affirmative, 
 negative, or interrogative ; as, 
 
 II me flatte. 
 
 Vous ne la surprendrez pas. 
 
 Us nous ont trompes. 
 
 Ne Us connaissez-vous pas ? 
 
 He flatters me. 
 You will not surprise her. 
 They have deceived us. 
 Do you not know them ? 
 
 REMARK. However, when a verb has several objects, whether they be all 
 pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, they are all placed after the verb in simple 
 tenses, and after the past participle in compound tenses ; and in this case 
 the English pronouns given above are expressed in French by moi, toi, lui, 
 die, nous, vous, eux, elles; as, 
 
 Je vois lui et elle. I I see him and her. 
 
 Nous avons rencontre lui et sa sosur. | We met him and his sister. 
 
 EXEKCISE CLXXXI. 
 
 You suspect me (without reason). He has rewarded me 
 
 soupconner mal Apropos r&ompenser 
 
 generously. God is a father to those who love him, and a 
 grfne'reusement. le de ceux le 
 
 'protector to those who fear him. (As soon as) my sister 
 
 78 de craindre Des que 
 
 (shall have) arrived, I will go and see her. Vice often 
 
 sera ind-7 * art. 
 
 deceives us under the mask of virtue. We shall go and 
 masque m. art. * 
 
 see you after dinner. Do you not see them? Whoever 
 
 apres diner. 112 
 
 flatters his masters betrays them. I know it. We hear her 
 
 maitre trcihir 265 entendre 
 
 and her brother. Have you observed the baroness and him ? 
 
 observer 
 We know neither them (m.) nor you. They (m.) have 
 
 connaitre ni ni 
 
 suspected you, them, (f.) him, and even me. They (f.) 
 soupconner 
 
 fear thee and us. 
 craindre. 
 
 468. (II.) When personal pronouns are the indirect 
 objects of the verb, and governed by the preposition a (to), 
 
 t When me, te, se, le, la, come before a vowel or h mute, the elision of the 
 e or a takes place, as explained in the chapter " Of the Apostrophe," page 9. 
 
 The pronouns, le, la, les, are also called relative pronouns, because they 
 relate to a substantive already expressed. (See page 40, foot-note.) 
 
 Q 
 
242 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 understood, they are expressed by me, te, lui, m. and f. ; 
 nous, vous, leur, m. and f., and placed before the verb, in 
 the same manner as when they are the direct objects; as, 
 
 Elle me parle. 
 II lui donne. 
 Je leur e'crirai. 
 
 She speaks to me. 
 
 He gives him (i. e. to him). 
 
 / will write to them. 
 
 469. (III.) When the preposition cfc is to be expressed 
 before the pronouns, they are then rendered by moi, toi, 
 lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, elles, and placed after the verb. 
 This happens only in the following cases : 
 
 1st, With the verbs aller, to go ; courir and accourir, 
 to run to ; marcher, to walk ; penser and songer, to think 
 venir, to come ; viser, to aim at ; etre (in the sense of to 
 belong) ; avoir, to have, used with the words affaire, 
 cgard, rapport, recours ; as, 
 
 Votre frere vint a nous, 
 Ce livre est a moi. 
 J'aurai recours a eux. 
 
 Four brother came to us. 
 This book belongs to me. 
 / will have recourse to them. 
 
 %d, When a verb has two or more indirect regimens^ 
 and likewise with all reflected verbs ; as, 
 
 Je parle a lui et a elle. I / speak to him and to her. 
 
 II s'adressa a moi. \ He applied to me. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXn. 
 
 Do you not speak to her, when you meet her? Few 
 quand rencontrer Pen 
 
 people are wise enough to prefer the blame that is useful 
 de gens pour 
 
 to them, to the praise which betrays them They came to us 
 
 louange f. trahir 
 
 when we (were not thinking-) of them. That horse was 
 
 ne pensions pas a ind-2 
 
 formerly mine, but I sold it to your cousin. If you don't 
 autrefois d moi ind-4 V 
 
 behave better, you will have to do with me. He speaks 
 se conduire affaire d 
 
 tc you and to him. We trust to them. She applied to him. 
 sefier 
 
 470. (IV.) When a personal pronoun, used as a direct 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 243 
 
 or indirect object, accompanies a verb in the imperative 
 mood, in the first person plural, or in the second person 
 singular or plural, it is put in French, as in English, im- 
 mediately after the verb, and moi, toi, are used instead 
 of mj te. But, if a negation attends the imperative, the 
 pronoun follows the general rule, and is placed before 
 the verb, and again me, te, are used. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Affirmatively. Negatively. [them. 
 
 Aimons-fes, Let us love them. 
 Sauvez-wzoi, Save me. 
 Dites-/Mi, Tell him. 
 
 Ne les aimons pas, Let us not love 
 Ne me sauvez pas, Don't save me. 
 Ne lui dites pas, Don't tell him. 
 
 471. REMARKS. (1.) When two imperatives are joined 
 by the conjunction et or on, and without a negative, it 
 is considered more elegant to place the second pronoun 
 before the verb ; as, 
 
 Polissez-fe sans cesse, et le I Polish and repolish it con- 
 repolissez. (Boileau. ) tinually. 
 
 472. (2.) When an imperative has two pronouns for 
 regimens, one direct and the other indirect, the direct 
 regimen is expressed first ; as, 
 
 Donnez-le-moi. I Give it me. 
 
 Pre"tez-le-lui. Lend it to him. 
 
 Negatively, we would say, Ne me le donnez pas; Ne le 
 lui pretez pas. 
 
 473. (3.) When moi, toi, are placed after the impera- 
 tive, and followed by the pronoun en, they are changed 
 into m'j t'; as, 
 
 Donnez-m'ew, Give me some. | Retourne-^ew, Go back. 
 
 Note. Observe again how a hyphen is introduced in the foregoing 
 examples. The rule is thus laid down by Beauzee and Feraud. When 
 the first and second persons of the imperative have for complement (or 
 regimen) one of these words : moi, toi, nous, vous, le, la, lui, les, leur, 
 en, y, they are joined together by a hyphen, and a second hyphen is 
 introduced when there are two of those words as complement of the 
 imperative. Examples: Donnez-moi, depdchons-nous, accordez-la- 
 leur, rendons-la-lui. 
 
 But we write : faites-moi lui parler, and not faites-moi-lui parler, 
 because lui is the regimen of parler, and not offaites; venez me parler, 
 because me is not governed by venez, but by the infinitive parler. 
 
244 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXIIL 
 
 Whatever thing (you have promised^, give 'it. - 
 
 127 que vous ayez promise, 
 
 Listen to me; do not condemn me without a hearing-. 
 Ecouter * condamner m' entendre. 
 
 Tell me the truth. Don't speak to me. Repeat to them 
 
 verite f. Repeter 
 
 continually, that, without honesty, one can never succeed in 
 sans cesse on reussir 
 
 the world. Don't repeat to them the same things. Take 
 
 Prendrc 
 them, or leave them, it is (all one) to me. My innocence 
 
 laisser cela egal f. 
 
 is the only good that remains to me: leave it to me. 
 seul bienm. qui 
 
 474. (V.) Personal pronouns, whether direct or indirect 
 objects, are repeated, in French, before every verb ; as, 
 
 II vous estime et vous honore. | He esteems and honours you. 
 Son visage odieux wi'afflige et me poursuit. (RACINE.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXIV. 
 
 He beseeches and entreats me not to do it. 1 say and 
 
 prier conjurer de 
 
 declare to you. The idea that they believe him guilty, 
 * penseef. on croire coupablc 
 
 parsues, torments, and overwhelms him. He wearies and 
 poursuivre, tourmenter, accabler ennuyer 
 
 torments us incessantly. A 2 well brought up *son never 
 obseder sans cesse. bien eleve 
 
 rebels against his father ; he loves, honours, and respects him. 
 se revolter respecter 
 
 475. (Vl.) The pronouns ft, they, them, which the 
 English use with reference to animals and inanimate 
 things, are expressed in French by il, eile, Us, elles, when 
 they are the subject or nominative of the verb, and by 
 &, la, les, when they form the accusative or direct 
 object of the verb. 
 
 Be careful to make these pronouns agree in gender and 
 number with the nouns to which they refer. It is almost 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 245 
 
 unnecessary to repeat that the French language has uo 
 neuter gender, consequently inanimate objects are either 
 masculine or feminine ; so, in speaking of the rose, which 
 is feminine, we say ELLE est belle, it is beautiful ; and of 
 a book, livre, which is masculine, vous a-t-iL amuse ? has 
 it amused you ? 
 
 476. KEMARK. When these pronouns come after a 
 preposition, they are usually left out in French ; then the 
 preposition becomes an adverb, and conveys the idea 
 sufficiently ; as, 
 
 Approchez-vous du feu. Je 
 suis tout aupres. 
 
 Come near the fire. lam 
 quite near it. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXV. 
 
 Look at that magnificent building 1 ; it unites grace 
 Regarder * magnifique bdtiment m. reunir art. grace f. 
 
 with beauty, and elegance with simplicity. Where 
 a art. art. a art. 
 
 is my pen ? It is upon the table. Give it me. Never 
 plume f . sur 
 
 judge from appearances, for they are often deceitful. 
 juger sur art. apparencef. car trompeur 
 
 (There is) a good book, read it. My house is new ; I will 
 Voila maison f. neuf 
 
 not sell it; but I will let it. His cot was solitary; 
 
 ind-7 louer ind-7 cabane f. ind-2 isole 
 
 near it flowed a spring of pure water. 
 
 couler ind-2 source f. *vif 
 
 477. (VII.) When to it, to them, relate to inanimate 
 things, they are expressed by y ; as, 
 
 Ce tableau est tres-bon; I That picture is very good ; 
 mettez-Y un cadre. put a frame to it. 
 
 But, when the pronouns it, them, are in the dative 
 case, that is, used for to it, to them, and have reference 
 to animals, plants, and ideal substances, in which we 
 suppose an active principle, such as some virtues and 
 vices, or are preceded by the verb to owe, or to be indebted, 
 
 
246 
 
 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 they are translated by lui for the singular, and leur for 
 the plural ; as, 
 
 Ce chien a faim, donnez-Lui du That dog is hungry, give IT 
 
 pain. some bread. 
 
 Ces Grangers vont pe*rir, si vous These orange-trees will die, if 
 
 ne LEUR donnez point d'eau. you do not give THEM water. 
 
 (For the proper place of y, see N.B. p. 50.) 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXVI. 
 
 I study botany, and apply myself seriously to 
 
 art. botanique f. pron. s'appliquer serieusement 
 ^.-History and geography are his delight, he (gives himself up) 
 
 373 delicespl. se livre 
 
 to them entirely. I leave you the care of that goldfinch ; 
 
 entierement. laisser soinm. chardonneretm. 
 
 do not forget to give it water. When virtue appears in all 
 oublier de paraitre dans 
 
 its beauty, we cannot refuse it our homage and respect 
 
 ne pouvons refuser m. 
 
 This book cost me (a great deal), but I (am indebted) to it for 
 
 coute cher dois 
 
 my knowledge. Bring my horses, and give them some hay. 
 instruction f. Amener foinm. 
 
 478. (VIII.) The pronoun fc, which makes la for the 
 feminine, and les for the plural of both genders, may 
 supply the place of a substantive, or an adjective, or 
 even of a part of a sentence. 
 
 When this pronoun supplies the place of a substantive 
 or an adjective used substantively, it takes the gender 
 and number of that substantive or adjective used sub- 
 stantively. In such a case, the English equivalent is 
 almost always understood 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Etes-vous madame de Genlis? 
 
 Je ne la suis pas. 
 Etes-vous la mere de cet enfant? 
 
 Oui, je la suis. 
 
 Etes-vous la malade ? Je la suis. 
 Mesdames, eles-vouslesparentes de 
 
 monsieur ?-Oui, nous lesaommes. 
 
 Are you madame de Genlis f 1 
 
 am not. 
 Are you the mother of that child? 
 
 Yes, lam. 
 
 Are you the patient ? / am. 
 Ladies, are you the relations of 
 
 this gentleman f Yw, we are. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 247 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXVH. 
 
 Are you Dr Kitto's sister ? Yes, I am. Are you Marshal 
 
 sceur marechal m. 
 
 Ney's daughter? No, I am not. Are you Lady Melville? 
 Non Lady f 
 
 Yes, I am. Are you the mistress of this house ? I am. Are 
 maitresse 
 
 you the king's ministers ? We are. Madam, are you the bride ? 
 ministre mariee 
 
 Yes, I am. Are those your gloves? Yes, they are. Give 
 -ce Id gant m. ce 
 
 them to me. Are you my sister's dressmaker? I am. 
 
 couturiere f. 
 
 479. (IX.) The pronoun le remains invariable, when it 
 has reference to a verb, an adjective, or a substantive 
 used adjectively. The English equivalent, which is 
 generally so or tY, is almost always understood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Madame, 6tes-vousmalade? Oui, 
 
 monsieur, je le suis. 
 Etes-vous mere ? Je le suis. 
 Mesdemoiselles, etes-vous pre~tes? 
 
 Oui, nous le somines. 
 
 Madam, are you ill? Yes, Sir, 1 
 
 am. 
 
 Are you a mother ? / am. 
 Young ladies, are you ready f 
 Yes, we are. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXVIII. 
 
 Madam, are you pleased with that speech ? Yes, I am. 
 
 444 discours m. 
 
 Madam, are you married? Yes, I am. Are you mistress of 
 
 mariee maitresse 
 
 your actions? I am not. Ladies, are you glad to have seen 
 
 bien aise 
 the little Princess? Yes, we are. Have we ever been so 
 
 princesse jamais 
 
 quiet as we are? Do you know if they are rich? No, 
 tranquille que 265 riche 
 
 they are not The poor will not always be so. 
 
 pauvre pi. 
 
 rt Mot en 
 
 t Mot empnmte de I'ar.Kiaia. Ofl prononce 
 
248 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 OF THE PRONOUNS 56, SOI. 
 (For the various meanings, see No. 88.) 
 
 480. The pronoun se (s } before a vowel) is of both num- 
 bers and genders ; it is always placed before the verb 
 of which it is the regimen ; as il SB connait, he knows 
 himself; die 3 imagine, she fancies. 
 
 Les yeux de I'amiti^ se trompent rarement. VOLTAIRE. 
 
 481. The pronoun soi is of both genders, and is gene- 
 rally preceded by a preposition, or by the conjunction 
 que. When applied to persons, it is employed only in a 
 vague and indeterminate sense; as, II fautprendre garde 
 a soi, it is necessary to take care of oneself. 
 
 EXERCISE CLXXXIX. 
 
 They lost themselves in the wood. This flower is fading. 
 s'egarer ind-3 fleur f. sefletnr 
 
 These trees are dying. A good deed carries its reward 
 
 se mourir bienfait m. porter recompense f . 
 
 with itself. Frankness is good of itself, but it has its excesses. 
 avec franchise^ de excesm. 
 
 When a man loves nobody but himself, he is not fit for 
 Quand* on n' * que on, propre 
 
 society. To be too much dissatisfied with ourselves is a 
 
 444 soi 
 
 weakness; but to be too much pleased with ourselves is a 
 faiblesse f. * 444 
 
 follj. It always depends on ourselves to act honourably. 
 xottise f. de d' 
 
 RESPECTIVE PLACES OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 482. When a verb (the imperative affirmative excepted) 
 governs two or more pronouns without a preposition, 
 they are always placed before it, and before its auxiliary 
 in compound tenses, in the following order : 
 
 me, te, at, nous, vous, before all others. 
 
 le, la, les, before lui, leur, ?/, en . 
 
 lui, leur, before y, en. 
 
 y, before 'en. 
 
 en. is always the last. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 249 
 
 483. When the sentence is not interrogative, the pro- 
 noun which is the subject of the verb is always placed 
 at the head ; as, 
 
 Vous ne me le conseillez pas. 
 Je ne le hi dirais pas. 
 Nous les en avertirons. 
 Nous hi en parlerons. 
 Us ne s'y soumettront pas. 
 
 You do not advise me so. 
 / would not tell it him. 
 We shall warn them of it. 
 We will speak to him about it. 
 They will not submit to it. 
 
 484. In an imperative sentence, when affirmative, le, la, 
 les, are always placed first ; as, donnez-le-moi, give it me. 
 Moi is placed after y; as, menez-y-moi, take me thither : 
 but nous must precede y; as, menez-nous-y, take us 
 thither. 
 
 EXERCISE CXC. 
 
 Do not say to a friend, who asks something of you: Go, 
 
 see p. 211 * 
 
 and come again to-morrow, and I will give it you ; when you 
 
 revenir demain * lorsque 
 
 can give it him immediately. It is certain that old 
 pouvoir lui sur-le-champ. art. 
 
 Geronte has refused his daughter to Valere ; but because he 
 
 parce qu 3 
 does not give her to him, (it does not follow) that he will give 
 
 il ne s'ensuit pas 
 her to you. I will give you some. I have a letter for you. 
 
 en lettre f. pour 
 
 Your brother has sent it me to bring it you. Give it me. 
 envoyee pour 
 
 II. OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Under this head we shall place the POSSESSIVE 
 ADJECTIVES, as we have already done, page 42. 
 
 485. Possessive adjectives agree in gender and num- 
 ber with the noun to which they are joined. 
 
 486. They are repeated before every noun of the 
 same sentence ; as, MON pere, MA merefi et MES freres 
 sont venus, my father, mother, and brothers have come. 
 
 f Mes pere et mere, sespere et we're, instead ofmonpdre et ma mere, sonpere et 
 sa mere, are phrases extremely incorrect, and though used by many people, are 
 most certainly contrary to the principles of the French language, and are con- 
 demned by vaugelas, Waitty, by the modern Grammarians, and finally by the 
 French Academy. 
 
250 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 487. Possessive adjectives are repeated also before the 
 adjectives that do not qualify the same noun; as, MON grand 
 et MON petit appartement, which is equivalent to mon grand 
 APPARTEMENT et mon petit appartement. But I would 
 say : MON grand et bel appartement, without repeating 
 mon, were I speaking of an apartment both large and 
 beautiful. 
 
 (See what Is said upon the repetition of the Article, p. 200 and 201.) 
 
 EXERCISE CXCI. 
 
 Cyrus knew all the soldiers of his army, and could 
 
 ind-2 soldat 93 armeef. pouvoir ind-2 
 
 designate them by their names. 2 Four 8 thing t s x (are required) 
 designer nom m. on demande 
 
 of a woman: that virtue (should dwell) in her heart; that 
 d femme que 371 habite dans 
 
 modesty (should shine) OD her forehead; that gentleness 
 
 371 brille front m. 371 douceur f. 
 
 (should flow) from her lips, and that work (should occupy) 
 
 decoule levre f. 371 travail m. occupe 
 
 her hands. Her father and mother are dead. My uncle and 
 
 235 
 
 aunt are in Paris. He (showed him) both his fine and ugly 
 tante lui a montre * beau mlain 
 
 dresses. He showed him his beautiful and rich dresses. 
 habits m. 
 
 488. The French make use of the article, and not 
 of the possessive adjective, when the sense clearly points 
 out who is the possessor ; as, 
 
 J'ai mal a LA tte. I / have a pain in MY head. 
 
 Pierre a re$u un coup de feu AU ! Peter has received a shot in HIS 
 bras droit. I right arm. 
 
 As there can be no doubt as to whose head is aching, 
 and whose arm has received the shot, the French deem 
 the article sufficient. 
 
 But, to avoid ambiguity, I must say, 
 
 Je vois que MON bras enfle. I I see my arm is swelling. 
 Pierre a perdu SON argent. I Peter has lost his money. 
 
 Because, were I to say, Je vois que LE bras enftv ; 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 251 
 
 Pierre a perdu L' argent, one would not know whether 
 it is my arm or that of another that I see swelling ; or, 
 whether it is his own money or John's that Peter has 
 lost. 
 
 The possessive adjective is also used in speaking of 
 an habitual complaint known to the person spoken to ; as, 
 
 MA migraine m'a repris. My headache has returned, 
 
 SA goutte le tourmente. | Sis gout torments him. 
 
 Reflected verbs generally remove all ambiguity ; as, 
 
 Je me suis blesse* a LA. main. I I have hurt my hand. 
 
 Je me lave LES mains. I wash my hands. 
 
 The use of the possessive adjective would here be an error ; custom, 
 however, authorizes a few familiar expressions in which the possessive 
 seems to be redundant ; as, Je me suis tenu toute la journfa BUR MES 
 JAMBES ; il se tientferme SUB SES PIEDS. 
 
 489. The French use the article, not the possessive 
 adjective, before a noun forming the regimen, when a 
 personal pronoun, which is the indirect regimen, suffi- 
 ciently supplies the place of the possessive ; as, 
 
 Vous LUI avez casse* LE bras. 
 Vous ME blessez LA main. 
 
