UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES A corner in the orchard. A Lombard plum tree. Is it carrying too much fruit ? What should be done ? (See page 106. ) PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE BY CHARLES C. JAMES, M. A. DKl'UTY MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE FOR ONTARIO FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT THE ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AMERICAN EDITION EDITED BY JOHN CRAIG PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE IN THE IOWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1899 COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. PREFACE. The purpose of ihis book is to aid the reader and student in acquiring a knowledge of the science of agriculture as dis- finct from the art of agriculture ; that is, a knowledge of the " why," rather than a knowledge of the " how." The science of agriculture may be said to consist of a mingling of chemistry, geology, botany, entomology, physiology, bacteriology, and other sciences, in as far as they have a bearing upon agri- culture. The aim has been to include but the first prin- ciples of these various sciences, and to show their application to the art of agriculture. In a field so wide, and with so limited a space at the author's disposal, this work claims to deal only with the simple first principles of agricultural science. It is hoped, however, that the beginning here made will lead to a further study of what is one of the most interesting and most profitable sciences one that is at the present time making most wonderful advance. From his expeiience of several years teaching at the Ontario Agricultural College the author believes that the rational teaching of agriculture in Public and High Schools is not only possible, but would be exceedingly profitable. An intelligent understanding of the science underlying the art of agriculture will add much interest to what is otherwise hard work, and, as a natural consequence, the pleasure of such work may be ,'365440 IV PREFACE. greatly increased.. The agriculturists of this country in the future will work at a serious disadvantage if they do not have some knowledge of the very interesting science that underlies their work. The residents of our towns and cities also will find that some knowledge of the science of agriculture may be of use to them, and may increase the respect and consideration for the calling that contributes so largely to the general wealth and welfare of this country. To the many who have offered help and advice and to all who have in any way contributed to this work, sincere thanks are offered. The First Principles of Agriculture, by Dr. James Mills and Prof. Shaw will be found useful for reference, as some of the subjects herein dealt with are enlarged upon in that work. C. C. JAMES. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Toronto, August ist, 1898. CONTENTS. PART I. THE PLANT. PAGE CHAPTER i. The Seed i ii. The Young Plant .... 6 " in. The Plant and Water . .12 iv. The Plant and the Soil . . 16 v. The Plant and the Air ... 20 vi. Structure and Growth of the Plant . 24 vn. Naming and Classification of Plants . 29 PART II. THE SOIL. CHAP- vin. Nature and Origin of the Soil . . 31 " ix. Tilling and Draining the Soil . . 37 ' x. Improving the Soil .... 42 PART III. THE CROPS OF THE FIELD. CHAP. xi. The Grasses 48 " xn. The Grain Crops or Cereals . . 52 XIIL The Leguminous Plants . . -57 " xiv. Root Crops and Tubers ... 62 " xv. Various other Crops . . . -67 xvi. Weeds .... 71 xvii. Insects of the Field . 74 " xvin. The Diseases of Plants . 88 " xix. Rotation of Crops . . 93 vi CONTENTS. PART IV. THE GARDEN, ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. PACK CHAP. xx. The Garden . . . . . 97 " xxi. The Apple Orchard . . . . 103 xxn. Other Orchard Trees . 107 " xxiii. Insects of the Orchard . . . no " xxiv. Diseases of the Orchard . . . 116 " xxv. The Vineyard . . . . .118 PART V. LIVE STOCK AND DAIRYING. CHAP. xxvi. Horses ...... " xxvn. Cattle ...... " xxvin. Sheep ...... " xxix. Swine . .... " xxx. Poultry " xxxi. Milk ....... " xxxii. The Products of Milk . . . " xxxin. The Structure of Animals " xxxiv. Foods of Animals " xxxv. Digestion and Uses of Foods PART VI. OTHER SUBJECTS. CHAP, xxxvi. Bees . . . . . . 171 " xxxvu. Birds . . . . .176 " xxxvni. Forestry . . . . . . 181 " xxxix. Roads 187 " XL. The Rural Home . . . . 193 APPENDIX. List of Trees . . . , . . . 196 List of Weeds 198 Spraying Mixtures . . . . . . . 200 "Agriculture is the oldest of the arts and the most recent of the sciences." " Perfect agriculture is the true foundation of trade and industry it is the foundation of the riches of States." PART I. CHAPTER I. THE SEED. THE FORMING OF SEED. We scatter some oat-grains over the earth and then lightly cover them with the fine surface soiL The spring rain falls, and the air grows warmer. In a few days the green blades of the oat plants appear through the soil all over the field. If we pull up some of these green shoots we find that each one grows from a single seed, and each plant has a bunch of small hairy roots. If we look closely we may find the old husk, or the cover- ing, of the grain that we planted, but nothing more. What was once a seed has now become a plant with roots in the soil and stalk and leaf above the soil. Perhaps we may find some seeds that were buried too deeply and that have not sprouted. On through the summer the oat plants grow, tall and green ; soon the head branches out and blossoms then the grain forms, first soft, soon becoming harder, and the plants lose their green color and turn brown and yellow. We cut down the plants and later on thresh them out, separating the grain from the straw. The roots or stubble left behind in the soil decay; they will not grow again. The straw also will not grow ; it is fed to the stock or used as litter. But the grain we may feed to the stock or we may use it again for growing another crop of oats next year. We began with the seed and the plant has given us seed again, just like the seed with which we started. The seed, then, is the beginning and the end of the oat plant, whose aim in growing appears to be to form seed that will produce other plants like itself. The 2 AGRICULTURE. seed appears to be the most important part of this plant ; its life passes on through the seed. We therefore begin our study of plants with the seed. Many other plants of the field, like the oat, sprout, grow, form seed and die in one season (Annuals). Some others, such as carrots and turnips, do not ibim seed unless left in the ground for a second season (Biennials). Then their roots and stalks die. There are others, such as fruit trees, nut- bearing trees, grape vines, that form seed year by year, but still keep on living (Perennials). Make a list of the plants of the farm and garden under these three classes : Annuals, Biennials and Perennials. SHAPE AND SIZE OF SEEDS. The seeds of the same kind of plants are very much alike in shape and size, but the seeds of oats, wheat, barley, corn, peas, beans, turnips, pumpkins, apples, red clover, and timothy all differ. So do the seeds of the grasses and of the weeds. Some are ball-shaped like peas, some are long and pointed like oats, some are flat like pump- kins, some are three-sided like buckwheat and beech nuts. And there are many other forms ; in fact, there is a different form for every different kind of seed. One seed may send up two or more stalks, but one stalk never grows from more than one reed. Find out how many grains of wheat there are on a single stalk ; how many seeds there are on a dandelion head, and how many grains of corn will be grown from one seed of corn. Get a number of small glass bottles about two inches long. Collect the seeds of grains, of grasses, and of weeds. In the summer and fall gather these seeds from the growing plants, in the winter get them from the bins. Put these separately in the bottles, write the name of each kind on a piece of paper and fasten it on the bottle. You can in time get a collection of all the principal seeds that are to be found growing in your locality, and you can then study them. After a while you can write on each its botani- cal name also. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SEED. Wheat and oats are too small for us to take apart easily. Let us take a large seed such as a hickory nut. First the rough outer husk is taken off, then we THE SEED. come to the hard shell. If we crack this carefully we can take out " the meat " in one piece. We see that it is made up of two parts joined together at one end. Notice at which end of the shell the two parts are joined together. Now take another nut an almond. We crack it ; the meat comes out in one compact piece. ' We place this in water for a couple of minutes and then we carefully rub off the coating. We find that the white almond will separate into Fig. ,. -AH Almond showing two parts that are joined together at one ffi? ftSTSftft end, very much as in the hickory nut. ^ ^ u ,di We find also that there is a tiny tip stem - between these two parts. The nut appears to be made up of two thick leaves joined to a very short stem. It is somewhat like a plant with a short stalk, having two big leaves, but no roots. Fiz. 2. An Acorn cut in two. Fig. 3. A Horse-Chestnut cut in two showing seed leaves and tip. Fig. 5.- A Pumpkin- Seed. We can examine the seeds of the acorn, the horse-chestnut, the apple, the pea, the bean, and the pumpkin, and we find them all made up or put together in much the same form. If we open up other seeds, however, we may find some that have only one seed-leaf, and some that have more than two. What do you find in the maple tree seed ? THE SPROUTING OF THE SEED. When a seed begins to grow, it is said to sprout. Seeds do not begin to grow in the ground in winter, nor will they sprout in summer if they are 4 AGRICULTURE. buried too deeply in the soil. We can easily cause seeds to sprout, and we can, at the same time, find out just when they will sprout. If we place some wheat grains in a dry dish and keep them dry, they will not sprout either in winter or sum- mer it makes no difference whether they are cold or warm, they will not sprout so long as they are kept dry. We there- fore conclude that seeds require water or moisture in order to sprout. If this were not so we would have the grain sprouting in the bins and granaries. At the same time we notice how important it is to have all bins and granaries quite dry. Now let us take three deep dishes, such as soup plates. We get three pieces of flannel and cut them so that when once folded each piece will just about cover the bottom of the dish. We place about twenty grains of wheat in each between the folded flannel. We then moisten one plate and set it away in a coyl place, and we keep the flannel moist all the time ; we moisten the second and set it in a warm place, in a sunny window, for instance, and we keep it moist ; we fill up the third and set it also beside it in the warm place, and we keep the plate filled with water. We can see what changes take place from day to day by lifting up the flannel. The grain kept cool does not sprout ; the grain kept covered with water so that the air does not reach it does not sprout, even though it is warm ; but the grain that is kept warm, that gets some air, and that has a little moisture soon sprouts and starts to grow. We now conclude that for seeds to sprout they must have water, heat and air, and if any one of these three be lacking, sprouting will not take place. By means of warm, moistened cloths we can tell whether the seed grain that we desire to sow is likely to sprout or not in the ground, and about how much is likely to grow. This is important, as seeds when they are old lose the power of sprout- ing. Some seeds lose their vitality or power of sprouting much sooner than others. Can you find out which these are ? How a young walnut (jets out of its shell. Note the thick, fleshy tap mot. Compare with Kig. 7. Where are the seed leaves ? Great oaks from little acorns grow." The young plant feeds on the " meat " in the acorn till the root is able to get nourishment from the soil. Look again at Fig. 2. THE SEED. 5 CONCLUSIONS : 1. Seeds will not sprout unless they get some water or moisture. 2. Seeds will not sprout when the ground is too cold. 3. Seeds will not sprout when they are in undrained soil that is full of water, because they cannot get air. 4. Seeds will not sprout when they are buried too deeply so that the air cannot reach them. The seed is the beginning of the plant, and with the plant, as with so many other things, it is of very great importance to have a good start. This means that we should have good liv- ing seed seed that will grow, free from weed seeds. Then we must have a good, fine, level seed-bed, on a well-drained field, so that the seed can be sown evenly and covered properly. Moderate rains and bright sunshine will cause the seed to sprout, and the young plants will soon appear at the same time in all parts of the surface of the field. This brings us to the study of the young plant, which will form the next chapter. Describe the seeds of corn or maize, buckwheat, the turnip, the thistle, the dandelion, the strawberry, the gooseberry, the pumpkin, the grape, the cherry, the apple, the maple, the elm, the basswood, the beech, the hickory. What is the effect of steeping seed just before it is sown? What kind of water should be used hot, warm, or cold ? How are seeds distributed naturally ? What kinds of seeds may be easily carried by water, by wind, by birds, by animals? Why do we find willows along streams ? AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER II. THE YOUNG PLANT. We have learned that seeds will sprout when they have water, heat, and air. But there must not be too much water, for then they will simply become soft and decay; nor must there be too much heat, for then they will be Fig. 6 A Bean showing tip of rootlet Hri^rl nr> unrl Vill^rl WP hnvp or radicle at r; also with parts separ- 1 U P a " ated showing tip just starting to grow. snO wn how they can be sprouted between layers of moist flannel or blotting paper. When sprouted in that way their growth can be watched day by day ; but this plan of sprouting seeds will not allow us to watch their growth to a very large size. If we wish to see them grow up into full- sized plants we must plant the seeds in soil. We can do so in a box of clean garden soil placed in a sunny window, or out of doors in warm weather. We may plant some peas, beans, or pumpkin seeds. Let us take a handful of bean seeds. As they are rather large in size we must cover them thoroughly with soil about an inch deep. At the same time we might put in a few seeds four, five or six inches deep, and also place three or four right on the surface, to observe the effect on them in contrast with those planted at the proper depth. We then water the soil slightly every day. After two days we carefully take up a couple of seeds to see what has taken place. Then we put them back carefully. In this way, day by day, we examine carefully a couple of the seeds until we find them starting to sprout. THE YOUNG PLANT. When they have once sprouted we can take up a plant every day to see what change is taking place. We should have enough plants growing so that we can throw away each little plant after we have examined it. First we find the seeds becoming moist from the water in the soil, and Fig 8. Seed Pea and young pea plant. Fig. 7. Bean Seed ; also young plant on right, and, in the centre, a plant showing two seed leaves, also first pair of true leaves above. soon turning soft. The beans swell a little and soon break open the outer covering or husk. The two thick leaves of the seed separate a little and a few fine roots push out into the soil. The little tip between the seed leaves begins to grow larger and pushes up towards the air. The plant never makes a mistake ; the roots always grow out and down into the soil and the little tip 8 AGRICULTURE. that forms the stalk always grows up into the air, whether the seed is lying upside down or not. The roots lengthen out and branch into a little bunch of fine fibres, and the stalk soon brings the two leaves above ground. Sometimes we can see the old husk of the seed still clinging to one of the seed leaves, which are generally quite smooth and simple in form. The stalk grows on higher and higher ; new leaves form ; little branches are thrown out ; leaves form on these ; and now we see the general form or make-up of the plant. By this time we observe that the two seed leaves have become thin and soon disappear. They appear to be of use only in the first few days of the sprouting of the seed and the early growth of the young plant. What is their use ? They are different in shape and size from the ordinary leaves of the plant. They are thick at first, and soon become thin and disappear. They are nothing else than little sacks of food stored up in the seed to feed the young plant until it forms roots and leaves and is able to get food for itself from the soil and the air. PARTS OF THE PLANT. The roots spread out or go down through the soil ; the stalk grows up and branches out ; the leaves grow along the side and at the ends of the branches. These three parts roots, stalk and branches, and leaves are quite different in form and in color, and we may conclude that they also have different work to do in the life of the plant. We can easily study these three parts in larger plants. In the case of a carrot the root is thick and long and pushes itself straight down into the soil. We call such a root a tap root. But along this root we find a large number of fine, hairy-like rootlets, to which the fine particles of soil cling Fig. 9. Tap- root, as of a closely. These are the feeders of the big root. carrot, show- fefdlngro^I * n the CaS6 f a StOC)1 f wheat Or OatS We THE YOUNG PLANT. a mass of fine roots. We call such a root fibrous. In the case of large trees, we find large roots running off in all directions, many of them for long distances. If we take up a piece of tree root, we find the outer end covered with fresh, fine, hairy-like roots. These are the feeders of the big roots. How do roots grow ? A man's arm is longer and larger than a boy's arm. How did it grow? Not simply by adding on at Fig. 10. Fibrous root, as of grass. the end, for in that case the man's arm would be merely the boy's arm with very long fingers. All parts of the arm must have grown at the same time. A root would find it very difficult to grow in that way through the soil. It adds on at the end or the tip. Sometimes a root has to go around a large stone ; a bend is formed in the root. How difficult it would be for the root if it had to keep pulling itself around that stone as it grew longer. Roots, of course, grow larger and thicker, pushing aside the soil and even rocks ; but they lengthen at the tips and take in the food from the soil through the fine, hairy rootlets, which are always found in largest numbers near the ends of the newly- formed roots. Two other things we notice, namely, the roots do not bear leaves and they are not green. They are generally light colored inside with a dark covering. They are also quite pliable easily bent or twisted ; f , ., , f .. . . Fig. it. End of Root, my in fact they are made for working their ercd with fine, hairy , .1 i .1 1 i way easily through the soil and around n 11 i i f stones. Pull up a bunch of grass and observe how the roots cling to the fine soil. Also observe how crooked a tree root grows. feeding rootlets, a s up hardened for protection; />is crowing part ; c is older part of Toot. The '' wb ' ch 10 AGRICULTURE. The stalk is compact and strong, built for holding up a heavy weight. When young the stalk and branches are green in color; as they grow older the color becomes darker and duller, and the soft, smooth skin changes to hard, rough bark. The stalk and branches are much stiffer than the roots ; if they were as pliable as the roots they would not be able to hold themselves up in the form that we see. Most plants, however, are pliable enough to yield to strong wind and thus avoid being broken. The last thing to be noticed here in regard to them is that what is called " the grain " goes along and not across the branch and stalk. We can split a piece of wood along its grain, but we have to saw or break it if we wish to divide it across the grain. What would be the effect of a strong wind upon plants, trees, forests, if the grain ran across instead of along the stalks, limbs, trunks, and branches ? The most noticeable points in connection with leaves are their shape, their number, and their color. The leaf is generally flat and very thin. Its outline or form varies with different kinds of plants. Contrast the thick, needle-shaped leaf of the pine and the thin, long, pointed blade of grass with the leaves of the oak, maple, basswood, and willow. Take a green maple leaf ; draw its outline ; trace the frame- work upon which it is formed. Then glue or paste it between two sheets of paper or cloth and dry carefully. Pull these two sheets apart and thereby split the leaf. We thus see that the leaf is a thin web stretched upon a framework of fine branches, and we observe that the branching of these Fig. 12. Section of a Leaf. A , row of cells ., r , , r ,,,- to.ming skin on upper side; B, row of ribs of the leaf vanes m differ- cells next to skin ; 1), next row of cells; , j / i c -u C, air spaces in leaf; E, inner portion of 6nt kinds Of leaves ; further, cells filled with sap; F, row of cells form- ., . .1 > .1 i_ r :, ing under skin or leaf showing mouths that though the leal IS or openings (stomnta). THE YOUNG PLANT. II thin, yet it is made up of different layers, two skins with softer layers between. Draw the leaves of all the different forest and shade trees found in your locality. The new leaves of spring and early summer are green; as summer advances they change in color somewhat, and in the fall the green turns to brown or yellow or red. The young shoots also are green in color at first, becoming duller and darker in color as they become older and stiffer. But observe the many different shades of green in the leaves of different kinds of trees even different kinds of maples show tints that slightly vary. Even the two sides of the same leaf are not of the same shade. This can be seen on a windy day when the wind blows the leaves over. What causes the green color ? Place a small piece of board on the green grass ; after a few days lift the board and observe that the grass under it has become paler in color, has been bleached out. Leave the board off and the grass will soon become green again. When potatoes start to grow in a dark cellar their sprouts are white, the tips grow towards the light, and if they reach direct sunlight they become green. We conclude from the above that the sunlight in some way or other is the cause of the green color in the leaves. (The name chlorophyl^ applied to the green-colored matter in the leaf, means " leaf green.") Why are the roots not green like the leaves ? Are evergreens of the same color in winter as in summer ? Why is the growth of trees less and less, or more stunted, as we go farther north ? When do evergreens shed their leaves ? Compare the cones of different evergreens. Where do we find the most evergreen trees, and why ? Where the most deciduous ? 12 AGRICULTURE;. CHAPTER III. THE PLANT AND WATER. THE WATF.R OF THE PLANT. In a long season of drouth, the grass turns brown and withers, the leaves of the trees dry up, and shrubs and plants of all kinds droop and die. In the case of plants grown in the house, everyone knows that they must be watered regularly. When the rains are frequent, how the grass grows, and how all plant life becomes green and thrifty ! Nothing more need be said to prove that water is one of the most important foods for plants. Further, we find some water in all plants, some fruits being made up of over nine-tenths water. If any plant, or any part of a plant, such as a piece of root, a chunk of green wood, a bunch of green grass, or a handful of leaves, be placed in a warm oven, it will gradually become lighter in weight owing to its losing water or becoming drier. Even well-dried wood will lose a little water. If we were to take 100 pounds of several substances, such as the following, and dry them out thoroughly, we would find that they would become lighter by the following amounts, that is, they would lose these amounts of water : Roots, carrots, turnips, etc , 85 to 95 pounds. Potatoes 75 " Green pasture grass 80 " Timber wood 40 to 50 " Dried or cured hay 15 " Grains, such as wheat, oats, etc .... 10 to 15 " We can therefore say that roots contain from 85 to 95 per cent, of water, potatoes 75 per cent., etc. THE PLANT AND WATER. 13 How DOES THE WATER GET IN? We can answer this first question by carefully observing as follows : When house plants are watered, we do not pour the water on the leaves and branches, but on the soil that contains the roots. When the earth above the roots has been allowed to become too dry, the gardener sometimes sets the whole pot, earth and roots, in a pail of water until the soil has become thoroughly wet. Two pots of the same size and shape may be taken, one having a plant growing in the soil and the other containing only soil. Then place them side by side and water the soil in both with the same amount of water. It will be observed that the soil in which the plant is growing will become dry much more quickly than the soil having no plant. If we could examine the drains coming from under two fields having the same kind of soil, one having little or nothing grow- ing upon it and the other having a heavy crop, such as roots, corn or hay, we would see that much more water drains away from the bare field than from the field bearing a crop. Perhaps you have noticed a bulb or a slip from some rapidly- growing plant being started in a vase or glass bottle filled with water. If you take two glass bottles of the same size and fill both with water and place a growing plant slip in one, you will notice that the water in the one having the plant slip will dis- appear more rapidly than the water in the other bottle. Some- times it can be shown even more clearly by placing a few large white flowers, such as lilies or chrysanthemums, in water that has been colored red or blue. After a while some red or blue color will appear in the flowers. We conclude from the above that the water passes into the plant by way of the roots. How DOES THE WATER GET OUT ? It is quite evident that there is not room in the plant to hold all that goes in. Wher- ever we cut into a living plant we find it damp and the cells 14 AGRICULTURE. filled up, so that as water is constantly going in by way of the roots, it must be passing out by some way. When the soil becomes very dry and the plants, as we say, suffer from drouth, the first place where we observe the effect is in the leaves. These droop and wilt and lose their freshness, and soon after watering they become fresh-looking again. Let us take a clear bottle and wipe it out so as to have it perfectly clear, clean and dry on the inside. Then we carefully place it over the branch of a growing plant so as to have the bottle pretty well filled with leaves. We leave it there, fastened up securely, for a time ; after a while we observe a fine film on the inside of the bottle. When we take it off we notice that the bottle is damp on the inside, some water has been depos- ited upon it from the leaves. We observe the same kind of a film on a piece of looking-glass when we breathe upon it. In fact, we can take a piece of dry looking-glass and fasten it to a plant leaf and get a faint film of moisture from the leaf as from our breath. Further, if we try first the upper side of the leaf and then the under, we shall find that the moisture comes almost entirely from the under side. We conclude, then, that the water passes out by the leaves and principally from the under surface. If we had a microscope, that is ail instrument for making small things appear large, we could examine the two sides of the leaf of any plant, and then we would observe that on the under side there are a great many little mouths, or pores, or openings whereby the water can pass out, and that these are drawn up smaller as the air becomes drier so as to prevent too great loss of water. Each of these mouths or pores is called a " stoma," and when we speak of two or more we call them " stomata." We have called these mouths or pores ; they are openings through which the plant breathes, and they are generally on the under side of the leaf, several hundred or several thousand on every leaf. In the case.of such a plant as the water lily, whose THE PLANT AND WATER. large round leaves lie flat on the surface of the water, the stomata or mouths of the leaves *^^> / are found to be on the upper side. Why has nature made this change ? Animals soon suffer from thirst, although they have some water in nearly every kind of food that they eat. But plants require water quite as much. There is nothing so important in connec- tion with plant growth as having a proper supply of water not too much and not too little. When the rains come at the right time and in the right quantities, nearly every soil bears good Fi s- i3--Undersideof leaf. A shows the mouths or stomata with small crops : where no rains fall we find ha r n leaf at h - B is L a section, showing stoma or mouth at s, the a desert. air space is at a, and g is a guard cell which opens and closes the mouth or stoma. CONCLUSIONS : 1. Water is found in all plants and in all parts of living plants at all seasons of the year. 2. Water is necessary for the life and growth of plants. 3. Water goes into the plants through the hairy rootlets at the tips of the fresh roots and passes out through the thousands of tiny mouths on the under side of the leaves. 4. The mouths or breathing pores are called stomata. These open wider as the air becomes damp and partially close as the air becomes dry. SUGGESTIVE : What gives rigidity and firmness to a geranium leaf? Which contains proportionately the more water, an apple leaf or nn apple twig? 1 6 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER IV. THE PLANT AND THE SOIL. THE POWER OF WATER TO DISSOLVE SUBSTANCES. If we drop a little common salt into a glass of water, it will disappear from sight ; but if we taste the water we find that it is salty the salt has been dissolved in the water. If we pour out the salty water into a saucer, and set it in a warm place, the water will gradually become less and less, and we shall soon see the white salt reappear as a fine white crust. We know now that salt is soluble in water. If we keep on adding salt to the water in the glass we shall find that after a while no more salt will be dissolved, but what we add will remain un- dissolved in the bottom of the glass. We conclude, therefore, that the water can dissolve a certain amount of salt and no more that there is a limit to the power of the water to dissolve the salt. We can make the same trial or experiment with other substances, such as sugar, saltpetre, etc. But all substances are not soluble. If we place some sand in the glass of water it will not dissolve. If we stir up some road dust in a glass of clean water, the water will at once be- come dirty ; but after a while the dirt will settle and the water clear up. Sometimes when we examine salt by putting a little in water we find a small quantity of hard, gritty substance set- tling at the bottom undissolved this is not salt, but an impurity in the salt. If there were any sand in the sugar it would not dissolve. A nail will not dissolve in the water, though it can be more or less dissolved if there is a little acid in the water. If we take a handful of hardwood ashes and stir them up in a bowl of water, a large portion will settle to the bottom undia THE PLANT AND THE SOIL. 17 solved, but the water will feel and taste soapy. There is evidently something soluble in wood ashes, and also some- thing insoluble. If we take coal ashes instead of wood ashes, we shall find that there is little or nothing soluble in the coal ashes. It is evident, therefore, that wood ashes contain much more soluble matter than coal ashes. This soluble matter is food for plants. If we take a piece of limestone and pour water upon.it we shall find that little or no change takes place ; but if we use a little weak acid (even vinegar will have some effect), we find that the limestone will dissolve. If, in- stead of limestone, we take freshly-burnt lime quick-lime we find that the water will take up some of the lime, as we can tell by tasting it. We conclude that some substances are quickly soluble in water, some slowly soluble, some insoluble, and that weak acids will have the effect of dissolving some substances, such as lime- stone and iron, that do not dissolve in water alone. Further, we find that water can dissolve only a certain quantity of any substance that its power of dissolving is limited ; and when the water evaporates or passes off into the air, the substances, such as salt, sugar, and lime, that were dissolved in it, reappear as salt, sugar, and lime. If we pour milk through a fine strainer, the milk all passes through, and the dirt that was not dissolved remains behind. If we stir up some hardwood ashes in a glass of water and then pour it through a very fine strainer, we find the undis- solved ashes remain behind, and the water that passes through is soapy in taste. We conclude that the substances dissolved in the water go along with the water wherever it passes in the liquid form. Take a clean unglazed earthen flower pot ; stop up the hole in the bottom, fill it with water, and throw into the water a handful of salt. Allow the pot to stand undisturl>ed. After a while a deposit will appear on the outside of the pot. Taste it, it is salty. Explain. 1 8 AGRICULTURE. How MINERAL FOOD GETS INTO THE PLANT. We have before learned that water goes into the plant through the roots and passes out by the leaves ; there must therefore be a movement of the water through the plant ; and we thus conclude that the water can carry along with it into the plant, and through it, some substances taken up in solu- tion from the soil, that is, that it will take into the plant whatever it finds in the soil that can be dissolved. This is not quite the case, for the roots appear to have the power, in large measure, of taking up the substances that the plant requires ; the roots have a certain amount of what may be called " selective " power. One thing more may be mentioned in connection with the taking in of food by the roots; there is a small amount of weak acid found in the ends of the roots, so that wherever the fine, hairy rootlets come into contact with the soil they are helped by this weak acid to dissolve small quantities of material that the water alone, without this acid, could not take up. It is because of this that we frequently find the marks of plant roots on the face of hard rocks, showing where the roots by their acids have eaten out some of the rock. When we burn wood in the stove we have left what is called the ashes. If we burn up some straw, or grain, in fact any kind of a plant, we have left some ashes. This ash is earthy in nature. Sometimes it is called the " mineral matter " of the plant. It has all gone into the plant by way of the roots, dis- solved in the water of the soil. When this ash or mineral matter is taken apart and examined by a chemist, it is found to contain such substances as compounds of lime, soda, and potash. From 100 pounds of plants taken, we get one to five pounds of ash or mineral matter; we therefore say, that the ash or mineral matter forms from one to five per cent, of the whole plant, and it has all come from the soil. The mineral matter of the soil, after being dissolved in the THE PLANT AND THE SOIL. 1C) water of the soil, passes into the plant, is carried by the circulation of the sap to all parts, and is used in helping to build up the various parts of the plant. When matter gets into the plant in this way that is not required, some of it may be- come deposited in various parts of the plant, but much of it is carried to the outside of the leaf and of the bark, and left there as the water evaporates. In the case of some plants, more mineral matter is taken up from the soil than the sap can hold in solution, and some of the salts are found in a solid form in the little sacs or cells of which the plant is made up. These are often seen by a magnifying glass or microscope in the form of crystals either in the cells or in the walls of the cells. CONCLUSIONS : 1. The water of the plant comes from the water of the soil, hence the importance of rains. 2. All of the mineral or ash material of the plant comes from the soil, being carried into the plant in solution through the roots. 