** 
 
 1 

 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 TSvO
 
 IN UNIFORM STYLE. 
 
 RUSSIA. By D. Mackenzie WAiiLACE, M.A. 
 
 Member of tlie Imperial Russian Geographical 
 Society. 8vo., Cloth; with two colored maps, $4. 
 
 TURKEY. By James Baker, M.A., Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Auxiliary Forces, formerly Eighth 
 Hussars. 8vo., Cloth; with two colored maps, $4. 
 
 HENRY HOLT & CO., 
 
 PUBLISHERS, 
 
 UEW YORK.
 
 r
 
 TURKEY 
 
 JAMES BAKEE, M.A. 
 
 X.IEXXTEI«TA.lsrT-COX.OIsrEIj jft-XJ3S:iL.IA.I4"X" FORCES 
 Formerly Mghth Eussara 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1877
 
 DR 
 
 BilM+i 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 TT was asserted, I believe, by Sydney Smith, that "no 
 man in England must presume to express an opinion 
 of his own upon any subject unless he has an income of 
 at least £3,600 a year." 
 
 K that sum is required for the right of independent 
 expression of opinion, what would be the necessary in- 
 come for acquiring the right of producing a book ? That 
 interesting arithmetical problem may safely be confided 
 to the care of the Civil Service Commissioners ; but while 
 it remains unsolved I seize the opportunity to place upon 
 paper my experiences of Turkey in Europe, in the hope 
 that in these days, when so much interest is felt in that 
 unhappy country, any personal knowledge of the land 
 and people may have some attractions and be of some 
 service. 
 
 Traveling is but a selfish gratification if the knowledge 
 acquired by it is confined to the traveler, and it seems to 
 me to be a duty which he owes to the public to reflect to 
 the best of his ability his experience of the countries and 
 peoples he has visited. 
 
 As a passport to my reader for presuming to write ex 
 catJiedrd, I may state that I have traveled on horseback 
 more than a thousand miles through Turkey in Europe, 
 besides many hundreds of miles along the coast in boat 
 and steamer, and I have resided in the country off and on 
 
 3048723
 
 iv PEE FACE. 
 
 for three years. In other respects I have been so circum- 
 stanced as to be brought into contact with officials, both 
 foreign and native, of all grades, which has necessarily- 
 afforded me the opportunity of acquiring much valuable 
 information. 
 
 The short acquaintance I had with Constantinople 
 during the Crimean War enables me to compare the 
 general aspect of that beautiful city then and now ; but it 
 has been asserted that Paris is not France, and with still 
 greater force may it be said that Constantinople is not 
 Turkey, for a residence in the latter capital without 
 visiting the interior would create a very erroneous impres- 
 sion of the people. 
 
 It is a country where it is extremely difficult to obtain 
 accurate information, in consequence of the either pro- 
 or anti-Turkish proclivities of the informants. 
 
 I remember, for example, upon one occasion asking a 
 resident of many years' standing — a very clever man, but 
 a Philottoman — his opinion of the integrity of a certain 
 pasha, who held a very important government post, and 
 I received in answer such a glowing description of the 
 virtues of the old Turk that I instinctively raised my eyes 
 to his shoulders in search of the budding of angelic wings, 
 but on turning to another resident of equally long stand- 
 ing, but a Turcophobist, and putting the same question, I 
 received a reply which made me turn my inspection to 
 the pasha's slippers in search of the cloven foot. The 
 truth lay probably midway between these extreme opin- 
 ions — that is to say, that the pasha had been known to do 
 many just and praiseworthy acts, but that he, at the same 
 time, acknowledged the efficacy of haclcsMsTi. 
 
 It is this mixture of poison with the pure fluid which 
 produces — according as either one or the other has been
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 most tasted— tlie divergence of opinion so common to the 
 conntry. 
 
 It is a doctrine of Confucius that " True virtue consists 
 in avoiding extremes ; " and in the following pages I shall 
 do my utmost to profit by this instruction, in order that 
 the Turk may be weighed fairly in the balance. 
 
 A very few years ago, the general public knew as little 
 of the interior of Turkey and of its affairs as of Timbuctoo ; 
 but the events of the last few years have created a special 
 interest in the country, which has happily made its sub- 
 jects better known to the world, and the greater the true 
 knowledge in that direction the better it will be for the 
 Turk, 
 
 Such broad and sweeping condemnation is made of the 
 whole nation by those who only gain their information 
 second-hand, and the character of the Turkish people is 
 so mixed up by them with that of Turkish officials, that 
 to any impartial man who is well acquainted with the 
 country the injustice is frequently so glaring, that it 
 rouses his indignation at the absence which is exhibited 
 of common justice and fair play, qualities of which Eng- 
 lishmen are especially and justly proud. Even the Turkish 
 Government is so frequently denied any credit for what 
 it has done, and is so often blamed for that which it has 
 not done, that those who in their hearts condemn it 
 are, for the sake of fair play, ranged on the side of its 
 defense. 
 
 It is impossible for any person, and especially one who 
 is resident in the country, to close his eyes to the short- 
 comings of the Turkish Government, but so much the 
 more should all Turkish subjects be pitied ; and, when 
 humanity is concerned, I cannot understand why any 
 distinction should be made between the Turkish and
 
 yi PREFACE. 
 
 Christian peasant, except it be from sectarian idiosyn- 
 crasies, wliicli are so uncliaritable that they become 
 unchristian. 
 
 There are other countries where the government officials 
 are quite as venal as those of Turkey, and yet those coun- 
 tries advance in progress and civilization. Russia stands 
 out pre-eminent in that respect ; but in Turkey, to venality 
 there is added an apathy in administration which is fatal 
 to progress. Her sins of omission are even greater than 
 those of commission. 
 
 It is useless to make more laws : those which now exist 
 are admirable, as well as the organization of the machin- 
 ery of government ; but what is wanted is an honest and 
 active administration. 
 
 In judging of Turkey, we must remember that there is a 
 foreign Power always ready and anxious, not only to mis- 
 represent her, but to place every possible impediment in 
 the way of her progress. It is useless to shut our eyes to 
 this fact : it is patent to any one who lives in Turkey, and 
 to any one who chooses to study the history of that coun- 
 try for the last fifty years. 
 
 In the following pages I lay before the reader my ex- 
 perience of Turkey and her people as I actually found 
 them. I trust that the account which I give, imperfect 
 though it is, may yet help to dispel many of the clouds of 
 misconception which envelop that unfortunate and well- 
 abused country. 
 
 April, 1877.
 
 OOJN"TENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE VOYAGE OUT. 
 
 FA8B 
 
 From Liverpool to Constantinople — My Fellow-passengers — A Strange 
 Hobby — First View of Troy — The Golden Horn — I am seized upon 
 by Far Away Moses — Capabilities of tbe Turkish Porters — Compara- 
 tive Merits of tbe Pera and Tberapia Hotels — Trips on tbe Bospborus 
 — "Fire" — Variety of Nationalities — An Ethnological PLll — Bace 
 and Religion 1 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE BUIiGAKIAHS. 
 
 The Bulgarians — Their Finnic Origin — First Emigration into Thrace — 
 Marked Difference between the Inhabitants North and South of the 
 Balkan — Introduction of Christianity — Foundation of the Bulgarian 
 National Church — Reign of King Simeon — War between Greeks and 
 Bulgarians — Horrible Cruelties practiced on either side — Strong 
 National Feeling existing among the Latter — Persecution of the Bul- 
 garian by the Greek Church — National Schools — District of PhUip- 
 popolis — Compulsory School-rate — Protestant Mission School at 
 Samakov — American College on the Bosphorus — Sect of the Pauli- 
 cians — Bulgarian Newspapers — Monastery of Rilo — Revival of the 
 Bulgarian National Church — Spiritual Circular from the Synod — 
 Ecclesiastical Disputes between Greeks and Bulgarians — Fomented 
 by Russia — Cretan Insurrection — Lord Strangford — So-called Re- 
 bellion of 1867-68 — Manufacture of that of 1876 — Administration of 
 Justice 18 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE BOSPHORUS AND BLACK SEA. 
 
 Turkish Red-tapeism — My Struggles for a Passport — To Burgas by 
 Steamer — Undercurrents of the Bosphorus — Possible Connection be- 
 tween it and the Caspian — The Great Flood — Bay and Town of 
 Burgas 63
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 OTTOMAN-GKEEK StJBJECTS. 
 
 PA8I 
 
 Ottoman-Greek Subjects — Their First Entrance into the Country — Emi- 
 gration of Ancient Greeks — The Greek and Russian Churches — Pan 
 Hellenism — Town of Sisopolis — Greeks on the Black Sea Coast — 
 Their Primitive Customs — Bitter Feeling against the Turk — Llas- 
 sacre at Niausta — Greek Brigandage 71 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 "EN VOYAGE." 
 
 An English Vice-Consul — Torture I — Scenery of the Black Sea Coast — 
 Djeverli — The Bulgarian Peasants — Interior of their Houses — Their 
 Habits and Customs — Bulgarian Dances — Bagpipes — A Funeral — A 
 Dinner-party — The Pole Listopat — "Good dog, good dog !" — A Cir- 
 cassian Village — Russian Philanthropy in Circassia — A Skirmish — 
 The Knight of the Tea-pot 83 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FEOM BUBGAS TO TANBOLI. 
 
 District of Burgas — Malaria Fevers — "Breakers ahead" — Jackals in 
 Europe — "Yarin" and Procrastination — Monastery of St. Athanasius 
 — Mineral Springs — John in a Dilemma — Value of Land — A Circas- 
 sian Horse-dealer — Tanboli — Ancient Tumuli — ^Migration of Storks 
 — Scandal in Stork-land— ^Pleasures of a Turkish Khan — Sheep and 
 Covrs of the District 105 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 THE TTJEKS. 
 
 Their Origin — "Western Emigration — ^Various Tribes — Their Slavery — 
 Their Nomad Life — Wise Counsel — Their Religion — Persian Rivals — 
 Tura and Arya — Babel— The Golden Age—Mahmoud the Ghaznivide — 
 The Race of Seljvik — A Quiver of Sultans — Togrul Beg — Alp Arslan — 
 The Roum Dynasty — Turkish Cavalry — The Crusaders — The Tartars 
 ujider Genghis Khan — The Seljukian Turks — Soliman Shah — Er- 
 toghrul and His Choice — His son Othman — Sultan Orchan allies 
 himself with Cantacuzenus — Death of Soliman and succession of 
 Amurath — Origin of the Janizaries — Timour and Sultan Bajazid — 
 Battle of Angora — Ambition of Timour 121
 
 CONTENTS. ix 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 TUEKISH GOVEKBTMENT. 
 
 PAQB 
 
 Turkisli Government — Various Races under its Sway — Character of the 
 Turkish Soldier — Feudal Tenure — Pillars of the State — "Sublime 
 Porte" — Pashas and Beys — Division of Private Property — Civil 
 Administration — Judicial Courts — Monasteries on Mount Athos — 
 Pilgrims — Expounders of the Law, Civil and Religious — ^Mohammed 
 n. — Educational Institutions 135 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE FAIiL OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIEE. 
 
 Siege of Constantinople — Constantine Palaeologus and Mohammed H. — 
 Death of the Greek Emperor — A Monster Cannon — Fall of the 
 Byz£intine Empire 155 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MODEKN TTJHKISH HISTOKT. 
 
 Effect of the Introduction of Artillery on the Numerical Strength of 
 Armies — Turkish Anarchy — The Divan — Abdul Medjid — Treaty of 
 Paris — Turkish Loan — Insurrection in Servia — ^Historical Evidence 
 of Russian Intrigue — Difficulties of Reform 165 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 EN KOUTE AGAIN. 
 
 Turkish Cavalry — The Chatal Dagh — Slivmia — Cloth Factories — Turkish 
 Justice — A Turkish Form of Friendship — Geology of the Balkan — 
 Land of the Bulgarian Atrocities — A Turk in Adversity — A Hurri- 
 cane — Teni Zaghra — Turkish Officials — Eski Zaghra — Anarchy in 
 Turkey — Silk Factory — A Bedridden Interpreter — Kezanlik — Attar 
 of Rose 199 
 
 CHAPTER XH. 
 
 ACROSS THE BALKAN. 
 
 Freedom of a Morning Ride — Jlounted Police — A Turkish Castle — 
 Physical Aspect of Turkey — Central Watershed — Climate — Destruc- 
 tion of Forests — Geological Formation — Coal and Minerals — Roman 
 Roads — Lovtcha — Good Quarters — Tirnova — An Energetic Governor 
 — A Turkish Resident Landed Proprietor — Hawking-rAi Turkish 
 Dinner — A Lonely Ride 225
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER Xm. 
 
 OTTOMAN SLAVES 
 
 FAQE 
 
 Ancient Slaves — Their Religion — Their Conversion to Christianity — 
 Battle of Kossova — Assassination — Kara George — His Character — 
 Rebellious Janizaries — Intiigue — Milosch — Russian Poison — Despot- 
 ism and Misery — A Reign of Intrigue — Peace and Contentment under 
 Alexander — More Intrigue and Rebellion — Death of Prince Michael. 240 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 TtTRKEY'S AEMY AND NAVY. 
 
 Turkish Military Organization — Turkish Army Its Composition — 
 
 Military Education — Nizam — Ichtiat, Redifs — Cavalry and Artillery 
 Reserves — Material of War — Pay of Officers — Turkish Navy — Iron- 
 clads — Naval Education — Hobart Pasha 258 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 TUEKET AS A MXLITAET POWER, 
 
 Ancient Organization of the Turkish Army — Strategical Bases of the 
 Russian and Turkish Armies — Turkish Fortresses — Passes of the 
 Balkan — Roads of Communication — Plan of Defense for Turkey — 
 Blockade of Russian Ports 279 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FKOM THOYAN TO SAMAKOV. 
 
 Brigands — A Doctor Shot — Turkish Hospitality — A Mountain Pass — 
 Slatitza — The Disease of Procrastination — ' ' Cut-em-ups " — The 
 Trials of Interpretation — A Long Ride — The Great Watershed — The 
 Meeting of the Mountains — Plains of Sofia — The Railway — The Rilo 
 Dagh — Samakov — The American Mission — Iron — Lovely Scenery- 
 Alarms — A Shake-Down — The Monastery of Rilo — Deer-Stalking — 
 An Accident 298 
 
 CHAPTER XVn. 
 
 THE ALBANIANS. 
 
 Their Origin — Gheghas and Toskas — Illyrians and Macedonian Phalanx 
 — Scanderbeg — Distribution of Albanian Tribes — Their Religions — 
 Viss-Blood Feuds — Itinerant Trade — Rascians — Toskas — Albanians 
 as Soldiers — The Pasha of Scodra 317
 
 II ¥) 
 
 tt
 
 SwJ&* Bmr^BottAfM.
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FEOM LIVEEPOOL TO CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 From Liverpool to Constantinople — My Fellow-passengers — A Strange Hobby 
 — First view of Troy — The Golden Horn — I am seized upon by Far Away 
 Moses — Capabilities of Turkish Porters — Comparative Merits of the 
 Peran and Therapian Hotels — Trips on the Bosphorus — " Fire" — Variety 
 of Nationalities — An Ethnological Pill — Race and Religion. 
 
 A VARIETY of causes, acting upon a nomadic nature, 
 impelled me in tlie year 1874 again to "move on," 
 and on this occasion in a direction which led through 
 Turkey in Europe. 
 
 Travelers in that country had boldly asserted that there 
 were no roads. I therefore provided myself with all the 
 necessary paraphernalia for leading a gypsy life ; and 
 thinking it wiser not to be separated from my baggage, I 
 selected the sea-route to Constantinople by the Cunard 
 steamers from Liverpool. 
 
 In traveling through unfrequented countries it is, gen- 
 erally speaking, unadvisable to take an English servant, 
 as they are so accustomed to luxuries that they are neither 
 able nor willing to adapt themselves to the vicissitudes of 
 a campaign life, and it too often happens that the master 
 has to attend to the wants of his servant, instead of the 
 servant assisting the master. This difficulty may be over- 
 come by taking some well-known lad, who is apt to learn 
 quickly, and who, like a piece of soft clay, can be mold-
 
 2 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ed at will. I therefore selected a Chesliire boy, who had 
 been some time in my service, and who had never left the 
 neighborhood of his native village ; and although he ac- 
 companied me through all my travels, he never was heard 
 to grumble. 
 
 In time he learned to make himself most useful, and 
 having acquired the Turkish language with amazing rapid- 
 ity, he soon became a great favorite with all classes of 
 natives, whether Christian or Mussulman. John Lloyd is 
 his name, and I shall always designate him as John. 
 
 The 27th of June saw us, " bag and baggage," on board 
 a splendid vessel of nearly 2,000 tons burden, and steam- 
 ing away from Liverpool, on one of those lovely summer 
 days which seem to have been specially created to thaw 
 the icy English nature produced by March east winds and 
 fogs. 
 
 As we glided along the coast over a perfectly calm sea,, 
 familiar places kept rising into view, and formed, as it 
 were, a panoramic history of pleasant epochs of my life. 
 Leaning over the side, I had given myself up to reverie 
 and idleness, when I was suddenly and roughly awakened 
 by a sailor dropping a coil of rope ui)on my unfavorite 
 toe. Why will sailors do this ? I have noticed that on 
 board ship no sooner does an unsick passenger sit down to 
 make himself comfortable on deck, than some expectant 
 tar immediately becomes seized with all the industries, 
 and commences polishing, rubbing, and advancing with 
 an oiled rag, until the passenger has to move, but only 
 again to submit to a similar attack, until he is driven in 
 despair to his bunk below, there to bury his head in the 
 pillow, and to reflect upon the laws of motion and their 
 relation to the digestive organs. 
 
 My fellow-passengers were easily counted, as they con- 
 sisted only of an Armenian male, and a real live Anglo- 
 Saxon in the literal sense of the word, for his father was 
 English and mother Saxon. 
 
 The passage was monotonous, and calmer than most sea- 
 voyages. The ship was admirably appointed, both as to
 
 FROM LIVERPOOL TO COI^STANTINOPLE. 3 
 
 officers and men, and tlie food was of that British type 
 which recognizes merit in quantity rather than quality. 
 The wines were extremely bad, and, of course, extremely 
 expensive. 
 
 The chief officer was quite a curiosity in mentology. He 
 was one of those characters which would have stuck, like 
 a limpet upon a rock, upon the imagination of Dickens, 
 and would have afterwards been immortalized in one of 
 his novels. 
 
 A hard-headed Scotchman, a first-rate sailor and navi- 
 gator, he, like many other people, had his craze, which 
 consisted in looking down with lofty contempt upon such 
 deluded mortals as supposed that light was derived from 
 the sun ! Yet he gazed at that luminary day after day as 
 he took its meridian altitude, and was obliged to temper 
 his vision with the usual piece of dark-colored glass. 
 
 I endeavored to reason with him on the subject, but 
 found his mind quite impenetrable upon that point. You 
 might as well have attempted to engrave a piece of glass 
 with a feather. 
 
 " But how," I asked, " do you account for light, if it is 
 not derived from the sun ? " 
 
 " Weel," he said, " it just comes from the eer ; but yer 
 will be knowing all about it some day." 
 
 He was of a taciturn nature, but of the few remarks 
 which he did make, the usual one was, " Weel, and so yer 
 think that light comes from the sun, do yer ? Weel, weel ; 
 ha ! ha ! " and he would turn away with a contemptuous 
 chuckle. 
 
 When not on duty, or eating, or sleeping, all his spare 
 time was occui^ied in bringing forth mysterious sounds, as 
 of the trickling of water through a pipe, from that exceed- 
 ingly windy instrument called a flute ; and the captain 
 informed me that he had kno^vn him for twenty years, 
 and that he had always fondled that flute, but had not 
 yet arrived at a tune. Yet this man was a clever sailor 
 and a most dependable officer. He stands out as a bril- 
 liant example of a man with a fixed idea ; and it would
 
 4 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 be an interesting scientific study to endeavor to show how 
 it comes that his mind has the power of observing cause 
 and effect generally, but not upon that particular object 
 which naturally has such a powerful effect upon the 
 senses. 
 
 We touched for a few hours at Gibraltar and Malta, 
 and in like manner at Syra, a busy and thriving Greek 
 town, which looks from the sea like a great pile of white 
 hat-boxes. It possesses historical interest as the birth- 
 place of Achilles, and our visit was an appropriate prep- 
 aration for the view of the plain of Troy on approaching 
 the Dardanelles. 
 
 On an after occasion I had the pleasure of visiting 
 ancient Troy and the excavations of Dr. Schliemann, under 
 the kind and learned guidance of the late Mr. Frederick 
 Calvert, a gentleman deeply respected and regretted by 
 every class of native in the whole neighborhood. The in- 
 fluence which he had obtained over the people was most 
 remarkable, and it may be taken as an example of the 
 possibility of uniting all classes of Turkish subjects in 
 ready obedience to a single will, when once a feeling of 
 confidence is established. Mr. Calvert had a large farm 
 in the immediate neighborhood of Troy, and he was sur- 
 rounded by Greeks, Osmanlis, and Youruks, the descend- 
 ants of the Abassides Turks, who in their nomad wander- 
 ings spread over Asia Minor. The Youruks are a wild 
 and lawless race, but they were ready to assist Mr. Cal- 
 vert in any way that lay in their power. He was a sort 
 of patriarch amongst both Christians and Mussulmans, and 
 all looked to him for advice. He was ever ready to attend 
 at the bed of sickness, and his skill in medicine was a 
 great boon to the people, and the doors even of a harem 
 were thrown open to obtain the advantage of his medical 
 treatment. Wherever he appeared there the faces of the 
 people immediately lighted up with a kindly welcome, 
 and it seemed as though they could not sufficiently ex- 
 press the gratitude and respect they felt for him. His 
 bailiff and all the farm-laborers were Greeks, and he in-
 
 TROY. 5 
 
 formed me tliat lie found them most lionest and industri- 
 ous ; tliey certainly seemed to work with a will. 
 
 On tlie supposed site of ancient Troy four separate sets 
 of buildings are piled one above the other, like the houses 
 children make with a pack of cards ; but it is a stretch of 
 the imagination to designate them as cities. The whole 
 area upon which they stand does not cover an acre of 
 ground, but the suxoerposition of the buildings is most 
 curious and interesting. 
 
 Each town, if we may so call it, can be distinctly traced 
 one above the other, as well as the charred remains of the 
 fire which must have been the cause of their successive 
 destruction at great intervals of time. It would almost 
 seem, from the appearance of the remains, that one town 
 was built upon the rubbish which covered the ruins of the 
 houses below, under the supposition at the time that it 
 was a natural foundation, and in ignorance of the busy 
 world which in former ages had existed beneath the new 
 buildings. Dr. Schliemann cut a section from top to bot- 
 tom through the hill or mound which contains all four 
 towns, and consequently laid them bare to view. In some 
 of the houses may be seen the great earthenware jars 
 which were used for keeping the household stores, and 
 the eye is attracted by numerous small and smooth dark 
 stones dotted about here and there in the earth, and which 
 prove, on closer inspection, to be the hand-stones used by 
 the women for grinding corn. They are of a shape which 
 places them prior to the ancient period when circular 
 hand-stones were used for a similar purpose. 
 
 From the remains of pottery found in the lowest town, 
 it is supposed that the inhabitants were in a higher state 
 of civilization than those of the town immediately above it, 
 and who lived — who can say how many ages afterwards ? 
 A long white line about a foot in depth proves to be formed 
 of the cockle-sheUs thro^^Ti away by the inhabitants, 
 who were evidently partial to that kind of shell-fish. 
 The fourth or upj)ermost town was without doubt that of 
 new Troy ; and many remains of magnificent white mar-
 
 6 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 ble columns attest an age of art and poetry, and stand out 
 in strong contrast to the comparatively rude buildings 
 wMcli lie below. 
 
 As the eye turns from one to the other, the mind dwells 
 in wonder at the countless ages which have intervened be- 
 tween the busy throng and daily task in each town, and 
 I was forcibly reminded of that passage of the Koran 
 which says, "Each nation hath its allotted term ; when 
 the term has arrived, man is powerless to hasten or retard 
 it." 
 
 I will not touch upon the controversy as to the site of 
 ancient Troy, which is so exhaustively discussed in Dr. 
 Schliemann's work published by Mr. Murray, but return 
 to the Dardanelles to pursue my journey. 
 
 Daybreak of the fifteenth day from leaving Liverpool 
 revealed the beautiful domes and minarets of the capital 
 of the Sultans, rising above a sea of mist like jewels on 
 a bed of down. Soon the white was turned to pink as the 
 rays of the sun added their glory, the tall, dark cypress- 
 trees loomed out like gaunt giants, the mist grew into 
 forms, and as the vessel glided on, the capital of the old 
 Byzantine Empire was revealed in all its gTandeur. 
 
 Time here, as elsewhere, had wrought a change. Large 
 blocks of picturesque Oriental buildings, which I remem- 
 bered to have seen during the Crimean War, were gone, and 
 in their place there stood great, ugly, modern edifices, de- 
 void of all pretensions to architectural beauty, and which 
 destroyed the general effect of Oriental scenery. They 
 seemed to say, "Look at us! We are the produce of 
 the Hatt-i-humayoun, the Hatt-i-cherifs, and the iLradets ! 
 We are Stamboul reformed upon a Christian model ! " 
 
 They might well be accepted as fit symbols of the ref- 
 ormation. They are modern, ugly, and imperfect imita- 
 tions of Western edifices, and in conjunction with the 
 older and Eastern style, look out of place. The very 
 cypress-trees seemed ashamed of the parxenus, and, as if 
 to complete the desecration of the beauties of the Bospho- 
 rus, innumerable small steamers were puffing their black
 
 DRAGOMEN IN CONSTANTINOPLE. 7 
 
 smoke in every direction, and destroying all possibility 
 of romance by suggesting recollections of the Thames. 
 
 But this is progress ! I could not help picturing some 
 white-bearded old Turk, just ruiaed by speculating in the 
 bonds of his country's debt, yet calmly gazing from his 
 balcony over the scene, and as he thought of the days of 
 his youth, when his country owed no man aught, and the 
 Osmanli went his way in peace, he might syllogize in this 
 wise: — 
 
 "The Frank hath said that progress benefits mankind. 
 This is progress : therefore I am benefited. Marshallah ! 
 the Giaour is a base infidel and a dog." 
 
 The traveler, on his arrival at Constantinople, vdll be 
 surprised to find the number of Eastern acquaintances he 
 possesses, even though he may never have visited that city. 
 No sooner is the ship free of the health ofiicer than a hu- 
 man tide of nations pours on board, and he is assailed by 
 a perfect babel of voices. 
 
 "How d'ye do, sir? All right, sir. I know you very 
 well. You know me, sir; I'm Far Away Moses. I've 
 been exj)ecting you for long time, sir. All right, sir ; 
 come along." "I'm Demetri, sir. British Consul sent 
 me for you, sir. AU right, sir. ^Vhere's your luggage, 
 sir? Come along." 
 
 If the traveler is wise, he will immediately show a 
 proper respect for his Old Testament by selecting Far 
 Away Moses, and at once confide himself to his care. The 
 rest will then drop oif like satisfied leeches, and he can 
 quietly and confidentially confer with his new Hebrew 
 friend, who had been so long and anxiously expecting his 
 arrival. He will then discover that it is a case of mistaken 
 identity ; that Far Away Moses mistook him for his good 
 friend Captain Spendaway, whose testimonials he pro- 
 duces, together with many others, and assures the trav- 
 eler that he will serve him as a faithful dragoman to the 
 full as well as he served his former masters. 
 
 As he places his foot upon Turkish soil, the traveler will 
 be at once initiated into the mysteries of backshish.
 
 8 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Far Away Moses will liave provided him witli either a 
 boat or caiqne in which to glide over to a neighboring 
 customs landing. Forthwith the important custom-house 
 official appears, and looks partially satisfied on seeing Far 
 Away Moses, and the satisfaction is completed as that 
 individual places a coin in the official' s hand. 
 
 The official goes to one of the trunks, looks doubtfully 
 at it, and then feels it outside somewhat in the way that 
 a connoisseur would pinch a fat ox. It is enough ! What- 
 ever doubt there might have been upon his mind as to that 
 trunk containing taxable articles has vanished, and the 
 luggage is free to pass. The traveler must not suppose 
 that this has been an expensive operation. The dignified 
 official is a Turk, and by the law of the Koran all the 
 faithful are equal ; and therefore his dignity is not ruffled 
 by accepting a dirty sixpence, just like an ordinary hamal, 
 or one of our own faithful " railway porters." 
 
 Far Away Moses now proceeds to call the justly cele- 
 brated Turkish hamals, or porters, to carry the luggage to 
 the hotel. 
 
 If the traveler has only two large and exceedingly heavy 
 trunks, a large bag, a gun case, a bed, and a few odds and 
 ends of articles, one hamal will be sufficient, but if he has 
 as much luggage as would load an ordinary English cart, 
 then he will require two of these men. The weights which 
 they can carry is really marvelous. I had a large deal 
 case containing ammunition, besides many other ponder- 
 ous articles, and which was so heavy that I was doubtful 
 whether two men would be able to carry it up the steep 
 streets of Galata. 
 
 To my astonishment it was placed upon the back of one 
 hamal, and on the top of it a heavy portmanteau ! 
 
 I thought of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty 
 to Animals, but my pity was misplaced, for the hamal, 
 without being asked to do so, took up my leather bag in 
 one hand as he moved away with his wonderful load, and 
 seemed to think nothing of it. 
 
 I should strongly advise a visitor to Constantinople dur-
 
 TUERAPIA AND CONSTANTINOPLE. 9 
 
 ing eitlier the spring or summer months, not to go to the 
 Pera hotels. They are dear and offensively odorate, while 
 at Therapia there is an excellent hotel on the edge of the 
 Bosphorus, and commanding much of its lovely scenery. 
 I stopped three days at the latter place. The table d'hote 
 was good, the breakfasts, etc., ample. I drank the wine 
 of the country, which is given gratis, and which, mixed 
 with water, is most wholesome and refreshing, while, taken 
 pure, it is sufficiently inebriating to those who may hap- 
 pen to be given to strong drinks. 
 
 On leaving the hotel I asked for my bill, and the sim- 
 plicity of the document quite gave me a shock, for I 
 thought there must surely be some terrible after-reckon- 
 ing ; but no, it ran thus : "To three days' board and lodg- 
 ing, 45 francs." 
 
 Let it be recorded in golden letters that the landlady 
 of this establishment is English, and her name is Mrs. 
 Petala. 
 
 Comfortable steamers ply between Therapia and Con- 
 stantinople for the sum of fourpence, and the trips back- 
 wards and forwards along the smooth and beautiful waters 
 of the Bosphorus are most enjoyable. 
 
 By this means all the sights of Constantinople can be 
 seen by day, and the pure air and charms of the Bospho- 
 rus enjoyed by night. 
 
 A trip in one of these small steamers affords a good idea 
 of the great stride which of late years has been made in 
 Turkey by relinquishing many of the prejudices of cus- 
 tom. 
 
 Almost every nation and religion are sometimes repre- 
 sented amongst the passengers of one steamer, and al- 
 though the fore part of the deck is reserved for Turkish 
 and Christian women, yet the former, with their thin 
 yashmaks, or vails, jostle and mix with the Giaours on 
 entering and leaving the vessel — a possibility which would 
 not have been even dreamt of thirty years ago. Again, in 
 the streets of Constantinople the ladies of the harem may 
 be seen driving about in their handsome broughams to do
 
 10 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 their shopping, and with their faces enveloped with so 
 thin a yashmak that, like a slight clond over the sun, it 
 but tempers the brightness M^hicli lies behind. 
 
 In their private life also a marvelous change of custom 
 has occurred. 
 
 They are for the most part decked out in the latest Paris 
 fashions, instead of the Turkish dress, and they delight to 
 receive the visits of English and other foreign ladies — an 
 innovation which a few years ago was of very rare occur- 
 rence. When once the stone is set rolling who can say 
 where it will stop ? and a few years more may see after- 
 noon teas in Turldsh harems a favorite reunion for both 
 sexes. Inshallah ! it will come to pass. 
 
 A visitor to Constantinople, if he remains for a few days, 
 is almost sure to hear the cry of "Yanghen var," or 
 "Fire," as one occurs about every week. 
 
 I will not assert as a fact what was told me as such, 
 namely, that the whole of Constantinople is burnt down 
 every twenty years by means of weekly fires, but the de- 
 struction in this way must be very great. During my stay 
 there upwards of two hundred and fifty houses were 
 burnt in one day, notwithstanding the active and very 
 efficient exertions of the fire brigade ; but the streets are 
 so narrow, and so much wood is used in the construction 
 of the houses, that it is exceedingly difficult to check the 
 progress of the flames in a high wind. 
 
 As I was looking at the wreck of a fire, I observed a 
 Turk quietly poking with a stick amongst the ashes of 
 what had once been a house, as though he was seeking 
 for something. I found that he was the owner of the 
 building, which had contained all that he had in the world, 
 and that he literally stood by the complete wreck of his 
 whole fortune. He did not, however, exhibit any signs of 
 grief or dejection, and to my inquiries as to what he in- 
 tended to do, he replied that his misfortune had been 
 " written upon his forehead," that God was merciful, and 
 would provide for the future. He was right, for the 
 Turks are exceedingly charitable to each other, and are
 
 RACE. 11 
 
 ever ready to assist a distressed Mussulman. Another 
 good trait in tlie character of these anti-human specimens 
 of humanity was manifested on this occasion. 
 
 From amongst the crowd a bare-footed boy, who, gamin 
 like, was scrambling over the ruins in search of spoil, sud- 
 denly uttered a piercing cry, and rushed shrieking over 
 the ruins until he fell. Several Turks ran forward to his 
 assistance with every sign of commiseration, but the 
 Christian Pharisees passed heedless by, and merely 
 shrugged their shoulders. The poor boy had wallied 
 into the red-hot embers, which had almost burnt off the 
 soles of his bare feet. 
 
 The fire of fires was that of 1870, when upwards of three 
 thousand houses were burnt to the ground. 
 
 One of the most interesting sights for a visitor to Con- 
 stantinople is to stand on the bridge of boats between 
 Galata and Stamboul, and watch the crowd of many na- 
 tions that passes before him. 
 
 It seems as though all the nations of the universe had 
 agreed to meet and here mingle in a common stream ; and 
 this leads me to consider the various races which inhabit 
 the country through which we are about to travel. To 
 gain an intimate knowledge of Turkey in Europe and her 
 peoples, it is absolutely necessary to examine whence and 
 how the great variety of races came to be there, for no 
 country in Europe, excepting, perhaps, Transylvania, 
 exhibits such marked and distinctive characteristics of 
 many of the races of the world. 
 
 The i^opulation of Turkey is made up of a variety of 
 nations, scattered over the whole country, and yet form- 
 ing themselves into groups according to the number of 
 units they contain. ISTo locality can be found where the 
 population is exclusively of the same nationality, but a 
 rival race crops up here and there and jostles its neighbor. 
 We find, for instance, a quarter where the majority of the 
 population is Bulgarian, but amongst them in consid- 
 able numbers are Turks, Greeks, Circassians, and Gypsies. 
 In another quarter the majority are Albanians, but they
 
 12 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 again have to bear the friction of Bulgarians, Wallachs, 
 Greeks, and Turks ; and so on all over the country. Each 
 of these nations has its own language, religion, and 
 customs; and it therefore follows that the difficulty of 
 governing the mass lies in a direct ratio to the number of 
 races represented in it ; and when it is borne in mind that 
 in Europe alone no less than eight distinct nationalities, 
 each with a considerable population, and several others of 
 smaller degree, can claim the rights of Turkish subjects, 
 some idea may be formed of the obstacles in the path of 
 good government in Turkey. 
 
 As we shall have to consider the circumstances which 
 have rooted these various races in the laud, it will be well 
 if, in the first place, we determine what we actually mean 
 by the term " race." 
 
 Taken in the abstract, there can be no difficulty in de- 
 fining our meaning, as when we speak of the "human 
 race ;" but when we come to deal with what we call races 
 of men, and seek to determine their source, we at once find 
 that the single thread we are endeavoring to trace to its end 
 is but the Strand of a larger cord, which again becomes en- 
 twined as a part of a still larger rope. Thus we find two 
 antagonistic races side by side ; the one we call Turk, and 
 the other Bulgarian, but when we trace them to their 
 source they merge one into the other ; and so it is with 
 others. There is no doubt that the cause of this effect 
 may be traced to that great tide of emigration which has 
 flowed from East to West as far back as history affords us 
 knowledge of the human race until the present day, but 
 which appears now to be at the flood, and to be about to ebb 
 in the contrary direction. The tide has flowed from China 
 across Asia, Europe, and America, until it has arrived at 
 California, and completed the circle. But we now, for the 
 first time, see a strong tendency to an Eastern emigration 
 in the hundreds of thousands of Chinese who are pouring 
 into California, and the increase is so rapid that it bids 
 fair to rival the tide coming from the opposite direction. 
 The Americans are making strenuous efforts to check this
 
 AEYA. 13 
 
 Chinese immigration, and it will be interesting to watch 
 the effect. 
 
 The great Aryan race, starting from India, overran 
 Europe and part of Africa, leaving colonies here and there 
 according as the soil or climate attracted them. These 
 colonies, seizing, probably, the women of the antochthe- 
 nes of the various countries, grew in course of time and 
 expanded. The effect of climate and pursuits gradually 
 altered the character as well as the appearance of the im- 
 migrant populations. Conquest, again, introduced new 
 blood and new languages, separate despotisms welded the 
 units of the separate parts into separate masses, and in 
 such manner were formed the germs of most of the races 
 of Europe. When, then, we speak of a race of men, we 
 do not mean that it has existed from all time on the soil 
 upon which it lives, nor that it inherits the attributes of a 
 single pair, but that it is an ancient family of men of 
 marked characteristics whose pedigree is obscure. 
 
 A very powerful factor in maintaining the purity of a 
 race is religion, which, from its strongly conservative 
 tendency, generally prevents one sect marrying into ano- 
 ther of a different creed. This is specially manifest in 
 Turkey, where a village may frequently be found inhab- 
 ited by pure Turks, and near to it another occujDied by 
 Bulgarians. They have been neighbors for nearly 400 
 years, and yet each keeps its distinctive character. The 
 one is Mohammedan and the other Christian, but give 
 them the same religion, and a century would probably 
 amalgamate them into one people. 
 
 The effect of religion upon race sometimes gives rise to 
 very erroneous ideas as to nationality. For instance, in 
 Bulgaria every Mohammedan village is called Turkish, and 
 it is commonly supposed that the inhabitants are Turks, 
 while, in point of fact, they are Bulgarians, who were 
 converted or perverted at the conquest of the country. It 
 is the same in Bosnia : the Turks of that country are, for 
 the most part, Mohammedan Slaves, who at the conquest 
 adopted the religion of the conquerors in order to escape
 
 14 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 from persecution. It is interesting to note tlie change 
 whicli difference in religion lias produced upon people of 
 tlie same race, and living upon the same ground. The in- 
 habitants of a Bulgarian Mohammedan village differ in 
 many respects from their neighbors of the same race who 
 are Christians ; the former lose the high cheek-bones and 
 square faces of the latter, probably from intermarriage 
 with Circassian and Turkish blood. They are also cleaner 
 in their persons and general habits, and, it must be ac- 
 knowledged, more truthful and sober. 
 
 It is not my intention to attempt a learned disquisition 
 on ethnology, or to trouble the reader with detailed lists 
 of tribes which have grown into nations, and of others 
 which have been blotted out, but it will be apposite to the 
 subject to take a general view of the sources from which 
 have flowed the nations whose acquaintance we are about 
 to make. To do this we must carry back our thoughts to 
 those earliest dates of history whose pages have been filled 
 by the studies of philologists, and by these we find that 
 nearly all the present races of Europe are what is called 
 Indo-European or Aryan ; that the great stream, starting 
 from India, flowed on and si^read over Europe ; and that 
 the people who composed it were of sedentary rather than 
 nomadic habits. Where nature offered attractions and ad- 
 vantages there they halted, and these "tillers of the land " 
 colonized until they overflowed to further genial soils. 
 But even at that far-distant period we cannot suppose that 
 they found the land a silent waste, and that they quietly 
 took possession of ground which no man had ever trod ; 
 on the contrary, it is far more probable that the new- 
 comers won their way step by step with sword or club in 
 hand. 
 
 The conquered aborigines who were not put to the 
 sword, or made slaves as men, or wives as women, would 
 probably fly before the advancing hosts, and seek refuge 
 and safety in the natural defenses of mountain ranges. 
 Accordingly we find remnants, even in the present day, 
 of ancient peoples who stand alone and cannot be classified
 
 ARTA. 15 
 
 with any others, and as these nations are discovered in 
 mountainous districts, such as the Iberians of Spain, the 
 Libyans of the Atlas, and many of the tribes of the Cau- 
 casus, we may indulge in the probability that they repre- 
 sent the remnants of the aborigines who were conquered 
 by the Aryan or Indo-European host, and fled before them. 
 In this westward march of the "noble family" of Arya 
 two great roads were open, one through Chorazan or 
 Modern Russia, and thence to the shores of the Black 
 Sea and Thrace ; another from Armenia across the Cau- 
 casus to the Danube, or by way of Asia Minor to south- 
 em Thrace and Greece ; and upon these tracks our ances- 
 tors, as well as those of most of the races of Europe, must 
 have made their westward march, or, as Miiller so graph- 
 ically describes it, the first ancestors of the Indians, 
 the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Slaves, the 
 Celts, and the Germans were living together within the 
 same inciosure, nay, under the same roof, and two kinds 
 of British subjects, the Indian Sepoy and the English sol- 
 dier, now find that they are speaking a common language. 
 
 Here, then, we have some of the first known stock of 
 man spread over the land called Turkey, wedded to the 
 aborigines, whoever they might be, and thus they passed 
 their centuries, and grew in history to Thracians, which 
 split asunder into tribes, which in their turn grew to 
 nations, as DacipoUs, Getse, Odrysians, Pierians, etc. 
 
 So much for the Aryan strand of the human rope ; but 
 there is another which has a firmer tie upon this land of 
 Turkey. To trace it we must again travel eastward, far 
 away to the great watershed of Asia, that large elevated 
 plateau which begets the rivers which find their way 
 through fertile valleys, north, south, east, and west unto 
 the sea. There is the land of Tura, of swift horses, rich 
 pasturage, and bracing air, and it was here the Turk and 
 Bulgarian may say that "our fathers fed their flocks." 
 No thought or care for tillage racked their minds ; but 
 here to-day and there to-morrow they moved their flocks 
 and herds, their tents and families, under a free nomadic
 
 16 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 life. Those who have a knowledge of the East may see 
 the shadow of this nomad life in the habits of shepherd 
 tribes in the present day. The Youruks in Asia Minor 
 move with the seasons ; on the hills in summer, dwelling 
 in temporary villages many thousand feet above the sea, 
 surrounded by their wives and children, their flocks and 
 herds, they make their temporary home. 
 
 As autumn approaches all their household goods are 
 packed on horses, and, driving their flocks before them, 
 they slowly descend to pitch their tents on plains three 
 hundred miles or more away. 
 
 In bygone ages a family of Tura was the nucleus of a 
 tribe. The flocks increased in parity with children. The 
 flocks, in charge of shepherd sons, split up in search of 
 pasture, and these again multiplied the fractions of the 
 unit which first was called a tribe, and then a nation, as it 
 spread upon the pasture area until it touched new climes, 
 which forced a change of habit and of aspect in both 
 flocks and men. Thus, as time rolled on, the great Tura- 
 nian root threw out five offshoots, and called them 
 Ugrian, Turk, Mongolian, Tungusian, and Bhotiya races. 
 The first two of these have, in their nomadic nature, 
 pushed their way to Turkey, but by very different routes 
 and climates ; and they have met so many foreign damsels 
 by the way, that marriage and the elements have so 
 changed their aspect and their customs that, now they are 
 face to face on Turkish soil as Bulgarians and Osmanlis, 
 their ancient ancestor of Tura would fail to recognize his 
 sons. But there they are, and they have spread over the 
 Aryan or Indo-European layer, composed of Thracians, 
 Slaves, and Celts, on Turkish land, and mingled with it by 
 marriage. This land of Tura was the home of swift 
 horses ; and it is probable that it is from there that we 
 must hail the blood of those animals which we in England 
 prize so much. In company with the human race they 
 made their journey, and even now we can trace their path 
 in the direction of their home ; and the horses of the Turco- 
 mans rival in bone and stature those of their probable
 
 TURA. 17 
 
 cousins in England, and would beat tliem out of tlie field 
 in endurance. The climate and pasture of Arabia prob- 
 ably reduced them to the compact and hardy horses 
 which the Arabs love and cherish. 
 
 The nomadic life of the Turanian family of men was 
 better calculated to leave an impress of its races upon the 
 present generation than was that of the Aryan stock, inas- 
 much as the latter moved as conquering armies, and took 
 to their new homes the women of the race they conquered, 
 while the former were often followed in their migrations 
 by the women and children of their tribe, and thus the 
 purity of their race was better maintained. This is very 
 marked in the case of the Bulgarians, who show such dis- 
 tinctive physical characteristics that they are probably 
 similar in appearance now to their ancestors, who entered 
 the country a thousand years ago. They have married, 
 no doubt largely, into the Slavonic layer, which they 
 found spread over Turkey in Europe ; but the introduc- 
 tion of their own women, who followed the wake of their 
 conquering armies, must have helped much toward their 
 distinctive character. 
 
 These remarkable people have been brought so promi- 
 nently before the public by the sad massacres of last year 
 (1876), that a brief description of their entry into, and 
 residence in, Turkey may not be uninteresting. I was liv- 
 ing amongst them for a considerable time, and therefore 
 had an opportunity of observing — and I may say, admir- 
 ing — their character. 
 2
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 THE BULGAEIANS. 
 
 The Bulgarians — Their Finnish Origin — First Emigration into Thrace — 
 Marked difference between the Inhabitants North and South of the 
 Balkan — Introduction of Christianity — Foundation of the Bulgarian 
 National Church — Reign of King Simeon — War between Greeks and 
 Bulgarians — Horrible Cruelties practised on either side — Strong National 
 feeling existing among the latter — Persecution of the Bulgarian by the 
 Greek Church — National Schools — District of Phillipopolis — Compul- 
 sory School-rate — Protestant Mission School at Samakov —American Col- 
 lege on the Bosphorus — Sect of the Paulicians — Bulgarian Newspapers 
 — ^Monastery of Rilo — Revival of the Bulgarian National Church — Spirit- 
 ual Circular from the Synod — Ecclesiastical disputes between Greeks 
 and Bulgarians — Fomented by Russia — Cretan Insurrection — Lord Strang- 
 ford— So-called Rebellion of 1867-68— Manufacture of that of 1876— 
 Administration of Justice. 
 
 TOU tell me, says a traveler, that the Bulgarians are 
 Finns from the Ugrian stock, and therefore first 
 cousins to the Magyars of Hungary ; but how, then, does 
 it come about that their language is a form of Slavonic, 
 and that they are claimed as brothers by the Panslavic 
 societies ? 
 
 The answer is that, in their south-eastward march from 
 Asia, they came upon the track of the Slavonians of the 
 Indo-European family, and that they passed centuries 
 amongst them. That these Finns made their way to the 
 river Volga, and were settled about a tovm called Bolgaris, 
 from which they took their name. In those days nations 
 moved about like great flights of birds, and were some- 
 times scared away by flights with sharper talons than 
 themselves. This was the case with the Bulgarians, who, 
 after a long sojourn between the Volga and Tanais, were 
 scared away by the Avars, a branch of the Turkish nation 
 
 18
 
 THE B TIL GARIANS. 10 
 
 wlio liad come by a different route from the common land 
 of Tnra. So these crest-fallen Finns packed up bag and 
 baggage, and started off in the year a.d. 559 for the Dan- 
 ube, which, finding hard frozen, they crossed with ease 
 under the direction of their great chief, Zabergan, until 
 they stood upon the soil of Thrace. But ages before this 
 the Indo-Europeans, probably Slavonians, had occupied 
 the same ground, and now called their tribes under the 
 generic term of Thracians. But not only so. The modem 
 Slavonians, as they may be called, had but just preceded 
 the Bulgarians in then- attack upon these Thracian cous- 
 ins, and occupied their land and homes. Here, then, the 
 Bulgarian Finns found themselves on thorough Slavonian 
 ground, and among a thorough Slavonian people. Prior 
 to this they had passed over Slavonian land, and they had 
 also lived cheek by jowl with Turks, as Avars and Huns. 
 They spread in a.d. 559 over Thrace, the dominion of the 
 Byzantine Empu^e, to the very walls of Constantinople, 
 and covered the land from the Danube to the iEgean Sea, 
 and from Albania to the Black Sea, and there they liave 
 remained until the present date. They now form the bulk 
 of the population of Turkey in Europe, if we exclude 
 Albania and the tributaries, and we might with as much 
 reason call Northumberland England, as the district north 
 of the Balkan Bulgaria. That district is, in point of fact, 
 less Bulgarian than the country south of the Balkan, 
 where the massacres took place, for that great natural 
 mountain barrier has partially obstructed communication, 
 and thus tended to keep up the purity of the race to the 
 south, whilst the easy communication with the world by 
 means of the river Danube in the north has introduced 
 foreign blood. 
 
 This difference between the Bulgarian people is very 
 marked : south of the Balkan, the women are exceedingly 
 ugly and virtuous ; while north of that range they are de- 
 cidedly pretty, and rumor asserts that they are not eqiial 
 to their southern cousins in point of morality. I have 
 given the Finnish origin of the Bulgarians on two of the
 
 20 TURKEY IN EVBOPE. 
 
 best antliorities, namely, Prichard and Miiller, and from 
 what I liave seen of the people, they certainly bear out 
 all that those learned men have said of them. Although 
 their hair is dark, and sometimes black, as adults, it is 
 generally fair as children. The women south of the Bal- 
 kan might pass in physical aspect as Finns ; and I have a 
 Bulgarian in my own employ that might be taken as the 
 original of the illustration of a male Finn in Prichard' s 
 work on the natural history of man. But what about 
 their Slavonic language ? Here, again, philologists assert 
 that a Finnish as well as a Turkish element may be de- 
 tected. The effect is probably the result of Bulgarian 
 Finns marrying Slavonian women, and their children 
 adopted principally the "mother tongue," and by rub- 
 bing against the Avars and other Turkish tribes in Scythia, 
 some portions of that language agglutinated to them by 
 contact. 
 
 A similar instance of the transition of language is visi- 
 ble in the same race during the present day. The Bulga- 
 rians in Macedonia border and touch the Greek popula- 
 tion : accordingly, we find them speaking Greek as their 
 social, and Bulgarian as their domestic, language ; but the 
 latter is in that quarter fast disappearing. I asked some 
 ]\Iacedonian Bulgarian peasants their nationality, and they 
 immediately replied, "Roum," the generic name given to 
 the Greek inhabitants of Asia Minor. They persisted that 
 they were Greeks. " Why, then," I asked, " do you talk 
 Bulgarian in your domestic life ? " "Because our fathers 
 did it," was the answer ; and they added, "We have suf- 
 fered trouble enough from being called Bulgarians, when 
 we are Greeks." By this remark they meant that, hav- 
 ing been under the domination of the Greek Church, they 
 were persecuted if they attempted to assert their Bul- 
 garian nationality, which is opposed to Pan-Hellenic 
 schemes. 
 
 After their occupation of Thrace and Macedonia in the 
 sixth century, the Bulgarians gradually rose in power, 
 and established the capital of their kingdom at the beau-
 
 TEE BULGARIANS. 21 
 
 tiful town of Lychnidus, tlie modern Oclirida, in the Al- 
 banian mountains. But they were but an ^Hmperium in 
 imjperioP 
 
 The great Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Con- 
 stantinople, checked and overshadowed them. It was a 
 fortress which, from its geographical position, formed the 
 key to the chief power in the country. 
 
 The Bulgarians lived by the power of the sword and the 
 bow ; their newly-adopted country was a cockpit, whereon 
 Greek fought Greek. They were now in alliance, now at 
 war, with some foreign intruder ; the whole country was 
 like a stormy sea, upon which nations embarked only to 
 meet with shipwi-eck. Hungarians, Romans, Venetians, 
 Genoese, Tartars, Normans, Germans, and Turks, all ap- 
 peared to be attracted to the country as a common battle- 
 field ; and amidst the contending parties the Bulgarians, 
 although they clung to the soil as a rural population, 
 eventually saw their government and waning power 
 packed away north of the Balkan, and the capital of their 
 kingdom was moved from Ochrida, in Albania, to Tknova, 
 near the Danube. Amidst these centuries of warfare they 
 sometimes arrived at the very gates of Constantinople, 
 but they never succeeded in the capture of that much- 
 coveted city. In the present day, when we look at the 
 mild and i^eaceful Bulgarian, who shudders at the very 
 thought of war, we can hardly realize that they are the 
 fierce race which are described in history as so terrible in 
 battle. This change of nature has been brought about 
 by the loss of their leaders, who were represented by their 
 ancient aristocracy of princes and nobles who became 
 Mohammedans, and by the taming effect of long subjec- 
 tion to a despotic foreign government. 
 
 Out of these thunder-clouds of war and bloodshed there 
 emerged a bright ray of sunshine during the ninth cen- 
 tury, when Christianity found its way to the pagan hearts 
 of the Bulgarians. The good seed sown by St. Paul dur- 
 ing his visit to Thessalonica had taken root, and brought 
 forth an hundred-fold; and there in the ninth century
 
 23 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 there dwelt a Christian monk, by name Methodius, who 
 had studied at the convent of St. Basilius Cyrillus at Con- 
 stantinople. He was a man of genius as well as a holy 
 man, and he visited Rome to learn the art of painting, in 
 order to make it a means of impressing the minds of his 
 fellows with holy subjects, and he made such progress in 
 the art that he rose to fame. It so haj)pened that at this 
 time the Bulgarian king, Bogaris, had acquired a taste for 
 paintings, and had filled his galleries with pictures of ter- 
 rible deeds of battle which were in keeping with the age. 
 Hearing of the fame of young Methodius, he summoned 
 him to his royal court at Tirnova, and taking him round 
 his gallery of art, he asked the Christian monk if he could 
 paint anything more terrible than he saw there. Metho- 
 dius replied in the affirmative, and at once received an 
 order to commence his picture. 
 