 You have broken his arm. 
 You hurt my hand. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCII. 
 
 Of all living 1 creatures, man is the only one who (has not) 
 art. vivant f. seul * n'aitpas 
 
 his face turned towards the earth ; he walks with his eyes 
 f. tourne vers marcher * m. 
 
 directed towards heaven, as if to indicate the superiority 
 dirige art. del m. commepour indiquer 
 
 of his origin. My gout does not allow me a moment's repose. 
 son laisser repos. 
 
 You will cut your finger. A cannon-ball 
 
 se couper doigt m. boulet de canon m. lui 
 
 carried off his arm Our carriage passed over his 
 
 emporter ind-3 voiture f. lui ind-3 sur 
 
 body, and bruised his right shoulder. 
 
 corps m. lui meurtrir ind-3 Adroit ^paule f. 
 
252 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 490. When its or their relate to inanimate objects, they 
 are expressed by son, sa, ses, leur, or leurs : 
 
 1st, When the possessor, substantive or pronoun, is 
 expressed, as the subject, in the same member of a sen- 
 tence ; as, 
 
 Londres a ses beauty's. | London has its beauties. 
 
 2d, When preceded by any preposition whatever ; as, 
 J 'admire la largeur DE ses rues. | / admire the width OF its streets. 
 
 3d, When joined to a noun qualified by an adjective, 
 unless the noun form the regimen ; as, 
 
 Ses b&timents reguliers plaisent 
 au premier coup d'ceil. 
 
 Its regular buildings please at 
 first sight. 
 
 th, When joined to the subject of the verb, the latter 
 is, or may be, followed in French by the preposition de ; 
 
 as, 
 
 Son commerce produit o'im- 
 
 menses ressources. 
 
 Its trade produces immense re- 
 
 sources. 
 
 On all other occasions, its and their are expressed by 
 en, before the verb, and by the article before the noun. 
 So, still speaking of London, I would say : 
 
 Its situation is very convenient 
 
 La situation en est tres-com- 
 mode pour le commerce. 
 
 for trade. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCII1. 
 
 A new custom was a phenomenon in Egypt : (for which 
 coutume f. ind-2 prodige m. en aussi 
 
 reason) (there never was) a people that preserved so long 
 
 n'y eut-il jamais de conserver subj-3 
 
 its laws, and even its ceremonies. The pyramids of Egypt 
 
 pyr amide f. 
 
 astonish, both by the enormity of their bulk, and by the 
 egalement et " masse 
 
 justness of their proportions. The Thames is a magnificent 
 justesse f. superbe 
 
 river : its channel is so wide and so deep below London- 
 lit ra. large au-dessous de 
 
 bridge, that several thousand vessels lie at their ease in it. 
 millier dc Atrr 10P 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 253 
 
 491. REMARKS. 1. A friend of mine ; a book of yours, 
 are turned in this manner in French, un de mes amis ; un 
 de vos livres. As if it were, one of my friends, one of 
 your books ; and so on with all other phrases of the same 
 kind. 
 
 2. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, used with 
 the verb to be, in the sense of to belong, are expressed, in 
 French, by a moi, a toi, a lul, a elle, a nous, a vous, a 
 eux, m., a elks, f. ; as, this book is MINE, ce livre est A 
 MOI ; that watch is HERS, cette montre est A ELLE. 
 
 3. The forms my brother's, your sister's, etc. are also 
 rendered by a monfrere, a votre sosur. 
 
 4. In speaking to a person of his relations or friends, 
 we generally put monsieur, madame, mademoiselle, mes- 
 sieurs, mesdames, mesdemofaellcs, before the possessive 
 adjectives ; as, 
 
 J'ai rencontr^ monsieur votre 
 
 pere. 
 Comment se porte madam? 
 
 I met your father. 
 
 How does your mother aa f 
 
 votre mere ? 
 
 But this is a mere form of politeness, and has nothing 
 to do with the rules of grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCIV. 
 
 His mother is an old acquaintance of ours. 
 ancienne connaissance f. 
 
 That gentleniari is a relation cf mine. I am going to 
 monsieur parent 
 
 dine with an aunt of his. A sister of hers is dead. Is this 
 tante 161 
 
 house yours or his 9 It is not mine. It is my uncle's or 
 
 oncle 
 
 my mother's. Is your sister in town ? No, she is in 
 161 en d. 
 
 the country, with a cousin of mine. These keys are his or 
 f. cleff. 
 
 hers. They are not mine, they are my father's or my mother's 
 
254 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 in. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 492. Ce before etre, requires this verb to be in the 
 singular, except when it is followed by the third person 
 plural. So we say, C'EST moi, C'EST lui, C'EST nous, C'EST 
 vous. But we must say, Ce SONT, C'E"TAIENT, ce FURENT, 
 ce SERONT eux, elks, les parents, qui, etc. 
 
 Such is the rule of the best grammarians. With the third person 
 plural, however, some respectable authors use the rerb etre, sometimes 
 in the plural, and sometimes in the singular. 
 
 493. Ce is often used instead of il, elle, Us, elles, in re- 
 ference to a person or thing mentioned before. Ce is 
 preferred when the verb etre is followed by a substantive, 
 accompanied by the article, or the adjective un ; as, 
 
 Lisez Honiere et Virgile ; CE SONT 
 LES plus grands POBTES de I'an- 
 tiquite*. 
 
 C'est UN Ce'sar. C'est ON Cice*ron. 
 
 Bead Homer and Virgil; they 
 are the best poets of antiquity, 
 
 He is a Ccesar. He is a Cicero. 
 
 But, when the verb etre is followed by an adjective 
 without a noun, or by a noun taken adjectively, il, elle, 
 Us, elles, must be used ; as, 
 
 Lisez Dmosthene et Ciceron ; ILS 
 
 SONT tres loqu&nts. 
 J 'ai vu le Louvre ; IL EST magni- 
 
 fique, et digne d'une grande 
 
 nation. 
 
 Bead Demosthenes and Cicero; 
 
 they are very eloquent. 
 I have seen the Louvre; it is 
 
 beautiful, and worthy of a great 
 
 nation. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCV. 
 
 ft is we who have restored tranquillity. It is you, brave 
 
 retablir 
 
 soldiers, who fought gloriously. It was the Egyptians 
 
 soldat combdttre ind-4 ind-3 Egyptiens 
 
 who first observed the course of the stars, regulated 
 
 les premiers ind-3 coursm. astrem. regler 
 
 the year, and invented arithmetic. Read attentively Plate 
 
 annee f. Lire 
 
 and Cicero; they are the two philosophers of antiquity, who 
 
 philosophe 
 have given us 2 (the most sound and luminous) Mdeas upon 
 
 art. sain lumineux idee f. 
 
 morality. I have seen the city of Edinburgh ; it is beautiful, 
 morale f . mile f. 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 255 
 
 494. Ce qui, as the subject, and ce que, as the object, are 
 much used in the sense of what, that which, that thing which. 
 
 When ce qui or ce que begin a sentence of two parts, 
 ce must be repeated in the second part of the sentence, 
 if it begins with the verb etre; as, 
 
 Ce qui m 'attache a la vie, C'EST 
 
 vous. 
 
 Ce que je desire le plus, C'EST 
 d'aller vous voir. 
 
 What keeps me attached to life, 
 
 is you. 
 What / wish most, is to come 
 
 and see you. 
 
 The repetition of ce is not indispensable when the verb 
 etre is followed by a substantive singular. Thus, we may 
 say, 
 
 Ce qui me*rite le plus notre admi- 1 TJiat which deserves our admira- 
 ration, C'EST or EST la vertu. | tion most, is virtue. 
 
 Even in this case, however, it is better, in general, to 
 repeat ce, which gives more energy to the expression. 
 
 But when the verb etre is followed by an adjective or 
 a past participle without a noun, the demonstrative ce is 
 not repeated ; as, 
 
 CE que vous dites EST vrai. | What you say is true. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCVI. 
 
 What I fear, is to displease you What pleases in the 
 
 Ce que craindre de deplaire Ce qui dans 
 
 ancients, is that they have painted nature with a noble sim- 
 ancien peindre 
 
 plicity, What we 2 justly Admire in Racine, are those 
 Ce qu' on avec justice dans 
 
 characters always natural and always well sustained 
 
 caractere m. dans la nature * soutenu 
 
 That which sustains man in the midst of the greatest reverses, 
 
 Ce qui soutenir a milieu m. 
 is hope. What I say is true What is true is beautiful 
 
 esperance f. beau. 
 
 495. Celui, celle, ceux, celles, are frequently used with 
 the relatives qui, que, dont, auquel, a laquelle, in the sense 
 of he who, she who, they who, whoever, whichever, etc. ; as, 
 
 Heureux celui qui craint le 
 
 Seigneur ! 
 Celle qui aime la vertu est 
 
 heureuse. 
 
 Happy is he who fears the 
 
 Lord! 
 She who loves virtue 
 
256 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 EXERCISE 'CXCVIL 
 
 Happy is lie who lives contented with his lot ! He who luis 
 * vivre content 444 sortm. 
 
 never been acquainted with adversity, says Seneca, has seen 
 * eprouve * art. ria vu 
 
 the world but on one side. She who did it was punished 
 que d' cdtem. ind-4 ind-4 
 
 He who thinks (of nobody but himself), excuses others 
 ne qu'ct lui-meme dispenser les autres 
 
 from thinking of him. He who renders a service should 
 inf-1 a rendre doit 
 
 forget it, he who receives it, remember it. 
 ouolier s'en souvenir. 
 
 496. In the very familiar style, cela is sometimes con- 
 tracted into qa; as, Donnez-moi ga. (Acad.) 
 
 IV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 497. The relative pronouns who, which, and that, are 
 expressed by qui, when they are the subject or nomina- 
 tive of a verb ; as, 
 
 L'homme qui parle. 
 La dame qui chante. 
 La chaise qui vient. 
 
 The man who speaks. 
 The lady who sings. 
 The chaise which comes. 
 
 498. Whom, which, and that, are expressed by que 
 when they are in the accusative, or in other words, the 
 regimen or direct object of a verb ; as, 
 
 L'homme que je vois. 
 Les clievaux que je vois. 
 La maison que j'ai. 
 
 The man whom / see. 
 
 TJie horses which I see. 
 
 The house that or which / have. 
 
 499. Whom is expressed by qui, when it has no ante- 
 cedent, and means what person; as, 
 
 Qui appelez-vous ? i Whom do you call f 
 
 Je sais qui vous voulez dire. I know whom you mean. 
 
 ^SoP* Remember that the e of que is cut off before a vowel ; qui is 
 never changed. 
 
 Observation. Should qui or que be divided from its 
 antecedent by a noun, and any uncertainty arise as to 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 257 
 
 which of the two nouns it may relate to, use lequel } 
 laquelle, instead of qui; as, 
 
 C'est un effet de la Providence, I It is an effect of Providence 
 LEQUEL attire I'admiration. which draws forth admiration* 
 
 Here lequel is preferable to qui, as a doubt might arise 
 whether it was effect or Providence to which it related. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCVIII. 
 
 Pythagoras was the first among the Greeks who took the 
 Pythagore est d'entre aitpris 
 
 name of philosopher. 2 Synonymous * terms are words which 
 
 art. synonyme terme des mot 
 
 signify the same thing. (You must have) a man who loves 
 oV/MoiV?**. n vousfaut n' 
 
 (nothing but) truth and you, and who (will speak) the truth 
 
 que vous dise 
 
 (in spite of) you Here is a lady whom you know. Where 
 
 malgre Void connaitre 
 
 is the horse that he has bought ? Whom shall we invite ? 
 acheter 
 
 500. The relative pronoun qui is always of the gen- 
 der, number, and person of its antecedent ; that is, of the 
 noun or pronoun to which it relates. 
 
 Moi qui suis estime'. 
 Elle qui est esthne'e. 
 Nous qui sommes estimes. 
 Vous qui riez. 
 
 / who am esteemed. 
 She who is esteemed. 
 We who are esteemed. 
 You who laugh. 
 
 On the same principle we say : Vous parlez comme 
 un homme QUI ENTEND la matiere (you speak like a man 
 who understands the subject), and not, QUI ENTENDEZ la 
 matiere because the relative qui does not represent the 
 pronoun vous, but represents the substantive homme 
 which immediately precedes qui. 
 
 REMARK. An adjective, or a cardinal number, cannot 
 serve as an antecedent to a relative pronoun ; so, instead 
 of saying : Nous etions DEUX qui etaient du meme avis (we 
 were two who were of the same opinion), we must say : 
 Nous etions deux qui E"TIONS du meme avis, thus making 
 nous, the subject of the preceding verb, the antecedent 
 of the relative pronoun. 
 
258 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 501. The relative pronoun ought always to be placed 
 near its antecedent ; any other place occasions ambiguity. 
 So Boileau is not to be imitated when he says : 
 La deesse, en entrant, qui voit la nappe mise. 
 
 He ought to have said : la DEESSE QUI, en entrant, 
 voit la nappe mise, in order to bring the relative qui near 
 its antecedent deesse. 
 
 EXERCISE CXCIX. 
 
 You who are esteemed. We who study. I who believe the 
 
 etudier croire 
 
 soul immortal. The greatest men who were the ornament 
 
 ind-4 ornement m. 
 
 and glory of Greece, Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, even Lycurgus 
 
 m$me Lycurgue 
 
 and Solon, went to learn wisdom in Egypt. The 2 mo- 
 ind-3 * apprendre sagesse f . en 
 
 dern 1 writers who attack the ancients, are children who beat 
 ecrivain attaquer ancien des battre 
 
 their nurse. I see only us two who are reasonable. It is 
 nourrice. ne que subj-1 raisonnable C" 
 
 I alone who am guilty. We were ten who were of the 
 seul coupable. ind-2 ind-2 
 
 same opinion. You who have spoken so well. 
 avis m. 
 
 502. The relative pronouns, whom, that, which, and 
 also the conjunction that, are frequently understood in 
 English, but que is always expressed in French ; as, 
 
 L'homme que nous avons vu. 
 
 Le vin que nous avons bu. 
 
 Je crois que vous parlez frangais. 
 
 The man (whom or that) we saw. 
 The wine (that or which) we drank. 
 I think (that) you speak French. 
 
 Note. The student will already have observed, that the English 
 make much greater use of the ellipsis (or omission of some words) than 
 the French, and that, in general, the words which are understood in 
 English, are expressed in French. For previous instances of the ellipsis 
 occurring in English, and not in French, see Nos. 31,, 32, 65, 66, 67, 
 91, 97, 130. 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 259 
 
 EXERCISE CO. 
 
 The lady you have married is my cousin. The tea we 
 femme epousee the m. 
 
 drink is very good. I will never forget the favour you have 
 prendre oublier grdce f. 
 
 done me. Have you received the letter I wrote to you? 
 faite ai ecrite 
 
 I think he will come Titus spent eighty millions in the 
 croire depensa dans 
 
 2 public a games he 2 once *gave to the Roman people. 
 jeum. unefois peuplew. 
 
 I thank you for the trouble you have taken. 
 de peine f. prise. 
 
 503. WHOSE, of WHOM, of WHICH, are generally ex- 
 pressed in French by dont, both in speaking of persons 
 and things ; as, 
 
 Le ciel, dont le secours est nd- 
 
 cessaire. 
 
 L'homme dont il se plaint. 
 La maison dont vous parlez. 
 
 Heaven, whose assistance is ne- 
 cessary. 
 
 The man of whom he complains. 
 The house of which you speak. 
 
 But, when the relative requires to be separated from 
 its antecedent, instead of dont, we use duquel and de 
 laquelle in speaking of things or animals ; as, 
 La Tamise, dans lelit de laquelle^ etc. | The Thames, in the led of which, &c. 
 
 In speaking of persons, it is generally a matter of in- 
 difference whether we use de qui, or duquel) de laquelle ; 
 as, 
 
 Le prince a la protection DE QUI The prince to whose patronage / 
 
 ou DUQUEL je dois ma fortune. 
 
 owe my fortune. 
 
 FROM WHOM is rendered by de qui, and not by dont. 
 
 504. N.B. DONT can only be used when the antecedent 
 is expressed; for, in the beginning of an interrogative 
 phrase, of whom would be rendered by de qui, and oj 
 which by duquel, de laquelle ; as, 
 
 De qui parlez-vous ? Of whom do you speak ? 
 
 Duquel vous plaignez-vous ? Of which do you complain ? 
 
260 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 505. WHOSE, used without reference to a noun ex- 
 pressed before, implies the word person understood. 
 
 If it can be changed into of whom, it is expressed by 
 de qui; as, 
 
 De qui dtes-vous fils? Whose son are you? i. e. of whom 
 
 are you the son ? 
 
 If WHOSE can be changed into to whom, it is expressed 
 by a qui; as, 
 
 A qui est ce chapeau? 
 
 Whose hat is this ? i. e. to whom 
 does this hat belong ? 
 
 EXERCISE CCI. 
 
 There is the gentleman whose horse has won the race. 
 Voila monsieur gagner prix de la course. 
 
 He is a man of whom I have a good opinion. The lady of whom 
 C' * dame 
 
 you are speaking is gone. Here is the book of which you 
 
 ind-1 partir Void 
 made me a present. The daughter of Minos gave a thread to 
 
 ind-4 * present. ind-3 film. 
 
 Theseus, (by means) of which he got out of the labyrinth. 
 Thesee au moyen sortir ind-3 labyrinthe m. 
 
 The people from whom you expect so many services deceive 
 
 gens attendre tant de trompe, 
 
 you. Whose daughter is she ? Whose house is that ? 
 
 506. When the pronouns WHOM or WHICH come after 
 any preposition (except o/), whom is expressed by qui, 
 and which by lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelks ; as, 
 
 Le monsieur a QUI j'e'cris est tres 
 
 riche. 
 II y a un Dieu, par QUI tout est 
 
 gouverne*. 
 
 Le clieval sur LEQUEL il est. 
 La disposition dans LAQUELLE il 
 
 est. 
 Le bonheur apres LEQUEL j 'aspire. 
 
 It follows from the foregoing rule, that qui, preceded by a preposition, 
 is never said of things, but only of persons. So, we can say : La per- 
 sonne a qui fai donne ma confiance ; but we cannot say : Les sciences 
 H qui je m?applique> We must say : Les sciences auxquellesje 
 plique. 
 
 The gentleman to whom / write is 
 
 very rich. 
 There is a God, by whom all things 
 
 are governed. 
 The horse on which he is. 
 The disposition in which he 
 
 is. 
 The happiness after which / aspire. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 261 
 
 EXERCISE CCII. 
 
 The man, for whom you speak, is gone to Paris He is a 
 
 oiler C' 
 
 friend in whom I put my confidence. There are two things 
 
 en mettre confiance f. y avoir 
 
 to which we must (accustom ourselves) under pain of finding 
 falloir s'accoutumer peine inf-1 
 
 life insupportable: the injuries of time and the injustices of 
 
 injure f. 
 men Regulus, in his expedition against Carthage, had to 
 
 Regulus ind-3 
 
 combat a prodigious serpent, against which it was necessary 
 
 combattre m. falloir ind-3 
 
 to employ 2 the 1 whole Roman army. 
 
 V. OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.-See p. 51. 
 
 507. The pronoun ON is generally followed by a 
 masculine singular ; as, 
 
 ON n'est pas toujours HEUREUX. | People are not always fortunate. 
 Yet, when it is quite evident that a female is spoken 
 of, on should be followed by & feminine singular; as, 
 
 ON n'est pas toujours JBUNE et A woman cannot be always young 
 JOLIE. (Acad.) and pretty. 
 
 On may likewise be followed by an adjective or sub- 
 stantive plural, when the sense clearly indicates that this 
 pronoun relates to several persons : the verb, however, 
 remains singular; as, 
 
 ON se battit en desespe're's. \ They fought like desperate men. 
 Ici ON est 6gaux. (Inscription sur la porte d'un cimetiere.) 
 
 508. On must be repeated before every verb of which 
 it is the subject or nominative ; as, 
 
 ON le loue, ON le menace, ON le 
 caresse; mais, quoi que Ton 
 fasse, ON ne peut en venir a bout. 
 
 They praise, threaten, and caress 
 him ; bat whatever they do, they 
 cannot master him. 
 
 N. B. When they is used with reference to a plural noun expressed 
 before, it is rendered in French by Us or elles, and not by on. 
 
 4ST Observe also, that although ON frequently represents WE, THEY, 
 PEOPLE, which are all of the plural number, yet ON is always followed 
 by a verb in the third person singular. 
 
262 SYNTAX OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 509. The English have an indefinite manner of ex- 
 pressing themselves, by means of the indefinite pronoun IT, 
 which the French express by ON, at the same time chang- 
 ing the verb from the passive into the active sense ; as, 
 ON dit. ON pense. Otfrapporte. | It is said. It is thought. It is reported. 
 