3. The mineral matter is carried to all parts of the plant in the circulation of the sap. 4. Some of the mineral matter that is not needed by the plant is given off from the outside of the leaves and through the bark. 5. It is very important to have the mineral or ash material required by the plant in as soluble a form as possible in the soil, hence the importance of good cultivation and of proper fertilizing or manuring. AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER V. THE PLANT AND THE AIR. THE COMBUSTIBLE PART OF A PLANT. When we dry any plant thoroughly, we drive off the water that it contains ; when we burn up this dried portion, we have left the ash. But what about the portion that has been burned up ? What was it and where did it come from ? All plants contain fibre woody fibre as we may now call it ; this has been burned up. Some plants, such as sugar beets, sugar cane, and corn, contain some sugar. Other plants, such as potatoes, contain a large quantity of starch. In burning, all the fibre, starch, and sugar are burned up. Then such seeds as flaxseed and cotton seed contain oil. There are other substances, also, that we should know. For instance, if we chew a few grains of wheat, we find after a short time a small quantity of a gummy sub- stance remaining in the mouth it is called gluten. Then you all know that from many different fruits a beautiful clear sub- stance is got by boiling, known as jelly. Perhaps we have mentioned enough fibre, starch, sugar, oil, gluten, jelly substances all these and many others similar to them are found in plants. They do not pass off when the water evapor- ates, nor are they left behind in the ash. They are all con- sumed or burnt up when the plant is burned. What do they consist of? In burning any plant slowly, the first thing that you notice is that the plant becomes black charred ; and by very slowly burning it we can turn it into a black mass that we call charcoal, somewhat like coal in appearance. This black color is given to it because of the carbon which it contains. If we could put some of this THE PLANT AND THE AIR. 21 charred plant into a strong iron vessel, having only one small open pipe leading from it, we would find that there were gases coming away that would burn with a flame ; and when you are further advanced in the study of chemistry you will be able to prove that these gases contain, besides carbon, another substance also, called hydrogen. In addition to these two, carbon and hydrogen, both of which will burn in the air, there are in the plant small quan- tities of nitrogen and sulphur and some oxygen. All of this cannot be proved by you at present, but you will now have to accept the statement that these parts of the plant that are burned up contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur in varying quantities. The chemist, for shortness, refers to them often simply by the first letters, thus : C H O N S. WHAT THE PLANT GETS FROM THE AIR. The next question is as to where these elements came from and when they got into the plant. If they came from the soil they must have been contained either in the water or in the salts or mineral matter carried in through the roots. Water is a compound of only two substances, hydrogen and oxygen. Two of them, then, may have come from the rains and soil water. The sulphur and the nitrogen may have come from the soil in part or in whole, for we sometimes find soluble com- pounds of sulphur in the soil, and also compounds of nitrogen. But the carbon which is found in such large quantity does not come from the water, nor from the mineral matter of the soil. There is only one other source, and that is the atmos- phere, or, as we say, the air. If the carbon comes from the air, we at once conclude that it gets into the plant through the leaves. And how wonderfully well supplied is every plant with leaves for taking in food from the air ! The air is a mixture of gases. Coal and charcoal are almost pure carbon, so that we think of carbon as being a solid. And 22 AGRICULTURE. so it is. But in the air there is a gas called carbonic acid gas. It is formed wherever carbon is burned. The carbon unites with the oxygen gas of the air and forms a compound, a gas, that is called carbonic acid gas. This is the source from which the plant gets its carbon. There is only a very small quantity of this carbonic acid gas in the air, but the plants have a large number of leaves and they are broad and thin, and the air is moving more or less all the time, so that the plant has no difficulty in getting all the carbon that it requires. The carbonic acid gas of the air goes in through the leaves ; the plant takes up the carbon for its own use and sets free the oxygen gas with which the carbon was united. Just here we might mention that all animals are constantly breathing out carbonic acid gas from their lungs, and that when too much of it is present the animals will be smothered. We feel the effect of it when shut up in a close room. Plants take up this carbonic acid gas, keep the carbon and set free the oxygen, so that plants are constantly purifying the air for animals, and animals are constantly producing car- bonic acid gas to feed the plants. Nature has in this way made plants and animals dependent upon each other. The starch of potatoes, the sugar of beets, the jelly of cur- rants and apples, the oil of flaxseed and the fibre of flax and of all parts of plants are made up entirely of the three elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C H and O). . The plants get all the carbon from the air, and the hydrogen and oxygen can all be got from water, which, as we have said, is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, so that starch, sugar, jelly, oil and fibre are made up by the plant from what comes from water and the air. When a farmer sells from his farm sugar or butter (oil) or fibre he is selling what in the first place came from the rain and the air, and thereby he does not rob the soil so much as when he sells grain or hay, since these contain mineral or soil material. THE PLANT AND THE AIR. 23 We have said that the quantity of carbonic acid gas in the air is very small ; there are only three parts in every ten thou- sand parts by volume. The air, or atmosphere, is made up almost entirely of nitrogen and oxygen, mixed together, not united, in the proportion of about four to one ; that is, in every one hundred volumes of air there are nearly eighty parts of nitrogen to a little over twenty parts of oxygen. In addition, there are very small quantities of other gases, such as ammonia, but we need not refer to these here. The facts now to be fixed in the memory are that the plant, through the leaf, does not take up the nitrogen and oxygen which are in such large quantities, but does take up carbon from the carbonic acid gas which exists in such small quantities, and from this carbon, along with the elements of water, it builds up the larger portion of its entire structure. How it does this is largely a mystery. CONCLUSIONS : 1. Besides the water and the mineral matter of the plant, which come in through the roots, there are in plants large quantities of such substances as starch, sugar, oil, and gluten. 2. All of these substances contain caibon. 3. This carbon comes from the carbonic acid gas of the air. 4. Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbonic acid gas through their lungs ; plants take in carbonic acid gas and give off oxygen through their leaves. 24 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER VI. STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF THE PLANT. THE SAP. All the water used by the plant enters through the roots, and along with it comes the material that we call the mineral matter, together with the nitrogen that the plants require. The stales and branches form the frame work of the plant its body, so to speak. The leaves give off the water taken in by the roots, and also take up carbon from the carbonic acid gas of the air. Now if the water goes in by the roots and out from the leaves it must move through the plant through the roots to the stalk, thence to the branches, and so on to the leaves. This water contains many substances in solution (sugar, salts, and other things) ; we call it sap, and the movement is called " the circulation of the sap." We have already referred to the fact that a limb will split lengthwise, not across. Sometimes, as in flax and in the inner bark of basswood, we can pull off long fine strings of fibre. These long fibres that run up and down, or lengthwise, are nothing else than strings of little cells, and in circulation the sap passes on through from one to the next. Frequently you see a hollow tree that is alive and thrifty and when you cut across a large tree you notice that the sap is principally in the outer portion. The outer rings of wood are much wetter than the inner or heart wood. We conclude, then, that the sap moves principally up and down through the layers or fibres of the plant near the outside, just under the outer rough bark. The life of the body of the plant is then mainly near the outer bark. When we girdle a tree we are apt to kill it ; we can cut a small nick into it, we can tap it, or we may bruise a piece of the bark, and we do not kill it. Now you see the reason. STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF THE PLANT. 25 WORK OF THE LEAVES. The circulation of the sap brings the water and material taken up from the soil to the leaf, where also is found the carbon taken up from the air. And it is in the green growing leaf that all this material is worked over into such forms as the plant can make use of. The leaves, we may say, are both the lungs of the plant and also the stom- ach. If fire burns the leaves of a tree, or some blight or disease attacks them, or insects devour them, the tree becomes weak and in many cases soon dies. We observe the vitality of any plant in the leaves ; and we should always try to keep the leaves fresh and free from attacks of all kinds. The greenhouse gardener carefully washes the leaves of his valuable plants, and the fruit-grower sprays his trees and bushes for this purpose. When the leaves have worked over all the food from the air and the soil (that is, digested it, as we digest food in the stomach), it is carried away in the sap to all parts of the plant to make root in one place, more leaves in another, to increase the wood in the branches, to form buds, or blossoms, or fruit ; in fact to build up the plant in all its parts. How all this is done and no mistake is made how leaves are formed in one place and roots in another, and buds in another, is, as we have said before, largely a mystery ; just as it is a mystery how hair is formed on your head, teeth in your mouth, and nails upon your fingers. We have another point to notice in regard to the leaves. Cut off several long switches or branches from a willow, a maple, an oak, a spruce, and currant bush. Observe how the leaves are placed. They are not attached by chance. In some cases two leaves grow out from the same part on opposite sides. They are said to be opposite. In others there is first one on one side and then the next above on the other side. They are said to be alternate. Then, if you start with the first leaf and draw a line to the next, and then to the next, 3 26 AGRICULTURE. and so on, you find that the line goes around the branch in a spiral direction. By closely observing all these different branches, you find that in all cases there is a certain definite order of arrangement. Further, you find that just as the leaves of any one kind of tree are nearly alike in outline, so they are all nearly alike as to their form of arrangement. Find out this mode or form of arrangement of leaves on the different trees and shrubs with which you are familiar. When the leaves have done their work they lose their bright green color, turning duller, sometimes brown or almost white, sometimes yellow, sometimes red and many-colored. In the case of one class of trees, such as maples, oaks, etc., they fall off the branches such trees are called deciduous, to distinguish them from the evergreens. But even the evergreens become duller in the fall, and the new growth of the spring is of quite a different green from that of the old growth. THE BUDS. The leaves do not grow into branches or flowers. The buds come every year (in the fall and in the spring) in the angles or " axils " of the leaves or at the ends of the branches, so that the arrangement of the leaves is also the arrangement of the buds. Some buds grow into branches and some into blossoms. When a bud grows at the end of the branch it, of course, by its growth 'lengthens the branch; when it comes on the side, by its growth it forms a side branch. When we " stop " a raspberry bush by pinching off the growth at the end, we cause the side buds and branches to grow out, and thereby make the plant become bushy. If you remove a bud formed in the fall, covered with a waxy substance to protect it in winter, or if you take a bud formed in spring or summer, and carefully open it, you find it is a compact mass of small leaves it is a little branch compressed and packed away ; and the opening of the bud is nothing else than an unfolding of these leaves as they STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF THE PLANT. grow larger. The life of the tree starts the leaves growing, and the buds burst and open up, some to form leaves and branches and some to form blossoms. BLOSSOMS. Let us take a simple blossom like a yellow buttercup. First we find five small leaves arranged around the outside. These form what is called the calyx, and each of these five leaves is a sepal. Just above these are five leaves of bright yellow color forming the corolla, each of which is called 3. petal. Next inside the Fig. 14. Parts of a Blossom, as follows: End of ,, i c stalk or "receptacle "in centre; two leaves or sepa's COrOlla are a number Ot of calyx on outside; then two leaves or petals of little stems or fine stalks, lla : then two stamens : then two pisuls - with tiny balls on their tips covered with fine dust. These are called stamens, and the dust is pollen. Right in the centre are some more little growths called the pistils. This blossom, then, has four parts calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils. If we take a buttercup, we can easily examine the parts by pulling them off one by one, beginning at the outside. FORMING SEED OR FRUIT. What is the use of these four parts? The calyx and corolla are simply two rows of leaves, green and yellow, arranged around the two other parts to protect them. Observe their form in the closed bud. They guard the more valu- able portion, the pistils and stamens, and when their work is done they drop off. The fine dust or pollen from the stamens drops on the top of the pistils. Fig. 15. Stamen and Pistil. Stamen on left showing a, the stalk, and b, the head, covered with pollen dust. Pistil on right showing t, the stigma on which the pollen falls; 6 the style, and d the ovary containing the seeds, a. AGRICULTURE. Fig. 16. Complete Blossom, having calyx, corolla, sta- mens, and pistils. Sometimes the wind blows it over ; sometimes the insects carry it on their bodies and legs. As soon as the pollen reaches the upper end of the pistils, growth starts within the pistil, beginning at the top (the stigma) and continuing down through the fine stem (the style) until it reaches the main inner part (the ovary). It is in this part of the blossom that the seed is formed. Figures 14 and 15, showing the different parts of a blossom taken apart, will help to understand what takes place. To form seed, then, the pollen from the stamens must reach the pistils. In some plants we have them side by side in the one blossom, in other plants some blossoms have only stamens and others only pistils. In this latter case the pollen must be carried by the wind, or by insects, such as bees, as they go from flower to flower. forms in the ovary of the blossom after the pollen has fallen from the stamens upon the pistils. Compare the flowers of the apple with those of the cherry, and the Cowers of the pear with those of the plum. The Seed F 'S- '7 Incomplete or imperfect Blossoms. The upper one has stamens, but no pistils (male blossom); the lower one has pistils, but no sta- mens (female blossom). THE NAMING AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 29 CHAPTER VII. THE NAMING AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. The many millions of human beings in the world may be arranged in classes or great families. Sometimes the basis of classification is their color ; thus we have the white race, the black race, ,the red race, etc. The white race, also, may be divided in various ways. For instance, we speak of the English-speaking people, the French people, the German people, etc. The Indians are divided into tribes. These classifications are based on color, height, form of body, language, and certain habits or characteristics. In a similar manner it is advisable to arrange the great plant world into groups or classes all those somewhat alike in one class, all others some- what alike in another class, and so on. To these various classes names must be given. These names are what we call the scientific or botanical names. They are not always much like our common names of plants. The common names may vary in different places, but the botanical names must be the same the world over. The botanical names are not so familiar to us as the common names, hence they appear to be very difficult ; but in studying plants, in naming them, and in re- ferring to text books on botany, it is necessary to become more or less familiar with them. How are we to study a plant, to describe it, to know the plant referred to in any botanical work ? How are we to identify any plant ? There are the four parts the roots, the stem, the leaves and the blossoms. The leaves really include those parts which we call the blossoms or flowers, as these are made up of changed leaves ; but for the present we may say 30 AGRICULTURE. that these are the four parts named. In studying or describing any plant, therefore, we find out the nature or make-up of its root, stem, leaves and blossom. In regard to the root, for instance, we observe whether it is tap-rooted or fibrous. We note the color and form of the stem. We observe the shape of the leaves and their arrangement on the branches. In the blossom we note the form, number and arrangement of the sepals or parts of the calyx, and of the petals or parts of the corolla; also the number, form and arrangement of the stamens and pistils. If we carefully observe a buttercup and a marsh-marigold we find that in the main they closely resemble each other, yet there are differences in their form and they grow in different locations. Meadow rue, columbine, anemone and hepatica also have a strong family resemblance to these two plants. These are all classed together in one great order or family known as the Ranunculacea or crowfoot family. The wild mustard of our grain fields and the weeds shep- herd's purse and pennycress are classed in another order or family known as the Cruciferiz, so called because of the arrangement of the four petals forming a cross-like corolla. The blossoms of the field pea, sweet pea, bean, clover and locust tree are much alike. These are all classed in one family the Leguminosce or legume family. Compare the blossoms and leaves of the apple, pear, plum, cherry, strawberry and hawthorn with the wild or single rose. They all belong to one family the Rosacecz or rose family. The carrot and the parsnip form a cluster of flowers in form called an umbel, hence these belong to the family Umbelliferce. In many common plants we have the flowers in a dense or thick head like the blossom of a field daisy or of a sunflower. The thistles, burdocks, everlasting, golden rod, aster, yarrow, dandelion and lettuce are other members of the same family the composite family, or Composites. NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. ' 31 PART II. CHAPTER VIII. NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. All the plants grown upon the farm or in the garden grow in the soil; even those that appear to be growing in streams and marshes have their roots in the soil beneath the water. Sometimes we see plants grown in water only in the house or greenhouse, but most of those found there are grown in pots filled with soil. The plants found on the surface of rocks and on old rail fences are of a low, simple order. We may then conclude that most of the plants that we are now familiar with require soil, and we therefore shall study for a while the soil, its nature, its origin, and its improvement. KINDS OF SOIL. Sandy soil is made up principally of sand. If we take a handful of dry sand we find that it consists of small hard grains that are easily mixed together. If we moisten it, it will cling together and can be moulded into various forms, but when it dries the particles all fall 'apart into fine sand as before. Then there is clay of various colors, sometimes red, sometimes almost white, sometimes nearly blue. If we moisten it we can mould it, but when it dries it keeps its shape and becomes hard. We readily see the difference. When we walk over wet sandy soil and wet clayey soil, the former, when dry, readily rubs off our boots, the latter sticks. Sand is used for making moulds in the foundry and clay is used for making models by the artist; the 32 AGRICULTURE. former readily falls apart after being taken out of the boxes and can be used again, and the latter when moulded and worked keeps its shape as it dries. Make two sets of objects (such as balls, cubes, cups, vases or simple figures of small animals), one set from wet sand and one set from clay. Place them in the sun or near the stove and observe the effect of drying. We see that sand as it dries does not stick together, and clay as it dries does stick together and also sticks to other objects. We now understand how it is that wet clay is sticky ; it clings to the plow and the harrow and to the feet of the horses and is hard or heavy to work. Sandy soil is said to be light and clay soil to be heavy, not because of their weight, but be- cause the former is easily worked and the latter is harder to work. If we watch closely the drying out of the two sets of objects that we have moulded we shall observe further that the sand dries out more quickly than the clay; the latter holds on to the water longer. Clay soils are usually wet soils ; they are more apt to have water in them than sandy soils. The third class of soils is usually dark in color, from light brown to dense black, such as are found in the woods where leaves and branches have decayed, and in low pastures and swampy places. This soil is made up of the refuse of leaves, branches and roots of plants. Sometimes we can see pieces of half-decayed or rotten plants ; sometimes there are very slight traces of the original form of the plants. This soil has, how- ever, all come from former plants. We call such a soil a vegetable soil, and this dark colored loose material formed from the decay of vegetable matter is called humus. Notice how it differs from both sand and clay. It is light in weight and easily worked and it holds water readily. Place a handful of swamp muck or leaf mould (humus) on an iron fire- shovel and carefully set it upon the burning coals. It dries out, then burns away until only a small quantity of ash is left. Place some wet sand on the shovel and heat, and then a little wet clay. What is the result ? NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. 33 These, then, are the three principal parts of soils sand, clay, and humus, but in many cases we find them mixed together or one above the other. If sand is the principal part of the soil we call it a sandy soil ; if clay, a clay soil, and if humus or muck, a vegetable soil. A loam soil contains a mix- ture of sand and clay with some humus, and such a soil is usually best fitted for growing most of the crops of the farm. ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. We already know where the humus or vegetable matter has come from, and, as it was formerly parts of plants, we conclude at once that it must contain some material for feeding new plants. But where did the sand and the clay come from ? Perhaps you have never before asked that question, thinking that the clay and the sand were always in the field in that form. This, however, is not the case, although they may have been there for many years, perhaps for hundreds of years, perhaps for thousands. Why do we say that they have not been there for all time ? Well, if we go to the shore of a large lake we see fresh sand being washed up day by day by the waves. If we go to the banks and mouth of a large river, or even of a small stream, we see sand and clay and vegetable matter being washed down, carried away, and spread out to form new layers of soil. If we go to the face of a high rocky cliff we can see the great rocks being gradually broken down and changed into piles of coarse stone, and later into finer material, and still later into sand and clay. But if we can go to a range of mountains or high hills we shall see more clearly the change of great rocks into fine soil. Under our soil we find solid rock. In some places the rock is at the surface, and we can see it becoming weathered and rotten. The outer surface is softer than the interior. In other places the rock is just under the surface. In some places we have to go very deep to find the rock, but it is always there, to be found if we only go deep enough. All of our sand and 34 AGRICULTURE. clay have come from these old rocks, sand from one kind of rock, white clay from another kind of rock, blue clay from another. The nature of the soil will therefore depend largely upon the nature of the rock from which it came. This sand or clay may have come from the break- ing up of the rocks that are to be found just under the soil ; in that case the soil is likely to be shal- low. But usually it Fig. 18 Soil formed from rock underneath, a soil has COme from with grass growing in it ; b subsoil, coarser and more rocky ; c coarse, loose rock; d rock in layers, at 3. distance, a lonf cracked, d changes to c, c changes to b, and b to a. distance it may be, and has been carried to its present place by water and ice, and spread out over the old rocks. In this latter case the soil may be very deep and mixed. We can now explain why the ; soil ^n some places is quite different in its nature from the rocks under it, and why there is such a variety in the same locality and on the same farm. One field may be clayey, and across a stream we may find a sandy soil they have come from different places, and have been washed down by the waters and spread out at quite different times. A step farther back can now be taken. We go to the hills - to the great piles of rock. We observe that the old rock is weathered. If we break off a piece, the fresh surface shows a different appearance from the old weathered surface ; it is generally harder. We can rub off some of the old weathered surface ; what we rub off is the weathered rock fine sand or fine clay. We observe long cracks or crevices, some narrow and fine ; some wide and deep. The rains find their way into NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE SOIL. 35 these cracks and fill them up. Then winter comes on and the water in the cracks freezes. What will happen then ? Just what happens when the barrel of rain water freezes, or the down pipes on the house freeze solid, or the bottles of canned fruit in the cellar freeze. There will be a bursting. And even though the quantity of water is small, it must expand, the rocks must give to make room for it. The cracks are made larger, a little of the surface is broken away, or a huge shoulder of the rock is burst off. Gradually, year by year, the rocks are thus broken up by the frost, the atmos- phere wears them away, and the rains wash them down. The rocky cliffs are slowly broken down, and the ice, as it slowly moves down the sides of the mountain, scrapes and scratches off more and more. This Sad bearing -pvrti&i, Fie. IQ Soil formed from hill rock at a distance, a is solid rock of a hill or mountain. Kock at c has l>een broken off by rain and frost and thrown down to foot of bill ; coarsest rock lies in heaps forming soilless pirtio i ; finer rock has been carried further down where some plants, as trees and grass, grow. Finest soil IS being washed into the stream to be carr ed away aiid spread out, farming layers of soil more or less level, on which crops are grown. material is washed away the larger pieces but a short dis- tance, the smaller pieces further, and the finest sand and clay carried far away, to be dropped or spread out somewhere to make soil. Seeds are dropped by the birds or blown by the winds ; some plants sprout, grow, die and decay, and form a 36 AGRICULTURE. little humus. More plants grow and more humus is formed, until out of the material that came from the hard tough rocks and the decay of roots and leaves a fine soil is formed, sandy in one place, clayey in another, and loamy in another. CONCLUSIONS : 1. All our soils have come from the breaking down of rocky material and the decay of former plants. 2. Soils may be classed as follows : Sandy, clay, loam, and vegetable or humus soils. 3. The texture of the soil depends upon the amount of sand, clay, and humus mixed together forming it. 4. The nature of the soil depends to a large extent upon the nature of the rocks out of which the sand and the clay have been formed. 5. The rocks have oeen broken up by the action of the air, the freezing of the rain-water in the rocks, the grinding of ice, and the downrush of rains and streams. 6. Some soils have been carried about from one place to another, and spread out by ice, snow, streams, and even to some extent by the wind. 7. Some soils have been formed out of the rocks beneath them, and from the decay of plants growing upon them. 8. Some soils, such as swamp soils, have been formed almost entirely from the decay of plants. SUGGESTIVE : \Yhatclassofplantsaremostusefulin improving the soil, those with shallow growing roots or those having deep growing roots ? Have you observed any difference between the roots of clover and of timothy ? TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. 37 CHAPTER IX. TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. WEATHERING. If we leave a piece of iron exposed to the damp air it soon becomes rusty ; if we keep it in a dry place or put it under water so that the air cannot reach it, it will not become rusty so soon. Vegetables left in a damp cellar, or thrown out on the ground, soon decay. Pieces of wood, if left long enough, will rot and decay, first becoming brown and later on crumbling to a fine, black substance, the same as the humus of the soil. Harder substances, such as bones, will in time decay and wear away. An old brick when picked up is found to have lost its sharp corners and edges and to have be- come smaller than when first made. As we examine object after object, we find that there are very few things that do not become changed through the effect of the air, dew, rain, frost, snow, and ice. In a previous chapter we have referred to the oxygen and the carbonic acid gas of the air. These are the two substances in the air that cause many of the changes rotting the stumps, charring old leaves and roots and branches, wearing away the boulders in the field, and dissolving lime out of the rocks. If you thrust a stick into the coals it will catch fire and burn. Blow out the blaze and you have a charred stick. If you throw another stick of the same kind out on the ground, or bury it just under the soil, after many months it will be found to become brown and then almost black it has become charred also, but it has taken a long time. The oxygen of thj air has burnt up some of it in both cases. If we go to an old ,'J(i. r >44O 38 AGRICULTURE. limestone bridge where the rains beat upon it, we notice that where the water trickles down, some of the limestone has been washed out, and, in some places, long stone " icicles " have formed. The limestone has been dissolved out by the car- bonic acid in the water. Water in the soil contains some carbonic acid, and the air contains carbonic acid gas ; so that we have in this an explanation of the hollowing out of caves in limestone rocks, the breaking down of limestone cliffs, and the rapid changes that take place in limy soils. EFFECTS OF DRAINING. We take up a handful of vegetable soil swamp muck, for instance, or wood mold it is easily ground up between the fingers ; there does not appear to be much rocky or sandy material in it. If we shake it up in a bottle of water, we find that the water becomes more or less brown in color ; some of the substance has dissolved, but only a little. In order to get this material into a soluble form, the air must be allowed to work upon it. But the air cannot get into it unless it is drained. Take two tin cans or tight boxes ; fill one with wet muck from an un- drained, swampy field, and fill the other with dry leaf mold. Plant a few seeds of the same kind in each, and observe how much better the dry, well -aired leaf mold is for the growing of valuable farm plants than the wet swamp muck. Wet, swampy soil needs first to be drained and then to be well worked over, so that the air can get in through it to weather it There is another reason for letting the air into the wet, swampy soil, and that is, it will sweeten it. Vegetable soils that are watec-logged are sour, or acid ; and seeds will not sprout nor plants grow well in sour soils. The air contains some ammonia, and this, when it gets into the soil, changes it from a sour to what we may call a sweet soil it takes the sourness out of it If a little lime be scattered over the drained soil, this sweetening will be hastened. Then, again, wet, swampy soils are usually cold, because of the water that they contain. When we wish to cool a room on TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. 39 a hot day, we sprinkle the floor with water. As this water evaporates, or passes off into the air, the floor becomes cooler, and that cools the air above it. We may look upon a swampy field as a great room, the floor of which is the soil. If the soil is kept wet, the floor of this field will be kept cold. Water is not easily warmed up or heated. A dry soil, or a soil well drained, is warmed up by the sun more easily than a wet, undrained soil. If you place a cup (stoneware) of water, a cup of wet sand, and a cup of dry sand on the top of a warm stove, you will find that the dry sand be- comes hot much more rapidly than the wet sand, and the wet sand much more rapidly than the water. Again, if you wish to heat a pan of water, or to boil the kettle, you place it over the fire, not beside the stove, nor under the stove. The sun is the fire that heats up the soil and the water in it, and it is above, so that the effect of heating the water in the soil is very small. We have, then, three reasons why the presence of too much water in the soil keeps the soil cold. We must get the water out of the soil by drainage, so that we can thoroughly work the surface of the soil ; so that the air can get into the soil to sweeten it and help the decay of the humus ; and, also, so that the soil can become warmed up early in spring for the sprouting of seeds and the early growth of the plant. All that has been said here in regard to humus, or mucky soils, applies also to sandy, loam, and clay soils, except that sandy soils are not so much in need of special drainage in most cases they drain themselves. The clay soils, when well drained, do not bake upon the surface as they dry out, and they are much more easily worked. The stickiness of clay can be somewhat overcome by the use of lime. If you shake up some clay in a lx>ttle of water, and then throw in some finely powdered lime, you will ol>serve a peculiar efTect upon the fine clay it will become flaky or coagulated and the water will clear up. The thorough drainage of clay soils, then, is most important 40 AGRICULTURE. to get the water out and to let the air in. Then thorough working should follow. The soil is plowed up in ridges in the field, every furrow straight and clean cut, glistening in the sun like metal in many places. But when the frost has torn it to pieces during the winter, we find a great improvement in the texture of it in the spring. The good effects of plowing and harrowing will not appear on most clay soils unless the land is first thoroughly drained. Drain the soil and let the air work for you, breaking up the coarse particles in winter and working over the particles in summer into soluble form for plant food. Perhaps you do not realize how much of the soil is still rocky and needs to be worked over. Take a deep bottle of clear water, and drop a handful of soil into it ; shake it up a little, then take a small stick and slowly stir it. The heaviest pieces will settle at the bottom, the smaller above, and the lightest on top. Notice, now, how much coarse, stony material there is in this soil. Place a little sand, clay, or loam soil under a good magni- fying glass, such as is used for examining grain. The soil looks like a pile of small stones. And that is just what it is a mix- ture of fine stones with vegetable matter or humus in it. These small pieces of stone came from the great masses of rock on the hillside. How did they come to be so broken up and worked over ? The air got at them, and the dews, and the rain, and the frost. Then if we open up the under-soil by under-drainage, and thoroughly open up the surface soil by tillage and cultivation, the air and the rain and the dew and the frost will go on working over these fine stony particles, forming soluble matter that can go in through the roots and feed the plant. Thorough drainage and thorough tillage these are the two main points in improving all soils. They are even more im- portant than manuring. This word manure is the same as manoeuvre, which means to "work by hand;" the draining of the soil and the tilling are means of fertilizing or manuring. TILLING AND DRAINING THE SOIL. 4! Did you ever notice how large a plant the flower grower produces in a small pot of earth ? Examine the pot ; it is porous, and has a hole in the bottom. The soil is well-drained and the air can get in among the roots that have grown so thickly all around next to the pot close to the places where the air can come in. CONCLUSIONS: Plowing, digging, harrowing, and other means of tilling the surface soil have the following effects : 1. The coarse soil is broken into finer particles. 2. The soil is mixed, rich and poor, fine and coarse. 3. The air is allowed to get into the soil. 4. Growing weeds are killed. Weed seeds are first started growing and then the young weed plants are killed. 5. Insects and their eggs are disturbed and destroyed. 6. Well-tilled soils do not suffer from drouth so much as uncultivated soils. Draining the soil has the following effects : 1. Standing water is taken out of the soil ; plants will not grow in stagnant water or in sour soils. 2. Cold soils become warmer and can be planted early. 3. The rains can go into the soil, instead of running over the soil and washing away the fine surface soil. 4. The air can get into the sub-soil, and thus rapidly work it over into matter available for plants. 5. The plants root deeper, thereby having more soil from which to get food, and a better chance to withstand drouth. How is water held in the soil ? What is free water? Is the plant benefited by the presence of large quantities of free water ? The remedy is a good system of drainage. What is understood by capillary water ? What kinds of soils contain most water in this form ? What effect has deep plowing in the spring, followed by frequent shallow cultivation during summer, upon this source of water supply? What is the effect of an earth mulch, and how is it secured ? 