 At last the work of art was finished, and the Christian 
 monk carried it into the presence of the heathen king. 
 
 "Show me," said Bogaris, " with what event you have 
 rivaled all my terrible deeds of men." " Behold, O king," 
 said Methodius, "the most terrible event that man can 
 contemplate," and he uncovered the picture, represent- 
 ing the "Last Judgment." The picture, together with the 
 arguments of the monk, so worked upon the imagina- 
 tion of the king that he requested to be baptized ; and 
 soon afterwards, by the constant exertions of Methodius 
 and his brother Cyrillus, the whole of the Bulgarian sub- 
 jects were, in the year a.d. 853, converted to Christianity. 
 
 These two Christian brothers were afterwards very ac- 
 tive in converting the Slavonians, and Methodius was 
 made Archbishop of Pannonia. Assisted by Cyrillus, he 
 invented the Slavonian alphabet, which received the name 
 of the "Cyrillic," and they translated the whole of the 
 Bible into the Slavonian language. 
 
 It is here that the history commences of the Bulgarian 
 National Church, which was destined some centuries later 
 to bring upon the nation a persecution from its Greek 
 rival, which exceeded in animosity anything that was ex-
 
 TEE BULGARIANS. 23 
 
 perienced from Mohammedan rule. Altliougli the Bul- 
 garian Church admitted the doctrine, disciiDline, and 
 usages of the Greek Church, it was strictly independent, 
 and was under primates of its own ; but for political pur- 
 poses it sometimes voluntarily acknowledged the suprem- 
 acy of Rome, and sometimes that of the Greek head at 
 Constantinople. This ecclesiastical freedom it held until 
 shortly after the overthrow of the Bulgarian kingdom and 
 its conquest by the Turks. 
 
 With the introduction of Christianity in the ninth cen- 
 tury new life was given to the Bulgarian kingdom. Edu- 
 cation flourished, and the schools of Constantinople were 
 filled with Bulgarian nobles. 
 
 Amongst them was a young monk of royal descent, 
 who, notwithstanding his religious education, possessed 
 the warlike ambition of his warrior race, which impelled 
 him to relinquish the cowl and acce^Dt the throne, and in 
 A.D. 888, the young Simeon became a King of Bulgaiia. 
 He immediately commenced to establish his power by at- 
 tacks upon the Greeks, provoked by the ill-treatment of 
 Bulgarian merchants at Thessalonica by Stylianus, father- 
 in-law to the reigning emperor, Leo VI. Simeon was uni- 
 formly successful against the Greeks. He ravaged the 
 whole of Macedonia, and then advanced to the siege of 
 Constantinople, and imposed conditions of peace on the 
 alarmed emxDeror. Simeon died, after a prosperous reign 
 of forty years, during which period the Bulgarians as- 
 pired to rank amongst the leading nations in Europe. 
 
 Both art and science flourished throughout the country, 
 and the Christian religion was fii'mly established. Dur- 
 ing this reign a remarkable system of telegraphy was in- 
 vented by Leo, ArchbishoxD of Salonica, who was after- 
 wards head of the mathematical school of Magnaura, in 
 Constantinople ; and it was extended from the borders of 
 Syria to that city. A marked dial of a clock was kept in 
 the castle of Lulus, near Tarsus, and a corresponding one 
 at Constantinople. Fires, kindled at certain hours of the 
 day, conveyed intelligence of hostile incursions, battles.
 
 24 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 conflagrations, and other incidents of war, the honr of 
 kindling indicating the nature of the incident, according 
 to an arranged plan marked on a dial-plate of the clocks. 
 What would Archbishop Leo have said to a submarine 
 telegraph to America ! 
 
 The ascendency of King Simeon was so great that he 
 obtained the title of BasUeus, or Emperor. 
 
 From this period to the Turkish conquest, we find Bul- 
 garia frequently at war with the many rival Greek em- 
 perors ; and the horrible cruelties practiced by both sides 
 mark the rancorous hate which existed between the foes. 
 
 On one occasion, the Bulgarian king, Samuel, was 
 defeated at the battle of Tetunium by the Emperor Basil 
 II., who captured fifteen thousand prisoners. With bar- 
 barous cruelty he had all their eyes put out, with the 
 exception of one out of every hundred men, who were 
 spared in order to conduct the blind centuries back to 
 their native country. It is said that when King Samuel 
 beheld his brave and mutilated troops, he fell senseless, 
 and died two days afterwards. 
 
 A remarkable feature in the history of the Bulgarians 
 is the strong current of national feeling which existed, 
 and still exists, amongst the people. We do not hear of 
 insurrections amongst the Bulgarian people against their 
 own government ; but, on the contrary, they always ap- 
 pear as a united people, struggling for independence. 
 
 This power of cohesion and strong national feeling is 
 very apparent to any traveler who may go amongst them 
 in the present day. They all seem most anxious and 
 willing to sink their individuality for the common welfare 
 of the nation ; and it is a feeling which, under proper 
 guidance, should have great results. 
 
 At the battle of Mcopolis, a.d. 1396, when the flower of 
 the French and Hungarian chivalry were defeated by the 
 Turks, under Bayezid, all hope of freedom for the Bul- 
 garians passed away ; and they were henceforth to be- 
 come Turkish subjects, and to furnish a quota of their 
 youths to be educated as their Mussulman oppressors, un-
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 25 
 
 der the name of Janizaries. The Ottoman race was at this 
 time rising to the pinnacle of its power ; and the capture 
 of Constantinople, in a.d. 1453, riveted the Turks in the 
 position of a European power, although not of the Euro- 
 pean family. 
 
 The Bulgarians as Ottoman subjects sank into oblivion 
 under the shadow of Ottoman rule, and they had now 
 to work under a despotic power side by side with their 
 fonner enemies, the Greeks, but the latter people by no 
 means abandoned the fight ; they threw away the sword, 
 it is true, but they took up the less manly weapon of in- 
 trigue, and handled it with cruel skill. From that day to 
 this they have endeavored to discredit their rival fellow- 
 subjects, the Bulgarians, in the eyes of their common 
 government, and, with the help of a period of ecclesiasti- 
 cal tyranny, they have added greatly to the weight of 
 the yoke that has pressed on the necks of the unfortu- 
 nate Bulgarians. 
 
 But it may be asked, How is it that this people, greatly 
 superior to the Greeks in point of numbers, has neverthe- 
 less been completely outstripped by their rivals in influ- 
 ence mth their common despotic rulers % 
 
 The answer lies in the fact that after the conquest of 
 the country by the Turks, the great body of Bulgarian 
 nobles and men of influence were perverted to Moham- 
 medanism. They were not probably so much under the 
 influence of the priesthood as the peasantry, and therefore 
 exchanged persecution as Christians for the benefit of 
 Mohammedan subjects. The Greek upper classes, on the 
 contrary, clung to their hierarchy, which, it must be re- 
 membered, was firmly rooted in the capital, and they 
 looked upon it as a center of union, by which they might 
 eventually regain their empire. The Ottomans adopted 
 the principle of religious toleration, and made use of 
 the hierarchies as channels for governing their Christian 
 subjects, hence it may be seen how infinitely superior 
 must have been the influence of the Greeks over that of 
 the Bulgarians. By this religious toleration the Otto-
 
 26 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 mans greatly weakened tlieir power ; had they followed 
 the example of Mahomet, and inoculated the inhabitants 
 of the countries they conquered with Islamism by the 
 point of the sword, they would have brought them, at 
 the end of two generations, all under their banner as firm 
 believers. 
 
 Fortunately for Christendom this was not done, or the 
 power of the Turk might have spread over all Europe, 
 and the Christian religion would have been a blessing of 
 the past. 
 
 From the time of the conquest the history of the Bul- 
 garians blends with that of the history of Turkey in Eu- 
 rope ; they formed the bulk of the population of the 
 country, and theu' numerical strength ruffled the equa- 
 nimity of the Porte, and caused them to be regarded with 
 a jealous eye and to be ruled with an iron hand. 
 
 The Ottoman-Greek j)owers, as centered in the Phanar, 
 soon realized the importance of the influence, both eccle- 
 siastical and civil, which became vested in the federation 
 of theocracies under the scepter of the Sultan, and they 
 artfully represented to the Porte that, since the Bul- 
 garians were Greek in faith, they should be placed under 
 the jurisdiction of the Greek Patriarch. 
 
 For a long time the Porte refused to listen to the repre- 
 sentations of the Phanar politicians, who eventually be- 
 took themselves to fresh maneuvers to accomj)lish their 
 object. It was insinuated that a rebellious spirit existed 
 amongst the Bulgarians, and that the State was in danger, 
 and every kind of intrigue was set on foot to give color 
 to the suggestion. This was touching the Porte on its 
 weak point, and a firmer grip upon Bulgarian liberty 
 was the result. 
 
 A long period of subjection, rural occupation, and the 
 absence of an aristocracy, had obliterated the warlike 
 spmt of the Bulgarian people, and nothing was farther 
 from their thoughts, wishes, or power than rebellion, so 
 that the Phanar insinuation was a cruel irony. 
 
 The Greeks, however, were in their element when fenc-
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 27 
 
 ing with their favorite weapon, intrigue ; and in the year 
 1767 they gave the final thrust, and the Bulgarian Church 
 was placed under the immediate spiritual jurisdiction of 
 the See of Constantinople. 
 
 That success was obtained through venality may be sur- 
 mised from the following translation of the formal act of 
 abdication made by Orsenius, the last Bulgarian primate 
 and Patriarch of Ochrida, which was the seat of the 
 Bulgarian ecclesiastical government, as it had once been 
 the seat of their kingdom : 
 
 " With this present voluntary resignation I, subjoined, 
 make known that because it is impossible for me to fulfill 
 the duties and obligations of the patriarchate of Ochrida, 
 inasmuch as we have been the means of bringing into con- 
 tempt the name of patriarch, thereby bringing u]3on them 
 (Christians) persecutions and heavy losses, and similar 
 troubles upon the Christian subjects ; and since in no way 
 but by the abolition of the patriarchate can the flock of 
 Christ be delivered from their hands, therefore I give in my 
 resignation of, and free dismission from the seat of Och- 
 rida ; retaining, however, my former Eparchia of Pelagonia 
 (Monastir), which I retain for myself during life, as a 
 means of living, and for my expenses." Signed, Orsenius 
 Dolis. January, 1767. 
 
 There is an evident attempt in this vague document to 
 make a virtue of necessity, an unctuous resignation of 
 power to save his flock from persecution, coupled with the 
 paramount necessity of retaining his rich Eparchia of Pel- 
 agonia for his own lifetime, and the concluding words, 
 " for my expenses," savors much of a quidpi'o quo. 
 
 No mention is made of the rest of his clergy ; but it is 
 merely an individual resignation, and as such it was ac- 
 cepted by the Bulgarian people and the great body of the 
 clergy who refused stoutly to recognize the Act of Abdi- 
 cation, and declared themselves strangers to the bargain. 
 It soon, however, became apparent that the Porte had come 
 to terms with the Phanar, and a stern pressure turned 
 Bulgarian refusal into servile protest ; their bishops and
 
 28 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 clergy were dismissed, their sees and parishes were occu- 
 pied by Greeks ; their monasteries and schools were seized, 
 and the revenues appropriated by the Greek communities ; 
 but the greatest blow of all was struck in the elimination 
 of the Bulgarian language and literature from all the edu- 
 cational establishments. 
 
 The revolutionary cruelty of this sweeping measure 
 may be realized when it is remembered that in Oriental 
 churches the choice of the patriarchs and their councils 
 usually lies with the body of the people. 
 
 It cut the Bulgarians to the very quick, in consequence 
 of their very marked and distinctive national character, 
 and it is most remarkable, in studying the action of this 
 interesting people, to observe how, under this crushing 
 blow, they persistently and patiently retained their per- 
 sonality, and after the lapse of a century regained without 
 rebellion that which they had lost, and which was so dear 
 to them. 
 
 The dissemination of the Greek clergy amongst all their 
 schools and churches, and the transmission through them 
 of much of the civil as well as ecclesiastical power, 
 would, it might be thought, have given them complete 
 ascendency over the rural population ; but the reverse was 
 the case, and it shows a remarkable cohesion in the Bul- 
 garian people, a cohesion which may be traced from their 
 earliest history, and which is probably destined to raise 
 them to the front rank of nations. 
 
 But the Greek persecution of this people is not singu- 
 lar ; a still more subtle poison has been instilled into the 
 minds of their Mohammedan rulers from the side of Rus- 
 sia, who, while holding out the right hand of friendship, 
 concealed a poisoned dagger in the left. Hear the words 
 of a Bulgarian himself on these questions, written in 
 1868: 
 
 "As for the Greeks, their first encounter with the Bul- 
 garians was sword in hand, and they had the worst of it. 
 Later on they made use of Turkish rule to take their re- 
 venge, fastening on to us under it as leeches of the Phanar.
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 29 
 
 Up to this day they obstinately deny ns our ecclesiastical 
 rights, while we on our side never lose an occasion of tes- 
 tifying estrangement from everything which leads up to 
 or bears xqyon the great Hellenic question. It is very evi- 
 dent that similarity in religious forms can have no power 
 to combine two such antipathic spirits as ours and the 
 Greek — I use the word forms, because at bottom the Bul- 
 garian religion is not at all that of the Greek. With him 
 religion is more an affair of politics than anything else ; 
 it is, in fact, his emblem of nationality. With the Bulga- 
 rian, as with all the tme Slavs, religion is a profound and 
 self -nurturing sentiment, abiding in the heart unmoved by 
 the fluctuations of worldly interests. Nor do we resemble 
 Russia any more than do other Slav communities ; we love 
 individual liberty, and we are strongly imbued with a 
 sense of rights of property, so that Russian centralization 
 and communistic ideas are repugnant to us. Our language 
 is as different from Russian as French from Italian, that 
 is to say, certainly not enough to merge into Russian by 
 natural fusion. Historically Russia has never taken a step 
 to attach us to her. As her influence arose in the East, 
 she came to consider us as an inferior sort of Slavonic race, 
 one wholly passive, and doomed to pass under Russian 
 rule by the mere force of circumstances. I^ot a word of 
 us in her treaties with the Porte, for she found it best that 
 the Greeks should wield our resources, and turn our 
 strength to account in order to undermine the Turkish 
 empire. . . . Our passive attitude in presence of the 
 bands lately sent by Russia to stir us up in revolt, and 
 our emphatic disclaimer of fellow-feeling with the Cretan 
 insurgents, are striking proofs of our want of sympathy 
 with Russian tendencies, and of the political independence 
 of our own conduct.'"^ 
 
 I shall presently give some proofs of the machinery of 
 Russian intrigue for the disruption of Turkey, which, to 
 residents in the country, is so much matter of fact that 
 
 * Koprichtencki. Select Writings of Viscount Strangford.
 
 30 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 cela t>a sans dire, but wliich in some quarters in England 
 is received with such obstinate skepticism. 
 
 I dwell upon the religious struggle between the Greek 
 and Bulgarian . Churches because it underlies the history 
 and policy of both nations since their subjection to the 
 Turks, and it affords an insight into the character of the 
 two peoples which is instructive. 
 
 The corrupt and oppressive conduct of the Greek epis- 
 copacy, and of the inferior clergy, so disgusted the Bul- 
 garian people that they first took the legitimate course of 
 memorializing the Greek Patriarch, as the head of their 
 dominant Church, against the abuses to which they were 
 subject, but the only answer they received was maledic- 
 tion and spiritual rebuke. They next appealed to the 
 Porte, who in turn consulted the Greek Patriarch at Con- 
 stantinople, and the result was a tightening of the bands 
 of persecution. But the persistency and patience of the 
 Bulgarians could not be crushed ; and in 1840-45 several 
 wealthy merchants from Philippopolis and other districts, 
 some of whom had been educated abroad, organized a na- 
 tional opposition to the spiritual and civic torture imposed 
 upon their people. They worked with consummate skill 
 and judgment, and commenced by the endeavor to quietly 
 introduce the Bulgarian language and literature into the 
 local schools and churches, and thus revive the national 
 tendencies of the people. 
 
 Their difficulties were great, for there was an absence 
 of Bulgarian printing-offices in Turkey ; but they suc- 
 ceeded in getting what they required printed and imported 
 from abroad. No sooner, however, were the books landed 
 than it was like a bomb-shell thrown into the midst of 
 the Greek hierarchy, and the Patriarch instantly hurried 
 to the Porte and obtained the confiscation of all the Bibles 
 and books, representing most artfully that these works, 
 being in the Slavic language, was proof of Bulgarian sym- 
 pathy for Russia, and was but the first act of rebellion. 
 
 But the work was done ; the books were in the hands 
 of the people, and before they could be hunted up and
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 31 
 
 destroyed tlie desired effect was produced. A burst of in- 
 dignation came forth from the people at tlie withdrawal 
 of the only means of educating their children in their 
 much-loved vernacular, and the organized band of leaders 
 stepped boldly forward and demanded their right to the 
 mother tongue. 
 
 Subscriptions were raised in all the district towns, and 
 teachers were imported from Russia and Austria. The 
 movement was denounced by the Greek Patriarch, and 
 every device and intrigue were used to crush it ; but the 
 funds which had been raised cleared away the opposition 
 of the Ottoman authorities, and permission was obtained 
 to establish schools distinct from those of the Greeks in 
 some of the district towns, and the first central school 
 was triumphantly opened in Philippopolis, in 1850. Be it 
 observed, that this success was due to the exertions of the 
 upper class of Bulgarians — a class which had been extin- 
 guished at the conquest of the country, but which was 
 slowly but steadily revived by the industry of the people. 
 
 From the opening of the central school at Philii:)poi3olis 
 dates the revival of popular education amongst the Bul- 
 garians. It struggled with difficulties until the Crimean 
 War, but after that event it spread with amazing rapidity, 
 and exhibited an amount of potential energy for national 
 development which is truly wonderful. 
 
 The Sandjak of Philippopolis was the central and con- 
 trolling province of the Bulgarians in Thrace. It contains 
 a population of 664,000, composed of 
 
 Bulgarian Christians 390,000 
 
 Mohammedans, principally Bulgarians 240,000 
 
 Greeks, Albanians, and "Wallachs 10,000 
 
 Jews, Armenians, and Gypsies 24,000 
 
 6G4,000 
 
 It has 14 towns, 877 villages, and 109 tchiftliks, or private 
 farms.
 
 32 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Two-thirds of the villages are occupied by Bulgarians, 
 and most of the farms are worked by them. 
 
 It is a part of this district which has been the scene of 
 the unhappy massacres during the late disturbances, 
 which were brought about not by the Bulgarian people, 
 but by Russian intrigue. 
 
 Prior to 1850 reading and writing were considered rare 
 accomplishments in this province, and there were hardly 
 any schools for teaching the Bulgarian language. Before 
 the close of 1858 there were 5 central, 8 preparatory, and 
 90 elementary schools, besides 7 girls' schools ; total, 110. 
 
 In eight years, vi^;., in 1865, there were 6 central, 25 pre- 
 paratory, 180 elementary, and 18 girls' schools ; total, 229. 
 
 In 1870 there were one gymnasium, or central college, 
 6 central, 25 preparatory, 281 elementary, and 24 girls' 
 schools ; total, 337. 
 
 There were 16,500 pupils, viz., 13,885 boys, and 2,615 
 girls, with 346 male and 39 female teachers. The progress 
 was still more rapid until the date of the Servian war, and 
 the anarchy produced by the so-caUed Bulgarian rebellion 
 of 1876. 
 
 When we consider the apathy of the Ottoman Govern- 
 ment, and the active persecution of the Greek Patriarch- 
 ate, the rapidity of this educational advance cannot but 
 excite our admiration. 
 
 The course of instruction in these schools had a modest 
 commencement, but increased in scope with the advance 
 in education. 
 
 At first difficulty was found in obtaining teachers, but 
 the difficulty was promptly met by the establishment at 
 Phillipopolis of a special training-school for teachers. 
 
 In the central schools the course of instruction extends 
 over five years, and includes the Bulgarian, Turkish, 
 Greek, and French languages, practical arithmetic, ele- 
 mentary mathematics, geography, Bulgarian and Turkish 
 history, religious and moral instruction, and Church music. 
 I visited the schools at Eski Zaghra, which contain over 
 500 boys and 300 girls, and they were admirably managed ;
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 33 
 
 the buildings were spacious, clean, and well ventilated, 
 and the students cheerful and well dressed, and very intel- 
 ligent. 
 
 I was also a guest for a few days of the schoolmaster at 
 Troyan, a town north of the Balkan (which doubtless 
 derives its name from Trajan), and was much struck -with 
 his intelligence and the admirable management of his 
 school, and I have seen many others to which the same 
 description would apply. 
 
 In the gymnasium established at Philippopolis 1867-68 
 by special imperial sanction, besides the subjects taught 
 at the central schools, mental and moral philosophy are 
 added, and students are sent to it from the lower schools 
 to complete their studies. 
 
 In the preparatory schools, the course of instruction 
 extends over four years. They are divided into two divi- 
 sions, the upper and lower. 
 
 In the gMs' schools, reading, writing, and needlework 
 are taught ; and children of the poorer class enter at five 
 or six, and study until twelve years of age, while those of 
 the upper class remain up to fourteen, but seldom over 
 sixteen years of age. 
 
 In the central schools, boys remain up to seventeen, and 
 sometimes to nineteen years of age. 
 
 At first the teachers were selected from Bulgarians edu- 
 cated in Russia ; but they were immediately denounced to 
 the Ottoman authorities by the Greeks, as spies from that 
 country, so it was found expedient to obtain the supply of 
 teachers from Bulgarians educated in Turkey. The teach- 
 ers are liberally paid, their salaries ranging from £70 to 
 £140 per annum. They possess much influence with the 
 country people, and are a great source of national 
 union. 
 
 Education is free for rich and poor, who sit side by side 
 in friendly rivalry. 
 
 Up to the year 1860 the school funds were derived from 
 voluntary subscriptions and from funds bequeathed' by 
 charitable persons ; but it was found that the administra- 
 3
 
 34 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 tion of such funds was unsatisfactory, and tliat they were 
 frequently misappropriated. 
 
 A very important change then took place, and one 
 which foreshadowed the rapid approach of the revival of 
 an independent Bulgarian Church. The Bulgarians of 
 Philippopolis, as usual, led the van, and renounced their 
 allegiance to the supremacy of the Greek Patriarch at 
 Constantinople ; and they followed up this bold step by 
 appropriating the ecclesiastical domains, tenements, and 
 revenues of the diocese, and immediately employed a part 
 of their funds for educational purposes. Other districts 
 in the province soon followed the lead, and each con- 
 tributed a certain number of chosen men to form a central ' 
 board for the management of the ecclesiastical and educa- 
 tional interests of the province. 
 
 An excellent organization was the immediate result ; 
 and it was determined that a mixed commission of clerical 
 and lay members should be elected annually in each dis- 
 trict, charged with the immediate direction and control of 
 its affairs, both local and ecclesiastical, and that each 
 commission should act as a separate board, independent 
 of the other, but responsible to the community at large 
 for the supervision and promotion of public instruction. 
 As a matter of course, all these important changes were 
 not made without the passive sanction of the Porte, and 
 the amount of patience and perseverance which brought 
 them about cannot easily be measured ; but at the same 
 time, we must credit the Ottoman Government with the 
 progress which they at all events permitted to be carried 
 out by their subjects. 
 
 We thus see that the Bulgarian school fund is sup- 
 ported by voluntary contributions and bequests, but there 
 is a peculiar exception, and one which is quite novel to 
 the practice of the country. The gymnasium at PhiMp- 
 popolis derives its funds from a direct tax annually levied 
 on each Bulgarian "nefouz," male inhabitant of the kasa, 
 or district, at the rate of fifty-two paras (2id.) per head. 
 This school-rate is compulsory, and is assessed by the
 
 TUE B UL 0ARIAN8. 35 
 
 Ottoman authorities under a special firman, and by them 
 applied to the maintenance of the college. The tax pro- 
 duces about £700 per annum, and is willingly paid by 
 the inhabitants. We here get a government tax, the pro- 
 ceeds of which are given as a government grant to a non- 
 Mahommedan national school, an innovation which was 
 only carried in 1868 after much agitation on the part of 
 the Bulgarians. The Ottoman authorities frequently at- 
 tend by invitation the public examinations and delivery 
 of prizes at the Bulgarian schools. 
 
 The craving for education amongst the people is very 
 great ; and I was surprised to find that at a little village 
 near the Black Sea coast at which I was staying, one of 
 the Bulgarian rayahs, who had raised himself to compara- 
 tive independence by his own agricultural industry, built 
 at his own expense a very good school-house, and pro- 
 vided a schoolmaster, for the benefit of the village com- 
 munity. , 
 
 A very important addition to the education of the 
 country is supplied from a quarter which is so distant 
 that it would be least expected, and that is America. 
 
 The Protestant missionaries of the American Board of 
 Foreign Missions established schools at Eski Zaghra and 
 Philippopolis, and met with great success, not, however, 
 without much opposition from the Bulgarian and Greek 
 ecclesiastical party. They were obliged to move their 
 schools to Samakov in 1870, and they are placed under 
 the Rev. J. F. Clarke as principal. I had the pleasure of 
 being his guest in 1874, when the new and spacious school- 
 house had just been completed. At one time the mission 
 counted 500 pupils in its schools, but the so-called Bul- 
 garian insurrection of 1867-68 brought about complica- 
 tions which necessitated the removal of the schools to 
 Samokov, and, consequently, many of the pupils were lost. 
 When I visited the school at the latter place in 1874 there 
 were numerous pupils, and Mr. Clarke assured me he was 
 making good progress. I could not help being struck by 
 the cool courage and determination of my host, who was
 
 36 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 evidently ready to go anywhere and brave anything in 
 pursuit of his duty, which is frequently attended with 
 much danger. One of the missionaries lost his life from 
 an attack by brigands, while traveling in company with 
 his wife. The fanatical hatred of the rival Christian com- 
 munities is also a source of danger. Mr. Clarke has been 
 at his post during the late massacres, and as he was sur- 
 rounded by the disturbed districts he must have been ex- 
 posed to considerable risk. 
 
 The head-quarters and Bible Society of this Mission is 
 at Constantinople. It numbers many earnest and ener- 
 getic men amongst its missionaries, and meets with a fair 
 amount of success, the converts being chiefly Bulgarians. 
 
 The intei'preter I engaged at Eski Zaghra to carry me 
 through the country was a Bulgarian who had been edu- 
 cated by this society, and who had been on a tour in 
 America lecturing on "The Bulgarian People." He was 
 a straightforward, honest man, and had quite the dialect, 
 manner, and appearance of an American. 
 
 I must here allude to another American educational 
 establishment of the utmost importance ; and since it 
 draws the great bulk of its students from the Bulgarian 
 population, it should find a place in this part of my work. 
 I allude to "Robert College," which was founded in 
 1863 at the beautiful spot, Bebek, on the Bosphorus, by 
 the American philanthropist, Mr. Christopher Robert, 
 and to which object he devoted the munificent sum of 
 £20,000. The result is, that large and striking building 
 which attracts the eye as the prominent object on ap- 
 proaching Bebek. The principal. Dr. Cyrus Hamblin, 
 was, I believe, his own architect, and studied utility 
 rather than architectural effect. I cannot do better than 
 quote Dr. Hamblin' s own words as to the object and work- 
 ing of the college : 
 
 "The idea of the college was to furnish a thorough 
 education to the different nationalities and sects of this 
 empire. 
 
 "Each community may have excellent schools of its
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 37 
 
 own, but tliey are all defective in tlieir fundamental idea 
 and principle. The different communities dwell together, 
 have a great deal of business together, have a common 
 government and common interests, and should, so far as 
 possible, be unified by a common education. It is the 
 truest safety of the State and of society. It is, however, a 
 plan beset with many difficulties in its execution. Each 
 nationality, Aimenian, Greek, Bulgarian, Jewish, Turkish, 
 Persian, English, French, Italian, German, etc., etc., must 
 have its language studied at length. In point of fact, 
 about twelve languages are used at the college. How 
 shall this not create terrible confusion ? 
 
 "Is it possible to reduce such discordant material to 
 symmetry and order ? It is evidently impossible to have 
 the same kind of symmetry and order, and simple division 
 and arrangement of studies, which are found in English 
 and American institutions. But the plan pursued has 
 been thus far successful. It demands great labor, and a 
 large force of teachers, and numerous classes and sub- 
 divisions of studies. 
 
 "The plan is to have each student to commence his 
 course in his own language, unless he is ah'eady well 
 trained in it. In his own language he pursues some of 
 the preparatory studies, such as geography, history, arith- 
 metic, etc. At the same time he is studying English and 
 French. The former is to be the medium of prosecuting 
 his higher studies, and is the unifier of all the nationali- 
 ties and sub-classes in the college. Here, finally, they all 
 meet on common ground, and all the distinctions of race 
 and religion are merged in common interests and pursuits. 
 It is much to be regi'etted that so many leave as soon as 
 they are tolerably well fitted for the counting-house, but 
 still many have made very respectable attainments in the 
 various studies of their course. The chief nationalities 
 are the Bulgarian, Greek, and Armenian. 
 
 "The first year the college had no Bulgarian students, 
 the second year it had one, and in the seventh year, 39 
 out of 72.
 
 38 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ''TTie Bulgarians have not only taken the lead in num- 
 Ibers, but, to our great surprise, in scholarship. 
 
 "In the single department of design (drawing), they do 
 not exhibit any special aptitude or inaptitude. Armenians 
 have always borne off the prizes in that department, but 
 in all others the Bulgarians have excelled. A large pro- 
 portion of them are earnest, persistent scholars. They 
 have a marked social and patriotic character worthy of all 
 praise : they will aid each other, and push forward the 
 lagging, and patiently drill those who are far in the rear, 
 never being satisfied unless all are moving on together. 
 There have been instances of habits unfortunately con- 
 tracted which could not be allowed, but generally they 
 yield to a correct moral training. 
 
 "We consider the Bulgarians a race capable of great 
 things." 
 
 I would call my reader's attention to the praiseworthy 
 conduct of these Bulgarian students, of "never being 
 satisfied unless all are moving on together." It is here 
 that we arrive at the secret of the cohesion of the nation 
 through the many centuries of trouble and persecution it 
 has endured ; and in this particular point it is infinitely 
 superior to the Greek in nation-making qualities, since 
 the latter are in a constant state of ferment from an excess 
 of individuality. 
 
 In my humble opinion, the principles upon which 
 " Robert College " is founded, viz., that of giving a com- 
 mon education to all creeds, must form the foundation of 
 the regeneration of Turkey. If education is made the 
 path to civil and military employment, irrespective of 
 creed ; if, in fact, a national university can be founded 
 for the manufacture of educated officials, we may hope to 
 see the door of intrigue barricaded, and Justice raising 
 her head. 
 
 For the benefit of those of my readers who take an in- 
 terest in the subject, I give in Appendix A the prospectus 
 and course of studies issued at Robert College. Another 
 channel of education for the Bulgarian people is found in
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 30 
 
 the Roman Catholic Propaganda, whose agents are actively 
 employed throughout Turkey, but in the vilaiet of Adri- 
 anople they have not met with the same success which 
 has attended the Protestant missions. 
 
 This may be attributed to their want of tact in neglect- 
 ing the educational movement amongst the people, and 
 assuring them that there was no hope of their ever get- 
 ting the sanction of the Ottoman Government to the re- 
 vival of the Bulgarian National Church, and that their 
 only hope of peace was to place themselves under the 
 supremacy of Rome. 
 
 The small number of converts they made were called 
 "Uniates," bat they are now fast disappearing. 
 
 There are two Roman Catholic schools in Adrianople, 
 founded in 1863. For the last few years one of these 
 schools has been reorganized. It is conducted by Slav 
 priests, principally Poles of the Congregation of the Res- 
 urrection. It is attended by seventy pupils, of whom 
 twenty-five are boarders. 
 
 Besides the "Uniates" there are other Roman Catholics 
 called Paullcians^ who more immediately come under the 
 influence of the Roman Catholic Church. There is a cer- 
 tain interest attached to this missionary body, as they are 
 supposed by some authors to be the direct descendants of 
 the Armenian Paulicians, many thousands of whom were 
 banished to Thrace in the tenth century by the Emperor 
 John Zimisces. They originated in the seventh century 
 at Samosata, and were peculiar in rejecting the Old, and 
 holding only to the New Testament, and especially to the 
 doctrines of St. Paul. They had a great contempt for 
 images and relics, and denied any Divine presence in the 
 Holy Sacrament. The founder of the sect was Constan- 
 tine Sylvanus, who was looked upon as an apostle. 
 
 They revolted against the Catholics in the ninth century, 
 and, uniting with the Saracens, pillaged Asia Minor, but 
 they were eventually defeated by Basil. Other authori- 
 ties assert that they rejDresent the Bulgarian sect called 
 the ''Bogomiles," with whom the Armenian Paulicians
 
 40 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 united shortly after they were brought into Thrace. They 
 now form a distinct community under the immediate juris- 
 diction of a bishop and fourteen priests, appointed by the 
 Pope, and they number about 7,000 souls, 2,000 of whom 
 are at Philippopolis, and the remainder are dispersed in 
 nine villages in the vicinity. They were converted to the 
 Roman Catholic religion about forty-five years ago, and 
 their spiritual leaders have done their utmost to denation- 
 alize them. They possess nine churches and two schools, 
 one for boys and one for girls. 
 
 At Salonica the Roman Catholics have a convent and 
 school, and also a training-school for boys, and a small 
 farm on the outskirts of the town. They have many con- 
 verts, and here these institutions are doing much good. 
 
 The Bulgarian ladies have not been idle in the work of 
 education ; and during the last ten years they have estab- 
 lished reading-classes and associations for the advance- 
 ment of learning amongst their sex, and these associations 
 also raise funds for the purchase of books for the poorer 
 classes. One of the most popular authors of elementary 
 school-books is Joachim Gruef, a native of Philippopolis, 
 and the number of books printed in Bulgaria is increasing 
 with amazing rapidity. Bulgarian newspapers are also 
 keeping pace with the advance in general education. The 
 first was published in 1847, and was called the Czarigrad- 
 sky Vestnik (the "Constantinople Journal"), but its cir- 
 culation was not very extended. An attempt had been 
 made previously, by a Mr. J. Dobrowitz, to publish a 
 Journal at Odessa, called IIiTozrenie ("Review of the 
 World"), but it was immediately suppressed by the Rus- 
 sians, because it was printed in the Bulgarian vernacular 
 and not in Russian. If Russia is to have possession of 
 Bulgaria, we know what will become of the present Bul- 
 garian newspapers ! There are now several journals, but 
 that which has the widest circulation, and which is the 
 organ of the national party, is the Mdkedonia ("Macedo- 
 nia"). It is the object of Russia to denationalize Bulga- 
 ria, and consequently she discourages all national litera-
 
 TEE BULGARIANS. 41 
 
 ture ; and tlie very name is effaced from the maps nsed at 
 the schools at Odessa and Nicolaieff, which are much fre- 
 quented by Bulgarians. 
 
 There was a Bulgarian colony in part of Bessarabia 
 which was denied the use of its own language so long as 
 it was imder the Russian rule, but no sooner was it an- 
 nexed to Roumania, by the Treaty of Paris in 185G, than 
 the Bulgarian vernacular was introduced into all the 
 schools. 
 
 Russia distributes, through her consuls, ecclesiastical 
 books and ornaments in profusion to certain monasteries 
 and churches. At the large monastery of Rilo, at which 
 I was stopping for some days, a large portion of the reve- 
 nue is derived from Russia, to the amount, I was told, of 
 £4,000 per annum. Many of these monasteries are cen- 
 ters of intrigue. Some of the poorer classes of the Bul- 
 garians are selected and sent to Russia to be educated, 
 and afterwards are returned to their own country as the 
 secret agents of their intriguing master. 
 
 The Russian consuls frequently give money on the part 
 of their government towards the construction of a church, 
 but seldom towards a school. 
 
 The revival of the Bulgarian National Church, to be 
 mentioned presently, has been a great obstacle to Russian 
 intrigue, which is usually carried on through the ecclesias- 
 tical rulers of the people. 
 
 Efforts were made in 1867, by some of the leading Bul- 
 garians, to induce the Ottoman Government to establish a 
 special board of public instruction in Bulgaria, with power 
 to determine all questions concerning the public and pri- 
 vate funds appropriated to the supj)ort of the national 
 schools, the discipline, method of instruction, jDreparation 
 of text-books, appointment and dismissal of teachers, etc. 
 The board to be composed of five Bulgarians elected by 
 the people, and to be under the presidency of the Sultan's 
 Minister for Public Instruction ; and, with a view to ena- 
 ble the board to bestow grants for educational purposes, 
 it was proposed to levy annually, through government
 
 42 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 agents, a school rate of two piasters (4d.) from every male 
 Bulgarian. 
 
 Such a system of government support would have been 
 of inestimable service in encouraging and increasing the 
 national educational movement, but the Porte was passive, 
 and nothing was done. As may easily be surmised, the 
 National Church question was but a corollary to that of 
 education, and the success of the one brought success to 
 the other. We have seen how, in many districts, the peo- 
 ple had renounced allegiance to the supremacy of the 
 Greek Patriarch, and had appropriated the ecclesiastical 
 domains under the passive sanction of the Porte, and it 
 now only required official sanction to consummate the 
 dearest wishes of the great bulk of the Bulgarian people, 
 and to hand back to them the control of their much-loved 
 National Church, which had been lost for more than a cen- 
 tury. For the benefit of those of my readers who take an 
 interest in the subject, I give in Appendix B the full text 
 of the firman which settled the long-pending dispute. 
 
 It has been seen that the Bulgarians form the bulk of 
 the rural j)opulation from the western frontier of Mace- 
 donia to the Black Sea, and from the Danube to the Sea 
 of Marmora, and that the appellation of Bulgaria given 
 by maps to the country north of the Balkan might be 
 paralleled by calling Northumberland England. The 
 original capital of the country was at Ochrida, in Mace- 
 donia. It was then removed to Tirnova, near the Danube ; 
 and the present chief town may be placed in Philippopolis. 
 The Bulgarians located near the Greek frontier naturally 
 became, by force of contact, more Hellenized than their 
 fellow-countrymen who were more distant ; and in the 
 former case the Greek language overlay the Bulgarian — 
 that is to say, it was the social, while the Bulgarian was 
 the domestic, dialect. 
 
 From this cause the influence of the Greek Church along 
 the south-western frontier was in many places superior to 
 the Bulgarian ecclesiastical power, and the border became 
 fretted and torn by the contending interests. But from
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 43 
 
 the great bulk of the Bulgarians a loud cry of joy went 
 forth with the promulgation of the firman, and coupled 
 with it a cry of gratitude to their Ottoman rulers. Obe- 
 dience to the ruling power, and an anxiety to work hand- 
 in-hand with it, were prominent characteristics of the 
 Bulgarian population up to the commencement of the, to 
 them, unhappy year of 1876. 
 
 They felt that under Ottoman rule for the last twenty 
 years their position and freedom had made great advances, 
 and that it was possible to work together in the i)ath of 
 progress. They were eminently a law-abiding people, and 
 the follo-vving general letter, published by the Bulgarian 
 Synod after the granting of the firman, expresses truth- 
 fully their relation with the Ottoman Government : 
 
 A General Letter from the Holy Bulgarian Synod, and from the 
 Bulgarian University of Constantinople, to the Bulgarian 
 Provinces, on the event of the successful termination of the 
 Bulgarian Church Question. 
 
 Our Beloved Children and Dear Fellow-couxtrymen : 
 
 It is plain that many hindrances and obstacles have been raised 
 against the inculcation and diffusion of Christian instruction 
 among the Bulgarians, and their prosperity in the Christian life 
 and enlightenment. But the first and greatest of all has been the 
 establishment amongst them of pastors from another nation, who 
 have not known the language of this Christian people, and hence 
 were not in a condition to lead them into the pasture of salvation. 
 For this reason there has been so much spiritual darkness in the 
 understanding of the Christian duties and the teaching of the 
 Gospel. The orthodox Bulgarians, true to the faith of their 
 fathers, have always warmly desired and earnestly wished that 
 their churches might be intrusted to pastors taken from among 
 themselves, whom they know, and who are acquainted with them. 
 But the Constantinople Church, to whose judgment, as if directed 
 by the Lord, the Bulgarian churches and the chief of their priest- 
 hood have subjected themselves, has always rejected these our just 
 and Christian wishes as, forsooth, unreasonable and opposed to 
 the Gospel. In vain was every means used that our righteous de-
 
 44 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 sires miglit be satisfied in harmony and love. In vain was every 
 effort put forth that the wishes of our hearts might be fulfilled 
 quietly and with no worldly tumult. The Church, which we 
 have besought with filial respect as her beloved children in Christ, 
 has not only remained unfriendly to our desires, has not only 
 disapproved and ridiculed our needs as fictitious, but has despised 
 and persecuted, punished and tortured, those whom we have ap- 
 pointed to represent to her the above-named needs. But our na- 
 tion is not without protection. Above those who injure us, and 
 above us who are injured, is the civil ruler, who is, for us, the 
 servant of God for good, and who is sent for the punishment of 
 evil-doers, and for the praise of them that do well. 
 
 This ruler is his Highness, our Sultan, who, after putting forth 
 all possible efforts for the reconciliation of the two discordant 
 parties, as he did not succeed, has been pleased at last to divide, 
 ecclesiastically, the Bulgarians from the Patriarchate (as he had 
 formerly united them), through the issuing of the necessary ap- 
 proval in tliis by his high, and by us honored, firman, which was 
 given us on last Saturday, the 28tli of February. And so, after 
 so many evils, after so much unjust suffering, after ten years of 
 laborious efforts, we see to-day the desire of our fathers, the toils 
 and patience of the nation, and of us all rewarded and crowned 
 under the righteous judgment and impartiality of the Imperial 
 Government. The decision of our " question," which has drawn 
 out our efforts and attracted our attention for so many years, is 
 the j)lain proof of the good-will and love which the Imperial 
 Government cherishes towards the Bulgarians. It is a bright 
 evidence that it wishes to have us under its immediate protection 
 and care ; it is a demonstration that it raises even us Bulgarians 
 to the rank of its true subjects, which we have not had hitherto, 
 because we were represented before the honored Government 
 through other of its subjects, foreigners to us, who neither were 
 acquainted with us, nor our life, nor our situation. 
 
 But the royal firman rescues us from such a position — to-day 
 we ourselves have the right to govern our own churches. The 
 Bulgarian language will, without opposition, be the medium of 
 the sacred sermon and of Christian instruction. Through it, 
 without molestation, shall we learn our duties toward God and 
 toward the kingdom established over iis by Him, our obligations 
 to our neighbors and to ourselves. No one in the future will be
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 45 
 
 able to prevent onr prosperity as Christians and as a community. 
 From this time forth no one will be able to prevent the Bulga- 
 rians from expressing their opinions themselves — incited by no 
 one and speaking out their own private preference — that they wish 
 to be united with the Bulgarian Church, which, let the Bulgarians 
 everywhere be assured, they will secure if they are in the major- 
 ity. Let us hasten to profit by the rights which the imperial 
 firman grants us. At the same time let us hasten to show also 
 our gratitude to the royal throne by doubling our fidelity, devo- 
 tion, and sincere obedience to it — in which qualities the Bulga- 
 rians especially excel — since they will exalt our position before 
 the Sultan's Government, which position others, enemies of the 
 Bulgarian nation, strive to degrade by slanders and lies. 
 
 This joyful and triumphant intelligence of the decision of the 
 Bulgarian *' Question " we have that it is needful to place before 
 you that you may rejoice in the Lord, and raise to God a grateful 
 hymn for the long life of our sovereign emperor, tlie Sultan Ab- 
 dul Aziz Effendim. For your fuller information and assurance 
 the royal firman will be sent to you as soon as it is printed. 
 
 President — Hakion, of Joviten, Intercessor in Christ. 
 Paxarel, of Phillipopolis, ditto 
 Paieseus, of Philhpopolis, ditto 
 AuTEEM, of Widin, ditto 
 
 Harion, of Makeriopolis, ditto 
 
 Co7isfantino]}Ie OrtaJceng, Sd March, 1870. 
 
 This circular was followed by a spiritual letter, issued 
 just before Lent of the same year ; and I give it also in de- 
 tail, because as the former expresses the relations between 
 the people and their government, the latter gives an insight 
 to the connection between the priesthood and their flock. 
 It is also worthy of being read as an appeal to the feelings 
 of the peox)le by parables and language which remind us 
 of the days of the early Christians. 
 
 Spiritual Circular Letter from the Bulgariai^t Synod. 
 Reverend Priests, Honored Leaders and Elders, Blessed Trades- 
 men, inhabitants of the divinely favored city, etc., etc., and 
 of its surrounding district.
 
 46 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 Our Beloved Children" : 
 
 May grace and peace be with you from our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 and from us also a humble prayer and blessing. 
 
 Although we are bodily separated from you, yet we are always 
 anxious for your spiritual prosperity in every good, and hence in 
 fulfillment of our pastoral duty we have judged it best to send you 
 the following paternal instruction appropriate to the present days. 
 
 Behold, we have now reached the " Great Fast," which, in 
 much wisdom, our orthodox Church has enjoined for our spirit- 
 ual salvation, and for a fitting preparation for approaching the 
 dreadful and sacred sufferings resplendent from bright deeds, and 
 the glorious resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 As at one time there was spread out before the Hebrews the 
 width of the Eed Sea, which it was necessary they should cross 
 to enter into the Promised Land, so we have also now before us the 
 wide extent of the fast, which must be passed over before we reach 
 the radiant resurrection of Christ. As they were not terrified by 
 the depths of the sea, but, led by their conductor and prophet, 
 dared to enter and pass through the Red Sea, which was miracu- 
 lously divided before them, so also we, guided by and relying upon 
 the power and grace of our leader, the Church and her bridegroom, 
 ought bravely and heroically to pass through the present fast. 
 
 Some days ago was opened the arena of the Christian conflicts 
 of repentance, self-restraint, and humiliation, of which virtues our 
 mother herself, the Christian Church, gives us an examjile. Do 
 you not see, brethren, how she leaves her beautiful garments, and 
 clothes herself in black, as a sign of affliction and sorrow ? Do 
 you not hear how she cries out, how sadly every day she prays to 
 her eternal spouse for us her children ? Is there any one of her 
 children, the orthodox Christian, who will not follow her example, 
 who will not also himself descend clothed in bright armor, and 
 take a part in the impending spiritual conflict in which the hon- 
 ored ones, who have suffered lawfully, are rightfully crowned ? 
 Will there be found one of our spiritual and pious children, the 
 Bulgarians, who unconcernedly will rejoice in a worldly manner in 
 the days of repentance, and by this conduct will both injure him- 
 self and give offense to his brethren ? We do not believe that 
 the sons of the orthodox Bulgarian Church will not listen to the 
 voice of their mother by leading a careless and sinful life. 
 
 When the appropriate time has come for repentance, for self-
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 47 
 
 restraint, for ])utting away the lusts of the flesh, and for the per- 
 formance of good and pious deeds, it should be faithfully observed. 
 It is little enough that it comes but once in the entire year. 
 
 Perhaps there are Christians who have had it as the one aim of 
 their thoughts and acts, to satisfy their insatiable human lusts ; 
 but it is quite long enough that many the greater part of their 
 lives are in bondage, not to the Gospel and its instructions, as 
 they should be, as true followers and disciples of Jesus Christ, 
 but to their own sinful wills. 
 
 Let them follow the example of all gardeners, who, when they 
 wish a tree to yield abundance of healthy fruit, prune it from 
 dry and fruitless branches. Let us also purge our will from evil 
 and unworthy impulses, that the fragrant flower of evangelical 
 virtues may spring up and bear the good fruits of a holy and 
 Christian life. The whole life of a Christian, ye children, 
 should be a succession of good and pious acts, but especially now 
 in the time of the fast. 
 
 Unfortunately, however, a wrong idea, a false conception of the 
 fast, has been diffused and propagated among many. They 
 think that if they simply leave off some kinds of food they keep 
 the truest fast, they fulfill abundantly the command of the Church ; 
 and they deprive themselves of some favorite dishes, but con- 
 tinue to get drunk and revile each other, forgetful of the fearful 
 words of Jesus Christ, "Whosoever shall say unto his brother, 
 Raca, shall be in danger of condemnation." They will not eat 
 meat, but they will wrong their brother unmercifully ; they will 
 not eat cheese, but they will grieve the innocent without mercy, 
 and with no fear of the Lord. 
 
 The Jews at one time observed such a fast without leaving off 
 their evil deeds and works, but behold what the Lord God said 
 concerning it through the prophet Isaiah, " Your new moons and 
 appointed feasts my soul liateth." Indeed, the object of the fast 
 is the weakening of the bodily appetites, and the performance of 
 good deeds. But since different kinds of food contribute to the 
 excitement and arousing of these appetites, therefore the Church 
 of Christ imposes on her children relinquishment of some of them, 
 without ceasing, at the same time, to require of us the true fast 
 which is most beautifully and divinely described in the following 
 hymn, *' Let us keep an acceptable fast approved of God ; the 
 true fast is the abandonment of evil, the restraint of the tongue,
 
 48 TUBKET IN EUROPE. 
 
 the putting away of anger, tlie banishment of hist, and the for- 
 saking of evil speaking, Ijang, and perjury." Behold, therefore, 
 children, what is the true fast which the orthodox Church re- 
 quires of her children : not only the deprivation of pleasant food, 
 but, before all, the forsaking of evil and ungodly deeds. For 
 what in truth doth it profit me that I eat no meat, but swallow 
 down the substance of the unfortunate poor ? What gain that I 
 taste no flesh, but I lift a cutting tongue against the innocent, 
 and unjustly drag my brother before the courts ? See what the 
 Holy Scripture saith in such a case, " Fast not in strife and con- 
 tention, but love truth and peace. Put away therefore the works 
 of darkness, and be clothed in the garments of light." Beloved 
 children, visit regularly the churches where unceasingly flows the 
 water of life, the divine and soul-saving instruction of Jesus 
 Christ, where the affecting hymns which are sung do exceedingly 
 discipline the spirit of the Cliristiau in good and holy feelings, 
 which are the beginning and root of good actions. Attend faith- 
 fully to the instructions of the Church, which wonderfully directs 
 a man as to his Christian and human duties. Fulfill all the obli- 
 gations which the orthodox Church — anxious for their salvation 
 — enjoins upon every one of her children. Eepent and confess 
 your sins before your father confessor. The Church has now 
 opened a j)ath of repentance and confession, which, entering, 
 wash yourselves from the pollution of sin, and arm yourselves 
 with a firm and unyielding resolution to return no more to your 
 former sinful life ; and thus cleansed and washed, approach the 
 saving table of God the Father, that you may be innocent of the 
 body and blood of his Son our Saviour. But afterwards, as you 
 wear the wedding garments, unitedly follow our instructor and 
 eternal teacher, the God Man, Jesus Christ, that we may be 
 counted worthy also to see those great holy days in which was 
 finished the divine work of our salvation — as again to this effect 
 sings the orthodox Church, " We begin the sacred time of fast ; 
 entering a spiritual conflict, we purify the soul, we purify the 
 flesh." Thus we fast from all human lusts ; we delight our 
 spirits with our virtue, completing it in love, that we may all 
 attain to see the spotless Christ of God, and may rejoice in the 
 sacred Passover. 
 
 To Him belong glory, honor, and worship forever and ever. 
 Amen.
 
 THE B UL GABIANS. 49 
 
 The piiblication of the firman was a severe blow to the 
 Greek hierarchy, and a part of then- venom was expended 
 by the Greek Patriarch excommunicating all Bulgarians 
 who took advantage of the independence granted to the 
 Bulgarian Church. 
 
 As already stated, the district bordering upon Greece, 
 of which Monastir may be called the center, was disturbed 
 by rival religious interests, but the majority of the Bulga- 
 rians in this district were as jealous of their new privileges 
 as were their countrymen in Thrace. Serious difficulties 
 soon arose in consequence of the powerful Greek element 
 mingled with the Bulgarian. The town of Kiuprili and 
 some neighboring villages in Macedonia petitioned the 
 Porte to be placed under the new National Church, 
 and a Bulgarian bishop, named Agos Milos, was granted ; 
 but this immediately brought forth an indignant pro- 
 test from the Greek Ecumenical Council, who repre- 
 sented to the Porte that a Bulgarian bishop being located 
 in a Greek diocese was contrary to the spirit of the finnan, 
 and they insisted on his being removed. After considera- 
 tion the Porte consented ; but such was the determination 
 of the Bulgarian ecclesiastic to keep his post at all hazards 
 that he adopted the Roman Catholic faith, as a cover to 
 the administration of his own creed, and as a checkmate 
 to the Greek party. This, of course, brought up all the 
 Roman Catholic priests to the support of the bishop, and 
 amidst the contending parties many disturbances occurred, 
 so the Porte very wisely obliged the Bulgarian bishop to 
 leave the district. The Wallachian and. Albanian Greek 
 Christians, who are strongly represented in the neighbor- 
 hood of Monastir, disapproved of the conduct of the Greek 
 Patriarch in this instance, and showed a disposition to 
 resent his assumption of power. 
 