 510. On is much used in French as the subject of an 
 active verb, when the passive voice is used in English. 
 So, instead of saying as the English : / am deceived ; 1 
 have been told ; the French say: On me trornpe; On m'a 
 dit; as if it were, They deceive me ; They have told me. 
 
 511. CHACUN, each, every one. This pronoun is always 
 singular, but when preceded by a plural, it is sometimes 
 followed by son, sa, ses, and sometimes by leur, leurs. 
 
 Chacun takes sow, sa, ses, when it is placed after the 
 direct regimen, or when the verb has no regimen of that 
 nature ; as, 
 
 They have brought their offerings^ 
 
 Us ont apport leurs offrandes, 
 chacun selon ses moyens. 
 
 Les deux rois se sont retire's, 
 chacun dans sa tente. 
 
 Us ont opine*, chacun & son tour. 
 
 every one according to his means. 
 The two kings have retired, each 
 
 to his tent. 
 They voted, each in his turn. 
 
 Chacun takes leur, leurs, when it is placed before the 
 direct regimen ; as, 
 
 Us ont apporte*, chacun, leur 
 
 offrande. 
 Us ont donne*, chacun, leur avis. 
 
 Each of them has brought his of- 
 fering. 
 Each of them gave his opinion. 
 
 EXERCISE CCm. 
 
 When a woman is handsome, she (is not ignorant of it). 
 Quand * on on ne I'ignore pas. 
 
 We are not slaves, to endure such ill treatment. In 
 On des pourendurer desimauvais pi. 
 
 that house, they laugh, play, dance, and sing. It is believed 
 
 rire danser * 
 
 that peace (will be made) this year. We have been much 
 sefera annee f. bien 
 
 deceived.-jffe is said to! lave succeeded. -Return those medals, 
 trompes. reussi. Remettre medaillef. 
 
 each to its place. *Each l (of them has fulfilled) his duty. 
 
 T? ont rcmpli 
 
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 263 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 1. AGREEMENT of the VERB with its SUBJECT or NOMINATIVE. 
 
 512. GENERAL RULE. A verb must agree with its 
 subject in number and person ; as, 
 
 Nous lisons ; vous lisez. I We read ; you read. [asleep. 
 
 La haine veille, et 1'amitie' s'endorl.\ Hatred is awake, and friendship is 
 
 513. Observation. When a verb has more than one 
 subject, it is put in the plural ; as, 
 
 Mon frere et lui parlent frarigais. | My brother and he speak French. 
 
 And, should the subjects be of different persons, the 
 verb must agree with the first person in preference to 
 the other two, and with the second rather than with the 
 third. In this case, the pronoun nous (not expressed in 
 English) is generally^ placed before the verb, if one of the 
 subjects is in the first person; and, the pronoun vous f 
 if the second person is used with the third, without & first 
 person; as, 
 
 Vous et moi, NOUS avons fait 
 
 notre devoir. (Acad.) 
 J'ai appris que vous et votre frere 
 
 vous partiez bientot. (Ibid.) 
 
 You and /, have done our duty. 
 
 I have heard that you and your 
 brother were soon to set out. 
 
 f Observe, I say generally, and not always, as most grammarians 
 do ; for nous or vous may sometimes be understood, as in this sentence 
 of F&n&lon: Narbal et moi ADMIRIONS la bonte des dieux. Narbal 
 and I were admiring the goodness of the gods. 
 
 EXERCISE CCIV. 
 
 2 Riches ^ften attract friends, and poverty keeps them 
 richessespl. attirer art. . eloigner 
 
 away. Religion watches over 2 secret J crimes ; the laws watch 
 * f. veitter m. 
 
264 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 
 
 over 2 public Crimes. Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus were friends. 
 
 Tibulle ind-2 
 
 He and she will go to the country with my father. 
 
 campagne f. 
 You, your cousin, and I, have each a different Opinion. 
 
 114 f. 
 
 You and he shall accompany me to the botanical garden. 
 accompagner 
 
 EXCEPTION. 
 
 514. When two subjects singular are joined by the 
 conjunction ou (or, either), the verb is put in the singular ; 
 as, 
 
 Jean ou Jacques le FERA. [ John or James will do it. 
 When, however, the words joined by ou are of different 
 persons, usage requires the verb to be in the plural, and 
 that it should agree with the person that has priority, 
 that is, with the first person rather than with the other 
 two, and with the second rather than with the third ; as, 
 
 Vous ou moi PARLEBONS. i You or I shall speak. 
 
 Vous ou votre frere VIENDREZ. | You or your brother will come. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 515. (1.) As the words Vun et Vautre (both) express 
 plurality, the verb should be put in the plural ; as, 
 
 I/un et 1'autre SONT venus. | Both are come. 
 
 L'un et 1'autre out promis. (Racine.} 
 
 I/un et 1'autre out le cerveau trouble*. (Boileau.} 
 
 516. (2.) Ni Vun ni Vautre (neither, neither the one 
 nor the other), and all subjects joined together by m 
 repeated, require also the verb in the plural ; as, 
 
 J'ai lu vos deux discours : ni Tun 
 ni 1'autre ne SONT bons. 
 
 I have read your two speeches : nei- 
 ther the one nor the other is good. 
 
 Ni Tor ni la grandeur ne nous rendent heureux. (La Fontaine.") 
 Exception. When one of the words united by ni can 
 alone perform the action expressed by the verb, the verb 
 is then put in the singular ; as, 
 
 Ni Tun NI 1'autre n'oBTiENDRA 
 
 le prix. 
 Ni M. le Due, NI M. le Comte 
 
 ne SERA nomme" ambassadeur 
 
 & Saint-Pdtersbourg. 
 
 Neither the one nor the other will 
 
 obtain the prize. 
 Neither the Duke nor the Count 
 
 will le appointed ambassador to 
 
 St.-Petersburg. 
 
 $gp Observe that Ni, and Ni I'un ni 1'autre take NE before a verb. 
 
AUKEEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 265 
 
 EXERCISE CCV. 
 
 It was either Pitt or Fox who said that. Either mildness, 
 C' ind-1 * ind-4 douceur f. 
 
 )r force will do it. I have seen A. and B., either the one or the 
 f. 273 
 
 other will write to you. It was either he or I that did that. 
 ind-7 ind-1 * ind-4 
 
 I send you my two servants, both are honest. Neither has 
 
 domestique honnete 
 
 done his duty. Neither of them shall marry my daughter. 
 devoir m. Gpouser 
 
 517. We have already seen (page 17) that there are 
 two sorts of collective nouns : the collective general, and 
 the collective partitive. The collective general are those 
 which express the totality of the persons or things of 
 which we speak ; as, I'armte, the army ; la foule, the 
 crowd ; or a determinate number of those same persons 
 or things ; as, la moitid, the half. The collective partitive 
 are those which express only a partial number ; as, une 
 quantite^ a quantity, unefoule, a crowd. 
 
 La troupe de voleurs s'est introduite, the gang of thieves 
 got in: Une troupe de voleurs se sont introduits, a 
 gang of thieves got in. In the first sentence troupe is 
 a collective general; in the second it is a collective 
 partitive. 
 
 518. RULE I. When a collective general is followed by 
 the preposition de (of) and a noun, the adjective, pronoun, 
 participle, and verb, agree with the collective general ; as, 
 
 L'armee des infideles FUT entiere- The army of the infidels was en- 
 
 ment de*truite. tirely destroyed. 
 
 II a fourni LB NOMBRB d'exem- He has furnished the number of 
 plaires OONVENU. (Acad.) copies agreed upon. 
 
 519. RULE II. When a collective partitive is followed 
 by the preposition de (of) and a noun, the adjective, pro- 
 noun, participle, and verb, agree with the last noun because 
 
266 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 
 
 it expresses the principal idea, and more particular!} 
 fixes the attention ; as, 
 
 Most people believe it. 
 Most men think so. 
 
 A great many enemies appeared. 
 
 
 He found a part of the apricots 
 
 eaten, a part of the liquors 
 
 drunk. 
 
 520. Observations. (1.) Adverbs of quantity, as peu, 
 few ; beaucoup, many ; asset, enough ; plus, more ; trap, 
 too many, etc. are considered as collectives partitive. 
 Consequently we write : 
 
 LA PLUPART du monde le CROIT. 
 LA PLUPART des hommes le 
 
 PENSENT. 
 
 UN grand is OMBRE d'ennemis 
 
 PARURENT. 
 
 11 trouva UNE PARTIE des abricots 
 manges, UNE PARTIE des liqueurs 
 
 BUES. 
 
 Peu de gens negligent leurs 
 
 intents. 
 Beaucoup de monde etait a la 
 
 promenade. 
 
 Few people neglect their in- 
 terests. 
 Many people were walking. 
 
 521. (2.) Peu, beaucoup, and la plupart, used by 
 themselves, require the verb in the plural ; as, 
 
 The senate was divided, the majo- 
 rity wished... 
 
 Le se*nat fut partage*, LA PLUPART 
 
 VOULAIENTque... 
 
 The noun which here regulates the agreement of the 
 verb is understood : La plupart des SE"NATEURS voulaient 
 que, etc. ; the majority of the SENATORS wished... 
 
 EXERCISE CCVI. 
 
 It was with James the First, that began that series of 
 C" ind-1 a 395 que ind-1 chatne f. 
 
 misfortunes which gave to the house of Stuart the title of 
 
 malheur ' ind-4 titrem. 
 
 unfortunate. A troop of nymphs, crowned with flowers, 
 infortune troupe f. nymphei. de 
 
 swam behind her car. Few men reason, and all wish to 
 ind-2 derriere char m. raisonner vouloir * 
 
 decide. Most were of that opinion. An infinite number of 
 
 ind-3 avis m. 
 
 birds made those groves resound with their sweet songs. 
 2 8 l de 
 
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 267 
 
 Additional Remarks upon the General Rule. 
 
 522. (1.) When the words forming the subject are 
 synonymous, the verb agrees, in French, with the last 
 noun ; as, 
 
 Son courage, son intre'pidite' tonne les plus braves. (Domergue.) 
 
 $F Synonymous nouns must never be joined, in French, by the 
 conjunction et, 
 
 523. (2.) The verb agrees also with the last noun 
 only, although the nouns be not synonymous, if we dwell 
 more upon the last than upon the others, either because 
 it explains the preceding nouns is more energetic, or is 
 of such moment that the others are forgotten ; as, 
 
 Le fer, le bandeau, la flamme EST toute pr6te. (Racine.) 
 Le Pe'rou, le Potose, Alzire EST sa conquete. ( Voltaire.) 
 
 524. (3.) The verb is put in the singular, although 
 preceded by plurals, when there is an expression which 
 sums up all the nouns into one, such as tout, rien, per- 
 sonne, nul, chacun; or when the conjunction mais is placed 
 before the last noun, and this noun is in the singular; as, 
 
 Paroles et regards, tout EST charme 
 dans vous. (La Fontaine.) 
 
 Crainte, perils, rien ne m'A re- 
 tenu. (Racine.) 
 
 Non-seulement toutes ses richesses, 
 mais toute sa vertu s'evanouit. 
 
 Words and looks, everything is a 
 
 charm in you. 
 Neither fear nor dangers, nothing 
 
 could restrain me. 
 Not only all his riches, but all his 
 
 virtue vanished. 
 
 525. (4.) When two subjects are joined by the follow- 
 ing and similar conjunctions, comme, de meme que, ainsi 
 que, aussi Uen que, the verb agrees with the first subject, 
 the second being the subject of a verb understood ; as, 
 
 That battle, like so many others, 
 
 decided nothing. 
 Aristophanes, as well as Menan- 
 
 der, delighted the Greeks. 
 
 Cette bataille, comme tant d'autres, 
 
 ne dcida de rien. ( Voltaire.) 
 A-ristophane, aussi bien que Me- 
 
 nandre, charmait les Grecs. 
 
 It is as if it were : 
 
 Cette bataille ne de*cida de rien, comme tant d'autres batailles ne d6- 
 
 ciderent de rien. 
 Aristophane charmait les Grecs, aussi bien que Menandre chanrtait 
 
 les Grecs. 
 
268 PLACE OF THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 
 
 EXERCISE CCVIL 
 
 Vanity, says Pascal, is so rooted in the 2 human ^eart, that 
 
 ancre de I'homme 
 
 a scullion, a porter even boasts, and wishes to have 
 
 marmiton crocheteur * se vanter vouloir * 
 
 his admirers. Games, conversation, shows, nothing 
 admirateur 404 jeu spectacle 
 
 diverts her. The strength of the mind, like that of the 
 ne distraire force f. dme f. 
 
 body, is the fruit of temperance. Alcibiades, as well as 
 
 art. Alcibiade 
 
 Plato, was among- the disciples of Socrates. 
 au nombre de 
 
 II. PLACE OF THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 
 
 526. RULE. The subject or nominative is generally 
 placed before the verb, in French, as in English ; as, 
 
 Le maitre enseigne, et I'ecolier 
 
 apprend. 
 Nous irons vous voir. 
 
 The master teaches, and the scholar 
 
 learns. 
 We shall come and see you. 
 
 527. There are a few cases in which the subject is 
 placed after the verb ; they are the following : 
 
 1st, When, in any interrogative sentence, the subject 
 is a pronoun ; as, 
 
 Quand-viendra-t-e//e ? | When will she come ? 
 
 But if, in asking a question, the subject of the verb is 
 a noun, the noun is placed before the verb ; and to show 
 that a question is asked, one of the pronouns, ilj elle, Us, 
 dies, is placed immediately after the verb ; as, 
 
 Votre frere parle-t-il francais ? Does your brother speak French ? 
 
 Vos soeurs sont-elles arrive'es ? 
 
 Have your sisters arrived f 
 
 Remark. When an interrogative sentence begins with que, a quoi, 
 ou, we generally place the noun subject after the verb, without adding 
 a pronoun to it ; as, 
 
 Que fait votre frere ? 
 
 A quoi s'occupe votre sceur ? 
 
 Ou demeure votre oncle ? 
 
 What is your "brother doing ? 
 What is your sister busy with ? 
 Where does your uncle live ? 
 
 (See the Preliminary Bemarks on Interrogation, p. 87.) 
 
PLACE OF THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 269 
 
 2d, When, as in English, we quote the words of 
 another person ; as, 
 Que ferai-je ? dit Teltmaque. \ What shall I do? said Telemachus. 
 
 3d, When the subjunctive mood is used without any 
 conjunction being expressed ; as, 
 
 Fasse LE CIEL que vous soyez 
 
 heureux ! 
 Dusse-JE y pe*rir, j'irai. 
 
 Heaven grant you may be happy ! 
 Should I perish there, I will go. 
 
 This turn of expression has more vivacity than if we had said : Je 
 souhaite QUE le cielfasse que vous soyez heureux. QUOIQUB je dusse 
 y perir, firai. 
 
 4*A, When the sentence begins with a unipersonal (01 
 impersonal) verb, or with one of these words, AINSI, thus, 
 so ; TEL, such ; as, 
 
 11 est arrive d'heureux change- 
 
 ments. 
 
 Ainsi finit cette trage*die. 
 Tel fut le r&ultat de sa folie. 
 
 Happy changes have taken place. 
 
 Thus ended that tragedy. 
 Such was the result ofhisfoUy. 
 
 (See Rule III, p. 239.) 
 
 5th, When the subject is followed by several words which 
 are dependent upon it ; as in this phrase of Fenelon: 
 
 La coulent mille EUISSEAUX qui dis- 
 
 tribuent partout une eau claire. 
 
 There flow a thousand rivulets thai 
 carry everywhere a clear water. 
 
 This transposition of the subject is sometimes indis- 
 pensable, and sometimes only the effect of taste. 
 
 EXERCISE CCVHI. 
 
 The violet is the emblem of modesty. Are they gone? 
 violette f . embleme m. partir 
 
 Does your cousin often come to see you ? Is your governess 
 
 venir 
 
 English or French ? What will posterity think ? You are 
 
 ind-7 avoir 
 
 wrong, said her father to her. May you succeed in your 
 tort Pouvoir reussir 
 
 projects ! 3 ( Great misfortunes) l (have happened). $ogoes the 
 
 malheur m. 
 
 world. Such was his advice. On one side was seen a river 
 mondem. avism. D y on ind-2 
 
 (from which) sprung islands lined with lime-trees in bloom. 
 oft, se former borde de tilleul fleuri 
 
270 
 
 GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 
 
 m. GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 528. The object, regimen, or complement of a verb, is a 
 word which completes the idea begun by the verb. 
 
 529. There are two sorts of regimens, the one called 
 direct, the other indirect. 
 
 530. The direct regimen denotes the immediate object 
 of the action of the verb, without the help of any prepo- 
 sition, and answers to the question qui ? (whom ?) for 
 persons, and quoi ? (what ?) for things ; as, J'aime mon 
 pere, I love my father. J'aime, QUI? mon pere. // 
 airne V etude, he likes study. II aime, QUOI? I 'etude. 
 Mon pere and V etude then are the direct regimens of the 
 verb aimer, since they complete, without the help of any 
 preposition, the idea begun by the verb. 
 
 531. The indirect regimen completes, in an indirect 
 manner, the idea begun by the verb ; that is, it completes 
 it only by means of a preposition expressed or understood; 
 it answers to the question a qui ? de qui ? pour qui ? 
 par qui, etc., for persons ; and a quoi ? pour quoi ? de 
 quoi ? etc., for things ; as, Ilparle a son frere, he speaks 
 to his brother. II parle, a QUI ? a son frere. A son 
 frere is then the indirect regimen siparler, and completes 
 the action expressed by that verb, by means of the pre- 
 position a. 
 
 532. The direct regimen corresponds to the accusative; 
 the indirect regimen to the genitive, dative, or ablative of 
 the Latin. 
 
 533. RULE I. When a verb has two regimens, the one 
 direct and the other indirect, the shorter must be placed 
 first ; as, 
 
 Les hypocrites parent le vice des 
 dehors de la vertu. 
 
 Les hypocrites parent des dehors 
 de la vertu les vices les plua 
 honteus et les plus de'crie's. 
 
 Hypocrites deck vice with the ex 
 
 terior of virtue. 
 Hypocrites deck with the exterior 
 
 of virtue the most shameful arm 
 
 odious vices. 
 
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 271 
 
 534. RULE II. If the regimens are of equal length, 
 the direct regimen must be placed first ; as, 
 
 L/ambition sacrifie le present d I Ambition sacrifices the present to 
 1'avenir, mais la voluptd sacri- | the future, but pleasure sacrifices 
 fie Vavenir au present. I the future to the present, 
 
 EXERCISE CCIX. 
 
 He has sent a circular to all his correspondents. He 
 circulaire f. correspondent m. 
 
 devotes his talents to the defence of 'public liberty Give 
 
 consacrer pi. 
 
 to study all the time that you can. I delivered the letter 
 etude f. remettre ind-4 
 
 to the tutor of the prince. Show your governess the 
 precepteur & 
 
 letter that you have written. I have given a ring to my sister 
 
 f. 
 
 Alexander, in dying, said that he left his empire to the most 
 ind-3 ind-2 
 
 worthy. Have you lent my brother any money ? 
 
 535. UULE III. Passive verbs require de or par before 
 the noun or pronoun which they govern. 
 
 536. De is used, when the verb expresses an action 
 wholly of the mind ; as, 
 
 l/honnete homme est estime', m&ne I An honest man is esteemed, even 
 DE ceux qui n'ont pas de probite*. | by those who have no probity. 
 
 537. Paris required, when the bodily faculties parti- 
 cipate in the action ; as, 
 
 Carthage fut de*truite PAR les Ro- Carthage was destroyed by the 
 mains. Romans. 
 
 REMARK. Par is also used to avoid the repetition of de in the same 
 sentence ; as, Son ouvrage a te censure tfune maniere severe PAR les 
 critiques. 
 
 4^ Remember that it is a GENERAL RULE to make every past par- 
 ticiple used with the verb &re, agree in tender and number with the 
 subject of that verb. 
 
272 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 EXERCISE OCX. 
 
 Your brother is honoured and respected by all who know 
 
 honorer ceux 
 
 him. He is loved by all his masters. Misers are tormented 
 
 371 avare 
 
 with the fear of losing what they have Bombs 
 
 crainte f. perdre inf-1 ce qu' 371 bombe f . 
 
 were invented by Gallen, a bishop of Munster, about the 
 ind-3 399 vers 
 
 middle of the 16th century. The city of Troy was > 
 
 viUet. ind-3 
 
 taken, plundered, and destroyed by the Greeks, 1184 years 
 
 saccager detruire 
 
 .B. C. This event has been celebrated by the 
 avant J.-C. evenement m. 
 
 two greatest poets of Greece and Italy, 
 art. 31 
 
 538. The preposition TO, before a second verb in the 
 infinitive, is expressed in French by A, DE, or POUR, but 
 not indiscriminately. Sometimes also there is no prepo- 
 sition at all in French. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J'aime d lire. 
 Je crains de tomber. 
 Je le fais pour vous obliger. 
 Ou laissez-moi p&ir, ou laissez- 
 moi r^gner. ( Corneille. ) 
 
 / like to read. 
 1 fear to fall. 
 I do it to oblige you. 
 Either allow me to perish, or 
 allow me to reign. 
 