42 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER X. IMPROVING THE SOIL. c Feed the soil if you would have the soil feed you." EXHAUSTING THE SOIL. Sometimes we see a very heavy crop of corn, oats, barley or roots grown in the open field. In such cases we generally find that there is a good soil, well-drained, and that the season has been very favorable. As a rule, how- ever, we find much larger crops grown in the garden of the farmer, and still larger grown in the little plot of the market gardener. The flower grower, however, produces still heavier crops in his small pots and neat beds. If we observe closely we find that the amount of the crop, its size or weight, and its value, increase in proportion as the soil is well-drained, well- tilled, well-cleaned, and well-fertilized. If we neglect or decrease the draining and cultivating, the cleaning and the enriching, we know the crop will grow less year by year. When the trees were first cut down and the fields partially cleared large crops were grown ; the soil was new (virgin soil as we say); it contained a large amount of leaf mold that had been accumulating for centuries. On many (arms larger crops were once grown among the stumps than are now grown on the cleared field. Then the stumps were burned out, and the ashes, rich in potash and lime, further improved the soil. In some cases the fields have been well-drained and well-cultivated, and year by year the fields have been fertilized or manured. Such farms are still very productive. But we all know what are called run- down farms, that will not now produce heavy crops of grain or hay ; they were once the same as the first-class farms, they had the same start. Why the change ? Year after year hay and IMPROVING THE SOIL. 43 grain were grown and taken away from the soil and nothing was put back. These crops took up the plant food out of the soil. The rich soil has become poor. If you put a thousand dollars in the bank and then begin to draw out a hundred dollars every year and put nothing in, you will one day use up all of your money your bank account will become less and less, and you will become poor. So with the soil. There is a limited amount of plant food in the soil, and even though you drain and work it well, if year by year you take away from it and put nothing back your soil will in time become poor. Some soils are richer than others and therefore will not become run down so soon. Now let us consider the method of preventing good soils from becoming poor and of making poor soils richer. FALLOWING THE SOIL. In former years, before the great prairies were open to settlers, the farmers of Ontario and the Eastern States grew wheat as their principal market crop. Its price in many years was more than one dollar a bushel. The usual practice was to prepare the land for fall wheat by a bare faltuw. The soil was allowed to lie idle or unproductive for the whole or the greater part of the season preceding the sowing. It was plowed from time to time and harrowed. What benefit did that tilling bring ? The rains fell and washed down a little material out of the air. This will be seen if you contrast rain water with clear spring water the former has been changed, something has been taken out of it by the soil, and something else given to it by the soil. The soil is bene- fited by rain water passing through it. Then some ammonia might get into the soil from the air. Nothing of a solid mineral nature, however, such as potash, or soda, or lime, or phosphates could get into the soil from the air, simply because they are not found in the air. But one thing could be done and that was done, namely, the air could get into and through the soil and help weather it and work it over into form avail- able for plant food. Bare fallow, then, does not increase the 44 AGRICULTURE. material of the soil, it merely works over what is in the soil for feeding the plant ; it can not and does not prevent the soil from becoming worked out. Furthermore, there is the loss of one season's crop, and if the soil can be kept in good condition and a crop grown at the same time, all will admit that the latter should be done. In bare fallowing, however, the soil is more or less cleared from weeds when the fallowing is thoroughly done. But weeds can be cleared out by other means than the bare fallow. First of all a cultivated crop can be grown, such as corn or roots the constant cultivating required during early growth will clear out the weeds. Or a crop can be put in that grows quickly and that covers the ground well, such as clover, buckwheat, etc. This smothers or checks the young weeds, and the green growth can be plowed under to decay and form humus. This practice is called green-manuring. In green-manuring there is less water lost by drainage than in bare fallowing and hence less loss of soluble plant food. In addition everything that the plant takes from the air is turned into the soil and the amount of humus is thereby increased. This latter result is very beneficial in loosening up heavy soils and in making light sandy soils more loamy. FERTILIZING THE SOIL. The plant gets some food out of the air through its green leaves ; the water comes from the rains that fall on the soil and pass in through the roots ; the mineral matter or ash comes only from the soil, passing into the plant through the roots along with the water. The air is free for all and is about the same everywhere. The rains and snows are largely beyond the control of man, except as affected by the cutting away or growing of trees, the drainage of the land, and its proper cultivation. But as for the soil food, the mineral substances, the ash compounds these must be in the soil, and in such form that plants can take them up, or else no crop will be produced. This soil food is mainly compounds of nitrogen (nitrates, such as saltpetre or nitrate of potash); IMPROVING THE SOIL. 45 compounds of phosphoric acid or phosphates, such as we find in bones; compounds of potash, such as we find in wood ashes; compounds of lime, of iron, of magnesia, etc., etc. Now the point to be noted here is that the plant must have every one of these compounds, and growth will not take pla'ce if even only one be lacking. Nearly every soil contains lime ; it is a very common substance in rocks and soils, there- fore we do not need to supply that food. Magnesia and iron are quite common, and much of either is not required. When we feed the soil, or fertilize it, we have mainly to consider this whether the soil needs nitrogen, phosphates, or potash. These are the three main constituents of fertilizers, and they largely fix the values of those that are applied. When we apply barnyard manure to a soil, we add a bulky fertilizer that, in addition to increasing the plant food, has an important effect upon the texture of the soil. For instance, light, sandy soils are apt to be poor in plant food, and to be too loose or porous the rain runs through them. You notice that as the barnyard manure becomes older in the pile it becomes darker through changes that we call fermentation. This dark color is due to the changing of the straw or litter into humus ; and when this is applied to the light soil the tex- ture of the soil is improved, the sandy soil becomes more loamy. When applied to clay soil its sticky quality is more or less overcome, and the heavy clay changes towards a loose loam. One of the main benefits of applying barnyard manure to a soil, then, lies in its effect upon the texture or physical quality of the soil. This same effect is produced by green manuring, that is the plowing under of a green growing crop such as clover, tares, rye, or buckwheat The barnyard manure contains compounds of nitrogen, of potash, and also phosphates, so that in it we apply the different kinds of food that plants must get out of the soil. Barnyard manure is called a general or complete fertili/er. 46 AGRICULTURE. Soils differ as to their composition ; some, such as mucky soils, may contain plenty of nitrogen but not enough phosphate or potash. In this case the use of a phosphate such as ground bone, or of potash such as wood ashes, would change a barren soil into a fertile soil. Such a soil as a light-colored clay may require nitrogen compounds to make it complete. Again, a soil may contain plenty of food, but it is locked up, it is unavailable ; that is, it is not soluble or in form ready to be taken up by the plants. If \ve drain and cultivate it so that the air can get in, these will in time be changed into soluble forms. But sometimes we can hurry up or assist in this work, as when we apply land plaster (sulphate of lime) to a soil bearing clover, salt to a root crop or to grain, and quicklime to to a heavy clay or to a fresh mucky soil. The plaster, salt, and lime are not direct foods, but they act upon the constituents of the soil, setting free potash and nitrogen compounds. NITRIFICATION. Wheat and other cereals take up their nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrates. These are sometimes supplied in fertilizers in the form of nitrate of soda. Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is now too expensive to be so used. Humus contains nitrogen, and in its decay forms nitrates, especially nitrate of lime. The change from the insoluble forms of nitrogen in humus to the soluble nitrates is brought about by ferments. These are minute forms of plant life too small to be seen by the eye. Yeast that is used in fermenting dough is a ferment somewhat similar. In order to do their work, these tiny nitrate ferments in the soil require warmth, air, and moisture. Humus, of course, must be pre- sent. If the soil is sour, they will not work. Good drainage and tillage, therefore, assist. The fermentation of the manure pile in the barnyard is brought about by ferments. Green- manuring adds material for making nitrates, and barnyard manure adds not only humus but also the ferments. The making of nitrates in the soil is called nitrification. IMPROVING THE SOIL. 47 CONCLUSIONS : 1. All of our soils were once fresh, unworked, virgin soil. In many cases worn-out soils were once very rich ; they have been made poor by over-cropping and little fertilizing. 2. Many soils have but a small amount of mineral food in a soluble or available form. 3. Bare fallowing is for the purpose of working over the hard, rocky, insoluble portion of the soil into soluble form. This is done by frequent plowing and harrowing, thereby letting the air in. Weeds also are sprouted and afterwards killed. 4. Green-manuring has the same effect, but prevents loss of food through drainage, and increases the humus of the soil. 5. The three substances that are most deficient in the soil are nitrogen compounds, phosphates, and potash. 6. The value of a fertilizer consists not only in the amount of these three substances, but also in their state of solubility. 7. Nitrogen is found in nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, guano, fish refuse, etc.; phosphates in bone manures and rock phosphates ; potash in wood ashes and potash salts. 8. Barnyard manure is a general fertilizer supplying all three constituents. Its value consists largely in its humus. 9. Quicklime, land plaster or gypsum, and salt are valuable as fertilizers, not because they contain plant food, but because they act upon the soil, setting free insoluble plant food. 10. Draining, tilling, and airing the soil are necessary for the nitrification of humus, or the making of nitrates in the soil. SUGGESTIVE : Moisture is necessary for the speedy decomposition of green crops when plowed under. Might a soil be injured for a while by turning under a crop of rye during a dry time ? We have seen that fertilizers must be dissolved before they can be taken up by the plant. What is the effect of pouring water over a pile of manure ? Does not this leaching lessen the value of the manure ? Is it not desir- able, therefore, to prevent this loss by providing a cover for the manure pile? This liquid fertilizer is very valuable. 48 AGRICULTURE. PART III. CHAPTER XI. THE GRASSES. NATURE OF GRASSES. If we carefully lift a slice of green growing sod, we find it is made up of a mat of grass plants. We pull these apart, and find that the roots are all fibrous. If we pull up a wheat plant, we find it also has a fibrous root. So has corn. So has timothy. Next take a stalk of timothy. It is round and smooth on the outside. Cut it open. It is full of narrow tubes running up and down. There are some hard joints in the stem. In the case of a wheat straw you find the stem hollow, except at these joints. Now observe the leaves of the green timothy. They are long and narrow in the blade. Pull this blade and you find that where it meets the stem it is wrapped around it, forming what is called the sheath. The sheath is split down one side and is attached to the stem at one of the joints. Further, notice the little growth on the leaf called a " ligule." The leaf then consists of three parts the blade, the sheath, and the ligule. From the structure of the stem and the form of the leaf you can always tell a true grass from other plants, such as the sedges. By comparing the following plants you will observe that they have the same kind of stems and leaves, and therefore they are all members of the grass family (graminece): the common grasses of the fields, such as timothy, orchard grass, June grass, fescue ; grain-producing crops such as wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn, millet ; sugar-producing crops such as sugar-cane and sorghum. THE GRASSES. 49 Fig. 20 Timothy, also called Herds Grass, a typical hay grass. Figures on right show the blossoming. B is a single spikelet taken from a head or spike. It shows the three stamens and the two stigmas of the pistil. In a blossoming head of timothy these stamens may be seen hanging loose. G is the ovary with two slender styles, /, and two feathered stigmasthe pistils of the blossom. Br is the matured or ripened spike- let with seed inside; A" is the seed. When a grass plant grows tall and produces seed or grain large enough to use as food, we allow it to ripen its seed. We use the seed as grain and the leaf and stem we call straw. When a grass plant grows tall, but produces very small seed, we generally cut it down before it produces seed. We then call this hay. Such grasses are timothy, red-top, orchard grass, the fescues, the foxtails, brome grass, and rye grass. AGRICULTURE. When a grass plant does not grow tall, but grows short and thick, we use such plants for pasture grasses. Such grasses are June grass and Canadian blue grass. Fig. 21. Kentucky blue grass or June grass. A pasture and lawn grass. The best way to study the different grasses is to study them as they are growing ; you will then find out how many there are and how different they are in form of leaf and head, in color, and in their habits of growing. BLOSSOMING OF GRASSES. There is one other point to study in grasses, and that is their blossoming. The blossoming of the corn plant will be referred to in the next chapter. The blossoms of wheat and oats are much like those of timothy, shown in fig. 20. The grass blossoms, generally, are very small and are not very bright in color, we are therefore likely to overlook them ; but every grass plant blossoms before it forms seed. If we allow the timothy to stand too long before THE GRASSES. 5 1 cutting it becomes woody ; but dusty hay is caused by the pollen from the blossoms on the head. Notice, also, that all the blossoms on the timothy head do not come out at the Fig. 22. Illustration showing how some plants reproduce by creeping roots, i, new plant just coming up ; 2, plant before blossoming ; 3, old plant forming seed. June grass and couch grass spread in this way. same time. Some are a little later than others. Because of this we sometimes hear it said that it blossoms twice, but this is not the case. Grasses for hay are generally cut just after blossoming, or just as the seeds begin to form. Clo /er and buckwheat are not true grasses. Why net ? Why are foxtail and red-top so called ? Which grasses have branched tops and which spikes ? What is meant by " seeding-down "? When is this done. Why does not the grass outgrow the grain ? Explain why grasses, such as June grass, arc so common. Why do not wheat and corn spread ? 52 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XII. THE GRAIN CROPS OR CEREALS. The principal grain crops of the farm are wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, buckwheat, and millet, and to these we shall briefly refer. It must be remembered that these crops also may be, and frequently are, cut green and fed to stock before the grain is formed, especially rye, corn and millet. Other crops also are used for soiling, such as clover, peas, and tares or vetches. While the plant is growing it takes in food from the air and the soil. It keeps on increasing in size until in full bloom. Then the seed begins to form from the blossom, and all the material that goes to form the seed is taken up out of the leaf, stem, and root, where it has been stored up. During all this time of seed-forming, very little plant food comes in through the root, so that when the seed is fully formed, the leaves and stalk and root are not so rich or nutritious as they were at the time of blossoming. From this you will see why it is that straw is not so rich a food as hay. WHEAT. Wheat is sometimes classed according to its color, red and white ; sometimes according to its grain, hard and soft; sometimes according to its chaff, beaided and bald; sometimes according to the time it is sown, fall or winter, and spring. We use these four methods in describing any variety of wheat. Where the first wheat came from we do not know ; but wheat taken from one climate to another and from one kind of soil to another will change in size, form, and general appearance, so that we need not expect to find the same variety of wheat always appearing exactly as described. THE GRAIN CROPS OR CEREALS. 53 This we should remember, that wheat, like every other kind of grain, must be carefully selected if we wish to keep it improved. We can even change a winter variety to a spring by sowing gradually earlier year by year; and we can change a spring variety to a fall variety by sowing gradually later year by year. Get a head of bearded wheat ; take it to pieces, and observe the long beards, what they are and how attached. Compare with the beards of a barley head. Are the beards on the grain ? The grain of wheat is made up of several parts, the three principal parts being first the outer skin or the bran coatings, second the white flour portion, and third the little yellow germ at one end. This germ is the living part of the grain, the flour is the food stored up for feeding it in its early growth, and the bran is the covering or cloak. If we grind up the whole grain we get whole-wheat flour. By the old stone milling pro- cess the bran alone was separated from the rest. By the new process the grain is divided mainly into three parts, namely the bran, the white flour, and the bluish or greyish germ flour. Place several grains of wheat in your mouth and chew them. Gradually you separate and swallow part of the wheat that is the starch ; you will have left in your mouth a gummy sub- stance that is the gluten. The gluten is the richest part of ihe flour ; it is what gives it its strength. RYE. In some countries of Europe rye takes the same place that wheat does in America, it is the great flour-produc- ing crop. As with wheat it is sown both in the fall and in the spring. It is very hardy and can be grown even on very poor soils. With us it is sometimes sown in the fall to be cut early in the summer as a soiling crop. The grain is longer than that of wheat and its flour is quite dark. OATS. The oat plant furnishes a most important food forman as well as for horses and other animals. Oats are generally classed according to their color. The head is branched and the grains are covered with a coarse loose husk, hence its light weight. 54 AGRICULTURE. This grain will grow in poorer soil than wheat and much further north. It is a rather hearty and gross feeder and produces very large crops on rich soil. BARLEY. This grain is classed as two-rowed, four-rowed and six-rowed, according to the number of rows of kernels in the head. The two-rowed requires a longer season of growth than the six-rowed, which is one of the most rapidly growing and maturing grains that we have. Barley is used as a food for stock, and also for the making of malt out of which beer is brewed. Its value for malting depends upon the soil and climate. It must be of bright color, well filled, and all ripened so that it will sprout evenly in malting. CORN OR MAIZE. In Great Britain the name corn is applied to either wheat or any bread-producing cereal, in North America it means Indian corn or Maize. The distinction is made of sweet corn which is used for food by man, and common corn, which again is divided into flint and dent. Flint corn ha.s a hard flinty kernel, and dent has the indented form on the tip of the grain. The roots are long and therefore the plant feeds quite deeply and requires a soil of deep cultivation. It has long heavy leaves and thick stalks, not hollow like the previous grains, but more or less filled. It bears heavy ears and pro- duces large quantities of food per acre. We at once conclude that it takes much more food from the soil than the others, that it is a heavy feeder and requires heavy manuring. When well cultivated, it is a good cleaning crop. The blossoming of the corn is worth noticing. Fine silky threads may be seen hanging from the end of the green ear, all attached to the cob these are the "styles," the female portion of the blossom. At the top of the stalk is " the tassel " which carries the stamens or male portion of the blossom. The pollen from these falls down upon the pistils of the ear and there completes the blossoming. If different varieties of corn are planted near together the pollen from the tassels of one variety THE GRAIN CROPS OR CEREALS. 55 may be carried by the wind or by insects to the silky pistils of another, and thus produce the peculiar kernels that are some- times seen on ears of corn. In growing corn for seed, there- fore, it is necessary to grow each kind by itself, far from any other variety. There are various ways of growing corn. It may be sown broadcast, when the plants grow close together and cover the entire soil. In this case the plants do not have sunlight upon the lower leaves and the stalks, and as a result the plants do not mature, and production of ears is prevented. The crop consists entirely of leaf and stalk, and is cut and used just as we cut and use timothy hay. The effect of the lack of sun- light is seen also in the pale yellow color of the under leaves. The stalks and the leaves are quite watery, and the amount of food per acre is less than is got by the other methods. If ears are desired the corn must be sown in rows or in hills far apart; the taller the corn the farther apart must be the drills or hills. A method adopted by many western corn-raisers is that known as " listing." The corn is grown in furrows, which are gradually filled in as the corn grows higher. Just above the surface of the soil a ring of suckers shoots out from near the joint or node, and as the earth comes up to them these take root. In this way the corn becomes deep rooted, is held firmly in place and is able to withstand drouth. A great deal of valuable information can be learned by care- fully watching the growth of different kinds of corn in the field. From what part of the stalk do the ears grow ? What is the effect of cutting off part of the tassels ? What is the effect of cutting off all the tassels ? What is the effect of re- moving the smaller ears and leaving only the larger ? What is the effect of cutting away all the corn for about eight feet on every side of a single hill or stand ? SUGAR CANE. This plant, like corn, has a stalk whose tubes are filled with a juice rich in sugar. New plants are started 56 AGRICULTURE. from " cuttings." Its stalks grow from one to two inches thick and from eight to twenty feet high. It is cut before flowering and the juice pressed out. This juice is evaporated and a dark brown sugar remains, from which the white sugar is got by "refining." SORGHUM. This has pithy stalks like maize and sugar cane. There are several varieties of it, one, Indian Millet or doorha, is grown extensively in Eastern countries for its grain for bread making ; another is grown for its sugar or syrup, also as food for stock ; and still another (broom corn) for its tassels, out of which the whisks of brooms are made. The broom-corn tops are cut off while still slightly green and are dried in dark buildings, where they partially bleach out. These three members of the grass family, maize, sugar cane and sorghum, are then distinguished from the other grasses, in having their stalks filled, and all contain a considerable quantity of sugar in their juices. Sugar cane grows only in very warm climates, sorghum is found farther north, and maize, although originating in Mexico or Central America, will, in some of its varieties, mature its grains much farther north. RICE. This is the great bread food of China and Japan, and is best grown in lands that are mild in climate and are capable of irrigation. The land is prepared as for grain. The rice is sown in drills and covered with about two inches of soil. Then the water is let on to a depth of 12 to 18 inches. After standing for four to six days it is drawn off and the plants allowed to get a good start ; water is again let in for a time and then drawn off before harvesting. The growing of rice upon wet soils gives us the explanation for the scriptural teaching : " Cast thy bread upon the waters, for thou shalt find it after many days." (Eccl. xi. i.) THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 57 CHAPTER XIII. THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. NATURE OF LEGUMES. Plants such as wheat and barley were formerly cut with a sickle ; the pods of such as peas and beans were gathered by hand ; hence the latter were known as legumes, from the Latin lego, "I gather." All plants resembling peas and beans in their botanical nature were called the legum- inous plants. They were also called pulse because, as some say, of their being pulled or plucked. The most striking resemblance is in the blossom. The seeds are formed in pods Fig. 23. I'.lossom of a legume as of pea, bean, or flowering locust tree. . Fig. 24. Rlossom of legume taken apart, showing five leaves of corolla. Upper larue leaf is the " standard," the two lower the "keel," the two side the "wings." The pistils and stamens are enclosed in the keel leaves. Fig. 24. or legumes of different shapes in different plants. In some of the members of the leguminous family, the blossoms and pods are too small for us to observe readily their resemblance to those of the pea and bean ; but a careful study of the roots, leaves, and blossoms of the following plants will soon prove that they are all quite alike. They are all legumes with which we should be familiar. 5 AGRICULTURE. LEGUMINOUS FAMILY (Leguminosce). Common pea. Common red clover, Common string bean, White or Dutch clover, Lima bean, Alsike or Swedish clover, Horse or Windsor bean, Crimson or scarlet clover, Common vetch or tare, Mammoth red clover, Common lentil, Lucerne or alfalfa, Lupines, Peanut or ground nut. From this list of plants we see that the family is large and important. In addition there are many weeds belonging to this same family. To speak of clovers as being grasses is bot- anically incorrect, since in form or shape and in mode of growth they are entirely different. The most notice- able difference is in the shape of blossoms. The leaves also are different in shape and in arrangement. Contrast a plant of clover with a plant of timothy or wheat. The stalks also are different, and the roots are quite different. Pull up a large red clover or pea plant, and also a wheat plant, and contrast their roots. Which is the more fibrous and matted? The clovers send their roots deeper into the soil. Observe, also, the little knots, or balls, or tubercles on the clover roots. These tubercles play a very important part in the nourishment of the leguminous plants. They are filled with many little living parasites, something like yeast cells, that grow and feed upon the free nitrogen of the air, from it forming compounds that help to nourish the plants. Now we have already mentioned Fig. 35 Root of a legume showing knots or nodules or tubercles. THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 59 that wheat, for instance, will readily feed upon nitrogen in the form of nitrates ; but if we apply nitrates to clover no effect is produced. The wheat cannot take up the free nitrogen of the air, but the clover can, through these root tubercles. Sometimes clover does not grow well; and when pulled up very few, if any, of these little tubercles are found upon the roots. If, however, some soil in which clover has been growing well, or the washing from such soil, is applied to the weak clover, the plants soon begin to thrive and the tubercles are seen growing upon the roots. These tubercles possess the power of taking up free nitrogen from the air in the soil. If we can get leguminous plants to grow in a poor soil and then turn them under, they will decay and produce humus rich in nitrogen that will give rise to nitrates (by nitrification) for the benefit of the wheat or other grain crop that comes after. The seeds from all leguminous plants are very rich. Then we can state the following as the valuable points, in connection with leguminous plants : 1. They have many leaves and are good for fodder. 2. Their seeds are very rich in food material. 3. Their roots are generally long, therefore deep feeders. 4. They take up free nitrogen from the air, and are therefore easier on the soil than are cereals or root crops. PEAS are generally grown for the seed, which is very rich in nitrogen and in oil. The many varieties grown for man and stock are classed as garden peas and field peas. The straw is richer than that of the grain crops. When grown to be cut green for soiling, peas are generally sown with oats. BEANS are grown in this country for the seed, planted in hills, as a garden crop, or as a field crop with good garden cultivation. Some of the varieties, as the horse bean, require a fairly mild climate. Some are short and bushy, others are tall climbers. Examine their means of climbing. 60 AGRICULTURE. VETCHES OR TARES have smaller pods and seeds than peas, and are grown for soiling along with oats. The stiff stalks of the oats help to support the slender vines of the tares. COMMON RED CLOVER is also known as broad leaf clover or trefoil. The peculiar light spot on the leaves and the closeness of the upper leaves to the head are to be noted. It grows to two feet in height, and the roots penetrate the soil deeply. While in some localities it is a perennial, in most temperate regions it is a biennial. Its form and mode of growth adapt it for hay rather than for pasture. It ripens about the same time as orchard grass and about two weeks earlier than timothy. It should be cut before the heads become very brown ; if left too late its leaves, which form a large part of it, become brittle and drop off in handling. After being cut once the plants rapidly grow up again, giving a second crop, the aftermath or rowen. The depth to which its roots go depends greatly upon the state of the soil ; therefore the soil should be well drained. When the sod is turned over, large quantities of humus, rich in nitrogen, are left near the surface for the wheat or other grain crop following. A variety of red clover is known as mammoth clover. WHITE OR DUTCH CLOVER is a low growing plant, with creeping stems and white blossoms It is very hardy and apt to crowd or smother out other plants. It is one of the most frequent plants in pasture fields, and is especially valuable for sheep and cattle. It is usually sown with grass seeds in permanent pasture mixtures. ALSIKE OR SWEDISH CLOVER is a perennial with pink blossoms, growing about two feet high. It thrives in cool climates. It does not give such heavy yields as red clover, but is specially adapted for hay fields that are to be kept for several years. It is sometimes sown along with other seeds for pastures. . 3 S 3 6 i u 3 "c O" 3 "",-, -i "S u _C f" "O " : fl THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 6l CRIMSON OR SCARLET CLOVER grows further south than the others, has a long scarlet head and makes an early rapid growth even on poor land. It is a hay plant. In some places it is used as a "catch crop," that is it is grown on land after the removal of grain crops, for a light forage crop or to be plowed under as a green manure. LUPINES include a number of little shrubby plants that bear very showy flowers. The plants are apt to be too woody for forage, but sheep readily eat them. Their principal use in this country is for plowing under as green manure, since being leguminous they gather nitrogen from the air. The most common are white, yellow, and blue lupines. LUCERNE OR ALFALFA is a plant resembling clover in its growth. It is not strictly a clover, although sometimes called Spanish clover. It is difficult to start upon land, but once well started it is long continued, being a deep-rooted perennial. It has a smaller leaf than clover and a purple head, more open. It is somewhat bushy and sends its roots as deep into the soil as the water level will allow. For this reason it resists drouth. It must be cut early or it will produce a very coarse woody hay. In mild climates it may be cut for hay several tmies during the year. THE PEANUT is an annual, growing in warm climates on light soil. Other names for the plant are earth-nut, ground-nut, goober. Though not a nut its pod is somewhat like a nut and it belongs to the pea family. The seeds are very oily, giving an oil used for soap making. 62 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XIV. ROOT CROPS AND TUBERS. NATURE AND GROWTH OF ROOTS. If we place some seed of the turnip or beet in the ground in early summer, we find a plant sprouting up that has broad thick leaves. The root is tapering, sometimes quite long, and has fine rootlets growing on the sides. Towards the end of the season the leaves wither, change color, and die. When we pull up the root we find a thick mass of juicy substance that is relished much by animals. This turnip or beet root has not finished its life- work as a plant, since it has not yet produced any seed or any new plants like itself. If we leave it in the ground, or if we take good care of it through the winter so as to keep it cool and unbruised, and plant it in the early summer, it will begin to grow again. A new growth will appear above the soil, a stalk will be formed and seed be produced of the same kind as that which we sowed in the first place. If we again pull up the plant, we find the thick fleshy root has become very thin and fibrous, and is of no use as food for stock. We conclude that these plants are biennials ; that during the first season they store up large quantities of food in their root, and that this food in the root nourishes the plant during the second season. Since they have a whole season to gather food, we find that the weight per acre greatly exceeds that of many crops that are annuals, and they take a large quantity of material out of the soil. These plants are heavy feeders. By keeping the soil well cultivated we destroy the weeds, keep the soil moist, and help the action of the roots. The roots are very watery and contain large quantities of the substances that are ROOT CROPS AND TUBERS. first formed in plants, namely sugar and starch. The materials that are taken from the soil through the roots, and that which passes in from the air, are worked over in the green leaves, so that while green we would expect to find a considerable quan- tity of mineral or soil material in the leaves. Any green leaves that are cut from the roots when they are pulled, therefore, should be left on the soil where the roots grew, so as to help keep up the richness of the soil. The roots keep on growing during the fall until the weather becomes very cold, therefore they have a good chance to benefit by the nitrates' that are formed during the latter part of summer. They have the advantage of spri ng-so wn grain crops in this regard. Since root crops are such heavy feeders, and since the ground should be kept thoroughly cultivat- ed during their growth, they are generally used as the crop to which the largest quantity of barn- yard manure is applied. In addition to heavy manuring, another very important necessity is thorough cultivation of the soil before the sowing of the seed. The root is thick and compact ; it has to push down and out on all sides. If it can- not go straight down it will twist about or push itself partly out of the ground. For well shapen and perfect roots, then, we must have a well-tilled and well-drained soil. Fig. 26. Sugar beet on left grown in good soil, well drained and well cultivated ; beet on right grown in rough soil. 64 AGRICULTURE. THE TURNIP belongs to what is known as the mustard family (Crucijertz). The principal members of this family are the turnip, the radish, the cabbage, rape, cultivated mustard, horseradish ; the weeds, wild mustard or charlock, shepherd's purse, and wild flax ; the flowers, stocks and candy tuft. The flowers of all these plants have 4 petals spread out in the shape of a cross hence the name, cruciferce. THE CARROT is a plant whose varieties differ greatly in shape, size, and color. Celery and the parsnip belong to the same family. The blossom resembles the stays of an um- brella ; hence the name umbelliferce applied to this family. The shape of the root, differing from that of the turnip, suggests that the plant goes deep and therefore requires a soil loose and open and deeply cultivated. THE BEET belongs to still another family, the goose- foot family. The original of this root was a wild plant of Southern Europe. Gradually it has been improved, the root has been enlarged and the composition changed, until now we have several very valuable plants whose roots are widely used. The mangel-wurzel or mangel is one variety, grown for stock feed- ing. The sugar beet is another, grown for its sugar. Mangels when grown on rich, well-cultivated soils produce enormous yields per acre. They may be kept stored for late feeding. The sugar beet is a good example of what can be done by way of improving plants. In its wild state the beet had very little sugar that could be extracted. By cultivation it was found that the quantity of sugar increased. Suppose we take a field of common white beets and select the most perfectly shaped roots of about i^ or 2 pounds each, and plant them and then select the best seed from these and sow this seed. We pick out the best beets from that crop. Then by testing small pieces of the roots we find out which have the largest amount of sugar, and plant them. We keep on in this way for several years ; we find that at last we get seed that will produce beets ROOT CROPS AND TUBERS. 65 that are clear-skinned, nicely tapering, having a large amount of sugar and a small amount of ash material. We could thus develop beets good for sugar making, whose nature it is to produce sugar. In this way the sugar beets have been developed, and in this way the seedsmen are still producing improved seed. To grow good sugar beets the soil must be well-drained and well-tilled, the plants must be grown closer together than when grown for feeding stock, and the roots must be kept well covered, since the sugar is stored in the part under the soil. Any green collar on the beets will, like the green leaf, have too much mineral matter. The beets are taken to the factory, cleaned, pulped fine, the juice extracted, and the sugar obtained from it by evaporation. Sugar, like butter, is made up from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which come from the air and the rain ; so that if the leaves are left in the soil, and the pulp taken back and fed on the farm there is little or nothing lost from the soil. THE POTATO is here included among the roots, and yet we all know it is quite different in form and growth from the beet and the carrot. We do not sow seeds, but potatoes or parts of potatoes ; the method of growth under ground is peculiar ; and the branching tops and blossoms are quite different from those of the roots. If we examine a potato tuber we find upon it many eyes or buds. If we place the potato in a warm damp room these buds grow out into green stems. We can even cut it into many pieces and still the eyes will send out stems. We do not cut up roots for planting ; we sow their seed. If we pull up a hill of young potatoes we find what appear to be two sets of roots, one having little balls upon them, the other none. Trace those that carry the little potatoes back to the stem and you find that they are really branches of the stem, whereas the others are the true roots. Then we conclude that the potatoes grow on under- ground stems, that they are really swellings of the stem and the 66 AGRICULTURE. eyes are buds ; so that what we plant are cut- tings of the underground stems of the p'lants. Observe the arrange- ment of the eyes in the potato. Rightly, then, we speak of the potatoes as being tubers not roots. Jerusalem artichokes also are tubers. 9 If you cut open a potato you find it filled with a starchy substance generally white in color. Fig. 27. Potato plant, showing B the true roots ; If yOU CUt Up fine a SUgar C, the underground stems; A, the tubers, which . _. , are swollen or enlarged parts of the stems. The DCet anu place It in a eyes in the potato tubers, therefore, are buds. coarse towel you can wring the juice out of it quite easily, you cannot easily do so with potatoes. You conclude that potatoes have less water and more dry matter or food in them than have the roots. If you evaporate the juice from potatoes you find littfe or no sugar. Then we conclude that roots have large quantities of sugar and water in their make-up, but potatoes have less water and quite a large amount of starch. The potato, the tomato, and tobacco belong to the family known as Solanacecz. The sweet potato is the root of a plant grown in very warm climates, and belongs to the family Con- volvulacecR) as do the morning glory and dodder. New varieties of potatoes may be got by sowing the seed and selecting the best tubers so grown, planting these and selecting the best grown from them, and so continuing. VARIOUS OTHER CROPS. 