 This Wallachian sympathy was the progenitor of fur- 
 ther disturbances, and at Kiuprili, in 1874, a quarrel arose 
 because the Bulgarians would not permit a Wallachian 
 woman who had died to be buried by Greek priests in the 
 local cemetery, which was taken possession of when the 
 4
 
 50 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 diocese was placed nnder the Exarcli. The result was a 
 party fight with stones and sticks, and the police had to 
 interfere to disperse the combatants, but not before one 
 Bulgarian had been killed and several wounded. At an- 
 other Bulgarian village, Malesh, the Greek Metropolitan 
 of Shoumitza, insisted on visiting the people in his eccles- 
 iastical capacity, although warned not to do so by the 
 villagers. His persistency cost him dear, for a rabble 
 of men, women, and children collected, and would have 
 stoned him to death had not the neighboring Mudir 
 (Turkish magistrate) and some Turkish peasants anived 
 in time to rescue him. Amidst these disturbances a cir- 
 cumstance occurred which shows the strong faith which 
 exists, or rather existed, in the minds of the people regard- 
 ing the all-powerful influence with the Porte of the British 
 Government. In 1874 the Bulgarians in Macedonia, in 
 their religious struggles, actually petitioned the British 
 embassy to interfere in their behalf, and to have them 
 placed under the ecclesiastical rule of the Bulgarian Ex- 
 arch ! They even went so far as to ask whether, in the 
 event of their becoming Protestants, the British Govern- 
 ment would watch over their interests ! There is a sim- 
 plicity in this proposal which is charming, but it proves 
 that the population of Turkey is fully alive to the influ- 
 ence possessed by the foreign embassies in the govern- 
 ment of the country, and how easy it is for any designing 
 foreign government to create disturbance by holding out 
 false hopes regarding any subject which agitates the popu- 
 lar mind. 
 
 It is by this means that Russia has stirred up agitation 
 and trouble throughout the country, and, worldng over a 
 space of many years with one fixed and persistent policy, 
 she has used with consummate skill the art of intrigue, 
 and brought the unhappy country to its present state of 
 misery. 
 
 The proofs of this underhand diplomacy are everywhere 
 apparent to any impartial inquirer who chooses to travel 
 through the land, and the slow and subtle system of poi-
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 51 
 
 soning must ronse the indignation of any lionest man. 
 The germ was visible after the death of Peter tlie Great, 
 and, like a rank fungus, it has fructified by geometrical 
 progression until it has culminated in the present crisis. 
 The goal of Russia's ambition is the possession of Constan- 
 tinople ; and if her empire does not burst asunder from 
 over expansion, she will probably reach it in course of 
 time. Her first tampering with the Bulgarians commenced 
 in 1777, during the reign of Catherine II., who, in her 
 dreams of the conquest of the country, christened one of 
 her sons Alexander, and the other Constantine. But it 
 was at the Peace of Bucharest, in 1812, that Russia gained 
 her power of using intrigue with effect. By this treaty a 
 right of protectorate was given to Russia over the Greek 
 Church in certain parts of the Turkish Empire ; and as the 
 Bulgarians, who formed the bulk of the population, were 
 under the control of that Church, it is easy to see what a 
 good basis of operation was thus obtained. Indirectly, it 
 made Russia an element in the government of Turkey. 
 
 This right was confirmed at the Convention of Acker- 
 man, in 1826, and the fomentation of the Greek rebellion 
 against Turkey soon followed. By 1828 the Bulgarians 
 were brought to look upon Russia as the power which 
 was to give them freedom ; but the campaign of 1828-29, 
 although successful to the Russian arms, was fought in the 
 midst of the Bulgarian people, and the devastation which 
 followed the contending armies, and the final evacuation 
 of the country by the Russians, made them regret the 
 sympathy which they had so freely exhibited during the 
 campaign, and which now only brought to them the in- 
 creased persecution of their Ottoman rulers. Russian 
 blandishments and promises are, however, skillfully made, 
 and in a short time the Bulgarians again looked upon 
 Russia as their future liberator ; and on the breaking out 
 of the Crimean War, they watched the result with anxious 
 interest. From this time, Russian influence began to 
 wane, and a very powerful enemy arose to Russian in- 
 trigue. This enemy was the Bulgarian educational move-
 
 52 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ment, whicli tauglit the people how Russia had dealt 
 with her promises to other nations, and the amount of 
 freedom she allotted to them after they fell into her 
 power. Much information was also derived from immi- 
 grant Poles, who were scattered about Turkey as engineers 
 and surveyors ; and thus the cry of anguish from Poland, 
 as a warning voice, reached the Bulgarian people. Russia 
 had no longer the ear of the Bulgarians, and had, there- 
 fore, to change her tactics ; and she soon saw that, with a 
 feeble monarch, the greatest enemy to Turkey might be 
 realized in her own government, and, with patience and 
 perseverance, she lured the weak Sultan to national suicide. 
 
 In 1867, the Cretan insurrection having been fanned 
 into a flame, it was necessary to back it by a rising in 
 Bulgaria; but I cannot here give Russia credit for her 
 usual caution, for the whole thing was a complete bungle 
 from beginning to end. She usually stands behind the 
 curtain and pulls the strings which work the puppets, but 
 in this case she let the curtain fall, and the whole sham 
 was exposed. The programme was to promote brigandage 
 on a large scale in Bulgaria, next to show that the country 
 was in open rebellion, and then to call for intervention. 
 "The Comite Secret" was established at Bucharest m 
 order to create a diversion in favor of the Cretans by a 
 rising, however small, in Bulgaria. Russian and G-reek 
 agents were included in this "Comite," and money and 
 arms were freely distributed to G-reek klepti. They re- 
 ceived orders to plunder and pillage Bulgaria, and to com- 
 pel the inhabitants to join them. 
 
 But I cannot do better, in addition to the above account, 
 which I obtained from the country itself, than give an ex- 
 tract from the writings of the late Lord Strangford, a 
 straightforward English nobleman, gifted with a keen 
 knowledge of human nature, an unusual share of common 
 sense, and a wonderful power of expressing it. He may 
 be taken as one of our best authorities on the Eastern 
 Question ; and this is what he says of the so-called Bul- 
 garian rebellion of 1867 :
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 53 
 
 "Some three weeks ago we undertook to bring clearly 
 before our readers the exact method by which spurious 
 insurrections were hatched and forced into existence in 
 Turkey, with the deliberate object of establishing a suffi- 
 cient show of anarchy, bloodshed, and massacres, calcu- 
 lated to precipitate a diplomatic or an armed intervention 
 on the part of the greater powers of Europe, for the pur- 
 pose of numbing and paralyzing all Turkish Grovernment 
 in Turkey. That was then being done by bands of 
 brigands, recruited, subsidized, organized, and directed 
 from without principally by a committee at Bucharest. 
 They received orders to break out into open plunder and 
 pillage all over Bulgaria, so as to compel the peaceable 
 Christian peasantry to join their ranks and 'rise against 
 their o^Dpressors,' where possible ; it being fully anticipated 
 that the journals of the West could either be blinded to 
 the real nature of such a movement, or else would be self- 
 blinded, and would sympathize actively with it as a 
 natural and spontaneous revolution on the part of those 
 who, by the imperfect light of European public opinion, 
 ignorant of details, and seeking refuge in generalities, 
 would be assumed as certain to make common cause Avith 
 their insurgent fellow-Christians of Crete. The extreme 
 energy and activity of Midhat Pacha, governor of Bulgaria 
 north of the Balkan, completely defeated this delectable 
 scheme of political rattening. He made short work of the 
 filibusters, being helped to the utmost of tJielr power by the 
 Bulgarian Christian peasantry. 
 
 " These honest men determined to clear the country of 
 these rascals, and they turned to and hunted them down 
 everywhere — even to the very doors, it may be, of the 
 consulates of the guaranteeing powers. The peasantry, 
 our readers will be pleased to remark, is the same Bulga- 
 rian peasantry which, in our eyes, is disaffected by hy- 
 pothesis, and which it would be quite contrary to ' our 
 experience of the East ' not to suppose certain to be sym- 
 pathetically affected toward the so-called Cretan insur- 
 gents, and disposed to create a diversion on their behalf.
 
 54 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 Many curious documents appear to have come to light in 
 connection with this outbreak, to which the Turkish 
 authorities will act msely in giving the most entire and 
 remorseless publicity at all hazards. 
 
 "For the present we confine ourselves to the summary 
 of a simple document, apparently a letter, found on the 
 person of one of the brigands, who was shot off-hand 
 shortly after he was taken. 
 
 "This man, Costaki by name, seems to have been a 
 person of some little substance, who had been induced to 
 trust his whole capital, amounting to a couple of hundred 
 ducats, to the Bucharest Committee, under a Fenian bond, 
 or guarantee of repayment of three times that sum out of 
 the spoil — the spoil of Christian peasantry by ' Christian ' 
 liberators, be it remembered, in case the movement turned 
 out all well. 
 
 " 'You have deceived me with your insurrection,' wrote 
 the unfortunate man ; ' you sent me into Turkey expecting 
 to find a disaffected province ready to rise, instead of a 
 hostile people of Bulgarians, hostile in deeds, too, not 
 only in words, for it is by Bulgarians that I am arrested 
 and given up to the authorities. We are shot down in 
 the plains, and starved in the mountains, and have noth- 
 ing for it but to surrender ourselves to law. Is that the 
 way you pretend to regenerate a people, and to work for 
 the good of the Bulgarian race ? Is that your holy work, 
 in the name of civilization and progress? My worldly 
 goods are destroyed, my house is desolate, my life I am 
 about to lay down in the flower of my age. May God 
 smite you, and all those who act with you — smite you 
 with a chastisement even more terrible than that which 
 your victims are doomed to suffer ! ' 
 
 "We have no comment to offer upon this, nor had we 
 — who have long paid attention to the condition and 
 prospects of the most numerous and the most worthy 
 Christian race in Turkey — ever the slightest doubt 
 about the loyalty and good sense of the Bulgarian pop- 
 ulation, whose immediate want, in so far as they have
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 65 
 
 any, is not to turn the Turks but the Greeks out of the 
 country."* 
 
 Now I beg my reader to remember that these words 
 were written not longer ago than 1867, by a man thor- 
 oughly versed in the Eastern Question, and intimately 
 acquainted with the Bulgarian peoi)le. 
 
 In the following year another attempt to manufacture 
 rebellion was made from the same quarter, and with pre- 
 cisely similar results. At this time the Russian general 
 Bobricoff, accompanied by six engineer officers, and en- 
 gaged by the Russian Government, Avas making a survey 
 of Bulgaria and Thrace. 
 
 It is necessary now to remember the social state of this 
 part of the country lying immediately north and south of 
 the long range of the Balkan. 
 
 Unto, a very recent period, the mountains had been 
 infested by brigands — vauriens, from the Circassian, 
 Turkish, Greek, and Bulgarian nations, and the remnants 
 of this lawless horde were still in existence in consider- 
 able numbers, and merely kept down by the strong arm 
 of the law, acting through a large body of military and 
 police. Had it not been for the energy and promptitude 
 of Midhat Pacha, this barbarous horde of murderers would 
 have burst its bonds and devastated the country, as it teas 
 intended it should, do. It is asserted, I believe on good 
 authority, that such was the influence which had been 
 gradually gained by General Ignatieff over the weak Sul- 
 tan Abdul Aziz, that it was intended, if the so-called Bul- 
 garian rebellion succeeded, to call in the aid of Russian 
 troojDS to quell it ! 
 
 In 1874 I was traveling through the whole of this coun- 
 try, and stopped in many of the villages which are now 
 burnt and laid in ruins through the late melancholy means 
 employed to quell imaginary rebellion. Wherever I halted 
 I was the guest of Bulgarians, and, on some occasions, of 
 the schoolmasters of the towns and villages. In Bulgaria, 
 
 * "Select Writings of Viscount Strangford," vol. i., p. 167.
 
 56 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 if information is wanted, there is no man better capable of 
 giving it than the schoolmaster. He is the pulse of the 
 people, and by feeling it you can judge of the state of 
 their health. I never saw a country which looked less 
 like the seat of rebellion. The people were prosperous, 
 peaceful, and contented, and their whole thoughts were 
 concentrated upon education and progress. I learned 
 the force of the so-called rebellions of 1867-68, and was 
 informed that foreign agents were still at work, but with- 
 out the slightest hope of success, and that the only result 
 of their labors was the occasional drinking of revolution- 
 ary toasts, when heated with wine, by a few good-for- 
 nothing Bulgarian youths, deficient in brains ; that their 
 number was so insignificant and their influence so infini- 
 tesimal that they were not worth mentioning. 
 
 It was only eighteen months after this that the so-called 
 rebellion occurred which resulted in the massacre of the 
 inhabitants ! The seeds of this disturbance — for I cannot 
 call it rebellion — were sown by the same hands as in 1867- 
 68, but the gTound on which they fell was in a different 
 state of preparation. In the first case, the rest of the 
 country was at peace. Midhat Pacha, a man of real energy 
 and ability, was on the spot with a well-organized body 
 of military and police, and the disturbance was crushed 
 as soon as it had begun. 
 
 In the second case, the country was plunged in civil war ; 
 the religious fanaticism of the Turks was roused by the 
 rebellion of some of her Christian subjects in neighboring 
 provinces, their troops and police were scattered over the 
 disturbed districts, their temper was irritated by the 
 known machinations of one foreign power and the galling 
 fetters placed upon them by others, they hourly expected 
 Servia to declare war in their front, and they were assured 
 that Bulgaria was going to rebel in their rear. Financial 
 shipwreck stared them in the face, and the whole machin- 
 ery of government was in wild disorder ; the Bulgarian 
 people were in a state of terror at the alarming reports 
 from the neighboring pi'ovince of Herzegovina, and at the
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 57 
 
 events which, were foreshadowed in Servia. At this mo- 
 ment the match was put to the mine which was to explode 
 in the Bulgarian rebellion, and there was no Midhat Pacha 
 on the spot. The result was a panic amongst the Bulga- 
 rians, and a panic amongst the Ottoman authorities. There 
 is no combination of cu-cumstances more favorable for cru- 
 elty and massacre than that of uncontrollable terror. A 
 nation, like a man, in a panic is in a state of temporary 
 insanity. 
 
 Be it remembered that the orders in 1867-68, to the for- 
 eign agents who were to manufacture rebellion, were "to 
 compel the peaceable Christian peasantry to join their 
 ranks, and rise against their oppressors." The orders were 
 the same in 1876 ; and in abject terror some few unfortu- 
 nate Bulgarians did join the ranks of the many ruffians 
 that gathered in the hope of plunder, and we know the 
 sad result. But to call this wicked plot a Bulgarian rebel- 
 lion is a cruel insult and reproach to that i^eaceful and 
 would-be loyal people. 
 
 As an instance of the panic which reigned amongst the 
 Ottoman authorities, I will cite one case which occurred. 
 
 A telegram was received by one of the governing pashas 
 from his superior to destroy eleven named villages, which 
 were said to be hot-beds of insurrection. The pasha vvas 
 about to carry his orders into effect, when some influential 
 Bulgarians a?id Turlcs waited on him and represented their 
 horror at the intended cruelty, stating that they knew the 
 villages intimately, and that the inhabitants were most 
 peaceful, industrious, and harmless, and did not harbor a 
 thought of rebellion. They begged the pasha to accompany 
 them to the villages, and satisfy himself of the accuracy of 
 their assertion. He immediately did so, and, of course, 
 found that the statement was correct. He telegraphed to 
 that effect to his superior, and received orders to spare the 
 villages, and thus these poor people escaped. Would that 
 it had been so in all cases ! 
 
 There is no palliation for the honlble cruelties that were 
 committed withm the knowledge, and sometimes even by
 
 58 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 the orders, of the Ottoman authorities ; but to fasten such 
 cruelty as an attribute peculiar to the Turkish character 
 is a wrong. Like barbarities have been rivaled in former 
 times by Christians on the same ground, and in the pres- 
 ent day by Russians in Central Asia. The orders for the 
 Bulgarian atrocities are merely instances of the cruel 
 side of human nature, bereft by panic of its better half, 
 mercy, and as such bear no comparison with those of Rus- 
 sia, which were the result of cool and premeditated action. 
 
 It was stated that many of the Bulgarian girls were 
 seized by the Turks and forcibly retained in their harems. 
 This report is partly true and partly false. Many of the 
 girls were undoubtedly taken to the harems, sometimes 
 forcibly, and in many cases out of charity ; but with very 
 few exceptions these girls refuse to return to theii* homes. 
 They find the luxury and comfort of the harem preferable 
 to their hard life in a Bulgarian village. 
 
 The downfall of Sultan Abdul Aziz completely check- 
 mated for a time the machinations of Russia, and in what 
 form they are again to be resumed remains to be seen. 
 
 I have already said that the Bulgarians are principally 
 a rural population, and they form the great bulk of the 
 agricultural classes in Turkey in Europe ; but wherever it 
 is practicable they also turn their attention to manufac- 
 tures, and along the southern slopes of the Balkan woolen 
 clothes and carpets are made in large quantities, but are 
 mostly used in the country. 
 
 It is difficult to form an accurate opinion of the number 
 of the Bulgarians, or, indeed, of any other population in 
 Turkey, as the official statistics are not to be depended 
 upon, and I am inclined to think that the population is 
 greatly underestimated. This may be accounted for by 
 the corruption of Turkish officials, coupled with the fact 
 of Christians paying a tax in lieu of military service. 
 The head of a household knows when the tax-gatherer is 
 coming, and orders some of the males of his family to 
 make themselves scarce. The tax-gatherer enters the 
 door, and feels a backshish slipped into his hand ; and
 
 THE BULOARIANS. 59 
 
 down goes the number of male occupants as three, when 
 it is in reality five. They have another mode of taking 
 the census, which is by counting the number of houses, 
 and taking the average number of occupants as four in 
 each family ; but this is evidently a rough-and-ready 
 mode of proceeding which must be far from accurate, and 
 it is also open to the all-powerful influence of backshish. 
 I give in Appendix C various statistics of the Turkish 
 populations. 
 
 We have seen how, by raising their voice and not their 
 arms, the Bulgarians obtained an independent church and 
 national schools, and that general progress and content- 
 ment existed ; but there can be no doubt that they inherit 
 the remembrance, even in the present generation, of most 
 wicked persecution approaching near to slavery, and the 
 hardship they have now to bear is not the persecution of 
 their governors, but the arrogance of their Mohammedan 
 fellow-subjects who live by their side, and who, from being 
 accustomed to see the Bulgarian Christians over-ridden, 
 treat them -with contempt, and as though they were an in- 
 ferior race. To their former persecution from the Otto- 
 man authorities was added that of their Greek priesthood ; 
 and these two combined have produced a submission and 
 a patience under suffering which is both pitiable and ad- 
 mirable. 
 
 Some idea of what these poor people once suffered, and 
 the reformation which has been made in their treatment 
 within the last few years, may be formed by a description 
 of what was going on in the district of Djumaa, on the 
 upper Strymon, in the year 1859. This district contains 
 thirty-two villages, of which twenty-seven are Bulgarian 
 and five Mohammedan ; most of the villages were the 
 property of the Mohammedan beys or aghas (gentlemen) 
 of the place, the land being cultivated by the Bulgarians, 
 partly as laborers and partly as rayahs, on the metayer 
 system. The district was governed by a Mudir (magis- 
 trate), and Medjliss (court), who sat at the iovro. of 
 Bjumaa.
 
 60 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 Tlie Medjliss, or court, was composed of Mohammedans, 
 with one Bulgarian codja-bashi (headman) representative, 
 but the latter did not dare to raise his voice on any subject. 
 All the members of the Medjliss were the principal land- 
 owners in the district : consequently, in most of the ques- 
 tions brought before the court, they had to sit in judg- 
 ment on themselves. 
 
 The neighborhood, being mountainous, was infested by 
 brigands, composed of Turks, Albanians, and Christians, 
 and the beys who sat on the Medjliss were said to afford 
 a ready asylum to these robbers, and sometimes to share 
 in the plunder. Under such circumstances, the amount 
 of justice received by the Bulgarians may easily be im- 
 agined. By the metayer system, the landlord receives half 
 the crop (after many deductions) as rent, and it is col- 
 lected in kind. At Djumaa, the beys and aghas employed 
 brigands to collect, not only their own share, but much 
 besides, from the rayahs, and these Albanians in their 
 turn plundered the villagers. The Poliak, or Albanian 
 guard, in the service of one of the members of the Medj- 
 liss, was attached to a village called Logotash. They 
 gathered together seven other evil spuits, and going to a 
 neighboring village, broke into the cottage of a Bulgarian 
 farmer, and demanded plunder. The poor man, having 
 nothing to give, was seized and held down while his body 
 was seared with red-hot irons. This, of course, was not 
 an every-day occurrence, and consequently made some 
 sensation in the neighborhood ; and the Turkish Eegis- 
 trar for Title Deeds, of Sofia, happening to be at Djumaa 
 at the time, heard of the barbarity, and to his credit 
 called on the Mudir, and had the Poliak arrested and 
 brought before the Medjliss. 
 
 At first the Albanians asserted their innocence, but the 
 evidence was overwhelming and the Registrar firm ; so 
 they gave up that tack, and made a clean breast of it, and 
 declared that they acted under instructions fi'om their 
 master and other members of the Medjliss, or court which 
 was trying them.
 
 THE BULGARIANS. 61 
 
 This made matters disagreeable, but the indignant Reg- 
 istrar still pressed the case to a higher court. So off to 
 Constantinople went the principal bey, the master of the 
 Poliak, who was a man of considerable property, and 
 consequently of considerable influence, and made interest 
 there with the higher powers. The result was that an or- 
 der came that the case was not to be pressed against him, 
 and the indignant Registrar went on his way, but not re- 
 joicing. 
 
 This may be taken as a fair sample of the customs and 
 administration of Justice in a few of the country districts 
 twenty years ago ; but a great change for the better has 
 been wrought of late years. I was at this very place, 
 Djumaa, in 1874. It was then a tolerably clean and flour- 
 ishing to^vn, with the telegraph and an excellent high- 
 way road passing through it. Brigandage was almost ex- 
 tinguished, and an advanced system of agriculture (chiefly 
 tobacco) was practiced. The same change has been real- 
 ized in other districts throughout the country, and this, at 
 all events, shows that the Crimean War was not fought in 
 vain, and that it has brought some blessings to humanity. 
 
 The reader will observe the armor which has been given 
 to the Bulgarian as a defense against persecution by the 
 revival of his j^ational Church, which throws a large 
 share of his local government into the hands of the eccle- 
 siastical superiors of his own nation, and at the same time 
 creates a channel of communication leading up to Con- 
 stantinople, by which any barefaced persecution could be 
 made public. But, as I have said, the Bulgarians have 
 still to bear the insolence and arrogance of their Moham- 
 medan neighbors, and submit to it from the force of in- 
 heritance. I will give two examples which I lately wit- 
 nessed. In the town of Salonica, in a grain merchant's 
 office, a Hellenized Bulgarian was transacting business 
 with the merchant, and whilst he was in the midst of con- 
 versation a Turk entered, sat himseK down, and at once 
 broke up the conversation, and commenced business as 
 though the Bulgarian was not in existence, and the man
 
 62 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 was left there standing nntil the Turk had finished. This 
 arrogant conduct of the Turk was not habitual : had the 
 man been a fellow-Turk, Jiowemr poor, he would have re- 
 spectfully been given time to conclude his business. 
 
 The other case is one of greater hardship. A Bulgarian 
 farmer, in a village adjoining my estate, had his straw 
 stack burnt. I was condoling with the man on his loss, 
 when he told me that it was the act of an incendiary, and 
 that he knew the culprit. "Then," I asked, "why do 
 you not have him up before the Mudir (magistrate) ? ' ' He 
 shrugged his shoulders, and said, "The man belongs to 
 the Youruk (Turks') village." "What of that?" I re- 
 plied. "Have him up, and you will get justice ; and, if 
 you like, I will see that you have fair play." Another 
 shrug of the shoulders. "No, thank you, Chelibi; I 
 would rather not make enemies." 
 
 I could mention many other cases, but the foregoing are 
 fair samples of the subordination of the Christian to the 
 Turk in every-day life. It has been brought about by 
 long years 'of domination of one race over the other in a 
 country not regulated by a powerful police. But this sub- 
 jection is rapidly wearing away, and the railway and the 
 telegraph will soon equalize the different races.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE BOSPHOEUS AND BLACK SEA. 
 
 Turkish Red-tapeism — My struggles for a Passport — To Burgas by Steamer — 
 Undercurrents of the Bosphorus — Possible connection between it and 
 the Caspian — The Great Flood — Bay and Town of Burgas. 
 
 /~\NE of my objects in visiting Turkey was to inspect 
 ^-^ some landed estates reported for sale, and which, 
 offered favorable investments for capital ; and, as I was 
 anxious to see a large portion of the country, in order to 
 be able to form an accurate opinion of its capabilities, I 
 determined to land at Burgas, on the Black Sea coast, and 
 inspect the neighborhood of that town, and afterwards to 
 pass along the south side of the Balkan mountains, cross 
 them at their western extremity to the Danubian plain, 
 and from there make my way to Salonica, in the south. 
 Before leaving Constantinople, I was told that it was neces- 
 sary to provide myself with a "teskerre," or Turkish 
 passport, to show, if required, when traveling through 
 the country. 
 
 Accordingly, I placed myself under the direction of 
 "Far Away Moses," and was led through intricate and 
 narrow streets for about half an hour, until we arrived at 
 an official Turkish building, where we were told that it 
 was necessary to cross to Stamboul to another office, about 
 two miles off. As it was an exceedingly hot day in July, 
 I commenced to put myself in the fashion by abusing 
 Turkish administration ; but we have just as much red 
 tape at home. 
 
 Arrived at the office, I had to wait until another indi- 
 vidual on the same errand had obtained what he re- 
 quired, and during this time I had the opportunity of 
 observing the Turkish manner of doing business. 
 
 63
 
 64 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 There was a very pompous Turkish, official at a desk 
 writing and questioning the intending traveler, and five 
 other officials sitting round and looking on. 
 
 These officers were mostly young, and their principal 
 duties appeared to consist in paring their nails and utter- 
 ing deep and reflective sighs. "Far Away Moses" in- 
 formed me that these gentlemen received salaries at the 
 rate of £30 a month, that I had witnessed their usual oc- 
 cupation, and that there were no less than three thou- 
 sand others in various offices usefully employed in a sim- 
 ilar manner. 
 
 Look to it, ye bondholders without dividends, for 
 this is one of the weak and extravagant points of Turkish 
 administration. There are usually three officials helping 
 a fourth to do nothing. 
 
 The difficulty at Constantinople is to obtain accurate in- 
 formation upon any subject, either from Turks or Franks. 
 
 No sooner had I provided myself with the " teskerre," 
 than I M^as told that a " booyutoo " was the proper pass- 
 port to have, that it was a much grander document, and 
 would be an "open sesame" wherever I might go on 
 Turkish soil. It is obtained direct from the Grand Yizier, 
 or fi'om the Vali, or governor-general of a district vilaiet, 
 through the ambassador or consul representing the nation- 
 ality of the traveler, and if it is produced to the magis- 
 trate of any district it immediately commands the greatest 
 attention and assistance, while the production of a " tes- 
 kerre " shows that the traveler is but an ordinary individ- 
 ual, not deserving much consideration. I afterwards pro- 
 cured a "booyutoo," but I had to produce it only once 
 throughout the whole of my travels, and yet always met 
 with the greatest kindness, civility, and hospitality wher- 
 ever I went. Curiously enough the occasion of my having 
 to produce the "booyutoo" occurred on the waters of 
 the Bosphorus, when I was passing from one steamer to 
 another with my luggage in a caique, and was stopped by 
 one of the water custom-house officers. The man insisted 
 on examining my luggage, but I happened to be in a hurry
 
 THE BOSPUORUS AND BLACK SEA. 65 
 
 and a bad temper at the time, and therefore all the obsti- 
 nacy of the Briton rose -within me, and I firmly refused, 
 knowing that the demand was only an excuse for back- 
 shish. The man persisted, and the steam whistle was 
 blowing the signal for a start, so I indignantly spread out 
 my "booyutoo" within an inch of the man's nose, and 
 the boatman accompanied the tragic act by a crescendo 
 expostulation. The effect was instantaneous, and the man 
 who had been rather impertinent before now completely 
 changed his manner, as he looked gravely at the docu- 
 ment, which he folded uj) carefully, as though he regard- 
 ed it with the deepest resjDect, and, returning it to me with 
 a salute, politely begged me to pass on. I pondered over 
 the Mohammedan law, which asserts that all men are 
 equal ! I soon found myself on board the Austrian Lloyd 
 steamer, Thetis, bound for Galatz, xia Burgas and Yar- 
 na. It was perfect pandemonium. The decks were crowd- 
 ed vdth passengers, Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Negroes, 
 Circassians, Bulgarians, Germans, Dutch, French, Italians, 
 Americans, Scotch, and I and my servant added the Eng- 
 lish element. They were nearly all talking, shouting, and 
 gesticulating. There were nearly twenty horses on board, 
 neighing, squealing, and kicking ; there were dogs bark- 
 ing and whining, the donkey engine fizzed and rattled, the 
 captain was bawling and swearing, the screw was thump- 
 ing and bumping, the steam was roaring and spluttering, 
 and I was grumbling and muttering. The waters of Lo- 
 dore were a joke to the hubbub. 
 
 Truly this city of the East must be a wonderful place, 
 to attract all these nations to a common center ! There 
 must have been a special Providence over this steamer, 
 otherwise we should have all been burnt, as the decks 
 were piled vdth hay, which again was piled with men who 
 were all smoking cigarettes. I called the attention of the 
 captain to the fact, and received the foreign expressive 
 reply of a shrug of the shoulders, as much as to say, 
 "Men, like chimneys, are made to smoke ;" and so I tried 
 to think it was quite natural and pleasant, and went be-
 
 66 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 low, where I must do the steamer justice by saying that 
 everything was very comfortable. 
 
 In steaming along the Bosphorus the attention is at- 
 tracted to the rapidity of the surface current, which is 
 running at about three miles an hour from the Black Sea 
 to the Sea of Marmora ; and on emerging into the former 
 sea we observe some curious volcanic rocks, which are the 
 celebrated Cyanean gates. There is a connection between 
 these rocks and the strong current ; and Nature is here 
 silently finishing a great work. This subject is one of 
 such deep interest that I shall dwell upon it for a time, in 
 the hope that it may have attractions for my reader. 
 
 Although there is such a strong surface current from 
 one sea to the other through the Bosphorus, if from a 
 small boat a weighted bucket with a rope attached be 
 sunk to some depth, it is found that there is such a power- 
 ful under-current in the opposite direction that it will 
 actually, by means of the sunken bucket, tow the boat 
 against the upper stream. 
 
 Different explanations have been given as to the cause 
 of these opposite currents, and Maury attributes it to the 
 difference in specific gravity between the surface and 
 under water, and the effort of the two to find theu' level ; 
 for it has been proved by experiment that the water at 
 the bottom is more impregnated with salt, and therefore 
 heavier than the water at the top. 
 
 Another more probable explanation is founded on the 
 supposition that there is underground communication be- 
 tween the Caspian and the Black Sea ; and that the level 
 of the former being much lower than that of the latter, the 
 water is sucked from below through this underground 
 channel, thus creating an under-current in that direction 
 from the Sea of Marmora through the Bosphorus and 
 Black Sea to the Caspian, while the upper current flows 
 by reason of difference of level in the contrary direction, 
 namely, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmora. 
 
 This supposition requires that the level of the Caspian 
 should be lower than that of the Black Sea, and the level
 
 THE BOSPEORUS AND BLACK SEA. 67 
 
 of the latter higher than the Mediterranean ; and if we 
 assume that there is an underground communication be- 
 tween the two seas, the laws of hydraulics would then be 
 satisfied, and the i^henomenon would be explained. Now, 
 Sir Roderick Murchison made the level of the Caspian 
 83 '6 feet lower than the Black Sea, so that part of the 
 problem is satisfied, and we know that the surface level of 
 the Black Sea is higher than the MediteiTanean, therefore 
 we only require to prove the underground channel. This 
 is stated to exist at the south-eastern shore, in the direc- 
 tion of Tiflis, but there are many reasons for supposing 
 that it may be by the Sea of Azof. We are told by 
 ancient writers that the Black Sea, the Sea of Azof, and 
 the Caspian were originally one, and that this great inland 
 water was pent up to a considerably higher level than the 
 Propontis and Mediterranean by the exceedingly narrow 
 passage formed by the Cyanean Isles at the mouth of the 
 Bosphorus. That about 1530 years before Christ a vol- 
 canic eruption destroyed the greater part of this barrier, 
 and the waters thus freed from confinement rushed into 
 the Propontis, thence by the Hellespont to the Mediter- 
 ranean, producing a great flood, and deluging the lower 
 countries of Asia Minor, Thrace, Greece, Egypt, and Libya. 
 Strabo, Zanthus, Diodorus, and many other ancient au- 
 thors allude to this great inundation. 
 
 The pages of history, which are unfolded for us by geo- 
 logical research, confirm this ancient tradition in a very 
 remarkable manner. The whole of the land lying between 
 the Caspian and the Sea of Azof is composed of marine 
 deposit, similar to that of the Caspian in the present day ; 
 and there are marked signs of sea-clifPs where all is now 
 dry land. Again, in the higher rocks at the mouth of the 
 Bosphorus there are unmistakable signs of the abrasion of 
 the rocks by an immense torrent of water flowing from the 
 Black Sea through the Bosphorus. 
 
 It is true that the elevation of the land between the Sea 
 of Azof and the Caspian amounts in one place to 237 feet 
 above the former ; but it is quite possible that the land is
 
 68 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 being gradually upheaved by volcanic action, as there are 
 mud volcanoes in the immediate neighborliood, and we 
 can hardly suj)pose it possible that the level of the Black 
 Sea before the great flood already mentioned rose to such 
 an extreme height. 
 
 The mud volcanoes near Yenicale, and the salt marshes 
 and lakes in the isthmus near the Caspian, all point to an 
 underground connection. 
 
 The difference of level which exists between the Caspian 
 and the Black Sea may be accounted for by the extraor- 
 dinary amount of desiccation which we know to be going 
 on in the former sea, which is rapidly diminishing in size. 
 Some idea of this may be formed when we find that in the 
 time of Herodotus, who personally visited those districts, 
 there were rivers east of the Bug navigable for ships for 
 some distance, while in the present day there are no rivers 
 there at all ! 
 
 The Black Sea, also, is decreasing in size, for Herodotus 
 asserts that he made the measurements himseK, and gives 
 the width from Sindica to Themiscyra, on the river Ther- 
 modon, as 3,300 stades, and the length from the mouth of 
 the Phasis to the Bosphorus, 11,100 stades. ProcoiDius 
 makes the length a little longer than Herodotus, and both 
 accounts exceed by more than a third the length of the 
 sea in the present day ; but when the physical character 
 of the country which borders the Black Sea is examined, 
 it is difficult to acknowledge the accuracy of these meas- 
 urements. At the same time, they point to the fact that 
 a great reduction of the area of water has taken place. 
 
 Now, what do we learn from all these geological and 
 historical facts ? 
 
 That there was originally a great inland sea, pent in by 
 the Cyanean gates, and that by some great volcanic erup- 
 tion those obstructing rocks were suddenly removed, and 
 thus allowed the great expanse of water to rush violently 
 through the BosjDhorus to find their level in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and to flood the countiies even unto Egypt and 
 Libya. That as the level of the water feU, land appeared
 
 THE BOSPHOR US AND BLACK SEA. 69 
 
 where before all was sea, and the isthmus between the 
 Caspian and the Sea of Azof was formed. 
 
 Desiccation by evaporation was now so great that it far 
 exceeded the supply of water by rivers to the Caspian, 
 and there was and is reactionary reduction here, since 
 rivers are only formed by the evaporation of water from 
 neighboring seas, so that as this great inland sea ran out 
 by the Bosphorus, so in like proportion did the rivers run 
 dry. It is therefore certain that in some far distant future, 
 according to our estimate of time, the plow ^vill be turn- 
 ing up the rich soil, and there will be golden fields of 
 wheat on the land which now lies at the bottom of the 
 Caspian. 
 
 Ten hours after we had passed the Cyanean gates we 
 were steaming into the large Bay of Burgas, formed by 
 Cape Emineh on the north, where the ancient Hsemus, or 
 modern Balkan, dips into the sea, and on the south by 
 the promontory which is terminated by the Greek town of 
 Sisopolis. 
 
 The Bay of Burgas offers the only good harbor between 
 the Bosphorus and the Danube ; and for this, as well as 
 for strategical and commercial reasons, it is a place of 
 great imi)ortance. On the northern side of the bay are 
 the two ancient Greek towns of Anchialus and Mesembria ; 
 and the latter would well repay a visit from an arclijeolo- 
 gist. It was a colony of the Megarians, and its original 
 name was Melsembria, from its founder Melsas — the termi- 
 nation hria being supposed to have been the Thracian 
 word for town. It was to this place that the lonians fled 
 from Byzantium after the suppression of their revolt, 
 B.C. 493. 
 
 I saw some very beautiful and perfect specimens of 
 Byzantine architecture in the town in the form of ruins of 
 ancient churches, said to have been erected by nobles who 
 were banished to this spot during the Byzantine empire. 
 They are built of small red bricks, which are here and 
 there studded Avith small concave, colored, and glazed 
 tiles, which are still in a most perfect state of preservation.
 
 70 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 The buildings are all dome-sliaped. The town is essen- 
 tially Greek in the present day ; and it is highly prob- 
 able that many of the inhabitants are the descendants of 
 the ancient lonians who migrated there more than two 
 thousand three hundred years ago. 
 
 There are many Greek towns scattered along this coast, 
 and amongst them are the live cities which formed the 
 Greek Pentapolis, namely, Istriani (Kustendje), Tomi 
 (Mangalia), Odessus (Varna), Mesembria, and Apollonia 
 (Sisopolis). Being seaport towns, it is not probable that 
 the ancient Greek blood has been handed down with much 
 purity ; but that it is present there can be little doubt. 
 
 As we are now amongst Greeks, I will take the oppor- 
 tunity of giving a brief sketch of the Greek subjects of 
 Turkey in Europe.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OTTOMAN-GKEEK SUBJECTS. 
 
 Ottoman -Greek subjects — Their first Entrance into the Country — Emigration 
 of Ancient Greeks — The Greek and Russian Churches — Pan-Hellenism — 
 Town of Sisopolis — Greeks on the Black Sea coast — Their primitive cus- 
 toms — Bitter feeling against the Turk — Massacre at Niausta — Greek 
 Brigandage. 
 
 ALTHOUGH the Greeks, both in ancient and modem 
 times, have been connected with the Government of 
 Turkey in Europe in many important particulars, they 
 have not had much influence in the diffusion of their blood 
 amongst the population. Excepting in Thessaly and 
 Epirus, and in Salonica, and some of the large towns, the 
 bulk of the population is Bulgarian, grafted upon the 
 Thracian and probably Slavonic stock. The Bulgarian 
 occupation of the country was that of emigration, sword 
 in hand, and the families followed in the wake of con- 
 quest, and i)eopled the land. The Greek and also the 
 Ottoman occupation was that of conquest alone, and the 
 small emigTation of these races which followed was only 
 the result of commercial enterprise. Hence we find that 
 the real Greek and Ottoman population of Turkey in 
 Europe in the present day are but insignificant as com- 
 pared with the Bulgarians. Many of the published sta- 
 tistics would lead to a contrary conclusion, as we fre- 
 quently see the Greek population put down at a figure of 
 millions ; but this arose from the fact of the Bulgarians 
 being dominated by the Greek Church of Constantinople, 
 and, therefore, from political as well as for Church pur- 
 poses, they were designated as Greeks. 
 Ubicini gives the number of Greeks in the Turkish Em- 
 
 71
 
 72 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 pii'e as two millions, of which, lie says, less than half are 
 in Europe. Excluding Thessaly, and Epirus, and the 
 Islands, I believe the number in Turkey in Europe would 
 not exceed 500,000 ; and these are iwincipally found in Con- 
 stantinople, and among the towns on the sea-coast, and 
 the largest towns in the interior. The common term for a 
 Greek amongst the natives is "Roum," Roman. There 
 is probably more ancient Greek blood to be found in 
 Turkey than in modern Greece. The early Greeks settled 
 in Asia Minor, have remained there to the present day, 
 and the Phanariotes can date their occupation of the soil 
 from the earliest history of Byzantium. 
 
 The country has been so oveiTun with Persians, Goths, 
 Huns, Bulgarians, Venetians, and Turks, that the purity 
 of blood of any nation inhabiting the to^vns on the sea- 
 coast must be much diluted. Whether the ancient Greeks 
 were of Slavonian, Italian, or Egyptian blood, cannot be 
 proved ; but Latham seems to arrive at the conclusion 
 that they were a mixture of the three. So that if the an- 
 cient Thracians were of Slavonian origin, as is suggested, 
 the Greek settlers might have been hailed by them as 
 cousins of some indefinite degree. The frequent occur- 
 rence of the name Heraclea (corrupted into Ereklia, 
 Arakli), which still clings to many towns both in Turkey 
 in Asia and Turkey in Europe, testifies to the antiquity of 
 the Greek inhabitants, for it was the custom of both the 
 Bulgarian and Turkish invaders to give new names to their 
 new settlements ; but, as the country was successively 
 overrun, the inhabitants of the same nationality kept 
 grouping themselves into separate towns and villages, in 
 order to enjoy their habitual social customs, and they 
 have, in many instances, probably remained on the same 
 ground to the present day. Some of the villages in 
 Turkey, especially amongst the mountains, may, therefore, 
 be of great antiquity, and it might throw much light upon 
 the ancient history of the country if the ethnologist and 
 j)hilologist would study the villages in the interior. The 
 time will soon be past for doing so with profit, as railways
 
 OTTOMAN GREEKS. 73 
 
 are pushing their way into the land, and when once com- 
 munication is made easy the traces of antiquity will begin 
 to diminish. By pitching his tent on the mountains dur- 
 ing the summer, and in the plains during the winter, the 
 ethnologist might enjoy one of the healthiest climates in 
 the world, and he would meet with the greatest hospitality 
 and civility. 
 
 As far as we can jiidge, the ancient and modern Greeks 
 of Turkey show similarity of character in their pursuits, 
 which, when not diverted by war, were commercial. They 
 do not appear to have spread over Turkey in Europe and 
 peopled it, but rather to have been attracted to the points 
 which offered the greatest facilities for commerce, and 
 there remained to carry on their trade with the people of 
 the country. Grote tells us that it was the policy of the 
 Persians to give as far as possible autonomy to all the 
 Greek towns of Thrace, both small and great, and the ad- 
 vantage of this policy was recognized by their predeces- 
 sors as well as by their successors. 
 
 The excess of individuality in the Greek character was 
 evidently well understood, and it was discerned that if 
 each town were left to govern itself there would be less 
 chance of united action from the whole body. In after 
 years, under Ottoman rule, the Greeks recognized their 
 weakness, and endeavored to strengthen their position by 
 Hellenizing (if I may so use the word) the Bulgarian 
 population of Turkey from the source of the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 The experiment had a fair trial, but Bulgarian nation- 
 ality was too strong to be smothered, and it burst the 
 bonds of ecclesiastical subjection. The strength of this 
 nationality becomes the more conspicuous, because the 
 rites and doctrines of both churches are so similar that 
 there is practically little difference between the two, so 
 that in overlaying the Bulgarians with the Greek Church 
 there were no religious prejudices to overcome. 
 
 Again, it might be thought that success would be in- 
 sured, since at the time of the trial the only education
 
 74 TURRET m EUROPE. 
 
 given to tlie peasant classes was through the priesthood, 
 and care was taken that these should all be Greeks. 
 
 But it was of no use ; the experiment was a complete 
 failui-e, although it had a trial of a hundi-ed years, and at 
 the end of that time the Bulgarian crowed out his strong 
 nationality at the da^\Ti of his revived Church. 
 
 The failure may be attributed to two causes, each of 
 which reacted upon the other, viz., the love of the Bul- 
 garian for his mother-tongue, and the neglect of the 
 Greeks to oust it — not by force, but by adequate Greek 
 elementary educational establishments. 
 
 The failure has added much to the complexity of gov- 
 ernment in Turkey, as the antipathy between the two 
 races is now intense, and forms a species of yeast to keep 
 up the fermentation amongst the peoples of that unhappy 
 country. 
 
 Looking then at the Greek presence in Turkey, we find 
 that their first entry dates from the mythical ^olian, Do- 
 rian, and Ionian emigrations to Asia Minor, from whence 
 they passed over to the coast of Thrace, and established 
 themselves in the seaport towns, probably for the purposes 
 of trade, but they still looked to their mother-country as 
 their head. Under them Byzantium grew in importance 
 and power, until through it the greater part of Thrace was 
 ruled by a military despotism. 
 
 In B.C. 168, when Perseus, the last King of Macedonia, 
 was defeated by ^milius Paulus, the Roman arms began 
 to overshadow Greece, and twenty-two years after, it be- 
 came a Roman province, but Greek trade still flourished 
 at Byzantium and on the coast. When the Roman Empe- 
 ror Constantine transferred the seat of government to By- 
 zantium, and gave it his name, Greece commenced a new 
 reign under the changed title of the Byzantine Empire, 
 and in course of time Greeks became Roman emperors. 
 
 The Byzantine Empire over what we now call Turkey 
 in Europe was but a military despotism over a subjugated 
 people, and the Greeks did not populate any material 
 portion of the country. After the conquest of the coun-
 
 OTTOMAN GliEEES. 75 
 
 try by tlie Turks, altliougli the maclimery of government 
 was of TurkisL. workmansliip, it liad to be set in motion by 
 Greek engineers. The Ottomans found themselves mas- 
 ters of a population which did not understand then* lan- 
 guage, and they had to make the Greeks their medium of 
 communication with theu" new subjects. This necessarily 
 brought the Greeks into close contact with the governing 
 power, and they made such good use of the opportunity 
 that the influence of the Phanar became proverbial. The 
 dying words of Sultan Othman recommended religious 
 toleration over his new conquests, and the respect which 
 was paid to his injunctions gave a power to the Greek 
 Patriarchs which was hardly less than that of the Sheiks 
 ul Islam. 
 
 The Ottomans, not knowing how to communicate ^^4th 
 their subjects, took advantage of the ecclesiastical organi- 
 zation of the Greek Church, and placed a large share of 
 the civil power into its hands, and thus the minority 
 ruled the majority of the Christian subjects. But the 
 power of the Greek Church was not supported by Otto- 
 man subjects only ; it ranged over an immense area in 
 Russia ; and this connection with the arch-enemy of the 
 Turks made it a very dangerous, and, it may possibly 
 prove, fatal element in Ottoman government. The origin 
 of the Oriental or Orthodox Church of the East is un- 
 certain. The Greeks claim that it was founded by the 
 apostle St. Andrew. It is certain that there were Chris- 
 tians in Byzantium in the time of Severus. It was, and is, 
 governed by four Patriarchs, at Constantinople, Antioch, 
 Alexandria, and Jerusalem. 
 
 The Patriarch of Constantinople was originally at the 
 head of the whole of the Russian Church ; but toward 
 the close of the sixteenth century a fifth Patriarch was 
 appointed at Moscow. This office was suppressed by 
 Peter the Great, and since his reign the Russian Church 
 has been governed by a synod of her own bishops. The 
 Church of Servia also seceded from the see of Constanti- 
 nople, and lately (1872) that of Bulgaria, so that its power
 
 76 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 is gradually being curtailed. The points of difference be- 
 tween the Greek and the Roman Churches consist princi- 
 pally in the former refusing to acknowledge the supremacy 
 of the latter ; but they also differ on the doctrine of pur- 
 gatory, and the Nicene Creed, and in the celibacy of the 
 clergy. Tlie Greek priests who are met with in the coun- 
 try districts of Turkey are, generally speaking, but partial- 
 ly educated men, who live by exactions from their flock. 
 Their power over the people in Macedonia is far less than 
 in Bulgaria and Roumelia. Many religious observances 
 are commanded, but they are too often accompanied by a 
 heavy charge ; and the poor peasant is mulcted of what 
 little is left him after deductions for taxes, and the result 
 of his careless cultivation. 
 
 So long as Greece proper formed part of the Turkish 
 EmiDu-e, the Greeks exercised a very powerful influence 
 on the Porte ; but since 1829 the great bulk of the Greek 
 population has been cut adrift from Turkey, and with it 
 the influence it formerly possessed. 
 
 The dream of Greek ambition is the re-establishment of 
 the Byzantine Empire, and had she dealt in a more liberal 
 spirit when she possessed the ecclesiastical government of 
 the Bulgarian people, she might by this time have so 
 Hellenized them as to make such a dream possible of re- 
 alization. As it is, a bitter enmity has been established 
 with the bulk of the very people the new Byzantine Em- 
 pire would have to govern ; and any attempt to establish 
 such a rule would raise a storm of indignation. Besides 
 this, it would be opposed to the Pan- Slavonic scheme, and 
 thus raise such a host of enemies in the north and east as 
 to comj)letely crush the feeble power of the Pan-Hellenic 
 rival. 
 
 The religious toleration of Mohammedan Turkey would 
 hardly be copied by Christian Greece, and Greek rule at 
 Constantinople would mean a Greek Church for the Bul- 
 garians, and the last state of discord would be worse 
 than the first, judging by the bitterness which is now 
 rampant.
 
 OTTOMAN GREEKS. 77 
 
 There is a vulgar saying that in either a bargain or in- 
 trigue one Armenian can outwit two Jews, and one Greek 
 two Armenians, and the unenviable talent of the Greek is 
 left to the imagination. 
 
 My own experience of the Greeks in Turkey is that they 
 are a most industrious, energetic, and hospitable race, and 
 just as truthful as other Christians in that country. They 
 are now suffering from an epidemic of education, and if 
 they are not careful, too much learning will make them 
 mad. If a respectable country farmer has a son, he is not 
 brought up to look after his business, but is packed off to 
 Athens to be educated out of it. He is naturally clever 
 (all Greeks are), and takes a fair degree at the university, 
 and then aims at being either a doctor, a lawyer, or poli- 
 tician. Now the demand for doctors and lawyers is lim- 
 ited, that for politicians is not ; so the consequence is that 
 Athens is flooded with a set of young aspu-ants, each of 
 whom thinks he is destined to be prime minister, and to 
 reestablish the Byzantine Empire. This would be a laud- 
 able ambition, and do no harm, if it were not for the ex- 
 traordinary amount of energy in the Greek character. 
 Each young aspirant immediately sets vigorously to work 
 to satisfy his ambition ; but unfortunately each wishes to 
 do it precisely in his own way, and no other. The conse- 
 quence is that there are almost as many political parties 
 in the state as there are politicians, and the work of an 
 energetic government is hampered as much as it can pos- 
 sibly be. By and by the peasant farmer will die, and the 
 country farm will be uncultivated and unproductive, while 
 the son is making speeches and losing money. 
 
 There is a marked difference between the Greek settlers 
 in the towns of the Black Sea coast and those of the Ma- 
 cedonian frontier, not so much in physical characteristics 
 as in their customs and social ways. The former are more. 
 Oriental than the latter, and not so advanced in what we 
 generally understand by the term civilization. This might 
 be seized upon as a strong argument that the cause of this 
 effect is the pernicious rule of the Ottoman, which has
 
 78 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 more infliience on the Greek race bordering tlie Black 
 Sea than on the same race in contact with its independ- 
 ent and mother-country. But unfortunately for this 
 specious argument, it is upset— like many other hasty 
 conclusions in Turkey— and its converse is found by a 
 journey of a few miles into the interior, where another 
 race, the Bulgarian, is met, which is far more advanced 
 in civilization than the same people on the Macedonian 
 frontier. 
 
 The Greeks on the Black Sea coast are certainly the 
 most dirty people it has ever been my fortune to meet, 
 and the town of Sisopolis, at the entrance of the Bay of 
 Burgas, stands out pre-eminent in that respect. It must 
 be by nature an extremely healthy place, otherwise some 
 fearful epidemic would break out, if there is any truth in 
 sanitary laws. If any of my readers think of visiting it, 
 I should advise them to construct some sort of "patent 
 waterproof anti-sewage umbrella," with a receptacle for 
 eau de Cologne in the handle — for the streets are so nar- 
 row that the houses nearly meet across them, and all the 
 sewage and ordure falls into the streets from the iDroject- 
 ing first floors. I had so many narrow escapes from these 
 sewage shower-baths, that out of respect to my nervous 
 system I left the town. The people seem to live well, for 
 in front of about every third or fourth house a sheep was 
 being slaughtered ; but this does not add to the cleanliness 
 of the town, for all the blood and refuse is left to pollute 
 pollution. 
 
 I have seen much of the Greeks in Turkey since that 
 time, and there is no doubt that they are content to live 
 in an absence of not only luxury, but ordinary comfort, 
 which is astonishing, and would be laudable if it were 
 accompanied by cleanliness. 
 
 There is no want of ventilation in their houses, for the 
 wind moans and whistles through them in a melancholy 
 chorus. But cold and wet as are the winters, the Greek 
 will come into his house and complacently sit down in his 
 wet clothes, in a thorough draught, until he dries, and
 
 OTTOMAN GREEKS. 79 
 
 the aggravating part of it is that lie is not aware that he 
 is doing anything which is uncomfortable. 
 