 It is important to observe, that when in French a pre- 
 position is required before an infinitive, it is the foregoing 
 verb, noun^ or adjective that determines which is to be 
 used, according as that verb, noun, or adjective governs 
 one or another preposition. This government must there- 
 fore be ascertained. This is one of the principal diffi- 
 culties of the French language, and, in order to remove 
 it, we give two Lists of Verbs with the prepositions that 
 they respectively govern, and a third List of those Verbs 
 that require no preposition. 
 
VERBS WHICH GOVERN CL. 
 
 273 
 
 539. N.B. After prepositions,* the French use the 
 present infinitive, and not the present participle ; as, 
 
 Amusez-vous a lire. 
 
 II m'empeche de le faire. 
 
 The only exception is EN; as, 
 
 Nous causerons en marchant. I We shall talk as we walk. 
 
 II donna cet ordre en partant. | He gave that order in going away. 
 
 Amuse yourself with reading. 
 He hinders me from doing it. 
 
 540. LIST I. Verbs which require the preposition A before 
 the infinitive which follows them. 
 
 s'Abaisser a, to stoop to. 
 aboutir a, to end in, tend to. 
 s'accorder a, to agree in. 
 accoutumer a, to accustom to. 
 aider a, to help to, assist in. 
 aimer a, to Like to. [with, 
 
 s'amuser a, to amuse oneself 
 animer a, to excite to. 
 s'appliquer a, to apply to. 
 apprendre a, to learn to. 
 s'anpreter a, to get ready to. 
 aspirer a, to aspire to. 
 s'attendre a, to expect to. 
 autoriser a, to authorise to. 
 avoir a, to have to. 
 
 Balancer a, to hesitate to. 
 Chercher a, to seek to. 
 commencer a,ffc> begin to. 
 condainner a, tfo condemn to. 
 condescendre a, to condescend to. 
 consentir a, to consent to. 
 consister a, to consist in. 
 continuer a, (fo, J continue to. 
 contraindre a, c?e,|| tfo compel to. 
 contribuer a, to contribute to. 
 
 Demander a, efe, J ^o ask to. 
 destiner a, ^o destine to. 
 se determiner a, to resolve upon, 
 disposer <z, to dispose to. 
 donner a, to give to. 
 s'Efforcer a, de, (physical) to 
 endeavour to. 
 
 employer a, ^o employ to, wse to. 
 s'empresser a, de& to be eager to. 
 encourager a, to encourage to. 
 engager a, to induce to. 
 ennardir a, to embolden to. 
 enseigner a, to teach to. 
 s^tuaier , /o s^wdy to. 
 exceller a, to excel in. 
 exciter a, <o carc^e to. 
 exercer a, <o exercise in. 
 exhorter a, ^o exhort to. 
 exposer a, ^o expose to. 
 se Fatiguer a, ^o grc^ ^VecZ with, 
 forcer a, cZe, || ^o force to, compel 
 Gagner a, to gain by. [to. 
 Habituer a, ^o accustom to. 
 hair a, ^o Aa^e to. 
 
 se hasarder a, to venture to. 
 
 * To ascertain which preposition to use, consult the Lists. 
 
 t Some writers occasionally use de, and establish a shade of difference between 
 commencer a and commencer de; but, according to the latest decisions of the French 
 Academy, ft may be properly used in all cases. 
 
 t As it sounds best, i. e. de to avoid several a, and d to avoid several de. 
 
 ii A or <fe, as it sounds best in the active sense, but always de in the passive 
 
 S 
 
274 
 
 VERBS WHICH GOVERN 
 
 hesiter ft, to hesitate to. 
 Inviter &, to invite to. 
 ae Mettre a, to setf about to, 6e- 
 inontrer ft, to sAow to. [^i?i to. 
 Obliger ft, de,-\ to oblige to. | 
 s'obstiner ft, to persist in. 
 s'offrir ft, to offer to. 
 oublier ft, to forget how. 
 Parvenir ft, to succeed in. 
 passer ft, to spend in. 
 penser ft, to tfm'nA; of. 
 perdre ft, to fose in. 
 
 perseverer ft, to persevere in. 
 
 persister a, to persist in. 
 se plaire a, to delight in. 
 preparer ft, to prepare to. 
 provoquer ft, to incite to. [to. 
 Recommencer ft, to begin again 
 renoncer ft, to renounce to. 
 se re*spudre ft, to resolve to. 
 reussir ft, to succeed to, in. 
 Servir ft, to serwe to. 
 songer ft, to Am& of. 
 Tacher ft, to aim at. 
 tendre ft, to tend to 
 Viser ft, to aim at. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXI. 
 
 1 shall not stoop to justify myself. He likes to be flattered 
 ne point sejustifier. 
 
 He amuses himself with making 'chemical Experiments. 
 
 32 dechimie experience 
 
 I expect to meet with many difficulties. I have to thank 
 * bien des 
 
 you I begin to understand. Liberality consists less in giving 
 comprendre. 
 
 much, than in giving seasonably He is asking to come in. 
 
 beaucoup d propos. entrer. 
 
 They encouraged me to continue. The example of his ancestors 
 ind-3 ancetre 
 
 excites him to distinguish himself. I offer to serve you 
 se distinguer. 
 
 541. LIST II. Verbs which require the preposition DE 
 before the infinitive which follows them. 
 
 s'Abstenir de, to abstain from, 
 accuser de } to accuse of. 
 achever de, to finish to. 
 affecter de, to affect to. 
 s'affliger de, to be grieved at. 
 ambitionner de, to be ambitious to. 
 
 appr^hender de, to fear to. 
 avertir de, to warn to. 
 s'aviser de, to bethink of. 
 Blamer de, to blame for. 
 brdler de, to be anxious to. 
 Cesser de, to cease to. 
 
 t A or de, as it sounds best : but with the meaning of doing a service, or in a 
 passive sense, always de. 
 
VERBS WHICH GOVERN de. 
 
 275 
 
 charger de, to charge to. 
 commander de, to command to. 
 conjurer de, to conjure to. 
 conseiller de, to advise to. 
 se contenter de, to be content 
 convenir de, to agreeto. [with, 
 craindre de, to fear to. 
 De*daigner de, to disdain to. 
 de*fendre de, to forbid to. 
 defier de, to defy to. 
 se depecher de, to make haste to. 
 d^sesperer de, to despair to, of. 
 differer de, to defer to, to de- 
 dire de, to tell to. [lay to. 
 
 discontinuer de, to discontinue 
 disconvenir de, to disown to. [to. 
 dispenser de, to dispense with, 
 dissuader de, to dissuade from. 
 6crire de, to write to. [vour to. 
 s'efforcer de, (moral) to endea- 
 empecher de, to prevent to. 
 enrager de, to be enraged to. 
 entreprendre de, to undertake 
 essayer de, to try to. [to. 
 s'etonner de, to be astonished 
 eviter de, to avoid to. [at. 
 excuser de, to excuse for. 
 exempter de, to exempt from. 
 Feindre de, to feign to. 
 feliciter de, to congratulate 
 finir de, to finish to. [upon, 
 se flatter de, to flatter oneself to. 
 fremir de, to shudder to. 
 se Garder de, to take care not to. 
 gemir de, to lament to. 
 se glorifier de, to glory in. 
 gronder de, to scold for. 
 se Hater de, to hasten to. 
 
 Jurer de, to swear to. 
 Manquer de, to fail to. 
 menacer de, to threaten to. 
 meriter de, to deserve to. 
 Negliger de, to neglect to. 
 Offrir de, to offer to. 
 omettre de, to omit to. 
 ordonner de, to order to. 
 oublier de, to forget to. 
 Pardonner de, to forgive for. 
 permettre de, to permit to. 
 persuader de, to persuade to. 
 se piquer de, to pretend to. 
 plaindre de, to pity to, for. 
 prescrire de, to prescribe to. 
 presser de, to press to, urge to. 
 prier de, to request to. 
 pr omettre de, to promise to. ' 
 proposer de, to propose to. 
 Recommanderde, to recommend 
 refuser de, to refuse to. [to. 
 regretter de, to regret to. 
 se rejouir de, to rejoice to. 
 remercier de, to thank for. 
 se repentir de, to repent of, to. 
 reprocher de, to reproach for. 
 r^soudre de, to resolve to. 
 rire de, to laugh at. 
 
 risquer de, to run the risk to. 
 rougir de, to blush to. 
 Sommer de, to summon to. 
 soup9onner de, to suspect to. 
 se souvenir de, to remember to. 
 suggerer de, to suggest to. 
 supplier de, to entreat to. 
 Tacher de, to endeavour to. 
 tenter de, to attempt to. 
 se Vanter de, to boast of. 
 
 542. REMARK. Verbs generally require, before a noun, 
 the same preposition that they require before an infini- 
 tive ; as, 
 
 II faut accoutumer les enfants a We must accustom children TO obey 
 
 obeir a I'obeissance. TO obedience. 
 
 Je Yaccuse DE negliger ses e*tudes. / accuse him OF neglecting his stu- 
 
 Je Yaccuse DE negligence. dies, /accuse him OF negligence. 
 
276 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXII. 
 
 Abstain from injuring- your enemies. The courtiers of Darius 
 nuire a sing. courtisan 
 
 accused Daniel of having 1 violated the laws of the Persians. 
 ind-2 violer Perse 
 
 Your brother will never cease to think of you, Zerbinette has 
 ind-7 
 
 charged me to come and tell you that . . God commands us to 
 * que . . 
 
 love him. I would advise you to speak to him. Reason 
 conseiller 
 
 forbids us to commit an injustice. Who told you to do it? 
 f. ind-4 
 
 He has undertaken to translate Homer and Virgil. 
 traduire 
 
 EXERCISE CCXIH. 
 
 I shall not fail to do what you wish. I ordered him to 
 ce que vouloir ind-4 
 
 go and see him You forgot to come this morning. They 
 * ind-4 matin m. On 
 
 have persuaded him to marry. I promise to observe what 
 lui se marier. 
 
 the law orders me. We should blush to commit faults, 
 ordonner II faut commettre32 
 
 but not to acknowledge them. I will endeavour to satisfy you. 
 non avouer tdcher 
 
 Make haste to breakfast I congratulate myself on having 
 
 me 
 
 made so good a choice. The king orders me to set out with 
 choix m. partir 
 
 the fleet. Recommend to your children to shun vice, to love 
 
 fuir m. 
 
 virtue. General Desaix contributed to the gaining of the 
 ind-3 gain m. 
 
 battle of Marengo. I thank you for your kindness. 
 bataillef. bontef. 
 
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 277 
 
 543. LIST III. Verbs which require no preposition in 
 French before the infinitive which follows them, whether 
 a preposition be used in English or not. 
 
 Aimer mieux,* to like better. 
 Aller, to go. Le Rhin ira grossir la Loire. (Boil.) 
 
 Compter, to intend. II compte partir demain. (Acad.) 
 
 Croire, to think. Elle croyait servir 1'etat. (Bossuet.) 
 
 Daigner, to deign. Daignez leur parler. (Boileau.) 
 
 Devoir, to owe. { ^Jg^gJJg n US rendre heureal ' 
 
 Entendre, to hear. J'en ai entendu parler. (Acad.) 
 
 Envoy er, to send. Envoy ez demander. (Ib.) 
 
 Esperer.t to hope. { n ^ re re ea sa *&& (So, 
 
 Faire, to make, to cause. J e le./js npmmer chef. (Le mime.) 
 Falloir, to be necessary. II faut voir.^ (Acad.) 
 s'lmaginer, to fancy. II s'imagineGtre un grand docteur.(7&.) 
 Laisser, to leave, to let. II laisse qpprimer Tinnocence. (Rac.) 
 Oser, to dare. |Q^uis|e pouro.ermurmurer? (X. 
 
 Paraitre, to appear. Ik par ait etre satisfait. (Acad.) 
 
 PnnvniV tn h* nW? $ Rien ne P eut P r o s perer sur des terres 
 ouvoir, to oe able. | i ngTates . fa Racine.) 
 
 Pr^tendre, to pretend. II pretend donner la loi. (A.cad.) 
 Savoir, to know Je sais lire et ecrire. (Holier e.) 
 
 Sembler, to seem. U ^ aux humains ' ' ' 
 
 Souhaiter, J fo wish. ?*** P UVoir VOUS Uiff er " 
 
 Valoir mieux,* to be better. ,11 vaw^ mieux attendre un peu. (Ibid.) 
 Venir, to come. Je viens adorer TEternel. (Racine.) 
 
 Voir, to see. II n'aime pas a voir soufirir. (Acad.) 
 
 v^i^- / ? a "in n ( Voulez-vous du public meriter les amours? 
 Vouloir, to be willing. | Sanscesseen ^ antvariez vos discours. (Boil.} 
 
 * Aimer mieux; valoir mieux, followed by two verbs in the infinitive, require DE 
 before the second infinitive; faimerais mieux mourir, que TtEfaire une si mauvaise 
 action. 11 y a beaucoup d 'occasions oit il vaut mieux se taire que DE parler. 
 
 t Esptrer, being in the present infinitive, and followed by another verb also in 
 the present infinitive, requires DE : Peut-on espe'rer de vous revoir ? 
 
 t It is also used with DE : Je souhaite DE vous voir. (Racine.) 
 
 Venir, in the sense of to be just, to havejust, requires de before the next infinitive; 
 when used for to happen, it requires a ; as, 
 
 II vient de sortir. I He hasiust gone out. 
 
 S'il venait a mourir. | If he should happen to die. 
 
278 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXIV. 
 
 1 like better to pardon than to punish you. She is going to 
 
 vous 
 sing. When do you intend to go? A man of honour ought to 
 
 Quand partir ind-1 
 
 keep his word. I hope to see you often. I will show you 
 
 parole f. faire voir 
 
 all the curiosities of the town. He appeared to hesitate, but 
 
 curiosit^ f. ind-2 
 
 we encouraged him. My sister wishes very much to go to 
 
 ind-3 
 
 France. 72 is better to work than to beg-. Caesar ordered 
 
 mendier. ind-3 
 
 Labienus to come and join him. She will not stay. 
 d * rester. 
 
 General Rule for the use of POUR. 
 
 544. To, before an INFINITIVE, is expressed by POUR, 
 when in order to, is either expressed or understood in 
 English ; as, 
 
 Je suis venu pour le complimenter. 7 came in order to congratulate him. 
 Je vais a la campagne pour chasser. 7 am going into the country to shoot. 
 
 The English present participle, preceded by the pre- 
 position FOR, explaining the motive of an action, is also 
 expressed in French by the INFINITIVE with POUR ; as, 
 
 II a e*te* chasse* POUR avoir menti. | He was expelled FOR telling lies. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXV. 
 
 They 2 all ^gree to deceive me. He will do anything to 
 
 s'accorder tout 
 
 oblige you. I was going to write to you to ask a favour of 
 
 grace f. * 
 
 you I want money to buy a horse. I have not 2 money 
 ai bcsoin d' 
 
 Enough to buy one. I shall do it in order not to displease you. 
 
 en deplaire 
 
 1 have done all (I could) to gain his friendship He was 
 mon possible ind-3 
 
 banished for life for having robbed on the highway. 
 bannir dperp&uiU wl&r grand chemm 
 
OF THE PRBSENT INDICATIVE. 279 
 
 IV. MOODS AND TENSES. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 545. The INDICATIVE mood simply declares a thing; 
 as, Elk CHANTE bien, she sings well ; or it asks a 
 question; as, CHANTE--e^e bien ? does she sing well ? This 
 mood has eight tenses the present, the imperfect, the 
 preterite definite, the preterite indefinite, the preterite 
 anterior, the pluperfect, the future absolute (or simple), 
 and the future anterior. 
 
 546. The PRESENT tense expresses something doing or 
 existing at the present time ; as, J'ecris, I am writing ; 
 Nous sommes, we are. It is also used to express a habit 
 or custom; as, II fume, he smokes. 
 
 547. In historical narration, the present tense is used 
 for the past, in order to awaken the attention, and make 
 the thing, as it were, present ; as, 
 
 Ce'sar quitte la Gaule, passe le 
 Rubicon, et entre en Italie 
 avec cinq mille hommes. 
 
 Ccesar leaves Gaul, crosses the 
 Rubicon, and enters Italy 
 with five thousand men. 
 
 548. The present is also sometimes used to express a 
 future near at hand ; as, 
 
 Je suis de retour dans un moment. 
 Ou ALLEZ-VOUS ce soir ? 
 
 I shall be back in a moment. 
 Where are you going this evening? 
 
 549. N.B. In English there are three different ways of 
 expressing the PRESENT : I speak, I do speak, I am speak- 
 ing ; but in French there is only one way, Je parle. 
 There is likewise but one expression in French for any 
 other tense, when the verb to be is used with the present 
 participle ; thus, / shall be writing, must be rendered by 
 fe'crirai, and / should be doing by je ferais. The verb 
 which is in the present participle is thus put in the tense 
 expressed by the auxiliary to be. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXVI. 
 
 My sister is in her room, where she is reading the celebrated 
 oil 
 
 discourse of Bossuet on Universal History. Everybody 
 discourse. art. * 1 
 
280 OF THE IMPERFECT. 
 
 thinks that either 8 your ^brother 2 or *you have written that song-. 
 penser 
 It 2 seldom l rains in Egypt. Seamen smoke a great deal. 
 
 en marin beaucoup. 
 
 The battle begins, and immediately a cloud of arrows darkens 
 aussitdt nuee f. trait m. obscurcir 
 the air, and covers the combatants. I shall be with you 
 
 a 
 
 in a minute. I set out to-morrow for the country. 
 la partir 
 
 550. The IMPERFECT (je parlais, I was speaking, I 
 spoke, I did speak, I used to speak) expresses a thing 
 having been done at the moment that another took place; 
 as, 
 
 Je PENSAIS a vous, quand vous / was thinking of you, when you 
 etes entre. came in. 
 
 551. The Imperfect is also used when we wish to 
 denote that the action of which we speak was habitual, or 
 has been reiterated ; as, 
 
 Quand j'e*tais a Paris, je me PRO- 
 MENAIS ordinairement dans les 
 Champs filyse'es. 
 
 J'y RENCONTRAIS SOUVCnt deS 
 
 When I was in Paris, I generally 
 walked in the Champs Elysees. 
 
 1 often met Englishmen there. 
 
 Anglais. 
 
 552. Finally, the Imperfect is used in describing the 
 qualities of persons or things, the state, place, and disposi- 
 tion in which they were in a time past, but without fixing 
 the time of its duration ; as, 
 
 Alfred &ait un grand roi. I Alfred was a great king. 
 
 Carthage to*surlebordde lamer. | Carthage was on the sea-coast. 
 
 553. Note. Suppose you have to translate into French, I spoke, I 
 wrote, and you are in doubt whether to use the Imperfect or Preterite, 
 see whether you can turn the expression into, / used to speak, I used 
 to write, or into, / was speaking, 1 was writing if you can, the 
 Imperfect is your tense. This rule is infallible. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXVII. 
 
 Montezuma reigned over the Mexicans, when Fernando 
 regner lorsque Fernand- 
 
 Cortez attacked Mexico. Socrates, wishing- to harden himself, 
 ind-3 s'endurcir 
 
OF THE PRETERITE DEFINITE. 281 
 
 went barefoot in the depth of winter. In 2 ancient Himes, 
 
 i 423 plus fort ancien 
 
 those who were taken in war lost their liberty and became slaves, 
 
 d devenir 
 
 Among the Romans, the plebeians attached themselves, under 
 
 Chez plebeien s' 
 
 the name of clients, to some patrician whom they catted their 
 
 . quelque patricien 
 
 patron. The temple of Delphi had for an inscription this 
 
 Delphes * 
 
 maxim : KNOW THYSELF. The pyramids of Egypt were 
 
 Connais-toi toi-m&me. 
 
 intended as burying-places for the kings. 
 destiner a art. sepulture f. s. de 
 
 554. The PRETERITE DEFINITE (je parlai, je requs) 
 serves to express something done at a time completely 
 past, and of which no part remains unexpired ; hence it 
 cannot be used when speaking of anything done during 
 the present day, week, month, year, or century ; as, 
 
 J'ecrivis hier & Bordeaux. 
 Nous nous rencontrdmes I'anne'e 
 derniere a Geneve. 
 
 / wrote yesterday to Bordeaux. 
 We met last year at Geneva. 
 
 555. As the events related in history are considered as 
 facts, completed in a time entirely elapsed, the preterite 
 definite is principally used in that style ; as, 
 
 Les Juifs quitterent l'gypte sous The Jews left Egypt under the 
 
 la conduite de Mo'ise. 
 
 conduct of Moses. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXVni. 
 