67 CHAPTER XV. VARIOUS OTHER CROPS. BUCKWHEAT produces seeds or grains which resemble in shape small beech-nuts, hence the name beech-wheat or buck- wheat. The second part of the word would suggest that it is a kind of wheat or a member of the grass family. This is not the case, as the leaves and flowers prove. It belongs to the family known as the polygonacece, to which also belong rhubarb, the docks or sorrels, and knot grass. Its roots are quite short and it feeds largely on the air. It will grow even on very poor soils, where it is sometimes plowed under as green manure. Its peculiar blossom is noticeable in its color and odor, and is much sought by bees for its nectar. The grain is used for flour and also for feeding in moderate quantities to stock. Buck- wheat flour is not so rich in nitrogen as that of wheat, and the straw has more fibre than the straw of the gramineee or true grasses. THE SUNFLOWER is an annual, growing very high on tough stalks with a large showy head filled with seeds. These seeds are rich in oil and nitrogen compounds. The oil forms nearly one-fifth of the dried seed, and is extracted for various uses. The seeds are used also for feeding stock. Why is the plant called the sunflower ? The sunflower is a fine example of the large family known as the composite, which have many flowers in a single head. The thistle, ragweed, goldenrod, aster, daisy, yarrow, chrysanthemum, marigold, salsify, dandelion, lettuce, and sunflower are all members of this family. Compare the heads of any of these before and after seed formation. 68 AGRICULTURE. RAPE has already been referred to as being closely related to the turnip and cabbage. Its leaf resembles that of the turnip, but its root is much smaller and its top much larger. It grows to a height of from one to three feet. Some varieties are annuals and some are biennials. It is grown both for its seed, which contains a large quantity of valuable oil rapeseed oil and also for its tops, which are used in pasturing and in soiling. When used for soiling or pasturing, the biennial is sown in drills and cultivated. FLAX is an annual with slender stems about two feet in length and bearing bluish flowers. The seed is known as flaxseed or linseed. The word linseed is from the botanical name linum, which is also found in linen, the cloth made from the flax fibre. It is grown both for its seeds and for its fibre. The seeds contain a very large amount of oil (linseed oil), which is very valuable for paints and other purposes ; also a large amount of nitrogenous compounds, and of ash material. When the oil is removed the bye-product forms one of the richest foods used for stock-feeding. When the plant is grown for fibre it may be pulled at any time after blossoming. The fibre is obtained from the stalks. We have before referred to the cell-structure of plants. When we cut across a piece of wood we cut across its cell tubes ; when we cut lengthwise along the wood we cut these tubes from one another. The grain, as we say, runs along the stem or limb. In some plants these cells are strung together in threads and are very tough so that they will hold together. The cells in the bark or bast are generally longer and tougher than those in the wood, and are known as bast cells or bast fibres. The inner bark of bass wood (or bast-wood) is quite tough because of these. These bast cells in the flax are very fine and very tough, and, there- fore, make fine fibre. The best fibre is got from flax that has not ripened its seed-vessels or bolls. Why ? Generally, how- ever, the plant is allowed to ripen its seeds. The plants are VARIOUS OTHER CROPS. 69 pulled by hand, dried, and tied in bundles. The seed is separated by what is known as " rippling " or combing out. Then the straw is partly rotted, either on the grass or by steeping in vats of water. This process rots the coarse woody part of the stem, and separates the fine fibre from it. It is then dried and "scutched," either by hand or by machine. This process of scutching simply rubs or beats away the loose woody parts from the long fibres. The fibre is now ready for use, to be made into twine or thread or linen cloth. To grow good crops of flax, rich, clean, well-drained, well-cultivated soil is needed. It requires a moist climate, moderately warm. The plant is very rich in nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid, and therefore we may conclude that it takes a good deal of nourish- ment out of the soil ; but these constituents are found almost wholly in the seed and straw and not in the fibre, so that if the straw is returned to the soil, and the seed fed on the farm, there will be little loss in growing flax for the sale of fibre only. THE HOP is a member of the nettle family. It is a perennial plant. It is started by cuttings, in hills about six feet apart. The plants are not woody enough to support themselves, and therefore climb up to the air and sunshine by twining. The hop blossoms are picked by hand when just ripe (a condition learned only by experience), and dried in a kiln or drying house (called an oast house in Kent, England), when they are packed and sold for use in brewing. The value of the hop is greatly influenced by the climate. Hop vines always twine in the same direction to the right. Bindweed and morning glory twine to the left. How do the grape vine and Virginia creeper climb and support themselves ? How do peas and tares ? We have already learned that the two important parts of a blossom are the pistils and stamens, that perfect blossoms have both, but that in some plants there are blossoms having pistils but no stamens ; and in other plants there are blossoms having stamens but no pistils. The former blossoms are 70 AGRICULTURE. called pisti'late blossoms, and the latter staminate. Only the pistillate blossoms form seed. In some cases pistillate and staminate blossoms grow on the same plant, as in cucumber vines. These are said to be monoecious plants. In other cases the pistillate and the staminate blossoms grow on different plants. These plants are said to be dioecious. The hop plant is dioecious. In setting out a hop-yard, therefore, it is necessary to have here and there some plants that produce staminate blossoms, to supply pollen for the pistillate. TOBACCO is an annual, grown only in warm climates, but much farther north than cotton, being grown in the milder parts of Quebec and Ontario. It is grown for its long, broad leaves. In the use of tobacco we observe three things; first, it burns readily ; second, it gives a very large amount of ash ; third, it has a peculiar effect upon the smoker. It burns readily because, in addition to its woody or fibrous matter, it contains large quantities of potash, which readily unites with the oxygen of the air. Its ash forms from 15 to 20 per cent, of the entire plant. Its effects upon the human system are due to a compound known as nicotine, similar to theine in tea and caffeine in coffee. In their pure condition these " alkaloids " as they are called, are poisons. From the following statement it will be seen that tobacco is very hard upon the soil, and requires very rich fertilizing. An acre of tobacco will yield about 1,500 pounds of tobacco leaf. The whole crop will contain about 70 pounds of nitro- gen, 15 pounds of phosphoric acid (in phosphates), and 150 pounds of potash 235 pounds in all. An acre of wheat, yielding 20 bushels of grain, will contain 40 pounds of nitro- gen, 15 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 18 pounds of potash 73 pounds in all. An acre of meadow hay, yielding 2 tons, will contain about 56 pounds of nitrogen, 14 pounds of phos- phoric acid, and 60 pounds of potash 130 pounds in all. WEEDS. 7 1 CHAPTER XVI. WEEDS. "A weed is a plant in the wrong place." WEEDS ARE PLANTS. White clover is frequently sown with grass seeds on lawns, yet a few plants in a fine lawn of June grass would be considered weeds. Tares are grown as a fodder crop ; in a wheat field we call them weeds. Ox-eye daisies and goldenrod in a flower garden are fine plants, but in pastures or hay fields they are weeds. A weed is a plant just as much as wheat, corn, or clover. It has all the parts of plants, grows like other plants, and forms new plants. But it is a plant that we do not want ; it is a plant out of its place, or, rather, it is a plant in the wrong place. OBJECTIONS TO WEEDS. We might say that weeds are objected to because, whether valuable or not in other places or at other times, they are not what we are working for. If a man engaged in moulding plowshares should find one- half of his work turning out to be large cannon balls he would consider his work, to that extent, a failure, because his business is to make plowshares, not cannon balls. So if a farmer finds his work resulting half in grain or hay, half in weeds, his work is a failure to that extent. But we must have particulars. i st. Weeds require some labor, whether we permit them to grow or try to destroy them. Sometimes our labor helps the weeds to grow more rapidly, just because we do not under- stand their nature. Weeds mean work. 2nd. Weeds, through their roots, take up food from the soil. Our most valuable plants do not take very much out of the soil ; on the average not more than one-twentieth of their 72 AGRICULTURE. total weight. Usually, however, there is not very much food just ready for the plants to take up. If there are weeds growing with the crops there will be less food for the latter. Some of the weeds are heavy feeders. 3rd. Many weeds have broad, spreading leaves which cover over the tender young plants of our crops, and by shutting off the sunlight smother them out. This may be seen best in a pasture or on a lawn (dandelions and plantains for example). 4th. Weeds draw moisture from the soil through the roots and give it off through the leaves; weeds help to dry up the soil. 5th. Weeds are feeding and breeding grounds for insects and they assist in the spread of many crop diseases. 6th. Frequently weeds are poisonous to stock, they taint the milk, or they destroy wool. yth. Weeds offend the eye and degrade the taste for farming. Because of these facts every weed should be considered an intruder, a thief, and a murderer of other crops, and every farmer should try to keep his soil as clean as possible. To succeed it will be necessary to know as far as possible the nature and the mode of growth of the weeds. NATURE OF WEEDS. Wild mustard, lamb's quarters, shep- herd's purse, and wild oats form seed the first season ; the plants then die and the seeds are ready to sprout the next season. Such weeds are annuals. They generally have fibrous roots and produce a large number of seeds. The seeds in many cases are oily and are covered with hard coatings ; they are able to sprout after lying in the ground a long time, even for many years. Thus the seeds may be plowed under deep and the next year the field may appear clean. After a couple of years they are brought up by plowing and cultivation, and once more the field will appear weedy and dirty. If the weeds are cut off before the seeds form they will be destroyed, for they cannot survive or reproduce unless seeds are formed. WEEDS. 73 The wild carrot, the wild parsnip, teasel, burdock, blue weed, and mullein grow like our common garden roots they do not form their seed until the second season. They are bien- nials, and are usually tap-rooted. It will not do in their case simply to cut off the tops the first year, for they will spring up again. Continued cutting off of the top, or, better still, the complete removal of the root, will be found necessary with such. The ox-eye daisy, plantain, sorrel, and dandelion live on from year to year ; they are perennials, and, therefore, most difficult of all to get rid of. Some of the perennials, such as the Canada thistle, couch grass, toad flax, milk weed, perennial sow thistle, yarrow, and bindweed are creeping in their roots, that is, they spread by the root, and therefore are among the worst weeds, and, because of this, they are most difficult to completely remove, and require most thorough treatment. It is important, therefore, to know the nature of weeds, as to whether they are annuals, biennials, or perennials, and as to whether they are creeping perennials. NAMING OF WEEDS. The weeds are classified like other plants. Frequently lists of weeds are given, having their common names and also long scientific names, difficult to spell and difficult to pronounce. Why is it necessary to have long scientific names for weeds when common names are easily pronounced, are easily understood, and are so suggestive? Take an example. Teasel, water thistle, tall thistle, Indian thistle, English thistle, and Fuller's card are all local names for one weed. All do not know it by the same name, but as dipsaats sylvestris every botanist in any part of the world would know it or would be able to find it in scientific books. Blue weed, blue thistle, blue stem are various names in different places for the same weed. Stick seed, stick weed, stick tights are different weeds, although somewhat similar in name; and stick weed, in fact, is applied to diflerent weeds in different places. 74 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XVII. INSECTS OF THE FIELD. GRASSHOPPERS. We shall first refer to an insect that attacks nearly all the plants of the field the grasshopper. You catch one of these insects in the hayfield or the pasture and carefully observe its form. First of all you count its legs there are six, three on each side. By comparing with other insects you notice that all except spiders have the same number. You observe that its legs are jointed and that its very long hind legs are well suited to jumping or hopping. Then Fig. 28. A Grasshopper. you notice that its body is put together in parts or sections. So are those of other insects hence the name " in-sect." It has also two long curved feelers sticking out in front of its head (each is called an antenna and the two are called antennae). Then observe the two large eyes and the mouth fitted for biting or cutting through the leaf and the stalk of the grass. The outside of the body is hard and the inside soft a dead, dried- up grasshopper has the form of a live one. A horse or a cow has its bones within and the soft flesh outside, but the insect has its bony part, so to speak, on the outside. INSECTS OF THE FIELD. 75 Next we must learn something of its mode of increasing its life-history. Grasshoppers are male and female and the latter lays the eggs. Sometimes she does this in soft wood but generally in the ground, in the fall of the year, after the damage to crops has been done. The female makes a hole in the ground, in which she lays a number of tiny eggs. These are covered with a sticky substance which causes them to hang together like a pod. The nest or hole is then covered over and there they remain unseen through the winter. In the warm spring they hatch out and thousands and millions of young grasshoppers appear. Their appearance in large numbers is thus explained. They have no wings, but they can spring about, and they have vigorous appetites. Later on their wings appear, and now they are able to fly. They have done much damage where they were hatched and now they can fly away long distances, eating up and cutting down grass and hay and grain. Later on the females deposit their eggs, to be hatched out the next year. And so they continue year by year. Some- times severe weather destroys their eggs or the young insects. Other insects may eat them up. Tiny forms of life (parasites) prey upon them. Diseases of various kinds destroy them. Knowing their mode of life, their life-history, the farmer can check them. For instance, when a field becomes infested with them, it can be ploughed up in the fall and their nests of eggs destroyed. A change or a rotation of crops is advisable. Insects are arranged in orders. The principal basis of this classification is the form or structure of the wings. The grass- hoppers are " straight-winged." Crickets and cockroaches belong to the same order. Entomology is the science of insects, as Botany is the science of plants. The Entomologist sometimes uses the word orthoptera when stating the order to which grasshoppers belong. MOTHS AND CUTWORMS. In gardens and fields we often find the plants bc-ing cut off, but can see no insect or other 76 AGRICULTURE. animal at work. If, however, we turn up the soil we find some dull-colored, greasy-looking caterpillars of almost the same color as the soil. On the top of the ring or section next to the head is a smooth shield; the head is smooth and shiny; there are some bristles along the side ; and, when disturbed, the worm curls up. This is a cutworm ; rather, this is one of the cutworms, for there are very many different kinds. They stay in the ground during the day and come out at night to eat off the leaves and stalks. These cutworms have been hatched from little eggs in the spring, summer, or fall. The cutworms, or caterpillars as they may be called, are quite small when first hatched, but they are heavy feeders and grow gradually to the size shown in figure 29, and by their feeding they do great damage in garden and field. When they have become full grown they burrow into the soil several inches and become a hard, deadlike mass similar to that shown in figure 29. This is what is known as the pupa of the insect. For several weeks, perhaps all through the winter, they remain asleep in this condition. Then another change takes place, the hard shell of the pupa cracks and there comes forth a moth with wings and legs and feelers, looking entirely different from the caterpillar or the pupa. These moths are the perfect insects ; they are dull in color and are very active at night. They lay eggs which hatch into cater- pillars, and the caterpillars go to sleep in the pupa form to again come forth as perfect moths. In most cases the eggs are laid in the fall, and the young caterpillars, less than half an inch long, lie in the ground quiet all winter. In the spring they attack the young crops and do most damage. About July they are full grown ; then they go into the pupa state and come out moths in August. If the fields become weedy and there is much vegetation on the land in the fall the moths have a fine place for laying their eggs, and there is plenty of food for INSECTS OF THE FIELD. 77 the young caterpillars. Therefore the thorough cleaning of the land after harvest is one means of checking them. The army worm also is the caterpillar of a moth, and is so called from its occasional appearance in immense numbers, when they devour nearly every particle of plant food in the CHRYSALIS, A\OTH ARMY (WORM. Fig. 29. Army worm, pupa of same, and moth into which it changes. The eggs are seen along the leaf. This is a cutworm. course of their march. Then we have other moths, the larvae of which live upon the fibre of clothing, clothes moths. All these are similar in form and in their changes, and all are very destructive. Besides the egg we have, in most insects, the three forms or states, namely : the caterpillar, or larva ; the />/'/ the ca 'v x enQ ' /- > the P U| P- THE APPLE ORCHARD. THE APPLE. Let us take a fair-sized apple of good shape, cut it through as shown in fig. 50. We see that the stem is con- nected with the core, and beyond it at C are the small ends of what appear to be leaves. These are the ends of the calyx leaves. The core is the seed box ; it is made Up Of hard, tOUgh, fibrOUS ma- F 'g- S- Section .of a fully formed apple. A, seeds in seed-' ox or core, terial, E, in which are the seeds, - A. If you cut another apple across the core you see the five seed boxes. The apple, then, is firmly attached to the branches by the stem which is closely con- nected with the core. The part j'\ outside of the core, is made up of the enlarged stem and the ta.SfS.5S lower and thicker portion of the calyx leaves which have closed over the seed forming portion of the blossom (the ovary), and have become thick and juicy. What we eat, then, is really the leaf portion of the blossom, united with the swollen stem. Cut a thin slice across the apple and hold it up to the light you will observe five parts somewhat resem- bling the blossom of the apple. Frequently the five tips of the leaves at C are easily observed. The relation of the apple to the blossom is now known. 104 AGRICULTURE. SEEDLINGS. If we plant some apple seeds, plants will spring up that, after a few years, will become trees and bear fruit. These trees are known as " seediings." But, what at first appears strange, they are not likely to bear apples similar to the apple from which we took the seeds ; in fact, the apples may be of little use. And why so ? Because the apple, in its wild or native form, has a small, rather poor fruit, and the many varieties have been produced by careful cultivation and selection. In this way varieties are obtained that are different in their hardiness and different in shape, size, color, and flavor. As is the case with other plants, while we develop them for producing fine fruit they frequently become more tender in stem and roots, and, therefore, the nurseryman has to use great skill in producing plants that are both hardy and productive of good fruit. If we grow apples from seeds only, the hardy seedlings will grow to a producing age. In this way we can obtain trees with hardy roots, stems, and buds. If, now, we can use these roots and stems for our trees, and at the same time cause them to produce highly-flavored fruit, we shall get trees such as we desire. This may be done by grafting. GRAFTING. The hardy stem and root is called the stock. The part to be grafted on to the stock is called a scion. The nurseryman selects the young seedlings and cuts small branches as scions from the trees of improved varieties such as he wishes to produce. The scions are cut in the late fall after the leaves have fallen, or in early spring before the buds start to open. At that time the branch is dormant or asleep. The grafting is done, as root-grafting or as top-grafting, before the growth starts in the spring. In root-grafting, the stock and scion may be cut across as shown in Fig. 52. This is called whip or tongue-grafting, and is the method of cutting when both are of same size. When the stock is large and the scion small, the latter is cut wedge-shaped, and the former is split so as to take in the little wedge end, as in Fig. 53. The scion is THE APPLE ORCHARD. I0 5 placed in the stock and the cuts are all covered with grafting wax, which is composed of a mixture of tallow or linseed oil, Fi?. 52. Whip or tongue-graft- iru on root. Used also in the case of small stocks. ig- 53. Grafting in cleft or split limb. Used in the case of 'arge limbs. In very large limbs two scions are inserted on opposite sides cf the cleft. beeswax, and resin (about i, 2, 4 parts by weight of each). A very important point is to have the layer just underneath the bark (the cambium layer) of both stock and scion exactly opposite or against each other. Why is this important ? The living part of a trunk or branch lies between the sapwood and the bark ; it is the thin layer of moist woody fibre just under- neath the bark. If we bring the living layer of the stock and the living layer of the scion together, the sap from the one will flow into the other, and the root and stem will continue to ndurish the new branch. The nature of the fruit depends upon the kind of branch. PRUNING.- The leaves and new branches are formed before the fruit, so that, if the tree is inclined to become very branchy, most of the food may be used up in producing new wood, and very little will be left for fruit. Therefore, in many varieties, pruning is very important. The proper time is to begin with 106 AGRICULTURE. the tree as soon as set out, and to prevent the growth of loo many limbs by cutting off limbs when small shoots and by rubbing off buds that are not required. Limbs growing too long may be "stopped"; that is, pinched off at the end. The thinning out of fruit will, for the same reason, have the effect of producing larger fruit. FEEDING THE TREES. Three crops are produced yearly in the orchard new leaves, new branches, new fruit. The tree needs food for all three. It is necessary to have the land drained so that the roots can go deep into the soil. Then the surface soil must be kept well cultivated about the young trees, that the moisture may be saved and the air get into the soil. But, in addition, food must be supplied, not merely to the young tree, but also to the old tree as long as it is expected to bear a crop. Wood ashes are the mineral or soil matter of the trunks and branches of trees, therefore we may conclude that wood ashes are an excellent food for fruit trees of all kinds. Wood ashes contain lime, potash and some phosphates. If any other manures are applied they should be such as fine bones, which contain phosphates and lime. Potash and phos- phate manures are the proper food for vines and trees produc- ing fruit. The proper place to apply such is, not close around the trunk, but beneath the ends of the branches. Why ? SUGGESTIVE : If we plant the seed of a northern spy apple, may we expect that the tree thus produced will also bear northern spy? How are new varieties produced ? What might be done with a seedling apple tree that bears poor iruit in order to make it a useful tree? In peach-growing, is it best to have a large number of small peaches or a smaller number of large peaches ? Good orchardists now thin their peaches and plums. Why ? Did you ever notice how a wound made by cutting off a branch of a tree heals? If a stub six inches long is left it dies back, rots, and finally falls away, leaving a hole in the tree trunk. If cut close new wood grows over the wound until, in time, it is entirely covered. In pruning, then, cut close to the main branch or tree trunk. Remember that the tree itself is a crop, taking its food from the orchard soil. It is bad pract : ce, therefore, to raise other crops such as grain or roots between the trees. This may occasionally be done with good tillage and good manuring, but more often the trees are starved as a result. OTHER ORCHARD TREES. 1 07 CHAPTER XXII. OTHER ORCHARD TREES. THE PEAR. We have already stated that the apple, the pear, and the quince belong to the rose family. The form of their fruit with seed in a hard box or core shows their resem- blance. Our different varieties of pears have all been derived from the common pear of Europe by cultivation and selection. These fruits all change somewhat with soil, climate, and treat- ment. According to the size of the tree we class pears as "standards" and "dwarfs." The standards are formed by grafting or budding from the improved varieties on to seedlings as stocks. The pear trees that are purchased for an orchard are therefore first grown from pear seed and then grafted or budded. Transplanting in the nursery induces a greater growth of fibrous roots than if the trees were kept growing in one place. So that better results are sure to follow from getting trees that have been well cared for, even if they cost more money. When trees are transplanted some of the top is pruned off and the trees are cut back. Why? In transplanting some of the roots are likely to be damaged, and all are not likely to start work at once ; therefore the old top would be too large in proportion to the amount of feeding roots. The dwarf pear trees are produced by budding on the quince as a stock. The quince will not take the buds of all varieties of pears, so that it is sometimes necessary to "double work " them. This is done by budding on the quince with any pear bud that will take, and then afterwards budding on this pear stock with the buds of the varieties desired. io8 AGRICULTURE. V Budding is a means of increasing very many kinds of fruits. We have, under the apple, referred to the fact that the living part of the tree is on the outside, just under the rough bark. If a living bud is taken from one tree, by neatly cutting it out with a little of the wood beneath, it may be made to grow if at once placed in con- tact with the similar living part of another tree. This is done by making a slit up and down and one across the bark, T-shaped. This cut is opened and the bud placed in and the bark lapped over it. The cut and bud in place are then Fig. 54. Budding. carefully tied up. It will be seen that budding must be done when the bark is loose or will slip, that is in midsummer. In the following spring the old growth above the bud must be cut off, and buds are rub- bed off below so as to send all the sap into the new branch. THE PLUM. We now come to the stone-fruits the plum, the peach, and the cherry. They differ from the pear and apple group, but they belong to the large rose family. Exam- ine their blossoms. We have in America several wild varieties of plums, from which some of our hardier varieties are derived. From the European plum come our highly flavoured plums. As a rule they are not so hardy as the natives. A third class of plums is derived from Japanese varieties. The plum is propagated by budding and grafting. For northern climates the stock used should be seedlings or the native wild plum. In milder climates the peach is used quite extensively as a stock. THE PEACH tree is not known here in a wild state ; it has come from Asia and is closely related to the almond. OTHER ORCHARD TREES. 109 The nectarine is quite similar with fruit of a smooth skin. Observe the blossom as to shape and color. In some vari- eties the stone clings to the pulp ; in others it separates readily hence the terms " cling-stone " and "free-stone." The peach ripens only in a mild climate and requires a warm soil, that is, a light soil that readily drains and absorbs heat. As the peach trees mature or come into blossom earlier than apples, they are sometimes set out in young apple orchards. A f p , i i i j Fig. 55. Stone fruit, a peach. few crops of peaches can thus be picked before the apples come into bearing. When the apple trees become nearly full grown and begin to bear fair crops the peach trees are removed. The peach trees are increased by budding on stocks of seedling peaches or on plums. Why would you expect peach buds -to take on plums and not on pears or apples ? What is the edible part of the peach ? The true fruit or seed is inside of the stone. Crack one open and compare with an almond nut. You may taste it, but do not eat it. If you take a thick leaf you can peel off the skin on the upper side and also the skin on the under side. Between these two is the soft cell matter. The calyx leaves fold over the inner part of the blossom, enclosing the seed, the inner side of the leaves hardening to form the stone, and the outer part forming the skin ; the soft material between forms the part of the peach that we eat. THE CHERRY. This tree is sometimes grown as an orna- mental tree ; sometimes for its wood, which has a beautiful grain and takes a fine polish ; but generally for its fruit. There are very many varieties of cherries growing wild in America known by various names dwarf cherry, bird chciry, choke cherry, wild red cherry, etc. Most of our garden varieties are derived from two European varieties. no AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XXIII. INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. THE BORER. This is a beetle that does much damage to the trunks of trees. It is about half an inch long, of a shining greenish-black color. It lays its eggs in summer in the rough bark near the ground or near the crotches of large limbs. From these eggs come the larvae, which, when full-grown, are nearly an inch long. As soon as hatched they begin to bore into the tree, where they remain one or two years. From the larva state they pass into the pupa state, and from this the beetle again comes forth. If many of these bore through the under bark and into the living wood they must injure a tree just as if it were girdled. What is to be done? We can dig out the borers and kill them, but already much damage will have been done. We can keep the rough bark scraped off with a dull hoe, so that there will be no convenient cracks and holes in which to place the eggs. We can also give Fig. 56. The flat-headed borer a, the larva, b the pupa, d the the trunks Of the trCCS B gOOd COat- perfect beetle. It injures many . kinds of trees. ing of whale-oil soap, then soft soap or whitewash in the spring and early summer. As the bark on young trees is soft and the young trees are most easily injured we should look out for borers in young orchards. THE OYSTER-SHELL BARK LOUSE. On the bark of the apple tree are frequently seen little patches that appear like INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. Ill rough bark. If you pry them up with your penknife you find Fig- 57. Bark covered with larvae of oyster-shell bark lice. that they are not rough bark, but scales. What are these little scales or shells ? As the weather becomes warmer little white insects come out from under these shells, and for a couple or days the bark swarms with life. Then they settle down, get their tiny beaks into the soft bark, and suck the sap of the tree. At the end of summer we find the scales with a nest ot eggs underneath. Protected by the scale, the eggs remain uptil next summer, when out again come the tiny insects to live upon the sap of the tree. Spray with kerosene emulsion. THE APHIS. These are to be found on all of our fruit trees. They are noticed as green bugs less than one-tenth of an inch long. They suck the sap out of the leaves and green bark, and are sometimes found on the roots. The eggs are laid in the fall in the cracks of the bark, and in the next summer we are surprised at the large number of green wingless lice that appear as if by magic and do so much damage in a short time (see page 83). Keep the bark clean and spray the trees in the spring, as soon as the insects appear, with kerosene emulsion, a diluted mixture of soft-soap and coal-oil. We have stated before, page 79, that lady-beetles are very destructive to plant lice. Different kinds of plant lice are found on the apple, cherry, peach, currant, cabbage, strawberry roots and in grain. Since they increase so very rapidly, spraying should be done as soon as the lice appear. House plants may be washed with whale- oil soap or tobacco water. 112 AGRICULTURE. CATERPILLARS. We already know that there are many kinds of caterpillars, and that they are larvae hatched from Fig. 58. The tent caterpillar, a and b are caterpillars on the web, c is a mass of eggs, d is the cocoon containing the chrysalis or pupa. The female moth is above. the eggs of moths and butterflies. Tent caterpillars live in ngsts and strip the trees of their leaves. Any nests seen on the trees or bushes should be carefully removed and burned whenever observed. These caterpillars come out of their nests INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. two or three times a day to feed. Therefore we should be care- ful to see that they are all at home before the nests are re- moved. Spraying with Paris green will help to destroy all leaf- eating caterpillars. THE CODLING MOTH. Codling is an old word for a cook- ing apple. We know what a moth is (see pages 77 and 78). We have seen an apple with a dark worm hole in it, and we have cut the apple open and have found the little white worm inside. Now for its history. In our illustration, fig. 59, g is the moth about half an inch across the wings. The fore wings are grey, the hind wings light browji. As moths fly at night we are, perhaps, not so well acquainted with it as with the white larva. The female moth lays her eggs upon the little apple as it stands up-right. The larvae that hatch, usually enter at the blossom end, and bore to the core and feed upon it. Since the core is a continua- tion of the stem, the latter weakens and the wormy apples are the first to fall. After a while the larva eats its way out and falls to the ground. Generally it crawls to the trunk of the tree and after a little spins a cocoon from which in about two weeks the moth appears and begins the laying of eggs. Many of the larvae of this second brood are taken to the cellar in the apples. To destroy them is important. All wormy windfalls should be gathered up at once and fed to the Fig. 59. The codling moth, at is the bur- row ; t, the entrance hole ; e, the larva ; d, the pupa ; /, moth at rest ; g, moth with wings spread ; ft, head of larva ; , cocoon containing pupa. 114 AGRICULTURE. pigs. The trees are sprayed with Paris green while the tiny apples are still turned upwards. If we spray the trees earlier for other insects we must be careful not to spray while in full bloom, since then we may poison the bees that are gathering honey and helping to fertilize the blossoms by carrying pollen from one blossom to another. Further, we may injure the blossoms and at that time the codling moth has not yet laid her eggs. THE PEAR TREE SLUG. The perfect insect is a very black saw-fly, with four wings of the form shown in fig. 36. The female is about one-fifth of an inch long, the male a little r?>-*^_* shorter. Points to be noted are the nature of the wings and the color of the legs. Little cuts are made Fig. 60. The pear tree slug. in the leaf in which the eggs are laid about June. From these the slugs are hatched, which are from one-half to two-thirds of an inch long, slimy, dark green in color. At once they begin to eat the leaves. The slugs change their skins four or five times, and in about a month they crawl or fall to the ground and change to the pupa state. After two weeks more these change to flies, which are ready to lay eggs to hatch a second brood early in August. After doing damage a second time the larvae enter the ground for the winter. In the spring the flies appear, again ready for destruction. The slugs are to be looked for on pear and on cherry trees in June and again in August. THE PLUM CURCULIO. The perfect insect is known as a weevil or snout beetle. It is dark in color, and about one- fifth of an inch in length. During winter it remains hidden under rubbish. It comes out in the spring and does great damage as the young fruit is setting. It punches a little hole in the fruit with its snout, lays an egg, and then makes INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. a moon-shaped cut in the skin near the hole. If this cut were not made, what would happen to the young larva as the fruit grew in size ? One beetle will lay from fifty to i oo eggs. A sort of gum forms around the hole. The stem of the fruit soon weakens, and it drops to the ground with the larva in it The larva then comes out and burrows into the ground. In about a month the full-grown beetle appears. Some fight the CUfCUlio by jarring the trees Fig. 61. The plum-tree curculio. a, the larva ; b, the pupa : c, the beetle ; d, day after day, early Or late, curculio, natural size, on young plum. catching the insects in a sheet, and then throwing them into water covered with kerosene. Paris green is used in spraying. It is applied several times after the blossoms have fallen. OTHER INSECTS. New insects are constantly appearing, being brought in from other countries in fruit and nursery stock. When first introduced, these insects increase very rapidly, since their natural enemies are not always brought with them at the same time. Sometimes they come later on. FIR. 62. Bud moth. The larva feeds upon young buds of fruit trees. Fig. 63. Canker worm, a, b, and c are egns ; e is a mass of eggs ; / is larva dark brown in color. Larv.t can drop from tree by silk thread. They attack apple, plum, and cherry trees. Il6 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XXIV. DISEASES OF THE ORCHARD. " An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." FORMS OF DISEASE. The leaves and green twigs of all the orchard trees are affected by diseases which are variously named leaf blight, leaf curl, yellows, etc. On the branches of plums and cherries we have black-knot. On the fruit we have diseases called the spot, the scab, rust, etc. We know that diseased fruit, such as spotted apples, is, as a rule, stunted in size and distorted in shape, and is not so salable as well-formed, clean fruit. Diseased fruit, also, will not keep so long as perfect fruit. We do not, perhaps, realize that trees whose roots, branches, or leaves are affected with disease will not produce as large crops as perfectly sound trees. It is especially important that the leaves be kept clean and thrifty. PREVENTION OF DISEASE. The first thing to be noted is that all old fruit trees or bushes that are not bearing good crops should be destroyed. When a tree becomes unfruitful it will be neglected and then diseases as well as insects will find a home in it. Even if at some distance from other trees, all such should be cut down and burned, since the spores of these diseases are very light and are carried long distances by the wind and by insects. In the case of black-knot upon plums or cherries, there is only one course to follow cut it off and burn it. It will not do simply to cut it off and throw it on the waste heap ; the spores will ripen there and spread to the other trees. If affected twigs and limbs are cut off as soon as the first signs of disease appear, we shall do much to stop the spread of the disease. It may even be found to pay to cut DISEASES OF THE ORCHARD. 