 If there is a visitor present he honors his guest with a 
 "mangal," a dreadful contrivance for poisoning the air of 
 a room with carbonic acid gas, produced by a quantity 
 of red-hot charcoal in a brazier i^laced in the middle of 
 the room. The furniture is generally conspicuous by its 
 absence, and usually consists of only a divan, covered, as 
 well as the floor, \vith a pretty carpet. ^Ylien it is time 
 for bed, a quilt and a pillow are brought in for each visit- 
 or, and the company rolls itself up to snore under an alle- 
 gro agitato accompaniment of B flats and F sharps. The 
 ablutions in the morning are performed in the veranda, 
 where may be espied a small brass basin on a wooden sink 
 projecting over the street. The basin is covered with a 
 brass network, culminating in the center with a receptacle 
 for a pretty, medieval-looking brass coffee-pot, with a very 
 small spout, and capable of holding as near as possible 
 an imperial quart of water. The inexperienced traveler, 
 having unrolled himself from his lively quilt, hovers about 
 the medieval brass vessel and thinks of coffee, and with 
 hopeful hesitation places his hand on it to see if it is hot ; 
 but his hopes are doomed to disappointment, for one of 
 the ladies of the house now appears with a small piece of 
 soap in her left hand, and a towel over her arm. She 
 aj)proaches, seizes the coffee-pot with her right hand, and 
 looks kindly and invitingly at the visitor. He is now 
 initiated into the art of producing a cheerful countenance 
 from small resources. He is supposed to hold out his two 
 hands together, while the lady pours water into them out of 
 what I call the coffee-pot. If he is clever he may save a 
 few drops from running through his fingers, and these he 
 rubs quickly over his face ; it is cool and refreshing, and 
 he longs for more, but the water is running short. He is 
 then handed the piece of soap, with which he lathers his 
 hands, the remainder of the quart of water is poured over 
 them, and he then has to make believe that he has had his 
 bath. The Greeks will make the quart of water do for
 
 80 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 two people, but I was wasteful, and used it all. After 
 this, Turkish coffee is brought in little cups which hold 
 about a tea-spoonful of grounds and a tea-spoonful of 
 coffee, and about four hours afterward, brealdast is 
 served, which consists of soup and two or three made 
 dishes, which would not be bad if they were warm, but 
 they are usually half cold. Notwithstanding all this, the 
 good humor, anxiety to please, and hospitality of the 
 Greek host are so genuine that you leave with a feeling of 
 gratitude, accompanied by sorrow that you cannot teach 
 him how to be comfortable. An after-thought, however, 
 springs up, that if the Greek is happy and contented with 
 so little, why should he be taught to wish for more ? In 
 the great towns, such as Constantinople, etc., the wealthy 
 Greeks, of course, live like other Europeans ; but in the 
 country towns, very well-to-do people live in the manner 
 I have described. 
 
 The fault of the Greek character is love of intrigue, and 
 a deficiency in the power of making individual interests 
 subservient to the interests of the State. But it cannot be 
 denied that very great progress has been made by Greece 
 since her escape from Ottoman rule — far greater, in fact, 
 than would have been the case had she remained under it. 
 The cause of this is not far to seek : unity of religion, and 
 unity of social habits amongst the subjects, make them 
 more easy to govern than if they were of opposite religions, 
 and under the influence of fanatical hatred. Moreover, in 
 Greece there is no inquisition of foreign intrigue to foster 
 insurrection and thwart every attempt at reform, such as 
 exists in Turkey ; and last, not least, there are more able 
 and educated men to meet the wants of the government. 
 
 The Greeks complain that the area of their country is 
 too small to develop the great administrative talents which 
 they possess ; but I much doubt whether, if it were ex- 
 tended to a Byzantine Empu'e, their habits of intrigue 
 would not create divisions which would break it up into 
 small and independent states. One thing they have learned 
 of late years which will tell to their advantage, and that
 
 OTTOMAN GREEKS. 81 
 
 is, that Uussia lias liitherfco made use of Greece simply for 
 Iter own purposes, and that Pan-Slavonic and Pan-Helle- 
 nic schemes are forces acting upon the sam3 line, but in 
 opposite directions. Amidst the late disturbances under 
 which Turkey has been laboring, Greece has shown one 
 encouraging symptom of power, and that is self-control. 
 This proves that the government has a hold over the pas- 
 sions of the people, and is also alive to the real interests 
 of the country. A rising of Greek- Ottoman subjects, sup- 
 ported by an attack from Greece proper, would certainly 
 prove a painful thorn in the side of Turkey at the j)resent 
 moment (January, 1877) ; but, cut bono, it could only 
 end in promoting the views of Kussia at the expense of 
 Greece. Greek lives and Greek money would have to sup- 
 port the rebellion, commerce would be obstructed, massa- 
 cres would excite the interference of foreign powers, and 
 Greece would be reduced to her foimer limits — a poorer 
 and a Aviser State. 
 
 In traveling along the Macedonian frontier, it is painful 
 and melancholy, but not unnatural, to find the bitter feel- 
 ing which has been left amongst the Greek-Ottoman sub- 
 jects by the horrors produced by retaliation during the war 
 of independence. 
 
 The to^vn of Niausta — ^in a lovely situation about 2,000 
 feet up i\Iount Bernius, and overlooking the whole of the 
 Macedonian plain and the sea beyond — suffered more than 
 any other in this way. I was there last year, and was led 
 by an old man to a beautiful gTeen sward in a grove of 
 walnut-trees just above a precipitous rock, over which fell 
 a clear stream in successive cascades for about 1,000 feet, 
 until it reached the wide plain below. Mountains and 
 woods rose at the back, and I was basking in the beauties 
 of Nature, when I was aroused by details of the hideous 
 conduct of man. "It was here," the old man said, "that 
 when a boy I saw all the male population of Niausta 
 brought to execution. The Turkish officials stood here, 
 the executioner there. One by one the Christian Greeks 
 were led out. The question was put to them, ' Giaour, 
 6
 
 82 TURKEY US' EUROPE. 
 
 wilt tlion save tliy soul by following God and the prophet ? ' 
 The answer was ' No, Eff endim ; ' and the executioner did 
 his work. But there was one young man, so grand, so 
 noble, so handsome, that they paused, then reluctantly 
 put the fatal question, and he fii-mly answered ' IvTo.' ' Go 
 back, Giaour, and think over your refusal for an hour.' 
 Again he was brought forth, and again the same answer. 
 Still loth to take so fine a life, they offered him a third 
 and last chance for repentance. 'What now, young 
 Giaour, wilt thou accept the terms and live?' 'By 
 God's help, never,' he replied, and boldly met his fate." 
 
 Truly these were Christian martyrs, and their race 
 should be capable of great deeds. 
 
 The demoralizing effects of such horrors are not confined 
 to the moment, but leave their track behind. This I 
 witnessed on visiting the house of a Greek shortly after 
 this old man's recital. A pretty child came into the room, 
 a boy of about five years of age, and upon my taking him 
 on my knee, and making the usual remark that he was a 
 fine boy for his age, the father said, " Georgy, tell the gen- 
 tleman how many Turks yon will kill when you are a 
 man," There was much behind that question ! 
 
 In the small Greek towns on the Black Sea coast very 
 little complaint is heard of Turkish misgovemment, but 
 on the jNIacedonian frontier it is the chief topic of conver- 
 sation. The Greeks take more kindly to brigandage than 
 any other of the Ottoman subjects, Circassians excepted, 
 and most of the bands which used to infest the mountains 
 which divide Thessaly from Macedonia were composed of 
 scoundrels from that nation. Mehemet Ali Pacha (by 
 birth a German), by his energy and perseverance, dispersed 
 the whole of these bands when in command of the district, 
 three years ago ; but since the anarchy produced by the 
 late rebellions, he has been called to the seat of war, and 
 brigandage has again appeared. Here again is another 
 instance of the difficulty under which Turkey labors, of 
 not being allowed time to set her house in order.
 
 CHAPTER y. 
 "en voyage." 
 
 An EnglisTi Yice-Consul— Torture I— Scenery of the Black Sea Coast — 
 Djeverli — The Bulgarian Peasants— Interior of their Houses— Their 
 Habits and Customs — Bulgarian Dances — Bagpipes — A Funeral — A 
 Dinner-party— The Pole Listopat — Good dog, good dog ! — A Circassian 
 Village— Russian Philanthropy in Circassia — A Skirmish — The Knight 
 of the Tea-pot. 
 
 BEFORE leaving Constantinople I had. been in corre- 
 spondence witli Mr. Charles Brophy, Vice-Consul at 
 Burgas, who consequently expected my arrival, and as 
 the steamer dropped anchor before that town, I saw the 
 Union Jack fluttering away in his boat, which was making 
 for the Thetis. Mr. Bropliy has been some years at Bur- 
 gas, and has an intimate acquaintance with the language 
 and customs of the nations who dwell around him, so that 
 his companionship and information were of great service to 
 me. With kind hospitality, he took me under his charge, 
 and insisted upon my being his guest at his farm of Dje- 
 verli, about twenty miles inland. 
 
 There is nothing remarkable about the town of Burgas, 
 except the dirt, the fleas, and the bugs. The last are 
 ravenous and active to a degree, the like of which I have 
 never experienced in any other place. It does not boast 
 of an hotel, but there is a khan, or inn, to which we be- 
 took ourselves, and had a sort of breakfast, or dejeuner a 
 la foiirchette. If we inquu-ed into the parentage of this 
 establishment, I should say that its father had been a pot- 
 house, and its mother a small French restaurant ; but the 
 food was good to a hungry man. 
 
 The Idtchen adjoined the cafe, and you were supposed 
 to go into it, and choose your dishes — and there was
 
 84 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 plenty of choice : stewed mutton and vegetables, stewed 
 beef, stewed veal, macaroni, soup, and fiied fisli. The 
 order given, the plates were brought into the cafe, where 
 there were tables, and even table-cloths and napkins. 
 ISTatives of various races thronged the room, and my sub- 
 stantial lunch, with excellent native wine, cost eighteen- 
 pence. 
 
 Presently, what did I see ? Yes, there was no doubt 
 about it, a thorough-bred barrel-organ ! and the man 
 brought it into the cafe, sat down beside me, and began 
 to grind away with all his might. Fortunately, the poor 
 thing was hoarse, so that it was not so deafening as it 
 might otherwise have been ; but I nearly choked myself 
 in my endeavors to finish my luncheon, that I might 
 escape from the unmusical instrument. 
 
 In Constantinople these organ-players are not allowed to 
 stop and play in the streets, so one man hoists it on his 
 back and walks along, while another follows and turns 
 the handle, and the effect is very ludicrous. 
 
 The population of Burgas is very mixed, but it is chiefly 
 Greek and Bulgarian. The principal trade consists in the 
 export of grain and wool, whicli are brought down in very 
 large quantities from the interior. Burgas is a most im- 
 portant position in a strategical point of view, and the 
 neighboring hills on the north of the bay would form an 
 excellent jDosition for an intrenched camp, as from it an 
 enemy could command all the eastern passes of the 
 Balkan. But I shall allude to this subject in another 
 chapter. 
 
 It was arranged that we should start for Mr. Brophy's 
 farm an hour after our landing, and he had, with well-in- 
 tentioned kindness, provided a talega, or Turkish carriage, 
 for me and my servant ; but he was far too wise to enter 
 it himself, and very properly rode his own horse. In 
 Turkey, if you are told that you are to start in an hour, 
 you may be quite sure that it means three hours instead 
 of one ; and our start in this instance was no exception to 
 the rule. At last the vehicle arrived, and we were fairly
 
 EN VOYAGE. 85 
 
 off. Never sliall I forget that drive ! A talega lias wooden 
 seats, with a wooden roof, open at the sides, and springs 
 there are none. It is an instrument of torture, devised to 
 shake out the teeth and batter in the skull, and before we 
 had jogged many miles along the road there were so many- 
 bumps on the toj) of my head that a phrenologist would 
 have sworn that I was a lunatic. And so I was, for trust- 
 ing myself to such a horrible contrivance for making man 
 uncomfortable and sore, when I had two strong legs able 
 and w^illing to carry me. But fore- warned fore-armed — 
 never again has mortal man been able to lure me into a 
 like agitating machine. 
 
 Our road — or rather track — lay over rolling hills, de- 
 void of trees, but rich in golden corn, which, on the 20th 
 of July, was being reaped and carried. The country had 
 the api^earance of huge Atlantic waves turned into land, 
 which rolled away as far as the eye could reach, until it 
 merged into the great plain of Adrianoi)le. On the right 
 was the Balkan range, which here is but from two to three 
 thousand feet in height, wooded near the tops, and with 
 glades of cultivated land, where the corn was yet un- 
 cut. Behind and to the left along the Black Sea coast, 
 the scenery is different. Here the smooth rolling hills 
 give place to very steej) and higher ground, which here 
 and there deserves the name of mountain, and it is for the 
 most part covered with a thick oak scrub, which evident- 
 ly, from the few large trees that are left, was once a 
 forest. This range is dignified by the name of Strandja 
 Mountains, and they extend almost to Constantinople, 
 their northern extremity, which bends round to the west, 
 being called the Tundja Mountains, from the river of that 
 name, which cuts its way through them on its southern 
 journey to join the great Maritza. The varieties in the 
 scenery, which is rather curious than grand, is the result 
 of varieties in geological formation. 
 
 The smooth and, in this eastern quarter, tame-looking 
 Balkan, is built \vp of limestone, chalk, and marl, of the 
 lower cretaceous system, while the Tundja and Strandja
 
 86 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 Hills are formed of tlie crystalline rocks of mica scMst, 
 with here and there a lofty point of syenite and gi-anite. 
 
 I noticed that the soil upon which we were traveling 
 was nearly black ; and no wonder that it was bearing such 
 heavy crops of corn, for it is similar to the black earth of 
 Russia, which so em-iches the corn-growing districts north 
 of the Sea of Azof. Sir Roderick Murchison calls it 
 tchornozem, and ascribes its formation to a sub-aqueous 
 origin through the destruction of black Jurassic shale. 
 Pagen, the French agricultural chemist, pronounces it to 
 be one of the best wheat soils in the world, in consequence 
 of the large proportion of azotized matter which it con- 
 tains. A sample of it gave the following analysis : 
 
 Silica 69-8 
 
 Alumina 13'5 
 
 Lime 1"6 
 
 Oreicle of Iron '7 
 
 Organic Matter 64 
 
 Traces of Humic and Sulpliuric Acid and Chlorine . . 1 "7 
 
 100 
 We passed through a busy hive of reapers, who were 
 cutting the product of these chemical substances, and who 
 were nearly all Bulgarian women. We were going up a 
 hill at the time, and I had left my "infernal machine" to 
 enjoy the pleasure of stretching my legs and counting my 
 bruises, when I saw several of the young women hastening 
 toward me. Feeling that it would be ungallant to turn 
 my back upon so fair a charge, I stopped, detennined to 
 see it out at all hazards. On they came, with laughing 
 lips and sparkling eyes, as I stood wrapt in expectant 
 wonder, for they were so many. Soon I was surrounded. 
 "What might be the customs of the country, or what might 
 be expected of me, I knew not, and I felt that, could my 
 friends at home see me at this moment, my situation would 
 be ludicrous in the extreme ; but now my hands were 
 kissed, one foot was raised, and the sole of my foot was 
 rubbed with ears of corn, to signify that it was the desire
 
 Ey rOTAGB. 87 
 
 of tliese brown damsels that I might forever walk on 
 plenty. This poetical consideration for my welfare de- 
 served some return, so I distributed some small coins 
 amongst them, and was laughingly released. 
 
 The farmhouse belonging to my host is on the edge of a 
 Bulgarian village, and I had a good opportunity of study- 
 ing the character of these peojDle in this part of Turkey, 
 and of afterward comparing them with the Hellenized 
 Bulgarians on my own estate in Macedonia, and the com- 
 jparison was certainly in favor of the non-Hellenic element. 
 
 It is the fashion with residents in the country to speak 
 of the Bulgarian as lazy and idle, but from my o^vn ex- 
 perience I do not think it is a fair accusation. It is true 
 that the amount of work done by him in the year is very 
 small, but that is the fault of his religion, which forbids 
 him to work during the feast and fast days, which, includ- 
 ing Sundays, number one hundi'ed and eighty out of the 
 three hundi'ed and sixty-five days in the year. When he 
 does work, he rises at four a.m. in the winter, and feeds 
 his working cattle, and is away before daybreak to his bit 
 of land, which is perhaps two miles or more distant, and 
 he plows it until he can no longer see to do so. 
 
 In the summer he may often be found asleep during the 
 day, it is true ; but, on the other hand, he is frequently 
 at his work at two o'clock in the morning, and continues 
 his labor, off and on, until ten at night. 
 
 On my o^^ti estate, a Bulgarian with an English single 
 plow and two paks of buffaloes — one pair in and one out — 
 assisted by a boy to lead them, plows one and one-eighth 
 English acres on a winter's day, the soil being a rich sandy 
 loam, and the furrow seven inches deep. In England one 
 acre is considered very good work ; so that the Bulgarian 
 cannot be called idle. The women are exceedingly indus- 
 trious : they bake their own bread, spin wool and cotton, 
 and weave all the cloths and woolen stuffs for family use, 
 and are seldom seen idle for any part of the day. 
 
 The interiors of the houses of the working classes are 
 generally plastered with a mixture of cow-dung and clay,
 
 88 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 and consist of two rooms and an inclosed veranda. The 
 furniture is comprised in pots and pans, and some rugs for 
 bedding, a pretty carpet for grand occasions, and some 
 gayly-painted boxes for holding the family clothes and treas- 
 ures ; and these, with an open fire-place and chimney, form 
 all the household requirements of a Bulgarian yeoman. 
 
 The rooms are generally kept clean and well swept, but 
 the exterior of the houses more resembles what we see 
 about Irish cabins. It consists of an inclosure, \^ith a 
 stable and straw -house, but no garden. Although the 
 land is admirably suited for it, they do not attempt to 
 grow vegetables for family use. This neglect is caused by 
 the narrow limits of their wants. Good wheaten bread, a 
 little salt fish, and some oil, with the addition of sheep's 
 milk, cheese, and sometimes a kid or lamb, roasted whole, 
 on high days and holidays, form the diet of the ordinary 
 peasant. The better class of yeomen live much in the 
 same way, with the addition of soup, stuffed cucumbers, 
 called "bombar," and a very good flat pastry, peculiar to 
 the Bulgarians, and made with flour, cheese, honey, and 
 cream, called ' ' melena ;' ' and I can strongly recommend a 
 traveler to ask for this when passing through Bulgarian 
 towns. The people are deficient in personal cleanliness, 
 although fond of dress, and an old man or woman of eighty 
 could probably count the ablutions of the body during 
 their whole lifetime on the fingers of one hand. 
 
 The dress of the women, and indeed of the men also, is 
 very picturesque. The former wear costumes of brilliant 
 colors peculiar to each village, which is another sign of the 
 power of the Bulgarian to sink individuality in the com- 
 mon interest. The village costumes are very varied and 
 brilliant, but the colors are so well chosen that the effect 
 is harmonious and pleasing to the eye. Their belts, brace- 
 lets, and head ornaments, made from alloyed silver, are 
 very elaborate, and much prized. They are handed do^vn 
 from mother to daughter as family heirlooms. Curiously 
 enough, the form of the large round clasps of these belts 
 much resembles those of the Etruscans which have been
 
 ^.V VOYAGE. 89 
 
 found in ancient excavations in Italy. It is possible that 
 tliis may form a link in ethnology. The peasant women 
 ■would naturally follow their ornamental customs through 
 generations upon generations. The Bulgarians married 
 the Slavonian women, and it is quite possible that the an- 
 cient Etruscans might have been of the Slavonic branch of 
 the Aryan race. 
 
 The Bulgarian women marry young, but, from the habit 
 of suckling their children up to three and four years of 
 age, they soon lose their youthful appearance, and at two- 
 and-twenty look old and haggard. They are very domes- 
 tic, there is much family affection, and but little quarrel- 
 ing, probably because the women have their time so fully 
 occupied. Of course there are occasional cases of ill-treat- 
 ment and wife-beating, as in England, but it is quite the 
 excejDtion, and not the rule. 
 
 Ceremony is conspicuous amongst them, especially at 
 weddings and burials. The former is an occasion for a 
 general feast in the village, and the peasant bridegroom 
 will spend as much as ten or fifteen pounds in wine and 
 sheeiD for the carousals, which last for three or four days, 
 accomi)auied by almost continuous dancing. 
 
 The friends of the bridegroom dance their way to the 
 friends of the bride, to the sound of the drum, bagpipe, 
 and clarionet, and vice versa. Then the presents are exhib- 
 ited, which consist chiefly of embroidered handkerchiefs ; 
 the bridegroom pins these on to his coat, and thus 
 decorated, joins in the dance. The night before the 
 marriage the bride takes a bath, the first she has ever 
 had in her life ; the great ceremony of croA^Tiing the 
 bride takes place either in the church or in the bride- 
 groom's house, in the presence of their friends. The priest 
 performs the service. The bride arrives on horseback, 
 covered with a long vail and a profusion of gold tinsel on 
 her head. During the service a croAvn made of alloyed 
 silver is placed upon her head, grain and raisins are scat- 
 tered over the ha]ppy pair and amongst the friends, a 
 variety of forms are gone through, and the marriage cere-
 
 90 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 mony is completed. Tlie bride kisses tlie liands of her 
 friends with a very slow and dignified inclination, the 
 dancing is renewed, and the tired couple are left in soli- 
 tude. The Bulgarians are peculiarly fond of dancing, 
 which is usually practiced to the sound of the bagpipe. The 
 women and men Join hands until they form a long line, 
 which then serpentines about to a slow movement which 
 seems to have great fascination, and to produce a sort of 
 quiet ecstasy. The bagpipe is similar in every respect to 
 that used in Scotland, and being struck by the likeness of 
 the instruments, I asked whether they had any quick 
 dances. The reply was in the affirmative, and to my aston- 
 ishment the piper at once struck up a tune which would 
 have made an excellent accompaniment to a Highland reel, 
 and two men stood up and danced with that same solem- 
 nity and air of importance which we see in Scotland. It 
 is most remarkable that the dances are as near as possible 
 alike : there is the occasional shout, the snapping of the 
 fingers, the sudden turning of the body, and the steps are 
 also very similar. Again, we find the musical accompani- 
 ments the same ; and when we consider how dances pre- 
 serve their character over many ages, we can hardly deny 
 the conclusion that the ancestors of the Scotch Highlander 
 and the Bulgarian must have had the same dancing-mas- 
 ters. The dance may probably have traveled westward 
 with the ancient emigTant j)opulation from the confines of 
 China and the Himalayas. 
 
 I was anxious to further test the similarity in music, so 
 taking the piper on one side, I asked him to let me hear 
 the sort of air he would play if, for example, he had lost 
 his betrothed. I found that I had most unwittingly struck 
 a note of real sorrow, for the tears came into the eyes of 
 the poor young fellow, and he retired into a recess in the 
 room, and played one of those sad and wild pibrochs that 
 we often hear in the Scotch Highlands ; there was such a 
 melancholy harmony in the air that I thought he must 
 have instinctively felt the poetry of those beautiful lines 
 in the "Message":
 
 EN VOYAGE. 91 
 
 *' Then I heard a strain of music. 
 
 So mighty, so pure, so clear. 
 That my very sorrow was silent. 
 
 And my heart stood still to hear ; 
 It rose in harmonious rushings 
 
 Of mingled voices and strings. 
 And I tenderly laid my message 
 
 On the music's outspread wings ; 
 And I heard it float farther and farther, 
 
 In sound more perfect than speech — 
 Parther than sight can follow, 
 
 Farther than soul can reach. 
 And I know that at last my message 
 
 Has passed through the golden gate, 
 So my heart is no longer restless, 
 
 And I am content to wait.'* 
 
 As soon as the sad strains were over, he got np and 
 silently went Ms way. 
 
 This remembrance of death leads me to describe a fu- 
 neral at which I was present some time afterward. A young 
 Bulgarian in my employment suddenly died of apoplexy : 
 all the family immediately turned out of the house, and 
 commenced a melancholy wail and shouting ; the dead man 
 was dressed in his best clothes, and shortly afterward 
 carried on a stretcher in funeral procession to the neigh- 
 boring church, where the priest performed a long funeral 
 service over the body ; each of the man's friends and 
 neighbors then came forward, knelt and prayed by the 
 side of the body, and then kissed his lips — first all the 
 men, and then all the women. He was then carried to 
 the churchyard, and lowered into his grave with great 
 solemnity and decorum. The grave was covered only 
 with boards, upon which flowers were strewn. This 
 poor man was engaged to be married to a girl living in a 
 neighboring cottage : she went daily to the grave, and 
 sat there for hours, and nothing would console her. 
 
 For months afterward she would sit alone out on the 
 plain, in all weathers, grieving over her loss.
 
 92 TURRET m EUROPE. 
 
 After I ]iad been a fe^v days at Mr. Bropliy's farm I 
 received an invitation to dinner from the leading Bulgarian 
 in the village.. TMs man was a most excellent fellow, and 
 had made his way to independence by his own industry in 
 agriculture, and was now the owner of a small landed 
 estate and large flocks of sheep, although he had com- 
 menced life with only a plow and a pair of buffaloes. 
 
 About eight o'clock my Bulgarian host came to an- 
 nounce that dinner was ready, and we proceeded to his 
 house, where we were ushered into the room, for there was 
 only one besides the family bedroom. Everything was 
 scrupulously clean, the room was tastefully arranged with 
 rugs and cushions, and there was a blazing fire on the 
 ground in the center of the room, and upon it several 
 copper pots which gave forth most savory smells. 
 
 The female part of the establishment were there to re- 
 ceive me, and they consisted of the wives of the host and 
 bis son, together with a daughter, all remarkably plain. 
 But the heat ! The month was July, and the room was like 
 an oven, while I, as the honored guest, had to take the 
 seat near the fire ! 
 
 ' I whispered to the vice-consul that before dinner was 
 half over there would be nothing left of me but the wick, 
 and so he considerately suggested to our host that- as it 
 was a lovely moonlight night, we might dine in the ver- 
 anda. Happy thought ! Our host at once consented, but 
 not without expressions from the female portion of the 
 company that we should die of cold, although the ther- 
 mometer was at 70° Fahr. 
 
 We were soon seated, cross-legged and Turkish fashion, 
 in a circle on the ground in the veranda, the ladies look- 
 ing on ; in the center was placed a basin of soup, and we 
 were each given a shallow iron spoon, with which we were 
 supi^osed to dip into the common bowl. If there is one 
 thing which I cannot "abide," it is sitting cross-legged 
 and Turkish fashion on the hard ground. The heels of 
 my boots get into wrong places, I find that I have bones 
 where I always thought all was soft, and I either sit so far
 
 EN VOYAGE. 93 
 
 backward that I am in danger of rolling over in tliat 
 direction, or so far forward that I have the appearance of 
 saying my i^rayers, besides which I get the cramp ; so that 
 altogether I did not feel exactly at my ease in this seden- 
 tary attitude. Added to this, the distance from my mouth 
 to the "common bowl" was considerable, and to transfer 
 the soup across it in a shallow spoon was a feat which was 
 only to be accomplished by patience and perseverance. In 
 my first attempt I got the cramp in my foot when the 
 spoon was half-way to my mouth, and deposited the soup 
 outside instead of inside my waistcoat, and learned that 
 it was decidedly hot, which was so far satisfactory. 
 
 I then tried the kneeling attitude, and got on better. 
 The soup was a delicious mixture of sweets and sours, and 
 full of vegetables. 
 
 Next came a lamb, roasted whole, head and all, which 
 we all cut at in common ; but the expression on the lamb's 
 countenance made me feel like a cannibal. The delicious 
 pastry called "melena" followed, wine was handed round 
 during the meal, and even an alderman might have felt 
 that he had dined. 
 
 The son of our host and his wife then came round with 
 a brass dish, a piece of soap, and a very pretty embroid- 
 ered towel, "wdth which we cleansed our hands, and re- 
 lapsed into coffee, cigarettes, and conversation. 
 
 While we were talking, I heard a loud and peculiar cry 
 outside the village, and was told that some stranger had 
 arrived, and was calling for the Kaiyah, or village official 
 appointed to entertain any wayworn traveler that may 
 arrive. 
 
 This is a custom which prevails throughout the whole 
 of Turkey, and such a thing as dying from starvation, 
 which we sometimes hear of in civilized England, can only 
 occur as an act of suicide. 
 
 I was much struck with the quiet ease and dignity of 
 my Bulgarian host, who was not in the least put out at 
 the influx of foreign guests, but did the honors like one 
 of Nature's gentlemen.
 
 94 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 The following day lie took me to see the village school, 
 wMcli lie had built at his own expense. It consisted of a 
 good-sized room, which was well suited for the purpose. 
 There were about twenty tidy boys and girls receiving in- 
 struction, and they all stood up on our entering, and 
 seemed under excellent discipline, and also most intelli- 
 gent and anxious to learn. 
 
 Mr. Brophy had as an agent a Polish engineer who had 
 been employed by the Turkish Government in making 
 roads. There are a large number of these Poles scattered 
 about Turkey, and the bitterness of their hate of Russia 
 is only rivaled by that of the Circassians. They are ex- 
 ceedingly clever, and most agreeable companions, and the 
 agent Listopat stood out pre-eminent in that respect. He 
 was one of those good-natured and thoroughly unselfish 
 men that are so rare that, in these selfish days, we feel 
 inclined to bow down and worship them as a part of the 
 glory of human nature. His thoughts were always set 
 upon everything and everybody but himseK, and there 
 was not a biped or quadruped within his ken that was not 
 thought and cared for as if it were his own child. Of 
 course he was very poor ; such men always are ; and he 
 was so far mortal that he had his faults, which we may as 
 well hide under a bushel, or let us say a peck, for it would 
 not take a very large vessel to cover them. All Poles are 
 great linguists ; but his talents in that direction did not 
 extend to English, and it was most amusing to hear his 
 endeavors to make my Cheshire lad John understand his 
 instructions. 
 
 On one occasion he had sent him on an errand — ^not, 
 however, without grave doubts in his own mind whether 
 he had conveyed his right meaning. Presently, when John 
 returned with the article required, Listopat, in his excited 
 glee, rushed at him, patted him on the back, exclaiming, 
 "Ah ! good dog, good dog ! well done, good dog ! " John 
 is a sedate lad, who rather stands upon his dignity, and 
 the expression of his countenance at this canine greeting 
 was expressive of wonder and wounded pride. Listopat
 
 ^.y VOYAGE. 95 
 
 in Ms turn now saAv that tliere was some mistake, and ex- 
 plained himself in Turkish, when, to our intense amuse- 
 ment, we found that he thought he was saying "good 
 hoy !''"' It was curious to see how well John managed to 
 get on with the natives, notwithstanding his ignorance of 
 their language. Mr. Brophy had as a ser\' ant a Bulgar- 
 ian lad who did not understand a single word of Eng- 
 lish, and yet we used to hear him and John chatting 
 away together as though they perfectly understood each 
 other. 
 
 A few miles from Djeverli there was a large Circassian 
 village, and as I was most anxious to make the acquain- 
 tance of these celebrated people, Mr. Brophy kindly ac- 
 companied me to make a call upon their chief. But be- 
 fore giving an account of my visit, I -svill describe how it 
 came about that these people are settled on Turkish soil. 
 
 In the year 1864, after many years of struggling, and on 
 their part gallant fighting, their subjugation to the Rus- 
 sians in the Caucasus was nearly completed. Long expe- 
 rience had taught their conquerors the untamable charac- 
 ter of their new subjects, and as a large body of the 
 Cii'cassians inhabited a very beautiful, fertile, but moun- 
 tainous district, it was felt that their warlike propensities 
 in such a country might on occasions prove both trouble- 
 some and dangerous. 
 
 The Russians are not a race to be checked by conscien- 
 tious scruples, except where Turkish subjects are con- 
 cerned, so they determined to sweep these troublesome 
 people clean off the dangerous country they inhabited. 
 They therefore told them that they must move ; but it is 
 only fair to state that land was offered to them, and facili- 
 ties for emigration, in the low steppes of Russia. 
 
 But it so happened that these Circassians had an over- 
 weening love for their o\vn homes in their beautiful hiUs, 
 and many of them actually dared to refuse to go. This 
 was too much for the patience of the conqueror, so he 
 drove them out, bag and baggage, to the number of 300,- 
 000 ; and this is how he did it : —
 
 96 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 " Consul Dickson to Earl Eussell. 
 
 '' Soukum-Kale, March 17th, 1864. 
 
 " I feel it a painful duty to report a deed that has come to my 
 knowledge which has so exasperated the Circassians as to excite 
 them to further resistance, however desperate their case may be. 
 
 " A Eussian detachment having caf)tured the village of Toubek, 
 on the Soobashi Eiver, inhabited by about 100 Abadzekh, and 
 after these liad surrendered themselves prisoners, they were all 
 massacred hy the Russian troops. Among the victims were two 
 women in an advanced state of pregnancy, and five children. The 
 detachment in question belongs to Count Evdokimoff's army, and 
 is said to have advanced from the Pshish Valley. As the Eussian 
 troops gain ground on the coast, the natives are not allowed to 
 remain tbere on any terms, but are compelled either to transfer 
 themselves to the plains of the Kouban, or emigrate to Turkey." 
 
 This was but one out of many sucli acts, and the unfor- 
 tunate Circassians kno^\dng the sympathy for suffering in 
 the hearts of the English people, made the following ap- 
 peal to our Queen : 
 
 " Our most humble petition to Her Magnificent Majesty the 
 Queen and Emperor (sic) of England is to the effect that : 
 
 "It is now more than eighty years since the Eussian Govern- 
 ment is unlawfully striving to subdue and annex to its dominions 
 Circassia, which since the creation of the world has been our 
 home and country. 
 
 " It slaughters like sheep the children, helpless women, and old 
 men that fall into its hands. It rolls about their heads with the 
 bayonet like melons ; and there is no act of oppression or cruelty 
 which is beyond the pale of civilization and humanity, and which 
 defies descrijition, that it has not committed. We have not, from 
 father to son, at the cost of our lives and property, refrained 
 from opposing the tyrannical acts of the Government in defense 
 of our country, which is dearer to us than our lives. But dur- 
 ing the last year or two it has taken advantage of a famine, 
 caused by a drought with which the Almighty visited us, as well 
 as by its own ravages ; and it has occasioned us great distress by 
 its severe attacks by sea and land. Many are the lives which 
 have been lost in battle, from hunger in the mountains, from des- 
 titution on the sea-coast, and from want of skill at sea.
 
 EN VOYAGE. 97 
 
 *' "V\'e therefore invoke the mediation and precious assistance of 
 the British Government and people — the guardian of humanity 
 and the center of justice — in order to repel the brutal attacks of 
 the Eussian Government on our country, and save our country 
 and nation together. 
 
 "But if it is not possible to afford this help for the preserva- 
 tion of our country and race, then we pray to be afforded facili- 
 ties for removing to a place of safety our helpless and miserable 
 children and women, that are perishing by the brutal attacks of 
 the enemy, as well as by the effects of famine. And if neither 
 of these two requests is taken into consideration, and if in our 
 helpless condition we are utterly annihilated, notwithstanding our 
 appeals to the mercy and grace of the goveriynents, then we shall 
 not cease to invoke our right in the presence of the Lord of the 
 •universe, of Him who has confided to your Majesty sovereignty, 
 strength, and power for the purpose of protecting the weak. 
 
 "April 9th, 1864." 
 
 I cannot find that any indignation meetings were held 
 in Great Britain, nor that the Minister for Foreign Affau's 
 called npon the Russian Government to bring to trial the 
 commander of the detachment which massacred the pris- 
 oners, and women and children, as was done in the case 
 of Turkey after the Bulgarian atrocities ; but I do find 
 that the Turkish Government (the anti-human specimens 
 of humanity, as they have been called by theii* enemies in 
 England), oifered to receive the Circassian emigrants, and 
 immediately gave £200,000 toward their relief and colon- 
 ization in the Turkish Empu'e, and this sum being a strain 
 on the Turkish resources, and a far larger amount being 
 necessary, our ambassador at Constantinople suggested to 
 Earl Russell, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, that it 
 might be worthy of consideration whether a loan for the 
 object in view might not be raised in this country, pro- 
 vided the Turkish Government would guarantee the inter- 
 est. To which Earl Russell replied ; 
 
 "Her Majesty's Government have had under their considera- 
 tion your Excellency's dispatch of the 3d inst., on the subject of 
 the immigration of Circassians into the Ottoman dominions, and 
 7
 
 98 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 I have to acquaint you that they concur in your suggestions as to 
 the best means of providing a permanent settlement for these un- 
 happy people, and approve tbe course pursued by you in the 
 matter." 
 
 But notiiing more was done toward the loan, and the 
 Turkish Government colonized the emigrants near Trebi- 
 zond, and in Turkey in Europe, and various parts of the 
 empire, and so the matter dropped, and we must hope 
 that the Circassians were satisfied by their appeal to the 
 sympathy of the British public. 
 
 That these people had been reduced to a state of utter 
 despair and demoralization, may be inferred from the ac- 
 count given of them by Consul Stevens at Trebizond ; he 
 says : 
 
 '' The emigrants present at Trebizond are of the Oubikh tribe. 
 They are generally speaking poor, and of an indolent character. 
 They have no regard for cleanliness which prevents the allay of 
 disease in their ranks, and which is making such fearful havoc 
 amongst them, the deaths averaging from 120 to 150 per diem out 
 of 25,000. 
 
 *' They live huddled together, infecting one another. They sell 
 the rations and clothing distributed to them by the local authori- 
 ties ; they sell their children for a few piasters ; they disinter 
 their dead at night, to steal the calico wrappers which envelope 
 the bodies, and then abandon the corpses in the open fields. 
 Lately they concealed several deaths from the local authorities, 
 with a view to continue in the receipt of the rations of the de- 
 ceased individuals ; and one corpse was discovered hid for eleven 
 days in one of the tents, other emigrants occupying the same cov- 
 ering without the slightest repugnance. " 
 
 It seemed as though these unfortunate people were in 
 such a state of misery that they did not care for life. I 
 have been told that those who accepted the Government 
 lands on the Russian steppes rejoice whenever a male child 
 dies, because he has escaped from life as a Russian sub- 
 ject, but my informant was one of the Circassian emi- 
 grants to Turkey. 
 
 These people, in their owti country, lived very much as
 
 CmCASSIANS. 09 
 
 the Highland clans of Scotland in former days. They 
 were constantly at feud with each other, and their princi- 
 pal occupation was cattle and horse-lifting. Their emigra- 
 tion to Turkey has gone on from the year 1864 to the 
 present day, and in Turkey in Europe they are scattered 
 about Roumelia, and also north of the Balkan, but their 
 principal location is along the Black Sea coast. 
 
 Phj'sically they are splendid specimens of the animal 
 man, and they strut about with upright gait and haughty 
 mien, as much as to say, "The world belongs to us, but 
 we permit you to live in it." 
 
 In their very blood they carry about such a wild, inde- 
 pendent, and untamable character, that they form the 
 most dangerous of neighbors, and the most troublesome 
 of subjects. But they are bons diables, and very pleas- 
 ant companions if you do not possess anything worth 
 stealing. 
 
 They group themselves into viQages here and there, and 
 dwell in houses buUt of wattle and mud, with either tile 
 or reed roofs, and which are generally hidden as much as 
 possible from view, by the choice of the site, and by trees 
 and shrubs. 
 
 The dwellings are devoid of furniture, and have a door, 
 an extremely small window in one comer, and a chimney. 
 
 The Circassians are of the Mohammedan faith, and the 
 great ambition of the villagers is to establish a mosque in 
 each of their small communities. 
 
 They cultivate the land, but in a very careless and lazy 
 manner ; they steal everything which comes in their way, 
 and their ways are many. 
 
 It is said that hospitality is a remnant of barbarism, if 
 so, the Circassians are barbarous, for they possess that 
 genial quality to an eminent degree. But to return to 
 my visit to their village near Djeverli. 
 
 The chief was away, but I was received with great 
 civility by some of the inhabitants, and led to an empty 
 house, which soon became crowded %vith male villagers, 
 some of them old and dignified men who had seen many a
 
 100 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 fight against the Russians in their mountain homes of the 
 Caucasus. As soon as I was seated I saw all eyes turned 
 upon my gun and pistols, and I was politely requested to 
 offer them for inspection. They were both of good work- 
 manshij), and the eyes of the men quite glistened with 
 delight as they were handed round, and I saw that I was 
 now regarded with greater respect. They in their turn 
 showed me their weapons, which were all flint and steel 
 locks, but exquisitely worked and inlaid with silver. 
 They also brought out some chain armor which had been 
 worn by their fathers, and which seemed to be considered 
 almost sacred. My gun was handed back with as much 
 care as a mother would handle her first-born babe. The 
 conversation turned upon the history of their race, but 
 they did not seem to know anything beyond their grand- 
 fathers ; their hate of the Russians was something intense, 
 and I pity any of that nation that may have the misfor- 
 tune to fall into their hands. 
 
 I was now regaled with a capital lunch, consisting of a 
 dish called "pasta," a sort of peas-pudding made of millet, 
 a cucumber salad, a roast lamb's head, and coffee. There 
 was no wine, as the people are Mohammedans, and do 
 not touch it; but a drink called "Iran," made of sour 
 buttermUk, and to be found in every Turkish and Circas- 
 sian village, was very refreshing and acceptable. Any 
 reference to their thieving propensities seemed to cause 
 great amusement, and the young men informed me that 
 they did not know how to thieve, but they looked with ad- 
 miration at their fathers and declared them real adepts 
 in the art. This was a filial respect which probably would 
 not be set down as a virtue in Exeter Hall, but it cannot 
 be called a willful vice, as the children are educated to 
 consider it an ambition. 
 
 I was told by one fine young man, with great pride, 
 that his father could steal a horse out of a stable whilst 
 the owner was asleep by the side of it. Their manners 
 are very courteous, but independent : such is the education 
 of the male children. The females are brought up to be
 
 circassia:n's. lOi 
 
 sold as slaves to foreign harems, and tliey look forward 
 to entry into that life as a yonng lady in England does to 
 "coming out." Their prices vary according to beauty, 
 but as far as I could gather the average is about £100. 
 
 As a rule the women cover their faces and retire within 
 their houses on the approach of a giaour, but on one oc- 
 casion I came suddenly, as I turned a corner, upon five 
 young girls, about eighteen years of age, who passed close 
 to me mthout covering their faces or appearing either 
 horrified or bashful. Two of them were tall and exceed- 
 ingly well-made and graceful, and certainly very beauti- 
 ful. Amongst the men I noticed two types of face, the 
 one of Tartar, and the other of what must be called Cir- 
 cassian, extraction, as it is one of the oldest-known races 
 in the world. The latter is more like the handsomest 
 form of Albanian countenance. The origin of the Tartar 
 type arises from the custom of making slaves of all 
 enemies captured in battle, these slaves become heredi- 
 tary, and as a consequence are mixed up T\4th the people. 
 When the Circassians emigrated to Turkey they brought 
 with them their hereditary slaves. These people are now 
 beginning to discover that by the laws of their adopted 
 country they are free, but their Circassian owners have no 
 notion of acknowledging such a right, and many disputes 
 and quarrels, sometimes resulting in bloodshed, have in 
 consequence arisen with the Turkish authorities, who en- 
 deavor to enforce the law. 
 
 The Circassian argument is this : "You allowed us to 
 settle in your country, and made no terms. These people 
 have been our slaves from generation to generation, and 
 now you have no right to make us give them up. If you 
 try to compel us, we will oi^pose force to force, and fight 
 as long as we can : we shall probably be beaten, but will 
 never give in." This is a nice hornet's nest in the midst 
 of the Turks, and certainly not a grateful return for hos- 
 pitality. 
 
 The CuTassians in European Turkey are now estimated 
 at 200,000, and they are the terror of their neighbors,
 
 102 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 wlietlier Turks or Christians. Their depredations go on 
 ■unchecked through fear of reprisals. Their interest at 
 high quarters, through the introduction of their beautiful 
 gMs to the principal harems at Constantinople and else- 
 where, is so great that it is found diflQcult to get convic- 
 tions against them. They well know their own power, 
 and unless stringent measures are taken to stop further 
 immigration, and to enforce the law strictly over those 
 who are colonized, they will prove a thorn in the side of 
 Turkey for many a year to come, and a great bar to prog- 
 ress. 
 
 I left the Circassian village impressed with the fact that 
 I had been amongst a set of men Avith remarkable force of 
 character, but whether they possess a sufficient amount 
 of self-control to enable them to become, as a nation, 
 civilized members of society, is a doubtful question. The 
 following day, the chief of the village — who had been 
 absent during my visit — returned my call. He was a dark 
 man, of middle height, dressed in the usual long, dark, 
 cloth frock coat, with trousers and long boots, the tops 
 embroidered with silver. He wore a fez for a cap, and I 
 noticed that his feet and hands were remarkably small. 
 His weapons consisted of a pair of beautiful silver- 
 mounted-flint-and steel pistols, and a silver-hilted dagger. 
 He was a cheery, independent character, with a sufficient 
 amount of dignity, and he made himself quite at home. 
 His sharj) and somewhat fierce eyes ranged quickly over 
 everything that was in the room, and there was an exj^res- 
 sion in them that bespoke but little respect for mewn 
 and tuum : he was, in fact, the very picture of a robber 
 chief. He was a man of great influence amongst his race, 
 and from him I learnt that the Cii'cassians in Turkey have 
 an organization by which they can quickly assemble a 
 number of armed horsemen on any point in an incredibly 
 short space of time, and that by giving the signal he 
 could in two days have a thousand at his own village. It 
 so happened that at this very period a dispute was going 
 on between the Turkish authorities and his own village,
 
 CIECASSIAKS. 103 
 
 witli regard to the slave question. A body of zaptieJis 
 (native mounted police) liad been sent to the village to 
 enforce justice, upon which two of them were seized by 
 the Circassians, tied up and flogged, and sent back to 
 their government employers, with the message that a 
 worse fate would await any more of these troublesome 
 officials who should think of intruding their officious per- 
 sons within the sacred precincts of the village. This was 
 rather too strong a dose of rebellion for the Turkish gov- 
 erning pasha, so a body of 250 Turkish cavalry were sent 
 to the village to enforce order and the law ; but the Circas- 
 sians knew well that they were coming, and the Turks on 
 their arrival found a thousand Cu'cassian irregular cavahy 
 ranged up before the village. It would evidently be a 
 serious ailau', and might cause trouble, so the Turkish 
 force retii'ed for "orders." The Circassians, reinforced, 
 moved their ground to a strong position, and a powerful 
 force of Turkish troops, consisting of the three arms, was 
 sent against them. The Turkish commander was loth to 
 fight, not from any want of courage — far from it — but who 
 knew what influence some of these Circassians had at 
 court? He therefore tried conciliation, and summoned 
 them to surrender, otherwise he would be under the pain- 
 ful necessity of ordering a charge. There was nothing 
 the Circassians would like better, so they begged the Turks 
 to "come on " and try it. There was no help for it, so the 
 order was given to advance, and forty Turks were im- 
 mediately placed Jiors de coiiibat by a volley from the 
 Circassians. Another parley now ensued, and negotia- 
 tions were prolonged until the Cu'cassians were allowed 
 to disperse, and the affair was to be settled at Constanti- 
 nople, but I afterwards heard that the whole business 
 had been hushed up. I endeavored to be present at this 
 onelee^ but there was so much difficulty and mystery 
 in gaining information from either side as to time and 
 locality that it was over on my arrival. The numbers 
 concerned were probably much exaggerated, as they 
 always are in Turkey.
 
 1 04 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 I was mucli amused by a little episode in the return 
 visit of tlie Circassian chief. My host, Mr. Brophy, 
 hospitably offered him some tea, of which his race are 
 very fond. I immediately detected that the eagle eye of 
 my visitor — and there was no mistaking its expression — 
 had fastened on the Britannia-metal tea-pot. He shortly 
 afterwards asked my host to make him a present of it ; 
 but the reply was that he was sorry he could not, as it 
 was the only one he had. "0," said the Circassian, "you 
 ought to give it to me. If you were to come to my vil- 
 lage, and took such a fancy to anything as to feel obliged 
 to ask for it, I should hand it to you directly." But my 
 host did not see the force of the argument, and still polite- 
 ly refused. Shortly afterwards he went out to give some 
 orders, and the moment he was absent, the Circassian 
 winked at me, and laughingly took the tea-pot, folded it 
 up carefully in his handkerchief, and put it into his capa- 
 cious coat-pocket. On Mr. Brophy' s return I called his 
 attention to what had happened. The Circassian treated 
 it as a great joke, and evidently thought it so. He laughed 
 immoderately, and patted my host on the back, but Tie 
 still Icept the tea-pot, and nemr gave it up. His afternoon 
 teas were destined to be but a temporary enjoyment, and 
 a few days afterwards I heard that this bold and jovial 
 robber-chief was no more. A Turkish force of cavalry 
 was passing through his village, and upon his resisting 
 some orders transmitted by the officer, he was shot on the 
 spot. 
 
 ^Notwithstanding their thieving propensities and other 
 faults, it is impossible to be in their society without a feel- 
 ing of admiration for them as a race. Whether they can 
 ever be so tamed and educated as to become industrious 
 and peaceful subjects, I much doubt ; but the longer the 
 experiment is postponed the greater the danger to Turkey.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISTEICT OF BUEGAS. 
 
 District of Burgas — Malaria Fevers — " Breakers aliead " — Jackals in Europe 
 — "Yarin" and Procrastination — Monastery of St. Atlianasius — Mineral 
 Springs — John in a Dilemma — Value of Land — A Circassian Horse-dealer 
 — Yanboli — Ancient Tumuli — Migration of Storks — Scandal in Stork- 
 land — Pleasures of a Turkish Khan — Sheep and Cows of the District. 
 
 I SPENT some time in the district of Burgas, examining 
 the coast to the south and north, but I will not weary 
 the reader by minute descriptions of this locality, as there 
 is nothing of any importance to notice excepting the stra- 
 tegical value of the neighborhood, which will be dealt 
 with in another chapter. The population is principally 
 Bulgarian, some of whom are Pomaks, or Mohammedans, 
 but the majority are Christians. There are also a few 
 Turkish villages, and many Circassians, and on the sea- 
 coast the purely Greek towns of Messembria, Akhioli, 
 Sisopolis, Agazopolis, and Vasiliko. 
 
 I observed that the small rivers which fall into the sea 
 along the coast are for the most part blocked at their 
 mouths during the summer by the shingle thro"\\Ti up by 
 the waves, and the bar thus formed throws back the river- 
 water, which stagnates in the valleys, and is the cause of 
 much of the malaria fever which is prevalent during the 
 autumn months. In one of the rivers there was a suffi- 
 cient body of water to clear away the shingle as it de- 
 bouched from the land to the sea, and on inquiry from the 
 villagers who inhabited the valley, I found that it was 
 perfectly healthy, while those in the neighborhood where 
 the rivers were blocked suffered severely from fever. It 
 is difficult to discover the actual cause of these malaria 
 
 105
 
 106 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 fevers, wliicli are so prevalent, not only in Turkey, but in 
 nearly the whole of Southern Europe during the early 
 autumn months. 
 
 Experience seems to point to theu' being generated by 
 marshes, and yet, at an altitude of two thousand feet 
 above the sea, they are never experienced even on the 
 edge of marshes, unless they are imported by some indi- 
 vidual who has brought the fever T\ith him from the low 
 country. 
 
 Again, I have seen places which are tolerably elevated 
 and well di-ained, and yet very subject to fever, and 
 another locality not far off, and apparently less favored 
 by nature, which is perfectly healthy. 
 
 Although marshes, \vithout doubt, facilitate the trans- 
 mission of the poison which produces the fever, I imagine 
 w^e must look further for the real cause of this troublesome 
 effect. 
 
 I heard of a case of an old man who had slept for 
 twenty years actually in a marsh, his miserable hut being 
 on a damp plot of ground in the midst of the rushes, but 
 curiously enough, althoiigh the neighborhood was very 
 unhealthy, he never suffered from fever so long as he slept 
 at home, but if he went to visit in the neighborhood and 
 slept away from home, he sickened immediately. 
 
 The climate of Turkey generally is very healthy, espe- 
 cially at high elevations, but in certain localities on the 
 low grounds, the afore-mentioned fevers are prevalent 
 during the months of July, August, and September. The 
 principal cause of the healthiness of the country is to be 
 found in the regular breezes which blow during the sum- 
 mer, and which are created by the alternation of mountain 
 and plain. The nights are always cool, which tends to 
 invigorate the body after the relaxation of the heat of the 
 day. The diyness of the air has also a sanitary effect, 
 and tends to prevent the poisonous gases which would 
 otherwise be generated in the neighborhood of towns 
 where the dead carcasses of animals are left to corrupt 
 wherever they happen to fall.
 
 A STOnM. 107 
 
 While in the neighborhood of Burgas I liad the pleas- 
 ure of meeting Captain St. Clair, late of the 21st Regiment, 
 who is settled on the sea-coast just north of Cape Emineh, 
 and who is much interested, I believe, in the sea-fishing 
 along the coast between that cape and Varna. 
 
 He was good enough to invite me to visit his settlement, 
 and as his large sailing-boat was at anchor in the harbor, 
 it was agreed that we should embark that afternoon ; but 
 the ever-present genius of delay was at work, and it was 
 nine o' clock in the evening before we were off. There was 
 a light breeze and a smooth sea, and we were soon gliding 
 away delightfully before a fair wind, when I noticed some 
 ominous-looking clouds to windward. 
 
 The boat was piled high above the thwarts with empty 
 casks, which rendered it difficult for the two Greek sailors 
 to get at the sails ; but the sea was smooth, and after list- 
 ening to some songs from the Pole Listopat, who formed 
 one of the party, we all dropped off to sleep, with the ex- 
 ception of our two Argonauts. But the JSTereids were at 
 work, and at 2 a.m. I awoke. 
 
 AU was pitchy dark, but my former experience of the 
 sea instantly told me that a heavy squall was close upon 
 us, and a vivid flash of lightning showed the white foam- 
 ing waves on our starboard quarter, and black rocks close 
 upon our lee. 
 
 I seized the helm to relieve the Greek, who flew to the 
 sails, as I roused St. Clair. The main-sheet was by my 
 hand, and I let it fly, when with a rushing roar the storm 
 struck us. Whether my Cheshire lad John had cast loose 
 a bag of winds in the boat I must leave to the heathen 
 gods to determine, but if he did he met with his punish- 
 ment. This was his first experience of boating on the sea, 
 and he had fallen asleep in the bow to the sound of the 
 gently-rippling waves. He now woke up, half buried in 
 water, the lightning flashing, the wind roaring, while he 
 was buffeted about the head with the flapping sail, and 
 his astonishment may be imagined. He thought his last 
 day had come, and that he had been consigned to the
 
 108 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 infernal regions. The boat was nearly buried in the white 
 foam, and before the thrashing sail could be clewed up we 
 had sprung our mast. That we were rushing upon our 
 fate and upon the rocks seemed highly probable, for we 
 were all ignorant of our whereabouts. 
 