 Amenophis conceived the design of making his son a 
 dessein m. inf-1 de 
 
 conqueror. He set about it after the manner of the Egyptians, 
 conquerant. s'yprendre d manieref. 
 
 that is, with great ideas. All the children who were born 
 c'est-a-dire pensee f. 316 
 
 on the same day as Sesostris, were brought to court, by order 
 que amener art. cour f. 
 
 of the king : he had them educated as his own children, and 
 faire elever inf-1 
 
282 OP THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 
 
 with the same care as Sesostris. When he was grown up, 
 soin pi. que grand 
 
 he *made J him serve his apprenticeship in a war against the 
 lui faire apprentissage m. par 
 
 Arabs. This young prince learned there to bear hunger 
 Arabe y supporter f aim f. 
 
 and thirst, and subdued that nation, till then invincible. 
 soiff. soumettre 
 
 He Afterwards ^attacked Libya, and conquered it. 
 ensuite Libye f. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXIX. 
 
 After these successes, Sesostris formed the project of 
 
 succes m. 
 
 subduing the 2 whole J world. In consequence of this, 
 subjuguer inf-1 entier En * * 
 
 he entered Ethiopia, which he rendered tributary. He 
 
 dans Ethiopie se rendre 
 
 continued his victories in Asia. Jerusalem was the first to feel 
 
 Jerusalem f. a 
 
 the force of his arms: the rash Rehoboam could not 
 
 arme f. temeraire Roboam 
 
 *resist ^im, and Sesostris carried away the riches of Solomon. 
 
 lui enlever " richessepl. Salomon. 
 
 He penetrated into the Indies farther than Alexander did 
 
 'Indes ne 
 
 afterwards. The Scythians ^obeyed 1 him as far as the 
 
 ensuite. Scythe lui jusqu'a 
 
 Tanais: Armenia and Cappadocia were subject to him. In 
 Cappadocef. sujettes En 
 
 a word, he extended his empire from the Ganges to 
 motm. Gtenilre - m.depuis Gangem.jusqu'a 
 
 the Danube __ (BOSSUET.) 
 
 556. The PRETERITE INDEFINITE ffai parle) is the past 
 tense most used in French ; it expresses something done 
 in the course of the day, week, month, year, or century 
 in which we are ; as, 
 
 J'AI RE9U cette semaine la visite 
 
 de monsieur votre pere. 
 Je lui AI 6CRIT ce matin. 
 
 I have this week received a visit 
 
 from your father. 
 I wrote to him this morning. 
 
OP THE PRETERITE ANTERIOR, ETC. 283 
 
 557, The Preterite indefinite is also used in speaking 
 of a past action, without specifying the TIME in which it 
 happened ; as, 
 
 J'AI VENDU mon cheval. 
 II A VOYAGE en Allemagne. 
 J'en AJ PARLE a votre maitre. 
 
 I have sold my horse. 
 
 He has travelled in Germany. 
 
 I mentioned it to your master. 
 
 This tense is sometimes used instead of the future ; as, 
 
 AVEZ-VOUS bientot FAIT ? 
 Attendez, J'AI FINI dans un 
 moment. 
 
 Will you have done soon ? 
 Wait, I shall have done in a 
 moment. 
 
 558. The PRETERITE ANTERIOR ffeus parle) denotes a 
 thing past and done before another also past, and is, for 
 this reason, called anterior. It is generally preceded by 
 a conjunction, or an adverb of time, such as quand, 
 lorsque, des que, aussitot que ; as, 
 
 Quand J'EUS RECONNU mon er- f When I had seen my error, I 
 
 reur, j'en fus honteux. | was ashamed of it. 
 
 Note. _ There is another preterite, called the preterite anterior inde- 
 finite : J'ai eu parle, tu as eu parle, etc., but it is little used. 
 
 559. PLUPERFECT ff avals parle) represents a thing as 
 past before another event happened ; as, 
 
 J'avais dine quand il entra. | / had dined when he came in. 
 This tense, like the Imperfect, serves to describe, and 
 to express repetition, habit or custom ; as, 
 
 Des que favais dine j'allais a 
 la pe"che. 
 
 As soon as I had dined, J went 
 fishing. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXX, 
 I was (at your house) this morning ; I saw your brother, and 
 
 chez vous 
 
 spoke to him. We have written to him to-day. The 2 present 
 je aujourahui. actuel 
 
 Century began on the first day of the year 1801, and will end 
 
 annee f. finir 
 
 on the last day of the year 1900. He resided six months 
 * demeurer 
 
 at Rome. When I had done that, I set out. I had finished 
 
 partir 
 my work when he arrived. During his stay in the country, 
 
 Pendant sejourm.a 
 as soon as he had breakfasted, he went hunting. 
 
284 OF THE CONDITIONAL, ETC. 
 
 560. The FUTURE ABSOLUTE (je parlerai, I shall or will 
 speak) represents the action as yet to come ; as, Je vous 
 E"CRIRAI, 1 shall write to you. 
 
 561. The FUTURE ANTERIOR ffaurai parle) intimates 
 that a thing will be done before another takes place ; as, 
 
 / shall have finished my exercise 
 
 J'AURAI FINI mon theme avant 
 votre retour. 
 
 before your return. 
 
 562. N.B. The English often use the present tense 
 after when, as soon as, after, or similar words, when they 
 want to express a thing to come : the FUTURE, however, 
 must always be used in French ; as, 
 
 Passez chez moi, quand vous I Call on me when you are ready. 
 SEKEZ prt. 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
 
 563. The CONDITIONAL mood has two tenses, the present 
 and the past. 
 
 564. The Conditional present (je parlerais, I should or 
 would speak) expresses that a thing would be done on a 
 certain condition ; as, 
 
 J'IRAIS avec vous si j'avais le I /would go with you if I had 
 temps. I time. 
 
 565. The Conditional past (j'aurais parle, or feusse 
 parle^J expresses that a thing might, could, would, or 
 should, have happened, at a time now passed, if another 
 thing had taken place ; as, 
 
 Le ministre lui AURAIT DONNfi cette The minister would have given him 
 place, s'il Tavait demande'e. that place, if he had asked for it. 
 
 566. REMARK. When si (if) signifies suppose que 
 (suppose that), the French use the present indicative 
 instead of the future, and the imperfect instead of the 
 conditional ; as, 
 
 J'irai demain a la campagne, 
 
 S'IL FAIT beau. 
 Si J'ALLAIS en France, je 
 
 vous en preViendrais. 
 
 / shall go to the country to-morrow, 
 
 if it define weather. 
 If I should go to France, I will let 
 
 you know. 
 
 t Some writers often use this form, but the student will do well to follow the 
 first 
 
OP THE IMPERATIVE, ETC. 285 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 567. The IMPERATIVE mood commands, exhorts, en- 
 treats, or permits. It has only one tense. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXI. 
 
 I shall wait for you till six o'clock. When I have done, 
 
 attendre jusqu'a heure 
 
 I shall go out. I will call on you, as soon as I have dined, 
 passer chez aussitdt que 
 
 I would sing, if I could. I should have found him (at home), 
 
 chez lui 
 if I had arrived a little sooner If he should come, what 
 
 (tire plus tot. 
 
 should I say to him? Do good, if you wish to be 
 
 art. oien-m. vouloir 
 
 happy; do good, if you wish that your memory should be 
 
 subj-1 
 honoured ; do good, if you wish that heaven should open to 
 
 art. subj-1 
 
 you its 2 eternal J gates. 
 porte f. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 568. The INDICATIVE is the mood of affirmation, and 
 the SUBJUNCTIVE that of doubt and indecision. 
 
 The Subjunctive is used : 
 
 569. (I.) After any verb expressing doubt, fear, sur- 
 prise, admiration, will, wish, desire, consent, or command ; 
 because then this verb denotes nothing affirmative, 
 nothing positive with regard to the following verb ; as, 
 
 II veut, il exige, il desire que I He wishes, he requires, he desires 
 vous FASSIEZ votre devoir. you to do your duty. 
 
 There is an uncertainty whether you will comply with 
 his wish, his request, or his desire. 
 
 570. (II.) After an interrogation, and after a verb 
 
286 OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 accompanied by a negation, because then there is doubt, 
 uncertainty, etc. ; as, 
 
 Croyez-vous QU'IL VIENNE ? I Do you think he will come f 
 Je ne crois pas QU'IL VIENNB. | / do not think he will come. 
 
 571. REMARK. U. Sometimes an interrogation is used 
 only to affirm or deny with more energy. In this case, 
 the second verb is put in the Indicative, because there is 
 no doubt expressed ; as, 
 
 CROYEZ-VOUS que les Limousins Do you think that the Limousins 
 
 SONT des sots ? 
 
 are blockheads ? 
 
 That is : 
 
 Are you simple enough to believe that the Limousins 
 are blockheads? 
 
 572. (III.) After unipersonal verbs, or those used 
 unipersonally ; as, 
 
 // convient qu'il VIENNB. I It is proper that he should come, [there. 
 11 importe que vous y SOYEZ. 1 It is of importance that you should be 
 
 573. REMARK. II semble, accompanied by an indirect 
 regimen of persons, il y a, il parait, il resulte, and some 
 other unipersonal verbs which express something positive, 
 follow this rule when used negatively or interrogatively, 
 else they require the Indicative ; as, 
 
 II me semble \ It seems to me 
 
 II parait 
 
 II est sur ) It is certain 
 
 } 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXII. 
 
 I trembleleskhe should come. I wish you may succeed 
 
 qu' ne souhaiter 
 
 I consent that you do it Do you think it will rain to-day ? 
 
 croire 
 I do not think it will rain much. Although the wicked some- 
 
 Quoique 
 times prosper, do not think that they are happy. UDo you 
 
 penser 
 
 believe that the guilty man sleeps tranquilly, and that he 
 coupable * tranquille 
 
oy THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 287 
 
 can stifle the remorse with which he is racked ? // is enough 
 etouffer remordspl dont dechirer suffire 
 
 that you order me. / think I see him It ofteL 
 commander II me semble 
 
 happens that we are deceived, 
 amver on 
 
 574. (IV.) The Subjunctive is used after the relative 
 pronouns qui, que, dont, ou, etc., when they are preceded 
 by peUj or by an adjective in the superlative relative 
 degree. Among such adjectives are included le seul, 
 I' unique, le premier, le dernier ; as, 
 
 II y a PEU d'hommes qui SACHENT 
 
 supporter I'adversite', 
 Le MEILLEUR cortege ^w'un roi 
 
 PUISSE avoir, c'est le CCBUT de 
 
 ses sujets. 
 Le chien est LE SEUL animal dont 
 
 la fidelite* SOIT a I'e'preuve. 
 C'est LA SEULE place ou vous 
 
 PUISSIEZ aspirer. 
 
 There are few men who can sup- 
 port adversity. 
 
 The best retinue that a king can 
 have is the love of his subjects. 
 
 The dog is the only animal whose 
 
 fidelity is proof . 
 It is the only place to which you 
 
 can aspire. 
 
 575. (V.) The Subjunctive is used after the relative 
 pronouns qui, que, dont, ou, etc., when we wish to express 
 something doubtful and uncertain ; as, 
 
 Je cherche quelqu'un qui me 
 
 RENDE ce service. 
 
 Je sollicite une place que je PUISSB 
 
 remplir. 
 J'irai dans une retraite ou je sois 
 
 tranquille. 
 
 / seek some one who may render 
 
 me that service. 
 I solicit a place which I may be 
 
 able to fill 
 I shall retire to a place where I 
 
 may be quiet. 
 
 It is possible that the person I am seeking may not 
 render me that service ; that I may not be able to fill the 
 place I solicit; and, that I may not be tranquil in the 
 retreat where I shall go; it is the subjunctive that 
 expresses this doubt and uncertainty. 
 
 Observe that we could also say : qui me RENDRA ce 
 service ; queje PEUX remplir ; ouje SERAI tranquille ; but 
 the sense would no longer be the same : the action 
 marked by the verbs rendre, pouvoir, and etre, would then 
 be represented as certain and positive. 
 
288 OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 576. (VI.) The Subjunctive is required after quel que, 
 quelque. . . que, qui, que, quoi, que; as, 
 
 QueJs que SOIENT vos talents. 
 Quelque riche que vous SOTEZ. 
 Qui que vous SOTBZ, parlez. 
 
 Whatever your talents may be. 
 However rich you may be. 
 Whoever you be, speak. 
 
 Quoi qu'on DISE, un non ne deviendra qu'un ane. (Groxelier.) 
 (See what has already been said on Quelque, p. 57-58.) 
 
 Finally r , The Subjunctive is required after certain con- 
 junctions, see Chapter VIII. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXin. 
 
 He is the only man who lives in that manner. The example 
 C" de la sorte. 
 
 of a good life is the best lesson that one can give to 
 
 vie f. on art. 
 
 mankind. The siege of Azoth lasted 29 years : it is the 
 genre humain m. c' 
 
 longest siege mentioned in ancient history Show me 
 
 DONT fore question 
 
 a road that will lead to London. However clever 
 chemin m. qui conduire habile 
 
 2 (those two writers) l be, neither the one nor the other will 
 ecrivain + 
 
 obtain the vacant seat in the French Academy. Whatever 
 place f. a Quoi que 
 
 you study, you must (apply yourself to it) with ardour. 
 il vous y livrer 
 
 CONCORD BETWEEN THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND 
 THOSE OP THE INDICATIVE AND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 577. The Subjunctive mood being always subordinate 
 to a verb that precedes it, its tenses are regulated by this 
 foregoing verb ; as, 
 
 Je ne CBOIS pas que vous VENIEZ. 
 Je ne CEOYAIS pas que vous VINS- 
 
 SIEZ. 
 
 I do not think you will come. 
 I did not think you ivould come. 
 
 t See Remarks on Neither, No. 616. 
 
CONCORD BETWEEN THE TENSES. 289 
 
 578. RULE I. After the present and future of the In- 
 dicative, we use the present of the Subjunctive to express 
 a thing present or future ; but we use the preterite of the 
 Subjunctive to express a thing past : 
 
 T A \~ que vous etudtiez maintenant. 
 
 Je douterai f H 
 
 } qievo 
 
 579. REMARK. After the present and future of the 
 Indicative, we use the Imperfect of the Subjunctive 
 instead of the present, and the Pluperfect instead of the 
 preterite, when some conditional expression is introduced 
 in the sentence : 
 
 Je doute ) que vous etudiassiez maintenant, demain, si 
 
 Je douterai ( 1'on ne vous y contraignait. 
 
 Je doute ) que vous eussiez etudie trier, si 1'on ne voua 
 
 Je douterai \ y eut contraint. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXIV. 
 
 Do you doubt that I am your friend ? Does he think 1 
 
 douter 
 shall have time ? I don't think you have learned mathe- 
 
 art. art. 
 
 matics. He will wait till you are ready. She will wish 
 
 que vouloir que 
 
 your sister to be one of the party. I shall always doubt that 
 
 * partie f. 
 
 you have used all your endeavours. Do you think I might 
 
 faire effort m. pouvoir 
 
 speak to him, were I to go now? / doubt whether my 
 
 si y ind-2 que 
 
 brother mould have succeeded, (had it not been for) your 
 
 reussir sans 
 
 assistance. 
 
 580. RULE II. After the Imperfect, the Pluperfect, 
 any of the Preterites or Conditionals, we use the Imper- 
 fect of the Subjunctive, if we mean to express a thing 
 
 T 
 
290 CONCORD BETWEEN THE TENSES. 
 
 present or future ; but to express a thing that is past, we 
 use the Pluperfect ; 
 
 Je doutais 
 Je doutai 
 
 j, . , , \- que vous etudiassiez aujourd'hui, demain. 
 
 Je douterais 
 J'aurais doute* 
 Je doutais 
 Je doutai 
 
 J'avaiTdoute* 1" que vous euss ^ ez ^die la semaine passe'e. 
 Je douterais 
 J'aurais doute* 
 
 581. REMARK. With a Preterite indefinite the follow- 
 ing verb is put in the Present of the Subjunctive, if we 
 intend to express a thing which is, or may be done at all 
 times ; as, 
 
 Dieu A ENTOUB^ les yeux de 
 tuniques fort minces, transpa- 
 rentes au dehors, afin que Ton 
 PUISSE voir a travers. 
 
 God has surrounded the eyes ivith 
 very thin tunics, transparent on 
 the outside, that we may see 
 through them. 
 
 And in the Preterite of the Subjunctive, if we intend to 
 express something past ; as, 
 
 II A FALLU qu'il se SOIT DONNE" 
 bien de la peine. 
 
 He must have given himself a 
 yreat deal of trouble. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXV. 
 
 He was waiting till I should be ready Would you wait till 
 
 attendre que que 
 
 we should be ready ? Sparta was sober before Socrates had 
 
 Sparte avant que 
 
 praised sobriety ; before he had praised virtue, Greece abounded 
 
 avant qu 9 abonder 
 
 in virtuous men. William III. left, at his death, the reputa- 
 
 laisser 
 
 tion of a great politician, although he had not been popular, 
 politique populaire 
 
 and of a general (to be feared), although he had lost many 
 
 a craindre, 
 
 battles. You must have had (a great deal) of patience. 
 II a fallu beaucoup 
 
OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 291 
 
 OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 582. The Present Participle always terminates in 
 and is invariable : 
 
 A man reading ; men reading. 
 
 A woman reading; wcmm read- 
 ing. 
 
 Un homme lisant; deshommes 
 
 lisant. 
 Une femme lisant ; des femmes 
 
 lisant. 
 
 We say, however : 
 
 Des homines obligeants; one | Obliging men; a charming wo- 
 femme charmante. \ man. 
 
 But the words obligeants, charmante, are not here pre- 
 sent participles ; they are verbal adjectives. 
 
 583. We call verbal adjectives, those adjectives which 
 are derived from verbs ; as, charmant, menagant, &c. 
 These adjectives always agree in gender and number with 
 the nouns which they qualify. 
 
 The verbal adjective simply expresses a quality ; the 
 present participle expresses an action. 
 
 584. REMARK. Although certain French present participles are used as 
 nouns to designate persons and things, as un protestant, a protestant ; un 
 volant, a shuttle-cock ; des combattants, some combatants, <fec. ; yet present 
 participles expressing an action are never used substantively in French, as 
 they are sometimes in English. 
 
 In such cases the English present participle should be expressed in French 
 either by a noun, as in 
 Le jeu et la chasse sont la mine de I Gaming and hunting are the ruin of 
 
 bien des gens. | many peop'e. 
 
 Or, if a noun cannot be used, by an infinitive,! or by a verb in a personal 
 
 mood, as in 
 
 Je ie vois venir a nous. I I see him coming towards us. [them 
 
 Us iront sans que vous le leur disiez. | They will go without your telling 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXVI. 
 
 MJavid *is 'often 'represented playing on the harp, She 
 
 on ind-1 de 
 
 is a woman of a good disposition, obliging her friends, whenever 
 
 car act ere m. quand 
 
 an occasion (presents itself). Those men foreseeing the danger, 
 /' s*en presente. prevoir 
 
 put themselves on their guard. Those foreseeing men have 
 
 pi. 
 
 perceived the danger. The ruling passion of Caesar was 
 apercevoir dominant 
 
 t RpfT also to Rule 539, page 273. 
 
292 OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 ambition. Your sister is charming ; how obliging she is ! 
 
 que 
 
 Her singing was much admired. 
 chant m. ind-3 fort 
 
 OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 585. (I.) The Past Participle employed without an 
 auxiliary, agrees, like an adjective, in gender and number, 
 with the noun or pronoun to which it relates ; as, 
 
 Los me*chants ont bien de la peine 
 
 The wicked have much difficulty in 
 
 demeurer UNIS. (Fenelon.) remaining united. 
 
 Que de ramparts detruits! que de villes forcees I (Boileau.} 
 
 586. (II.) The Past Participle, accompanied by the 
 auxiliary verb etre, agrees with its subject or nominative 
 ia gender and number; as, 
 
 Mon freTe est venu. 
 Ma soeur est venue. 
 Mes freres sont venus. 
 Mes soeurs sont venues. 
 L'arme*e a e*te*t vaincue. 
 Les ennemis ont 6t6 vaincus. 
 
 My brother is come. 
 My sister is come. 
 My brothers are come. 
 sisters are come. 
 
 army has been conquered. 
 
 My 
 The 
 The enemies have been conquered. 
 
 Sometimes the subject is placed after the participle, 
 but this construction does not alter the agreement of the 
 participle : Quand il vit Vurne ou etaient RENFERME"ES les 
 CENDRES d'Hippias, il versa un torrent de larmes. (Fe- 
 nelon.J 
 
 587. (III.) When the Past Participle follows the verb 
 avoir, it never agrees with its subject ; as, 
 
 Mon pere a ecrit. 
 Ma mere a ecrit. 
 Mes freres ont ecrit. 
 Mes so3urs-ont ecrit. 
 