117 down a whole tree, since it may save the entire orchard. We must consider every one of these little knots, spots, or blights as breeders and spreaders of disease. If a tree was diseased last year the spores will be left upon the branches and on the trunk. By spraying before the buds Fig. 64. Disease in a plum leaf. Fig. 65. Section of a diseased plum leaf, spores bein t thrown off. a Spores very much enlarged- See Figs. 42 and 43. open we prevent the spread of the early growing spores. The spraying must be repeated several times, as various diseases start to grow at different times. As a rule the best fruit-growers combine their spraying for insects and for diseases thus they make a mixture of bluestone and of Paris green, the former to kill the disease spores, and the latter to poison some of the insects. One warning must be repeated, that is, not to spray with poison while any tree is in full bloom, since at that time the blossoms may be injured, and insects, such as bees, may be killed that are carrying pollen from the stamens to the pistils, thereby assisting in the fertilization of the blossoms. Il8 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XXV. THE VINEYARD. THE VINE FAMILY. The Virginia Creeper and the different varieties of the grape vine together form what is known as the vine family (vitacece). These are woody plants climbing by tendrils. The leaves are set one after another (alternate). The flowers are small, greenish, in a cluster or bunch. The tendrils and flowers are opposite the leaves. The Virginia creeper has its leaflets in fives, and is thereby distinguished from poison ivy, which has its leaflets in threes. A bunch of blossoms like that of the Virginia creeper is called a cyme, that like the grape is called a thyrsus. Notice the form of the tendrils of the V. creeper and how they attach themselves to wires and flat surfaces. Are those of the grape similar? VARIETIES OF GRAPES. The grapes grown under glass or in hot-houses in this country are quite different from those grown out of doors. They are of different flavor, and the former are thinner in the skin. Our hot-house grapes are European varieties. In the woods we find several varieties of grapes growing wild, with long climbing branches, bearing bunches of small fruit quite sour or acid. The principal wild varieties are known as the Northern Fox, the Summer grape, the white or Frost grape, and the Muscadine or Southern Fox. Our out-of-door cultivated varieties have been got by selections from these wild varieties, also by crossing them with the European, and by chance seedlings from all varieties. Most of our edible grapes have been got from crosses on the Northern Fox, and most of our wine grapes from crosses on the Frost grape. THE VINEYARD. 119 TREATMENT OF VINES. The soil for planting should be deep, rich, and thoroughly drained. Two-year-old vines should be set out, and after the first year only mineral fertilizers, such as ashes and bones, should be applied unless the soil is poor. If the winters are severe the vines are laid down in the fall and covered. One of the most important points in connec- tion with grape growing is the" pruning. If left alone the vine will naturally produce an abundance of stem, branches, and leaves. If properly pruned the food taken in by the roots and the leaves goes to the formation of fruit. The vines may be trellised in various ways, depending upon the climate. In mild climates where the vines are left up all winter they may be trained high and spread up fan-shaped. In colder regions one of the best methods is to lead one branch to the right and another to the left about a foot above the ground, and then train branches from these up across the wires. When pruned off in the fall, they can be easily laid down and cov- ered. The method of pruning is easily learned from practice with an expert. The method depends upon this rule : " The fruit forms upon shoots that grow this year from eyes that were formed on the wood that grew last year." All branches growing too long should be pinched at the end or " stopped," so as to cause hardy wood to form. Grape-vines are increased in number by cuttings, layering, and grafting. The cuttings are made of the last season's growth, and are buried two buds deep in the ground. In lay- ering, a branch is turned down and buried, when it takes root. In grafting the method is somewhat similar to that of tree grafting, but the scion is inserted close to or below the surface of the ground. We have stated before that many of our best varieties are crosses of the fox grape. To understand this we must examine 'the blossom of the vine. The blossoms are small and some- what difficult to study. They are of peculiar shape. The I2O AGRICULTURE. petals of the blossoms form a sort of cap which covers the pistils and stamens. As the flowers begin to open, the petals loosen below but remain connected above. In this they differ from the blossoms of the Virginia creeper. When these petals begin to open the pollen flies off from the stamens and falls upon the pistils, and then, if the pistils are ready for it, the fruit will begin to form. In some of the varieties, either the pollen is not well formed and distributed, or the pistils are not ready for it, and then fruit does not form. As a consequence we see bunches of small, imperfect fruit. When such varieties are grown alone little fruit may be expected. \Vhat is the grape tliat we eat? We throw away the seeds and skin and eat the pulp. Cut a grape across and observe its structure. Cut another lengthwise .'o as to get a thia section ; hold this up to the light and observe how the seeds are placed and how they ate attached to the skin near the one end. What are raisins ? INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. Among the insects is Fig. 66. Grape-vine flea-beetle, a, beetle ; 6, larva ; r, larvae and beetles on foliage ; d, injury to buds ; a and b much enlarged, rest natural size. THE VINEYARD. 121 the grape-vine flea-beetle which lays its eggs on the underside of the leaves. Small brownish larvae are hatched, which eat the leaves, then drop to the ground and change to the pupa form, from which in about three weeks the perfect beetle emerges. The beetles may be collected by hand, and the vines dusted with powder or sprayed. We also give here one of the leai-rollers which are found on so many vines and trees. Fig. 67. Grape-vine leaf roller, a, male moth; , female; c, larva; t), head and thoracic segment of same, enlarged ; e, pupa ; jf, tip of pupa, enlarged ; f, grape leaf folded by larva. This grape-vine leaf-roller eats the leaves. The adult is a dark-colored moth with two white spots on each of the two hind wings. The larva rolls up a leaf and stitches it together, as shown in figure 67. Poison by spraying with Paris green in water, applied in early spring. The principal diseases of the grape are mildew and black rot, which are prevented by spraying. SUGGESTIVE : Grape leaves are suitable objects to draw in outline. Notice the woolly- leaved Roger's varieties (ihe southern Fox grape) and a'so the thin smooth -leaved kind lik; Clinton the northern type. ^ hat is the best aspect for a grape-vineyard ? 122 AGRICULTURE. PART V. CHAPTER XXVI. HORSES. ORIGIN OF HORSES These animals are not natives of America. The Indians had no horses before the white-man came they went afoot or by canoe. The wild horses of America are the offspring of escaped animals. Geologists have found traces of small animals, supposed to be the ances- tors of the horse, in some parts of America, but these had all disappeared long before Europeans arrived four centuries ago. Horses, as we know them, were originally used in warfare. At present we have many kinds of horses, but all have doubtless come from the same stock or kind. When the wild animal was first tamed or domesticated, we do not know. Climate and food, which varied in different countries, and the uses to which horses were put, gradually produced some changes in form and appearance. Animals that showed the qualities desired such as size, color, form, strength, and fleetness were care- fully treated, and thus there were developed in different countries horses of different breeds, some desired horses for heavy work, animals of heavy body, stout limbs, and strong muscles. Others desired horses for speed, animals of lighter frame, smaller bone, and sound lungs. KINDS OF HORSES. Two classes of horses have resulted. We shall mention here only four breeds of each class. These have become fixed or definite in their characteristics. The HORSES. 123 only way in which to become familiar with these different breeds is by observing the living animals. Heavy horses : 1. The Clydesdale, from the valley of the Clyde in Scotland. 2. The Shire, of the East-central shires of England. 3. The Suffolk Punch, from the Eastern counties of England. 4. The Percheron or Norman, of Northern France. Light horses : 1. The Hackney, of Yorkshire and Eastern England. 2. The Cleveland Bay, from Yorkshire, England. 3. The Standard-bred, of the United States, a trotter. 4. The Thoroughbred, or running horse of England. THE LEGS AND FEET. These are of most importance in a horse "no foot, no horse" is true of it as of no other animal. The feet are constantly striking upon hard earth or stone. Why can a horse bear the strain of so much hard pounding upon its feet and legs ? The parts are being con- stantly reformed ; life is repairing them all the time. The dif- ferent parts are put together with what we may call cushions. Then the parts of the hind legs are not joined in a straight line, and the front legs are not straight as the feet strike the ground. Step from a chair, keeping the leg stepped on perfectly stiff. Notice how the jar goes straight up through the knee to the body. When we jump we bend the knees. SHOEING THE HORSE. But the shape of the legs and the bending of the knees do not save the hoof from all wear and tear. If the shank and foot of a dead horse can be got, it will be an interesting study to take it apart and see the arrangement of the different parts. The wall of the hoof is what we see as the foot stands on the ground. It consists of toe, quarters, and heel. The wall turns in at the heel, forming the bars. Within the bars is the frog. Of what use is the frog ? Should it be much cut down in shoeing ? The varnish 124 AGRICULTURE. Fig. 68. THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE. 1. Face. 2. Forehead. 3. Ears. 4. Muzzle. 5. Cheek or fowl. 6. Poll. 7. Throat. 8. Aarotid. Q. Neck. 10. Crest. iz. Jugular Channel or Furrow. 12. Breast. 13. Withers. 14. Back. 15. Ribs. * 16. Girth. 17. Loins. 1 8. Croup. 19. Dock. 20. Flank. 21. Belly. 22. Point of shoulder. 23. Elbow. 24. Forearm. 25. Knee. 26. Canon or shank. 27. Fetlock joint. 28. Pastern. 29. Coronet. 30. Koot. 31. Ergot and fetlock. 32. Haunch. 33- Thigh. 34. Stifle. 35. Buttock. 36. Leg. 37. Hock. 38. Canon or shank. 39. Fetlock joint. 40. Ergot and fetlock. 41. Pastern. 42. Coronet. 43. Foot. 44. Lower thigh. 45. Point of hock. HORSES. on the hoof is formed by nature to keep the water out on damp ground, and to keep the hoof from drying up and cracking on dry ground. Should the blacksmith rasp off this varnish if it is the natural protection to keep the hoof sound ? Great care must be taken in shoeing young horses while their hoofs are growing larger. On sod, turf, or dirt, it would not be necessary for a horse to be shod, as the hoof is hard, and formed by nature for running over the natural soil and grass. But we cause the horses to work on hard stone roads and pavements, and therefore we fit them with shoes that are harder than their natural hoofs. The hoof is of the same material as our finger-nails we may call the hoof a large, thick toe-nail. The foot is the middle toe, the other four having disappeared. We can cut and pare the hoof and drive nails into it, therefore, without caus- ing any pain. If we cut the nail too deeply, we come to a very sensitive part of the finger. So with the hoof; under it and within it is a very sensitive part of the foot. It we cut into it or drive nails into it, we cause great pain to the horse, and lameness and suffering follow. The horse ' therefore, should always be shod by a good farrier or shoer. When you walk on your toes, or in a pair of boots too high in the heel or too tight, you soon tire out. If good shoes of proper form and weight are so important to us in walking, the proper fitting of shoes of the right weight and size is quite as important to the horse. This is another reason for always having the work done by a good workman. 126 AGRICULTURE. FOOD OF HORSES. The horse has a small stomach, and does heavy work, therefore we must remember that strong food and pure water should be given in moderate quantities, and at frequent intervals. The stomach when empty weighs from three to four pounds, and it will hold three to three and a half gallons. Horses are not built for coarse, bulky fodder. Nature and experience prove that such food as good hay and oats are well adapted to horses that have to work hard either in driving or in drawing. Overfeeding of ourselves makes us heavy and lazy, and causes indigestion. We should be careful to give the horse just enough to eat for its needs, and no more. CARE OF HORSES. Grooming to a horse is the same as washing to ourselves it keeps the pores of the skin clean and gives a good appearance to the horse. Since it does all of its work on its feet, the health of the feet and legs is of the greatest importance ; therefore great care is taken in providing a proper floor for the stable. We do not rest or sleep well in a foul atmosphere ; the horse stable should be kept clean and neat. We do not rest well on too hard a bed, neither does the horse. We do not thrive well when exposed to cold winds or heavy rains, neither does a horse. When we come in from hard work and are in a perspiration, we do not sit or stand in a draught ; the horse is just as likely to catch cold. What is meant by the height of a horse ? In what terms is it stated ? When a horse walks, in what order does it lift its feet ? Describe the actions of the feet and legs in trotting, pacing, cantering, and in galloping. When a horse rises which feet are raised first ? Why does sitting on a horse's head prevent its rising ? Would such action prevent a cow ? Is it natural for a horse to reach up and pull down its food, such as dusty hay ? CATTLE. 127 CHAPTER XXVII. CATTLE. BREEDS OF CATTLE. Cattle formerly included all the live stpck of the farm ; we now apply the term only to bovine cattle or neat cattle. They are descended from wild animals, some of which are still found in the wild condition. As horses were at first used for warfare, cattle were largely used for work. We have now two uses for cattle producing beef and producing milk. There are very many different breeds in these two classes, but we may give the four leading breeds of each class in this country as follows : Beef breeds : 1. The Shorthorn, or Durham, originated in Durham County, England, over 100 years ago from Teeswater cattle. There are some dairy families also among shorthorns. 2. The Hereford, originated in Herefordshire, England, over 150 years ago. 3. The Galloway, a breed of black polled cattle or "doddies," from Southern Scotland. 4. The Aberdeen-Angus, from Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Dairy breeds : 1. The Jersey, from the Island of Jeisey. 2. The Guernsey, from the Island of Guernsey. 3. The Ayrshire, from Ayrshire, Scotland. 4. The Holstein, or Holstein-Friesian. In figure 70 we give the outlines of a beef animal. We shall now refer to a few of these parts. 128 AGRICULTURE. 1. Month. 2. Nostrils. 3. Lips. 4. M uzzle. 5. Kace. 6 Ryes. 7 Cheeks. 8. Jaws. g. Forehead. 10. Poll. 11. Horns. 12. Ears. 13. Neck i. Throat. 15 D-wlap. 16. Shoulders. Fig. 70. THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF A BEEF ANIMAL. 17. Shoulder Point. 33. Plates. irf. Shoulder Vein. 34. Rumps. 19. Klbows. 35. Hips. 20. Arm. 36. Thighs. 21. Knees. 37. Hocks. 22. Shanks. 38. Hind Leg. 23. Hoofs. 39. Brisket. 24. Crops. 40. Bosom. 25. Fore Flank. 41. Chest. 26. Kore Ribs. 42. Loin 27. Mid Ribs. 43. Hooks. 28. Hinder Ribs. 44. Purse. 29. Barrel. 45. Twist. 30. Brlly. 46. Pin Bonfs. 31. Spinf. 47. Tail Head. 32. Flank. 48. Tail. CATTLE. 129 HORNS AND HOOPS. The horns of cattle were intended by nature for defence. In the domestic animal they are not required, hence breeders have aimed at reducing or removing them. The "Longhorn" breed was once a favorite; it has given place to the " Shorthorn." In some breeds the horns have disappeared. These are called "polled" cattle, as the Polled-Angus and the Red Polls. The bone of an animal is largely made up of mineral matter (phosphate of lime), with some oily and gluey substances. Horns and hoofs are quite different from and independent of the bones. When burned, a piece of horn or of hoof will give off a very disagreeable odor. So will hair. The horns, hoofs, and hair are all nitro- genous in their nature. Since the horn is closely connected with a very sensitive part of the animal's head, when dehorning is practised, the horn should be cut off quickly and neatly. The horse's hoof is in one piece ; the feet of cattle are cloven. Is there any advantage to the cattle in this ? Which kind of foot is better adapted to climbing, and which to level travel ? Do all cloven-footed animals chew the cud ? THE MOUTH. When full-grown, we have three kinds of teeth. The front teeth are for biting, and are called the incisors ; the back teeth are broad and double-rooted, formed for grinding, known as the molars; between these are longer teeth called the canines. If you examine the teeth of an ox, you find no upper incisors and no canines. There are eight lower incisors, and six upper and six lower molars on each side, making thirty-two in all, as follows : Incisors - Canines - Molars - 8 o-o 6-6 This arrangement applies to cattle, sheep, goats, and deer, though sometimes canines occur. How would you represent, as above, the teeth of a boy and of a full-grown man ? How those of a horse ? The molars of a horse are larger and broader than those of a cow. A horse bites the grass with the incisors, 130 AGRICULTURE. and by a nod of the head cuts it away. A cow wraps her tongue around the long, coarse grass, pulls it into her mouth, closes the incisors and upper gum upon it, and by a movement of the head tears it away. The horse is therefore able to take the fine grass, and to crop the pasture more closely than the cow. THE STOMACH. Sheep and cattle are ruminants they chew the cud. See Fig. 71. a represents the gullet connecting the stomach and mouth through which the food passes into the stomach, and / the beginning of the intestine through which the food passes out of the stomach. There are four sacs all joined ; b is the first or largest stomach (the rumen, or paunch); c is the second (reticulum) ; d the third (omasum) ; e the fourth (abomasum). When a cow takes in coarse food, it passes into the first or largest stomach until the cow is done eating. Then the cow stops taking in food and begins to digest it. Fig. 71. The four stomachs of a cow. After soaking or steeping some time in the large stomach, it gradually comes back through the gullet to the mouth, to be chewed over and over until it becomes more liquid-like. Then it flows back and passes right on into the smaller stomachs, and thence into the intestines. If liquid food is taken, as in the case of calves, the food passes right on into the third and fourth stomachs. The four stomachs of the cow therefore enable her to take in a large quantity of food, and to digest very coarse fodder. The chewing of the cud enables her to do without the complete set of teeth so neces- sary in the case of horses. The single stomach of a horse holds about 3 gallons, the four stomachs of a cow from 60 to 70 gallons. CATTLE. DAIRY CATTLE. Figure 72 shows the general form of a good dairy cow, an animal in which the end desired is to give as large an amount as possible of rich milk at the least cost for food. Contrast the outlines of this animal with the one shown in figure 70. As a rule, the large dairy herds are com- Fig. 72. Parts of a model dairy cow. posed of grade cows ; these are the offspring of pure-bred sires and common dams. There is an old saying, " The sire is half the herd." This is illustrated in the following table of the offspring of a pure-bred sire and of a common (scrub) sire : Pure-bred sire. Common cows or dams. 1. Grades, one-half pure. 2. Three-quarters pure. 3. Seven-eighths pure. Common (scrub) sire. Pure-bred cows or dams. 1. Grades, one-half pure. 2. One-quarter pure. 3. One-eighth pure (scrub). This statement means that in the first case we start with a herd of common cows and a pure-bred sire. The first genera- tion of calves will all be grades, one-half pure-bred. The calves of these and the pure-bred sire will all be three-quarters pure-bred, and their calves will be seven-eighths pure-bred. 132 AGRICULTURE. If, however, we were to start a herd with pure-bred cows and a common sire, the third race or generation would be only one- eighth pure-bred. The continued use of a pure-bred sire will in a few years bring the herd to the level of the sire. BEEF. As we have got most of our farm animals from the British Isles, the names applied to them have come from the same source. The living animals we call oxen, cows, calves, sheep, swine, but the meat from these same animals we call beef, veal, mutton, pork. Why these two sets of names ? In early times the living animals were tended by the Saxon hind, and the meat was eaten by the Norman lord or baron. Thus the names for the living animals are Saxon names, and the names for the meats are Norman. But what is the meat ? It is made up of fat and lean meat. The lean meat is of the same composition as muscle ; in fact, it is fine, tender, muscle fibre. Now we can easily understand why the differ- ent parts of a quarter of beef are not equally valuable. In some parts the fibre Fig. 73A Side of Beef, . Leg. 2. Round. 3 . Mouse is coarser, more like muscle as we gener- s u s?r c ioin 4 6 V Ru y m p pieC 7' ally know it. We can understand why Sf ; e 8 ndeS h USe SuriS?' J2 . 10 Mid F dTe e rib: the hind quarter, for instance, is tougher rib fcb i 5 ul sh r in 'to. 'clod! towards the smaller or lower i 7 . Neck, or stick ing-piece. s hank. the neck is tough, and why the meat of or ower part or In finding the tenderest cut of the carcass, we look for that place where there is plenty of flesh and little work to be done, that is, where the muscles are least developed by hard work ; this, by reference to Fig. 73, we locate between parts 5 and 8. SHEEP. 133 CHAPTER XXVIII. SHEEP. "The foot of the Sheep bringeth wealth." NATURE OF SHEEP. Our domestic sheep are so harmless that we are not at first thought likely to see in them the descendants of wild animals. Their shyness, their flocking to- gether and following a leader, and their natural inclination to climb hills and even knolls, recall ,the characteristics of their ancestors, the wild sheep of the mountains. They are more closely allied to our cattle than to other farm stock. Like the cattle they are cloven-footed, have four stomachs, and chew the cud. Cattle are more in- clined to the wet bottomland and the water courses, sheep to the dry uplands. t-^ ... . , , , ... FIR. 74. What breed is it? Cattle are coated with hair and sheep with wool. The sheep is one of man's earliest farm chattels, provid- ing him with both meat and clothing, and is of very great usefulness in helping maintain the fertility of the soil. WOOL. Hair and wool contain nitrogen, as you may prove by burning ammonia being given off. Burn a piece of cotton thread and notice the result. The wool of the sheep is for its protection, and therefore the length and thickness of the wool vary with the climate of the countries in which the sheep are living. The same is true of the hair of cattle, as we see in the case of the shaggy covering of the Highland breed of cattle. Horses exposed to the winter weather grow a coarse coat. Food also affects the quality of the wool. If the food is not uniform the wool will become irregular and be of poor quality 134 AGRICULTURE. No other farm animal is so much affected by its surroundings as the sheep. As a consequence we find so many different varieties, and for this reason we must be careful to choose the variety that is most likely to do well in the conditions of the farm on which they are desired to be grown such as situation, climate, etc. Why is wool warm ? Because it is fine and open and holds so much air in its fibres, and this air prevents the heat of the body from going off; as we say it is a poor conductor of heat. It is not because it keeps out cold, but because it keeps in the heat of the body. If you wrap a piece of ice in a loose thick woollen cloth it will prevent the ice from melting rapidly. Why ? Because the heat outside does not pass through or get in. Double windows in a house are a protection, not because of the glass in the panes, but because of the air between the two windows. So the hollow space in the wall of a silo keeps in the heat of the ensilage, and thus prevents it from freezing. A covering of loose snow protects the wheat for the same reason. Now that we under- stand that wool keeps the sheep warm while it is on the sheep's back, we ask why wool can be made into yarn and cloth. If you look at a fibre of wool under a magnifying glass you will see that it is made up of sections, that there are little joints or scales on the wool and when several fibres are twisted together these little scales catch into one another and the fibres thus hold together tightly the wool, as we say, "felts" well. There comes from the skin of the sheep a soapy substance called the "yolk," which covers the inner wool and helps to shed the rain. It prevents the wool from felting on the sheep's body. When the fleece is washed this is washed out and the fleece becomes much lighter. Sheep are by nature fitted to stand cold, but not wet weather they should always have dry quarters. BREEDS OF SHEEP. Sheep of various breeds are found in Britain, from the marsh lands of Kent to the mountains of Wales and Scotland. They have adapted themselves in time SHEEP. 135 to a great variety of soil and climate, and in selecting sheep for a farm it is well to get the breed suited to the situation. The following is a table of the principal British breeds : Mountain Breeds. Upland or Hill Breeds. Welsh, Dorset, Cheviot, Southdown, Highland. Suffolk, Lowland Breeds. Hampshire, Cotswold, Shropshire, Leicester, Oxford. Lincoln, Romney Marsh. The lowland breeds are long-wooled and the upland breeds short-wooled. The lowland breeds are larger than the uplands. The upland breeds are the best mutton breeds. Short wool from 3 to 4 inches long is sometimes called carding wool, and longer wool, from 7 to 8 inches long, combing wool. The principal breeds of 'this country may be arranged as follows, according to the texture of their wool : Fine-w ooled : Merino ; Medium-wooled : Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Ox- ford Down, Cheviot, Horned Dorset ; Coarse-ivooled : Leicester, Lincoln, Cotswold. Is the wool on all parts of a sheep's body of the same texture ? Are all long wools coarse, and all short wools fine ? From what parts of Europe have the above breeds of sheep come ? At what time of the year does shearing take place ? Are goats covered with wool or with hair ? What kinds of cloths are made from wool ? Why is flannel cloth warmer than cotton ? What is shoddy ? 1 36 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XXIX. SWINE. NATURE OF SWINE. The wild hog is still found in many parts of the world. Even in Europe there are districts where wild boars are hunted. From the many kinds of wild hogs our domestic breeds have been derived. In the wild condition the animal is very active, and well able to protect itself by its tusks and teeth. The improving of the \vild animal has changed the form, and made an animal that is quite compact and fleshy, and less active. There is less bone in the hog than in sheep or cattle, as one may see from the following statement, which gives the number of pounds of water, fleshy substance, fat, and ash or bony matter in every 100 pounds of a fat ox, a fat sheep, and a fat pig : Fat Ox. Fat Sheep. Fat Pig. Ib. Ib. Ib. Water 48 46 43 Fleshy matter 15 13 n Fat 32 38 44 Ash (bony part) 5 3 2 Thus it will be seen that a fat pig has more fat and less bone in proportion to its weight than a fat ox or a fat sheep. GROWTH. Although the hog has cloven hoofs, it does not ruminate or chew its cud as do the cow and the sheep. Therefore, we may conclude at once that it does not digest its food in the same way as they do. It has only one stomach. And yet we find that the hog grows in weight more rapidly. How do we explain this ? There are three things to be con- sidered : First, the kind of food which the animal eats ; second, the means which the animal has of digesting its food ; and, third, what the food, after being digested, is used for. SWINE. 137 First, as to the food eaten. Pigs are able to eat a greater variety of foods than cattle or sheep. The wild hog lives on grass, roots, nuts, etc. Our domestic hogs are generally fed the richest kinds of food peas, corn, wheat, skim milk, flesh meal, etc. Pigs will greedily devour the richest rations day after day of which most other animals would soon become tired. Second, as to the power of digesting food. As we have stated before, the animal digests and takes up its food through the stomach and intestines. The pig has a small stomach, but a very long intestine. The following table gives an idea of the weight of the stomach and intestines in proportion to the whole body, and also the weight of the four quarters : Cattle. Sheep. Swine. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Stomach 4^ 2^ i Intestines...., 2 2^ 4 Four quarters 47^ 45 73 Thus it will be seen that in cattle the stomach is over twice the intestines in weight, in sheep about equal, whereas in swine the intestines are over three times the weight of the stomach. We conclude that swine have small stomachs, and can take only a small amount of food at a time, but, because of their very long intestines, they are able to digest the food much more thoroughly that is, they feed frequently and digest their food thoroughly. Third, as to the use made of the food digested. They are not so active as sheep or cattle ; they are generally more shut in, and therefore they do not use up as much of their food through exercise. English experiments prove that, out of every 100 pounds of digested food, cattle use 23 pounds, sheep 26, and swine 43, for making increase in their bodies. When, further, we remember that swine increase in number so much more rapidly than cattle or sheep, we can understand why the keeping of swine is so profitable a part of farm work. 138 AGRICULTURE. BREEDS OF SWINE. Every country has its own peculiar breeds of swine. In England there are, besides many others, the following : The Large White, the Small White, and the Middle breeds (so named according to their size and color) ; also the Black Suffolk or Essex, the Berkshires, the Dorsets, and the Tamworths. In America there have been developed breeds known as the Chester White (Pennsylvania), the Poland China (Ohio), and the Duroc or Jersey Red (New Jersey). The Yorkshires and Improved Yorkshires of America are derived from the Large White swine of England. FEEDING OF SWINE. In producing pork and bacon, three things are to be noted : Selection of the right kind of swine ; feeding the best kind of food ; housing the animals in suitable quarters. In producing swine for bacon and hams that are required for city consump- tion, hogs of medium size, that produce lean meat and fat in proper proportion, are the best. Foods such as the bye-products of milk, peas, wheat, and barley, will produce more lean meat and less fat than corn. The hog is sometimes considered a dirty animal. For this the owner is as much respon- sible as the animal. Clean housing and good care will pay with swine as much as with other animals. Fig. 75. Two sides of pork, showing method of cutting up. 1 Streaky quarter. 9 Lnin. 2 Rib quartet. 10 Fillet. 3 Middle quarter. n Shou'der. 4 Hams " 12 Prime streaky. 5 End of neck. 13 Thin 6 Middle of neck. 14 Flank. 7 Thick back and sides. 15 Middle of gammon. 8 Prime back and ribs. 16 Knuckle of gammon. 17 Fore end. POULTRY. 139 CHAPTER XXX. POULTRY. ORIGIN. In addition to the common poultry of the farm, we have turkeys, geese, ducks ; also guinea-fowls, pea-fowls and pheasants. These are all closely related to various kinds of wild fowls and some of them are very similar to these wild fowls in appearance. In our common fowls there are very many varieties of breeds, from the small bantams to the large brahmas, differing in size, in shape, and in the color and form of feather or plumage. It is believed that all have been derived from one original source, a wild breed of fowl. Many consider that the common Jungle Fowl of India is the source from which have come all the varieties. This fowl is somewhat like the Black-breasted Red Game, and is still found in India. Others think a wild fowl now no longer found is the ancestor. How have our breeds been formed ? Just as new breeds are now being formed. Suppose we take a flock of fowls and observe them from year to year, as they increase in number. We shall get some chickens that, as they grow, show differences in form, size and color. Even if they are all one variety, here and there one will appear having some slight difference from the others. We select two or three that have a new coloring in their feathers that we desire to continue. Those selected are differ- ent from the others, but similar to one another. We place them by themselves and allow them to breed. The chickens that we raise from them will probably have the same peculiar kind of feathers. We select those that are most alike and breed from them. After a few years we may be able to raise a number of fowls that are quite similar in appearance to one 140 AGRICULTURE. another, out quite different from the original flock, and whose chickens will resemble the parent fowls. Thus a new variety or breed will be obtained. Or we may take birds from two different kinds of fowls and cross them. By carefully selecting only those that have the peculiarities that we desire to preserve, we shall soon get a new breed which may be improved in size and shape by selecting only the best, male and female, to breed from. Thus the Plymouth Rocks have been obtained by crossing American Dominiques with Cochins. It is very important to note that the fowls are so readily changed in form gg^I 22 =S^^.V 22 Fig 76. Parts of a Fowl. 1 Comb. 12 Main tail feathers. 2 Face. 13 Wing-bow. 3 Wattle. 14 Win? coverts forming the "bar. 4 Earlobe. 15 Secondaries. 5 Hackle. 16 Primaries, or flight feathers. 6 Breast. ^7 Point of breast bone. 7 Back. 18 Thighs. 8 Saddle. 19 Hocks. 9 Saddle feathers. 20 Legs or shanks. 10 Sickles. 21 Spur. 11 Tail coverts. 22 Toes or claws. POULTRY. 