 The boat was flying through the water, and as the light- 
 ning flashed we saw rocks and breakers within a hundred 
 yards to leeward ; a kind fate guided us safely through 
 the danger. Daylight came and showed ns that we had 
 barely cleared the rocky point where stands the ancient 
 Greek town of Anchialus (Akhioli). The stonn wore 
 itself out, and a few hours afterwards we were safely at 
 anchor in the little bay beneath St. Clair's house, and 
 found ourselves again on terra fir ma. 
 
 I spent two pleasant days under his roof, and had the 
 advantage of hearing his very powerful mind brought to 
 bear upon many of the questions concerning Turkey and 
 the East. The country in his neighborhood is very hilly, 
 and covered with forest and brushwood, and there being 
 reports of wild boar and roe-deer near at hand, a drive 
 was organized; but althoiigh a boar was seen by the 
 beaters, our only bag was a fox which happened to come 
 my way. 
 
 They have a most excellent hound in these parts, in ap- 
 pearance like a cross between a fox-hound and a pointer, 
 and the next day I was taken out by a native hunter to 
 witness the performance of one of these animals, and the 
 sport, when there is game, is not to be despised. There 
 are drives through the jungle, and I took up my position 
 with my gun in one of them, while the hound was put 
 into hunt. "All is fish which comes to his net," and on 
 finding the track of a hare, roe-deer, boar, fox, or jackal, 
 he immediately gives tongue, and endeavors to turn the 
 animal toward the sportsman. We soon had a "find," 
 and with an active pair of legs the running backwards and 
 forwards as you heard the hound approaching different 
 parts of the drive is sufficiently exciting to make it sport. 
 My bag consisted of a hare and a jackal, after a good deal
 
 PRO CllASTmA TIOK 109 
 
 of exercise in endeavoring to cut off a roe-deer, wliicli was 
 also found, but it was the roe-deer, and he liad been so 
 often hunted that he was too knowing to break across the 
 drive. I must beg naturalists to rest assured that I am 
 not maldng a mistake when I say that I shot a jackal in 
 Europe. I knew the animal well in India and Mesopo- 
 tamia, and there are numbers of them in certain parts of 
 Turkey. I have since met a Belgian naturalist, who in- 
 sisted upon it that I was in error, but I can vouch for it 
 that the mistake lies with him. 
 
 Captain St. Clair has several Poles in his employ, who, 
 with himself, took part in the Polish insurrection of 1863, 
 and witnessed the tender mercy which Russia exhibits 
 when dealing with her own Christian subjects. Here, as 
 in the case of the Circassians, the bitterness of hate toward 
 the Russians, engendered by scenes that have been wit- 
 nessed, amounts almost to a madness. The very name of 
 Russia seems to rouse a demon of revenge, and the flash- 
 ing eye, the compressed lip, the paling cheek, and the 
 silence^ mark the volcano of human passion which is but 
 slumbering within. 
 
 St. Clair kindly placed his boat at my disposal to return 
 to Burgas by sea, which is only six hours distant with a 
 fair wind. 
 
 The land and sea breezes here are as regular as clock- 
 work, blomng in contrary directions during the twenty- 
 four hours, with an interval of about two hours' calm. 
 Starting at eight o'clock in the morning, I should have 
 had a fair wind, which would have taken me to Burgas 
 the same afternoon, and it was accordingly so arranged. 
 But here, again, that painful procrastination, which is the 
 bane of the country, was apparent. There was no reason 
 whatever why I should not have started at the time ap- 
 pointed. The men were there, the boat was there, and 
 the fair wind was inviting us to come ; but no ! it was not 
 to be, and delay after delay took place, until it was one 
 o'clock before I was able to take leave of my hospitable 
 host, who lacked only one element of generosity, and that
 
 110 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 was to "speed tlie parting guest." The consequence was 
 that before we had reached haK way the wind ceased. We 
 rocked about in a calm, on a rolling sea, until I became 
 sea-sick ; the wind rose in the contrary direction, and we 
 were beating about all night, and did not arrive at Burgas 
 until nine o'clock the next morning. This habit of pro- 
 crastination seems to be a disease in Turkey which attacks 
 all alike, "whether he be a stranger or bom in the land." 
 It meets the traveler at every turn, and nearly drives him 
 mad. At first he tries to battle against the infection, but 
 it is invisible, although painfully present, and he seems to 
 fight only against the wind. At last, in sheer despair, he 
 resigns himself to his fate, and listens with equanimity to 
 the interminable "Yarin" — to-morrow. But the habit is 
 the ruin of the country. It was born during the Byzan- 
 tine Empire, and hastened its dissolution, remaining after- 
 wards as a legacy to the Turks. 
 
 At the entrance to the Bay of Burgas, there is a con- 
 spicuous and picturesque rock, occupied by the monastery 
 of St. Athanasius, which is presided over by a Greek 
 bishop. I determined to visit this romantic Isle, and, ac- 
 companied by Mr. Brophy, took boat, and arrived there 
 just after dusk. We met the portly old bishop on tlie 
 landing with several people of both sexes, and were soon 
 ushered into a comfortable room in the monastery, a 
 quaint, rambling old building, perched on the top of the 
 rock, about two hundred feet above the sea. It was a 
 lovely moonlight night in summer, and the views were 
 charming from the open windows, which looked down 
 into the sea and rocks below. 
 
 The old bishop sat in one corner of the divan near a 
 bell, which, when pulled, seemed to have the magic effect 
 of instantly producing a servant with good cheer. First 
 sherbet, then coffee, then most excellent mne, then wine 
 again, until I felt that if this went on much longer I should 
 be^gin to sing "The Monks of Old," and tempt the jovial 
 old bishop to join in the chorus, and thus bring scandal 
 uiDon his ecclesiastical establishment. I therefore retired
 
 MINERAL SPRINGS. HI 
 
 to bed, TvMcli consisted of a cushioned divan iii another 
 room, and I was soon hilled to sleep by the sound of the 
 rippling waves. The rock under my windows had some- 
 what the form of a boat, and there is a legend which as- 
 serts that it once belonged to a pirate who attacked the 
 monastery, but the moment the boat touched the sacred 
 land it was turned into stone, and has there remained 
 ever since as a monument of the retribution which will 
 surely follow any who shall dare to attempt a similar 
 sacrilege. 
 
 Turkey in Europe is rich in hot mineral springs, which 
 the Romans did not fail to recognize for their curative 
 properties, and built over them most spacious baths, which 
 are still in excellent preservation. 
 
 There is one at Lija, near Burgas, which I visited, and 
 found the temperature as much as 120 deg. of Fahrenheit. 
 Tlie effect of the bath on the skin is to make it beautifully 
 soft and velvety, and I commend the study of the chemi- 
 cal substances in the water to Madame Rachel and her 
 followers. 
 
 My lad John bore our rough life very well on the whole, 
 and never grumbled ; but it is astonishing how helpless 
 people are who have never been accustomed to leave the 
 daily routine of home life. On one occasion we were in 
 light marching order, and had nothing with us but the 
 clothes we wore, and having halted for the night at a very 
 pretty spot where a river met the sea, we picketed the 
 horses and lay down on the ground to sleep. We were 
 on short rations that night, and had only a little dry bread 
 for dinner, and John did not look particularly happy. 
 Sleeping on the bare ground is all very well for the fii'st 
 half -hour or so ; you wrap your cloak around you, and 
 think, " "What do people want with beds ? " and fall asleep. 
 Presently, however, you have a dream of being pinched 
 and bruised, and awake to find that you are made up of 
 bones and angles, which are sore, and that the softness of 
 a bed is not such a useless invention after all. 
 
 I can advise a sleex)er on such occasions to scrape holes
 
 112 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 in tlie ground to receive tlie larger projecting parts of Ms 
 body, as it saves a multitude of bruising dreams, and con- 
 duces to rest. In the morning I awoke at daybreak, gave 
 John a shake, and went down to the river, only thirty 
 yards off, which I chose for a wash in preference to the 
 sea, which was the same distance from me. 
 
 I afterwards went exploring, and came upon a native 
 with a few small fish, which I secured for breakfast. On 
 my return I found John still sitting up on his earthy 
 couch, and staring into vacancy, disconsolate and sleepy. 
 
 " Come, come, John," I said, "jump up, jump up, and 
 wash yourself, and make a fire to cook these fish ! " The 
 lad slowly gathered himself up, and paused in doubt. I 
 saw that he had something on his mind, and presently he 
 walked slowly up to me and gravely said, " Please, sir, 
 where can I get some water ? " " Well, John," I replied, 
 there is the sea, and there is the river ; and if that is not 
 enough water for your morning ablutions, I am afraid I 
 cannot provide any more." 
 
 The fact was, there was no basiu, soap, and towel, and 
 it never seemed to strike the lad that he could go down to 
 the river, and use a little sand for soap, and the tail of his 
 coat for a towel. At first it was the same thing with food : 
 he could not eat things which afforded me a hearty meal. 
 There is an excellent country cheese made out of sheep's 
 milk, which, with a loaf of bread (which is always to be had 
 at any village in Turkey), makes really a very good dinner, 
 if you cannot get anything else ; but it was not like his 
 beloved Cheshire, and for some time John could not touch 
 it. He afterwards learned to rough it as well as any one, 
 and made a most excellent servant, and he is now installed 
 on my fann in Macedonia, as superintendent of the Eng- 
 lish ploughs. 
 
 The purchase value of land in Turkey varies in a most 
 extraordinary manner, and seems to bear no relation to 
 the interest on the capital which it will pay. 
 
 In the town of Burgas, building land cannot be bought 
 under five or six shillings a square yard, whUe in the
 
 VALUE OF LAND. 113 
 
 neighboring country it can be had for the same number of 
 shillings per acre. Then again, further inland^ by Eskl 
 Zaghra — where the soil is no richer — farm land cannot be 
 had for £10 per acre. All depends upon local circum- 
 stances, such as population, etc., etc. ; and the day will 
 come when large fortunes will be made in Turkey by 
 holders of large estates, which are sure to rise in value as 
 the country becomes opened up by railways and roads of 
 communication. 
 
 I had finished my explorations in the neighborhood of 
 Burgas, and commenced to make my preparations for my 
 inland Journey. I could not get any information from 
 Mr. Brophy or Captain St. Clair regarding the country 
 beyond Kezanlik, and they strongly urged me not to at- 
 tempt the further journey, as the danger from brigands 
 was very great, and they could not answer for my life ; 
 but I had learned from the experience of former travels 
 that brigands seldom think of you if you do not think of 
 tliem, and that to turn back on report of danger would 
 soon limit a trip to a very small area. 
 
 I had purchased a very good little horse for myself, at 
 a cost of £8, but had difficulty in finding another for my 
 servant, John. Brophy said that the Circassians generally 
 had horses for sale ; and he kindly sent a messenger to 
 our friend the "knight of the tea-pot," who sent back 
 word that he knew of a horse about twenty miles off ; 
 that he should send orders at once for it to be at 
 Djeverli by the next morning, ready for my start ; and 
 that I must pay the man whatever he asked for the ani- 
 mal. The next morning arrived. I had hired pack- 
 horses to carry my tents and baggage, but no horse had 
 come for John. 
 
 Brophy had kindly offered to accompany me on my 
 travels as far as Kezanlik, and mounted John on one of 
 his own animals until I might be able, at some of the 
 towns we passed tlirough, to pick up another horse. 
 
 We were in the saddle and just leaving the yard, when 
 a mounted figure appeared in the distance, riding at full 
 8
 
 114 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 gallop in our direction and leading a grey horse ; and in a 
 few minutes a fine young Circassian dashed up, and said, 
 "Here is your horse, and his price is £6 10s." I dis- 
 mounted, felt the animal's legs, which were satisfactory, 
 paid the money, transferred the English saddle and John 
 to his back, and the result was that he was immediately 
 kicked off. 
 
 I changed animals, and after a few playful kicks, we 
 were off on our travels. On after reflection, I began to 
 think that I was the owner of stolen goods in the form of 
 that grey horse, and that our Circassian friend was a 
 clear £6 10s. in pocket by the transaction ; but let us 
 hope not. 
 
 Our first day's ride was to Yanboli, on the river Tundja, 
 by way of Kamabat. 
 
 The latter town would be an important military post as 
 the left advanced guard of an army intrenched at Burgas, 
 whilst the right occupied Aidos. It is a lively town, 
 with shops painted in brilliant colors ; and amongst them 
 the English words "Colman's Mustard" were conspic- 
 uous. A fine stone clock tower was being erected ; and I 
 was told that the clock was ordered from Dent, in London. 
 
 In traveling in Turkey, distance is always estimated by 
 time instead of space, and one place is said to be so many 
 hours from another. This is sometimes very puzzling, as 
 the imagination of different individuals as to the speed at 
 which a horse travels varies to a considerable degree. The 
 proper estimate is the distance a keradjee horse — a pack 
 animal — can travel with his load in an hour when doing 
 his day's journey, and this may be taken at three miles. 
 After leaving Karnabat, the first hour of our journey lay 
 over rolling uplands devoid of trees, but with here and 
 there some oak scrub. We then descended into a flat 
 basin a few miles broad, stretching away in front as far as 
 the eye could reach, and flanked on the right by the Bal- 
 kan range, and on the left with rolling uplands. It was 
 on the 19th of August, and the heat was excessive. Along 
 this plain we passed as many as forty large tumuli scat-
 
 MONUMENTAL TUMULI. 115 
 
 tered here and tliere, singly and in groups of two and 
 three. It seems unquestionable that these monuments 
 are ancient burial-places ; and, if they are connected with 
 the battle-field, it points to the strategical importance, 
 even in ancient days, of this plain, which must have re- 
 ceived the armies as they debouched from the Balkan. 
 Tliese tumuli are found over the whole of Turkey, as well 
 as in other parts of Europe and Asia; and they must 
 have been adopted as monumental burial-places over an. 
 immense extent of time. They are of three classes, of 
 different periods : in the earliest are found remains of 
 stone implements, together with human bones ; in the sec- 
 ond gold and silver ornaments ; and in the third, and com- 
 paratively recent class, there are iron imjplements. Some 
 cover a circular wall, into which the human remains were 
 thrown. There is one of these near the plains of Troy, 
 which is filled to the top with calcined human bones ; 
 while another in the same district was found to contain 
 large earthenware jars, in each of which there was a 
 skeleton. 
 
 As we approached the low hills, which are covered with 
 vineyards and fruit trees for miles around Yanboli, I ob- 
 served literally thousands of large birds, which proved on 
 closer inspection to be storks preparing for their migra- 
 tion for the winter. These birds appear ia the spring, and 
 disappear in the autumn, as regularly as the swallows, and 
 their lives are respected in every part of the world which 
 they patronize. Their habits are most peculiar and amus- 
 ing, and they have a way of clapping their beaks together, 
 which is exactly like vigorous human applause. As we 
 rode through the groves of fruit trees, which were cov- 
 ered by these birds, we were applauded right and left to 
 such an extent that it was quite a triumphal march. A 
 story is told of a goose egg having been surreptitiously 
 placed in a stork's nest, and which in due course was 
 hatched ; but the arrival and uncouth appearance of the 
 "little stranger" created the utmost consternation among 
 the straight-laced stork society, and scandal was rife.
 
 116 TURKEY IN EUEOPE. 
 
 A committee was appointed to examine into tlie matter, 
 and a council was lield round the stork's nest. Judging 
 by tlie "general applause," a unanimous decision was 
 soon arrived at ; and to show that such peccadilloes could 
 not possibly be permitted in stork society, the "little 
 stranger" was gobbled up, and the supposed mother 
 stork was pecked to death. 
 
 It was dark when we arrived at the large khan at 
 Yanboli. There is a family likeness among all Turkish 
 khans : a large paved yard, surrounded by buildings, 
 with a broad open veranda on the first floor and on the 
 side which looks into the yard. You enter by a 
 large gateway, surmounted by a room, over which vines 
 climb prettily and look into the windows. On the right 
 is a coffee and pot-house, with a large open but covered 
 dais adjoining it. The sleeping rooms are ranged along 
 the veranda, and are entirely devoid of furniture of any 
 kind ; the stables are immediately below, and the odor 
 from pack animals, which are never groomed, and which 
 are too frequently covered, poor beasts! with sores, is 
 something which must be smelled to be appreciated. The 
 ride of forty miles on one horse in a very hot sun was 
 conducive to hunger ; but an interminable time elapsed 
 before a large dish of some kind of stewed meat made its 
 appearance. Hunger is an excellent sauce, and I thought 
 the stew very good ; but I refrained from asking of what 
 it was made, as I remembered the story of the English- 
 man who, stopping at an inn in France, and not knowing 
 a word of French, had eaten largely of a dish which he 
 thought most excellent, and came to the conclusion that it 
 must be a preparation of duck ; but to set his mind at rest 
 he beckoned to the gargon, and pointing to the dish said 
 interrogatively, " Quack, quack ? " whereupon the ^I'aT'poTi 
 shook his head, and replied, "Bow, wow." I retired to 
 one of the small sleeping-rooms, and lay down upon a 
 stone bench, with a dirty looking cushion as a pillow ; but 
 no sooner had my head touched it than my face was 
 creeping with what I thought were large ants. I jumped
 
 YANBOLL 117 
 
 up, and seized the candle to inspect them, when — oh, hor- 
 ror ! they were bugs, in hundreds ; with heads erect, and 
 defiant ah-, they went rampaging about, as though rejoic- 
 ing over their expected feast. Happy thought ! I had^ 
 some Keating' s Insect Powder, and with revengeful glee I 
 scattered a whole handful of the fatal powder amongst 
 them, expecting to see the instantaneous death of my 
 enemies ; but not at all — these hardy carnivora rather 
 seemed to like it, and so I rushed, sickened and defeated, 
 from the room. But where to sleep ? that was the ques- 
 tion ; for sleep I must, as we had a long journey before 
 us the next day. I tried a bench in the pot-house, but 
 "they" were there also. The yard was full of my old 
 enemy, the talegas, or Turkish carriages, but they were 
 stationary, and at rest, so I jumped into one, and rolled 
 myself up in some hay, and tried to sleep. The hay was 
 full of fleas, but I rather liked them by comparison; 
 and thinking what delightfully active and industrious 
 little animals they were, I fell asleep. 
 
 I did not awake until past seven o'clock, and when I sat 
 up in the carriage, I discovered that all the other talegas 
 had departed, and, lilve Mr. Pickwick in his wheelbarrow, 
 I was alone in the yard. 
 
 But not alone, for a young Turk was sitting patiently 
 by the talega, and upon seeing me awake he came politely 
 forward, and "hoping that I had enjoyed my rest, would 
 I now allow him to have his carriage ? " 
 
 I found that the poor man, having a long journey be- 
 fore him, had intended to leave at five o'clock in the 
 morning, but finding a snoring Englishman in his car- 
 riage, he, with the courtesy and jjatience which are so 
 characteristic of his race, sat down until he awoke. 
 
 Yanboli is a thriving town of about ten thousand in- 
 habitants, and situated on the muddy river Tundja, which 
 is here about fifty yards broad, and at this dry season had 
 sunk so low that it was easily fordable. The banks are 
 high, and it was evidently a very deep and important 
 river when in flood. It is crossed by a good wooden
 
 118 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 bridge, wliich leads to tlie railway station distant about 
 a mile. 
 
 The valley of the Tundja is one of the two routes an 
 army, after passing the Balkan, would have to take in ad- 
 vancing upon Constantinople, the other being the Maritza 
 valley. 
 
 The whole of the neighboring district of YanboU is a 
 com-gro\A'ing country, and until lately the agricultural 
 produce, together with the wool, was carried to Burgas 
 for shipment ; but the opening of the railway to Con- 
 stantinople has diverted the traffic, and Yanboli is now 
 rising in importance at the expense of Burgas. The sheep 
 of this district are small, but they produce the best wool 
 which is to be found in Turkey ; however, that is not much 
 in their praise, as the wool generally is coarse and kempy. 
 The majority of these sheep are of a light brown color, 
 and more resemble the Welsh breed in form than any 
 other in this country. The mutton would be very good if 
 it were not that all male sheep are killed as rams. 
 
 The cattle are very handsome, but small, and the cows 
 give very little milk. They are all of one color, and look 
 like well-bred Aldemeys ; but they are more hardy than 
 those delicate animals. 
 
 The horses are small, wiry little animals, with great 
 powers of enduranbe, and I noticed that their feet were 
 particularly good. I can only account for this by the 
 method of shoeing, which is simply an iron plate with a 
 round hole in the centre, attached to the foot with five 
 nails. The roads are very rough, but it is exceptional to 
 see a lame horse. The w^orking cattle and buffaloes are 
 shod in a similar manner. 
 
 Yanboli possesses an excellent market ; and at this 
 season of the year the piles of melons, pears, cucumbers, 
 and large green capsicums, which lay at the foot of the 
 Oriental houses, covered with vines bearing rich clusters 
 of grapes, produced a very artistic effect. 
 
 Our next day's journey was to Slivmia, about twenty 
 miles off, and the seat of a Liva, or district next in impor-
 
 EMOTIONAL JUDGMENT. 119 
 
 tance to a viliiiet. And as we shall now be brouglit into 
 contact with, the Turks, and shall afterwards leave the 
 neighborhood of British consuls, and plunge into that 
 unhappy part of the country which has since been the 
 scene of all the massacres and bloodshed which have so 
 shocked humanity, it may not be uninteresting to dwell 
 for a time upon the circumstances which have brought 
 the Osmanlis to this fair land, and which give them the 
 right to govern. 
 
 It is only by refreshing our memory with a brief history 
 of the Turks that we can place ourselves in a position to 
 judge fairly of the difficulties of government which lie in 
 their path. When sweeping assertions, prompted by 
 either emotional or party feeling, thrust away the whole 
 of this fine nation to a distance which is without the pale 
 of humanity, it suggests to those who know the people 
 intimately an amount of injustice and even cruelty which 
 can only be the product of irregulated reason. 
 
 It is true that emotional feeling is one of the most 
 beautiful mechanisms in the complicated and mysterious 
 machinery which regulates human action, and that with- 
 out it the heart of man would be but a stone ; but it must 
 form a part and not the whole of that machinery, other- 
 wise it loses force by irregularity of movement. 
 
 The introduction of telegraphs and railways to the 
 greater part of Europe within the last few decades has 
 produced a great change in our estimate of the relation 
 between time and space ; and the result is a rapidity of 
 thought and a corresponding rapidity of action which 
 gives a like velocity to the expectation that our wishes 
 must be immediately realized. In the present day there 
 is time to think, but very little time to reason ; and 
 yesterday is forgotten in the thought of to-morrow. The 
 inventions which have produced this rapidity of thought 
 and action have barely arrived in Turkey, and she, there- 
 fore, requires time before she can be expected to rush 
 along the rapid stream of progress which is sweeping over 
 Europe.
 
 120 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 If we are to judge fairly of Turkey as slie is, and to 
 dictate her course of action, we must carry back our 
 thoughts to our own history a hundred years ago, and 
 ask ourselves what would have been the amount of misery, 
 ruin, and bloodshed which would have been produced 
 among our own people if the experiment had been at- 
 tempted of suddenly forcing upon them a complete change 
 in their social and religious customs ?
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE TUEKS. 
 
 Their Origin — "Western Emigration — Various Tribes — Their Slavery — Tlieir 
 Komad Life — Wise Counsel — Their Religion — Persian Rivals — Tura and 
 Arya — Babel — The Golden Age — Mahmoud Ghaznivide — The Race of 
 Seljuk — A Quiver of Sultans — Togrul Beg — Alp Arslan — The Roum 
 Dynasty — Turkish Cavalry — The Crusaders — The Tartars under Genghis 
 Khan — The Seljuldan Turks— Soliman Shah — Ertoghrul and his choice 
 — His son Othman — Sultan Orchan allies himself with Cantacuzenus — 
 Death of Soliman and succession of Amurath — Origin of the Janizaries 
 — Timour and Sultan Bajazid — Battle of Angora — Ambition of Timour. 
 
 A CCORDING to the liistorian Aboii'lgazi Balidur- 
 -^-^ Khan, the Turks are descended from Turk, the 
 eldest son of Japhet, and are of the same primitive stock 
 as the Tartars and Mongols. "But as in gazing at the sun 
 the eyesight becomes dazzled by the brightness, so does 
 the mind become confused when it attempts to regard the 
 brilliancy of the origin of this illustrious race." 
 
 The Turks were one of the five nomadic races which 
 comprised the Turanian family of men. Some of the 
 numerous tribes which formed this race have been erro- 
 neously called Tartars ; but the latter people were more 
 nearly allied to the Mongolians than the Turks. 
 
 From the land of Tura, the Turkish tribes spread out 
 as far as the Lena on the north (where they are still 
 represented by the Yakuts), to the Black Sea, to the 
 Oxus, beyond the Caspian, and to Asia Minor. 
 
 They were known to the Chinese by the name of Hiong- 
 nu and also Tu-kiu, from which the name Turk is sup- 
 posed to be derived. These Hiong-nu formed an empii'e, 
 206 B.C., west of China; and after nearly three hundred 
 
 121
 
 122 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 years of warfare tliey were defeated by the Cliuiesej and 
 split lip into a northern and soutliem empire. 
 
 The Southerns afterwards united with the Chinese, and 
 drove their ITorthern cousins away from their lands 
 amongst the Altai mountains ; and this is supposed to 
 have been the cause of the first inroad of the Turks upon 
 Europe, and they probably represent the ancestors of the 
 Huns and Avars. 
 
 In the beginning of the third century the Mongols and 
 Tungusians attacked the Southern Turks, and, driving 
 them from their territories, created the second western 
 migration. These various tribes are now to be found in 
 the Turcomans east and west of the Caspian ; in the Us- 
 beks of Bokhara, who are partly Finn; in the Nogai, 
 north of the Black Sea and west of the Caspian ; the 
 Bazianes and the Kumiiks of the Caucasus ; the so-called 
 Tartars of Siberia ; the Bashkirs of Russia, who are partly 
 Mongol ; the Kirghis of Kashgir ; the Youruks and Osman- 
 lis of Asia Minor and Turkey in Europe. 
 
 After the dispersion of the Southern Hiong-nu, some of 
 the Turkish tribes became slaves to the great khan of the 
 Geougen, and in the golden mountains of Altai were em- 
 ployed as forgers of iron and makers of weapons of war. 
 It is from these men that the Turks of Europe can claim 
 their origin. From being makers of arms, they soon 
 learned to use them with such terrible effect that, under 
 their first leader, Bertezema, they cast off the yoke which 
 pressed upon them, and, scattering their oppressors to the 
 winds, established their royal camp in the golden moun- 
 tains. 
 
 The advantages of their nomadic life are well depicted 
 in the advice given by a counselor to one of the succes- 
 sors of Bertezema, urging him not to invade China. " The 
 Turks," he said, "are not equal in number to one-hun- 
 dredth part of the inhabitants of China. If we balance 
 their power and elude their armies, it is because we wan- 
 der without any fixed habitations, in the exercise of war 
 and hunting. Are we strong ? We advance and conquer.
 
 TURKS. 123 
 
 Are we ifeeble ? "We retire and are concealed. Should the 
 Turks confine themselves within the walls of cities, the 
 loss of a battle would be the destruction of their empu'e. 
 The ' bonzes ' preach only patience, humility, and the re- 
 nunciation of the world. Such, King ! is not the religion 
 of heroes," 
 
 This breathes the genuine spirit of the Turanian race, 
 and well exemplifies the roving character of the Turkish 
 Court. 
 
 Their religion, prior to their conversion to Mohammed- 
 anism, was a mixture of the doctrines of Zoroaster and 
 the traditions of their ancestors. They had their priests, 
 and sung rude hymns in worship of the air, fire, water, 
 and the earth, but they sacrificed to the supreme dei^. 
 As might be expected, their laws were unwritten, and of 
 a general character, the minor details being probably laid 
 down by the order of heads of tribes. Yet there were 
 general principles which they all acknowledged, and 
 which were rigorously and impartially executed. Theft 
 was punished by a tenfold restitution ; adultery, treason, 
 and murder, with death. No chastisement was consid- 
 ered too severe for the crime of cowardice. We have here 
 all the elements of a stem justice, and these main princi- 
 ples of morality, added to the free and independent life 
 of waiTior shepherds, were the cause of that lofty and 
 chivalrous character which always attached to the Turks 
 as a nation. 
 
 The rich grazings of their unbounded pasture-lands gave 
 an almost unlimited supply of horses, and one of their 
 armies alone numbered four hundred thousand cavalry. 
 This gives some idea of the extraordinary power of these 
 tribes in former days, and of the rapidity with which they 
 could sweep over the land as conquerors. It was, in fact, 
 a nomad kingdom. Their great rivals were the Persians 
 — rivals in arms and rivals in race and customs, and Tura 
 and Arya here stood face to face. 
 
 The wandering life of the Turks was fitted for reflection 
 rather than study, and we accordingly find them mostly
 
 124 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 ignorant of science, while tlie sedentary habits of llie Per- 
 sians placed tliem among the first nations of the world for 
 scientific learning. 
 
 The Turkish Empire, founded by Bertezema, increased 
 under his successors until it burst by over-expansion, 
 and was divided into three kingdoms ; and it is with one 
 of these, which held its sway in the Golden Mountains 
 of Altai, that we have now to deal. The Turanian and 
 Aryan streams of emigration, with all their attendant 
 tribes, were now eddying among each other in Scythia 
 and the Caucasus, and we are told by Pliny that in the 
 market of Dioscurias no less than one hundi'ed and thirty 
 languages were spoken. 
 
 This was literally a golden age, for that precious metal 
 seemed to* form the material for all the furniture of the 
 great Turk Emperor in his nomad court of the Altai Moun- 
 taiQS ; and we hear of the great Disabul sitting in a chariot 
 of gold, supported by golden peacocks, for which a horse 
 was always kept ready harnessed, in order that, if His 
 Royal Highness wished to move, he might not have the 
 trouble of walking. 
 
 The rich mines of Trebizond and the Caucasus furnished 
 the precious metal, which, with the rich silks of China, 
 added to the luxury of the age. 
 
 In the reign of Chosroes, King of Persia, the Turks and 
 the Byzantine Empire were united against theu' common 
 enemy, but the more civilized Romans merely made use of 
 the Turks as a temporary and useful weapon. The con- 
 tempt in which the Turks held the Byzantine intrigue was 
 manifested by the successor to Disabul, when in the sixth 
 century the Emperor Tiberius, who proposed an invasion 
 of Persia, sent ambassadors to salute him. 
 
 With indignant anger the haughty monarch turned to 
 them and said, " You see my ten fingers % You Romans 
 speak with as many tongues ; but they are the tongues of 
 deceit and perjury. To me you hold one language, to my 
 subjects another, and the nations are successively deluded 
 by your perfidious eloquence ; you precipitate your allies
 
 TURKS. 125 
 
 into war and danger, you enjoy their labors, and you neg- 
 lect your benefactors. Hasten your return, and inform 
 your master that a Turk is incapable of uttering or forgiv- 
 ing falsehood, and that he shall speedily meet the punish- 
 ment he deserves." 
 
 In the middle of the seventh century the prophet Maho- 
 met appeared, and, with his successors, spread his religion 
 with lightning rapidity north, south, east, and west, until 
 it rivalled Christianity in its converts, and included many 
 of the Turkish tribes in the number. 
 
 At the end of the tenth century the title of Sultan was 
 first conferred on Mahmoud, the Ghaznivide, one of the 
 most powerful of Turkish princes, who then reigned in 
 the eastern provinces of Persia, and extended his domin- 
 ions far into Hindostan. 
 
 At this time the Turkish dynasties of the Tulunides and 
 Akshidides reigned in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, while 
 the gi'eat tribe of Seljuk, with its shepherd warriors, un- 
 der the name of Turcomans, inhabited the district of 
 Bokhara. 
 
 This warlike people quarreled with Sultan Mahmoud 
 and his son and successor, Massoud, and with their splen- 
 did cavalry — whose descendants may be seenjn the superb 
 horses of Turkistan in the present day — they utterly de- 
 feated him and the Ghaznivide. The victorious Sel- 
 jukians immediately assembled to elect a king, but among 
 so many noble warriors who was to make the choice ? 
 
 The difficulty was soon overcome, and by a plan which 
 made intrigue impossible. A number of arrows were suc- 
 cessively inscribed with the name of a tribe, a family, and 
 a candidate, and gathered together in a bundle. To pre- 
 vent all chance of deceit, it was determined that the arrow 
 — which was pregnant with the fate of nations — should be 
 drawn by the hand of a child. 
 
 We can picture these warlike chiefs assembled around 
 the bundle of arrows, each thinking that another moment 
 might make him the monarch of a host, as he watched the 
 timid action of the little child who was to decide his fate.
 
 126 TURKEY IN E UROPE. 
 
 Presently a wild shout proclaimed that Togrul Beg, who 
 was the son of Michel, who was the son of Seljiik, who 
 was thirty-fourth in lineal descent from the great Afra- 
 siab, Emperor of Tura, was at once the prizeman and their 
 sultan. 
 
 Seljuk had embraced the religion of Mahomet when he 
 was encamped in the neighborhood of Samarcand, and his 
 grandson Sultan Togrul was conspicuous for his zeal in 
 the faith. Each day he repeated the five prayers which 
 are enjoined to the true believer, and each week the two 
 first days were consecrated to an extraordinary fast, 
 and in every conquered city a mosque was completed 
 before Togrul presumed to lay the foundation of a 
 palace. 
 
 Togrul died without children, and was succeeded by 
 his nephew, Alp Arslan ; but the immense dominion of 
 the Seljukian throne was not destined to be of long dura- 
 tion, and after the death of Malek Shah, son and succes- 
 sor to Alp Arslan, the empire was disputed by his brother 
 and four sons, and divided into three dynasties, those of 
 Kerman, Syria, and Roum, a.d. 1074. 
 
 It is with the Roum dynasty that we have to deal, as it 
 embraced Agia Minor, and was ruled by Sultan Soliman, 
 a kinsman of Alp Arslan, who by great tact had turned 
 the enmity of his cousin into friendship, and united his 
 forces against the Greeks. 
 
 It was during the reign of Soliman that the first Turk- 
 ish troops were landed in Europe, and it came about in 
 this way : — During the contest between Bryennius and 
 Botoniates, who represented the European and Asiatic 
 candidates for the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople, 
 the aid of Soliman was solicited, and he united the Cres- 
 cent and the Cross by joining his forces to those of Boto- 
 niates. After the succession of that monarch, Sultan Soli- 
 man was right royally entertained at Scutari on the Bos- 
 phorus, and a body of 2,000 Turkish cavalry were sent 
 across that water as a reinforcement to the Byzantine 
 forces.
 
 TURKS. 
 
 127 
 
 ' The power of tlie Tarks in Asia Minor, and the rapid 
 extension of the Mahommedan faith, soon alarmed all 
 Christendom, and floods of gallant crusaders, made up of 
 the flower of Christian knights from all parts of Europe, 
 poured across the Bosphorus, many of them never to re- 
 turn. Such was the number of these crusaders that the 
 Greeks at Constantinople soon became alarmed at the in- 
 creasing forces of their friends, and therefore, with the 
 cunning peculiar to the empire, commenced intriguing 
 with the Turks against their Christian allies, and such 
 subtle obstacles and difficulties were raised that the gor« 
 geous host which had crossed the Bosphorus with so much 
 pomp and giandeur returned but the ragged fragment of 
 its former self. 
 
 During the internal quarrels that distracted the Byzan- 
 tine empire and the foreign powers which invaded it, the 
 Turkish rule in Asia Minor grew in strength, until in the 
 thirteenth century the great Tartar host, guided by the 
 genius of Genghis Khan, pressed on a wave of conquest 
 which swept over the nations to the north, the south, the 
 east, and west, until it overlapped Russia, Hindostan, 
 China, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Asia Minor. 
 
 The Seljukian dynasty of Roum fell prostrate before the 
 Tartar storm, and the power of the Turk was crushed, but 
 not destroyed. Military ambition is a potential force 
 which expends itself in conquest, and like many another, 
 the kingdom of the Great Mogul was snapped by over- 
 expansion. When it seemed certain that Europe would 
 be flooded by the Tartar cavalry, the forces of the Mogul 
 were called away to prop up the empire on the side of 
 Persia, and the nations breathed again. 
 
 The Turks in Asia Minor began gradually to recover 
 from the shock, and renewed their habitual wars against 
 the Greeks, until the Sultans of Iconium again rose into 
 notice. 
 
 The necessities of the Seljukian Turks in Asia Minor 
 had reached their far distant and now comparatively 
 ancient home in Khorassan, where there still lived a large
 
 128 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 tribe of tMs renowned race under the ntime of Ogliouz 
 Turks. 
 
 Actuated, it may be, by sympatliy, or it may be by 
 pressure from Tartar foes, Soliman Shall, chief of the 
 Oghouz Turks, broke, like a rift from a river-bank, from 
 his native land, and with four hundred families of his 
 tribe, headed by their male warriors, he wended his way 
 towards Asia Minor, to mingle with his kinsfolk under 
 the Sultan Aladdin of Iconium. 
 
 Rough must have been the way, and hard the fare of 
 these immigrant families, as they tramped over mountain 
 and plain, through river and marsh, over the thousands 
 of miles which separated them from their destination. 
 Their chief, Soliman Shah, was drowned in the passage of 
 the river Euphrates ; but his son, the brave Ertoghrul, 
 the "Right-hearted Man," the progenitor of the future 
 Ottoman power, immediately placed himself at their head. 
 For weeks and months they wandered, until at last they 
 approached their future home. One day, Ertoghrul, with 
 his brave chiefs leading the van, had just crested a tedious 
 hill, and were descending to the valley below, when they 
 suddenly found themselves in the presence of two con- 
 tending armies. Ertoghrul quickly formed his men in 
 order of battle, and anxiously watched the fight. ' ' Which 
 side, Effendim, shall we take?" asked his officers. 
 "Yonder is the weakest," said Ertoghrul ; " charge, and 
 onward to their rescue." This was the true spuit of 
 chivalry, and it has adorned the Turks throughout their 
 history. Generosity had its reward, and Ertoghrul dis- 
 covered that the side whose cause he had espoused and 
 won was no other than that of Sultan Aladdin himself. 
 Ertoghrul was rewarded by a settlement near the shores 
 of the Euxine, with the title of Emir, and he vigorously 
 prosecuted the war against the neighboring Greek settle- 
 ments. Such, at least, is the account as given by Mewlana 
 Ayas, who heard it from the stirrup-holder of Ertoghrul' s 
 grandson, Orchan, who heard it fi'om Ertoghrul himself. 
 He was succeeded by his son Osman, or Othman, a.d.
 
 TURKS. 129 
 
 1299, a born military genius, and the founder of tlie Tuik- 
 ish race in Europe. From him comes their name of 0th- 
 mans, or Ottomans, or Osmanlis. Othman was not only 
 a soldier, he was also a statesman. As he conquered he 
 organized, and left a good administration in his path, 
 thus securing the fruits of his exertions. He gathered 
 volunteers as he went, and organized them into armies, 
 and under color of waging a holy war against the infidels, 
 he infused a fanatical zeal into his troops. He formed 
 a regular army and fortified his towns, and soon gained 
 possession of nearly the whole of Nicomedia and Bithy- 
 nia. His son Orchan prosecuted the conquests of his 
 father, and gladdened his old age by the news of the 
 fall of Brusa, which henceforth became the Asiatic capital 
 of the Ottomans. 
 
 Othman professed religious toleration to the Christians 
 he had conquered, and his dying words are the springs 
 from which flow the religious toleration of the Turks in 
 the present day. "My son, I am dying, and I die with- 
 out regret, because I leave such a successor as thou art. 
 Be Just, love goodness, and show mercy. Give equal pro- 
 tection to all thy subjects, and extend the law of the 
 Prophet. Such are the duties of princes upon earth, and 
 it is thus that they bring on them the blessings of Hea- 
 ven." Othman gained such an influence over the minds 
 of men that he may be said to have reigned with the 
 greatest power after his death, which took place at an ad- 
 vanced age in a.d. 1326. The sword which he handled in 
 his battles, is looked upon with sacred reverence by the 
 Ottoman nation, and the act of girding it upon each suc- 
 cessive sultan is equivalent to our own coronation cere- 
 mony. 
 
 The last counsels, the justice and moderation of Oth- 
 man, have been transcribed by the Turks as a Royal Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 On the death of the Sultan of Iconium, which took 
 place in the year 1300, Othman had assumed the title of 
 Sultan, and thus founded the line of those despotic mon- 
 9
 
 130 TURKET IN EUROPE. 
 
 arclis whicli liave reigned in direct descent in Turkey in 
 Europe to the present day. 
 
 He was succeeded, as we said, by his son Orchan, who 
 quickly turned to account and improved the inheritance 
 of military organization he had received from his father. 
 The regular army was increased, battering-trains were 
 formed, and he extended his sway to the very banks of 
 the Bosphorus. The office of Vizier was introduced, and 
 science, theology, and every branch of learning was en- 
 couraged. It was now that the foundations were laid of 
 the naval power of Turkey which was destined for such 
 great achievements in the future, and three hundred 
 vessels rode gaily in the Bay of Smyrna. 
 
 The internal dissensions of the Greeks soon laid open 
 the door of Europe to the entry of the Turks. In the 
 rebellion of Andronicus the Younger against his grand- 
 father, the Em^Deror Andronicus Palteologus, Joannes 
 Cantacuzenus took the part of the former, who was his 
 friend and mentor, and in the troubles which ensued he 
 injudiciously called in the aid of his intimate friend, 
 Umur Bey, the Turkish Prince of Aidin, who immedi- 
 ately joined him with a fleet of 380 vessels and an anny of 
 28,000 men. "With these he passed over to Europe, and 
 marched by the Hebrus upon Demotica, which was be- 
 sieged by the Bulgarians and defended by the Empress 
 Irene. Umur quickly defeated the Bulgarians, and whilst 
 encamped outside the town he received the cordial thanks 
 of the empress for his timely assistance, and, at the same 
 time, an invitation, accompanied by costly presents, to 
 visit her. But here the innate chivalry of the Turk was 
 conspicuous. In the absence of his friend, Emur consid- 
 ered it indelicate to visit the wife, and although it was the 
 depth of winter, and the hardships of the camp were 
 great, he remained camped outside the walls of the 
 town. 
 
 He afterwards selected 2,000 choice troops, and marched 
 upon Servia, but was obliged to relinquish the campaign 
 on account of the severity of the winter.
 
 TURKS. 131 
 
 It is sad to relate that an offer of Zx^c/t^/i/^/^ induced 
 him to withdraw his assistance from his friend Canta- 
 cuzenus, but it is only fair to state that his own dominions 
 were at that time threatened by the Latins. 
 
 Cantacuzenns now hurried to a more powerful Turkish 
 ally in the Sultan Orchan, the son of Othman, who had 
 been recommended to him by his friend Umur. 
 
 ISTot only were the forces of Orchan and Cantacuzenns 
 united, but also their families, and a relationship was 
 formed between the Greek and Ottoman empires by the 
 marriage of Theodora, the daughter of Cantacuzenns, T\ith 
 the Sultan Orchan. 
 
 N'otwithstanding this alliance the Ottoman Prince after- 
 wards took the side of the Genoese of Constantinople, 
 against his father-in-law, but after the conclusion of the 
 war Europe was evacuated by the Turkish forces. 
 
 Their acquaintance with the country had evidently pro- 
 duced a favorable impression, and after the abdication of 
 Cantacuzenns it was renewed under the brave Prince Soli- 
 man, a much-loved son of Orchan, who, in friendly al- 
 liance with the Emperor, landed a force in Thrace, and 
 from that day to this the banner of the Turk has remained 
 in Europe. 
 
 Soliman was soon after killed by a fall from his horse 
 while exercising with the jerld, a light wand, used as a 
 javelin, and which is a favorite Arab pastime. Such was 
 the grief of the aged Sultan, that the death of his favorite 
 son may be said to have broken his heart, and he died 
 A.D. 1360. 
 
 He was succeeded by Amurath, another son, not less 
 brave than his dead brother, and he carried the Turkish 
 banners over the whole of Thrace, fixed his capital at 
 Adrianople, and an Ottoman monarch for the first time 
 reigned in Europe. 
 
 He at once pushed his conquests north of the Balkan, 
 and soon had possession of the country from the Danube 
 to the Adriatic, and the great battle fought on the plains 
 of Kossova brought the Servians, the Bosnians, the Bui-
 
 133 TUllKET IN EUR OPE. 
 
 garians, and tlie Albanians under the dominion of the 
 Turks. 
 
 It was in the reign of Amurath that a body of men was 
 organized, who, although born Christians, were to be 
 educated to become the terror of their o^vn race, the ally 
 of the Turk, and a destructive and disturbing element in 
 Europe for more than 400 years. 
 
 By the Mohammedan law the Sultan is entitled to a 
 fifth part of the spoil and captives in battle, and by the 
 advice of the Vizier, Amurath was induced to apply this 
 law by selecting the stoutest and most beautiful of the 
 captive Christian youths, who were educated in the 
 Mohammedan religion and the use of arms. This force 
 was named by a celebrated dervish, who, standing before 
 the troops, stretched forth his hand and said, "Let them 
 be called Yengi cheri," or new soldiers (Janizaries). 
 "May their countenance be ever bright! their hand 
 victorious ! their sword keen ! may their spear always 
 hang over the heads of their enemies ! and wheresoever 
 they go may they return with a wliite * faceP The Jani- 
 zaries became the flower of the Turkish troops, and it is 
 curious to observe that the principal weapon \vith which 
 the Ottomans gained their European victories was made 
 of Christian metal. 
 
 The custom of filling their ranks from Christian captives 
 only was afterwards abolished, and they were taken from 
 the Christian subjects as youths, and educated in the 
 Mohammedan religion. 
 
 The importance of this force will be realized by the 
 reader when it is remembered that only Mohammedans 
 are allowed to serve in the Ottoman army, consequently 
 the drain by war and disease upon the Mohammedan pop* 
 ulation was excessive. 
 
 The statesmanlike minds of the early Ottoman rulers 
 soon marked the difficulty, and met it by the creation of 
 the Janizaries, who had to bear the brunt of most of the 
 battles. The destruction of this force by Sultan Mah- 
 
 * Shining, clieerful.
 
 TUEES. 133 
 
 mond nearly five linndred years afterwards, and the neg- 
 lect to carry out the provision for recruiting the Turkish 
 forces from the Christian population, must, if it continues, 
 eventually exhaust the Ottoman military power by dry- 
 ing up the source from which it springs, namely, the 
 Mohammedan population. 
 
 I will not follow the reigns of successive sultans, who 
 extended the Turkish conquests both in Asia Minor and 
 Europe, and took possession of Macedonia, Thessaly and 
 Greece, until the Byzantine Empire was hemmed in almost 
 to the walls of Constantinople. 
 
 The battles of Kossova and of Mcopolis reduced the 
 Slaves and Bulgarians to Turkish subjects ; and Con- 
 stantinople would have fallen sooner than it did had it 
 not been for the second Tartar wave of conquest, under 
 Timour, which swept over almost the same ground as its 
 predecessor under Genghis Khan. 
 
 The Tartar army was sweeping over Asia Minor when 
 Sultan Bajazid assembled all his forces, consisting of four 
 hundred thousand men, to resist it. The two armies met 
 at Angora ; and the defeat of the Ottoman Sultan which 
 followed may be attributed to his overweening pride and 
 love of sport. While in the presence of the enemy he 
 actually employed his troops for a great deer drive in the 
 forests and mountains about Angora. The able old war- 
 rior, Timour, was not likely to miss such a favorable oppor- 
 tunity ; and he fell upon the Turks in their state of dis- 
 order, and signally defeated them. 
 
 Such was the ambition and confidence of Timour, that 
 instead of entering Europe across the Bosphorus, which 
 lay before him, he foi-med the project of conquering Egypt 
 and Africa, and of then crossing to Europe by the Straits 
 of Gibraltar, and, after conquering that continent, to re- 
 turn to his Persian quarters by way of Russia ! 
 
 ^Yhen we consider the ground he had already covered 
 in his victorious march, this ambitious design need not 
 create sui-prise ; but how insignificant in comparison are 
 even the conquests of Napoleon in modem times !
 
 134 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Fortunately for Europe, the attention of Timour was 
 bent back upon China, where he met his death ; and his 
 former conquests dissolved. 
 
 The Turks continued to make good their footing in 
 Europe ; but the brightest gem of their newly acquired 
 kingdom still glittered as a much-coveted prLze on the 
 shores of the Bosphorus, and the Byzantine Empire yet 
 lived in Constantinople.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Turkish Government. 
 
 Turkish. Government — Various Races under its Sway — Character of the 
 Turkish Soldier — Feudal Tenure — Pillars of the State — " Sublime Porte " 
 — Pashas and Beys — Division of Private Property — Civil Administration- 
 Judicial Courts — Monasteries on Mount Athos — Pilgrims — Expounders of 
 the Law, Civil and Religious — Mohammed II. — Educational Institutions. 
 
 A S the conquering Turkish forces moved over Asia 
 -^^ Minor, and afterwards over what is now called 
 Turkey in Europe, they found the land occupied then, as 
 now, by numerous races of different religions and dif- 
 ferent interests and customs. Armenians, Kurds, Druses, 
 Maronites, Arabs, Chaldeans, Greeks, Albanians, Slavs, 
 Bulgarians, Jews, Wallachians, Gipsies, etc., all clamored 
 for due consideration as Turkish subjects, and all in- 
 trigued one against the other. 
 
 If the British House of Commons had to legislate for 
 nineteen Irelands instead of one, it would give some idea 
 of the difficulties of government in Turkey ; and some of 
 its members would then perhaps be more Just in their 
 criticisms, and generous in their judgment on that un- 
 happy country. 
 
 How did the nomad Turkish court and army gather in 
 this surging mass of human passions, and bring them 
 under discipline and control ? 
 
 We must dismiss from our mind for a time the Turkish 
 administrators of the present, and picture the chivalrous 
 warriors of the fourteenth century in all their pomp and 
 power, fervid in following the tenets of their creed, and 
 who looked back with pride upon the history of their 
 race, which told in its pages of a conquered area larger 
 than that of Europe. We must picture tkis conquering 
 
 135
 
 136 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 army with its desiDotic head proudly entering the land to 
 hold it, and consider how they came to restrain the con- 
 quered races, and grow in government until they could 
 call them subjects. 
 
 Where now there is apathy, procrastination, and 
 venality — the poisons which destroyed the Byzantine 
 Empire and afterwards inoculated the Turks — there was 
 then energy, decision, and chivalry. Where now the 
 future rulers of the country are educated under the 
 effeminating influence of the seraglio, they then studied 
 the art of ruling in the command of armies and in the 
 government of provinces. Wherever an army passed, it 
 could drop from its ranks rulers and statesmen ready to 
 govern by force tempered with Justice, instead of by laws 
 disfigured with venality. A nation may change its char- 
 acter, but not its nature, and there is one point in common 
 with both the past and the present, and that is that the 
 Turkish rank and file, the real pith of the nation, were 
 then, as now, distinguished for their patience, discipline, 
 sobriety, bravery, honesty, and modesty,* and to these 
 qualities I may also add that of humanity, although I 
 know it will excite an indignant exclamation from many 
 at the present moment. But look at the Turkish soldier 
 in private life, and you find him gentle and kind to chil- 
 dren and women, and exceedingly fond of animals. His 
 first thought after a long and tiring day's march is his 
 horse. As soon as he has made the animal comfortable, 
 then he thinks of the man. When he is exasperated by 
 what he thinks are insults to his creed, he kills and slays 
 as his teaching tells him, and he appears a fanatical 
 madman ; but he is then outside his real nature, and 
 not within it. It is but the other day that I saw thirteen 
 thousand of these brave men arrive fresh from the front 
 and all the hardships of the Servian campaign. They 
 were billeted for ten days all over the town of Salonica, 
 
 * This last term is that used by Gibbon, and is very apposite. There is 
 an absence of all brag about the Turkish soldier.
 
 GOVERNMENT AXD ADJIINISTRATION. 137 
 
 and there was not a single complaint, or cause for com- 
 plaint, of their conduct, from man, woman, or child. 
 
 The streets, although full of soldiers, were as quiet as in 
 ordinary times. "What other troops in tlie world would 
 behave in such an admirable manner \ Read the greatest 
 authorities on the subject. Yon Hammer, Gibbon, Boue, 
 Ubicini, Creasy, and all agree in praise of both the past 
 and present character of the Turkish rank and file. But 
 it is the rank and file that depicts the character of the 
 nation, and not the corrupt oligarchy, which, from its 
 prominence, misrepresents it. We find, then, that the 
 rank and file of the Turkish people is the same now as 
 ever, so that it is not the nation, but the rulers, which 
 have changed, and this change has been brought about 
 through the corrupt influences which were handed over 
 to them by the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 As soon, therefore, as the head of the Turkish nation 
 shall be purified, we shall find the whole constitution in a 
 healthy state — there is no disease of the body. The com- 
 bination in Turkish government of despotism, with the 
 freedom of the most democratic of republics, is unique. 
 In Turkey there is no aristocracy. All men below the 
 Sultan are equal, not only in the eyes of the law, but by 
 creed and custom. A shoeblack may be made Grand 
 Yizier, and it is by no means uncommon to see some of 
 the highest officials of the State who have been servants to 
 predecessors in office. There are no family names, but in 
 some cases titles are hereditary. 
 
 To return to the conquering army. As it entered the 
 country it had to establish order, and this was done on 
 the feudal system, by creating what were called Timars, 
 Ziamets, and Beyliks — military grants of land carrying 
 with them the obligation of providing a military force for 
 the service of the State in case of need. 
 