 My father has written. 
 My mother has written. 
 My brothers have written. 
 My sisters have written. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXVI1. 
 
 A quarrelsome dog has always a torn ear. The ceiling 
 * hargneux V dechirer plafond m. 
 
 of the Egyptian temples was painted blue. That letter is 
 
 t The participle iti never varies. We say U or elle a ete, he or she has 
 been ; Us or elks ont 6t<*, they have been. 
 
 ff3T Past participles may be used as nouns in French, as they are in Eng- 
 lish, even in the singular, as les accuses, the accused ; un mort, a dead man ; 
 les blessts t the wounded. 
 
OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 293 
 
 well written. The city of London, having been burnt in 
 
 ville f. 
 1666, was rebuilt in three years, more beautiful and more 
 
 rebdtir annee f. 
 
 regular than before. The ancient Greeks were persuaded that 
 
 auparavant. persuader 
 
 the soul is immortal. It is to Jenner that 2 (the discovery of 
 
 decouverte f. 
 
 vaccination) * (is due. ) The French monarchy lasted more than 
 vaccine f. 435 78 f. durer ind-4 plusde 
 
 fourteen centuries. The Amazons have acquired celebrity. 
 
 siecle m. Amazone 32 
 
 They have executed the orders of Your Excellency. 
 
 $3T To make a right application of the following rules, the student 
 must distinguish well a direct regimen from an indirect regimen^ 
 for this is the pivot on which turn the principal difficulties of the 
 past participle. For the meaning of regimen, see Nos. 405, 466, 628. 
 
 588. (IV.) The Past Participle accompanied by the 
 auxiliary avoir, always agrees with its direct regimen, 
 when that regimen is placed before the participle ; as, 
 
 La lettre que vous avez ecrite. 
 Voici les lettres que j'ai recues. 
 
 Oil est votre livre ? je Tai perdu. 
 
 Ou est votre plume ?-je /'ai perdue. 
 
 Oil sont vos livres ?-je les ai perdus. 
 
 Us w'ont felicite. 
 
 II nous afelicites. 
 
 Quelk affaire avez- vous entreprise f 
 
 Que de desagrements ils m'ont 
 
 causes I 
 Combien de livres avez- vous lus ? 
 
 The letter which you have written. 
 Here are the letters which / have 
 
 received. 
 
 Where is your book ? -I have lost it. 
 Where is your pen f-I have lost it. 
 Where are your books f -I have lost 
 They have congratulated me. [them. 
 He has congratulated us. [taken ? 
 What business have you under- 
 What vexations they have caused 
 
 me! 
 How many books have you read ? 
 
 These Examples show that the direct regimen which 
 precedes the participle is expressed either by one of 
 these pronouns que, le, la, les, me, nous, te, vous, se, or by 
 a noun preceded by quel, que de, or combien de. 
 
 In the first example ecrite agrees with que, of which 
 the antecedent is lettre, feminine and singular. In the 
 fifth example, perdus agrees with les, which stands for its 
 antecedent livres, masculine and plural. 
 
294 OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 A lady would say, 
 
 Us m'ont feliritee. \ They have congratulated me. 
 
 Felicitee agrees with we, of which the antecedent dame 
 is understood. 
 
 The same analysis applies to the other and similar 
 cases. 
 
 $^ Observe that the rule says direct regimen, for 'although we say, 
 // nous a vus, he has seen us ; we could not say, // nous a DITS ce/cs, 
 he has told us that : we must say, // nous a DIT cela ; because nous 
 is here used for a nous, and is an indirect regimen. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXVIII. 
 
 Here is the answer which I have received The sciences 
 
 reponse f. f. 
 
 which you have studied, will prove infinitely useful to you. 
 
 tore 
 
 General Villars often said, that the two '(most livelv) 
 art. mf 
 
 pleasures he had felt in his life, had been the first 
 
 subj-2 ressentir ind-2 
 
 prize which he had obtained at college, and the first victory 
 prix m. ind-2 
 
 which he had m gained over the enemy. Where is my 
 
 ind-2 remporter 
 
 watch ? - 1 have not seen it. They have deceived us. What 
 montre f. tromper 
 
 answer have they given you? How many enemies has he not 
 
 on faire 
 
 conquered! The house which her father has bought 
 vaincre que 
 
 589. (V.) After the auxiliary avoir , the Past Participle 
 remains invariable when the direct regimen is placed 
 AFTER the participle, or when there is no direct regimen; 
 as, 
 
 Nous avons recu votre lettrc. 
 Us ont perdu leurs livres. 
 J'ai recompense mesjfils. 
 
 We have received your letter. 
 They have lost their books. 
 / have rewarded my sons. 
 
 No agreement here takes place, because the direct 
 regimens votre lettre, leurs feres, mes fils, are placed after 
 the participles requ, perdu, recompense. 
 
OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 295 
 
 Iii the same manner, we write without varying the 
 participle : 
 
 Elle a danse. She has danced. 
 
 Nous avons chant&. We have sung. 
 
 Us ont repondu a notre attente. They have answered our expecta- 
 tion. 
 
 Because the verbs danser, chanter, repondre, have not 
 here any direct regimen. 
 
 590. REMARK. It follows from the preceding rule, 
 that the participle of neuter verbs, which are conjugated 
 with avoir, never varies, since that class of verbs has no 
 direct regimen. Thus, in Les cinq heures quej'ai DORMI 
 (the five hours that I have slept), les dix ans qu'il a VE"CU 
 (the ten years that he has lived), the participle of the 
 neuter verbs dormir and vivre does not vary, and the 
 relative que which precedes, although presenting itself 
 under the form of a direct regimen, is in reality but an 
 indirect regimen, equivalent to pendant lequel: les cinq 
 heures PENDANT LESQUELLES fat dormi, les dix ans 
 
 PENDANT LESQUELS U a V6CU. 
 
 Note Sometimes neuter verbs are employed actively, then their 
 participles agree, if preceded by a direct regimen ; as, La langue que 
 Ciceron a PARL^E, the language which Cicero has spoken. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXIX. 
 
 I have received no answer. He has named several persons. 
 
 plusieurs 
 
 Cromwell governed England under the title of Protector 
 
 ind-4 
 
 Men have never reaped the fruit of happiness from the tree of 
 cuellir sur 
 
 injustice The Romans triumphed successively over the 
 ind-4 successivement de 
 
 f (most warlike) Nations They danced a great deal at the 
 
 belliqueux f. ind-4 
 
 last ball. We have laughed heartily. We must deduct 
 balm. deboncoBur. U retrancher 
 
 from life the hours w? have slept, 
 on 
 
296 OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 591. (VI.) The verb etre being used instead of avoir 
 in pronominal or reflected verbs, the participle of these 
 verbs follows exactly the same rules as the participle con- 
 jugated with avoir ; that is, the participle of a reflected 
 verb agrees with the direct regimen when preceded by it, 
 but remains invariable, when the direct regimen is placed 
 after it, or when there is none. 
 
 So we write with agreement : 
 
 Nous nous sommes blesses. 
 Lucrece s'est tuee. 
 
 We have hurt ourselves. 
 Lucretia killed herself. 
 
 Because the participles blesses, tue'e, are preceded by 
 their direct regimens nous, se. 
 
 But we write without agreement : 
 
 Lucrece s'est donne la mort. | Lucretia destroyed herself. 
 Because the participle donne is followed by its direct 
 regimen la mort. In this example, se is an indirect 
 regimen or dative. 
 
 We write also without varying the participle : 
 
 They have written to each other. 
 
 II se sont ecrit. 
 
 Nous nous sommes succede. 
 
 We have succeeded one another 
 
 Here, the participles ecrit and succede have no direct 
 regimen. It is as if it were : Us ont ecrit a EUX : Nous 
 avons succede a NOUS. 
 
 592. REMARK. It follows from the foregoing rule, that 
 verbs essentially pronominal, that is, verbs which cannot 
 be conjugated without two pronouns of the same person, 
 as je me repens, je rn'obstiens, require their participles 
 always to agree, because these verbs have for direct 
 regimen their second pronoun ; as, 
 
 Nous nous sommes abstenus de 
 
 toute reflexion. 
 Mes amis, vous vous 6tes repentis. 
 
 We have abstained from all re- 
 flections. 
 My friends, you have repented. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXX. 
 
 Madame de Se*vign6 has rendered herself celebrated by the 
 
 56 rendre 
 
 graces of her style. She perceived herself in that glass. 
 ra. s'apercevoir ind-4 glace f. 
 
OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 297 
 
 That lady has given herself fine dresses. Some 
 
 robe f. Quelques-uns 
 
 of our modern authors have imagined that they surpassed the 
 s'imaginer ind-2 
 
 ancients They have spoken to one another. They have 
 
 se parler 
 succeeded one another. Those boys have repented. The 
 
 se repentir 
 
 troops have seized the town. 
 
 s'emparer de 
 
 593. (VII.) The participle of a unipersonal (or imper- 
 sonal) verb is always invariable : 
 
 Lea chaleura qu'il a FAIT cet The heat which we have had this 
 
 La disette qu'il y a EU 1'hiver 
 dernier. 
 
 Here the verbs faire and avoir have not their active 
 signification, but simply express existence, and the que 
 which precedes is not the regimen of any verb, for we do 
 not say faire des chaleurs, as we say faire des habits. 
 That que must be considered a gallicism. 
 
 594. (VIII.) The Past Participle, followed by an in- 
 finitive, agrees with the antecedent noun, when that noun 
 is the regimen or object of the participle, but it remains 
 invariable when the noun is the object of the infinitive; as, 
 
 Ilie letter which / have given him 
 
 to copy. 
 The letter which / have told him 
 
 summer. 
 
 The scarcity which there was last 
 
 winter. 
 
 La lettre que je lui ai 
 
 4 copier. 
 La lettre que je lui ai DIT de 
 
 copier J to copy. 
 
 Note. The regimen or object is known to belong to 
 the participle when the antecedent can be placed after 
 the participle, as in the first example, which may be 
 turned, Je lui ai donne la lettre a copier. 
 
 As we cannot say, Je lui ai dit la lettre de copier, but 
 we may say, Je lui ai dit de copier la lettre, it follows that 
 the regimen belongs to the infinitive. 
 
 For the same reason, the participles Dfl, owed, ought ; 
 PU, been able, and VOULU, been willing, remain invariable 
 when an infinitive is understood after them ; as, 
 
 Te lui ai rendu tous lea services que 
 j'ai PU (lui rendre understood.} 
 
 I have rendered him all the ser- 
 vices that I have been 
 
298 OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 595. EEMARK. When the French participle happens 
 to be placed between two que, the first que is not the 
 regimen of the participle, but of the verb which follows it, 
 consequently the participle is invariable ; as, 
 
 Les raisons que vous avez cnu 
 
 que j'approuvais. 
 Les mathe'matiques que vous avez 
 
 VOULU que j'&udiasse. 
 
 The reasons which you thought I 
 
 approved. 
 The mathematics which you would 
 
 have me to study. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXI. 
 
 The heavy rains which we had in the spring, have 
 grand pluie f. * il faire ind-4 
 
 been the cause of many diseases. That young- lady sings well ; 
 maladie f. 
 
 I have heard her sing. That song is charming ; 1 heard it 
 
 ind-4 
 
 sung. I have used all the endeavours I could. He lias 
 inf-1 faire effort m. f ind-4 
 
 obtained all the favours he wished. These are the answers 
 grace f. t vouloir ind-4 Voila 
 
 which I had foreseen they would give you. The difficulties 
 que f faire embarrasm. 
 
 which I knew you were in have accelerated my departure. 
 ind-4 1 avoir * depart m. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXIL 
 
 The rain which has fatten has prevented me from going out 
 
 f. fait empeche" sortir 
 
 to-day. Have you finished the letter which I gave you to 
 
 md-4 
 write ? Have you finished the letter which you had begun to 
 
 ind-2 
 write ? Have you read the books which I advised you 
 
 conseiller ind-4 
 
 to read ? Is that the actress whom we heard sing ? Sing the 
 de -ce Id actrice ind-4 
 
 song which we heard her sing. Imitate the virtues which 
 
 ind-4 lui 
 you have heard praised. 
 
 t See Rule and Note, foot of page 258. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ADVEKB. 299 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 596. (I.) Adverbs, in French, are generally placed after 
 the verb in the simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and 
 the participle in the compound tenses, but never between 
 the subject and the verb, as is frequently the case in 
 English; as, 
 
 Je pense SOUVENT vous. I / often think of you. 
 
 J'ai TOUJOURS pensd & vous. | I have always thought of you. 
 
 Compound adverbs are usually placed after the par- 
 ticiple; as, Vous etes venu A PROPOS, you have come 
 seasonably. In some instances, however, the ear alone 
 is consulted ; for we say, Je I'avais TOUT A FAIT oubli6, I 
 had quite forgotten it. 
 
 597. (II.) The adverbs AUJOURD'HUI, to-day; DEMAIN, 
 to-morrow; HIER, yesterday, may be placed either before 
 or after the verb, but never between the auxiliary and the 
 participle ; as, II fait AUJOURD'HUI beau temps, il pleuvra 
 DEMAIN ; or, AUJOURD'HUI il fait beau temps, DEMAIN il 
 pleuvra, To-day, it is fine ; it will rain to-morrow. 
 
 598. (III.) The adverbs BIEN, well; MIEUX, better ; MAL, 
 ill ; PIS, worse, may be placed either before or after an in- 
 finitive ; as, BIEN faire son devoir, or Faire BIEN son de- 
 voir, to do one's duty well. But they are always placed 
 after the verb in the simple tenses ; as, Vous fites BIEN, 
 ilfit MAL, you did well, he did ill. And, with the com- 
 pound tenses, they are placed between the auxiliary and 
 the participle ; as Vous avez MAL fait, you have done 
 wrong. 
 
 599. (IV.) The adverbs, comment, ou, combien, quand, 
 pourquoi, are always placed before the verb ; as, 
 
 Comment se porte monsieur votre frere ? I How is your brother ? 
 Oa aUez-vous ? [ Whither art you going f 
 
300 SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 Remarks on some Adverbs. 
 
 600. (1.) BEAUCOUP is not, as the English much, sus- 
 ceptible of being modified by any preceding adverb ; 
 thus, ires beaucoupj trop beaucoupj si beaucoup, would be 
 barbarisms. 
 
 601. (2.) BIEN before another adverb means very, much, 
 quite, etc. ; as, Bien tard, very late ; bien moins, much 
 less; bien assez, quite enough. After the adverb, it 
 signifies well; as, Assez bien, pretty well ; moms bien, not 
 so well. 
 
 602. (3.) PLUS and DAVANTAGE, both mean more, but 
 they are not used indiscriminately. Davantage can never 
 modify an adjective, and cannot, like plus, be followed by 
 the preposition de nor the conjunction que. We say : 
 
 II a PLUS de brillant que de 
 
 solide. 
 II se fie PLUS a ses lumidres 
 
 qvCb, celles des autres. 
 
 He has more brilliancy than 
 solidity. 
 
 He relies more on his own know- 
 ledge than on that of others. 
 
 We could not say, // a DAVANTAGE de brillant, il sc 
 fie DAVANTAGE a ses lumieres, etc. 
 
 Davantage is always used absolutely, either at the end 
 of a sentence, or at the end of a member of a sentence ; as, 
 
 Le cadet est riche, mais Taine* The youngest is rich, but the 
 
 Test davantage. 
 
 eldest is still more so. 
 
 603. (4.) PLUS T&T means sooner, and has for its op- 
 posite PLUS TARD, later. PLUTOT signifies rather. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXI1I. 
 
 I very seldom go out. Homer sometimes slumbers in the 
 
 sortir sommeiller a 
 
 midst of his gods and heroes. She has sung very well. 
 milieu m. tres 
 
 Where hatred prevails, truth (is sacrificed). That grieves 
 dominer fait naufrage. cfiagriner 
 
 me very much This letter is pretty well written. I would 
 
 like you much more, if you were reasonable. He has arrived 
 
 bien ind-2 est 
 
 sooner than usual. I will die rather than suffer it. 
 de coutume. de 
 
OF NEGATIVES. 301 
 
 Remarks on the Negatives. 
 
 604. (1.) The negative expressions ne-pas, vie-point^ 
 etc. form only one negation. 
 
 605. (2.) Point denies more strongly than pas. 
 
 606. (3.) Pas is used in preference to point ; 1st, Be- 
 fore plus, beaucoupj moms, si, autant, and other compara- 
 tive words ; as, Milton n'est PAS MOINS sublime gu' Homer e, 
 Milton is not less sublime than Homer; 2dly, Before 
 nouns of number ; as, // n'y a PAS six ans, it is not six 
 years ago. 
 
 607. (4.) Pas and point may be suppressed after the 
 verbs cesser, to cease ; oser, to dare ; and pouvoir, to be 
 able ; as, 
 
 Elle ne CBSSE de gronder. 
 On n'oss Faborder. 
 Je ne PUIS me taire. 
 
 She does not cease scolding. 
 They dare not accost him. 
 I csmnot be silent. 
 
 608. (5.) After savoir, to know, when this verb is used 
 to express a state of uncertainty, it is better to omit pas 
 and point ; as, 
 
 Je ne SAIS ou le prendre. I / do not know where to find him. 
 II ne SAIT ce qu'il dit. I He does not know what he says. 
 
 But, pas and point must be used when savoir is em- 
 ployed to declare anything positively ; as, 
 
 Je ne SAIS pas le fran^ais. | / do not know French. 
 
 (See former Remarks on Pouvoir and Savoir, used with a negative, 
 p. 140 and 141). 
 
 609. (6.) Pas and point are suppressed after the con- 
 junction gue, preceded by the comparative adverbs plus, 
 moms, mieux, or some other equivalent ; as, 
 
 II e*crit mieux qu'il ne parle. 
 
 11 est moins riche, plus riche qu'on 
 
 ne croit. 
 C'est autre chose que je ne croyais. 
 
 He writes better than he speaks. 
 He is less rich, richer than is be- 
 lieved. 
 It is different from what I thought. 
 
 610. (7.) Pas and point are omitted with a verb in the 
 preterite, preceded by the conjunction depuis que, or by 
 the verb il y a, denoting a certain duration of time ; as, 
 
 Comment vous dtes-vous portd 
 depuis que je ne vous ai vu ? 
 
 II y a six mois que je ne lui ai 
 parle. 
 
 How have you been since I saw 
 
 you f 
 I have not spoken to him these sfx 
 
 months. 
 
302 EXERCISE ON NEGATIVES. 
 
 But they are not omitted when the verb is in the 
 present tense : 
 
 Comment vit-il depuis que nous 
 
 ne le voyons point ? 
 11 y a six mois que nous ne nous 
 
 parlons point. 
 
 How does he live now that we do 
 
 not see him ? 
 It is six months since we do not 
 
 speak to one another 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXIV. 
 
 There is no happiness without virtue. The rich are not 
 
 154 bonheur m. riche 153 
 
 always happier than the poor. There will not be much 
 
 pi. 
 fruit this year. You will not find two of your opinion. 
 
 annee f. en avis m. 
 
 You do not cease scolding me. I dare not speak to him 
 
 inf-1 
 I cannot understand what he means. I do not know 
 
 comprendre ce qu' vouloir dire. 
 
 what to do. She sings much better than she ^did. 
 que ne ind-2 
 
 He is richer than he was. That child has grown 
 ne ind-2 grandir 
 
 (very much) since I saw it. 
 bien ne ind-4 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXV. 
 
 Since the world has been a world, said Boileau, one 
 Depuis que est * * on 
 
 has not seen a great poet, son of a great poet. She does 
 
 de un 
 
 not like (people to flatter her.) Do you not believe what he 
 
 qu'on laflatte. ce qu' 
 
 says? That -is not worth more than a guinea. Do not go 
 
 271 d' 
 
 so fast. There are I know not how many people at the 
 si 186 402 
 
 door When Darius proposed to Alexander to divide Asia 
 ind-3 partager 375 
 
 equally with him, he answered : The earth cannot admit of 
 egalement ind-3 souffrir 
 
 two suns, nor Asia of two king's. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 303 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 611. RULE I. In French, the preposition is always 
 placed immediately before its object, whereas in English 
 it is sometimes placed after it ; as, 
 
 A qui parlez-vous ? 
 
 DE quoi vous plaignez-vous ? 
 
 C To whom do you speak ? 
 
 or, 
 
 ( Whom do you speak to ? 
 f Of what do you complain ? 
 
 or, 
 
 What do you complain of? 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXVI. 
 