141 and feathers. Breeds that are so readily changed will soon run out unless care is constantly taken to improve them, by weed- ing out the poorest and keeping the best with care. THE PARTS OF A FOWL. Since all have the same origin we may expect that they will all have some characteristics in common. The general form is the same. Fig. 76 gives us the names of the various parts. VARIETIES. In some varieties, such as the Cochins, the Langshans, and the Brahmas, the feathers extend down the outside of the legs or shanks. From this fact we sometimes have the fowls divided into the two classes, the smooth-legged and the feather-legged. The different breeds are further sub- divided according to the color of their plumage ; thus we have Dark Brahmas and Light Brahmas ; also Black, Buff, White and Partridge Cochins. Another mode of classing fowls is into laying varieties and sitting varieties. Sometimes they are classed according to the country or region from which they have been derived, as Asiatics, Mediterraneans, Americans. CHARACTERISTICS. Common fowls have four toes, three in front and one to the rear. They are not web-footed, there- fore we conclude they are fitted by nature for hard dry soil. What is the use of the web foot in ducks and geese ? The toes have sharp strong nails for scratching. From this we notice that they should be supplied with a dry run where they can scratch and exercise themselves and their young broods. Fowls take their young to seek for food and birds bring food to their young in the nest. They need plenty of sunlight, as we may conclude from watching chickens basking in the sunshine. How do fowls drink water? Have they teeth? What is the use of the crop in fowls ? As to food we have only to remember what the fowls require food for to conclude that they need plenty of rich food. They are constantly growing feathers which are rich in nitro- gen, their flesh is principally lean meat, their eggs are what we 142 AGRICULTURE. call "strong meat." For their good health they need also some green food. The shells of their eggs are largely com- posed of lime, therefore we must give them mineral matter, especially when more or less shut in and when the ground is covered with snow. They are fitted by nature for picking out the richest food, such as insects and small seeds. The health of the fowls depends greatly upon having a variety of clean food to eat, clean water to drink, clean places in which to roost and nest. The fowls keep their coats and skins clean of insects by dusting, as do many other animals. Because of the rich food, such as grains and insects, which fowls feed upon, we may expect the droppings to be rich in fertilizing material. The richest manure made upon the farm is that from fowls. It should be carefully saved and used where it will do most good. The use of gypsum or sifted coal ashes about the hennery, especially under the perches, (not common lime or wood ashes) will keep the buildings clean and sweet. In washing the buildings with lime or other disinfectant, the orchard spray pump may be used. EGGS. A good flock of laying hens should lay on the average ten dozen eggs each. The egg consists of the shell, which is porous, the lining or membrane, the " white " or albumen, and the yolk. Can you give any reason for some birds' eggs being nearly spherical in shape, and others oval like hens' eggs ? In which end is the air chamber of an eg% ? Why is a stale egg lighter than a fresh egg ? What is meant by " candling " eggs ? Why is the shell porous ? Why does the setting hen turn the eggs under her ? What is an incubator ? How long does it take to hatch a chick from an egg ? Why does a " moulting " hen not lay eggs ? What are the principal methods of preserving eggs ? Which is the better test of a laying hen ? The number of eggs laid, or the total weight of eggs laid ? MILK. 143 CHAPTER XXXI. MILK. MILK. Nature provides as a food for the young calf the milk of the mother cow. For a short time after the birth of the calf this product is called "colostrum." In a few days, however, the cow gives in her udder milk such as we use. The giving of milk is to a great extent an acquired habit. In the case of breeds raised for beef only, as in the case of Herefords, the quantity of milk given is not large. Where, however, the aim has been to produce dairy cows the continued practice of milking has gradually increased the flow of milk. The knowledge of this is important. For instance, if we begin by milking a cow, say for only six months, and then allow her to go dry, she will of herself be inclined to go dry thereafter at about the end of six months. If we do not thoroughly milk out a cow at first, she will gradually drop off in her flow. It is of importance, then, to thoroughly milk out the cows, especially as the strippings are the richest portion of the milk. Anything that irritates or disturbs a cow will cause her to " hold up " and to produce a poorer milk. The cow as a milk-producing animal, it must be remembered, is very much what her owner makes her, and she will give many of her qualities to her calf. If we place some milk in a tall, narrow glass, and allow it to stand for a while, there will gradually rise to the top a thick substance, sometimes yellowish in color, which we call cream When this cream is churned, we get from it butter, which is an oily substance. Carefully remove the cream, and allow the other portion of the milk, the skim-milk, to stand for some time until it thoroughly sours ; we shall find that a curdy 144 AGRICULTURE. substance separates and leaves a bluish water behind. The cream or butter, then, is an oil or fat which is mixed through the milk, and from the fact that it comes to the top we conclude that it is lighter than the skim-milk. It is not dissolved in the water of the milk as sugar is dissolved in water, but is simply mixed with it or distributed through it in very fine particles ; in fact, we can put it back into the skim-milk if we pour the two together from one vessel into another before the milk sours. It is in the form of what is called an "emulsion." When fresh milk is run through a cream separator, the heavy skim-milk is thrown away from the lighter fat or cream. This cou ld not be done if the fat were dissolved in it. Milk, then, contains water and fat or oil butter-fat, as it is called. Now Fig. 77. Milk, showing the fat globules take SOme skim-milk and Slight- floating in it. . A i r ly warm it. A thin scum forms upon it. This scum is composed principally of albumen, a nitrogen compound similar to the white of egg, which becomes white and nsoluble by heating or cooking. It forms but a small portion of the milk. If, however, we put a few drops of rennet or vinegar into the skim-milk, a curdling at once takes place, and a considerable quantity of material is thrown out of solution and floats about as a curdy or cheesy mass ; this is the casein of the milk, also a nitrogen compound. Then we have at least two nitrogen compounds in milk the albumen, which is curdled by heat, and the casein, which is curdled by acids. The latter is in much larger quantity than the former, and both are in solution in the water of the milk. We can readily prove that these two contain nitrogen, and differ therein from the fat. Take some pure butter and burn MILK. 145 it on the end of an old knife, then burn some casein curd or cheese, and notice the strong ammonia smell from the latter. If, now, we pour off the clean water from the curd, and carefully evaporate the water in a saucer placed over the steam of a kettle or in a slow oven, we shall get a white substance that tastes sweet but gritty ; it is the sugar of the milk, called milk- sugar or lactose. Finally, if we carefully dry out a little dish of milk and burn it thoroughly, we shall have left a small quantity of ash or mineral matter. Milk, therefore, consists ot water, having particles of butter-fat floating in it undissolved, and having in solution casein and albumen, milk-sugar, and ash. The composition may be stated as follows : Water, from 80 to 90 averaging 87.0 per cent. Fat, from 2 to 10 ........ . " 4.0 " Casein or cheesy substance .. " 3.0 " Albumen " 0.5 *' Sugar or lactose " 4.8 " Ash or mineral matter " 0.7 " A pitcher of warm water gives off vapor into the air, but a pitcher of ice water will have vapor settle up its sides from the air. So it is with milk. Milk is warm when first milked and we can smell the odor, the cow odor, as it passes off into the air ; but it soon begins to cool down and vapors of the air will settle upon its surface as upon the cold pitcher. If, there- fore, we leave a pail of milk standing in the stable, or near any food that has a bad smell, it will take up foul air that can after- wards be tasted in the milk, the butter and the cheese. As soon as milking is done the milk should at once be taken to a clean milk-house or cellar. But bad odors and tastes can be given from the food. Thus turnips, bad ensilage, cabbage, rape and weeds of many kinds will affect the milk. All such should be kept from the animal. Here we see a strong argu- ment for keeping pastures clean. Every trace of musty food such as mouldy ensilage or rotting roots should be kept from 146 AGRICULTURE. the cows. The mangers should be kept sweet. No more food should be given than the cows will eat up clean, otherwise the feeding boxes may become stale. The best way to get good flavored milk is to feed only such foods as will give a good flavor. A plentiful supply of salt always within reach will improve the digestion, increase the eating power, keep the system in good condition, and increase the flow of milk. Fig. 78. The udder, left s : de, with skin removed, a is an artery wi'h branches c, d, and e carrying blood to different parts; ^ is a vein with branches g, h, ando; / is a lymphatic gland; m is the milk vein; t is a nerve, of which u is a branch and x is a continuation. Beneath and connected with the above parts is a milk gland, the outlets of which are through these two teats. In the upper part of each of the teals is a small milk cistern. On the opposite side of the udder is a second gland having outlets through the two right teats. Out of the blood brought to the udder through the arteries, th<: cells next to the glands are formed. These cells are gradually changed into milk, which fills the glands and the milk cisterns, and passes off through the nipple of the teats. PRODUCTS OF MILK. CHAPTER XXXII. PRODUCTS OF MILK. CREAM. The cream is formed by the particles or globules of fat which, because they are lighter than water, rise to the surface. These globules are very small it would take about 2,000 of the largest of them placed side by side to make an inch. To see them, they must be examined under a powerful microscope. Some of them are smaller than others. The larger they are, the more rapidly they will rise, and the more quickly and thoroughly the milk will cream. Milk with large fat globules is therefore adapted to butter-making ; that with small fat globules is well adapted to cheese-making. These fat globules are not transparent ; therefore instruments are some- times used to determine the quantity of fat in milk by determining how much water must be added before the milk can be clearly seen through. Such instruments are called " lactoscopes." The separating of the cream from the milk is done either by placing the milk in pans or cans, and allowing the cream to rise of itself, because it is lighter than the water ; or by running it through a machine called a "separator." This consists mainly of a steel bowl, which is caused to revolve at a very high rate of speed. The water, being heavier, flies to the outside next to the bowl, and flows off by one spout, and the cream is left behind in the inner part of the bowl, and flows off by another spout. In order to allow the water and cream to separate more easily, the milk is warmed slightly before it is run into the bowl. The cream by this process is separated in 148 AGRICULTURE. a fresh, sweet condition, whereas by the "cream-setting" process it may be more or less soured or ripened. The richness of milk in cream varies greatly with the different breeds, the different animals of the same breed, the period of milking, and the portion of the milk taken. The strippings or last portions of the milk are richer in cream than the tore-milk or first portion milked, as the water comes away from the udder in larger portions at first, and the fat appears to be set free in the udder by the process of milking. Ordinarily cream will contain from 55 to 65 per cent, of water, 25 to 40 per cent, of fat, and some sugar and casein. If the milk sours during creaming, so as to cause the casein to curdle, more casein will be carried along with the fat. r l herefore, the milk should be kept cool in creaming by the setting process. In creaming milk, the purpose should be to remove the butter-fat as thoroughly as possible, in as sweet a condition as possible, and with as little water as possible. SKIM-MILK. This is the milk that has been skimmed of its cream, or from which the fat has been removed by the separ- ator. If we could take all of the fat, and only the fat, we would still have left in the skim-milk the water, casein and albumen, sugar, and ash. The skim-milk would contain a large amount of very important food compounds, viz.: casein and albumen, which can make muscle and flesh, or form fat, or be burned up to produce heat ; sugar, which can be used for producing heat ; and ash of the best kind for making bone. Thus we see that skim-milk is a most important food, only the fat is lacking to make it a perfect food for young animals. We can replace this fat that has been removed in the cream by mixing with it a small quantity of some oily food, such as a little boiled linseed. If, then, we take away the milk from the young calf for making butter, we can give it back to it by adding linseed or some rich meal to the warm skim-milk, and thus imitate the natural cow's milk. When the cream is PRODUCTS OF MILK. 149 removed by the separator, the skim-milk is still quite sweet, but when we allow the milk to rise in shallow pans, or even in deep cans, the milk may become a little soured, unless we keep ice or cool water around it. When liquids become sour it is because of the forming of what we call an acid, like the acid of vinegar. The acid that is formed in milk when it first sours is called lactic acid (from the latin word lac, meaning " milk "). This lactic acid is formed from the sugar of the milk or the lactose. Since the sugar is very soluble, any water that goes off in the cream will contain lactose, so that lactic acid will form also in cream. This acid at once acts upon the casein, changing it from a soluble substance to an insoluble substance ; therefore, as soon as acid begins to form, the milk will begin to curdle. This lactic acid is not nearly so valuable for food as the sugar from which it is formed ; therefore, sweet skim-milk and sweet whey are always more valuable for feeding than sour milk or sour whey, and care should be taken to keep them as sweet as possible. But why does milk sour? What causes the sweet sugar to change to the Fig. 79.-Yeast plant, magnified. sour ac j_ o fi fin j-.' eS to C/3 O B rt 1 3 00 a; ^ >-. o o t o ^- y2 Milk, whole 87 i z 4.O 4.8 O 7 Milk, skimmed QO 1 8 O.=; c.o O 7 Linseed I 2 2 I 7.6. IQ. ^ 8.0 7 C Oil Cake (old process) . Oil Cake (new process) Oatmeal 9 10 8 3 34 I c IO.O 3-o 7.O 36 39 67 9 IO i J'J 6 7 2 Cottonseed Meal ..... 8 40 I 7.-O 26 6 7 Pasture grass 6e A I O 18 C) 2 ? Meadow Hay, average . Red Clover, average . Wheat Straw *3 15 I O 6 12 ?. c 2 -5 3-o i i 45 39 1-2 29 2 5 7,8 * J 4-5 6.0 j. Oat Straw IO 4.O 2 7. 42 T.7 e Pea Straw IO 7.o 2.C 2 C. C 40 r Corn Stalks 4O 4.O I.O 77. 20 2 Wheat ... . I I 2 2 77Q 2 2 Barley I I 2 C 2 60 c 7. 2 Oats I I 2 e 60 o () Corn I I O c c 70. o 2 I r Peas I 2O 2 O e 7 I 2 * J -> o Bran -> I - r i Q 6 Middlings I 2 1 3 I r 61 C } Mangels no 1 I c O 2 6 7 I Turnips DO I O 2 6 8 I Carrots OO I O 4 6.6 I Potatoes So 2 O I I 7.O I Corn Silage . 80 2 I IO.O 6 160 AGRICULTURE. ALBUMINOIDS. Compounds like albumen or white of egg, the casein of milk, the gluten of wheat, and the fibrin of meat, are known as albuminoids or protein. They are all compounds containing nitrogen, and are the flesh-forming substances of food. They are very low in roots, a little larger in grass, still larger in hay ; so that we see that they increase as plants ma- ture. They are very low in straw, but quite large in grain. Why is this ? As the wheat, oats, and other plants are grow- ing they take up food from the air and soil and, until blossom- ing time, all their food is contained in the leaves, stalks, and roots. After blossoming the seeds form, and material that has been stored in the stalk and leaves is used to build up the seed. In most plants very little valuable food is taken into the plant through the roots after the time of blossoming. The leaves continue taking in carbon and the roots water, and therefore starch and sugar continue to increase, but the other substances are about all in the plant by the time of full bloom. Out of the leaf and stalk the most valuable materials are then carried into the seed ; thus we find the nitrogenous com- pound, the fats or oils, and the most valuable ash compounds, especially the phosphates, stored up in the seed or grain, and not in the straw. FAT. For the reasons just given we must look for fat or oil principally in the grains. Some seeds, such as flaxseed, con- tain a very large amount of oil. STARCH AND SUGAR. These materials are very much alike in composition ; they are composed of three elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen, we have learned before, are the two elements composing water. These two are found in starch and sugar in the same proportion as in water, but not as water, and therefore such compounds are sometimes called " carbo-hydrates." They are found in large quantities in all plants and parts of plants, forming as FOOD OF ANIMALS. l6l much as 70 per cent, of some kinds of straw. Notice that this class of compounds does not form one of the leading classes of constituents of the animal body. FIBRE. Woody fibre this is sometimes called. A young plant is easily bent and pulled to pieces ; it contains little fibre. As the plant grows older it becomes stiffer and tougher, because the fibre increases. Wood that we burn is nearly all fibre, and we know how tough and indigestible it is. There- fore, we conclude that a large amount of fibre makes a food less valuable. The fibre is formed from the starch and sugar by the addition f)f carbon. It forms the walls of the cells of plants, and therefore is sometimes called by the name " cellu- lose.' ASH. The ash or mineral matter is found in all parts of the plant, but, as has been stated already, the most valuable ash is stored up in the seed or grain. The cell walls of the plant fill up with carbon and ash as the plant grows older, and therefore the sap cannot flow through so easily, the cells dry up gradually, and the plant becomes stiffer and tougher. REFKRKNCES : The teacher who wishes to study the subject matter of this chapter further may consult " Feeds and Feeding," by Henry, " Cattle Feeding," by Armsby. 1 62 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XXXV. DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. WHAT is DIGESTION ? The food which the animal eats must pass into and become part of the blood before any use can be made of it. The fuel which keeps it warm or supplies energy to enable it to do work ; the compounds which go to the building up of bone, muscle, flesh, organs, wool, and all other parts of the body ; the material out of which milk is made all these come from the blood. This material in the blood is made up from the food which the animal eats. The blood may be called a liquid flowing through the body con- taining the material in solution. But the solid portion of our food consists to a large extent of such substances as starch, sugar, fat or oil, nitrogenous compounds, such as the gluten of wheat, the white or albumen of egg, and the fibrin of meat. Of these sugar only is soluble. It is necessary, therefore, to change these insoluble parts of food into soluble forms so that they can pass into the blood. This changing them into soluble forms in the various organs of the animal's body is "digestion." The changes are brought about in the mouth, in the stomach, and in the intestines, and the agents that cause the changes are ferments somewhat similar to the minute forms of life already referred to in the curing of cheese, and nitrifi- cation in the soil (see pages 149 and 150.) There are three forms of compounds in the food to be digested those similar to starch (the carbohydrates), the fats or oils, and the nitrogen compounds (the albuminoids). These we shall refer to as we follow the course of digestion. DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 163 THE COURSE OF DIGESTION. The food is first bitten off and taken into the mouth, where it is cut up and ground fine by the teeth. At the same time a liquid called the saliva is set free from glands in the cheeks and under the tongue. This saliva not only moistens the food so that it can slip down the throat or guilet, but it also acts upon the starch, converting it into sugar, thus changing it from an insoluble to a soluble form. Thus digestion begins in the mouth. Thorough chewing of the food not only breaks up the food fine so that it can be acted upon by the juices of the body, but also helps to set free saliva and mix it with the food to digest the starch. When we remember that starch forms a very large portion of most of our vegetable foods, we see that thorough mastication the food is very necessary to good digestion, and " bolting '' the food by man and many other animals a common cause of indigestion. The food passes from the mouth into the gullet, which is a tube formed of tough elastic rings that can contract and expand as required. Through the gullet it passes into the stomach. Here it comes in contact with the gastric juice, which is a secretion of the stomach. The gastric juice acts principally upon the albuminoids, changing them into soluble forms. Some of the soluble and digested food here passes into the blood, but most of it goes on through into the intes- tines. Just below the stomach, and on the right side, is the liver, which builds up or secretes a liquid called bile. This bile flows into the intestines and acts upon the fat of the food, forming with it soluble compounds. Other secretions come in contact with the food, acting upon the albuminoids and starch to complete the digestion ; and through the walls of the in- testines the soluble foods now pass in large quantities into the blood. The rest of the food that cannot pass into the blood moves on and is ex{)elled from the body, forming the solid excrement. The solid excrement therefore consists of the 1 64 AGRICULTURE. insoluble portion of the food, that which could not be digested by the secretions of the mouth, stomach, and intestines, and any soluble matter that was unable to get into the blood be- cause of the animal being fed too rapidly or in too large quantity. Its value as a fertilizer will therefore depend upon what we feed and upon how we feed. It may be 'worth much or very little. At this point it will be worth turning back and reviewing what has been said about the four stomachs of the ruminants (cattle and sheep), the small single stomach of the horse and the pig, and the long intestines of the pig. CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. The next question is as to the movement of the blood through the body the circulation of the bloo^d. We start at the heart, which is the headquarters of the blood system, the pumping-station of the system. The heart is made up of muscles which expand and contract and thus give motion to the blood. When the heart stops beating, when it ceases to work, the animal life stops and death takes place. We can feel the beating of our heart. On the inside of the wrist we can feel the throbbing of our pulse. On the side of the head between the ear and the temple we can feel the same throbbing. Where do you find the pulse of a horse, and the pulse of a cow ? You have doubtless seen an ox heart; if not, try to get one and examine it. In shape it is like a large pear or egg. There are two divisions, one up and down and one across, dividing it into four compartments. The two smaller divisions in the upper or larger part are called the right and the left auricle, and the two larger lower parts are called the right and the left ventricle. The different parts of the heart are connected with tubes that go to all parts of the body, and the four compart- ments are connected by valves. By the movement of the muscles of the heart the blood is driven along. How is its course directed or controlled ? Perhaps you have seen a mill- DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 165 race or a small canal with a swinging gate that will open in only one direction. When the water rushes against it one way it opens the gate and passes on ; if it rushes back it shuts the gate and thereby stops itself. So in the heart, the valves open only in one direction, and the tubes of the heart have valves that allow the blood to flow in only one direction. Thus by means of these automatic or self-closing little gates the course of the heart's blood is controlled and the circulation is always properly directed. Now let us very briefly follow the course of the blood. It comes from all parts of the body into the right auricle through two veins, whose valves open only towards the heart. The heart contracts and the blood flows into the right ventricle through the opening, whose valve opens only towards that ventricle. From the right ventricle it goes by an artery to the lungs, where it gets a supply of fresh oxygen from the air and where it gives up its load of carbonic acid gas to be breathed out into the atmosphere. Thus purified it comes back by the veins to the left auricle. Then it passes to the left ventricle. From the left ventricle it is forced out of the heart through the arteries and is carried to all parts of the body. These arteries divide and sub-divide until they become a network of fine tubes called the capillaries. These capillaries uniting again form the veins which carry the blood back again to the right auricle. Thus every beat of the heart sends fresh blood out to all parts of the body, and the old blood comes back to be purified before being sent out again through the arteries. The veins are the tubes that carry the old blood to the heart ; the arteries are the tubes that carry the fresh blood from the heart. We see, therefore, why the cutting of an artery is much more dangerous than the cutting of a vein. In cutting an artery we open up the flow direct from the heart the sluice- gate is opened for the free flow of the blood. With tha stomach, and especially with the intestines, are 1 66 AGRICULTURE. connected a large number of capillaries. Into these flow the dissolved portion of the blood. After passing through the liver system the material is carried in one of the veins to the heart (the right auricle).. In Figure 80 we have a con- densed and modified illustration showing how the blood circulates through the body. The arrows show the direction of flow. The black channels are the veins, and the unshaded the arteries (ex- cept Nos. 10 and 12). i is the left side of heart; 2, the right side ; 3, the aorta from the left ventricle ; 4, artery to abdomen ; 5, capillaries; 6, vein from ab- domen ; 7, artery to head ; 8, ca- pillaries ; 9, vein from head ; 10, artery from right ventricle to lungs; n, the lungs; 12, vein from lungs to left auricle; 13, ar- tery to intestines ; 14, small in- testine; 15, capillaries and veins from intestines carrying away digested food; 16, portal vein; 17, artery to liver; 18, liver; 19, vein from liver ; 20, lacteals ; 21, duct leading to vein going to the heart by which some ab- sorbed material is taken into circulation; 22, artery to the kidneys; 23, the kidneys; 24, vein Fig. 80. -The circulation of the f rom t h e kidneys, blood in the body. DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 167 Thus we have seen how the digested food gets into the blood, and how the blood is carried through all parts of the body. The next question is as to what is done with this blood. USES OF THE DIGESTED FOOD. The animal must be kept warm, and therefore some food is required as fuel. The oxy- gen of the air comes in through the lungs and unites with the material in the blood, or with material such as fat formed from the blood. To keep warm, therefore, food and fresh air are necessary. Now you will understand why brisk walking, running, or working in fresh air, even in cold air, will cause you to become warm, especially if you have been well fed. It is like starting a fire with plenty of good dry fuel and opening the draughts. Then there is bone to be built up in one place, muscle in another, wool or hair in another. If the animal is growing, food is necessary ; even if it is not growing food is necessary, for the old parts are constantly wearing away and new parts being formed. If the cow is giving milk, the material of the milk must be formed out of the material in the blood. If the horse is doing hard work there must be material in the blood to replace the muscle that is being worn away, and also to be used up to produce the force or energy that we see resulting in work. THE WASTE MATERIAL. In the burning up of food to produce warmth, in the using up of food to produce work, in the working over of material to form flesh, muscle, fat, bone, wool, or milk, there will, of course, be more or less waste or refuse material. How is this refuse material got rid of by the animal ? In three ways : by the lungs, by the skin, and by the kidneys. THE LUNGS. Animals breathe in pure oxygen and breathe out carbonic acid gas and moisture. They should therefore be able to get pure air and not be compelled to breathe over again the air that has already come from their lungs, for it 1 68 AGRICULTURE. contains some refuse of their bodies. If we shut up an animal in a close room it will smother. The animal must have fresh air. Proper ventilation is necessary for the good health of all animals. Exposure to cold draughts, however, must be care- fully avoided. THE SKIN. The small capillaries come out close to the skin, which is filled with pores or tiny openings. We may say that animals breathe through their skin, and through the pores of the skin rid themselves of a large amount of used-up or refuse matter. We help the animal, therefore, by keeping its skin clean. When we curry or rub down a horse or a cow we do for it what we do for ourselves in taking a bath. A clean skin is necessary to the health of an animal. We should keep in mind that every pore is the outlet of a little drain whereby the refuse of an animal is carried out of its system. If these little drains are choked up sickness may follow ; if they are kept open the system is helped very much in its cleansing process. The regular and proper currying and brushing of a horse means more work from the horse ; the currying and brushing down of a cow means more milk. Cleanliness always pays. Science and practice are agreed upon this point. THE KIDNEYS. The blood in its circulation goes to all the organs of the body, building them up and supplying ma- terial for their various uses. All parts of the body are con- stantly changing ; some quite rapidly, as the brains ; some quite slowly, as the bones. The old portions that are being replaced have to be removed. We have just above stated that through the lungs and skin carbonic gas and water are constantly being thrown off. But there are many other sub- stances, such as the nitrogen compounds and the mineral com- pounds, which cannot escape by way of the lungs and skin. How are these got rid of? The kidneys, which in human beings lie below and behind the stomach, near the back, are DIGESTION AND USES OF FOOD. 169 the organs that do this work, freeing the blood from these refuse compounds and passing them off in the liquid excre- ment or urine. This liquid excrement, then, is a solution of material that comes from the blood, muscle, bone, etc., of the body, and, therefore, we may conclude it will contain valuable fertilizing material, more valuable as a rule than the solid ex- crement. The liquid excrement consists of the dissolved waste of the blood, muscle, bone, and other parts of the body ; the solid excrement consists of the indigestible and undigested portion of the food. None of the waste nitrogen or mineral matter of the animal escapes from the body through the lungs, but all passes off through the kidneys. Hence the great importance of carefully saving, by litter or otherwise, all the liquid excrement for use as a fertilizer. When we sell grain, hay, straw, and roots, we take away from the soil of the farm all the nitrogen and mineral matter which they contain, we really sell part of the soil upon which these foods grew. When we feed these to stock and sell the animals or their products we sell but a small portion of these soil constituents ; by far the larger portion is found in the solid and liquid ex- crement. The economy of feeding stock upon the farm lies then in the saving of all the excrement, especially the liquid, and returning it to the soil upon which the plants originally grew, and from which we wish to derive more food. CONCLUSIONS. The uses of food in the animal may now be stated briefly as follows : 1. To produce heat to keep the body warm. 2. To produce force or energy to enable work to be done. 3. To replace the waste from all parts of the body. 4. To increase the body in bone, muscle, flesh and fat. 5. To produce milk, wool, etc. Every animal must be kept warm. Every animal does some work or uses up some energy even when standing still or lying down ; all parts of the body are constantly wearing away and 12 I/O AGRICULTURE. being reformed. Therefore, first of all, food must be given for these three purposes before any increase in fat or flesh takes place, before any hard work is done, or before products such as milk are obtained. It is only from the excess of food that the fourth and fifth uses can be supplied. When we wish an animal to work hard, to increase in flesh and fat, or to produce milk we must feed liberally. Poor feeding, there- fore, will give us no return at all beyond keeping the animal alive, but liberal feeding must be done where we wish to get some return. CARE OF ANIMALS. If we leave animals out exposed to rough weather we shall have to increase the food to supply heat; if animals are compelled to work hard to get their food or are restless and excited, they must use up more food. The proper housing and protection of animals will save food, and the keeping of them in quietness and comfort will also cause a saving. Thus we see that good care means a saving of food for the first two requirements mentioned before, and is quite as important as proper feeding ; in fact good care is one of the most important parts of good economical feeding. Good feeding implies the selection of the foods suitable for the wants of the different classes of animals, the preparing of the food in suitable and attractive forms, and the proper care of the animals during and after feeding. BEES. 171 PART VI. CHAPTER XXXVI. BEES. BEES. We can carefully observe a bee on a thistle top or a roadside flower. It will not harm us if we do not disturb it. There are two pairs of wings very thin, like a membrane, hence the bees are said to belong to the order of hymenoptera. When not flying, these wings fold in closely together; when flying, they spread out and the inner pair hook or hinge on the outer pair, so that the bee is able to carry a heavy load. Perhaps we can see the long tongue which it can thrust away down into the cup of the flower to take up the juice or nectar. This little tongue can be twisted about as an elephant twists its trunk, and it has a sort of brush on the end with which the nectar is swept up. The nectar or sweet juice of the blossom is carried up into the mouth and from there it passes into a little sack called the honey-bag. When its honey-bag is F\K. 81. A bee gathering full it goes home to store away this nectar from a blossom. i T r 11 i honey. If we could see its legs under a magnifying glass we would notice that they are hairy and have some hollows along the side. What are these for? We have before learned that the blossoms of flowers produce pollen. Some of this pollen the bee needs for food, and the pollen is carried home in the hollows of its hind legs. Some 172 AGRICULTURE. of the pollen will cling to other parts of the bee, and so, when it goes from one flower to another, it frequently carries this pollen to blossoms that have none of their own or that cannot use what they do have. The bees (and other insects also) in this way help to make plants fruitful, to fertilize them as we say. But there is another part of the bee that we shall find out be- fore we desire to do so if we anger or disturb it, namely, the sting. It is found in the rear end of the abdomen, and con- sists of two long sharp lances. It can be pushed into one's hand but cannot easily be drawn out. When the bee cuts into the flesh it throws into the cut a drop of poison through the lances with which it pierces. It leaves the sting in our flesh, causes us pain because of the poison, and itself soon dies. We may then conclude that bees will not readily sting, but do so simply when disturbed and as a last resort in self-defence. THE HIVE. We go to the hive and there we find perhaps 20,000 of these honey gatherers, or "workers" as they are called. Inside, if we can look through a glass side, we see one larger bee surrounded by a dozen or so of the others. This is Fig. 82. Drone. Queen. Worker. the Queen or mother bee, whose duty it is to lay eggs. There is only one Queen. After once settling down as the mother of the hive she never goes out except when "swarming,'' but day after day lays eggs, as many as 2,000 in a single day. Then we observe some others that do no work, so far as we can see, they are the " drones." The family or swarm then will consist of one Queen bee, 20,000 or more workers, and BEES. 173 500 to 1,000 drones. The Queen is the female or mother that lays the eggs, the workers are females that gather the nectar and do the work, and the drones are the males. THE COMB. Next we observe the comb. It is made up of hundreds of cells in which the honey is being packed, and in which young bees are being hatched. In shape they are six- sided. Why six-sided? If you draw a lot of circles touching one another there will be some vacant spaces between. If you draw squares or triangles you can fit them closely together, but there will be sharp corners to fill in. Now if you draw a lot of regular six-sided figures you can fit them all together, there will be no vacant spaces, and no sharp corners. Cells of that shape will be strongly built. In fact you cannot improve on the shape of the cell which the bee makes. The comb is made up of wax, bees-wax we call it. The bees make this out of honey, but it takes some time, and therefore bee-keepers help the bees in their work by starting it for them. They make the beginnings or foundations of the combs for the bees. These foundations are put in, and when completed by the bees can be easily taken out separately. This is one reason why we get much more honey from our hives than we would from the wild hives of the bees where they have to be con- stantly making the whole cells for themselves. Some of the cells are used for storing honey and pollen, and some are used by the Queen bee for hatching out the young bees. The egg is laid in the cell by the Queen. Then the workers place beside it some jelly made up of honey and pollen to be used as food. In about three days the egg hatches and a little larva appears. This feeds and grows, and in about six days fills up the cell. Then the bees put a cover or lid of wax thread on the cell, the larva goes into the second or pupa stage (see page no) that we have noticed in connection with other insects, and in about twelve or fourteen days the perfect bee appears and comes out of the cell, a worker bee. The 1 74 AGRICULTURE. cells in which the drone bees are hatched are a little larger and the time to form is a few days longer. When a queen bee is required a different process is needed. Perhaps the old Queen has died or is going away with a swarm to form a new home. A larger cell than either of the others is made, the egg is laid, and a special kind of food called " royal jelly " is placed within. In less time than before the young Queen bee appears. Thus it takes about 16 days for the Queen to be produced, 21 for a worker, and 24 for a drone. There are many things in regard to the production of these three classes of bees that cannot be explained. HONEY. The bees can gather honey only while the flowers are in bloom, therefore they work rapidly and store up large quantities for winter food. In an ordinary hive a colony of bees will put away from 50 to 100 Ibs. The bee-keeper at the end of the season takes out part of this for his own use, leaving enough for the use of the bees until the next flowering season comes around. But what is the honey? The bee takes the nectar or juice out of the flower ; in its honey-bag some slight change probably takes place, and in the cell, before being capped over, more change occurs. But just how nectar becomes honey as we know it, cannot be fully explained. Bees gather honey from many different plants that blossom at different times of the year, and the honey varies in quality according to its source ; thus we have clover honey, thistle honey, basswood honey, buckwheat honey, golden-rod honey, etc. In fruit blossoming we find the bees in large numbers in the orchard, and, as before stated, spraying with poisons, such as Paris green, should be discontinued while the trees are in full bloom. KINDS OF BEES. Just as we have common cattle and also pure-bred that have been improved by care, so we have different kinds or varieties of bees. They are generally named accord- ing to the country whence they come, as English, Italian, BEES. 175 Syrian, Cyprian, etc. These differ just as much as Shorthorns, Jerseys and Ayrshires. Some are quiet, others are very ill- tempered. In addition to our honey bees there are other kinds of bees, such as the humble-bee, whose tongue is long enough to get into the nectar of the red clover. We have here given only a very few of the simplest facts in regard to bees. There is no part of nature that will be found more interesting or more profitable than the study of the busy bees. SWARMING. In the fall of the year the wild bees complete their store of honey, packed away usually in a hollow tree. As the weather grows colder the bees go out less and less. Winter sets in and we find the bees all bunched together, clinging to one another in a half-asleep mass, a drowsy bunch that can be handled without any fear of stinging. On bright, warm days some of the bees may venture out for a while. In this dormant condition they eat but little. Spring comes on and the early flowers appear. The hive again becomes active and the hatching of the young brood begins. The old queen, with a part of the bees, starts off to seek a new home, leaving the old home for the new queen and her followers. Swarming takes place, the bees fly away in a cloud and settle in a tree probably. The bee-keeper is on the watch, he follows them and shakes them down into his basket, and places them in an empty hive, where they soon take up their regular work of storing honey. SUGGESTIVE : Should the fruit grower keep bees ? Why ? Name some useful honey-yielding plants. How does " clover honey " differ from " buckwheat honey "? 