 A Timar was granted to a distinguished soldier, and 
 contained from three to five hundred acres of land, and 
 the 0"VNTier or spahi (cavalier) was bound to supply a 
 mounted cavalry soldier for every 3,000 aspres of its reve-
 
 138 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 nue. A Ziamet comprised upwards of 500 acres, and 
 Beyliks were still larger grants. These fiefs were heredit- 
 ary in the male line. A certain number of these grants 
 were grouped into a district, and over the district was 
 placed an officer, with the title of Sandjak Bey — Sandjak 
 meaning a "standard," or flag, which generally carried a 
 command of 5,000 horse. Each Sandjak Bey was given a 
 horse' s tail, as a distinctive mark of command. 
 
 Here then was a feudal tenure, and a rough-and-ready 
 form of government, applicable at a moment' s notice, and 
 backed by a sufficient force to maintain order. Timars 
 and Ziamets were eagerly sought by both soldiers and offi- 
 cers, and became prizes to incite to valor and gallant deeds. 
 But although left in possession of their holdings they did 
 not represent the permanent organization of government. 
 The ancient and figurative idea of Turkish government 
 was that of four pillars which supported the royal tent. 
 The first of these was figurative of the Viziers ; the second 
 of the Cadiaskers, which would probably mean railitary 
 judges ; the third, Befterdars (treasurer) ; the fourth, Nis- 
 chandyes (Secretaries of State). Among Eastern nations 
 a tent was not the simple covering which is suggested by 
 the word in England, but a far more elaborate dwelling. 
 It had its passages and apartments, and grand and smaller 
 entrances. 
 
 To follow out the idea we must picture the life of these 
 nomad Eastern Sovereigns, moving here and there at the 
 head of their army, sometimes to make war on a foreign 
 power, sometimes to visit one part or another of their vast 
 dominions. It was, in fact, a nomad government. It was 
 customary for the great officials — the pillars of the royal 
 tent — to meet at the great portal, within easy reach of the 
 voice and ear of their royal master, there to discuss the 
 affairs of State, sub limine portcB ; hence the origin of 
 the term "Sublime Porte," which now designates the 
 Turkish Government. 
 
 Tent court-life in the East is carried on much in the 
 same way in the present day — when sovereigns occupy
 
 Q VER2fMENT AND ADMINISTRA TION. 139 
 
 their royal pavilions. I can remember being presented 
 to the Shah of Persia, many years ago, when he was dwell- 
 ing with his court on the banks of the river Euphrates, in 
 a pavilion which exactly answers the description of the 
 ancient court-life of the Turkish monarchs. 
 
 In addition to the figurative four pillars of the royal tent, 
 there were other officers of government, designated agas^ 
 or rulers, which were of two kinds. The outer agas were 
 military rulers, and their number was, from the nature of 
 the case, very considerable ; the inner agas attended the 
 court and serai. The serai is the palace, and the harem 
 the women's apartments of the palace, so that the two 
 should not be confounded, as is often the case. The inner 
 agas comprised the eunuchs who attended on the harem. 
 Besides these officers, there were the expounders of the 
 law, or ulemas. 
 
 The first pillar of the royal shelter, the Yiziers — which 
 signifies the "bearers of burdens," the weight of govern- 
 ment — were four in number, of which the Grand Yizier 
 was the head. 
 
 The second pillar, or Cadiaskers, were two in number, 
 one for Europe and one for Asia, and watched over the 
 legal affairs of the State. Under them were: 1st, the 
 Khodya, or tutor of the royal princes ; 2d, the Muftis, 
 or exj)ounders of the sacred law, and afterwards a third 
 appointment was made — ^viz., the Judge of Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 The assembly in council of the four pillars was called 
 the Divan. It was attended by a chief secretary, or Reis 
 Effendi, who, from being able to visit and gain the 
 ear of all the officials, was an officer of considerable 
 importance, and he sometimes became practically the 
 most powerful man in the State. 
 
 The Grand Yizier sat at the head of the Divan in the 
 absence of the Sultan, and he could convoke a special 
 Divan in his own tent when he considered it necessary. 
 At the head of aU sat the Padishah or Great King. 
 
 We will suppose, then, that some of the Turkish generals
 
 140 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 have crossed the Dardanelles, pushed forward with their 
 forces, and occupied a large part of Thrace, establish- 
 ing their Sandjak Beys, Beyliks, Ziamets, and Timars as 
 they go. The great Sultan follows wdth his main army 
 and "royal tent," thus carrying with him all the ma- 
 chinery of government. He groups his numerous Sandjak 
 Beys under two heads, one for Europe and one for Asia, and 
 to these he gives the title of Beyler Bey, "Bey of Beys ; " 
 or Mir-Miran, " Emir of the Emirs ;" and to one he gives 
 two, and to the other three horses' tails, to signify their 
 power. Hence we have the common term, a "pasha of 
 two tails." 
 
 The term pasha, which means "the shah's foot," or one 
 whom the Sovereign employed (there were also the "eyes " 
 and "hands" of the Sovereign power), was not originally 
 used in a military sense, but was given to literary as well 
 as to any other Turkish subjects who might distinguish 
 themselves in the eyes of the sultan. 
 
 In possession of the land of Europe, it was necessary to 
 appropriate it, according to ancient Turkish custom, for 
 three purposes : 1st, Yacoufs, or church lands ; 2d, private 
 property ; 3rd, domain lands. The revenues of the Va- 
 cottfs, or ecclesiastical lands, were devoted to pious and 
 charitable purposes, to the support of mosques and public 
 schools, which received their education through the eccle- 
 siastical authorities. The pupils were, in fact, educated 
 in the moral and sacred precepts of the Koran. 
 
 The private property was subject to different liabili- 
 ties, according to the religion of the owner. If he was a 
 Mussulman it was called asclcriie, or tithable, the owner 
 paying as a tax a tithe of the produce in kind to the 
 State, and there was no other burden upon it. If left in 
 the hands of a Christian, its holder paid tribute, or JcJia- 
 radj to the State, which consisted of a capitation-tax, and 
 also of a tax levied on the estate, which was sometimes a 
 fixed sum, according to its extent, and was sometimes 
 an impost on its proceeds, varying from an eighth to 
 one-half.
 
 QO VERNMENT AND ADMINISTRA TION. ] 41 
 
 The domain lands included: 1st, the Miri, or those 
 revenues which were appropriated to the State treasury ; 
 2nd, unoccupied, or waste lands, which afterwards became 
 similar to our "common" lands in England ; 3rd, the private 
 demesnes of the Sultan, of which there are a large amount 
 in both Turkey in Europe and Asia ; 4th escheated and 
 forfeited lands (which are now usually sold by public auc- 
 tion) ; 5th, the appanages of the Yalideh Sultan (Sultan's 
 mother), and other members of the blood-royal ; 6th, 
 lands assigned to the offices tilled by viziers ; 7th, lands 
 assigned to pashas of the second rank ; 8th, lands assigned 
 to the ministers and officers of the palace ; 9th, the Bey- 
 liks, Ziamets, and Timars, already mentioned.* 
 
 It will be seen that the administrators of the Govern- 
 ment were principally military men, and it must be re- 
 membered that we are following the wake of a conquering 
 army, which was obliged to fill its ranks from a distance. 
 Consequently, this abstraction of military governors and 
 officers of state became such a straia on the resources of 
 the army that it tended to weaken the forces by which 
 dominion was maintained. 
 
 To meet this difficulty, which began to be one of alann- 
 ing importance, Sultan Orchan, the son and successor of 
 Othman, utilized the ancient Turkish custom of ajDpro- 
 priating a fifth of the conquered subjects as slaves. 
 
 He commenced by taking annually a thousand of the 
 Christian children of from twelve to fourteen years of age. 
 The greatest care was bestowed upon their education, in 
 order to fit them for either the military, civil, or ecclesias- 
 tical professions, for which by nature and disposition they 
 might prove to be most fitted. They had to pass through 
 four successive schools before the final selection was made, 
 and were then distributed as officers of the state. 
 
 The abstraction of these Christian youths was not con- 
 sidered a hardship by their parents, although they were, 
 of course, to be educated in the Mohammedan faith ; but, 
 on the contrary, it was rather looked forward to as a piece 
 
 ♦Creasy.
 
 142 TURKEY m EVROPE. 
 
 of good fortune, because it was likely to give the family 
 greater influence -with the ruling powers. It was out of 
 this body of youths that the celebrated Janizaries — to 
 whom I have previously alluded — were taken ; and it is 
 curious to mark that the greatest persecutors of the Chris- 
 tians — those, in fact, who in after times became the leaders 
 of most of the atrocities which were too often committed 
 — were not of Turkish, but of either Albanian, Greek, Sla- 
 vonic, or Bulgarian blood. 
 
 The treatment of Christians in the early times of the 
 Ottoman conquest was not severe. It was only when the 
 Porte became corrupt, and relaxed its vigorous and active 
 administration for the luxuries and venality bequeathed 
 to it by the Byzantine Empire that the disgi-aceful perse- 
 cutions of the Christians commenced. 
 
 There is a maxim of the old Turkish law which says 
 that "the bended head shall not be stricken off;" and 
 in former times this maxim was respected. The following 
 question was once put to the Mufti: "If eleven Mussul- 
 mans without just cause kill an infidel (Christian) who is 
 the subject of the Padishah, and pays tribute, what is to 
 be done ? " To this the Mufti replied : " Though the Mus- 
 sulmans should be a thousand and one, let them all die." 
 
 The Christian subjects who paid tribute were called 
 "rayahs." They usually cultivated the land as tenants, 
 on the metayer system of their Mussulman landlords. 
 
 Such was the commencement of the " Government " of 
 the Porte. At its head sat supreme the Sultan, the depos- 
 itary and representative of the law, which he can modify, 
 but cannot change. His ordonnances are called " Hatt-i- 
 cherifs," or "illustrious writings," and " Hatt-i-huma- 
 youns," or "august writings." 
 
 This system of government continued up to the time of 
 Murad or Amilrath III., a.d. 1574-95, who did not in any 
 way alter its principles, but re-arranged the Sandjaks, or 
 livas (a Sandjak Bey had the title of mir-i-liva), into 
 great Eialets. There were in the whole empire twenty- 
 six Eialets, and each contained a number of Sandjaks,
 
 QO VERNMENT AND ADMINISTRA TION. I43 
 
 of which there were altogether one hundred and sixty- 
 three. The Sandjaks again were divided into districts, 
 designated Cazas, or centers of judicial courts, so called 
 because they were presided over by a Cadi or Cazi, viz., a 
 judge. Some of these were formed of a town and its 
 suburbs, and others of groups of villages (nahiehs). 
 Again, each separate village, however small, had and has 
 a headman, or codja-'basTi% elected annually from among 
 the villagers to represent them, and who is held resj)ons- 
 ible to the superior courts for the carrying out of any 
 orders which may be promulgated. 
 
 This organization lasted until the reign of Sultan Mah- 
 moud, 1834, and it had contained within itself the military 
 government of Beyler Beys and Sandjak Beys, or heredit- 
 ary feudal chiefs. As might be expected, this tended to 
 build up an aristocracy, which, wielding as it did a mili- 
 tary power, was liable to become despotic and independ- 
 ent. It was the corruption which was generated by the 
 weak as well as venal government of several successive 
 sultans which had permitted these military despots to 
 become so intolerable that Sultan Mahmoud took the bold 
 course of abolishing them, and he instituted a new classi- 
 fication of the provinces into twenty-eight governments, 
 thirty-one Sandjaks, and fifty-four independent Voi- 
 vodes ; but shortly afterwards, when Sultan Abdul Med- 
 jid came to the throne and the Tanzimat was established, 
 the old classification into Eialets was re-established. It is 
 evident that this organization was one of centralization — 
 a principle excellent in itself, providing it is not over- 
 strained, that is, providing a proper amount of independ- 
 ence of action is permitted to each representative part of 
 the organization. This permission was not granted to the 
 Eialet classification, and it was found that the center was 
 smothered by the accumulation of work which poured 
 upon it from all quarters. To remedy this the present 
 system of administration was introduced in 1864, which 
 consists in replacing the Eialets with great administrative 
 centers caUed VllaietSy which are, to a certain extent,
 
 144 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 indepeudent governments subject to tlie laws of the whole 
 empire. It was determined to form a trial Vilaiet, in the 
 first instance, in that of Touna, on the Danube, and it was 
 found to answer so well that it was extended to the whole 
 empire, wliich was divided into twenty-seven Vilaiets, 
 comprising 123 Livas, or Sandjaks, and, as before, the 
 Livas are divided into Cazas and the Cazas into Nahiehs. 
 This did not include Constantinople, which was formed 
 into a separate Viluiet, neither did it include the Leba- 
 non, which, after the massacres in Syria in 1860, received 
 a special and independent administration. 
 
 It will be seen that even the latest organization is 
 founded upon the ancient system of the Turks, and that 
 it provides a ready and efficient means for reaching every 
 subject in the empire. 
 
 As it would weary some of my readers — and yet interest 
 others — to enter into the details of Turkish administration, 
 I transfer that part of my work to Appendix D, and wUl 
 here pass on to the interesting and comparatively inde- 
 pendent state of Mount Athos and other monasteries. 
 
 The existence of these semi-independent establishments 
 is another example of the many complications which sur- 
 round Turkish government. 
 
 Mount Athos occupies a territory stretching from the 
 extremity of a promontory on the confines of Macedonia, 
 between the gulfs of Contessa and Monte Santo. This 
 magnificent mountain, rising from the very sea, in the 
 form of a beautifully-wooded cone, upwards of 6,000 feet 
 high, would be an island were it not for a narrow isthmus 
 about 2,000 yards broad, which attaches it to the continent. 
 Dotted about on its sides are, altogether, twenty monaster- 
 ies, some of them of great antiquity, and dating as far 
 back as the reign of Constantine the Great. Two of these 
 monasteries, Zographos and Chilantari, were founded in the 
 twelfth century by Etienne Nemania of Servia, and may 
 be called Slavonic. They are occupied by Servian and 
 Bulgarian monks, and speak the Slave language. 
 
 Another, and a very important one as far as political
 
 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 145 
 
 affairs are concerned, is called Pantalimon or Rossicon 
 (Russian), restored and endo^Yed by Catherine II. It is 
 inhabited by a mixture of Greek and Russian monks, in 
 the proportion of 170 to 350, but a fierce national contro- 
 versy rages between them. The Russian monks have for 
 long been endeavoring to encroach upon the monastic 
 rights of the Greeks of Mount Athos ; and in 1874 the 
 Greeks refused to recognize the right of the Russians to 
 have a separate or national monastery, maintaining that 
 all the monasteries on the mountain are Greek Church 
 property, and as such should be under the direct control 
 of the Patriarch at Constantinople, and under the juris- 
 diction of their monastic constitution (presently to be 
 described), as granted by the Greek Patriarch and sanc- 
 tioned by the Porte. 
 
 The Council of Monks, composed of the elected repre- 
 sentatives of all the monasteries on the mountain, formally 
 intimated to the Russian monks that the monastery which 
 they occupied was not Russian property, but belonged to 
 the monastic congregation ; that consequently its chief 
 abbot must be an Ottoman subject, and that its internal 
 administration must be conducted according to the rules 
 prescribed by their constitution. The Russian monks 
 ap]pealed to the Greek Patriarch for his decision, and were 
 strongly sujDported by General Ignatieff, the Russian 
 Ambassador. It is a complicated question, for the Greek 
 Patriarch makes it a handle for encroaching upon the 
 independent rights of the monasteries, an opportunity for 
 which he had long been looking. The Russian monks are 
 aware of this, and assisted by their ambassador at head- 
 quarters, they play upon the greed for power of the 
 Greek Patriarch, but the Greek community at large is 
 highly indignant at the attempt to interfere with existing 
 rights. This question has grown from the time when 
 Russia and Greece were united in their intrigues against 
 the Porte, when Russia was making use of Greek Pan- 
 Hellenic ambitions to further Pan-Slavonic schemes ; but 
 the hollowness of that alliance is now discovered, and any 
 10
 
 146 TURKEY IX EUROPE. 
 
 attempt on the part of Kiissia to encroach on Greek privi- 
 leges is indignantly repelled. The question is still before 
 the Porte, which has to steer between the intrigues of the 
 Greek Patriarch on the one hand, and the Russians on the 
 other. With the exception of the three I have enumerated, 
 all the remaining seventeen monasteries of Athos are Greek. 
 Besides these large institutions, there are eleven small 
 monasteries, and as many as three hundred hermitages, 
 besides a number of farms belonging to and worked by 
 the community. 
 
 The population is entirely male, and no female is even 
 permitted to enter the precincts of the monastic property. 
 
 The autonomy of Athos was founded by the Emperor 
 Leo YI., A.D. 911, and it was confiiTned by Mahomet II., 
 who was content to impose a small tribute upon the monks, 
 and the independence of the mountain has been main- 
 tained ever since. 
 
 A common law regulates all the monasteries of the Greek 
 Church, both at Mount Athos and elsewhere. The com- 
 munity consists of two classes — the koinobia, in which the 
 members live together and work for the common good ; and 
 the idiorrhythmia, composed of anchorites, who live alone 
 in their cells, except on feast days, when they join in the 
 common repast. 
 
 The koinobia are governed by a Wigoumene, or superior, 
 elected by the community, the anchorites by a council of 
 epitropes elected for a fixed period. In 1875, a Russian 
 monk named Macarios was elected Mgoumone of the 
 Pantalimon, upon which the Greek portion of that mon- 
 astery, who were in the minority, remonstrated and endeav- 
 ored to annul the election, in consequence of the foreign 
 nationality of Macarios, and they refen-ed the case to the 
 Greek Patriarch at Constantinople, but through the influ- 
 ence of GeneiTil Ignatieif the aiopointment was confirmed. 
 The Patriarch bridged the difficulty by declaring that the 
 church did not recognize any nationality, and that foreign- 
 ers who entered the monasteries of Mount Athos lost ipso 
 facto their nationality, and became Ottoman subjects.
 
 GOVEnNMENT AXD ADMimSTIiATIOIT. I47 
 
 "Tlie General Monastic Assembly" is conixDosed of 
 epistates (deputies) from the twenty monasteries. It sits 
 at Karies, and is commonly called the Council of the Holy 
 Mountain. It is presided over by five representatives 
 elected for five years. Each year the five representatives 
 render their accounts, and they alone have the right of 
 affixing the seal to the acts of the council. Karies is the 
 capital of the autonomous state and has a cathedral, a 
 bazaar, and the konak or government house, presided 
 over by a Caimakam, vrho represents the Turkish author- 
 ity in the monastic estate, and is charged with the police 
 and customs of the island."^ Pilgrimages are made from 
 all iDarts of Turkey to Mount Athos, and the pilgrims may 
 be numbered by thousands. 
 
 There are many other monasteries scattered here and 
 there about Turkey, especially about the Balkan range. 
 The largest, and one which rivals in size and gi'andeur any 
 that exist at Mount Athos, is that called Rilo monastery, 
 about twelve miles from Samakov. The size of this estab- 
 lishment may be imagined when it is known that it 
 sometimes houses and feeds upwards of a thousand 
 pilgrims at one time. 
 
 I visited it in 1874, and although I have traveled over 
 many parts of the world, I have never seen any scenery so 
 grand and beautiful as that of Kilo. Mountains 9,000 feet 
 in height look down into the very court-yard of the monas- 
 tery, which stands amidst beautiful woods over a rocky 
 mountain bum. Grassy glades, rocky heights, cascading 
 streams, woods with majestic trees of great variety, fiower- 
 ing shrubs, ferns and flowers, all blend together to add to 
 the enchantment of the i^lace, which, combined with a 
 pure and bracing air, makes residence at the monastery 
 most enjoyable. 
 
 The revenues of the institution must be very large, as 
 the property extends over a considerable area, and con- 
 tains several farms, which are well-managed ; it also re- 
 
 * Ubicini.
 
 148 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ceives an income of £4,000 per annum from Russia. The 
 pilgrims are not confined to tlie male sex, but include 
 women and children. 
 
 Some of the monks are very austere in their habits, but 
 others do not appear to object to the good things of this 
 world. I was rather amused by an incident which oc- 
 curred during a visit I paid to the abbot. In answer to 
 my questions concerning the monastic institutions, he in- 
 formed me that on entering the order all worldly thoughts 
 and comforts were resigned. Shortly afterwards, the 
 conversation turned upon the farm and its products, upon 
 which he inquired whether I had ever tasted the plum 
 brandy which was made in the country, and on my reply- 
 ing in the negative, he hospitably rose and opened a large 
 /L cupboard in the room, were lay bottles of liquors and 
 glasses, and many other things that spoke of creature 
 comforts — but perhaps they were only intended for visit- 
 ors ? The interior of the chapel of the monastery is very 
 gorgeous, the screen being all gilt, with many paintings 
 of saints which are fairly executed. All the ornaments 
 come from Russia. The outside walls of the chapel are 
 covered with fresco paintings representing Paradise and 
 Purgatory, and some of the scenes depicted in the latter 
 state are not of a decent character. An influx of pilgrims 
 took place while I was staying at the monastery, and 
 many had come over a hundred and fifty miles with their 
 families to benefit by the holy blessings they were to re- 
 ceive at the end of the pilgrimage. The faith of these 
 poor people was very touching. There was one poor Bul- 
 garian young woman with a sick child about five years of 
 age, whom she never let out of her clasped arms for a mo- 
 ment. Death was distinctly written on the face of the 
 poor boy, but the mother's faith was strong, and she 
 looked hopefully and smilingly down upon her child. 
 Sometimes, however, a look of terror would flash across 
 her face, but she soon smiled it off with hope, and spoke 
 with the greatest confidence that the child would live, 
 for "had it not been sprinkled with the holy water of the
 
 GO VERNMENT AND ADMINISTRA TION. 149 
 
 monastery?" I fear the poor boy never readied Ms 
 eartlily home. 
 
 The large amount of real estate which is attached to 
 the monasteries in Turkey establishes in a certain sense 
 Christian Church lands as a part of the Mohammedan 
 State, since these lands first pay tribute to the Porte, and, 
 secondly, an annual sum to the Greek Patriarch. The 
 monasteries of Mount Athos pay annually about £660 to 
 the Porte, and £2,000 to the Greek Patriarch. 
 
 They are in a somewhat similar position to the monas- 
 teries in England in the time of Henry VIII., and the 
 time may come when some reforming sultan may, like our 
 own king, sweep them away. 
 
 In dwelling upon the government and administration in 
 Turkey, I must not omit those institutions which were in- 
 tended to produce the learning which should accompany 
 those in power. 
 
 According to the Mohammedan faith, secular teaching 
 is so subordinate to and dependent upon religious instruc- 
 tion, that in the earlier times we naturally find aU the 
 public instruction of Mohammedans placed in the hands 
 of the riema, or hierarchy of the sacred law, if I may so 
 express it, for Mohammedan law and religion are so in- 
 timately connected and we find the expounders of each 
 so closely assimilated that they form one body in the 
 hierarchy. 
 
 The earliest rulers of the Ottoman Empire, in the days 
 when it was one of the most vigorous governments in the 
 world, recognized the importance of national education, 
 and Sultan Orchan, a.d. 1326-59, was especially conspic- 
 uous in this respect. He founded schools and colleges in 
 aU parts of the empire, but all these schools were of a 
 theological character, were attached to the mosques, and 
 were under the tutelage of the L'lema. 
 
 This principle of education lasted until 1846, when 
 secular education was first introduced, and the ruption of 
 the religious from the secular teaching of the Mohamme- 
 dan Turks was one of the most important and radical re-
 
 150 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 forms in tlie history of tliat country, for it struck at tlie 
 very foundation of their fanaticism, and may be called the 
 birth of "young Turkey." Sufficient time has not yet 
 elapsed to manifest the effect of this great refoi-m, as it 
 will require two generations to bring the new birth to an 
 adult age, but it has struck at the spring of human action 
 — education — and what the effect will be upon "young 
 Turkey " at full age remains hidden in the history of the 
 future. Mahomet II. was the great reformer in the 
 old style of Turkish education, and he it was who classi- 
 fied the efforts of some of his predecessors, and formed 
 the "Chain of Ulemas," by which a sound education 
 might be given not only to those who were to become the 
 tutors of the public, but also to those who were to be their 
 legislators. 
 
 This remarkable man, who was the greatest soldier- 
 statesman that the Ottoman EmiDire has produced — for 
 Sultan Mahmoud, although equal to him in statesman- 
 ship, was not a leader of annies — formed a number of 
 elementary schools called Mektebs, scattered over his em- 
 pire in every to^\^l and in almost every Mohammedan vil- 
 lage ; but he saw that the rulers of his state should possess 
 something more than an elementary education. His 
 empire was no longer a great eastern camp with a military 
 staff to govern it, but was in a transition state from a 
 military to a civil life; it was necessary, therefore, to 
 satisfy the nature of the case. To do this he made edu- 
 cation his adjutant, and established and endov/ed nu- 
 merous public schools or colleges of the higher order, 
 which were called Medr esses, in distinction from the Mek- 
 tebs or elementary schools. The Medresses went through 
 ten regular courses of grammar, syntax, logic, metaphy- 
 sics, philology, the science of tropes, the science of style, 
 rhetoric, geometry, and astronomy. "^^ The taker of a 
 degree in these subjects received the title of Danischmend 
 — a Persian word, signifying "Gifted with Knowledge," 
 and which is now replaced by the term Softa — which en- 
 
 * Von Hammer.
 
 QO VERNMENT AND ADMINISTRA TIOK 151 
 
 titled Mm to the mastersliip of one of the minor public 
 schools, but in that case he renounced the prospect of 
 becoming a member of the Ulema, or of any of the higher 
 educational appointments. For this, it was necessary to 
 go through a still further course of study, and to pass 
 several examinations. Incentives to w^ork were given in 
 the honors and endowments which were confeiTed, some- 
 what as in the case of our own fellowships and masterships 
 at the universities. 
 
 The Ulema supplied all the professors of the high 
 schools, and were called 3fuderrls, and from the same 
 order were chosen all the ministers of justice, including 
 the Cadiaskers, the Mollahs, and the Cadis. The subor- 
 dinate appointments were filled from what we at Cam- 
 bridge should vulgarly call "Poll" degrees, and were 
 given to the ecclesiastics of the State, so that we see that 
 the actual priesthood of Turkey takes a very inferior posi- 
 tion in the State. 
 
 The ministers of public worship are called Imaums, 
 who oificiate at public prayers, and Sheiks, or i)reachers. 
 It must not be supposed that because the appointments to 
 the priesthood were allotted to the holders of minor de- 
 grees it marked on the part of the Turks any want of re- 
 spect for their faith. Such an idea would be very errone- 
 ous. It arose in consequence of the legal profession being 
 so intimately connected with the church, expounders of 
 the law of the Koran, that they in fact formed the senior 
 branch of the hierarchy. 
 
 Such was the celebrated "Chain of Ulemas" instituted 
 by Mahomet II., a. d. 1451-81. But the strength of a 
 chain is to be measured by its weakest part, which con- 
 sisted in this case of the absence of any higher educa- 
 tional establishments for the general public. 
 
 The Chain of Ulemas provided a perfect education for 
 the legal profession and the church, but there it stopped ; 
 and after members of those professions had attained the 
 goal of their examinations, their minds were narrowed by 
 their duties being confined to poring over the Koran and
 
 153 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 tlie works of the caliphs, for the purpose of expounding 
 the law. The expenses of this system of education were 
 met by the revenues of the Yacouf, or church property of 
 the State, obtained by the appropriation of land for that 
 purpose on the conquest of the country. 
 
 In 1846 a divorce took place between the Medresses and 
 the Mektebs. The former were left under the control of 
 the Sheik-ul-Islam at the head of the Ulemas, and the lat- 
 ter were placed under the care of the State, and formed, 
 after a time (1857), one of the ministerial departments of 
 the empire. In 1869 an imperial iradeh promulgated an 
 organic law of public instruction, which, in principle, 
 divided the schools of the empire into two categories — 1, 
 Public schools, which were placed exclusively under the 
 control of the Government ; and, 2, Private schools, 
 which are inspected by Government, but are founded by, 
 and are under the management of, private individuals or 
 companies. Under this category came the old Medresses. 
 
 The details of the public schools and colleges, and their 
 course of instruction, I transfer to Appendix E. 
 
 It vrill be seen that the educational institutions of Tur- 
 key are still far from complete, but that the organization 
 is in theory most excellent. It is a herculean task when 
 the complicated nature and the jealousies and religious 
 animosities of the population are considered, and some 
 credit is due for the advance which has ali-eady been 
 made. 
 
 I have spoken, in the chapter on Bulgaria, of the great 
 and successful endeavors made by that nation for advance 
 in education, and great complaints are made because the 
 Porte will not give government grants to the Bulgarian 
 schools ; but it answers that it has established general ele- 
 mentary schools aU over the empire, and that it cannot be 
 at a further cost because the Bulgarians do not choose to 
 avail themselves of them. 
 
 There is a certain amount of justice in this argument ; 
 at the same time, the religious prejudices of the Chris- 
 tians cannot be overlooked, and it is natural that in most
 
 G VERNMENT AND ADMINISTRA TION. 153 
 
 cases they sliould dread sending tlieir cliildren to Turkisli 
 schools, where they may be perverted from the faith which 
 the parents hold so dear. The difficulty might be met by 
 a school capitation rate, administered by a school board, 
 composed of representatives of all nationalities, and in 
 most cases separate schools could be established for each 
 nationality ; in fact, practically this is partially the case 
 with both Greeks and Bulgarians, who each have their 
 private schools; the compulsory education is only ex- 
 tended to the Mussulman part of the population. 
 
 The education in the Medresses of the Ulema is excel- 
 lent, but requires to be supplemented by instruction in 
 modern languages ; it is still the exception to find Turk- 
 ish officials who can speak any language but their own. 
 
 The exclusive education of the Ulema, like all exclu- 
 sive education for any profession, tends to narrow the 
 mind, and produce professional prejudices. 
 
 Our own universities in Great Britain are models of 
 educational institutions, and we there find all professions 
 represented, and each provided with that branch of study 
 it wishes to follow The social intercourse of men aiming 
 at different sjjheres of action cannot but conduce to the 
 general intelligence of the mass. The effect of this is 
 even more marked upon the teachers than the taught, and 
 the benefit to the former reacts lipon the latter to great 
 advantage. Our universities are the source from which 
 spring all the best masters of the higher schools through- 
 out the kingdom, and the social as well as the learned 
 education they obtain from their alma mater has a marked 
 effect upon the youth of the country which are afterwards 
 placed under their charge. This advantage would be lost 
 if we had, like the Ulema, exclusive universities for law, 
 etc. Our universities are a small world, and give, amongst 
 other teachings, a knowledge of the world, or, in other 
 words, of human nature, a very important element in the 
 qualities necessary to govern. 
 
 The abuses of Turkish government might be amelio- 
 rated by the establishment of universities for the educa-
 
 154 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 tion of any Ottoman subjects who could pass a qualify- 
 ing entrance examination, and if they were so organized 
 as to afford a sound education in aU. those branches of 
 learning which are connected with the public service, en- 
 trance to any government apx)ointment might be made de- 
 pendent upon the possession of a competitive degree at the 
 university. This would give a fair chance to both Turks 
 and Christians, and thereby faithfully carry out the law 
 established by the Hatt-i-cherifs and Hatt-i-humayoun, 
 and it would ensure a class of highly-educated govern- 
 ment officials with a knowledge of the human nature they 
 were api:>ointed to govern. 
 
 The funds for building and endowing these universities 
 could easily be provided by selling a part of the Vacouf 
 lands of the empii-e. 
 
 This completes my review of the government and ad- 
 ministration in Turkey ; and I think my reader will 
 acknowledge that the Turks have not been either idle or 
 deficient in organizing an admirable framework of govern- 
 ment, which, if it were honestly administered, would soon 
 raise the nation to its proper rank in Europe. 
 
 We have now to go back and consider the greatest event 
 in Ottoman history, namely, the celebrated siege which 
 enabled them to destroy one of the greatest empires, and 
 to occupy one of the most beautiful cities of the world.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Fall of the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 Siege of Constantinople — Constantine Palaeologns and Mahomet II. — Death 
 of the Greek Emperor— A monster Cannon — Fall of the Byzantine 
 Empire. 
 
 AS the Tnrkisli armies spread over Thrace, the forces 
 of the Byzantine Empu^e retreated until they were 
 confined to the narrow limits of the capital which had 
 hitherto resisted the fierce attacks of the Ottomans. 
 
 It was reserved to Mahomet II. to put the finishing 
 touch to the TurMsh hold upon Europe. On the Asiatic 
 side of the Bosphorus his grandfather had formerly built 
 a powerful fortress, and Mahomet now deteimined to 
 erect on the opposite and European side a more formidable 
 castle, as a base of operations against the city. A thou- 
 sand masons were commanded to assemble in the spring 
 on the spot called Asomaton, about five miles from the 
 Greek metropolis. It was the erection of this fortress 
 that brought about a remonstrance from Constantine XI., 
 the Greek Emperor, and afterwards a declaration of war 
 on the part of Mahomet. 
 
 By a curious coincidence, Constantine gave his name to 
 the capital of the Roman Emi)ii'e, and a Constantine 
 reigned at the time of its fall. 
 
 Closing himself within the narrow limits of the walls of 
 his capital, Constantine Pala3ologus, sumamed Bragases, 
 watched anxiously the building of the fortress at Asoma- 
 ton by Mahomet II. "The fortress rose with great 
 rapidity, and was built in a triangular form, each angle 
 being flanked by a strong and massive tower, one on the 
 declivity of the hill, two along the sea-shore. A thick- 
 
 155
 
 156 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 ness of twenty-two feet was assigned for the walls, thirty 
 for the towers, and the whole building was covered with a 
 Bolid platform of lead." * 
 
 While Mahomet in person superintended the erection 
 of this fortress, Constantine, alarmed at the extensive 
 preparations he saw making, did his utmost by flattery 
 and by gifts to ward off the blow which he felt was 
 impending; but when he saw that remonstrances and 
 concessions were in vain, and that the "die was cast," he 
 determined, like a brave soldier, that the Mohammedans 
 should not jpurchase their victory cheaply, and he cast 
 down the gauntlet with the follomng words to the great 
 Sultan : " Since neither oaths, nor treaty, nor submission 
 can secure peace, pursue your impious warfare. My trust 
 is in God alone, and if it should please Him to modify 
 your heart I shall rejoice in the happy change. If He 
 delivers the city into your hands I submit without a mur- 
 mur to His holy will. But until the Judge of the Earth 
 shall pronounce between us it is my duty to live and die 
 in the defence of my people." 
 
 Strange ! These were the words of Christians to Turks 
 when the empire of the former trembled in the balance, 
 and now, 325 years afterwards, in the year 1876, the 
 empire again trembles in the balance, and the words of 
 Turks to Christian Russia seem but the echo throwTi back 
 from the year 1452. 
 
 Mahomet II. was an illustrious tyrant. He was an 
 extraordinary man. He was one of those sledge-hammers 
 of human nature which are sometimes met with, and 
 which produce the feeling on the mind that you are in 
 the presence of stupendous force — ^physical as well as 
 mental — overbearing and cruel, regardless of the feelings 
 of others, which are crushed like twigs in his iron grasp, 
 selfish and sensual, talented and clever, imjoervious to the 
 true springs of noble action, yet emotional. A force 
 which you feel, but it makes you shudder as you rec- 
 ognize in it the link between man and demon. 
 
 * Gibbon.
 
 SIEGE OF COjS'STANTINOPLE. 157 
 
 Such was Mahomet II. He was an adept in the art of 
 war, and was indefatigable in his preparations for the 
 coming siege, but they were accompanied by a nei'voiis 
 excitement, which marked the extreme importance of the 
 occasion, and his recognition of the power of the Byzan- 
 tine Empire, which was arrayed against him. 
 
 Frequent were the consultations with his Grand Vizier, 
 his generals and engineers, and plans of the city, and the 
 positions for all his batteries, were laid out with most 
 scrupulous care. Everything was submitted to the criti- 
 cism of his own eye, and nothing was to be left to chance. 
 The recent introduction of cannon was to be the chief 
 element in the siege, and a foundry was created at 
 Adrianople to cast cannons which would throw a stone 
 ball of 600 lbs. weight. 
 
 All the aids of both ancient and modern warfare were 
 enlisted for the siege, and men might be seen dragging 
 huge cannon into position, while near them huge wooden 
 towers, on rollers, crept slowly to the front, to be finally 
 filled ■\%T.th troops and placed against the ditch, there to 
 discharge their living freight, by means of ladders thrown 
 from the tower-to]3, across the ditch, to meet the wall. 
 
 The smoke of modem cannon was to cloak the instru- 
 ments of ancient warfare. Not only was gunpowder to 
 proiDel the missiles, but great engines for hurling stones, 
 and battering-rams to beat doAvn the walls, were all mov- 
 ing to theu' carefully-appointed places. Various are the 
 accounts which are given of the formidable army of Turks, 
 which, under their fierce Sultan, was to aid this grim 
 machinery in its work of death ; but Gibbon arrives at 
 258,000 as the total Ottoman force, of which 60,000 cavahy 
 and 20, 000 infantry were regular troops, and the remainder 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 Added to these was a naval force of 320 vessels, but 
 with the excejDtion of 18 ships of war the remainder were 
 small craft, used mostly for transport. 
 
 Constantinople was defended on one side by the Golden 
 Horn, on the other by the sea, and the third side of the
 
 158 TURKEY IX EUROPE. 
 
 triangle liad, and has, a great wall six rniles long, witli 
 liigli flanking towers at very short interv^als. Opposite 
 and parallel to tliis wall Mahomet cut a ditch to cover his 
 attack. Fourteen batteries were distributed opposite the 
 most feeble parts of the walls. The x)rlncipal point of 
 attack was to be the great central gate of St. Romanus, 
 Archers were to shower their arrows wherever the besieged 
 should show themselves, and miners were brought from 
 Servia for subterraneous works. Nothing was forgotten, 
 and all the art and strength of the Ottoman monarch was 
 concentrated for the effort. 
 
 On the Christian side preparations for defence were not 
 wanting, but there was an absence of unity of action. An 
 emj)ire does not fall without a cause, and the intrigues, 
 the dissensions, and the Jealousies which had driven the 
 Greeks out of Thrace, and hemmed them into their forti- 
 fied triangle, now shone out in all its force, and, like a 
 will-' o-the- wisp, lured the empire to its final destruction. 
 Conscious of his weakness, occasioned by the intrigues of 
 his subjects, Constantine, eager to gain the aid of any re- 
 inforcement, professed at the last moment the spiiitual 
 obedience of the Greek to the Roman Church, but the 
 false concession only produced bitterness and disappoint- 
 ment, and the rancor excited against the Genoese forces 
 was almost equal to the hatred of the Turk. 
 
 It was a forlorn hope of policy, which fell back shat- 
 tered and defeated ; for, instead of reinforcements from 
 without, it only produced fresh dissensions within. 
 
 The total number of inhabitants, including men, women, 
 and children, did not exceed 100,000 persons, and of these 
 all that could be counted upon for the defence of the cap- 
 ital was 5,000 men, but to them were added a brave but 
 small force of Latin volunteers, under the able leadership 
 of John Criustiniani, a Genoese. 
 
 The imminence of the danger at last roused the iDopula- 
 tion to a sense of their critical position, and the unremit- 
 ting exertions and ardor of the Emperor Constantine 
 transmitted itself to the troops. Constantine distributed
 
 SIEGE OF CONSTAKTIXOPLE. 159 
 
 his small forces along the forts, and himself took the 
 command of the outer wall. He exhorted his men and 
 officers to emulate each other in the defence of all they 
 held dear, and encouraged the timid with hopes of success 
 and promises of reward. Such were his exertions at the 
 last that he ins]Dired an enthusiasm which he would fain 
 have felt himself, for in his own heart he knew that he 
 must light and die. 
 
 A strong chain was thrown across the Golden Horn, and 
 all the ships which arrived at the port were detained for 
 the service of the besieged. Of war ships he could count 
 but fourteen. 
 
 The Turkish preparations were at last complete, the 
 trooj)S were in position, the batteries fixed, the soldiers 
 were reminded of the glories of their ancestors, and 
 prayers were offered to Heaven for success, and on the 
 morning of the 6th of April, 1453, the signal was given, 
 and the Ottoman cannon thundered at the gates of Chris- 
 tendom. 
 
 At first the Greeks, in their ardor for the fight, rushed 
 down the ditch to meet the foe in the open field, but soon 
 fell back exhausted by the advancing hosts. The battle 
 raged fiercely along the line, but night came, and no im- 
 pression was made upon the gallant defenders. 
 
 Day after day was the fight renewed, but miorning came, 
 and showed the city still confident and strong. At last 
 food was getting scarce, and the horrors of a siege were 
 sorely felt ; but soon the spirits of the Greeks were raised, 
 as away on the Sea of Marmora they esiDied five gi'eat 
 ships well laden with supplies, and which, by their colors 
 flying, told that they were friends of those in need. On- 
 ward they flew before the breeze, but what a sight now 
 met them as they neared the port ! Three hundred Turk- 
 ish ships were dra■v^^l across the straits, each filled with 
 troops, and eager for the fight. The famished Christians, 
 from the lofty towers, watched eagerly the approaching 
 succor, and the hungry wish was father to the thought that 
 the coming fight might win a kindly smile from Fortune.
 
 160 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Tlie news flew quickly through the Turkish ranks that 
 a naval combat was on foot, and soon the waters of the 
 Bosx)horus seemed to break upon a beach of turbaned 
 heads — one bare spot there was, as it were a bay, and in 
 it the waves beat, as against a rock, upon the charger of 
 the Sultan, who, riding breast high into the sea, came 
 down to watch the unequal fight, not doubting but that 
 these rash sailor Franks would soon be punished for their 
 insolence. 
 
 But there were brave hearts in those five gallant ships, 
 full willing to meet the outnumbering enemy. Gaily 
 they careened before the swelling breeze, their white 
 sails whitening in the sun, and steering straight upon the 
 Turkish line, bore down upon the foe. Truly it was a 
 gallant sight, as all must feel, who, having witnessed the 
 beauties of the Bosphorus, can picture the struggling 
 ships, urged on by cries and yells from the anned con- 
 tending hosts. Suddenly from the Christian ranks there 
 burst a joyous shout as the Turkish ships first wavered 
 and then fled. But above all shouts there arose the bit- 
 ter taunt of the fierce Sultan, as, mad with rage, he, with 
 threatening gestures, called on his naval captains to make 
 good the fight. But the rent was made, and like chips of 
 straw before the rushing wind, the Turkish craft were 
 swept aside, and amidst ten thousand Christian cheers, 
 the succoring ships sailed in victorious to the Golden 
 Horn. Then many a mother's heart was joyous as she 
 closely clasped her half -famished child. 
 
 The days wore on, and fight succeeded fight, but still 
 the Christian front was bold, and the Turkish hosts were 
 bafiied. 
 
 Then the warlike genius of the Sultan came to his aid, 
 and pointed out the weak spot in the armor of his adver- 
 saries. Could he but place his ships within the Golden 
 Horn, the enemy's weakest point lay open to attack. But 
 how to reach it ? The chain across the mouth could not 
 be broken, and all else was land. No matter, it must be 
 done, and done that very night. The small craft were
 
 SIEOE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 161 
 
 beaclied, tlie strongest men told off for each, and under 
 the shadow of the night, for ten miles on a road of 
 planks, over hill and over dale, in perfect silence, four- 
 score heavy craft were dragged and launched ux)on the 
 Golden Horn. 
 
 The dawn brought a bitter surprise to the still gallant 
 Greeks. And now Mahomet gathered his engineers, and 
 the heavy cannon were seen moving to the water' s edge, 
 where rafts were ready to receive them and form a floating 
 battery. Such was the size of these monster guns, that 
 seven shots a day was all they could be made to fire. 
 Fifty-three weary days and nights had now passed, and 
 hunger had so told upon the courage of the Greeks, that 
 at sight of these floating batteries and preparations of the 
 Turks they grew sick at heart, and they now clamored to 
 the emperor to deliver up the city. But sternly the Chris- 
 tian king refused, and bid them to their posts to fight, 
 and if needs be to die. 
 
 It was on the 29th of May that Mahomet saw his works 
 complete ; and all was ready for the final rush of Islamism 
 on Christendom. 
 
 The great Byzantine Empire, once foremost in the pow- 
 ers of the world, had shrunk within the narrow space 
 before him, and he was now ready to crush it in his grasp. 
 
 Tarin (to-morrow) Inshallah, the Christian dog shall 
 die. 
 
 Amidst the Turkish ranks the Sheiks and Imaums 
 (ministers of religion) suggested hopes of Paradise to 
 brave soldiers who might to-morrow meet a glorious death, 
 and to those who might survive freely promised rewards 
 and honors. Then, as the sun sunk slowly in the west, 
 200,000 Moslems bowed down their head to Mother Earth 
 in one united prayer. All day the cannon had thundered 
 against the opposing walls, and near the great gate of 
 Saint Romanus a yawning breach was seen. Constantine 
 knew that the storm was soon to burst, but mean jealou- 
 sies were rife among the Christian ranks. The gallant 
 Giustiniani, like a true soldier, did his duty, and placed 
 11
 
 1(32 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 the brave Latins here and there, where points seemed 
 weakest. The Emperor was everywhere exhorting to brave 
 deeds, and enthusiasm seemed to follow in his path. 
 AYhen all were placed, and orders given, then with some 
 few chosen knights he retired to the great Chiirch of St. 
 Sophia, He knew that his hour was at hand. He slowly 
 entered the grand and sacred edifice, and there, nncovered, 
 the last Byzantine Emperor, siirronnded by his knights, 
 stood before the cross. To-morrow the Byzantine Empire 
 wonld pass away with him ! His tears fell thickly at the 
 thonght, and he knelt before the cross and prayed that he 
 might die as it became a Christian knight ; then, for the 
 last time, he partook of the sacred emblems of his Saviour, 
 and, turning to those around, he said: "I pray forgive- 
 ness if I have injured any one in thought or deed." 
 
 Then, striding to the portal of the church, where stood 
 his impatient steed, he placed his helmet on his noble 
 head, and, mounting into the saddle, the humble Christian 
 penitent rode off as warrior Christian king, to battle and 
 to die. 
 
 The sun had set, the evening past, and night fell on the 
 attendant hosts. Christian knights, as they lay under the 
 starry canopy of heaven, cast off the sterner half of man, 
 and let their softer nature free, and loving thoughts of 
 mothers, sisters, wives, went winging through the air to 
 meet in last embrace. And now the solemn calm before 
 the coming storm drew near, and all was hushed and still. 
 Constantine did not sleep, but from a lofty tower watched 
 in the stillness of the night over the Moslem host. At 
 length, as dawn drew near, his quick soldier's ear caught 
 the measured tread of Moslems marching bravely to their 
 posts, and many to their graves, and he warned the Chris- 
 tians to their battlements. Soon the stars grew pale, and 
 the minutes of many a gallant life were ebbing fast away. 
 Then suddenly, like a thunder-clap, burst out the stirring 
 roar of war. The shouts of men, the clang of arms, the 
 cannons' roar, the horses' neigh, the loud commands, all 
 mingled in one exciting din as the Moslems rushed into
 
 SIEGE OF COKSTANTIIiOPLE. 163 
 
 tlie breacli by sea, by land ; along the whole line tlie fierce 
 attack was made. Wave after wave of troops went for- 
 ward to perish in the ditch, which was soon filled uj) and 
 bridged by the bodies of the dead and dying. Wherever 
 the Greeks grew faint there appeared the noble Christian 
 king, and where the king was there the Greeks grew brave, 
 for he was ever foremost in the fight. 
 
 Two honrs passed of bloodshed, and still the Greeks 
 and Latins bravely held their ground ; the Moslems 
 paused, and victory seemed about to touch the hand of 
 Christendom. 
 
 Then, from behind the smoke and dust and swelling 
 above the din of war, there came the sound of martial 
 music, drums, fifes, and attaballs, growing louder, louder 
 as it neared the great gate of St. Romanus. 
 
 And from out the smoke there rode the Padishah, the 
 fierce Seljukian Sultan, with royal kon mace in hand, and 
 behind him, with calm and measured tread, there came 
 10,000 chosen Janizaries, and made straight for the great 
 breach. 
 
 Onward they came, and then, with one wild shout, 
 *' Allahu Akbar," they rushed into the breach. Amidst 
 the dust and smoke might be seen the Christian king the 
 foremost in the fight, but no longer by his side stood 
 Giustiniani, who, sorely wounded, had retired from the 
 fight. 
 
 Fierce was the struggle and furiously raged the fight. 
 Here Turk grappled Christian in the death-s-truggie, and 
 shouts and groans and loud commands rose upon the air. 
 But still the Christians held their ground. Presently 
 there came a sound at first in front, then swelling louder, 
 louder, like a rushing gale from right to left, from front to 
 rear, " Allahu Akbar, AUahu Akbar," rent the air. The 
 brave Constantine heard and knew that all* was lost ; then 
 turning to those around, "Can no man here be found to 
 take away my Hfe," he mournfully exclaimed, but none 
 stepped forth to fell the noble tree. "It is enough, O 
 Lord, now take away my life, and he plunged into the
 
 164 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 fight ; and fought nntil some unknowii hand struck him 
 to the heart, and as he sank among the heap of slain, 
 another name was added to the obituary of heroes, and 
 the crescent rose over the waters of the Bosphorus, and 
 cast a shadow over the fairest land in Europe. Thus fell 
 the Byzantine Empire, and well might the Emperor and 
 his knights have said — 
 
 ^o-" 
 
 " Go, stranger, and in Lacedsemon tell 
 That here obedient to her laws we fell." 
 
 I pass over the miserable scenes of the sacking and pil- 
 lage of the city, which now became the seat of the Otto- 
 man Empire. The Sultan proceeded straight to the church 
 of St. Sophia, and alighting, entered, surrounded by his 
 viziers, his pashas, and his guards, and ordered one of the 
 Imaums who accompanied him to summon the faithful 
 and all true believers to prayer, and he then himself 
 mounted the high altar, and the Moslem prayer went up 
 to heaven from the same temple that had but yesterday 
 heard the Christian prayer for victory. The body of the 
 Emperor was sought, and the head cut off and exhibited 
 for a time between the feet of the bronze horse of the 
 equestrian statue of Justinian, in the place called the 
 Augustan. It was subsequently embalmed and sent round 
 the chief cities of Asia. 
 
 I think that all Christians may feel proud of the hero 
 who represented their faith at the fall of the Byzantine 
 Empire.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MILITARY OEGANIZATION. 
 
 Military Organization — Turkiah Anarchy — The Divan — Abdul Medjid — Treaty 
 of Paris — Turkish Loan — Insarrection in Servia — Historical Evidence of 
 Russian Intrigue — Difficulties of Reform. 
 
 nnHE introduction of artUlery into warfare, wMch took 
 -L place during tlie reign of Mahomet II., marks a great 
 ckange in tlie mode of distributing the population of the 
 world, for vre now take leave of those great waves of con- 
 quest which, guided by the military genius of an Alaric 
 or an Attila, a Genghis Khan or a Timour, rolled over the 
 earth from east to west, and formed new races in their 
 track. 
 
 Hitherto the conquering hosts had consisted of only two 
 arms, cavalry and infantry. Their commissariat was 
 worked by pack animals, and the huge army could move 
 with rapidity over mountain and plain, through forest 
 and marsh, and by changing their position daily like a 
 swarm of locusts, they found sustenance for man and 
 beast. But now the wheeled carriages of artillery were 
 stopped by a trifling stream or marsh ; the guns could 
 not be deserted, roads had to be made, the armies were 
 delayed, the difficulties of feeding them became multiplied, 
 and the swarming of human beings over an immense area 
 has been checked until the land shall become covered by 
 a network of easy roads of communication. It may be 
 laid down as a military axiom that the numerical strength 
 of national armies will increase directly as the facilities 
 of communication. 
 
 The conquest and occupation of Constantinople by the 
 Turks marked a new era in their history. They were now 
 
 165
 
 166 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 in possession of a capital, and had to cliange their nomad 
 into a sedentary nature. 
 
 Hitherto the successors to the throne had been educated 
 in the battle field or as governors of provinces, and 
 their contact with the world and experience of men was 
 an excellent training for the despotic power which was 
 afterwards to be placed in theii' hands. The real prog- 
 ress of a nation ruled by a despotic power strictly 
 administered, must vary with the character and ability 
 of the despot, and the degrees of justice, morality, learn- 
 ing, industry, war, and vice, will be marked u]pon a scale 
 which has been graduated by the disposition and aspi- 
 rations of the reigning monarch. How much, therefore, 
 must depend upon his education and associates. 
 
 But we presently find that either through jealousy or 
 fear, instead of the training of the campaign or govern- 
 ment of provinces, the young minds of the heirs to the 
 Ottoman throne are incubated within the shell of the 
 seraglio, to be afterwards hatched as despotic monarchs 
 over a vast multitude of human beings of various creeds, 
 races, and rival interests. The consequence is, that no 
 sooner does an inexperienced Sultan ascend the throne 
 than he is subjected to the family influence of uneducated 
 females, he is fastened upon by a host of corrupting para- 
 sites, and unless he is a man of extraordinary natural 
 character, the government is directed by avarice, injustice, 
 and venality. 
 
 The result is conspicuous as we turn over the pages of 
 Ottoman history. After the possession of Constantinople 
 we find the Sultans, and consequently the nation, gradually 
 becoming more apathetic and corrupt. 
 