 To whom does that house belong ? What house are you 
 
 appartenir 
 speaking of? Of that white house. It belongs to the 
 
 ind-1 
 
 gentleman with whom we are going to dine. He has two 
 monsieur ind-1 
 
 footmen behind his carriage. Tiberius was emperor after 
 laquais voituref. Tibere ind-3 
 
 Augustus. The liberty of the Roman republic expired under 
 Auguste. 435 ind-3 
 
 Tiberius. A serpent biting its tail was, among 
 
 qui se mord art. queue f. ind-2 chez 
 the Egyptians, the emblem of eternity. 
 
 art. 
 
 612. RULE II. The prepositions a, de, and en, must be 
 repeated in French before every noun, pronoun, or verb 
 which they govern, whether they are repeated or not in 
 English ; as, 
 
 II dut la vie A la cl&nence et A 
 la magnanimit^ du vainqueur. 
 
 II tache DE me'riter et D'obtenir 
 votre confiance. 
 
 J'ai e"te* EN France et EN 
 Suisse. 
 
 He owed his life to the clemency and 
 generosity of the conqueror. 
 
 He is endeavouring to merit and 
 obtain your confidence. 
 
 I have been in France and /Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
304 SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 613. The other prepositions, especially those of one 
 syllable, are repeated before words which have meanings 
 totally different, but seldom before words that are nearly 
 synonymous ; as, 
 
 DANS la ville et DANS la campagne. 
 PAR la force et PAB Tadresse. 
 DANS la mollesse et 1'oisivete*. 
 PAR Ife force et la violence. 
 
 In the town and in the country. 
 By force and by address. 
 
 In effeminacy and idleness. 
 By force and violence. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXVII. 
 
 Here is the road from London to York and Edinburgh. 
 
 route f. 
 You will receive a letter either from my father or my brother. 
 
 ind-7 * 
 
 The celebrity of literary men keeps pace with that of 
 
 f. * litteraire * marcher de pair art. 
 
 great king's and heroes: Homer and Alexander, Virgil and 
 
 heros 
 
 Caesar, equally occupy the voice of fame. We are 
 Cesar voix pi. renommee f. 
 
 going to France and Germany He is* a turner in wood and 
 
 en Allemagne. 399 tourneur 
 
 ivory. I shall come back either by the railway or the 
 
 * chemin defer 
 
 canal. He is under the safeguard and protection of the laws. 
 garde f 
 
 Remarks on the use of some Prepositions. 
 
 614. (1.) EN is used to express a vague and indeter- 
 minate sense ; as, 
 
 J'ai ve*cu EN pays Stranger. | / have lived in a foreign country. 
 
 DANS is employed in a limited and determinate sense ; 
 as, 
 
 Celivre estDANSinabibliotheque. 
 Elle e*tait DANS sa chambre. 
 J'ai lu cela DANS Buffon. 
 
 That "book is in my library. 
 
 She was in her room. 
 
 I have read that in Buff on. 
 
 N.B. When, in English, a noun is preceded by the 
 definite article, or a possessive or demonstrative pronoun, 
 
REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. 305 
 
 , INTO, are generally expressed in French by Dans; 
 
 as 
 
 II demeure DANS la maison pres 
 
 du pare. 
 
 II y a du charme DANS sa socie'te'. 
 DANS cette guerre malheureuse. 
 
 He lives in the house near the 
 
 park. 
 
 There is a charm in her society. 
 In that unfortunate war. 
 
 But when the noun is used in an indefinite sense, and 
 without article or pronoun, IN, INTO, are usually expressed 
 by En ; as, 
 
 EN paix et EN guerre. 
 
 Us sont toujours EN querelle. 
 
 la peace and in. war. 
 They are always in broils. 
 
 Owing to its indeterminate nature, EN ought not to be 
 followed by the article, except in a few phrases which 
 have been sanctioned by usage ; as, En la presence de 
 Dieu ; President en la chambre des comptes, etc. 
 
 (See Remark 1st, page 197.) 
 
 615. (2.) AUTOUR and ALENTOUR, around, must not be 
 confounded. Autour is a preposition, which requires a 
 regimen ; as, 
 
 Autour d'un trfine. | Around a throne. 
 
 Alentour is an adverb which admits of no regimen ; as, 
 II e*tait sur sou trone, et les grands He was upon his throne, and the 
 
 e*taient alentour. 
 
 grandees were around. 
 
 616. (3.) Au TRAVERS is always followed by the pre- 
 position de, and A TRAVERS is not. We say : 
 
 Au travers DE la foule. ) mi _ , .-, -, 
 
 A travers la foule. } Throu S h ihe crowd ' , 
 
 617. (4.) AVANT, before, denotes priority of time; as, 
 II est arrive* avant vous. | He arrived before you. 
 
 It serves also to mark priority of order and place ; as, 
 Mettez ce chapitre avant 1'autre. | Put this chapter before the other. 
 
 DEVANT, before, is never used, nowadays, with reference 
 to time. It is a preposition of place, and has the mean- 
 ing of in presence of, opposite to, in front of; as, 
 
 11 a prch6 devant le roi. I He has preached before the king. 
 
 Levant IB, porte ; devant I'e'glise. | Before the door f before the churck. 
 
 Devant serves also to mark order ; as, 
 (Test mon ancien, il inarche devant \ Be is my senior, he yoes before 
 niol I me. 
 
306 EXERCISE ON PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 When Before has no noun or pronoun after it, it is 
 generally expressed by the adverb auparavant ; as, 
 
 Je Ten avals averti longtemps 
 
 auparavant. 
 Un mois, un an auparavant. 
 
 I had warned him of it long 
 
 before. 
 A month, a year before. 
 
 618. (5.) Pres de and pret a, are not the same expres- 
 sions. Pres is a preposition which governs de ; as, 
 
 II est bien PRS DE midi. | It is very near twelve o'clock. 
 
 But Pret is an adjective which governs a; as, 
 II est pret a partir. | He is ready to set out. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXVIIL 
 
 I was in France, in the province of Burgundy. The glory 
 
 ind-2 Bourgogne. 
 
 of a sovereign consists less in the extent of his states, 
 
 souverainm. grandeur f. etat m. 
 
 than in the happiness of his people. They ranged themselves 
 
 peuple pi. se ranger ind-3 
 
 around him. Here is a sad accident for my creditors, said 
 
 Voild fdcheux m. creancierm. ind-2 
 
 a Gascon officer, who had just received a ball through his body. 
 
 435 venait de inf-1 ballef. art. 
 
 I^saw that before you. She was walking before the house. 
 
 ind-4 se promener 
 
 He was near dying. I am ready to maintain my opinion, 
 ind-2 inf-1 maintenir 
 
 pen in hand, until the last drop of my ink. 
 art. a art. jusqu'a goutte f. 
 
 619. (6.) The following prepositions require DE before 
 the noun or pronoun which they govern : 
 
 Aupres, 
 
 pres, 
 
 proche, 
 
 au-dessus, above. 
 
 Pres DE la poste. 
 An tour DU bras. 
 
 au-dessous, under, below. 
 
 autour, around. 
 
 le long^, along ^ 
 
 vis-a-vis, opposite. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Near the post-office. 
 Kound the arm. 
 
 Note. In the familiar style, and in conversation, the preposition DE 
 is sometimes omitted after pres, proche, and vis-a-vis; as, Je loge 
 PR^S I'arsenal, vis-a-vis la nouvelle rtif.. 
 
EXERCISES ON PREPOSITIONS. 307 
 
 620. (7.) The prepositions JUSQUE, till, until, even, as 
 far as, and QUANT, as to, as for, require the preposition A 
 after them; as, 
 
 Depuis Piques jusqu* A la 
 
 Pentecote. 
 Quant A moi. Quant A elle. 
 
 From Easter till Whitsun- 
 day. 
 As for me. As for her. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXXXIX. 
 
 I live near the gate Saint-Martin. Abo ve the door were 
 demeurer porte f. ind-2 
 
 written these words. In the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, 
 
 586 motm. ecclesiastique hier archie f. h asp. 
 
 the bishop is below the archbishop. The queen had her 
 
 archeveque. 
 daughters around her. We came along the river side 
 
 ind-4 riviere f. * 
 
 He lodges opposite my windows All fathers, even the most 
 
 art. 
 grave, play with their children. Let us go together as far 
 
 jouer 
 
 as Oxford. As for him, he (shall act) as he pleases. 
 
 en usera lui ind-7 
 
 EXERCISE CCXL. 
 
 2 ^Esculapius J (is represented) with a snake in his hand 
 
 Esculape on represente couleuvre f. a 
 
 or around his arm, and a cock near him. The Falls of 
 
 coq cataracte f. s. 
 
 Niagara are near the boundaries of the United States 
 
 se trouve limite f. Etats- Unis 
 
 and Canada. The Americans place Washington and 
 31 m. 
 
 Bolivar above Alexander and Caesar. The planets are 
 
 de planete f. 
 
 opaque bodies which turn around the sun, from which they 
 
 tourner ou 
 
 derive light and heat. There are forests of canes 
 tirer lumiere f. chaleur f. for&t f. canne f. 
 
 along the Ganges. I will wait for you till two o'clock. 
 Gauge m. 151 
 
308 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 621, IN French, some conjunctions require the verb 
 which follows them to be in the indicative, some in the sub- 
 junctive, and others in the infinitive mood. 
 
 622. The following Conjunctions, and Conjunctive 
 Locutions, require the indicative mood: 
 
 Ainsi que, 
 apres que, 
 attendu que, 
 
 as, as well as. 
 
 after. 
 
 [as. 
 
 considering that, 
 
 autaiit que, as much as [what. 
 a ce que, as, as far as, from 
 a mesure que, as, in proportion 
 an lieu que, whereas. [as. 
 
 depuis que, 
 lorsque, 
 parce que,t 
 
 since. 
 when. 
 because. 
 
 peut-etre que, 
 puisque, 
 tant que, 
 vu que, 
 
 perhaps. 
 since. 
 as long as. 
 seeing that. 
 
 They require the indicative, because the principal sen- 
 tence, which they unite with that which is incidental, 
 expresses affirmation in a direct and positive manner. 
 
 f Observation. Par ce que (in three -words) is not a conjunction, 
 though sometimes mistaken for one. It signifies, by that which, by 
 what. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXLI. 
 
 As soon as the Khan of Tartary has dined, a herald cries 
 kan m. heraut 
 
 that all the other princes of the earth may go and dine, 
 
 terref. ind-1 * 
 
 if (they please). A child ought not to 2 obtain Anything', 
 ban leur semble. ne doit * run 
 
 because he asks for it, but because he has need (of it). 
 * besoin en 
 
 We must not judge of a man by what he (is ignorant of), 
 77 falloir ignore 
 
SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 309 
 
 but by what he knows. Whilst we are in prosperity, 
 
 savoir on art. 
 
 we must prepare for adversity. As long as I have 
 il se d art. ind-7 
 
 money, you shall not want any. 
 manquer en 
 
 623. The following Conjunctions, and Conjunctive 
 Locutions, require the subjunctive mood. 
 
 Aim que, 
 pour que, 
 avant que, 
 a moins que,t 
 au cas que, 
 de crainte que,f 
 de peur que,t 
 jusqu'a ce que, 
 non que, 
 non pas que, 
 
 that, in order that. 
 
 before, 
 unless. 
 in case that. 
 
 } however 
 little, 
 provided that. 
 
 pour pen que, 
 
 si peu que, 
 
 pourvu que, 
 
 quoique, "} 
 
 bien que, >though,althou<jh. 
 
 encore que, ) 
 
 sans que, without. 
 
 soit que, whether. 
 
 suppos^ que, supposing that. 
 
 for fear, lest, 
 till, until. 
 >not that. 
 
 They require the subjunctive, as they always imply 
 doubt, desire, uncertainty. 
 
 624. Remark on the conjunction QUE. Learners are 
 often mistaken, by supposing that QUE always requires 
 the verb which follows it to be in the subjunctive mood ; 
 but QUE does not govern any particular mood. It is the 
 positive or doubtful sense of the first verb that requires 
 the second to be in the indicative or subjunctive.t There 
 are, however, several cases in which QUE requires the 
 subjunctive after it. These are when QUE is used instead, 
 or in the sense of some conjunctions which themselves 
 always govern the subjunctive, such as afin que, avant 
 que, a moins que, jusqu'a ce que, quoique, sans que, soit 
 que, suppose que ; as, 
 
 Approchez, QUE je vous voie (afin 
 
 que.} 
 Attendez QUE la pluie soit passe 
 
 {jusqu'a ce que.) 
 
 t A moins que, de crainte que, de peur que, require ne before the verb which 
 follows them, although not having a negative sense, 
 t See the syntax of this mood, p. 286-288. 
 
 Come near, that 1 may see you. 
 Wait until the rain be over. 
 
310 EXERCISES ON THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXLIL 
 
 The Apostles received the gift of tongues, that they might 
 ind-3 donm. pouvoir 
 
 preach the Gospel to all the nations of the earth. If my 
 
 Evangile m. 
 
 brother come before I am up, show him into the dining- 
 ind-1 leve faire entrer 
 
 room, and give him a newspaper to amuse himself with till 
 
 * 
 
 I come down. Unless you be useful, you will not be sought after. 
 
 descendre recherche 
 
 Speak low, for fear anybody should hear you. Though 
 
 on entendre 
 
 you are learned, be modest. Get in without his seeing you. 
 instruit Entrer 
 
 625. The following Conjunctions govern the infinitive : 
 
 Aim de, to, in order to. 
 
 avant de,f lfi,/v>r* 
 avant que de, 
 amoinsde, 
 a moms que de, 
 
 I 
 
 , f 
 
 au lieu de, instead of. 
 
 loin de, far from. 
 
 de crainte de, ) for, or from 
 
 de peur de, J fear of. 
 
 plutot que de, rather than. 
 
 + Avant de, and avant que de, are both correct expressions ; but 
 present usage is decidedly in favour of avant de. 
 
 J^ote. A cause que, devant que, durant que, malgre' que, are found 
 among the Tables of Conjunctions, and in the Exercises of many 
 Grammars ; but these are antiquated expressions. A cause que is 
 replaced by parce que ; devant que, by avant que ; durant que, by 
 pendant que / and malgre que, by quoique. 
 
 EXERCISE CCXLIII. 
 
 He works in order to acquire riches and consideration. Before 
 
 acquerir f. 
 
 granting him my confidence, I shall examine if he is worthy of 
 
 confiance f. 
 it. Instead of studying, he does nothing but amuse himself. 
 
 ne * que se divertir. 
 
 Far from thanking me, he has scolded me. Charles VII., 
 
 grander 
 king of France, abstained from eating, in fear of 
 
 ind-3 par art. crainte f. 
 
 being poisoned, and allowed himself to die, from fear of 
 
 se laisser ind-3 peur 
 
 dying. Rather die than do a dishonourable action. 
 inf-l UckeUt. 
 
OF ABBREVIATIONS. 311 
 
 626. The INTERJECTIONS have been treated of in page 
 190 : their construction is the same in French as in Eng- 
 lish ; they require, therefore, no further explanation. The 
 soul is the only syntax for interjections, and they can never 
 embarrass the student, since they do not require any rules. 
 
 627. OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 There are certain French words which it is customary 
 to abridge and represent by capital letters, as follows : 
 
 J.C. for Jesus-Christ. 
 
 N.S. . .. Notre- Seigneur. 
 
 N.S. J.C. ... Notre- Seigneur Jesus-Christ. 
 
 S.S. ... Sa Saintete. 
 
 S.M. ... Sa Majeste. 
 
 LL. MM. ... Leurs Majestes. 
 
 S.M.I. ... Sa Majeste Imperiale. 
 
 S.M. T.C. ... Sa Majeste Tre^-Chretienne. 
 
 S.M.C. ... Sa Majeste Catholique. 
 
 S.M.T.F. ... Sa Majeste Tr&s-Fidele. 
 
 S.M.B. ... Sa Majeste Britannique. 
 
 S.M.S. ... Sa Majeste Suedoise. 
 
 S.A. ... Son Altesse. 
 
 S.A.R. ... Son Altesse Royale. 
 
 S.A.I. ... Son Altesse Imperiale. 
 
 S.Ex. ... Son Excellence. 
 
 S.Em. ... Son Eminence. 
 
 Ms* ... Monseigneur. 
 
 M. or M r * ... Monsieur. 
 
 MM. or M rs * ... Messieurs. 
 
 M me ... Madame. 
 
 M lle ... Mademoiselle. 
 
 M d ... Marchand, 
 
 M de ... Marchande. 
 
 N6g* ,. Negociant. 
 
 C ie . . Compagnie. 
 
 (Encyd. method. Gram, des Gram. Acod.) 
 * The first is more used in print, and the latter in writing. Messrt is 
 also a good abbreviation of Messieurs. 
 
[ 312 ] 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES 
 
 ON THE NINE PARTS OF SPEECH, AND ON THE PRINCIPAL 
 
 NICETIES, DIFFICULTIES, AND IDIOMS OF THE 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CCXLIV. I look upon the silence of the abb6 Sieyes, said 
 
 regarder 
 Mirabeau, as a public calamity. Saying of Peter the Great : 
 
 Mot 
 It requires three Jews to deceive a Russian. A Swiss proverb: 
 
 187 544 
 
 Keep at least three paces from him who hates bread, and the 
 247 toi a 
 
 voice of a child. Every Roman knight had a horse maintained 
 
 120 entretenir 
 
 at the expense of the republic, and wore a gold ring as a mark 
 
 pi. 419 
 
 of his dignity. I bequeath to surgeon Larrey, 100,000 fr. ; 
 
 Je legue 
 
 he is the most virtuous man I have known. (Napoleon's Will.) 
 493 3 l subj-1 
 
 CCXLV. It is related of Alexander that he said of 
 
 111 ind-2 
 
 Diogenes, that if he had not been Alexander, he (would have) 
 
 e&t edt 
 
 wished to be Diogenes. It was at the battle of Cressy (1346) 
 
 98 
 that for the first time the English made use of artillery. Go, 
 
 foist. 
 my friends, said Napoleon to his grenadiers, fear nothing, the 
 
 ind-2 293 
 
 ball which will kill me is not yet cast. The Spaniards 
 
 ind-7 fondre 
 
 compare Charles V. to Solomon for wisdom, to Caesar for 
 
 76 
 courage, to Augustus for good fortune. Such was Sheridan ! 
 
 bonheurm. 
 
 he could soften an attorney ! There has been nothing like it 
 since the days of Orpheus. (Byron.} 
 
EXERCISES ON IDIOMS. 313 
 
 CCXLVI. "Soldiers," said Bonaparte, in one of his pro- 
 ind-2 
 
 clamations, " you have, in a fortnight, gained six victories, 
 
 remporter 
 
 taken twenty-one standards, fifty pieces of cannon, several 
 
 drapeau m. 
 strong places, made fifteen hundred prisoners, killed or 
 
 73 
 wounded more than ten thousand men. You have won battles 
 
 de 
 without artillery, crossed rivers without bridges, performed 
 
 passer faire 
 
 forced marches without shoes, bivouacked without brandy and 
 
 bivaquer 
 often without bread. Thanks be rendered to you, soldiers ! 
 
 Grdcef. 
 The country has a right to expect great things from you 
 
 Patrie f. 
 You have yet combats to wage, towns to take, rivers to cross. 
 
 livrer 
 Friends, be the liberators of the people, do not be 
 
 peuple pi. 
 their oppressors." 
 en fleau m. 
 
 CCXLVIL The castle clock struck twelve. At that mo- 
 
 sonner En 
 
 ment the buzzings of the crowd ceased, and a little man, 
 
 bourdonnement m. 
 
 dressed in a green uniform, white trousers, and wearing 
 253 d' d' chausse de 
 
 riding-boots, appeared all on a sudden, keeping on his head 
 a I'ecuyere en 146 
 
 a three-cornered hat as fascinating as he was himself. The 
 
 a trois comes prestigieux V 
 
 broad red riband of the Legion of Honour floated on his 
 
 ind-2 
 
 breast. A small sword was at his side. He was perceived 
 poitrine f. apercevoir 
 
 by all eyes, and at once. Immediately, cries of: Long live 
 
 335 
 
 the Emperor ! were uttered by the enraptured multitude. 
 pousser enthousiasmer f. 
 
814 EXERCISES ON IDIOMS. 
 
 CO XL VIII. Botanists assure us that corn is nowhere to 
 
 * ble m. 
 
 be found in its primitive state. This plant seems to have 
 
 543 
 been confided, by Providence, to the care of man, with the 
 
 pi. 
 use of fire, to insure him the sceptre of the earth. With corn 
 
 544 
 and fire, we can acquire all the other goods. Man, with corn 
 
 on bien m. 
 
 alone, can feed all the domestic animals that sustain his life, 
 
 nourrir 248 
 
 ,and share his labours ; the pig, the hen, the duck, the pigeon, 
 
 partager 
 the ass, the sheep, the goat, the horse, the cow, the cat, and 
 
 brebis f. chevre f. 
 the dog, which give him, in return, eggs, milk*, bacon, wool, 
 
 rendre 
 services, and gratitude. 
 