1 76 AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER XXXVII. BIRDS. " And the birds sang round him, o'er him ' Do not shoot us, Hiawatha !' Sang the Opechee, the Robin, Sang the Bluebird, the Owaissa, ' Do not shoot us, Hiawatha ! ' " LONGFELLOW. MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS. As winter goes and the warm spring begins, the buds show life and the grass shoots up. Then we look for the return of the birds. They come back to us at first two by two, or in small flocks. Sometimes we see great flocks flying past, high over head, steering straight north for the regions where they may find food and nesting places. They went far south to escape the winter's snow and cold, and they come back to us to build their nests and rear their young. A few of the fliers may stay with us all winter long if they find their natural shelter, but most of them fly south in the fall and return in the spring. We look for their coming as we look for the spring, and we are never disappointed, though year by year we see many changes. Some birds are missed and new kinds are welcomed. The bluebirds, for instance, may disappear for a few years. We think they have been driven out or de- stroyed. If our eyes and ears are trained, however, we may see and hear them passing to new fields further north, flock after flock of thousands passing by overhead in the early morning. USES OF BIRDS. Sometimes we think they do more harm than good, and we are apt to call them a nuisance. But how we would miss them ! If their singing and chattering were completely silenced, we would soon wish for their return; and BIRDS. 177 we would long for a sight of them in their varied form and coloring, even if they did not sing for us. Many of the wild birds, the game birds, of course, supply food for man, and their usefulness no one questions. But, apart from their singing and their beauty of form and color, of what use are the other birds the robins, the bluebirds, the yellow-birds, the blackbirds, the woodpeckers, the blue jays, the meadow larks and the very many other birds of our gardens and fields? That depends on what they feed upon. FOOD OF BIRDS. Many birds are fond of fruit and will take some of the cherries and berries of the garden, others will help themselves in the grain field. This, however, does not prove that they are a nuisance and should be destroyed. As a rule the birds feed upon the food which is most readily got weed seeds, fruits, or insects. If fruit is plentiful they will take some fruit, but if insects are about they will greedily pick them up and in quantities that will astonish us. Birds that feed upon insects are called "insectivorous." Most of our common birds are more or less insectivorous, and while they do some injury by robbing the fruit trees, berry-bushes and grain fields, they do far more good by devouring great quantities of insects that if allowed to live would inflict most serious injury. The only way that this can be proven by you is by carefully watching the birds as they go about through the garden, or as they carry food to their nestlings. On examining the stomachs of many birds that are supposed to be the most destructive to fruit, large quantities of destructive insects have been found. If the birds do take some fruit it must be remembered that as a rule they pay well for all they take. It may be set down as a safe rule that most of our birds do more good than harm, and our aim should be to encourage them, and not to destroy them. It has been estimated that one bird will devour or destroy about 2,400 insects in a year. Even the English sparrow, blackbird, and crow are known to destroy large numbers of 178 AGRICULTURE. insects. Birds of prey, such as the hawks and owls, destroy large numbers of field mice and other vermin that are very injurious to growing crops and stored grain. PROTECTION OF BIRDS. There are some birds that appear to be very destructive. Some hawks are much dreaded because they kill young chickens ; the crow, blackbirds, or bronze grakles, are the bitter enemies of many of our common birds, and crows have few friends because they pull up the sprouting corn. They take the corn at that time because it is softened in the soil and can then be eaten by them. Even crows, however, feed largely on insects when insects are to be got. The Eng- lish sparrows, also, have made themselves very much of a nuisance because they nest about the houses and barns and steal oats from the field. Even these three kinds of birds make up for some of their badness by destroying insects. One of the most objectionable birds is the cow bird or cow black- bird, which is a parasite, that is it lays its eggs in the nests of birds smaller than itself. The true owners of the nest are pushed out by the intruder when hatched. What we need to learn, however, is that we should protect most of the birds rather than destroy them. Some try to en- courage the birds to nest by setting up small houses, placing empty boxes and cans in the trees, hanging pieces of twine and hair upon the fences and limbs The general rule that we should follow is leave the birds alone, do not molest or dis- turb them, keep away from their nests. They will soon learn that they can come and go in safety and build their nests and rear their young broods without fear, and year by year they will return to their old nesting-places and will repay us for their assurance of safety. The birds are the farmers' friends, but they must be treated as friends. How many birds can you name and describe? What birds frequent the fields, and what birds are found along the streams and small lakes ? BIRDS. 179 Make a list of all the birds of your locality under these heads : Those that make their nest in the grass ; those that nest about the house and barn; those that nest in the orchard trees; those that nest in the foliage of forest trees; those that seek a hollow in the tree. What birds of your locality rear two broods in one season ? Which are the best singers of your birds ? What is the difference between a bluebird and a bluejay ? Between a blackbird and a crow blackbird ? Between a wren and a greybird ? Between a cedar bird and a grosbeak ? Between a barn swallow and a field sparrow ? Between a robin and a Baltimore oriole ? "It is well known that of the various groups of birds the majority live upon insects. Among the insect eaters are the fly catchers, warblers, woodpeckers, nuthatches, orioles, goat suckers, hummingbirds, tanagers, waxwings, gnatcatchers, kinglets, vireos, thrushes, wrens, titmice, cuckoos, swallows, shrikes, thrashers, creepers and bluebirds. " It is not generally known, however, that the so-called seed-eaters feed their young largely upon insects, and eat a great many themselves; nor is it realized how much good they do by eating weed seeds. Professor F. E. L. Beal has calculated that the little tree sparrow in Iowa alone destroys 1,720,000 Ibs. of noxious weed seeds every year. Moreover, in summer seed-eaters cat blueberries, huckleberries, striwberries and rasp- berries, and distribute their seeds unhaimed over thousands of acres which would not otherwise support such growth. " After the examination of about forty birds, the only one actually sentenced to death is the English sparrow. Of all the accused hawks only three have been found guilty of the charges made against them the goshawk, Cooper's, and the sharp shinned while the rest are numbered among the best friends of the fruit grower and farmer. Of the wood- peckers, the sap-sucker and redhead may be beneficial or injurious, according to circumstances, but the rest of the family are highly beneficial. To most of the rem lining birds tried the evidence is decidedly creditable. The crow, crow blackbird and cedar bird are acquitted, as doing more good than hmn; and it is proved that agriculturists owe especial protection and friendship to the phosbe, kingbird, catbird, swallow, brown thrasher, rose-breasted groslwak, house wren, vireos, cuckoo, oriole, shore lark, loggerhead shrue and meadow lark." FLORENCE A. MERRIAM, of Washington, D.C. i8o AGRICULTURE. " Within certain limits, birds feed upon the kind of food that is most accessible. Thus, as a rule, insectivorous birds eat the insects that are most easily obtained, provided they do not have some peculiarly disagree- able property. It is not probable that a bird habitually passes by one kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing, and there seems little evidence in support of the theory that the selection of food is restricted to any particular species of insect, for it is evident that a bird eats those which, by its own method of seeking, are most easily obtained. Thus, a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds among the dead leaves and grass; a fly-catcher, watching for its prey from some vantage point, captures entirely different kinds; and the woodpecker and warbler, in the tree tops, select still others. It is thus apparent that a bird's diet is likely to be quite varied, and to differ at different seasons of the year. " The practical value of birds in controlling insect pests should be more generally recognized. It may be an easy mattter to exterminate the birds in an orchard or grain field, but it is an extremely difficult one to control the insect pests. It is certain, too, that the value of our native sparrows as weed-destroyers is not appreciated. Weed seeds form an important item of the winter food of these birds, and it is impossible to estimate the immense numbers of noxious weeds which are thus annually destroyed. 'If birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and garden th . y will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds, and a few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds, martins and wrens will prove a good investment. Birds are protected by law in many states, but it remains for the agriculturists to see that the laws are faithfully observed." PROF. F. E. L. BEAL, B.S., Asst. Ornithologist, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Build houses for the birds. Nesting boxes. FORESTRY. l8l CHAPTER XXXVIII. FORESTRY. THE PRIMEVAL FOREST. What was the appearance of North America four hundred years ago, when it was first discovered by Columbus and by Cabot ? Let us turn to a map of the continent. Along the west coast we have the great mountain ranges, beginning at Alaska and continuing south through Mexico. These were covered with thick forests, in some places the trees being of enormous size. A large portion of this great primeval forest still remains untouched, especially in British Columbia. Then notice the mountain ranges on the eastern side. As they cross into Canada they become lower, branching into two sections, the one going north-east through Labrador and the other north-west through Ontario or off towards Alaska. In between these two branches lies Hudson's Bay. This whole eastern section was covered with a dense forest extending from Florida to the bleak lands of Labrador and away off north-west towards Alaska and the barren lands. It covered all of the Eastern States, the eastern provinces of Canada, all of Quebec and Ontario, and a part of the North-west Territories. Down through the central part of the continent stretched the prairies, treeless except on the hills here and there or along the rivers. Much of this original eastern forest has been cut away by settlers or killed by forest fires, but some still remains in the mountainous parts of the Eastern States and in the northern parts of Maine, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. 1&2 AGRICULTURE. RANGE OF FOREST TREES. This great forest of eastern North America was composed of many varieties of trees, each variety growing where it thrived best. In some places they were mixed, as though scattered by mere chance ; usually, however, the different kinds were confined to certain districts , where the conditions were favorable. Thus we here and there come upon a white pine belt ; in one place we find a forest of maples, in another oaks or elms. As climate and soil are the two things that largely control or determine forest growth, we may expect to find the various kinds of trees confined to certain limits. If we trace across the country a line marking the places up to which each kind of tree is found growing, but beyond which it will not grow in any very large numbers, we shall thereby get lines which mark what are known as the " northern limits " of these trees. These lines will not run east and west, nor will they be parallel in all places. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the inland lakes and Hudson's Bay have the effect of making them very irregular. The northern limits of the most common trees will be found to be about as follows: Chestnut, black walnut, hickory, butternut, red cedar, white ash, beech, and basswood in southern Ontario ; somewhat further north, hemlock, red oak, sugar maple, yellow birch, red pine, and white pine; still further north, white elm, black ash, balsam, poplar, and spruce. It must be noted that this order is not always followed, as both soil and climate have their influence, and the effect of fire has been to change the nature of the forests. As a rule evergreens will grow in colder climate than the trees that shed their leaves (deciduous), and of the latter the nut-bearing varieties are usually found in the milder climate. An interesting study is to find out the different trees growing in a locality, and to determine the nature of the soil in which they thrive ; which, for instance, grow in low, damp places, and which in dry, gravelly soil, or on rocky hills. FORESTRY. 183 DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST. What has destroyed this great forest ? First of all, the settler had to clear the soil for his roads and for his fields of grain and of pasture. In early days of settlement two of the principal products of the farm were the logs and timber from the body of the trees and the ashes made from burning the top branches and small cuttings. To-day the cutting of lumber is removing year by year large quantities of trees, but the natural growth of young trees is more than sufficient to make up for this cutting, if properly carried on. The great agent of destruction to-day is fire. One forest fire will sweep away or destroy in a few weeks in summer or autumn far more than all the lumbermen remove. The fire burns rapidly because of the inflammable material, such as resin, in the evergreens. At the same time it destroys the young sprouting seedlings and the seeds also, which would otherwise soon start a new forest that in twenty- five or forty years would replace the old forest. BENEFITS OF FORESTS. Of what use are the forests? In the first place, they are a great protection against cold winds, modifying the climate as great wind-breaks. They also hold back the snows of winter, preventing spring freshets. When the country is laid bare of its trees, the creeks and streams are full in early spring and dry in midsummer. Although the trees give off enormous quantities of water through their leaves, yet they hold back or store up in the loose leaf mold larger amounts of water. The trees, therefore, hold back the snow, and later hold back the water, and thereby save the creeks from becoming dry. They also save the hills from being washed bare. The loss of soil washings by the creeks in spring is heavy. Every spring, therefore, should be shaded by trees at its source, and every stream, no matter how small, should be protected, not alone at its source in the high lands, but also along its course, by at least a fringe of trees. 184 AGRICULTURE. In the next place, the forests are the home of birds and game, which are a source of supply of food and furs. Trees and forests also add to the fine appearance of a country, whether found along the streams and rivers or on the hill tops. Trees for all hilly country is a good rule to follow. It is there that the streams take their rise. Land there is of less value for grain crops. When we lay bare the hills we cut down the wind-breaks, we dry up the springs and streams, and we leave a poor soil, to be made poorer by the washing of the rains and the blowing of the winds. We should remember that the forest is a crop of the farm, and its nature should be considered as carefully as that of any other crop of the farm. THE FOREST AS A PRODUCER OF CROPS. If the trees are a crop, how should that crop be harvested? We cut down all of a wheat crop at one time. If we are growing a crop of corn for green ears we do not pick all at once, but go over the field again and again, taking the ears that are full-grown and leaving the small ears to grow larger. If we were to cut down a whole forest or a wood, as we do a crop of wheat, we would have to wait many years for a new crop. But if we take out each year only the largest trees, and leave the others standing until they grow to full-size, we can harvest a crop of trees every year, and at the same time assist the smaller trees to grow more tapidly. The cutting down of trees, large and small alike, is wasteful; the proper cutting of trees, leaving the young forest to make growth, is alone worthy of the name of forestry. There is only one way in which to become acquainted with trees, and that is by studying the trees themselves as they are growing. In studying a tree the following points are to be noticed. First, as to whether it is an evergreen or whether it sheds its leaves (that is, deciduous) ; second, the general shape of the tree, whether it grows tall or spreads out, how it branches ; third, the form of its leaves ; fourth, the nature of its bark ; and, fifth, the nature and form of its seeds or nuts. FORESTRY. 185 Contrast the cedar and the maple ; contrast the branching of the elm and of the beech ; contrast the leaves of the maple, of the oak, and of the ash ; contrast the bark of the hickory and of the birch ; contrast the seeds of the pine and of the basswood. THE FOREST TREE NURSERY. Every farm should, and every school might, have a small nursery, a plot fenced off so that cattle and pigs cannot get into it, and which should be as well tended as a flower garden. Here are the instructions of a forester, Sir Henri Joly, of Quebec : "With a little attention, it is easy to tell when the seeds are ripe. Thus, toward the end of June and early in July the seeds of the elm and those of the plane are ripe; if you sow them at once, they will shoot up nearly a foot that same summer. The seeds of the maple, ash, oak, wild cherry, and walnut mature in the autumn ; it is better to sow them immediately than to keep them in the house all winter. Sow, let us say, maple seeds half an inch deep, and others, in proportion to their size, two or three inches for nuts. Sow thickly, and after the first year you can thin them by transplanting some. After four or five years you can plant your young trees where they are to remain. You should select cloudy or rainy weather in the spring. "In many cases you can even spare yourself the trouble of sowing. When the ground is favorable in July or August, along the ditches, the woods, the fences, in the moss, in damp places, in the neighborhood of (he elms and the planes, you will find hundreds of little shoots which have sprung from the seeds fallen from the trees; plant them in your nursery. "The seed of the pine is very difficult to gather. Early in the spring, in the pastures near the pines, you can pull up, when the soil is damp, as many little trees as you will wish to plant; for this kind it will be better to take the precaution to shelter them from the sun until they have taken root." 13 1 86 AGRICULTURE. From this nursery you can set out a row of maples or elms along the main road and the lane, taking care to keep them well apart, so that they will branch out and not shade the road too much ; you can also plant a wind-break for the house and the garden ; you can cover the hilly ground and protect all springs and water courses ; you can also plant a small clump in a corner of the pasture, being careful to protect it from the cattle till well grown ; you can locate a few trees near the house, but not too near. There will be no difficulty in finding a place for every tree, and, if properly cared for, every tree thus set out will add to the value of the farm or the home. 1. How many different kinds of maple, of oak, of birch, of cedar, of elm, of ash and of pine are found in your neighborhood? 2. What is pulp ? What trees are used for producing pulp ? 3. Which is more valuable, a pine from the open or one from a pine forest? Why? 4. Why will a hollow tree live and a girdled tree die ? 5. What causes the rings in a tree, and the grain in a board ? How can you tell a tree's age ? 6. How is maple syrup made? When? Do any other trees give similar products? 7. What causes a knot in a pine board and a burl in an oak tree ? 8. What is the effect on forest growth of allowing cattle to browse and range through the wood lot. 9. What are the principal uses in manufacture of maple, ash, elm, birch, oak, hickory, basswood, black walnut, cedar, hemlock, spruce, and white pine ? 10. Explain the difference between log, timber, and lumber ; board, plank, and deal ; straight-cut and quarter-cut ; selected, mill-run, and culls. How is lumber measured ? Cone of white pine. (One half natural size.) ROADS. 187 CHAPTER XXXIX. ROADS. " A good road is one that is good in bad weather." EARLY ROADS. The Indians made their journeys by canoe routes and by trails. The former followed the winding streams and lakes, shortened in places by portages or "carries." The latter were narrow footpaths that wound in and out, up and down, following the easiest natural route. There was little or no attempt at making or improving the road or path. Large stones and fallen trees were avoided, not removed, and a good surface to the path was got only by long use, not by any attempt at direct improvement. The condition of the roads is a fair test of civilization the savages do not make roads. When the settlers first came into the forest to make their homes, the first thing required was a road by which to get in to and on to the lot. This road was made as quickly and as cheaply as possible. The trees were cleared away, making the " road allowance," some of the stumps were removed, and the road was thus used in its first stage. It was found, however, that such a road was impassable and useless in the spring and fall or during heavy rains, it needed drainage. Then followed the next improvement, namely, the cutting of a ditch on each side, the dirt from which was thrown upon the road, thereby raising the centre a little above the sides. This second stage was a great improvement ; the water drained off into the side ditches, and the roadway was kept fairly dry. The wheels of carts and the feet of horses and of oxen do not cut into the dry earth so easily as into the mud. Such a road as this we call a dirt or earth road. Many are still found, and they are 1 88 AGRICULTURE. the only kind of road possible in certain places, but in order to be useful they must be kept well rounded up and well drained on the sides. The greatest enemy of all roads is water, whether it is water in the material of the road or on the surface of the road. The frost can do no damage unless there is water in the road. You know that water expands when it freezes, so that when a wet road freezes it heaves, and becomes broken up. This, then, is the first principle of road-making keep it dry by open drains on the side, or by covered tile drains on the side, or by tile drains below the road. The next principle in road-making is to get a fairly hard surface. In early days the settlers sometimes cut down small trees, and, after trimming them, laid them side by side across the dirt road. By this means there was made a surface that was hard but a little rough. Such a road, from its ribbed nature, was called a "corduroy" road. Later on, when saw- mills became common, sawn-planks were sometimes laid down, forming a plank road. The object in both cases was to get a hard, level surface. A horse can pull but a light load through loose sand or deep miry mud ; he can draw much more on a hard, level road ; he can draw still more on a level steel track. Why is this so ? GRAVEL ROADS. Another way to harden the surface is to put hard, stony material upon it. First of all, good gravel may be used, and a coating of it laid along the roadway. You will at once ask as to whether loose gravel will not be difficult to drive through. So it is. Therefore we must get the gravel well packed together, and so a roller is used. After first rolling the dirt roadway, a layer of gravel is put on, and the heavy roller is again driven back and forth, every time crush- ing the gravel down a little, and packing it together a little more closely. This should be done scores of times if neces- sary. The number of times will, of course, depend upon the weight of the roller; a heavy 2o-ton steam roller will not need ROADS. 189 to be passed over the gravel as often as a 6-ton roller drawn by two teams of horses. Unless the gravel is rolled in this way, it remains loose and soft when the fall rains come on, the wheels of wagons cut through it, and mix it with the mud beneath ; and so the gravel is wasted and the road is not nearly so good as it should be. Then more gravel is put on and rolled again, and a nicely rounded or crowned surface is made which will shed the rain-water into the side ditches, and which is so hard and compact on the surface that the wheels will not cut through. But big open ditches on the side are unsightly ; they get choked up with weeds, and they are frequently dangerous to horses and travellers. They should be kept clean, of course, so that the water will not stand in them. But the better plan is to put down a covered tile drain on each side of the road, and leave only a shallow ditch above it. The grass will grow over this, and a neat roadside will result. Fig. 83. A gravel road properly crowned, with side ditches and tile drains. In order to get a strong, tough surface, the gravel must be well packed together, that is, it must "bind." If we mix together in the road coarse gravel and fine hard stony material and soft fine dirt the road will soon become uneven. It is necessary, therefore, to have the gravel well screened ; then the coarser part should be spread on the roadway and well rolled, and the finer gravel spread upon it to form the surface. All soft material, such as sods and loose dirt, should be kept 190 AGRICULTURE. out of the gravel ; in short, the gravel should be as clean as possible; it should be screened, graded, and put on in layers, and should be well rolled. STONE ROADS. As a rule, gravel is more or less rounded, and therefore does not at first bind well. You know that a road could not be well made out of marbles. To bind well there must be sharp corners and rough sides on the pieces. So we find that broken stone will make a stronger and more durable road than will gravel. But we must remember the points already referred to, namely, the road must first of all be thoroughly drained, both underneath and on the sides; the stone must be put down in courses, the largest below and the smallest on the surface, and every course must be thoroughly Fig. 84. This is the kind of road that is made by placing loose stones on a dirt road without prope stones sink through the mud be . . on a dirt road without properly preparing the foundation the neath. rolled as it is laid. It is a mistake to leave the rolling until the road is all filled in. The dirt sub-soil should first be well rolled. In using broken stone care should be used in choos- ing a tough rock ; if the rock is soft it will soon be ground into dust. Tough limestone and the hard rock called trap are the best. Sandstone and most kinds of granite are too easily crumbled for use on roads for heavy travel. Now, as to the mode of building or laying a stone road. First of all, we may build the road of broken stones, none of which are over three inches in diameter, laying the stone in courses, and well packing it by rolling. In this way we make ROADS. 191 what is called a macadam road. It is so named after a Scottish engineer, John L. Macadam, who lived from 1756 to 1836, and who originated this method of making roads. Fig. 85. A Macadam road. We may, however, begin the road by laying a foundation of flat stones from six to eight inches in thickness, then a layer of coarsely broken stone, another layer or course of more finely broken stone, and a thin coat of fine gravel or screenings on the surface all well compacted by a heavy roller. This kind of road is called a Telford road, from the inventor, Thomas Telford, a Scottish engineer, who lived from 1757 to 1834. Fig. 86. A Telford road. The legal width of a country road allowance is 66 feet. The usual travel on such a road does not require more than 24 feet of this to be graded and crowned. In the centre of this graded portion the metalling (that is, the broken stone or gravel) is placed, having a width of 6 or 8 feet and a dept.li of 9 to 12 inches, according to the number and weight of the vehicles which will pass over the road. As the country becomes more thickly populated, and the number of vehicles IQ2 AGRICULTURE. using the road increases, it will be found necessary to make the metalled portion wider than 24 feet. NOTES : Broad tires should be used on heavy waggons and carts, as wheels with wide tires will not sink so readily in sand and dirt as wheels with narrow tires in fact the wide-tired wheels have the same good effects as a roller on the surface of the road. The greatest enemy to good roads is water in the roadbed and water on the surface. Notice how a small hole on the sur- face of a road becomes larger soon after a rain. The best time to mend a road is just as soon as it needs mending. " A stitch in time saves nine." The road surface should be nicely crowned, so as to shed the water to the side ditches; the side ditches should be kept clean and uniform, so that the water will run away and not stand in them ; the road sides should be level and sloping towards the ditches, and should be covered with sod, all weeds, stumps and shrubs being cut out. The fences along the road should be kept neat and trim. If trees are planted along the roadside they should be far enough apart to allow the sunlight to keep the road dry. As a rule the roads are a sure index of the intelligence, enterprise, and prosperity of a farming community. Poor, cheap roads are a source of great expense to farmers. Good roads, well-kept, will enable the farmer to draw heavier loads in a shorter time, cause less wear and tear on vehicles, horses and harness, add much to the pleasure and satisfaction of living in the country, and increase the value of farm property. A good road brings a farmer nearer to his neighbors, nearer to market, nearer to school, and nearer to church. THE COUNTRY HOME. 193 CHAPTER XL. THE COUNTRY HOME. A FINE COUNTRY HOME. In the older countries of Europe most families of even moderate wealth endeavor to have two homes or residences, a city or town house and a country house. The greater pleasure, the more lasting recollections, are usually associated with the latter. When we clearly under- stand the nature and the surroundings of the rural homes, the country seats, of England, Scotland and Ireland, we do not wonder at the preference. With increased wealth, in the future a similar condition of affairs may, perhaps, result in this country, but the building up of pleasant, attractive country homes in this land need not be put off until the day of increased wealth shall make such possible to a few. Far better will it be for this country if every farmer's home can be made attractive and comfortable. Many men of the towns and cities, wearied and perplexed with the driving cares and the- never-ending anxieties of their busy life, look forward longingly to a time when they can return to the country, for a part of the year at least, to enjoy the quiet, the comfort, and the health- fulness of a country home, even though it may be a very humble home. The young people of to-day will ere long be making homes for themselves ; in fact, even now they can do something towards making their homes more attractive, hence it is not out of place to make a brief study of what the ideal country home should be. Home life in the country, as in the town, is the most important factor in building up character. A nation's life is largely the combined home life of all the families that make up the nation. 194 AGRICULTURE. THE HOUSE. The house depends for its attractiveness not upon what it is made of stone, brick, wood, logs but upon its form, its situation and its surroundings. In deciding upon the outline of a house both plainness and too much variation and decoration should be avoided. It should, if possible, face towards the south, to see the first of spring and the last of autumn ; it should be near enough to the road to bring passing vehicles and traffic within range, and yet not right on or against the road. If possible, from the front there should be a pleasant outlook or landscape. It should stand on rising ground, so that there will be perfect drainage away from it, and no possibility of any drainage towards it. Having selected a good site, we begin with the house, and, of course, start with the cellar. This should extend under the whole house, otherwise some of the rooms may be damp at times. The cellar should be deep enough so that one can walk about in all parts of it erect ; it should have a concrete floor, and a well-laid drain from it to keep it dry. Have windows on all sides, so that the whole cellar can be kept well aired. If it can be arranged, have a root-cellar apart from the house, say in one corner of the garden. All this means a little extra expense, but damp, musty cellars and decaying roots result in sickness, sometimes in death, and the cost of a good cellar will be money well invested. The arrangement of the rooms in the house is a matter largely of choice. There should be a large kitchen, a pantry, a dining-room, and a parlor on the ground floor. There should be also a reading-room or library or study, in which will be found the best agricultural papers, and at least a small collection of the best agricultural books and reports. Two other things should be provided for, namely, one large bow window for house-plants and a grate for a log fire. The sleep- ing rooms may be on the second floor, and, in addition, there should be a store-room and a bath-room. . THE COUNTRY HOME. 195 So much for the inside. On the outside there should be a wide verandah with comfortable chairs. This will be found to be the summer living room. It should run the length of at least one side of the house, and, if the style of the house allow and the outlook be favorable, it should run around on a second side. Both sides will be used in different kinds of weather. Around the supports of the verandah there can be twined a climbing plant, Virginia creeper or ivy or honey- suckle or clematis or climbing rose. THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE HOUSE. Two great essentials to health are pure air and sunlight ; therefore, have plenty of windows, and keep all trees far enough away so that the windows will not be darkened. You wish a fine outlook from your verandah, therefore do not plant trees to hide the view. You should, or may have, a few trees along the main road and on either side of the winding driveway from the entrance-gate, but keep the front well open, so as to let in the fresh air and the sunlight, and so as to allow you to see out and away over the country. In the rear have a clump of spruce, to act as a wind-break against the cold north and north-west winds. On the side you may have a neatly-trimmed hedge of cedar, and here and there you may have a native shrub, but between your house and the road have a sloping lawn of green grass, clear of weeds, and well-trimmed. If the lawn is large enough you might have one or two shapely maples, but do not crowd out the grass or obstruct the view. And the flowers? On the side rather than in front, but choice and taste will settle where they are to go. Perhaps you can make a simple plan or sketch of a home such as we have briefly outlined. You will find that you will have to alter it to suit the general situation and lay-out of your farm, but, keeping in mind these simple principles as a guide, you can, if you will, make in time an ideal country home, which is one of the greatest blessings of any country. AGRICULTURE. SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER : Are not the surroundings of the average country school bare and cheerless? (Fig. 88). May they not be improved by the planting of such native shrubs and flowers as might be picked up in a half- day's outing with the boys and girls? (Fig. 89). In this connection the teacher will do well to consult " Hints on Rural School Grounds," Bulletin No. 160, Cornell University Experiment Sta- tion, from which the accompanying cuts are taken. Fig. 87. A "corner" schoolhouse and how the grounds may be arranged. THE COUNTRY HOME. I 97 Fig. 88. A country schoolhouse. Fig. 8q. How it might be improved by adding M>mc trees and shru Fig. 8q. How it might be improved by adding M>mc trees and shrubs. (From Bulle- tin, College of Agriculture, Cornell University, entitled " Hints on the Planting of Shrubbery," Kigs. 21 and 11.) 198 AGRICULTURE. The leading thought in planting home grounds, but particularly school grounds, is to have a setting of green- sward for the central figure the building and then to frame this with an irregular border of trees, shrubs, and flowers, as shown in Fig. 90. Fig. 90. A picture, of which a schoolhouse is the central figure. The border can always be added to or taken from with- out disturbing the arrangement. A hill of corn or a canna root may be inserted in the background with pleasing effect, while the foreground may be used for annual flowers. TREES AND SHRUBS. 199 APPENDIX. TREES AND SHRUBS. There are special botanical names for all trees and shrubs, just as there are for other plants, such as grasses and weeds. In the following table the scientific or botanical name is put in one column and the common name in the other. In every case two words are used the first being a noun and the second an adjective; as picea, meaning "spruce," and alba y meaning "white." In the same way, que>cus meaning " oak," quercus alba is the botanical name of "white oak," and quercus rubra "red oak." Abies balsamifera Balsam fir. Acer dasycarpum Silver maple. [box elder. Acer negundo Ash-leaved or Manitoba maple or Acer Pennsylvanicum Striped maple or moose wood. Acer rubrum Red or soft maple. Acer saccharinum Sugar or rock maple Ater spicatum Mountain maple. Aesculus hippocastamtm Horse chestnut. Betula lutea Yellow birchj- Betula lenta Black or cherry or sweet birch. Betula nigra Red birch. Betula papyrifera Canoe or paper birch. Betula populifolia White or grey birch. Carpinus Americana Hornbeam or blue beech. Carya alba Shellbark hickory. Carya amara Bitter hickory. Carya microcarpa Small fruit hickory. Carya porcina Pignut. Carya tomentosa White-heart hickory. Castanea saliva ... Chestnut. Fagus sylvatica European beech. 