 The old energy of the race, whilst yet it lingered, pushed 
 up to the walls of Vienna, but it was only the expiiing 
 flicker of conquest, and the future shows the empu^e grad- 
 ually dwindling away. As the Sultans became apathetic 
 by debauchery, the military despotism of the Janizaries 
 dominated the will of the sovereign, and deluged the 
 country with their arrogance and savage cruelty. The
 
 DOWNFALL OF THE JANIZARIES. 1G7 
 
 reins of government practically passed into tlieir liands, 
 and presented the anomaly of a despotic monarchy ruled 
 by a military despotism. Sultans were deposed and mur- 
 dered by this savage soldiery almost as soon as they had 
 ascended the throne, and it is curious to observe how with 
 the power in their own hands the Janizaries still respected 
 the family of Othman, and replaced monarch after monarch 
 with his heirs. There seemed no thought of a republic 
 and no individual ambition to ascend the throne. The 
 high-minded family of Kiuprili in vain attempted to right 
 the ship, but the storm of avarice and lust was too strong, 
 and they fell before it, not, however, without leaving 
 their mark for good upon the nation. Turkish anarchy 
 soon attracted Russian cuj)idity, and from the reign of 
 Peter the Great commenced that system of organized 
 intrigue which is slowly, but surely, bringing Turkey to 
 ruin. 
 
 Periodical wars between the two countries witnessed 
 periodical dismembennent of Turkish territory for the 
 aggrandizement of that of Russia, and the intervals of 
 peace have been occuj)ied by the subtle energy of secret 
 societies placing every possible obstruction in the path of 
 Turkish progress by agitating and comj)elling her subjects 
 into rebellion. 
 
 The era of Turkish anarchy commenced after the occu- 
 pation of Constantinople, and lasted until the reign of 
 Mahmoud II., a.d. 1808. 
 
 This remarkable monarch saw that if Turkey was to ex- 
 ist as a European nation her government must be moulded 
 upon a European model, and although his country was 
 distracted by rebellion and weakened by wars with Rus- 
 sia, he boldly, and with all the energy of his ancient race, 
 set about the work of reform. He knew that any step in 
 the direction of good government was impossible so long 
 as the Janizaries existed, and he therefore expunged 
 them from the face of the earth. Although their number 
 amounted to forty thousand, the severity of this stern 
 retribution can hardly be called cruel, when the horrible
 
 168 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 deeds of tlie Janizaries are considered. It was but the 
 execution of forty thousand murderers. 
 
 The road was now partially cleared for reform, and 
 among the beneficial measures that were passed by Sultan 
 Mahmoud may be enumerated the following : 
 
 The closing of the Courts of Confiscations, by which the 
 property of all persons banished or condemned to death 
 had previously reverted to the cro^\Ti. This had given rise 
 to much government oppression, and its removal was a great 
 boon to both the Christian and Mussulman population. 
 
 The power of life and death was taken away from the 
 governing pashas, and for the future capital punishment 
 was not to be inflicted otherwise than by the sentence of 
 an authorized court of law, with the right of appeal 
 through the higher courts, until the appeal terminated 
 with the Sultan himself. 
 
 The administration of the " Yacoufs," or Church lands, 
 was revised, and the revenues therefrom placed under the 
 control of the State ; but the conscience of the govern- 
 ment was not so sensitive on this point as to prevent the 
 application of the revenue of the Church lands to the gen- 
 eral purposes of the State. 
 
 The Timars and Ziamets had formerly been instituted 
 as military fiefs, for the purpose of furnishing an effective 
 military force at the call of the State, but they had, from 
 neglect and corruption, long ceased to act for any effective 
 purpose ; they were, therefore, attached to the public do- 
 mains, which added to the resources of the State, and put 
 an end to a host of corruptions. 
 
 A still more important reform was the suppression of 
 the Derey Beys, or hereditary local chiefs, who had power 
 to nominate their successors in default of male heirs. 
 These Beys had made themselves petty princes in most of 
 the provinces of the empire, and their arrogance and exac- 
 tions had become intolerable. Some of these independent 
 chiefs could muster as many as forty thousand men, but 
 by the steady and firm perseverance of Sultan Mahmoud 
 these insubordinate feudatories were suppressed.
 
 TUBKISH REFORMS. 1G9 
 
 By a firnian in 1834, the vexatious charges usually made 
 by public functionaries wlien traveling, upon tlie inhab- 
 itants of the country, were forbidden, and all collections 
 of money, excei)t at the two half-yearly periods, were 
 abolished. In this firman Sultan Mahmoud said: "No 
 one is ignorant that I am bound to afford support to all 
 my subjects against vexatious proceedings, to endeavor 
 unceasingly to lighten instead of increasing their bur- 
 dens, and to insure their peace and tranquillity ; therefore 
 those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of 
 Grod and to my imperial orders." 
 
 The Sultan set the example of attending the Divan, and 
 personally superintending the government of the coun- 
 try.* 
 
 But it was not only the reforms which were passed and 
 made law which signalized his reign, but those which 
 were studied, partially organized, and afterwards com- 
 pleted by his successor, Abdul Medjid, who was only six- 
 teen years of age when he came to the throne. At the 
 suggestion of the Divan he at once pushed forward the 
 reforms commenced by his father, and the famous Tanzi- 
 mat for equality of rights between Christians and Mussul- 
 mans, was commenced. 
 
 The Hatt-i-humayoun, read at Gulkhaneh, near Con- 
 stantinople, in presence of the Sultan, announced the 
 termination of arbitrary exactions in the collection of 
 taxes, equality of taxation in proportion to fortune, and 
 of liability to the military service, publicity of criminal 
 justice, and the termination of the confiscation of heirs 
 for the crimes of their predecessors. 
 
 This Hatt-i-humayoun of the 3rd of November, 1839, 
 was considered of such sacred importance, that the text 
 of it was deposited in the same hall as the sacred stand- 
 ard of the prophet. 
 
 A further ordinance was issued, declaring free the pro- 
 fession of a baker, and the monopoly of the purchase of 
 bread by the Zahire-Naziri, or surveyor-general of pro- 
 
 *CreasY.
 
 170 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 visions, was also abolislied, and from tliat moment all the 
 abuses wMcli liad existed in tliat department disappeared. 
 The bakers purchased bread wherever they chose, and 
 the supply was abundant. 
 
 Education was not neglected, and academies were es- 
 tablished in Constantmople, Adrianople, Salonica, Smyr- 
 na, Brousa, Bagdad, and Trebizond, where literature and 
 the sciences were to be taught on the European method, 
 and military and naval schools were established. 
 
 It was impossible that a sudden refonnation could be 
 forced upon the people without meeting with a strong op- 
 position, especially where religious fanaticism formed a 
 disturbing element ; but it is due to the Turkish Govern- 
 ment to state that they met it with as much finnness as 
 was possible, considering that the country was distracted 
 by war and rebellion. 
 
 The close of the Crimean War and the Treaty of Paris 
 of 1856 seemed to mark a new era in the life of Turkey. 
 Her efforts at reforms which were to fit her to become a 
 member of the European family had been going on since 
 the commencement of the century ; but they had been 
 continually interrupted by rebellions fomented by her 
 enemy Russia, and periodical wars with that power, each 
 of which left Turkey in a weaker state than before. Her 
 great enemy now lay prostrate before her, and supported 
 by the Treaty of Paris, it seemed as though such a clear 
 road was open to reform and good government, that the 
 most sanguine hopes of improvement might be realized. 
 But this very success was a principal cause of the deca- 
 dence of Turkey, because it had exhausted her resources, 
 and her revenue would no longer meet her heavy expendi- 
 ture. She aimed at being one of the European families, 
 and therefore adopted their customs, and began to 
 borrow. 
 
 In 1854 she contracted a loan of £3,000,000, in 1855 one 
 of £5,000,000, and finding the sensation a pleasant one, 
 she kept repeating it with Europe as the money-lender un- 
 til the year 1874. The ease of obtaining money by foreign
 
 STOCK-JOBBING. 171 
 
 loans, and the freedom from tlie obligation of publisliing 
 accounts of their expenditure, practically gave the Sultan 
 an unlimited command of money for the Civil List. 
 
 Slowly, but surely, this corrupted the head, and the 
 corruption of the body of the State soon followed. The 
 most wanton and unbridled extravagance reigned at the 
 palace, and desire was bom from gratification until the 
 inevitable crisis arrived, and no more money was forth- 
 coming. But the corruption produced by the foreign 
 loans found its way into every artery of the State, and 
 poisoned the very existence of the country. 
 
 The attractions of the bourse were so great, and the 
 interest on loans so large, that merchants gave up trade 
 and became stock-jobbers. Gambling on the stock ex- 
 change became so fascinating that money which should 
 have been employed in developing the country, was 
 invested in the stocks, which, by iluctuations, ruined 
 many a man, and passed his fortune into foreign hands. 
 Trade languished, and speculation flourished. xVs it is to 
 a private individual, so it is to a nation ; the borromng of 
 money at exhorbitant interest is certain ruin. The pros- 
 perity of Turkey is dependent upon the character of her 
 Sultan. He need not be a genius, because he can find 
 clever minds to advise him, but he must be honest, if the 
 country is to prosper. Eapid reform and general corruj)- 
 tion are so antagonistic that their presence at the same 
 time must inevitably create confusion ; and this was the 
 legacy left to Turkey at the death of the Crimean War 
 and the birth of foreign loans. But the promulgation of 
 reforms still went on, and the famous Hatt-i-cherif of 1856 
 appeared as a pendant to the Hatt-i-humayoun of Gulk- 
 haneh of 1839. Religious toleration, equality of Chi'is- 
 tians and Mohammedans, and their social intercourse in 
 education, the correction of all abuses, the formation of 
 roads and canals, all were to be carried out in one sweep, 
 lilve a change of scene at the play — and, as might be ex- 
 pected, the play became a burlesque. Hitherto Turkey 
 had been honest in her intentions of reform, and the
 
 172 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 reigns of Sultan Malimoud, and the early part of that of 
 Abdul Medjid, had only been faulty in attempting too 
 much ; but the effort had been persevering and staunch. 
 
 But now new loans could only be obtained by promises 
 which it was impossible to fulfill ; and the promises were 
 made, repeated, and added to, without any intention of 
 carrying them out. Some idea may be formed of what 
 became of the loans when, as early as 1858, the debt in- 
 curred on the Civil List in less tlian six months, amounted 
 to the sum of £3,000,000 sterling. It was only natural 
 that a discontented population should be the result ; and 
 we shortly find signs of rebellion springing up in almost 
 every part of the country. Increased liabilities begat 
 increased taxation, which begat discontent, which begat 
 rebellion. The Mohammedans attributed their hardships 
 to the introduction of Christian customs, the Christians 
 to the misgovernment of their Mohammedan rulers," and 
 thus fanaticism grew and fiourished. 
 
 But it must be remembered that all this time Russia 
 was not an idle spectator of the troubles of Turkey. Her 
 agents were everywhere, and ready to excite fanaticism 
 where it slumbered, and foment rebellion where the 
 ground appeared favorable. I do not constantly return 
 to these charges against Russia from any fanatical hatred 
 of that country, but simply from indig-nation at the under- 
 hand and unmanly acts which the history of modern times 
 proves her to have committed. There has never been a 
 rebellion in Turkey in modern times without the presence 
 of Russian agents. In a mixed population, such as that 
 of Turkey, it is impossible to prevent rival interests, and 
 where they exist, it is not difficult to foment them into 
 rebellion. This is the process which has been going on 
 for the last century, and it is hard for her to kick against 
 the pricks. It is customary in Europe to look upon all 
 insurrections of Turkish Christians as the bursting of the 
 flood-gates of pent-up fury, produced by the tyranny of 
 their Mohammedan rulers. But there is another side to 
 the question. ■\Yhat, for instance, says Consul Long-
 
 B USSIAN INTRIG UE. I73 
 
 worth — whose judgment no one can donbt — of the Greek 
 rebellion in Crete in 1858. " I have stated that the Pasha 
 behaved with extraordinary liberality toward the ortho- 
 dox Greeks. This was undoubtedly the case, yet he 
 has latterly been accused of persecuting them. The 
 truth was that he began by humoring them too much, 
 and this made them unreasonable. Church building, 
 on which there were former restrictions, is now a sort of 
 mania with them, and in this way they were indulged to 
 the utmost extent. They were allowed churches in any 
 number, of all sizes, and in all places. They were, even 
 when they would not pay for this extravagance, gratified 
 at his expense ; he gave them both ground and money. 
 
 "Then, agreeably to the Hatt-i-humayoun, Turks were 
 permitted to turn Christians, and (what did not please 
 them quite so much) Christians Turks. Even whole com- 
 munities, who, to escape persecution, had formerly pro- 
 fessed Islamism, were allowed openly to embrace Christi- 
 anity, but still they were not satisfied. These people, who 
 were always talking of Turkish fanaticism, now sought to 
 trample on it with a still fiercer fanaticism of their own. 
 Not content with fair proselytism they resorted to the 
 most scandalous means of making converts. 
 
 "Turkish girls were seduced from their families ; plans 
 of abduction were deliberately formed, and even a society 
 of young men (among whom were some Ionian subjects* 
 whose names have been mentioned to me) got up for the 
 express purpose of carrying off these girls from their vil- 
 lages. Two of these cases occurring at a short interval 
 caused great scandal and excitement, and Vely Pasha 
 deemed it time to put a stop to such proceedings. Acting, 
 however, as usual upon impulse, the steps he took were 
 
 hasty and inconsiderate Another still more 
 
 remarkable feature of the business is that after the Greeks 
 had everywhere risen, and the Turks had begun to commit 
 excesses, destroying their olive-trees and vineyards, the 
 fonner still continued to stand on the defensive, and ap- 
 
 * It must be borne in mind that Russia was working through Greece.
 
 174 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 parently waiting for tJie interference or co-operation of 
 other parties ; certainly it was not tlie bearing of people 
 who had been goaded to rebellion by the intolerable op- 
 pression of their rulers." 
 
 A rising in Servia was shortly added to the other troubles 
 with which the Porte was distracted, and it seemed as 
 though mines of insurrection were sprung by some un- 
 known hand. In a letter from Sir Henry Bulwer, our 
 ambassador at Constantinople in 1860, to Lord J. Russell, 
 he says : "It appears evident that a plan of agitation for 
 exciting the animosity of the rival creeds and races the 
 one against the other is now being actively carried out in 
 Turkey." 
 
 The effect of this may be inferred from a passage from 
 another of his letters in the same year: "The work, 
 nevertheless, which this Government (Turkey) had upon 
 its hands was by no means easy of execution, for insur- 
 rection among the Rayah population was not more to be 
 feared than the rising among the dissatisfied Mussulmans ; 
 and, indeed, a plot which was detected in the summer of 
 last year, and at the head of which was a general of some 
 distinction, bore evidence to the fact that if the dominant 
 party or the Porte has not been able to do all that might 
 justly satisfy the Rayah demands, it has done enough to 
 provoke a large portion of the Rayah's ancient masters — a 
 consideration which should not, most decidedly, check aU 
 reasonable efforts toward progress in the same direction, 
 but which should put some limit upon rash counsels and 
 extravagant expectations." 
 
 That the Porte was earnest and successful in reform 
 may be inferred from another passage from a letter from 
 Sir Henry Bulwer in this year: "Great changes for the 
 better have of late years taken place in this country. 
 These changes are as rapid and as general as could, under 
 the ckcumstances, and within the time which has elapsed 
 since their commencement, have taken place. But they 
 leave an immense space of reform yet to be traversed. 
 The position of the Christian population is considerably
 
 PR0ORES3. 175 
 
 improved, and may be yet by a few simple and not very 
 difficult measures much advanced. But I fear any exten- 
 sive change must be gradual in its progress, and as it has 
 always to be remembered that the Mussulman class is, 
 generally speaking, the upper and proprietary class, so 
 we are not to consider all the oppression which takes i)lace 
 in the provinces as oppression against the Christians, but 
 often as oppression against the lower class of the popula- 
 tion, both Mussulman and Christian." 
 
 Again, "Whether the Turks have done a great deal or 
 very little depends upon the point of view from which we 
 look at the subject. If we compare Turkey as she is with 
 what she was twenty-iive or thirty years ago, the change 
 is marvelous." 
 
 "Men who lived at the former period tell me every day 
 that they can hardly credit the state of things they see 
 now, when they remember what existed in the days of 
 their youth." 
 
 Lord Palmerston, in 1856, said that "in the last thirty 
 years Turkey has made greater progress than any nation 
 in Europe." It must, however, be confessed that there 
 was a very large field for reform, but still the extent of 
 the abuses should claim a proportionate amount of credit 
 for their suppression, since the difficulties of reform lie in 
 a direct ratio to the extent of abuses. 
 
 Some idea of the difficulties which the Porte was labor- 
 ing under at this period may be derived from another re- 
 mark of Sir Henry Bulwer's : "The Mussulmans in the 
 provinces, indeed, when of the inferior classes, suffer per- 
 haps even still more than the Christians from the effects 
 of the bad government that maintains there, for the latter 
 are usually in some degree protected by the foreign 
 authorities, whereas the latter have no protector. The 
 persecutions of the different sects of Christians, moreover, 
 are not unfrequently caused by their several animosities, 
 and the manner in which the one excites the local author- 
 ities against the other. Protestants, Catholics, Greeks, 
 are usually involved in rival quarrels, and the Turk, who
 
 176 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 receives their several complaints, is urged to espouse the 
 cause of the one or the other by the momentary influence 
 of the consul or consul-general who is most in vogue." 
 
 The foregoing remarks apply with especial force to the 
 religious combat which took place between the Greek and 
 Bulgarian Churches ; and a great part of the persecution 
 to which the Bulgarians have been subjected has eman- 
 ated, not from the Mohammedan rulers, but from the 
 Greek Christians. 
 
 Negotiations were carried on in 1860 between the Porte 
 and the foreign representatives for the extension and re- 
 vision of the Treaty of Commerce of 1838, and the follow- 
 ing remarks give a general idea of the system of trade in 
 the country : — " In former times trade was carried on in a 
 perfectly different manner from at present, and foreigners 
 occupied in this country a perfectly different position. A 
 few merchants settled in the principal i)orts received goods 
 in the wholesale, and either sold them to some native mer- 
 chant, who resold them in detail, or sent some agent with 
 them through the country who sold or hawked them. 
 
 "As to the trades and professions, they were in the 
 hands of Turkish corporations, and the foreigner could 
 not enter into them, nor did he compete in detail trade 
 with the native. The consequence of this was that goods 
 might be taxed at any price after their entry, and the 
 internal traffic of the country was not open to foreigners. 
 The treaty of 1838 made a general change in these particu- 
 lars. N'o further charge was to be placed on goods than 
 the general import and export dues, and British subjects 
 were to be placed on the same footing as native ones with 
 respect to trade and traffic in the interior. The natural con- 
 sequences have followed, corporations have disappeared, 
 or nearly so, foreigners everywhere exercise retail trade, 
 and the goods which have paid the import duty are never 
 charged with any other." Sir Henry Bulwer held, "that 
 both for the sake of the Turks and for our sake, we should 
 still foUow out without chicane on one side or allowing 
 chicane on the other, the system we had in 1838 in view,"
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. I77 
 
 and in tliis view he was joined by the representatives of 
 Austria, France, Spain, the United States, and Sardinia, 
 but the minister of Russia, and at first the minister of 
 Prussia, took opposite directions. 
 
 Our ambassador then says : "As to Russia, it is clear 
 that if she could establish the principle that Russians are 
 to have all the privileges of Turkish subjects, and pay 
 none of the imposts, she has only to encourage still further 
 the system of adopting Turkish subjects as Russians, and 
 every Turkish subject loould have the strongest interest to 
 hecome a Russian one. 
 
 "It is, moreover, clear that if the hands of the Turks 
 are thus fettered, and the possibility of their systematiz- 
 ing theu' finances or obtaining a revenue prevented, all 
 chance as to their reorganization is over ; and I cannot 
 help thinking it was the intention of the Russian minister 
 to make a bold dash at this on the present opportunity, 
 and that without the fair and full discussion we had 
 together, he might have succeeded. The language of Ali 
 Pasha was admirable throughout, fair, firm, and concilia- 
 tory." The fanatical spirit of the Turks was not calmed 
 at this period by the appearance of numerous Turkish 
 soldiers without their ears and noses, who had been victims 
 to Montenegrin barbarity. 
 
 If there is one man in Turkey whose opinion is valuable 
 and to be depended upon, it is that of Consul-General 
 Longwol-th, for he possesses the rare quality of a long 
 residence in the country, great ability, and yet he is not a 
 partisan. I therefore give my reader the benefit of his 
 very interesting account of an interview with the Grand 
 Vizier of Turkey, at Widdin, in 1860 :— 
 
 Consul-General Longworth to Sir H. Bulwer, 
 (Extract.) Belgrade, July 14, 1860. 
 
 I HAVE found means of communicating with the Grand Vizier, 
 at Widdin ; and, while eliciting from him such facts and opinions 
 as he was disposed to impart with respect to the results of his in- 
 13
 
 178 TURKEY ly EUROPE. 
 
 quiry, aud offering, in return, such suggestions as were dictated 
 by my knowledge and observation of the places he has still to 
 visit, I have been particularly careful to avoid all semblance of 
 undue interference with his proceedings. 
 
 The candor and unreserve with which his Highness entered 
 into these subjects, I, in some measure, attribute to our intimacy 
 at a former period, though many years had elapsed since our last 
 meeting. 
 
 "With reference to this mission, which had been already fulfilled 
 in the Bulgarian Pashalics of Varna, Shumla, Eutschuk, and Wid- 
 din, he assured me he had met with nothing to warrant the charge 
 of religious persecution. Not a single case of oppression expe- 
 rienced by Christians at the hands of Turks had been brought to 
 his cognizance. His satisfaction at this result was, in some 
 measure, troubled by the annoyance he felt at having been sent 
 on an errand so futile to the provinces, at a time when he might 
 have been profitably emploj^ed in the capital. 
 
 At Widdin, however, a petition had been presented to him sub- 
 scribed with 300 signatures, and containing vague charges against 
 the local authorities. This document he did not hesitate to 
 characterize as spurious. Cases of outrage and cruelty, and of 
 forced conversion to Islamism, could with no color of probability 
 be sustained in Bulgaria, nor could any amount of subornation 
 and suggestion enlist witnesses in support of them on the spot. 
 
 The rest of the gi'ievances enumerated could scarcely be viewed 
 as serious. 
 
 1st. With reference to the refusal of the local authorities to 
 allow the Christians to put up a church-bell, it may be remarked 
 that this use of bells in the East has always been considered as 
 tantamount to a recognition of Christianity being the established 
 worship of the place. In some towns, therefore, inhabited almost 
 exclusively by Christians, this concession has been made by the 
 Government. But at "Widdin, where more than three-fourths of 
 the inhabitants are Turks, it would have involved an insult to 
 their prejudices and a dangerous experiment on their forbearance. 
 At a former period the Christians would not have dreamed of put- 
 ting forward such a pretension ; and it must be admitted that in 
 all other respects there is no restriction on religious ceremonies, 
 and not even on public processions. 
 
 2nd. It is stated in the petition that the Cadi, or Mussulman
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. 179 
 
 Judge, had arbitrarily interfered with the affairs of tlic Cliristian 
 community ; that is, in questions of inheritance and the adminis- 
 tration of the property of minors. Proof of such interference, 
 however, tliough challenged and earnestly sought by the Grand 
 Vizier, was wholly wanting ; wanting at least at Widdin, though 
 there may have been interference in other parts of the empire. 
 Indeed, I remember to have heard something of the kind com- 
 plained of in Crete ; and on this foundation, and no other 
 probably, rests the charge in the Widdin petition. Nothing can 
 more clearly illustrate the looseness of these charges in general. 
 
 3rd. It is represented that the Christians admitted as members 
 into the Med j lis, or Municipal Council, were allowed no voice in 
 its proceedings, and had, in fact, been silenced by the Pasha. 
 This charge was fully investigated by the Grand Vizier, and 
 proved to be unsupported by a shadow even of evidence. It was, 
 moreover, denied most positively by the bishop, who has himself 
 a seat in the Medjlis. If the petitioners had been satisfied with 
 affirming that the Christian members exercised little influence or 
 authority in the Medjlis, the complaint would have been more 
 plausible ; though as regards Widdi)i, I am told it would, even 
 when thus qualified, have been inapplicable. My own experience, 
 however, leads me to infer that in many places, and I should say 
 the majority of them, it were vain to look for independence of 
 character in the Christian members of these councils, not more 
 from the domineering spirit of the Turks than their own disposi- 
 tion, which is crouching and corrupt ; corruption and falsehood, 
 indeed, are the chronic infirmities, though in a different degree, 
 of the generation both Cliristian and Moslem. Time and educa- 
 tion alone can effect a change for the better. The Government 
 may, by its Edicts and Hatt-i-humayouns, hasten and advance such 
 a reform ; but I question very much whether more evil than good 
 will not arise from proclaiming a social equality which is, in the 
 present state of things and relations of society, morally impossible. 
 
 Equality before the law is that which must be first established ; 
 the only sort of equality, in fact, which can, under existing cir- 
 cumstances, be realized. And in connection with this, we come 
 to the complaint in the petition — the only tangible point in it — 
 relative to the rejection of Christian evidence in the Ottoman 
 tribunals. In this respect, it cannot be denied there is room for 
 amendment, not only at Widdin, but in every province of tho
 
 180 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 empire. A futile regulation has been enacted by wliicli such evi- 
 dence is admitted in an inferior police court, but excluded from 
 the higher or Municipal Council, while the sentence passed in that 
 where witnesses are heard has to be confirmed in the other where 
 they are not. All this has the appearance of evasion — one of 
 those half-measures which give satisfaction to nobody. Nor is 
 this all : a distinction is drawn in the Hatt-i-humayoun itself be- 
 tween civil and criminal suits, Christian evidence being held to 
 be admissable in the latter, but not in the former. The plea upon 
 which it is defended is, however, specious enough : it is urged 
 that the property of the Turks, particularly in districts where 
 they are in a great relative minority, would be exposed to confis- 
 cation if, in the existing demoralized state of society. Christian 
 testimony were taken in cases of this kind. But it may, on the 
 other hand, be rejoined that much of this demoralization, as 
 regards the indifference shown to perjury, both by Turks and 
 Christians, may be traced to the lax and vicious principle acted 
 upon in the Mussulman Courts, where as the only means of secur- 
 ing justice to Christians, Mussulman false witnesses are permitted 
 to give evidence on their behalf. The abolition of this practice 
 would do more than anything else to purify these tribunals ; but 
 this can only be effectually accomplished by the admission of 
 Christian evidence, instead of Mussulman perjury, as a matter of 
 legal necessity. The "Ulema," or the law authorities of Turkey, 
 will have eventually either to do this, or to renounce the adjudica- 
 tion, together with the emoluments arising therefrom, of all civil 
 suits. Were the alternative resolutely put to them by the Porte, 
 there can be but little doubt what their decision would be. In 
 the meanwhile, this is unquestionably the chief obstacle to any 
 amelioration in the matter. 
 
 There is another abuse which calls urgently for correction. I 
 mean the forcible abduction of Christian girls by Mohammedans. 
 It is not alluded to in the Widdin petition, and, indeed, is a crime 
 by no means common in Bulgaria, nor, as I believe, in any other 
 province, except Northern Albania. Still it is one which should 
 not be neglected by the Porte, for it is that, and that only, which 
 has furnished the ground for the most serious of the charges ad- 
 vanced — that is, the forced conversion of Christians to Islamism. 
 Much has been said in extenuation of this practice of abduction. 
 It is an old custom of these wild districts, and was formerly held
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. 181 
 
 to ennce manly spirit on the part of tlie ravislier. It is asserted 
 also, and I believe it, that the girls are frequently consenting par- 
 ties to their own abduction, and that the parents, by delaying to 
 give them in marriage, with a view of appropriating their services 
 as long as possible, indirectly bring this misfortune on themselves. 
 But these palliatives, and others of the kind, which may be urged, 
 are, I think, beside the question, which is simply if seduction and 
 violence has been employed in removing these girls from the roof 
 and protection of their parents. But instead of putting it to 
 this issue, it has been the rule to force the party to appear before 
 the tribunal which rejects Christian evidence, and to dispose of 
 the affair summarily, by compelling her to declare herself a Chris- 
 tian or a Mohammedan. 
 
 Against this mode of procedure I deemed it my duty to make a 
 determined stand, more than six years ago, at Mouastir. I in- 
 sisted on all such cases being treated as police matters and not 
 questions of religion, which, I maintained, was outraged by being 
 made a cloak for such disorders. I appealed also to firmans and 
 vizirial letters, in which force, as a means of proselytism, was 
 strictly forbidden. I finally obtained my point, and the best re- 
 sults followed. In all such cases, which rapidly diminished in 
 number, the girls were forthwith restored to their families, and 
 their ravishers punished as they deserved. These proceedings 
 ■were duly reported to Constantinople, but there a different view 
 seems to have prevailed on the question, which it flattered the 
 fanaticism of all parties, and of Greeks as well as Turks, to invest, 
 as before, with a religious character. Various expedients were 
 devised, and, among others, that of sequestering the victim of 
 abduction for three days in the residence of the Bishop previous 
 to her profession in the faith in the Medjlis. 
 
 But this way of proceeding, after occasioning much scandal 
 and recrimination, has been definitively abandoned. The ques- 
 tion, however, should be set at rest ; and the Porte herself seeing 
 the imputations it exposes her to, is chiefly interested in not leav- 
 ing it open any longer. The most practical solution is, in my 
 opinion, that above suggested. 
 
 It was gratifying, therefore, to find that the Grand Vizier took 
 the same view of the matter ; and what is more, he promised me 
 he would do his best to enforce it. His Highness, moreover, 
 agreed in the opinion I expressed that this and the question of
 
 182 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Christian evidence are the two main points to which, as sources 
 of bitter feeling and discussion, the attention of the Porte should 
 now be directed. As to eradicating, by any summary process, 
 mere religions antipathies, which were mutual between the Turks 
 and Christiaus, the only difference being that the Turks, a,s mas- 
 ters, had been under greater temptation to display them, the task 
 was, he said, hopeless ; all that could be done was to deal with 
 their effects in the shape of overt acts. It was, at the same time, 
 a great mistake to suppose that the oppression complained of had 
 been systematic or uniform. The contrary, indeed, was the case. 
 The result of the Ottoman conquest had been to establish the 
 supremacy of one people over another while the government had, 
 from the democratic tendencies of Islamism, been much more 
 popular in its essence than was generally imagined. It was a 
 fact which did honor to the Turks, that living in juxtaposition 
 with conquered races, they had discovered a degree of toleration 
 and forbearance to which, considering they were uncontrolled, his- 
 tory could not furnish a parallel. Their hand, it is true, had been 
 heavier on the Christians in some parts of the empire than it had 
 been in others, and this when a rude, popular authority was exer- 
 cised, was to have been expected as the natural consequence of 
 different circumstances in different provinces. In Bulgaria and 
 on the Danube, where the Turks garrisoned the fortresses, and 
 occupied in force the considerable towns, the pressure on the 
 Rayahs might have been greater in their immediate neighborhood ; 
 but they were comparatively unmolested in the distant villages of 
 the plains and the Balkans. In Albania the instincts of race are 
 stronger than the prejudices of religion ; and it was remarkable 
 that though Christians of a race, in their estimation, inferior, such 
 as the Bulgarians, who live among them, are treated with harsh- 
 ness and contumely, Christians of the Albanian blood are allowed 
 to wear their arms, and are independent almost as themselves. 
 The province in which Christians have had most reason to com- 
 plain was Bosnia. The question is, there, one of noble and serf, 
 of a privileged and unprivileged class, precisely analogous to that 
 which now occupies the Eussian Government ; but in Bosnia the 
 question of privilege was complicated by religious considerations, 
 the nobles having at a former period embraced ]\Iohammedanism 
 to preserve their estates, which were thus conditionally assured to 
 them. Each of the other provinces had passed through its pecu-
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. 183 
 
 liar ordeal, and a separate inqiiiry into the past and present con- 
 dition of each would tend entirely to disprove the charge of sys- 
 tematic oppression. It was, in truth, the absence of anything 
 like system or uniformity that rendered it difficult for the Porte 
 to adopt any general regime for the amelioration of the condition 
 of the Christians. 
 
 I give the above remarks as the substance rather of my conver- 
 sation with the Grand Vizier than a distinct recapitulation of 
 what was said on either side, which, as our views were almost 
 identical, is the less necessary ; but with reference to the last ob- 
 servation, I ventured to submit to his Highness whether it might 
 not have been better, under the circumstances he had described, 
 to regulate and adopt, more than had been yet attempted, the 
 administration of the provinces to the different degrees of civiliz- 
 ation developed in each. In Koumelia, where I had resided, and 
 in other Pashalics which I had visited, I had acquired the convic- 
 tion that the double government of the Pasha and the Medjlis 
 worked badly ; local influences, averse to Christian interests, pre- 
 vailed in those councils, nor was the matter mended much by the 
 admission of Christian members, who were for the most part 
 timid and corrupt. The best j)rotectors of the Christians were 
 the functionaries, who, deriving their authority immediately from 
 the Porte, are more likely, if duly invested with power and re- 
 sponsibility, to be inspired by the liberal sentiments which the 
 Porte professes toward the Christians under her rule. The Pasha 
 might seek for information and advice from his Medjlis, but 
 should not be controlled by it. 
 
 In referring to the general subject of Ottoman administration, 
 fiscal, military, and judicial, I kept carefully within the bounds of 
 friendly counsel and criticism, which have been repeatedly en- 
 joined by your Excellency, and his Highness on that account per- 
 haps spoke with less reserve. Though claiming credit for Avhat 
 had been done by the Sultan's Government, he acknowledged that 
 he had found much to grieve and disappoint him, and among 
 other things he thought that sufficient vigor had not been exerted 
 in the repression of brigandage. In the severity he had himself 
 displayed in the punishment of offenders, he had admitted no 
 distinction between Christians and Mussulmans ; examples had 
 also been made which he trusted would not be without their effect 
 on another sort of brigandage — the official delinquency by which
 
 184 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 lie allowed tliat tlie administration, both civil and military, was 
 still by far too much tainted ; but where, in the backward state 
 of morals and of education, can you find abetter class of function- 
 aries ? 
 
 A series of questions relative to Turkish administration has 
 been lately addressed by your Excellency to Her Majesty's Consu- 
 lar Body. The attention I have given to them will, I trust, be 
 sufficiently apparent from the tenor of this report. None of these 
 has impressed me as being more significant and suggestive in their 
 import than that accompanied by the caution not to adopt an im- 
 possible standard of comparison. The least exceptionable, per- 
 haps, must be sought, certainly not in the particular constitu- 
 tional form with which we may be most conversant, but rather in 
 Asiatic Governments, or in that of Eussia, or in such of the 
 European as are least advanced or most retrograde. Comparison 
 even with these might not be altogether satisfactory, and, if I am 
 not deceived, the only true measure of the merits of a govern- 
 ment is the social and moral develoj^ment of the people ruled by 
 it. No administration, be it liberal or despotic, Mohammedan or 
 Christian, ought to be far behind or can be much in advance of 
 this condition. This is a test, the application of which to her- 
 self the Porte might accejDt with confidence. And the other crite- 
 rion of progress proposed by your Excellency, that of time, or 
 the Turkey of to-day compared with the Turkey of a given num- 
 ber of years ago, is one which I doubt not would be still more 
 favorable to her. 
 
 This was a standard which in my conversation with the Grand 
 Vizier naturally occurred to both of us. Almost a quarter of a 
 century, including the most eventful years of Turkish history, 
 had elapsed since we had last seen or conversed with each other. 
 I had known him in early life, at the commencement of his career, 
 when his fortunes, like those of most Turkish subaltern officers, 
 consisted of little else than hopes and aspirations, which, if I 
 deemed them extravagant, were, to do him justice, honorable and 
 patriotic. Our acquaintance was now renewed, when he had out- 
 grown even those aspirations, and in summing up the progress and 
 all that had been accomplished during that interval, and in which 
 he had, with no common zeal, energy, and singleness of purpose, 
 borne his part, it was feelingly and with honest pride that he 
 appealed to me, as to one resident in the country, and not igno-
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. 185 
 
 rant of its affairs, whether the result was not such as they could 
 fairly boast of. 
 
 "You are doubtless aware," he said, "that our revenue, which 
 thirty years ago was not £4,000,000, now amounts to £11,000,000 
 sterling ; that our commerce and agriculture have made com- 
 mensurate strides ; that the population of the empire, and par- 
 ticularly the Christian part of it, has been much and rapidly 
 augmented. Is such a fact consistent with the oppression they 
 are still said to be groaning under ? " 
 
 In support of his assertions with respect to the increase of trade, 
 his Highness entered into some interesting particulars connected 
 with the exportation of silk, as estimated by the customs returns ; 
 and he finally adverted to the progress made in their military or- 
 ganization, which, though still deficient in many respects, yet if 
 compared with what it was twenty years ago, must be by any 
 competent judge admitted to be extraordinary. The Porte, he 
 said, was most deeply interested in keeping up the numerical 
 strength and efficiency of her army, not only as a security against 
 foreign aggression, but as a preservative against anarchy in the 
 provinces. To put down this, and assist in the great and neces- 
 sary work of centralization, a powerful army was more than ever 
 indispensable. 
 
 " In respect, however to the extent to which anarchy still pre- 
 vails, you must confess," he said, "that we have again reason to 
 congratulate ourselves. You can remember the time when we 
 were emerging from a far more chaotic state of things ; when, to 
 instance only our European provinces, they were, with some soli- 
 tary exceptions, all of them in arms against each other, or against 
 the authority of the sovereign, whom the Pashas of Epirus, 
 Widdin, and Eustchuk, and the Servians, Bosnians, and Alba- 
 nians, held equally at defiance. But order is now the rule, and 
 anarchy the exception. Give us but fair play, and doubt not we 
 can defend our rights and regenerate our empire." 
 
 The year 1861 saw the death of Snltan Abdul Medjid, 
 after a reign of nearly twenty-two years. He had per- 
 sistently endeavored to carry out the reforms of his 
 predecessor, and had shown remarkable tact and firmness 
 in steering through the troubles with which he was sur- 
 rounded ; but the latter part of his reign showed that the
 
 186 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 demoralizing effect of the repeated loans was neutralizing 
 all that was done in the way of reform, and rotting the 
 foundations of the State. The expenditure on the Civil 
 List became exorbitant, and the immense marble royal 
 palace at Dolma-Baghtcheh became a landmark of ex- 
 travagance. He was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Aziz, 
 under whose reign Turkey was to sink into corruption. 
 Great were the hopes entertained of the new Sultan ; and 
 it was declared that under his able reign Turkey was to 
 be regenerated. Upon the confidence created by his de- 
 clared reforming tendencies, a new loan was obtained for 
 £8,000,000 sterling. 
 
 It soon became apparent that the new Sultan was under 
 the influence of his mother, the Yalideh Sultana, and she 
 gradually rose to be the principal means of obtaining ofiice. 
 Whatever appointment was wanted or whatever trans- 
 action was to be carried through, the approach was al- 
 ways made through the Yalideh Sultana ; and if sufficient 
 backshish was forthcoming, the point was gained. 
 
 The form of corruption increased to such an extent, that 
 in the latter part of the Sultan's reign, the VaUs, or 
 governor-generals of the vilaiets, were sometimes changed 
 every month. The Yalideh Sultana contrived to keep them 
 shifting round in their places like the buckets in a water- 
 wheel ; and as they successively poured their treasure 
 into her lap, she found it so profitable that she gave an 
 impetus to the velocity of the wheel. 
 
 This was an expensive process for the governor-generals, 
 and so they recouped themselves from their districts. In 
 fact, the government of the provinces became a miserable 
 farce. 
 
 If A wanted to get a firman to start a manufactory, or 
 B a concession to work a mine, or C was in difficulties with 
 a complicated law case, they scraped up as much money 
 as they could collect, and were off to Constantinople to 
 *'get" (to use a vulgar phrase) at the Yalideh Sultana; 
 and there they would remain for months, driving their 
 bargain.
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. 187 
 
 Of course the negotiations were carried on with great 
 art, and the "backshish" had to pass through and cling 
 to many hands before it reached the old lady. 
 
 The moment a Turkish sultan ascends the throne, the 
 discovery is made that he is endowed with extraordinary 
 administrative talents, and the most sanguine hopes are 
 raised for reform and good government. This is, prob- 
 ably, because the wish is father to the thought ; but it 
 is, unfortunately, but too often disappointed. 
 
 The deposition followed by the suicide of Sultan Abdul 
 Aziz placed his brother Sultan Mourad on the throne on 
 May 30, 1876 ; but, notwithstanding the flowing reports 
 of his abilities, it was soon found that he was little better 
 than an imbecile, and he was wisely deiDOsed in favor of 
 Sultan Hamed, who has certainly sho-\vn an anxiety for 
 reform, and some energy ; and considering the very diffi- 
 cult crisis in which he finds his country, it seems only fair 
 play that he should have time to show whether he is 
 capable of cariying out his promises. But whatever his 
 ability or energy may be, there is not much hope of suc- 
 cess so long as the foreign machinery for hatching rebel- 
 lions is allowed to have full play. 
 
 Agitation is lil^e froth — it can always be produced by 
 sufficient friction, and under any circumstances ; charges 
 of misgovernment could always be worked up against 
 Turkey or any other country. If foreigners were to read 
 and believe the accounts of some of the gatherings and 
 speeches at the Hyde Park meetings, they would think 
 that the English Government was one of the most tyran- 
 nical in Europe. How easy, therefore, must it be to get 
 up a " case " against Turkey ! but how cautious we ought 
 to be in believing all we hear ! Every robbery and every 
 murder that occurs in Turkey is immediately seized upon 
 and bruited about to the discredit of the Government. 
 "What false impressions might be given by a florid color- 
 ing to six months of our police reports in England ! or 
 supposing the accounts of the "casual ward," which ap- 
 peared in the Pall Mall Gazette a few years ago, were
 
 188 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 now recounted as happening in Turkey, what a storm of 
 indignation would be raised, and what strong language 
 would be used against that country ! 
 
 I do not for a moment pretend that Turkish adminis- 
 tration is all that can be desired — I think I have shown 
 that it is very far fi^om it, — ^but it is certainly not anything 
 like as bad as it is usually painted. 
 
 In forming our judgment on the Government of Turkey 
 we ought to take into consideration the very great diffi- 
 culties with which it has to contend, and we ought in 
 justice to give credit for work done, and not expect 
 Turkish reform to keep pace with English imagination. 
 In supiDort of what I have said as to actual progress made, 
 I will quote from another report from Consul-General 
 Longworth, made in 1867 : — 
 
 ""Whatever the distance left between the promises of 
 the Hatt-i-humayoun and the Porte' s perf onnances, any- 
 body who faiiiy and soberly takes into account all it has 
 to contend with, must feel far less surprise at its short- 
 comings than at what has been actually done by it." 
 
 In Turkey the great varieties of race render a govern- 
 ment possible in one place which might be impossible in 
 another, and the Porte has to take into consideration the 
 religious and other prejudices of the people. Just, for 
 instance, as we allow volunteers in England and Scotland, 
 but not in Ireland. 
 
 In explaining how this may be misrepresented, Consul- 
 General Longworth says : — 
 
 *' But the hand which had been so long heavy on the Christians 
 of Macedonia and Upper Albania, and more particularly in the 
 districts of Prilip, Kiuprili, Volo, Uscub, etc., has, however 
 reluctantly, been relaxed. The improvement in their condition 
 during the nine years I was Consul at Monastir was certainly, 
 whatever it may have been since, undeniable. The area, more- 
 over, on which intolerance was thus in its worst features dis- 
 played, was never at any time extensive, and even at present the 
 treatment of the Christians in these parts would, if accurately 
 depicted to the House of Commons, afford, I am convinced, a
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF ItEFOItM. 189 
 
 most inadequate and unjust idea of the general treatment of the 
 Christians in Turkey. 
 
 " But in parts of the country where the authority of the Cen- 
 tral Government is better established, the experience I speak from 
 I can trust as a voucher of progress to be better relied upon, and 
 the fact of my having visited and revisited such places at long 
 intervals may have served to render this more striking. When 
 first I became acquainted with Turkey, which was more than 
 thirty years ago, I could never have expected to see social equality 
 realized to the extent it has now been, and that in so short a 
 j)eriod. Ten years later the Eayah had begun to take his seat in 
 the Medjlis, but his abject spirit and obsequious dependent habits, 
 quite as much as his want of experience in affairs, made him unfit 
 for such functions ; he usually sat crouched in a corner, and gave 
 a silent vote on all occasions. As years went by his position im- 
 proved ; what the Christians wanted in rank and dignity, they 
 made up for by wealth and intelligence. They now claim equal 
 representation, and, in some places, even a majority of votes in 
 the Mixed Assemblies. 
 
 "In those of Eustchuk and Widdin, when I visited those places 
 in 1865, I was surprised to see the independent Burgesses (Tchor- 
 badjees) in European costume, fairly educated, and freely dis- 
 cussing the interests of the community with the Pasha and other 
 administrative and legal authorities. Such changes, it may be 
 supposed, could not have been effected in the Eayah without a 
 corresponding transformation of the Turk, the contrast of whose 
 present demeanor to the Christian with that which I once re- 
 member it to have been is indeed remarkable ; the only parallel 
 I can think of for that which it used to be is in conduct equally 
 unjust — perhaps unreasonable and arrogant — which has been 
 recently exhibited by orthodox and Catholic Europeans to the 
 Turks." 
 
 Again, in alluding to otlier matters in the same report, 
 he says : — 
 
 "In a mixed commission for the settlement of debts between 
 Turks and Christians, and the proceedings of which have been 
 brought to my notice, some 300 or 400 claims have been respec- 
 tively brought forward on both sides. On the part of the Turks 
 they were, without exception, whether substantiated by written
 
 190 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 receipts or oral testimony, at once admitted. Of those preferred 
 in the same manner against the Christians, how many will it be 
 supposed were in the first instance acknowledged by the parties 
 themselves ? Not one. If it be further asked how Christians 
 could have possibly sunk to so low a level of morality as to for- 
 swear themselves in this wholesale manner, I cannot positively 
 say, but I have a shrewd suspicion how it has happened. 
 
 '* Nothing has a more demoralizing effect than conscious power 
 operating on the minds of the sordid multitude, particularly when 
 they can make a merit of robbery in a fancied spoiling of the 
 Egyptians. It is curious, on the other hand, to trace the retrib- 
 utive effect of a vicious system. The legal fiction whereby the 
 evidence of Mussulmans was substituted for that of Christians in. 
 the Mehkemeh must have tended not only to vitiate its proceed- 
 ings, but have inspired Christians with indifference to perjury in. 
 their dealings with Mussulmans. 
 
 "The treatment of the Christians in Turkey with reference to 
 the pledges of the Hatt-i-Humayoun opens an interminable field 
 of inquiry ; even as the document itself confers on those invest- 
 ed with this inquisitorial power the unlimited right of inter- 
 ference. At least this is the construction put upon it ; and the 
 most comjilete conquest ever made of a nation, that which enti- 
 tles the conqueror to say '* woe to the vanquished," has never 
 conferred a right more sweeping, vexatious, and intolerable than 
 this. And yet Turke}'', I need scarcely say, was not among the 
 vanquished. And if, as we continually hear, we and others 
 fought her battles for her, we did so not more, it may be an- 
 swered, than she ours for us. 
 
 " Public opinion, or those who pi'ofess to be its guides, declare 
 that such a league can never be renewed, which means, I suppose, 
 our interests can never again prompt us thereto. However that 
 may be, it is no reason we should concur in the rash judgments, 
 but deliberate bad faith, in the false suggestion and suborned tes- 
 timony, by which Turkey is now in the course of being overborne 
 and undermined. 
 
 " The great mistake is leaving nothing to time. Time alone 
 can bridge a period of transition, reconcile interests, and obliter- 
 ate scars. This is the reason, too, why it is so much easier for 
 some of the conquered races than for others to make their peaco 
 with the Ottoman ; they are more patient than the rest."
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. 191 
 
 This is all strong evidence of how necessary it is to be 
 cautious in forming a hasty judgment on Turkish admin- 
 istration. I beg my reader to compare the foregoing re- 
 ports, written in 1867, with the report I have given as writ- 
 ten by the same gentleman in 1860, and it will at once be 
 apparent how great a stride was made on the path of re- 
 form in that short space of time. The execution of the 
 law greatly depends upon the character of the governor 
 of the district, consequently we may find the rei)orts from 
 one quarter all that can be desired, while from another the 
 reverse is the case. The following description from Consul 
 Stuart in Epirus, in 1867, although it is favorable to the 
 Turk in the way of religious toleration, shows what in- 
 justice may be perpetrated through the absence of an 
 honest head to watch over the conduct of the Courts : — 
 
 "1. Religious Liherty. — This principle is here scrupulously 
 respected. All the Christians in Epirus, with the exception of a 
 few foreigners, belong to the Greek Church. The places of wor- 
 ship are numeroiis, their services are frequent, and some of their 
 ceremonies and processions are attended with much public dis- 
 play. But they are never interfered with in their religious exer- 
 cises ; complaints of disrespect or contempt toward their faith 
 are rarely, if ever, heard ; and during a residence of nearly six 
 years in the country, only two or three instances have come to 
 my knowledge of indignity offered to Christianity. In one case 
 little boys were the offenders, and due amends were offered by 
 their parents. In another, some grain was deposited by a Mussul- 
 man proprietor in a church, but on complaint being made, it was 
 at once removed by order of the local governor, and the act was 
 publicly censured. In some places where the inhabitants are in 
 part Mussulmans, bells are not allowed in the Christian churches. 
 This is commonly put forward as a grievance. The term * ' Giaour " 
 is sometimes applied in contempt to Christians ; terms of religious 
 contumely are, I believe, in common use in every country where 
 different forms of religion co-exist. 
 
 "9.. Judicial Rights. — The administration of justice is extremely 
 defective in this country. The tribunals, with the exception of 
 the Mehkemeh, or Court of the Sacred Law, are all composed of 
 standing members who exercise the functions of judge and jury,
 
 192 TUEKET IN EUROPE. 
 
 and who are cliosen in given proportions from tlie diiferent reli- 
 gious denominations : the Preside at being always a Mussulman. 
 All these courts are characterized by the deepest corruption and 
 venality. Judgments are sold with but little attempt at conceal- 
 ment ; so that in suits between Ottoman subjects, and sometimes, 
 too, when others are concerned, the verdict is commonly in favor 
 of the party which pays best. The proceedings of the courts, 
 moreover, are out of all reason dilatory. As a rule the examina- 
 tion of a case depends on the pleasure of the court, and is en- 
 treated as a favor rather than demanded as a right. Judgment 
 is but too often suspended for no other reason than to give time 
 for underhand solicitations, and to see which of the litigants will 
 bid highest for their verdict. 
 
 *' Such is the general character of the courts of law in this 
 country. No government can be blameless that sanctions or per- 
 mits a system so fraught with mischief to the first interests of 
 society. All the odium, however, must not be thrown on the 
 Turks ; a large share of it belongs to the Christians — first, to 
 those who are members of the different courts, and who are in 
 general more dexterous and not less keen than their colleagues in 
 turning to account the opportunities at their command ; secondly, 
 to the mass of the Christian community who, while continually 
 complaining of the injustice of their rulers, are ever ready to 
 profit by the vicious administration of the law, and are by no 
 means, it is believed, desirous that it should be changed for the 
 better. 
 
 Personal Treatment. — My experience in this country contra- 
 dicts what is commonly said of the wanton cruelty of Mussul- 
 mans toward their Christian fellow-subjects. Cases of brutality 
 no doubt occur here, as they do in every country ; but I do not 
 believe that the Christians are habitually subjected to personal ill- 
 treatment. Like all Orientals, they are adepts in the art of com- 
 plaint, and of telling piteous stories ; with admirable skill they 
 can feign distress, and get up moving scenes of a nature to 
 awaken sympathy in their favor, and to beget aversion toward 
 those whom they hate. But the truth is, that many Christains 
 in humble life choose to serve Mussulmans rather than persons 
 of their own faith. Mussulmans, as landlords, have the name of 
 being more easy than Christians ; as employers, more liberal ; as 
 masters, more indulgent. They are in every way more consider-
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM, I93 
 
 ate for their dependents ; and, -R^liat is too common with the 
 Christians, they rarely cast ofi a sick or worn-out follower. 
 
 What a different picture we find here to that cast whole- 
 sale among the public by agitators who have never been 
 in Turkey. The late rebellion in Herzegovina is another 
 instance of the system of hatching rebellion (such as 
 occurred in Crete, and has since occurred in Bulgaria), 
 and the following letters from Consul Holmes are evidence 
 
 of the fact : — 
 
 Bosna-Serai, July 2, 1875. 
 " I have the honor to report to your Lordship that there is dis- 
 turbance in the Herzegovina. Early last winter, some 164 of the 
 inhabitants of the district of Nevessin left their homes and went 
 into Montenegro. After remaining there some months, however, 
 they petitioned the Porte to be allowed to return to Kevessin. 
 The governor-general advised the Porte to reply, that as they had 
 chosen to leave their country for Montenegro, they might remain 
 there. The Government, however, decided to accept their re- 
 quest, and allowed them to return. Shortly afterwards they 
 appeared in revolt, declared that they were oppressed, refusing to 
 pay their taxes or to admit the police among them, and they have 
 been endeavoring by intimidation to cause their neighbors in the 
 surrounding districts to join them. The Mutessarif of Mostar 
 invited them to come to that place to state their grievances, which 
 he assured them would be redressed, but they refused, and the 
 governor-general tells me that they cut to pieces a man quite un- 
 connected with them who had gone to Mostar to seek redress for 
 some grievance, and threatened with the same fate any within, 
 their reach who should do so in future. The governor-general 
 informs me that at present he has no intention of sending troops 
 against them, but will prevent their efforts to extend their revolt 
 by surrounding these districts with policemen, and he will proba- 
 bly send some of the notables of Serajevo to endeavor to bring 
 them to reason. Thus the matter stands at present." 
 
 Bosna-Serai, July 9, 1875. 
 " With reference to my despatch of the 2nd July, regarding 
 the disturbances in the Herzegovina, I have the honor to inform 
 your Lordship that on the same day the governor-general sent 
 13
 
 194 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Haidar Bey and Petrarclii Effendi, two notables of Serajevo, to 
 communicate with the insurgents, who belong to the four vil- 
 lages of Loukavach, Sovidol, Belgrade, and Terrousine, in the dis- 
 trict of Nevessin. 
 