 CCXLIX. My dear Friend, 
 
 Pray, apply yourself diligently to your exercises ; for though 
 
 s'appliquer 
 the doing them well is not supremely meritorious, the doing 
 
 meritoire 
 them ill is illiberal, vulgar, and ridiculous. 
 
 ignoble 
 I send you enclosed a letter of recommendation for Marquis 
 
 ci-inclus 
 Matignon, which will at once thoroughly introduce you 
 
 tout d'un coup 
 into the best French company. Your character, and conse- 
 
 reputation 
 quently your fortune, absolutely depends upon the company 
 
 de 
 you keep, and the turn you take at Paris. I do not, 
 
 tournure f. 
 in the least, mean a grave turn; on the contrary, a gay, a 
 
 nullement 
 sprightly, but at the same time an elegant and liberal one. 
 
EXERCISES ON IDIOMS. 315 
 
 Keep carefully out of all quarrels. Many young- Frenchmen 
 are hasty and giddy. But these young men, when mellowed 
 by age and experience, very often turn out able men. The 
 number of great generals and statesmen, as well as authors, that 
 France has produced, is an undeniable proof of it. (Lord 
 Chesterfield to his Son.) 
 
 CCL. Scotland is a picturesque country. The country 
 has its amusements and beauties, but I prefer town. It is 
 
 very fine weather That requires much time I saw him 
 
 to-day for the first time I know him, but I do not know 
 where he lives. If your sisters are at home, bring them 
 with you ; we shall be delighted to see them. Bring me 
 a few French books well bound in calf. There is some cold veal. 
 Here is a calf s head. Cut some bread. Give me the loaf 
 The poorest of the Russians have a tea-pot, a copper tea-kettle, 
 and take tea, morning and evening. It requires an iron hand 
 in a silk glove. Andrew was Simon Peter's brother. 
 
 CCLI. Knock at the door. There is no knocker. She 
 is always cross. What a pretty gold cross she wears ! She reads 
 better now, and better books. If I had better paper and a 
 better pen, I would write better. She has married my^ brother. 
 It was our bishop that married them. Look at this boy. 
 He looks well to-day. I have called at your house Tell him 
 to call again. Call the waiter I am a bachelor. They say 
 the plague is at Smyrna. Don't plague me. When Cromwell 
 gave half-a-crown a-day to every dragoon, he readily got recruits 
 For the Parliamentarian armies. 
 
 CCLIL The sons of the emperors of Russia take the title of 
 Grand-duke. Take my horse to the stable. Take the saddle to 
 the saddler. If you are going- to Canterbury, take me with you. 
 Take this bonnet to your sister. I take a cup of coffee every 
 morning. It has rained all the morning. I will go and see you 
 on Friday evening. I shall spend the evening with you. He 
 has spent all his money. I come from Paris, and I will return to- 
 morrow. I am going to Paris, and I will return next week. 
 Return me my money. Have I not returned it to you? Gar- 
 dener, have you swept all the walks ? Good bye, ladies ; I wish 
 you a pleasant walk. 
 
REMARQUES 
 
 SUR LA PKONONCIATION DE QUELQUES MOTS. 
 
 ALGER. Girard, Demandre, Levizac, et Lemare disent que le 
 r du mot Alger doit se faire entendre. Ces autorite's sont 
 imposantes ; cependant ce mot, devenu aujourd'hm un nom 
 tout frangais, a perdu la trace de son origine e'trangere, et ne 
 spnne plus autrement que le mot berger; c'est la prononcia- 
 tion partout adoptee. 
 
 Dans Baptiste, bapteme, baptiser, baptismal, baptistaire, le p ne 
 se prononce point. 
 
 CAEN (ville de Norman die). On prononce Kan. 
 
 On prononce a la fraii9aise: architecte, patriarclie, Michel, Achille, 
 Machiavel, Ezechias, Ezechiel, Colchide ; et, avec le son du k, 
 Michel- Ange, Zacharie, Jericho. Almanack, chaos, se pro- 
 noncent Almana, lead. 
 
 D final sonne dans David, Joad, Sud ; mais il ne se prononce 
 pas dans les mots nid, Madrid. 
 
 DAVOUST (mare'chal). On prononce Davou. 
 
 DOUBS (riviere et departement). On prononce Don. 
 
 G final a le son du &, dans bourg. Mais il est muet dans fau- 
 bourg, Strasbourg, Edimbourg, Hambourg, Petersbourg. 
 
 GERANIUM, substantif masculin. Prononcez geraniome. 
 
 GUIZOT. On prononce Ghiz6. Dans de Guise, Yu se fait en- 
 tendre. 
 
 JOUG (yoke). On fait sentir un peu la lettre finale, meme 
 devant une consonne. 
 
 LA FAYETTE, La Haye. On prononce Lafa-iett, La He. 
 
 METZ, Munich, Zurich. On prononce Mess, Munik, Zurik. 
 
 N final sonne dans Eden, hymen, le Tarn. Beam se prononce 
 Bear. 
 
 S se fait entendre dans atlas, mceurs, Calvados, Cresus, Jonas, 
 Menelas, Pallas, Rubens, Themis, Tunis. Mais la lettre s est 
 muette dans avis, trepas, Jesus, Jesus-Christ, Thomas, Judas. 
 Dans le cas de la liaison, s final prend le son du z, avi-z-au 
 lecteur. 
 
 SAONE, subst. fern, (riviere). On prononce S6ne. 
 
 SIEYES (I'abbe'). On prononce Si-ess. 
 
 SOLENNEL, ELLE, adjectif. On prononce toujours Solanel, et on 
 fait 1'a bref ; il en est de meme dans les derive's. 
 
 SOULT (mare'chal). On prononce Soulte. 
 
 SOURCIL (eye-brow). Prononcez sourci. 
 
 SULLY. ^ Ce mot ne doit pas prendre le son mouille, mtilgrd 
 1'opinion contraire de quefques Grammairiens. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 u^L ; with and without accent, 8 
 Proper names ending in , 37 
 English indef. art. 14, 199, 206 
 
 j 8, 14, 15, 185, 
 Preposition, j ^ 303 
 
 Verbs which require a, . . 273 
 Abbreviations in the Exercises, 6 
 
 of Titles, . .311 
 
 Abstain (to), s'abstenir, . . 133 
 Accents ; number and use, . 8 
 Adjective ; Feminine of, 20 to 25 
 
 Plural of, 25, 26 
 
 Possessive, 42 
 
 Demonstrative, .... 44 
 Numeral, .... 31, 233 
 Cardinal, .... 31, 233 
 Ordinal, .... 31, 34, 233 
 General Rule on, .... 66 
 Concord of the, . 220 to 224 
 Used adverbially, . . .221 
 Place of the, . . 224 to 230 
 Government of the, 230 to 233 
 Of Number, its synt, . . 233 
 Of Dimension, .... 234 
 In the Comparative Degree, 235 
 In the Superlative Degree, 235 
 Adverb; its place, . . 175,299 
 How formed from an adj. . 179 
 Of Quantity, . . . 176, 266 
 A'ieul; its plural, .... 19 
 
 All, 17,26,56 
 
 A Her ; s' en alter, . . 117,118 
 Alphabet (French), .... 7 
 Although, quoique, .... 309 
 Always, toujours, . . . .178 
 A ntecedent ; its meaning, . . 47 
 Any; how expressed in French, 16 
 
 Apostrophe, 9 
 
 Appartenir, see Tenir, . .133 
 
 Around, 305 
 
 Article, ... 13, 14, 15, 16 
 Contraction of, . . . . 14 
 Partitive, . . . 16, 62, 198 
 When used, . . 192 to 202 
 When not used, 197, 202 to 210 
 When invariable, .... 236 
 Aucun, aucune, none, ... 55 
 
 Autrui, others, 52 
 
 Avant, devant, - .... 305 
 
 Avant de, avant que de, . . 310 
 A voir, to have ; its conjugation, 60 
 
 Barefoot, 221 
 
 Beaucoup ; Remark on, . . 300 
 Before ; how expressed, 305, 310 
 Benir, to bless, Remark on, 122 
 
 Best, 30 
 
 Better, 30 
 
 and better, . . . .177 
 
 Bien, Remarks on, . 207, 300 
 Born (to be), naitre, . . .163 
 Both, 53, 264 
 
 Ca, for cela, 256 
 
 Can (to be able to), pouvoir, 139 
 Cases ; if any in Trench, . . 11 
 Ce, demonst. pron., 45, 254, 255 
 
 Cedilla, 10 
 
 Cent ; when it takes an s, . . 34 
 CJiacun, every one, . . 52, 262 
 Chaque, every, each, ... 55 
 
 Ciel ; its plural, 19 
 
 Collective nouns, . 17, 33, 34, 265 
 Comparative degree, . 27, 28, 235 
 Comparison, degrees of, . . 26 
 Compound nouns, . 215 to 220 
 Compound tenses ; how formed, 59 
 Concord between the tenses, 288 
 Conditional mood, .... 284 
 Conjugations ; how distinguish- 
 ed, 59 
 
 First in er, 69 
 
 Second in ir, 73 
 
 Third in oir, 77 
 
 Fourth in re, 80 
 
 Negatively, 83,84 
 
 Interrogatively, . . . 87, 88 
 Interrogatively & negatively, 90 
 Conjugation 
 
 Of Passive verbs 92 
 
 Of Pronom. or Reflect, verbs, 96 
 Of the same, negatively, 99 ; 
 interrogatively, 101 : in- 
 terrogatively and nega- 
 tively, 102 
 
 Of Impersonal or Unipers. 103 
 
318 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 Conjugation 
 
 Of verbs in ger, eer, cer, uer, 
 
 eler, eter, yer, ier, 108 to 117 
 Conjunctions ; the principal, 188 
 
 Some govern the indie. . . 308 
 
 Some the subj. or inf. 309, 310 
 Connaitre, to know, . . . 151 
 
 Its difference from savoir, 141 
 Craindre, and verbs in aindre 
 
 and oindre, ...... 153 
 
 Cru; with and without accent, 9 
 
 ; takes the sound of t, . 90 
 Dans, en ; how used, . . . 304 
 Date, how to, ..... 34 
 
 Gender 11, 210 
 
 Gent, gen* 17, 211 
 
 Give (to), donner, .... 71 
 
 Go (to), aller, 117 
 
 out (to), sortir, . . . .132 
 
 Half(demi); itsSynt. . . 221 
 He who, she who, .... 255 
 
 Her, 40, 42, 241 
 
 Him, 40, 241 
 
 Hyphen, 
 
 10, 243 
 
 when cut off, 
 
 i^U/H-, 1A\J Y U\J, ..... O^t i M. / WUOi-l VJ-UL VUj 
 
 De, . 14, 15, 182, 186, 218, 303 j If, si ; Remarks on, 
 Verbs which require de, . 274 
 
 Deceive (to), tromper, likeparler, 69 
 Degrees of comparison, ... 26 
 Demi ; Remark on, . . . 221 
 Demonstrative adjectives, . . 44 
 -- pronouns, 45, 46, 254, 
 D$s ; with and without accent, 8 
 Deyant, avant, ..... 305 
 
 Diceresis, . ...... 10 
 
 Die (to), ..... 128, 173 
 
 Distributive nouns, ... 33, 34 
 Do, did, ...... 69, 83 
 
 -- (to), faire, ..... 159 
 
 Du ; with and without accent, 9 
 
 Hi ; gender of nouns ending- in, 12 
 Each, ..... 52, 55, 262 
 
 Eat (to), mang-er, .... 108 
 
 Either, ...... . . 264 
 
 Elision of vowels, .... 9 
 
 Elle ; its derivation, ... 13 
 Ellipsis; Note on, . . . 258 
 En; pronoun,- . . . .49,50 
 
 Preposition, 187, 273, 303, 304 
 Governs the Particip. pres. 273 
 En, dans, ....... 304 
 
 Entre; when written entr 1 , . 10 
 Eire, to be ; its conjugation, 64 
 Eye, eyes, ....... 19 
 
 t* aire (to do, to make), . . 159 
 Falloir (to be necessary), . . 105 
 Fleurir,to flourish, Remark on, 125 
 Foresee (to), see Voir, . . . 143 
 
 Imperfect ; when used, 
 Impersonal verbs, . . . 
 ' ., into ; how expressed, . 
 
 . 9 
 
 9,284 
 . 280 
 . 103 
 304 
 Indefinite pronouns, . 51,261 
 
 pronom. adjectives, . 55 
 
 Interjection, . . . . 190, 191 
 Irregular verbs, 1st conj. er, 117 
 
 2d conj. ir, 120 
 
 3d conj. oir, 136 
 
 4th conj. re, 146 
 
 It, 40, 235, 262 
 
 Its, their, .... 42, 43, 252 
 
 XL 
 
 now (to), 
 
 141, 151 
 
 La ; Id, . 
 
 Le, article, 
 
 . 8,9, 10, 13, J 4 
 , . 9,10, 13, 14 
 
 , pronoun, . . . . 9, 40, 241 
 , la, les, pronouns, ... 40 
 
 Least, 30 
 
 Less, 30 
 
 Little, 30 
 
 Live (to), vivro, ..... 173 
 
 Long, adj 25 
 
 , adv 178 
 
 Lose (to), perdre, .... 81 
 
 L'un rautre, Cun & Fautre, 53, 54, 
 
 264 
 
 j Make (to), faire, . 
 M3me, same, self, like, 
 Mille; milles; mil, . , 
 Molse ; its pronunciation, 
 
 Monsieur, 
 
 159 
 55 
 34 
 10 
 
 253/260.311 
 
INDKX . 
 
 319 
 
 sdoods and Tcnxes, 
 More, 
 
 Page 
 
 . 279 
 
 300 
 
 Much, very much, too much, . 176 
 Mur ; with and without accent, 8 
 
 ^V ames (proper) see Proper. 
 Near, .... . . . 306 
 
 Negatives, ..... 83, 301 
 
 Neither, ....... 264 
 
 - the one nor the other t 264 
 Neuter Verbs, ...... 94 
 
 -- Remark on, . 295 
 Never, ........ 83 
 
 No, not, ...... 83, 301 
 
 No more, ....... 83 
 
 Nobody, ...... 52, 53 
 
 Nothing, ....... 83 
 
 Nor, ........ 264 
 
 Noun, see Substantive. 
 
 Nul, nulle, none, .... 55 
 
 Numbers, ....... 11 
 
 Cardinal, . . . 31, 34, 204 
 Ordinal, , . . 31,34,204 
 Rules on, . . 34, 35, 204, 233 
 
 Obtain (to),obtemr,likQ tenir, 133 
 (Eil; its plural, ..... 19 
 
 Of it, en, ...... 49, 50 
 
 On ; one, they, etc., 51, 261, 262 
 Ou ; with and without accent, 8 
 Ou ; relative pronoun, ... 49 
 Owe (to), devoir, ..... 78 
 
 JTarce que, par ce que, 
 Participle Present, . . 
 Past, 
 
 . 308 
 . 291 
 
 )2, 292 
 . 129 
 
 16, 198 
 
 Partir, to set out, . 
 
 Partitive article, 
 
 Parts of speech, .....' 13 
 
 Pas, point, .... 83,301 
 
 Passive verbs, .... 92, 271 
 
 Personal Pronouns, . 38, 237 
 
 Personne, 52, 53 
 
 PtoraJofNoung, . . 17,213 
 
 of compound Nouns, 215 i 
 
 of Adjectives, . . 25, 26 
 Plus, davantage, .... 300 
 
 Plustdt, plutdt, 300 
 
 Plusieurs, several, many, . . 56 
 
 Pane 
 
 Possessive adject'wes, ... 42 
 
 pronouns, . . 43, 249 
 
 case, 217 
 
 Pour, before a verb 3 . . . 278 
 
 Pouvoir, to be able, . . .139 
 
 Prepositions, . 11,182,218,303 
 
 Govern the Infinitive, . . 273 
 
 Some govern, de or d, 273, 306, 307 
 
 Present Indie, used for a past, 279 
 
 for & future, . . 279 
 
 Prts de, prtt d, 306 
 
 Preterite definite 281 
 
 indefinite, .... 282 
 
 Primitive Tenses, ... 67, 68 
 Pronominal verbs, .... 95 
 Pronouns: how divided, . . 38 
 
 Personal, 38 
 
 Place of Pers. pron. 38, 237, 248 
 Syntax of Pers. pron. 237, 249 
 Possessive, ... 42, 43, 249 
 Demonstrative, . 44, 45, 254 
 
 Relative, 47, 256 
 
 Indefinite, 51, 261 
 
 Proper names ; definition of . 17 
 Of states, provinces, towns, 
 
 12, 197 
 Of Sovereigns, ..... 35 
 
 Ending in a, 37 
 
 Which take the article, . 195 
 197, 203, 213 
 When they take the sign of 
 
 the plural, 213 
 
 Proportional nouns, . . , 34 
 
 Q 
 
 ue ; when it loses the e, , 47 
 
 Rem. on the conj. que, , . 309 
 
 Quel, quelle ; when used, , . 57 
 
 Quelconque, whatever, . , . 56 
 Quelque ; quel que, . . .57, 58 
 
 .elqu'un; somebody, . . 52 
 
 iconque ; whoever, . . 51, 52 
 
 Qu 
 Qu 
 
 JKadicat letters, ..... 67 
 Railroad or railway, . . . 304 
 Rain (to), pleuvoir, .... 104 
 Read (to), lire, ..... 160 
 Reflected Verbs, . 95,99, 101, 102 
 Regimen, . . 210, 240, 270, 293 
 Regular Verbs, . . . . 67, 69 
 Relative pronouns, . 47, 256 
 
 Repentir (art, see Sentir, . . 180 
 
320 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Resolu; Resous, . . . . . 168 
 Kequest (to), prier, .... 116 
 
 & avoir, to know, . . . ,141 
 Without pas and point, . 301 
 
 Say (to), dire, .156 
 
 Se, . 41,248 
 
 See (to), voir, 143 
 
 Sell (to), vendre, . . ... 80 
 Send (to), envoyer, .... 115 
 back, renvoyer, . . . 115 
 Serve (to), to help to, servir, . 131 
 Set out, (to), partir, .... 129 
 Several, plusieurs, .... 56 
 
 She who, he who, 255 
 
 Si, if, 9, 284 
 
 Sinq (to), chanter. .... 71 
 
 Soi, . 41,248 
 
 Some; how expressed, . . 16,198 
 
 Something, 211 
 
 Sometimes, 178 
 
 Sovereigns, 35, 204 
 
 Speak (to), parler, .... 69 
 Steam-engine; how translated, 186 
 Subjunctive mood ; when used, 285 
 Substantive ; plural of, . 17 to 20 
 
 Gender of, 11,210 
 
 Number in, . . . 213, 214 
 
 Plural of compound, . . 215 
 
 Superlative degree, .... 28 
 
 Sur ; with and without accent, 8 
 
 Syntax, 192 
 
 JL ake (to), prendre, . .167 
 
 Tel, telle, such, ..... 54 
 
 Tell (to), dire, 156 
 
 Tenses; formation of, 59, 67, 68 
 
 Syntax of, ... 279 to 291 
 Their, its, . . . . . 42, 252 
 Thousand, mille, ..... 34 
 To ; how translated, . 14,272 
 
 When expressed by pour, 278 
 
 Tout, 17, 26, 56 
 
 Trema, or dier$se, .... 10 
 Trds; its derivation, ... 29 
 
 Page 
 Tu ; with and without accent, 9 
 
 Unipersonal vetb*, .... 103 
 
 y enir, to come, . . . . 1 34 
 Verb; how many kinds of verbs, 59 
 Conjugated negatively, . 83, 84 
 Interrogatively, . . .87, 88 
 Interrogatively and negativ. 90 
 
 Active verbs, 69 
 
 Passive, 92,271 
 
 Neuter, 94 
 
 Pronominal, reflective, re- 
 ciprocal, 95 
 
 Impersonal or Unipersonal, 103 
 Verbs ending in ger t eer,cer, 
 uer, eler, eter,yer, ier, 108 to 117 
 Observations on, .... 67 
 Agreement of the, . . . 2>53 
 Place of the subject of the, 268 
 Government of the, . . . 270 
 Verbs which require d, . : 273 
 Verbs which require de, . 274 
 Verbs which require no pro- 
 position, 277 
 
 Very, 29, 300 
 
 Vingt ; when it takes an s, . 34 
 Vivre; remarks on, . . . .173 
 Vowels, 7, 9 
 
 W ; when used, .... 7 
 Wait, wait for, attendre, . . 81 
 
 Who, which, 256 
 
 Whom, which, . . . 256, 260 
 (of), 259 
 
 Whose, of whom, of which, . 259 
 Words alike in French and 
 
 English, 36 
 
 Worse, 30 
 
 Worst, .30 
 
 Write (to), e*crire, . . . .157 
 
 , 7, 50, 178 
 
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