200 AGRICULTURE. Fagus ferug. nea American beech. Fraxinus Americana White ash. Fraxinus pubescens Red ash. Fraxinus sambucifolia Black ash. Gyinnocladus Canadensis Coffee tree. Juglans cinerea Butternut. Juglans nigra Black walnut. Junipcrus Virginiana Red cedar. Larix Americana Tamarack or American larch. Li'-iodendron tulipifera Tulip tree. Oitrya Virginica Iron wood or hop hornbeam. Picea alba White spruce. Picea excelsa Norway spruce. Picea nigra Black spruce. Pinus Banksiana Cypress or jack pine. Finns mitis Yellow pine. Pinus resinosa Red or Norway pine. Pinus strobus White or Weymouth pine. Platanus occidentalis Buttonwood or sycamore. Populus balsamifera Balsam poplar or Balm of Gilead. Populus grandidentata Large toothed aspen. [poplar. Populus tremuloides American aspen or trembling-leaf Quercus alba White oak. Quercus coccinea Scarlet oak. Quercus prinus .... Rock chestnut oak. Quercus rubra Red oak. Quercus stellata Post oak. Quercus tinctoria Quercitron oak. Quercus macrocarpa Bur oak. Salix alba White willow. Salix vitellina Yellow willow. Sorbus Americana Mountain ash. Thuja occidentalis Arbor-vitse or white cedar. Tsuga Canadensis Hemlock. 7'ilia Americana Basswood or linden. Ulmus Americana American elm. Ulmus fulva Red or slippery elm. Ulmus racemosa Cork or rock elm. Ulmus cainpestris European elm. WEEDS. 201 WEEDS. NOTE. A is for annual, B for biennial, and P for perennia'. COMMON NAME. FAMILY OR ORDER. SCIENTIFIC NAME. Buttercup P Ranunculaceee . Cursed Buttercup. .A Tall Meadow rue.. .P False Flax A|Crucifene Shepherd's purse . .A Pepperwort A Pennycress A Wild mustard A Worm seed " .... A St. John's wort P Hypericaceae .. . Cora Cockle A Caryophyllaceac Bladder Campion . . P Field Chick weed.. .P Bouncing Bet P Chickweed A Purslane A Mallow P Indian Mallow A Poison Sumach P Anacardiaceae . . Poison Ivy P Climbing Ivy P Rabbit-foot clover.. A Wild Tare P Black Medick A Sweet clover A Wild Carrot B Umbelliferae Poison Hemlock . . . B Wild Parsnip B Evening Primrose. .B Onagraceae. Willow herb. . ..P Teasel. B Groundsel A Ragweed A Ox-eye Daisy P Yarrow P Tansy P Golden Rod P Cone-Flower B Sow Thistle A Corn Thistle P Fireweed A Burdock B 14 Portulacaceae Malvaceae. . , Leguminosse . . . Dipsaceae . . Composite. Ranunculus acris. Ranunculus sceleratus. Thalictrum polygamum. Camelina saliva. Capsella Bursa-pastoris. Lepidium Virginicutn. Thlaspi arvense. Brassica Sinapistrum. Erysimum cheiranthoides. Hypericum perforatum. Lychnis Githago. Silene inflata. Cerastium arvense. Saponaria officinalis. Stellaria media. Portulaca oleracea. Malva rotundifolia. Abutilon avicennse. Rhus venenata. Rims toxicodendron. Rhus radicans. Trifolium arvense. Vicia Cracca. Medicago lupulina. Melilotus alba. Daucus carota. Conium maculatum. Pastinaca sativa. OKnothera biennis. Epilobium angustifolium. Dipsacus sylvestris. Senecio vulgaris. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia. Leucanthemum vulgare Achillrea millefolium. Tanacetum vulgare. Solidago Canadensis. Rudbeckia hirta. Sonchus oleraceus. Sonchtis arvensis. Krechthitis hieracifolia. Arclium Lappa. AGRICULTURE. COMMON NAME. FAMILY OR ORDER. SCIENTIFIC NAME. Chicory P Composite Cichorium Intybus. Dandelion P Taraxacum officinale. Fleabane A it Erigeron Canadense. Mayweed A Anthemis Cotula. Canada Thistle . . . P Cnicus arvensis. Bull Thistle B ii Cnicus lanceolatus. Bur Marigold ... P ii Bidens frondosa. Elecampane . . P < i Inula Helenium Clot-bur ' A ii Xanthium Canadense Mullein B Scrophulariaceae Verbascum Thapsus N eckweed A Veronica peregrina. Toad Flax P Linaria vulgaris. Vervain P Verbenacese . Verbena hastata. White Vervain P Verbena urticifolia. Motherwort .... P Labiatae Leonurus Cardiaca Catnip P Nepeta Cataria. Self Heal P ii Brunella vulgaris Stickseed B Borroginaceae . . . Echinospermum Lappula. Hound's Tongue. . .B Blueweed B Cynoglossum officinale. Echium vulgare. Pigeonweed A ii Lithospermum arvense. Thorn-Apple A Solanaceae Datura Stramonium. Bindweed P Convolvulaceae . . Convolvulus arvensis. Dodder A Cuscuta trifolii. Milkweed P Asclepiadacese . . Asclepias Cornnti. Plantain P Plantaginaceas . . Plantago major. Rib-grass P Plantago lanceolata. Lamb's Quarters. . .A Strawberry Elite ... A Russian Thistle A Pigweed .... A Chenopodiacese Amarantaceae Chenopodium album. Chenopodium capitatum. Salsola kali Amarantus retroflexus. Goosegrass A Polygonaceae. . Polygonum aviculare. Black Bindweed ... A Lady's Thumb A Sorrel P ii ii Polygonum Convolvulus. Polygonum Persicaria. Rumex Acetosella. Common Dock . . . . P Bittei Dock P " .... R.umex crispus. Rumex obtusifolins. Smartweed A ii Polygonum hydropiper. Nettle P Urticaceae Urtica gracilis. Wild Leek P Liliacese Allium tricoceum. Chess A Gramineae Bromus secalinus. Foxtail A Betaria viridis. Barnyard Grass A Panicum Crus-galli. Witch Grass A Panicum capillare. Wild Oat A A vena fatua. Couch Grass. . . .P Aerropyrum repens. SPRAYING MIXTURES. 203 SPRAYING MIXTURES. The spraying of trees and bushes is done mainly for three purposes : I, to pievent and destroy the leaf-eating insects ; 2, to prevent and destroy sucking insects ; 3, to prevent and destroy the germs of plant diseases. Poisons such as Paris Green (which is a compound of arsenic) are used for the first, kerosene (coal oil) emulsion for the second, and copper sulphate for the third. As a rule the first and third are combined. BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Copper sulphate (or bluestone) 4 pounds. Lime (fresh) 4 ' Water 40 gallons. Place the copper sulphate in a coarse hag and hang it in 5 gallons o' water. Slake the !-me in 5 gallons of wa'er. Then mix the two and add the other 30 gallons of water. Use only wooHen vessels. Pans Green solution is made byotirring up I pound of Paris Green in 200 to 300 gallons of water (200 for apple trees, 250 for plums, and 300 lor peacnes), adJ about 4 gallons of milk of lime. When the Paris Green and Bordeaux mixture are to be used together to check the insects and disease at the same time, make the Bordeaux mixture as above stated and add 4 oz. of Paris Green to ihe 40 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. KEROSENE EMULSION. Hard soap }4 pound, or soft soap, I quart. Boiling water (soft) . j gallon. Coal oil 2 gallons. After dissolving the soap in the water, add the coal oil and stir well for 5 to 10 minutes. When properly mixed, it will adhere to glass without oiliness. A syringe or pump will aid much in this % voik. In using, dilute with from 9 to 15 parts of water. Kerosene emulsion miy be prepared with sour milk (i gillon) and coal oil (2 gallons), no soap being required. This latter will not keep long. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. /J PPLE TONS ' HOME-READING BOOKS. Ed- ** ited by W. T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D., U. S. Commissioner of Education. This comprehensive series of books will present upon a symmetrical plan the best available literature in the various fields of human learning, selected with a view to the needs of students of all grades in supplementing their school studies and for home reading. NATURAL HISTORY, in- eluding Geography and Travel; PHYSICS and CHEM- ISTRY; HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, and ETHNOLOGY, including Ethics and Morals; LITERATURE and ART. Net. The Story of the Birds. J. N. BASKETT $0.65 The Plant World. FRANK VINCENT 60 The Story of Oliver Twist. ELLA B. KIRK 60 In Brook and Bayou. CLARA KERN BAYLISS 60 Curious Homes and their Tenants. JAMES CARTER BBARD . . .65 Crusoe's Island. F. A. OBER 65 Uncle Sam's Secrets. O. P. AUSTIN 75 The Hall of Shells. Mrs. A. S. HARDY 60 Nature Study Readers. By J. W. TROEGER. Harold's First Discoveries. Book 1 25 Harold's Rambles. Book II 40 Harold's Quests. Book III 50 Harold's Explorations. Book IV. (Ready shortly). Harold's Discussions. Book V. (Ready shortly.) .... Uncle Robert's Geography. By FRANCIS W. PARKER and NELLIE L. HELM. Playtime and Seedtime. Book I .33 On the Farm. Book II 42 Uncle Robert's Visit. Book III 50 The Work of Rivers and Wind. Book IV. (Ready shortly.) . Mountain, Plain, and Desert. Book V. (Ready shortly ) . Our Own Continent. Book VI. (Ready shortl).) .... The Animal World. FRANK VINCENT 60 N?ws from the Birds. I.EANDER S. KEVSF.R 60 Historic Boston and its Suburbs. KDWARD F.VERETT HAI.K . . .50 The Earth and Sky. EDWARD S. HOLDEN 28 The Story of Rob Roy. EDITH D. HARRIS .60 Our Country's Flag and the Flags of Foreign Countries. EDWARD S. HOLDEN . .So The Story of the English Kings according to Shakespeare. Dr. J. J. BURNS 65 Our Navy in Time of War. FRANKI.IM MATTHEWS . . . ,6< Uncle Sam's Soldiers. O. P. AUSTIN 7i (Others in preparation.) These books will be found especially desirable for supplementary reading in schools. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. NEW YORK. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. THL: LIBRARY OF USEFUL STORIES. Illustrated. i6me. Cloth, 40 cents per volume. NOW READY. <~THE STORY OF THE BRITISH RACE. By JOHN 2 MUNRO, C. E. H~HE STORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. By J. JOSEPH JACOBS. York Htrald. " Professor Shaler fortunately possesses a popular sty' e . a "d what he writes on a scientific topic is entertaining as well as instructive. This book is illustrated with a number of splendid full-page cuts, whicn admirably illuminate the work." Baston Globe. " Professor Shaler, of Harvard, in the well-worded text and the handsome illustra- tions, presents an interesting and instructive volume to the students of physiography. It is a simple study of the earth's history, revealing Nature's processes and its continu- ous and increasing, unceasing energies. It is well calculated to arouse an interest in geological study, as it furnishes the key to unlock some of the great mysteries the stu- dent meets in this broad field of science. ... He explains many curious phenomena. The work is very free from technicalities, and is so plainly told as to be easily under- stood by every intellectual reader." Chicago tnUr-Oitan, D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. r)IRD-LIFE. A Guide to the Study of our Common ~*-^ Birds. By FRANK M. CHAPMAN, Assistant Curator of Mammal- ogy and Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History ; Author of " Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America." With 75 full-page Plates and numerous Text Drawings by Ernest Seton Thompson. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. Also, edition in colors of the above, 8vo, cloth, $5.00. " \ volume exceptionally well adapted to the requirements of people who wish to study common birds in cue simple-.! and most profitable manner possible. . . . As a readily intelligible and authoritative guide this manual has qualities that will commend it at once to the attention of the discerning student." Boston Beaccn. "An interesting mass of data collected through years of study and observation. . . . While accurate from a scientific point of view, it makes delightful reading for those who will soon be among the flowers and the fields." Philadelphia Inquirer. " A careful reading of this book, which is well indexed, will open the eyes of many who have never seen the beauties of our birds before, and one can not help being in- terested in the book. While the ornithologists owe Mr. Chapman a debt of gratitude for putting forth such a delightful volume, the ordinaiy reader owes him more, bring- ing, as he does, that reader in close touch with a new and beautiful world the world of birds. The book is decidedly charming from every point of view." Cincinnati Commercial Tribune. " Unusually beautiful in itself, but it deserves praise because the colored pictures of the birds approach more nearly the natural appearance than usual. . . . Compared with these, the colored pictures of birds one usually sees are gaudy." Boston Herald. " His chronicles are full of the enthusiasm of the born naturalist. He gossips about the affairs of birds in a delightful strain, making ' Bird-Life ' an irresistible invitation to a fuller study of ornithology. It is not dry details he offers, but pretty stories, bio- graphical sketches of interestine families all sorts of birdlnre, that proves the most enchanting reading. A great advantage i:i this work will be found in the beautifully colored illustrations, . . . which have received the greatest care in preparation." Chicago Evening Post. LTANDSOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN * 1 NORTH AMERICA. With Keys to the Species ; Descrip- tions of tLeir Plumages, Nests, etc. ; their Distribution and Migrations. By FRANK M. CHAPMAN. With nearly 200 Illus- trations. I2mo. Library Edition, cloth, $3.00 ; Pocket Edi- tion, flexible morocco, $3.50. " A book so free from technicalities as to be intellicihlc to a fourteen-year-old boy, and so convenient and full of original information as to be indispensable to the working ornithologist As a handbook of the birds of eastern North America it is bound to supersede all other works.' Science. " The author has succeeded in presenting to the reader clearly and vividly a vast amount of useful information." Philadelphia Press. "A valuable book, full of information compactly and conveniently arranged." New York Sun. " A charming book of interest to every naturalist or student of natural history." Cincinnati Jimes-Star. "The book will meet a want felt by neatly every bird observer." Minneapolis Tribune. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. AM I LIAR LIFE IN FIELD AND FOREST. By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS. Uniform with " Familiar Flow- ers," " Familiar Trees," and " Familiar Features of the Road- side." With many Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. The great popularity of Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews's charmingly illustrated books upon flowers, trees, and roadside life insures a cordial teception for his forthcoming book, which describes the animals, reptiles, insects, and birds commonly met with in the country. His book will be found a most convenient and interesting guide to an acquaintance with common wild creatures. AM 1 'LIAR FEA TURES OF THE ROADSIDE. By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS, author of " Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden," " Familiar Trees and their Leaves," etc. With 130 Illustrations by the Author. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. " Which one of us, whether afoot, awheel, on horseback, or in comfortable carriage, has not \v tilled away the time by glancing about? How many of us, however, have taken in the details of what charms us ? We see the flowering fields and budding woods, listen to the notes of birds and froi*s, the hum of some big bumblebee, but how much do we knnw of what we sense ? These questions, these doubts have occurreil to all of us, and it is to answer them that Mr. Mathews sets forth. It is to his credit that he suc- ceeds so well. He puts before us in chronological order the flowers, birds, and beasts we meet on our highway and byway travels, tel s u* how to recognize them, what they are really like, and gives us at once charming drawings in worj, and lines, for Mr. Mathews is his own illustrator." Button "Jottmal. AM I LIAR TREES AND THEIR LEAVES. By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS, author of " Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden," "The Beautiful Flower Garden," etc. Illustrated with over 200 Drawings from Nature by the Au- thor, and giving the botanical names and habitat of each tree and recording the precise character and coloring of its leafage. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. "It is not often that we find a book which deserves such unreserved commenda- tion. It is commendable for several reasons : it is a bonk that has been needed for a long time, it is written in a popular and attractive stylo, it is accurately and prof\ir-cly illustrated, and it is by an authority on tlie s>ubject of which it treats." I'ublic l>finion. PAMILIAR FLOWERS OF FIELD AND * GARDEN. By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS. Illustrated with 200 Drawings by the Author. I2mo. Library Edition, cloth, $1.75 ; Pocket Edition, flexible morocco, $2.25. "A book of much value and interest, admimbly arranged for the student and the lover of flowers . . . The text is full of compact information, well selected and inter estmgly presented. ... It seems to us to be a most attractive handbook of its kind." New York Sun. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. T D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. :HE GARDEN'S STORY; or, Pleasures and Trials of an Amateur Gardener. By GEORGE H. ELLW ANGER. With Head and Tail Pieces by Rhead. 121110. Cloth, extra, $1.50. " Mr. Ellwanger's instinct rarely errs in matters of taste. He writes out of the fullness of experimental knowledge, but his knowledge differs from that of many a trained cultivator in that his skill in garden practice is guided by a refined aesthetic sensibility, and his appreciation of what is beautiful in nature is healthy, hearty, and catholic. His record of the garden year, as we have said, begins witn the earliest violet, and it follows the season through until the witch-hazel is blossoming on the border of the wintry woods. . . . This little book can not fail to give pleasure to ail who take a genuine interest in rural life." New York Tribune. T ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED PLANTS. By ALPHONSE r>E CANDOLLE. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00. "Though a fact familiar lo botanists, it is not generally known how gieat is the uncertainty as to the origin of many of the most important cultivated plants. ... In endeavoring to unravel the matter, a knowledge of botany, of geography, of geology, of history, and of philosophy is required. By a combination of testimony derived fiom thes"e sources M. de Candolle has been enabled to determine the botanical origin and geographical source of the large proportion of species he deals with." The A thtna-utit. T 'HE FOLK-LORE OF PLANTS. By T. F. THIS- ELTON DYER, M. A. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. "A handsome and deeply interesting volume. ... In all respects the book is ex- cellent. Its airangt-ment is simple and intelligible, its style bright and alluring. . . . To all who seek an introduction to one of the most attractive branches of folk- lore, this delightful volume may be warmly commended. Notes and Queries. F LOWERS AND THEIR PEDIGREES. By GRANT AI.LFN, author of "Vignettes of Nature," etc. Illus- trated. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. " No writer treats scientific subjects with so much ease and charm of style as Mr. Grant Allen. The study is a delightful one, and the book is fascinating to any one who has either love for flowers or curiosity about them." Hartjord Courant. " Any one with even a smatteri ig of botanical knowledge, and with either a heart or mind, must be charmed with this collection of essays." Chicago Evening Journal. rj^HE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF PLANTS, J- By Sir J. WILLIAM DAWSON, F. R. S. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $1.75. " The object of this work is to give, in a connected form, a summary of the develop- ment of the vegetable kingdom in geological time. To the geologist ard botanist the subject is one of importance with reference to their special pursuits, ard one on w hich it has not been easy to find any convenient manual of information. It is hoped that its treatment in the present volume will also be found sufficiently simple and popular to be attractive to the general reader." From the Preface. New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. O A D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. U TINGS AT ODD TIMES. By CHARLES C. ABBOTT, author of " Days out of Doors " and " A Naturalist's Rambles about Home." l6mo. Cloth, gilt top, $1.25. " A charming little volume, literally alone with Nature, for it discusses seasons and the fields, birds, etc., with the loving freedom of a naturalist born. Every page reads 'ike a sylvan poem; and for the lovers of the beautiful in quiet outdoor and out-of- tovn life, this beautifully bound and attractively printed little volume will prove a companion and friend." Rochester Union and Advertiser. NA TURALIST 'S RAMBLES ABO UT HOME. By CHARLES C. ABBOTT, tamo. Cloth, $1.50. "The home about which Dr. Abbott rambles is clearly the haunt of fowl and fish, of animal and insect life ; and it is of the habits and nature of these that he discourses pleasantly in this book. Summer and winter, morning and evening, he has been in th; open air all the time on the alert for some new revelation of instinct, or feeling, or character on the part of his neighbor creatures. Most that he sees and hears he r:poris agreeably to us, as it was no doubt delightful to himself. Books like this, which are free from all the technicalit es of science, but yet lack little that has scien- tific value, are well suited to the reading of the young. Their atmosphere is a healthy o ie for boys in particular to breathe." Boston Transcript. A YS OUT OF DOORS. By CHARLES C. ABBOTT- I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. " ' Da_ys out of Doors ' is a series of sketches of animal life by Charles C Abbott, a naturalist whose graceful writings have entertained and instructed the public before now. The essays and narratives in this book are grouped in twelve chapters, named after the months of the year. Under 'January' the author talks of squirrels, musk- nts. water-snakes, and the predatory animals that withstand the rigor of winter; un ler ' February' of fro^s and herons, crows and blackbirds; under ' March ' of gulls and fishes and foxy sparrows: and so on appropriately, instructively, and divertingly t irouih the whole twelve " .\fw York Sun. D T "HE PLAYTIME NATURALIST. By Dr. J. E. TAYLOR, F. L. S., editor of " Science Gossip." With 366 Illus- trations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. "The work contains abundant evidence of the author's knowledge and enthusiasm. and any boy who may read it carefully is sure to find something to attract him. Tlie style is clear and lively, and there are many good illustrations." Nature. T ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES through Insects and other Agencies. By the Rev. GEORGE HMNSI.OW, Professor of Botany, Queen's College. With nu- merous Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. "Much has been written on the structure of flowers, and it might seem almost superfluous to attempt to say anything more on the subject, but it is only within the last few years that a new literature has sprung up, in which the authors have described their observations and given their interpretations of the uses of floral mechanism, more especially in connection with the processes of fertilization." From lntrM/nctwH. New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. T D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. HE NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE, AND OBSERVATIONS ON NATUKE. By GILBERT WHITE. With an Introduction by John Burroughs, 80 Illus- trations by Clifton Johnson, and the Text and New Letters of the Buckland edition. In two volumes. I2mo. Cloth, $4.00. " White himself, were he alive to-day, would join all his loving readers in thanking the American publishers for a thoroughly excellent presentation of his famous book. . . . This latest edition of White's book must go into all of our libraries; our young people must have it at hand, and our trained lovers of select literature must take it into their home*:. By such reading we keep knowledge in proper perspective and are able to grasp the proportions of discovery." Maurice Thompson, in the Independent. " White's ' Selborne ' belongs in the same category as Walton's ' Complete Angler' ; . . . here they are, the 'Complete Angler' well along in its third century, and the other just started in its second century, both of them as highly esteemed as they were when first published, both bound to live forever, if we may trust the predictions of their re- spective admirers. John Burroughs, in his charming introduction, tells us why White's book has lasted and why this new and beautiful edition has been printed. . . . This new edition of his work comes to us beautifully illustrated by Clifton Johnson." New York '1 Hut's. " White's ' Selborne ' has been reprinted many times, in many forms, but never be- fore, so far as we can remember, in so creditable a form as it assumes in these two volumes, nor with drawings comparable to those which Mr. Clifton Johnson has made for them." New York Mail and Express. " We are loath to put down the two handsome volumes in which the source of such a gift as this has been republished. 1'he type is so clear, the paper is so pleasant to the touch, the weight of each volume is so nicely adapted to the hand, and one turns "Not only for the significance they lend to one of the masterpieces of English literature, but as a revelation of English rural life and scenes, are these pictures de- lightfully welcome. The edition is in every way creditable to the publishers." Boston Beacon. " Rural England has many attractions for the lover of Nature, and no work, per- haps, has done its charms greater justice than Gilbert White's ' Natural History of Selborne.' " Boston Journal. "This charming edition leaves really nothing to be desired." Wtstminster Gazette. " This edition is beautifully illustrated and bound, and deserves to be welcomed by all naturalists and Nature lovers." London Daily Chronicle. " Handsome and desirable in every respect. . . . Welcome to old and young." Ntw York Herald. " The charm of White's ' Selborne ' is not d. finable But there is no other book of the past generations that will ever take the place with the field naturalists." Balti- more Sun. New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. T D. APPLETON CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. GEORGE H. ELLWANGER'S BOOKS. GARDEN'S STORY; or, Pleasures and Trials of an Amateur Gardener. \Vith Head and Tail Pieces by Rhead. i6mo. Clolh, extra, $1.50. "This dainty nugget of horticultural lore treats of the pleasuies and trials of an amateur gardener. Krom the time when daffodils begin to peer and the 'secret of the year' comes in to mid-October, Mr. Kllwanger provides an outline of hardy flower- gardening that can be carried on and worked upon by amateurs. ... A little chapter on ' Warm Weather Wisdom" is a presentment of the cream of English literature. Nor is the information of this floial calendar confined to the literary or theoretical sides. ' Plant thickly ; it is easier and more profitable to rai>t- flowers than weeds,' is a practical direction from the garden syllabus." Philadelphia Public Ledger. "One of the most charming books of the season. . . . Thus little volume, printed in excellent taste, is redolent of garden fragrance and garden wisdom. . . . It is in no sense a text-book, but it combines a vast deal of information with a great deal of out- of-door observation, and exceedingly pleasant and sympathetic writing about flowers and plants." Christian Union. " A dainty, learned, charming, and delightful book." Neva York Sun. *T^HE STORY OF MY HOUSE. With an Etched * Frontispiece by Sidney L. Smith, and numerous Head and Tail Pieces by W. C. Greenough. i6mo. Cloth, extra, $1.50. "An essay on the building of a house, with all its kaleidoscopic possibilities in the way of reform, and its tantalizing successes before the fact, is always interesting : and ihe author is not niggardly in the go d points he means 10 secure. It is but natuial to follow these with a treatise on rugs full of Orientalism and enthusiasm ; on the literary den and the caller, welcome or otherwise ; on the cabinets of porcflain, the rare edi- tions on the shelves, the briefly indicated details of the spoils of the chase in their proper place; on the greenhouse, with its curious climate and wonderful botany and odors, about which the author writes with unusual charm and precision ; on the dining- room and the dinner. . . . The book aims only to be agreeable ; its literary flavor is pervasive, its sentiment kept well in hand." Neva York Evening Post. " When the really perfect book of its class comes to a critic's rands, all the words he has used to describe fairly satisfactory ones are inadequate for his new purpose, and he feels inclined, as in this case, to stand aside and let the book speak for itself. Injts own way, it would be hardly possible for this daintily printed volume to do better." Art A mattur. N GOLD AND SILVER. With Illustrations by W. Hamilton Gibson, A. B. Wenzell, and W. C. Greenough. i6mo. Cloth, $2.00. Also, limited Edition de luxe, on Japanese vellum, $5.00. CONTENTS : The Golden Rug of Kermanshah ; Warders of the Woods ; A Shadow upon the Pool ; The Silver Fox of Hunt's Hollow. "After spending a half hour with 'In Gold and Silver,' one recalls the old saying. 'Precious things come in small parcels.' " Christian Intelligencer. "One of the handsomest gift-books of the yew." Philadelphia Inquirer. "The whole book is eminently interesting, and emphatic ally deserving ot the very handsome and artistic setting it has received." \'fiv Ytirn Tribune. D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. New York. T D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. HE FARMER'S BOY. By CLIFTON JOHNSON, author of " The Country School in New England," etc. With 64 Illustrations by the Author. 8vo. Cloth, $2.50. " One of the handsomest and most elaborate juvenile works lately published." Philadelphia Item. " Mr. Johnson's style is almost rhythmical, and one lays down the book with the sensation of having read a poem and that saddest of all longings, the longing for vanished youth." Bostnn Commercial Bulletin. "As a triumph of the realistic photographer's art it deserves warm praise quite aside from its worth as a sterling book on the subjects its title indicates. ... It is a most praiseworthy book, and the more such that are published the better." New York Mail ana Express. " The book is beautiful and amusing, well studied, well written, redolent of the wood, the field, and the stream, and full of those delightful reminders of a boy's country home which touch the heart." New 1'ot'Jt Independent. "One of the finest books of the kind that have ever been put out." Cleveland World. " A book on whose pages many a gray-haired man would dwell with retrospective enjoyment." St. Paul Pioneer Press. "The illustrations are admirable, and the book will appeal to every one who has had a taste of life on a New England farm." Boston Transcript. T 'HE COUNTRY SCHOOL IN NEW ENG- LAND. By CLIFTON JOHNSON. With 60 Illustrations from Photographs and Drawings made by the Author. Square 8vo. Cloth, gilt edges, $2.50. " An admirable undertaking, carried out in an admirable way. . . . Mr. Johnson's descriptions are vivid and lifelike and are full of humor, and the illustrations, mostly after photographs, give a solid effect of realism to the wliole work, and are superbly reproduced. . . . The definitions at the close of this volume are very, very funny, and yet they are not stupid ; they are usually the result of deficient logic." Boston Beacon. " A charmingly written account of the rural schools in this section of the country. It speaks of the old-fashioned school days of the early quarter of this century, of the mid-century schools, of the country school of to-day, and of how scholars think and write. The style is animated and picturesque. . . . It is handsomely printed, and is interesting from its pretty cover to its very last page." Boston Saturday Evening Gazette. "A unique piece of book-making that deserves to be popular. . . . Prettily and serviceably bound, and well illustrated." The Churchman. " The readers who turn the leaves of this handsome book will unite in saying the author has 'been there.' It is no fancy sketch, but text and illustrations are both a reality. " Chicago Inter-Ocean. " No one who is familiar with the little red schoolhouse can look at these pictures and read these chapters without having the mind recall the boyhood experiences, and the memory is pretty sure to be a pleasant one." Chicago Times. " A superbly prepared volume, which by its reading matter and its beautiful illustra- tions, so natural and finished, pleasantly and profitably recalls memories and associations connected with the very foundations of our national greatness." N. Y. Observer. New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. /N THE TRACK OF THE SUN: Readings from the Diary of a Globe Trotter. By FREDERICK DIODATI THOMPSON. Profusely illustrated with Engravings from Pho- tographs and from Drawings by Harry Fenn. Large 8vo. Cloth, gilt top, $6.co. " In very gorgeous holiday attire comes this large octavo volume, with its sumptu- ous full page illustrations and its profusion of head and tail pieces. . . . The author's style is pleasant and easy, occasionally almost conversational, and it is impossible to follow him through the intricacies of his tour without acquiring a deal of information by the way." Philadelpnia Bulletin. "One of the handsomest of this year's Christmas books. . . . The author has practically abandoned the grand tour in favor of regions less known. I here is not much of Kur.ipe in the volume, but a great deal about China, Japan, and the Fast. In this good judgment is shown. ... A truly elegant piece of bookmaking." Phila- delphia Telegraph. " Mr. Thompson is an intelligent observer, who describes what he has seen with humor and point. . . . We know of no equally convenient and handsome publication illustrating a journey round the world." The Outlook. " Few ' globe trotters ' have {nven their impressions of travel so comely a form as Mr. Thompson in this handsome illustrated volume." Leaden Saturday Review. "As a piece of fine printing, binding, and illustration, Mr. Thompson's volume de- serves very high piaise. The Appleton press has never done finer work. ... 1 he portrait ot the Mohammedan sheik is one of the finest illustrations in recent books of travel. But the whole volume is a picture gallery which will especially commend itself to the large family of globe trotters, among whom Mr. Thompson deserves good standing for his sensible comments and his excellent taste." Literary World. pOEMS OF NATURE. By WILLIAM CULLEN * BRYANT. Profusely illustrated by Paul de Longpre". 8vo. Cloth, gilt, $4.00. " A very rich volume embellished with exquisite designs. . . . The publishers have been at great pains to make this volume what it is one of the handsomest of the year." Philadelphia Press. "The poems included in the collection are some of the choicest of Bryant's inspi- rations, the illustrations are lovely and sympathetic, and the entiie make-up of the vol- ume is eminently artistic.'' Philadelphia Telegraph. " There has probably been no more beautiful, and certainly no more filling, presenta- tion of Kryant's selected woik than is offered in this volume. . . . Kach poem is ac- companied by special designs arranged with picturesque irregularity, and the volume is admirably printed. An excellent effect is secured by the use of a little lighter ink for the text." The Outlook. " The artist is primarily a painter of flowers, and under his faithful and very pretty reproductions of these the poems arc delicately wreathed." AVit* York Times. "The poetry of Willia'ii Cullen Bryant is distinguished beyond that of any other American poet by the fidelity with which Nature is depicted therein. . . . No one has ca'ight the picturesque spirit of his text so successfully HS Paul de I.ongpti in these jottni of Nature." RICHARD HENRY STODDARD, in thf Hook liiiyer. ' In beauty of print and binding and in its artistic illustrations the book is among the bent specimens of the printer's art. The illustration* by Paul de I.ongpre tell the story of green fields and woods and mountain* and singing birds without the .ml cf words. The book a artistically beautiful upon every page." Chicago Inter-Ocean. New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. (^AMP-FIRES OF A NATURALIST, From the **' Field Notes of LEWIS LINDSAY DYCHE, A. M., M. S., Professor of Zoology and Curator of Birds and Mammals in the Kansas State University. The Story of Fourteen Expeditions after North American Mammals. By CLARENCE E. EDWORDS. With numerous Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. " It is not always that a J J>rofessor of zoology is so enthusiastic a sportsman as Prof. Dyche. His hunting exploits are as varied as those of Gordon dimming, for example, in South Africa. His grizzly bear is as dangerous as the lion, and his mountain st cep and goats more difficult to stalk and shoot than any creatures of the torrid zone. Evi- dently he came by his tastes as a hunter from lifelong experience." New York Tribune. "The book has no dull pages, and is often excitingly interesting, and fully in- structive as to the habits, haunts, and nature of wild beasts." Chicago Inter-Ocean. "There is abundance of interesting incident in addition to the scientific element, and the illustrations are numerous and highly graphic as to the big game met by the hunters, and the hardships cheerfully undertaken. " Brooklyn Eagle. "The narrative is simple and manly_and full of the freedom of forests. . . . This record of his work ought to awaken the interest of the generations growing up, if only by the contrast of his active experience of the resources of Nature and of savage life with the background of culture and the environment of educational advantages that are being rapidly formed for the students of the United States. Frof. Dyche seems, fr >m this account of him, to have thought no personal hardship or exertion wasted in his attempt to collect facts, that the naturalist of the future iray be provided with com- plete and verified ideas as to species which will scon be extinct This is good work work that we need and that posterity will recognize with gratitude. The illustrations of the book are interesting, and the type is clear." New York Times. "The adventures are simply told, but some of them are thrilling of necessity, how- ever modestly the narrator does his work. Prof. Dyche has had about as many ex- periences in the way of hunting for science as fall to the lot of the most fortunate, and this recountal of them is most interesting. The camps from which he worked ranged from the Lake of the Woods to Arizona, and northwest to British Columbia, and in every region he was successful in securing rare specimens for his museum." Chicago Times. " The literary construction is refreshing. The reader is carried into the midst of the very scenes of which the author trlls, not by elaborateness of description, but by the directness and vivi Jness of every sentence. He is given no opportunity to abandon the companions with which the book h;>s provided him, for incident is made to follow incident with no intervening literary padding. In fact, the book is all action." Kan- sas City Journal. " As an outdoor book of camping and hunting this book possesses a timely interest, but it also has the merit of scientific exactness in the descriptions of the habits, pecul- iarities, and haunts of wild animals." Philadelphia Press. " But what is most important of all in a narrative of this kind for it seems to us that 'Camp-Fires of a Naturalist' was written first of all for entertainment these notes neither have been ' dressed up ' and their accuracy thereby impaired, nor yet retailed in a dry and statistical manner. The book, in a word, is a plain narrative of adventure? among the larger American animals." Philadelphia Bulletin. ' "We recommend it most heartily to old and young alike, and suggest it as a beau- tiful souvenir volume for those who have seen the wonderful display of mounted animals , at the World's Fair." Topeka Capital. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. NEW YORK. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below APR 2 9 1950 15m -10, '44 (2491) 3495 _ Practical agri- culture . UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 001 107 532 2 S495 J23P