 "Before they reached these villages, however, the disaffected 
 peasants, who had forced and persuaded many others to Join 
 them, had attacked and captured a caravan of twenty-five horses on 
 the road from Mostar to Nevessin, belonging to some merchants of 
 Serajevo, laden with rice, sugar, and coffee, which they carried off 
 to the village of Odrichnia. At the same time they murdered and 
 decapitated five Turkish travelers, named Salih Kassumovich, 
 Marich, Samich, Ali of Nevessin, and another whose name is not 
 yet known, a native of Hrasne. One of the insurgents, named 
 Tchoubate, at the head of about 300 followers, drove away forty 
 zaptiehs placed in the defile of Stolatz, and separating into small 
 bands, have for the moment intercepted the various roads in tho 
 neighborhood. One band is stationed at the bridge over the 
 Kruppa, and renders the road between Mostar and Meteovich un- 
 safe. The detached bands of insurgents are endeavoring to force 
 others to join them by burning the houses of those who refuse to 
 do so, and other means of intimidation. 
 
 " The Governor-General has received telegrams from Mostar, 
 signed by the two commissioners and the Mutessarif and com- 
 mander of the troops at Mostar, stating these facts ; also that the 
 headless bodies of the Turks have been recovered and buried. 
 Under these circumstances the commissioners hesitated to con- 
 tinue their journey ; and the authorities at Mostar state that 
 great excitement prevails throughout the Mussulman population, 
 who are impatient to attack the insurgents and avenge the savage 
 murders of their co-religionists, whose decapitation has jmrticu- 
 larly roused their feelings ; and requesting five battalions to keep 
 order." 
 
 Such was the commencement of the rebellion, and the 
 following extract from a letter from Consul Holmes, dated 
 Sept. 28, 1875, is evidence of how it was worked : — 
 
 " Our colleagues of Austria, Germany, and Italy arrived at 
 Mostar on the 23rd, with the same impressions and the same 
 results as ourselves.
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFOUM 195 
 
 " The chiefs of the insurgents demanded a European interyen- 
 tion and an armistice to allow them to consult and assemble at any 
 place which might be fixed to discuss their affairs. They do not, 
 and never have desired independence or annexation to Montene- 
 gro, but they wish to remain Turkish subjects under very exten- 
 sive administrative reforms, the execution of which to be guaran- 
 teed by Europe. 
 
 ** Whatever your Excellency may hear to the contrary, I can 
 assure you that, in the Herzegovina, the only part of the people 
 wishing for annexation to Montenegro are the districts adjoining 
 the frontier from Sutorina to Kolashine. These districts are 
 mere rocks, the scanty population herdsmen ; and they are a 
 burden rather than a profit to Turkey. The frontier districts of 
 Bilokia receive annually : — 
 
 Piastres. Piastres. 
 
 From the Government for the pay of Pandours 124,000 
 
 And pay for taxes 93,284 
 
 Which leaves a charge on the Government of 30,716 
 
 The districts of Trebigne receive 123,000 
 
 And pay for taxes 54,400 
 
 68,600 
 
 Those of Piva receive 128,250 
 
 And pay for taxes 108,594 
 
 19,656 
 
 118,973 
 
 *' Thus these districts are an absolute annual loss to the Porte 
 of about 119,000 piastres. In Bosnia, almost to a man, the popu- 
 lation would refuse to be annexed to Servia or Austria, and they 
 have never dreamed of independence, which from the nature of 
 circumstances and the state of education, is impracticable. They 
 also only wish to be Turkish subjects, but to be governed with 
 justice, and placed on an equality in law with the Mussulman 
 compatriots. 
 
 " There is no doubt that the Mussulmans and Christians agree 
 much better in Bosnia than in the Herzegovina, where there is 
 much more oppression to complain of ; at the same time, ac- 
 quainted as I am with the social condition of the country during 
 fifteen years, I do not hesitate to declare that the oppression in the 
 Herzegovina in general is greatly exaggerated by the Christians, 
 and that the discontent which undoubtedly exists against most of
 
 196 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 the chief Turkish landowners, and against the zaptiehs and tax- 
 farmers, has leeii the excuse rather than the cause of the revolt, 
 which was assuredly arranged lij Servian agitators and accom- 
 plished ly force. The mass of the inhabitants, imaryned, had no 
 choice. Their homes were devastated and their lives threatened, 
 and they were ordered to follow their leaders. And noio the ruin 
 is such that those who wish to submit cannot. They have no homes 
 to go to, and the armed bands threaten all ivho breathe a ivhisperof 
 submissio7i. These bands are all formed of a mixture of peojyle 
 from different parts of the country, and all mutually watch each 
 other to preve?it any combination to submit. 
 
 " The ruin and devastation in the plain of Kevessin and along 
 all the Dalmatian frontier, and wherever the insurgents have 
 passed, is piteous to behold, and renders any satisfactory arrange- 
 ment more hopeless than it would otherwise have been. 
 
 " Your Excellency will observe that I have passed over the 
 grievances of which the insurgents complain in a few general 
 terms, because I think that at present the principal question is 
 how to put an end as soon as possible to the actual state of affairs, 
 which is apparently a complete deadlock." 
 
 Now, I would beg my reader to remember how the 
 attempt to get up a rebellion in Bulgaria in 1868 was 
 managed (page i'^3 ), and how completely it failed, owing to 
 the energy of Midhat Pasha, but how exactly similar the 
 programme was to what is now enacted. If the oppression 
 of the Herzegovina Christians was as great as represented, 
 how is it that they were satisfied to remain as subjects of 
 the Sultan, and did not cry out for annexation to civilized 
 Austria, their near neighbor, or to free and independent 
 Servia? The testimony of a gentleman like Consul 
 Holmes, who could have no possible object or interest in 
 misrepresenting facts, may be assumed to be accurate ; but 
 when we see the manner in which the rebellion was 
 fomented, and the thorough organization from •^i.thout by 
 which it was carried on, we must receive all reports from 
 committees of the rebels with the greatest caution and 
 doubt. 
 
 A broad distinction must be drawn between the Turkish
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REFORM. I97 
 
 people and their rulers — the former deserve mucli praise, 
 and the latter great blame. But a large share of the blame 
 is attributable to the corrupt reign of Sultan Abdul Aziz, 
 and it is in the power of a wise and honest sovereign to 
 right the ship yet. 
 
 A hard task, however, devolves upon him, as the seeds 
 of corruption have taken firm root in all parts of the 
 empire, and time is necessary to eradicate them. 
 
 The machinery and organization of the administration 
 is all that could be desired, which is a great step in 
 advance, so that it is not necessary to pass new laws, but 
 only to cany out with justice those which already exist. 
 Mohammedans have suffered from the maladministration 
 of justice just as much, and even more, than the Christians, 
 but they have borne it with greater patience. 
 
 The Turks themselves, high and low, have for some 
 years past sighed over the state into which their country 
 was sinking ; and as they truly said, it was not the fault 
 of the nation, but of the corrupt and all-powerful head. 
 I was talking to a highly educated and exceedingly clever 
 Turk a few months ago about the affairs of his country, 
 and I asked him what he considered as its greatest 
 necessity. He replied, " Justice within and justice from 
 withoiit." 
 
 The Turkish administrators find themselves in the posi- 
 tion of being in possession of an article — patronage — for 
 which there is an eager demand, and they sell it to the 
 highest bidder, and vdth it the interests of their country. 
 But it is not venality alone that is the cause of the short- 
 comings of Turkey. There are other nations quite as 
 venal, and yet they advance rapidly in civilization. The 
 apathy and procrastination in every department of the 
 State, great and small, in every private house, high and 
 low, in every transaction, however important or however 
 trifling, are the causes which attenuate progress to such 
 meagre dimensions. The Turkish ofiicial seldom refuses, 
 but always postpones. 
 
 If I had to devise a Turkish banner, I should inscribe
 
 198 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 on one side of it, "Evet Effendim" (Certainly, Sir), on tlie 
 other, "Yarin" (To-morrow), and below, tlie motto, 
 "There is but one God, and backsliish is Ms prophet." 
 The Christians in Turkey possess these faults quite as 
 much, and even more, than the Ottomans, who indeed 
 were inoculated with them on their conquest of the coun- 
 try. So long as they exist, so long must Turkey lag in 
 the path of progress, and the only means of cure are 
 railways, telegraph, and time.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 EX EOUTE AGAIIS". 
 
 Turkish Cavalry— The Chatal Dagli — Slivmia— Cloth Factories — Turkish 
 Justice — A Turkish foi-m of Friendship — Geology of the Balkan— Land 
 of the Bulgarian Atrocities — A Turk in adversity — A Hurricane — Yeni 
 Zaghra — Turkish Officials — Eski Zaghra — Anarchy in Turkey — Silver 
 Factory — A Bedridden Interpreter — Kezanlik — Attar of Eose. 
 
 "VrOW tliat we have examined the character of the 
 -l-^ Turk, and found from whence he came and how he 
 found his way to Europe, and all the troubles he has 
 brought upon himself by changing his nomad nature, we 
 will return to Yanboli, and continue our travels among 
 Ottoman subjects. Our next ride was to Slivmia, or 
 Slimno, or Islivne, or Islandje, for I beg my reader not to 
 consider that any of the names of places found in my 
 work have any claim to accuracy of spelling ; on the con- 
 trary, they are merely spelled phonetically, as the sounds 
 fell upon my ear. It would only be pedantic to attempt 
 to do otherwise, for there are as many ways of spelling 
 the names of Turldsh towns as there are maps of Turkey, 
 and even in the country itself the same town is called by 
 different names by different races. 
 
 After clearing the vineyards of Yanboli, which are very 
 extensive, and must occupy as much as two thousand 
 acres of land, we rose a long and gentle incline for about 
 an hour, and the monotony of the dreary corn-growing 
 country was only relieved by the sight of an untidy -look- 
 ing squadron of wretchedly mounted Turkish cavalry. 
 What would Togrul Beg, who was the son of Michel, who 
 was the son of Seljuk, have said of these miserable de- 
 scendants of his renowned horse ? 
 
 199
 
 200 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 On cresting tlie liill we were rewarded for our dreary 
 ride by a most cliarming view of the Balkan Mountains, 
 rising from a long plain which, stretched before us, with 
 groves of trees here and there, which marked the sites of 
 villages. The large and important town of Slivmia lay 
 snugly at the foot of the Chatal Dagh, which rises to a 
 height of 3,575 feet above the sea, and appeared about 
 four miles off ; but distance is very deceptive in the clear 
 air of that country, and we found the four miles length- 
 ened themselves out to twelve before we arrived at the 
 town. The appearance of the mountains here is very pe- 
 culiar. The quartz-porphyry range of the Chatal Dagh 
 rises in Jagged peaks and rocks and eccentric forms of a 
 dark and sombre color, out of the smooth and rounded 
 outlines of the calcareous mountains on each side of it, 
 and the jagged outline of the great mass of this eruptive 
 rock is most distinctly marked, and gives much grandeur 
 to the scenery, which is here very varied. Such was the 
 view to the north, while away to the southward, far in the 
 distance, rose the high tortoise-back of the Sakar Bair, a 
 great syenite mountain, which seems to have done some- 
 thing to offend cartograiDhers, for although it rises to a 
 height of 3,000 feet above the sea, it is not noticed in most 
 maps. Brophy had telegraphed to a Polish friend to ex- 
 pect us, and after about five hours' ride through culti- 
 vated land, and past several Bulgarian villages, some with 
 the minaret peeping through the trees, to mark the creed 
 of the inhabitants, and others with the less conspicuous 
 Greek Church, we approached the handsome town of 
 Slivmia. 
 
 "We were most hospitably received by the Polish engi- 
 neer, who made us comfortable in his well-shaded house, 
 which rejoiced in a large veranda formed of a trellis- 
 work of vines, with luscious bunches of grapes within 
 tempting reach. 
 
 Roughly speaking, I should say that Slivmia contained 
 twenty-five thousand inhabitants, composed of Turks, 
 Bulgarians, and a few Greeks, Jews, and gipsies. It is
 
 CLOTH FACTORIES. 201 
 
 the seat of a Liva, and a military station for a regiment of 
 cavalry and infantry, and also a battery of artillery. 
 
 I had been told that there were no mannfactories in 
 Turkey, but I here found one for making cloth which 
 would have done credit to England. It is a Government 
 institution, and turns out 200,000 yards of cloth annually 
 for the army. I noticed that the machinery was all Bel- 
 gian. All the women employed are gipsies. They were 
 a wild-looking set, some of the girls hideously ugly, and 
 others remarkably pretty, with that lively, careless, and 
 independent air which is so characteristic of the nation. 
 I was told that morality was not one of their virtues, but 
 they are kept in excellent order while in the factory. 
 The town is kept healthy and clean by running streams 
 led from the mountains, and which ramify through the 
 whole place. All the slaughter-houses are obliged to be 
 in one quarter, and the animals are killed over the stream, 
 which prevents effluvium. 
 
 I now had an experience of a Turkish court, Brophy 
 having a case to bring before it. The Governor, Djavid 
 Pasha, had appointed the next morning for his attend- 
 ance, and the case was follows : — 
 
 The Consul had an English bailiff, who, while sitting in 
 a khan, where the favorite spirit of the country, raki, was 
 abundant, fancied himself insulted by a young Turk of 
 good family, but who had been partaking too freely of the 
 national stimulant. The Englishman walked tip to the 
 Turk to expostulate, and whether the latter thought by 
 the expression of his countenance that he looked danger- 
 ous, I cannot say, but he drew his sword, and, Turkish 
 fashion, attempted to hit him with the back of it. Bro- 
 phy, who was present, flew at the Turk, and a scuffle en- 
 sued ; but swords are sharp things to rough and tumble 
 over, and the result was that all three parties suffered 
 from some trifling cuts. 
 
 Brophy complained to the Caimakam of his district, and 
 was informed that the Turk was imprisoned. This was 
 literally true, but he was let out again the next day, and
 
 202 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 was now at large. Brophy took tlie matter up seriously, 
 and the result was the presence of both parties before the 
 Pasha, or governor of the Liva, with whom Brophy hap- 
 pened to be acquainted. The Turk belonged to a family 
 of very great influence, and it was a delicate case. 
 
 We made our way to the konak, or government house, 
 and were ushered into th.Q presence of the Pasha, who 
 received us with great cordiality. Turkish courts are all 
 alike, so if I describe one I describe all. It will not take 
 much s]3ace, as the only furniture is a carpet, with a divan 
 all round the room, and one small table for the Pasha' s 
 ink, etc. The courts are open, and anybody may enter 
 and listen to any case which may be going on. We were 
 given the seats of honor close to the Pasha, and coffee and 
 cigarettes were produced, and while we were disposing 
 of them, several petitions were presented, upon which the 
 Pasha made his notes after conferring with the Cadi, or 
 judge, who sat on his right. It is the custom in Turkey 
 never to approach any subject of business until you have 
 wasted some, perhaps, precious minutes in talking about 
 generalities, and after this form had been gone through, 
 the Pasha commenced to regret that Brophy should have 
 been put to so much annoyance by a hot-headed and 
 drunken young man, who was constantly getting into 
 trouble. 
 
 It was a matter which must either be treated with the 
 greatest gravity, or with the contempt which it deserved, 
 and he should strongly advise the latter course, which, if 
 Brophy agreed to follow, he (the Pasha) would call up the 
 young Turk before the whole court, and make him pub- 
 licly apologize for his offense. Would the Consular Bey 
 take a day to think over it, and attend again to-morrow ? 
 
 After we had left the court, I felt that under all the cir- 
 cumstances the Pasha had given good advice, and I 
 strongly recommended Brophy to accept it, which he de- 
 termined to do. The next day we attended, and first met 
 the Pasha in a private room. As soon as the generalities 
 were got over, Brophy informed him of his decision. It
 
 WIXE AND THE KORAK 203 
 
 was evidently a great relief to his miiid, but 1 was not a 
 little astonislied at his method of showing his delight. 
 Selecting \^ith care a particular hair in Brophy's whiskers, 
 he, with a sudden jerk, di-agged it out, and assured him 
 he was his best and firmest friend. Brophy rubbed his 
 cheek, as he took the compliment quite complacently, and 
 I afterwards learned that in Turkish society this plucking 
 out a man's beard by the roots is considered a mark of 
 great condescension and friendship. 
 
 We now adjourned to the court, which was well filled. 
 The young Turk was brought in as a prisoner, and in a 
 very dignified manner the Pasha informed him that the 
 Consular Bey, with great condescension and generosity, 
 and in consideration of the feelings of his family, had con- 
 sented to overlook his offense, and accept an apology ; 
 that he might consider himself fortunate that he did not 
 get a month' s imprisonment, and had it not been for his 
 youth that punishment would certainly have been inflicted 
 upon him. The Pasha then rated him most severely, and 
 ordered him to apologize. Whereupon the young Turk 
 stepped forward before the whole court, humbly took 
 Brophy's hand, kissed it, and demanded pardon. 
 
 I have given the details of this case, of which I was an 
 eye-witness, because it was an influential Turk versus a 
 Christian in a Turkish court, and I must confess that the 
 Pasha showed much common sense as well as justice in the 
 way in which he dealt vdth a very delicate case. 
 
 I have elsewhere alluded to the sobriety of the Turks, 
 and this case and others to which I may have to allude 
 may appear like a contradiction, but I applied the term to 
 the people generally, and not to the upper classes, and 
 especially government officials, who, I am sorry to say, 
 sometimes drink spirit as though it was water. Wine 
 they do not touch, as it is forbidden in the Koran, but 
 when that sacred book was written the art of distillation 
 was happily unknown, and consequently spmt was not 
 forbidden, therefore Mohammedans sometimes observe the 
 letter but not the "spmt" of the law. The lower classes
 
 204 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 of Turks are as a rule very sober, far more so tlian any 
 nation it has ever been my fortune to meet. 
 
 There are most extensive vineyards in the neighborhood 
 of Slivmia, and the wdne, which is of a Burgundy char- 
 acter, is excellent ; but the vine-growers were in great 
 distress this year in consequence of the destruction of 
 the greater part of their vintage from a severe hail- 
 storm. 
 
 From Slivmia there are two routes to Kezanlik, one by 
 the valley of the Tundja, and the other by Yeni Zaghra 
 and Eski Zaghra. These two routes are divided by an 
 important range of mountains, which are but imperfectly 
 marked in maps of the country. They commence from 
 the S.W. of Slivmia and run parallel to the Balkan, in- 
 creasing in height until they reach the Karadja Dagh on 
 the west, just south of Kalofer. 
 
 The geological formation of these hills is exactly the 
 reverse of that of the great Balkan, where the north side 
 of the range is composed of cretaceous, and the southern 
 of crystalline rocks. As the Karadja Dagh is approached, 
 the cretaceous rocks break away to the south, leaving that 
 mountain with a dolomite northern, and red sandstone 
 southern, front. As might be expected, the appearance 
 of the hills varies with the geological formation. Between 
 Yeni Zaghra and Eski Zaghra they are rounded and tol- 
 erably steep, while as the Karadja Dagh is approached 
 they become very steep and more rugged. 
 
 As Brophy wished to visit Yeni Zaghi'a, we chose that 
 route, and after crossing the Tundja, soon after leaving 
 Slivmia, we dipped over the low hills into the great fluvia- 
 tile plain of the upper Maritza and its affluents. This 
 plain reminded me of the Banat in Hungary, excepting 
 that it is more thickly populated, and that it contains a 
 few more trees than the latter country. 
 
 We are now approaching the district which was the 
 scene of the Bulgarian atrocities ; but I write from my 
 notes taken in 1874, and I shall leave it to the reader to 
 judge whether we found a country brought to such a pitch
 
 A SAD SIGHT. 205 
 
 of poverty and miseiy as to be forced into rebellion against 
 their oppressors. 
 
 It must be remembered, that although I was a compara- 
 tive stranger to the country, and therefore liable to be 
 deceived by first and favorable imiDressions, I was ac- 
 comiDanied by a gentleman who was not only intimately 
 acquainted mth the country, but was also, from his official 
 position, enabled to obtain interviews with many of the 
 better class of natives, Bulgarian as well as Turkish, 
 many of whom were his personal friends. We, were, there- 
 fore, not likely to be deceived, and if the Bulgarians had 
 any grievances they would have been only too glad of the 
 opportunity of pouring them out to the "Consulus Bey," 
 or English Consul. 
 
 It was now the 2oth of August ; harvest was over, and 
 threshing was going on in many of the Bulgarian villages 
 we passed, while others were encu'cled with numerous 
 stacks of grain still in the straw. Plo^ving was active, 
 and farmers were busy ; and well they might be with such 
 a generous soil as the rich alluvial land they were culti- 
 vating. As soon as we came upon the flat plain, which 
 extends to the west and south as far as the eye can reach, 
 we met the new highway road from Philippopolis to 
 Yanboli by way of Eski Zaghra and Yeni Zaghra, with 
 the telegraph wires running on poles beside it. This road 
 was new, and it would then compare favorably with our 
 largest and best roads in England ; but, unfortunately, in 
 Turkey, although large sums are often laid out in making 
 a highway, nothing is ever expended in keeping it in 
 order. The consequence is, that a very few years after- 
 ward the original expenditure is but a useless waste of 
 money, for the road becomes impassable for wheeled 
 carriages. 
 
 At one spot we came upon a sad sight — a Turkish 
 farmer sitting by the side of his numerous stacks of grain, 
 the product of his year's industry ; but they were no 
 longer golden from the yellow straw, but red from the 
 glowing fire which had consumed them. It was supposed
 
 206 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 that some one liaci carelessly thrown the end of a cigarette 
 into the straw in passing, and the thoughtless act had 
 destroyed more than eight hundred pounds worth of 
 grain. The man was a Turk, and, as a consequence, he 
 was calm, dignified, and patient in adversity. He said 
 that it was " written on his forehead" — the usual phrase 
 to signify that it was the will of the Almighty that 
 he should be punished. The neighboring Turks and 
 Christians who were around showed much symjpathy for 
 him, and it was proposed to start a subscription to helj) 
 in making good his loss. 
 
 The sun was very hot, the heat extremely oppressive ; 
 the haze on the horizon in our front gradually thickened 
 until it assumed that leaden hue which betokens a thunder- 
 cloud, and I soon witnessed one of the heaviest storms of 
 my experience. The air was perfectly calm, but far away 
 on the plain in our front there was a black approaching 
 wall, and we could see sticks and leaves and dust whirl- 
 ing about in the air with gTeat velocity. There was a 
 khan about a quarter of a mile ahead, so, setting spurs to 
 our horses, we pushed for it as hard as we could gallop. 
 A low moaning noise could be heard, which gradually 
 grew into a roar as the clearly-defined bank of dust rushed 
 upon us ; and then, as though to be in keeping with the 
 tragic effect, there came a vivid flash of lightning and a 
 loud and simultaneous clajD of thunder, just as the storm 
 struck us. So thick was the black dust that I could not 
 see Brophy, who was not five yards from me ; and 
 although we were then not a hundred yards from the 
 khan, by the time we arrived there we were covered with 
 it from head to foot, and looked like negroes. 
 
 The storm was not very grand, and great whirlwinds of 
 dust and rubbish rose in spiral clouds high into the air, 
 while the thunder and lightning were almost continuous. 
 One vivid flash struck the earth, about a hundred yards 
 from the khan, w^itli a loud smack, like the sharp crack 
 of a whip, and the rain came down in such torrents that 
 we were not sorry to have found shelter. After waiting
 
 TENI ZAGEBA. 207 
 
 an liour the rain still continued, but the wind had died 
 away, so we pushed on. Signs of the storm were every- 
 where visible, in fallen telegraph posts, and parts of the 
 road washed away ; the flat plain was nearly turned into 
 a lake, and toward evening we arrived at the town of 
 Yeni Zaghra, which was almost under water. I hate a 
 plain — nature and my legs intended me for the mountains, 
 — and I consequently thought Yeni Zaghra a most miser- 
 able place ; but it was evident that a vast number of 
 peoi)le thought otherwise, for I never saw a more busy 
 town. Building was going on in every direction, and the 
 clack, clack of the hammers sounded like a builder's 
 yard. The houses were good, and built of small bricks 
 between beams of wood, like some of the old houses of 
 Cheshii'e and Worcestershire. One part of the town is 
 Turkish and the other Bulgarian ; or rather, I should say, 
 one part is Mohammedan and the other Christian, for they 
 are nearly all Bulgarians. We were fortunate in getting 
 into a perfectly new khan, so that there were none of my 
 old enemies, the bugs ; but the rain had come through the 
 roof, and the wooden floors upon which we had to sleep 
 were sodden with wet. The Caimacam, or Turkish gover- 
 nor, came to visit us ; and while he and Brophy were dis- 
 cussing the affairs of state with the usual accompaniments 
 of cigarettes and raki, I stirred up the khanjee, or inn- 
 keeper, to provide some food ; but it was past ten o'clock 
 before we could get anything to eat. This is the weak 
 point in traveling in Turkey : the fact is that the well-to- 
 do natives, when traveling, have always the house of some 
 friend to go to, and he passes them on to some other 
 friend at the next station, and so on. The wants of the 
 poorer classes are so moderate that a piece of bread and 
 a bit of cheese is all that they require ; they are imper- 
 vious to bugs, and would feel quite lonely and ennuye 
 without the titiUatrng company of fleas. The consequence 
 is that the khans are provided only for these poorer 
 classes ; and the hungry well-to-do traveler must be 
 content with a bit of bread and cheese, and must then
 
 208 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 offer himself up as a delicate and tender morsel for the 
 feast and revels of the various insectivorse, vt^hich crawling, 
 hopping, and flying, infest the place. 
 
 The Caimacam of Yeni Zaghra was very civil and 
 obliging, and begged me to Join in the "circling glass" of 
 raid, instead of busying myself with seeing after dinner 
 and arranging beds, etc., for the night ; but I refused to 
 be a "spmt medium," much to the astonishment of the 
 fat Turk. 
 
 I have noticed two distinct types of Turkish officials, 
 namely, the fat and the lean kine. 
 
 The fat variety is generally coarse, vulgar, and bump- 
 tious ; while the lean officer is refined, courteous, and a 
 perfect gentleman. 
 
 I imagine that the latter type more nearly represents 
 the true Turk stock, as I was able to detect a Tartar-look 
 in their physiognomy. It was as though a skillful sculp- 
 tor had taken a Tartar face and chiseled refinement and 
 beauty u^Don it. The Caimacam whom I met at Burgas 
 before I left that town was of the latter type, and would 
 have done credit to any society in any part of the world. 
 
 I found that the value of land in the neighborhood of 
 Yeni Zaghra was as much as £50 an acre ; and that be- 
 tween that town and Eski Zaghra land could not be bought 
 under £10 per acre, and it was very scarce at that price. 
 The town now boasts of a railway station on the line 
 leading from Adrianople to Yanboli. 
 
 Our ride from Yeni Zaghra to Eski Zaghra lay along the 
 new carriage road which runs at the foot of the range of 
 hills on the right. This country was then thickly popu- 
 lated, and for twenty miles I passed village after village, 
 prettily ensconced at the foot of the hills, and separated 
 by an average distance of about a mile. They were all 
 Bulgarian, but many were Mohammedan, and they were 
 all most prosperous and thriving. Every inch of land was 
 cultivated, and I heard that the male population had be- 
 come so excessive that many young men had to leave their 
 homes and seek occupation in other parts of Turkey.
 
 WAR TAXES. 209 
 
 There were complaints of brigands who infested the neigh- 
 boring mountains ; and I was shown a house in one viUage 
 which had been attacked a few months before, and where 
 the owner had been shot by these lawless scoundrels. This 
 sounds alarming, and as though life and property were 
 not safe ; but we may parallel it in England if we desig- 
 nate our burglars by the more alarming title of brigands, 
 and look over our police reports for a few years past. A 
 few accounts of our Fenian riots, well colored and related 
 as occurring in Turkey, would make the country sound 
 very unsafe. Fancy, if it was now related that a Bulga- 
 rian landed proprietor could only walk about his own 
 estate in safety, accompanied by half a dozen policemen 
 with loaded rifles to protect him from ambuscades laid for 
 him by the fanatical Turks. How many hundreds of years 
 would these anti-human specimens of humanity be thrust 
 back in civilization ! Yet this was what occurred in Ire- 
 land but a few years ago. If I was to relate a case of a 
 Turk, who first seduced and then murdered a Bulgarian 
 woman, cut her up in small pieces, and burned her flesh in 
 the fireplace of the very room he was inhabiting, it would 
 make a very terrible story ; yet a similar case occurred in 
 England only the year before last. 
 
 I mention these cases only to show how careful we ought 
 to be not to accept highly-colored accounts of murder, 
 arson, etc., which are collected from all quarters, and pub- 
 lished in some newspapers as though they formed the 
 occurrences of every-day life in the country it is intended 
 to malign. 
 
 Even while I write this I see accounts of horrible occur- 
 rences in the district of Salonica, to the effect that life and 
 property are not safe, that anarchy prevails, and that the 
 unfortunate Christians are taxed to the utmost farthing 
 to provide for the war, while the Turkish population is 
 drained to the last man for the same purpose. Now I 
 happen to have an estate in that very district which I have 
 but Just left. My agent, a Scotchman, is living there with 
 his wife and young family. I am suiTOunded by villages 
 14
 
 210 TURRET IX EUROPE. 
 
 both Turk and Cliristian ; I know many of the inhabitants 
 of both creeds, and they are living peaceably together. 
 Life and property are so safe that my agent does not even 
 take the trouble to lock the doors of his house at night, 
 and any one might walk in who might be so disposed. I 
 think this is imprudent, but still the fact remains. 
 
 I have upwards of a hundred people on the estate, 
 nearly all of whom are Christians, but there are some 
 Turks. The only war-tax my tenants and the neighbor- 
 ing villages have had to pay, was a demand in the autumn 
 for each man to furnish some warm socks and a woolen 
 rug for the use of the Turkish troops, who were suffering 
 from the cold in Servia. The total value of each contri- 
 bution would certainly not be more than six shillings. 
 This has been collected in the usual manner. The Mudir, 
 or Turkish magistrate of the district, sent for the Codja 
 Bashis, "headmen" of each village, and informed them 
 of the amount of clothing the village was to supply, and 
 ample time was given to provide it. I have since heard 
 that a further tax, amounting to about eighteen pence per 
 head, is to be levied. My TurMsh neighbors have certainly 
 had some fine young men drawn for soldiers, but they are 
 cultivating as much land as usual, and are even clamor- 
 ing, good naturedly and civilly, for me to let them culti- 
 vate a pet piece of my own land. 
 
 This does not look like anarchy, oppression, and dan- 
 ger ! But the accounts I read in some papers and hear in 
 some speeches almost make my hair stand on end with 
 horror. 
 
 Am I dreaming ? Why, just before I left Salonica the 
 Christians of that town gave an amateur concert /br tJie 
 henefit of the TurMsli wounded. It was attended by the 
 Turldsh Governor-General and all his staff, beside numer- 
 ous other Turks, and a sum of nearly three hundred 
 pounds was handed over by the Christians to the Turkish 
 authorities as the result of the social gathering of the two 
 creeds in the most holy — but too often one-sided — work of 
 pure charity.
 
 ESKI ZAOHRA. 211 
 
 Tliere was a dance after the concert, and tlie Turks 
 asked permission to be allowed to remain to see it ; and 
 the quizzical expression of astonishment depicted upon 
 their faces as they saw Christian men place their arms 
 round the waists of Christian ladies and whiii them round 
 in a galop was most amusing. 
 
 There are a few brigands about in the neighboring 
 mountain districts, it is true, but so there were "francs- 
 tireurs " in France during the late war. When I read and 
 hear all these sensational accounts, which are gathered 
 and colored for a purpose, I feel inclined to shout out that 
 expressive English word, '■'■Jiunibng ! " 
 
 But to return to Eski Zaghra, a large Bulgarian town, 
 prettily situated at the eastern foot of the Karadja Dagh. 
 
 Has there been any progress here, I wonder? Let us 
 see. In the year 1850 the population of the to-^Ti and 127 
 villages which surround it was 21,947. In the year 1870 
 the population was 32,236, of which 8,674 were Moham- 
 medans, 1,177 gipsies, and the remainder Christians. In 
 1840 there was but one small Christian school in Eski 
 Zaghra ; in 1870 there were fifty schools, with 2,280 
 pui)ils ! In the city there are four, and in the villages 
 sixteen Christian churches, with thirty-eight priests of the 
 Bulgarian Church. 
 
 I went over a large silk manufactory in the center of 
 the town, and which appeared to be admirably managed. 
 About fifty Bulgarian guis were employed at tables con- 
 taining an open trough of cold, and another of very hot 
 water, and beliind each girl was a large di'um wheel, 
 about three feet in diameter, worked by steam power. 
 The cocoons are put by dozens at a time into the hot 
 water. A gui dips her hand first into the cold water, and 
 then seizes a hot cocoon, and detaches the thread of silk 
 so quickly and dexterously that you cannot detect the ac- 
 tion. She then leads the fine thread to a pipe connected 
 with the circumference of the wheel, which winds off the 
 sHk. 
 
 The outer thread is fine, and is broken off at a certain
 
 312 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 distance, but the inner thread, althougli of a golden color, 
 is more like coarse cotton than silk. The girls keep up a 
 sort of chant during the process, and the general effect of 
 the numerous drum-wheels with their golden coverings is 
 very pleasing. I also saw a large soap factory, which I 
 was told was paying well, and an enterprizing Bulgarian 
 proposed starting a glass factory. One part of the to\^Ti 
 was reserved exclusively for copper works for the con- 
 struction of hammered cooking vessels, etc. 
 
 As I should soon be obliged to part with my companion, 
 Mr. Brophy, it was necessary to look out for an inter- 
 preter, and he told me he knew of a Bulgarian lad who 
 was a resident in the town, and who had been educated 
 at Robert College at Constantinople. 
 
 We had been fortunate in finding a tolerably comfort- 
 able khan where we could get good food, and the khangee 
 had sent far and wide in search of the interpreter "lad," 
 who rejoiced in the name of Pano-Gospodinoff. 
 
 After a time I was informed that some one "wished to 
 speak to me, and a tall man about thirty years of age, 
 with a black beard and moustache, and rather a Yankee 
 air and dress, entered, and in good English, but vdXh a 
 decided American accent, he introduced himself as Pano 
 Gospodinoff. It struck me that the "lad" must have 
 groT\Ti with amazing rapidity, or there must be some 
 mistake. 
 
 It turned out that he had not been educated at Robert 
 College, but by the American Protestant Mission at Eski 
 Zaghra, and that he had since been. lecturing in America 
 on Turkey and the Bulgarians. He was willing to follow 
 me anywhere, and engaged to act as interpreter for £3 per 
 month and his keep. He was a smart, active, honest, and 
 agreeable man, so I installed him at once, and never re- 
 gretted it. He informed me that he was in possession of 
 an excellent camp-bed, purchased in America, and hoped 
 that I would make use of it. The bed was produced, and 
 after more than a quarter of an hour spent in the most 
 careful adjustment of complicated parts, it presented the
 
 KEZANLIK. 213 
 
 appearance of a long piece of canvas supported by a 
 number of fragile sticks. 
 
 "Now, sir," said Pano, "pray lie down and see how 
 comfortable a bed is tliis." 
 
 "Thank you," I replied, "but let me see you try it." 
 He was nearly twice my weight. 
 
 "Oh, sir,^ it is very strong beds — oh, yes, I ■will lie 
 on it." 
 
 And so he did — with a care which showed an intimate 
 acquaintance ^\'ith this rickety invention. He poised him- 
 self in its center, and gradually lengthened himself out 
 gently until he reclined at full length. 
 
 " There, sir, this is very strong " 
 
 "Crash!" The sentence was cut short, as the whole 
 thing suddenly collapsed, and left him buried in a wreck 
 of sharp sticks poking him in many tender parts. But he 
 was evidently used to it, and the bed was his hobby, and 
 nothing could break his faith in his pet couch. He rose 
 and perseveringly put it all together again, and offered a 
 trial to me, but I declined with thanks. The bed accom- 
 panied him for the rest of my travels, and much of his time 
 was passed in putting it together. 
 
 Our next day's Journey was to Kezanlik, and to reach it 
 we had to cross the Karadja Dagh range by a long pass, 
 winding through very steep hills composed of granite and 
 gneiss rocks, covered in most places with oak scrub. 
 There is a good carriage-road the whole way. Tliis pass 
 would be a very easy one to defend, and might be made 
 impregnable. It is about fourteen mUes in length. About 
 half-way up the pass, and at an altitude of nearly one 
 thousand feet above Eski Zaghra, there is a hot spring, 
 strongly impregnated with iron. It is frequented by nu- 
 merous invalids who come to take the waters, and there 
 is a large, rambling building for their accommodation. The 
 temperature of this spring is as much as 140^ Fahrenheit. 
 
 The view from the top of the pass, as you descend to 
 the plain of the Upper Tundja, is very beautiful. 
 
 Kezanlik, surrounded by groves of trees, lies in the
 
 214 TURKEY IN EJJROTE. 
 
 center of the plain, and nnmerous villages, scattered in 
 every direction, peep out through the foliage of beautiful 
 walnut and other trees. 
 
 This plain is about 1,300 feet above the sea. Opposite, 
 and to the north, lies the great Balkan range, which at 
 this point attains its highest altitude of 4,400 feet. The 
 mountains end abruptly in the plain below, which gives 
 them much grandeur, and the combination of mountain, 
 plain, forest, and river is all that can be desired by the 
 lover of scenery. We arrived at Kezanlik after a delight- 
 ful ride of nine hours from Eski Zaghra, and were hos- 
 pitably housed by a German, who is a member of the firm 
 of Messrs. D. Pappozogiou Brothers, of Constantinople, 
 and resides at Kezanlik for the purpose of collecting the 
 attar of rose, for which the district is so celebrated. 
 
 I was always under the impression that the attar of rose 
 was made in large quantities in Persia, as well as in Tur- 
 key, for I remember purchasing it in Bushire, many years 
 ago, ^^nder the idea that it was a product of that country ; 
 but my host informed me that I VN^as mistaken, and that 
 the district south of the Balkan was the only part of the 
 world where it has as yet been produced. 
 
 The whole house was redolent with the scent of rose ; 
 but although the aroma is very penetrative, in conse- 
 quence of the subtle character of the essential oil, it is not 
 at all overpowering, even when the nose is applied to an 
 unstoppered bottle of the fluid. My host opened a cup- 
 board which contained thirty large glass bottles of the 
 attar, and told me that I was looldng at twelve thousand 
 pounds worth of oil ! The flowers which produce it have 
 the appearance of our common dog-rose, and are of the 
 varieties known as Rosa Damascena, R. Sempervirens, 
 and R. Moschata. The last-named affords the chief in- 
 gredient of the attar. 
 
 The natives themselves know very little about the va- 
 rieties, and are only concerned with the profits they can 
 make out of the oil. The plant is cultivated by the farm- 
 ers in every village of the district, and requires a sandy
 
 ROSE CULTIVATION. 215 
 
 soil on sloping ground, exposed to the rays of the sun. 
 The greatest care is bestowed upon its cultivation and the 
 harvesting of the crop. Laying down a rose-garden may 
 be done in either spring or autumn, upon ground which 
 has been w^ell cleaned and plowed. 
 
 Young rose-shoots are torn off the larger plants, so as to 
 carry with them a portion of the roots, and these are laid 
 almost horizontally in trenches about a foot deep and five 
 feet ajDart, so as to form a future hedge ; they are then 
 covered with earth and manure, and trodden carefully 
 down. Under favorable circumstances the shoots will 
 appear at the end of six months, when they should be 
 earthed up, and the plants will be more than a foot high 
 at the end of the year. 
 
 At the end of the second year they yield a few flowers, 
 but it is not until the third year that any profit can be 
 made out of them. They are in full bearing in five years, 
 at a height of about six feet, and last for fifteen years, 
 when the plants cease to flower. 
 
 They require earthing up four times a year, and should 
 be manured every second year ; but although the manure 
 increases the quantity of the oil, it interferes with the 
 quality. 
 
 No pruning is requii'ed, except to cut off all dead 
 branches. 
 
 Very severe cold will kill the plants, and those of the 
 whole district were destroyed in this way in the year 1870. 
 
 Hoar-frost, foggy and misty weather are also injurious 
 to the crops, and a hot temperature during the process of 
 distillation interferes with the yield of oil ; harvest com- 
 mences in May, and lasts for about twenty days. The 
 farmer counts the buds on his plants, and calculates the 
 number which w^ill probably blossom daily, which he 
 makes a divisor for the whole, and thus gets at the 
 number of days his harvest will last. 
 
 The flowers should be gathered before the morning dew 
 is off them, and then immediately be distilled. Herein 
 lies the difficulty, because it is impossible to judge, even
 
 216 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 approximately, of the rapidity witli whicli all the buds 
 will blossom ; consequently, unless a very large staff is 
 kept, so as to pick all the blossoms of a heavy crop in the 
 short space of time that is available, and unless a large 
 number of alembics are ready to distil them, a great por- 
 tion of the crop, if there is a rapid blossoming, may be 
 wasted. When the temperature during harvest is cold 
 and damp, the blossoming is gradual, but when it is hot 
 and sunny, it is rapid. The alembic consists of a convex 
 copper boiler, narrowed at the top to a neck, which carries 
 the headpiece, or condensing-tube (which is straight, and 
 slopes downward), through a vessel containing cold water, 
 until it meets the receiver. The boilers are made to con- 
 tain, when full, about 240 lbs. of water, but only three- 
 fourths of that amount is poured in, and 25 lbs. of blos- 
 soms are added. Distillation goes on until the turbid- 
 looking rosewater which is produced equals in weight the 
 amount of blossoms in the boiler, namely, 25 lbs. The 
 boiler is then removed and cleansed, and the i)rocess is 
 repeated with fresh blossoms. 
 
 The turbid fluid is again distilled, and this time there 
 appears upon the double-distilled rosewater an oleaginous 
 and yello\vish liquid floating upon the surface, and this is 
 the celebrated attar of rose. It is sldmmed by means of 
 a funnel-shaped spoon with a small aperture at the bot- 
 tom, so as to allow of the escape of the water, but not 
 of the oil. It appeared to me that some of the precious 
 fluid must be wasted by this clumsy sldmming-process. 
 I therefore suggested to my host that as the attar was 
 extremely volatile, it might easily be distilled off the sur- 
 face of the water, and thus a purer fluid would be obtained 
 without waste. He said he should certainly give the idea 
 a trial. 
 
 The yield of attar varies greatly, but on an average it 
 takes 4,000 lbs. of rose-blossoms to make 1 lb. of oil. 
 
 The best quality of attar varies in price from 17 to 18 
 piastres the miscal, or from 15s. 4d. to 16s. lOd. per ounce : 
 while inferior qualities realize fi"om 14 to 15 piastres the
 
 ATTAR OF BOSK 217 
 
 miscal. Tlie mode adopted for testing tlie purity of tlie 
 different qualities of these oils is to put tlie essence into 
 flasks, which are afterwards immersed in water at a tem- 
 perature of 63^ or 68° Fahrenheit, when, if the quality be 
 good, it wiU freeze. This is considered the purest oil. A 
 stony, sandy ground, impregnated with oxide of ii'on, 
 produces the best oil, while a hard and badly cultivated 
 land will only yield oil of an inferior quality, which will 
 not freeze at a temperature over 52° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Manufacturers frequently adulterate the attar with a 
 fluid which they produce fi'om certain Idnds of grasses. 
 
 An English acre produces from 4,000 lbs, to 6,000 lbs. of 
 blossoms, in fair years, and 34^ lbs. of blossoms produce 
 about 1^ drachms of oH, which, on an average, may be said 
 to be worth in the wholesale market about four shillings. 
 
 Kezanlik is surrounded by irrigated gardens and large 
 groves of magnificent walnut-trees. 
 
 I find that it is customary to crush the walnuts, shells 
 and all, for the sake of the oil which is thus produced, 
 and which is much esteemed for cooking-purposes and for 
 flavoring sweets. 
 
 The whole district is also celebrated for its plums, 
 which are delicious, and are gi'own in sufficient abundance 
 to create a large trade in prunes. We were passing by an 
 orchard of these fi'uit-trees, when a Turk, who was gather- 
 ing the large black oval plums — seeing us cast longing 
 eyes at the trees — came forward and insisted upon our fill- 
 ing every available pocket -with the fruit — indeed, I believe 
 he would have filled a basket, if we had possessed one. 
 The district of Kezanlik contained in 1870, forty-eight vil- 
 lages, with a population of 25,602, of which 12,921 were 
 Mohammedans, 11,907 Bulgarian Christians, 646 Gipsies, 
 and 128 Jews. There are some very old Christian churches 
 in some of the villages of this district, especially at Mou- 
 blis and Terzidera, one of which dates back to a.d. 1060, 
 and the other to a.d. 1067. At the small town of Skipka, 
 in the mountains opposite, there is another, which dates 
 fi-om A.D. 1367.
 
 218 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 We paid a visit to tlie Caimacam of Kezanlik, wlio was 
 one of the lean kine of Turks, and a tkorough gentleman 
 and good sportsman. He was very anxious that we should 
 stop and shoot partridges with him, but I was pressed for 
 time, and had to push on. My great object as far as sport 
 was concerned was to get some red deer stalking, and I had 
 determined to give myself a fortnight for that enjoyment, 
 and was anxious that the time should be employed on the 
 most favorable ground. The Caimacam said there were 
 red deer to be found in the forests on the neighboring 
 mountains, but not in great numbers, and I learned from a 
 Bulgarian commercial traveler that the best quarter for 
 that sport was the neighborhood of the Rilo Dagh, near 
 Samakov. 
 
 While staying at Kezanlik I was called upon by a Bul- 
 garian correspondent of the Levant Herald, an intelligent 
 young man, very much "got up" with black kid gloves, 
 etc. He spoke French fluently, and was most anxious to 
 know what I thought of the country and the Bulgarians, 
 of whom he seemed, with good reason, to be not a little 
 proud. 
 
 I can recommend any traveler who may think of visit- 
 ing Kezanlik to put up at a large Bulgarian convent, 
 where there is a good and clean house for the reception of 
 visitors, either male or female. I went over the whole of 
 this establishment, which contains about fifty nuns ; but 
 they did not appear to be bound by very strict vows, as I 
 was told that they can leave and marry whenever they 
 like ; but this freedom is a very safe concession, as, from 
 the personal appearance of the nuns, I should say that 
 they would not be troubled with many suitors. 
 
 I took leave of my hospitable German host with regret, 
 for although Kezanlik is a dirty town, the suburbs are 
 very pretty, the neighboring scenery beautiful, the air 
 healthy and bracing, and my host was agreeable and 
 clever. Our next journey was to Karlofer, a distance of 
 about twenty-five miles, along what was then (1874) an ex- 
 cellent carriage-road, with telegraph-posts the whole way.
 
 KAELOFER. '2l<d 
 
 Tlie Talley, "vvliicli at Kezanlik is alooiit seven miles broad, 
 narrows as tlie journey- is made to the westward tov»'ard 
 Karlofer. On tlie riglit are the gi'and Balkan mountains, 
 with magnificent forests, interspersed with natural jjasture 
 uplands, and on the left is the Karadja Dagh, with its 
 wooded summits. 
 
 The richness of the alluvial s.oil of the plain fonned by 
 the washings of the mica schist from the neighboring 
 mountains, was evidenced in the numerous stacks of grain 
 which was being threshed out in all directions, and all the 
 villages and villagers, both Christian and Mohammedan, 
 had a well-to-do and prosperous appearance. 
 
 As we approached Karlofer the road wound up a pass 
 in one of the foot-hills, and along a tumbling river, which 
 made its way from the larger mountain, and which is of no 
 small service to the inhabitants of the town which is built 
 xq)OTi it. Here was a busy sight ! Manchester itself could 
 not appear more industrious. Almost every house had a 
 turbine worked by the water from the river, and which 
 turned spindles for twisting and plaiting woolen braid, 
 while in others handsome carpets were made. The buzz- 
 ing of the turbines and clatter of the spindles gave a lively 
 and cheery au" of worlc, which, with the fine bracing air, 
 was quite exhilarating. The population was nearly all 
 Bulgarian, and, as I shall have to pass through many of 
 these Bulgarian towns, I will not weary the reader by de- 
 tails of each, because the general character and customs 
 of the people may be derived from the description of one 
 or two places. 
 
 As soon as I arrived, some of the leading people assem- 
 bled near the khan to inspect the new comer. It was evi- 
 dently an "event," and the dawn of Cook's devastating 
 hordes of tourists had not yet broken upon that portion of 
 Europe. The Bulgarian notables soon get into conversa- 
 tion, and one of them generally proves to be the school- 
 master. 
 
 They are all fine, well-dressed, and respectable, well-to- 
 do looking men. I am asked to visit their houses, the best
 
 220 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 of wliicli show signs of the contact of their owners with 
 the luxuries of more civilized Europe, and I am intro- 
 duced with much form to the old people of the family. 
 I am struck with the great change which one generation 
 has evidently made in the " Europeanizing " of these 
 people. The elders of the family were apparently not ac- 
 customed to the luxuries now enjoyed by their children. 
 I am soon on familiar terms with several notables, who 
 take possession of me, and trot me about the town as a 
 curiosity to be exhibited on their domestic hearths. 
 
 At each place I have to drink coffee and eat sweet- 
 meats, until at last I feel that I shall have a bilious at- 
 tack if I submit any longer, and so I commence to beat a 
 retreat. 
 
 But the moment my intention is discovered, a mysterious 
 conversation takes place in whispers among the notables, 
 and a general agreement is evidently arrived at. The 
 school-master — kind-hearted soul ! — steps forward ; he re- 
 grets — they all regret — that they have such poor accommo- 
 dation to offer me. I must not go to that ugly khan — oh, 
 no ! I should be devoured during the night, and nothing 
 would be left but my beard and tough parts of my body 
 by the morning. "Will I accept the hospitality of the 
 school-master' s house, poor as it is ? Of course I will. And 
 now everything is bustle to get my things moved, and 
 everybody looks pleased, except the khanjee. But a smile 
 comes into his face as the thought strikes him that he can 
 charge extra for my horses, which must be left there, and 
 so he makes the best of it. 
 
 And now, with many apologies, I am introduced to the 
 school-house, a fine large building, of which the master is 
 justly proud. I am shown into a large room, the total 
 furniture of which consists of a divan — namely, a cushioned 
 seat all round the wall. I here make myseK comfortable, 
 and in due course of time am asked below to dinner, am 
 introduced to Mrs. Martinehoff, and by the tennination 
 " off," I know that she is the wife of the son of somebody. 
 I find a table laid European-fashion, even to the luxury of
 
 EARLOFER. 221 
 
 napkins, and I sit down to the most excellent ditiner of 
 soup and several made-dishes, all equally good. Madame, 
 who is di-essed in a semi-European manner, smiles pleas- 
 antly, beams hospitably, and tries to make me eat too 
 much; for, although the amount of food I have eaten 
 would keep a pauper for a week, she assures me that I 
 have eaten nothing, is afraid the dishes are not what I am 
 accustomed to, etc., etc. There are two or three friends of 
 the host at the table, and the conversation runs upon the 
 advancement the Bulgarian nation has made, and its 
 latent capabilities for indefinite development. As the 
 native wine of the country — a pleasant beverage — flows 
 round, the conversation warms on the same national sub- 
 ject, and in vino Veritas much information flies about. 
 
 The idea of Bulgarian rebellion seems perfectly under- 
 stood, and is cast aside as simply ridiculous, and merely 
 the creation of intrigue from without, which feeds upon 
 the follies of a few hot-headed youths, vauriens, from 
 within — but "look at their schools," "look at their 
 houses," "look at their general progress," and "do I not 
 think they are getting on?" They can assure me that 
 "their sons are now educated whilst children, in the toAvn, 
 and as young men, abroad and at Constantinople, espe- 
 cially at Eobert College, and can talk French and German 
 —ah ! and some of them English. Even in this very toA\Ti, 
 away here in the wild Balkan Mountains, there is old Mr. 
 Somebodypoff's son— w-ho, bad luck to him, is out of the 
 way just now, but I must see him — who talks English 
 capitally. Ah ! I ought to have seen what their country 
 was twenty years ago to appreciate what it is now ; but do 
 I not think that they really are a nation that will get on ? 
 Yes, I do ; and I retire to bed convinced that they will 
 do so. 
 
 The next morning I am introduced to old Mr. Somebody- 
 poffs son, a handsome gentlemanly young fellow, in 
 European dress^ who talks English fluently, and with a 
 very good accent ; and the fine old father looks smilingly 
 on with a pride which it is delightful to witness, as he
 
 222 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 listens to tlie language lie cannot understand, but wliicli 
 sounds sweetly from the mouth of his well-beloved son. 
 The young man courteously offers to act as my cicerone 
 over the small town, takes me to the convent where some 
 good old Bulgarian nuns are occupied in weaving a most 
 excellent cloth, similar to our highland homespuns, and 
 some of which I buy at the rate of about two shillings the 
 square yard. I am shown over the convent, a large ir- 
 regular building, well kept, and with gardens round it, and 
 which seems more an asylum for old women than anything 
 else. They have some quaint and ancient pieces of silver 
 in the form of small flagons, said to be two hundred years 
 old, and a curiosity in the shape of a closet, in which, 
 ranged on shelves, are the skulls of all the old nuns who 
 have died in the convent ; and the old lady who was doing 
 the honors of the institution, showed me, in a simple man- 
 ner, the place which her respected head was to occupy. 
 
 This convent for old ladies bore a high character ; but 
 on a hill on the other side of the town there was another 
 for younger nuns, and as far as I could understand it did 
 not maintain the same character for respectability as the 
 one I was visiting. 
 
 At last the time came when I must continue my travels. 
 I made a present to the hospitable school-master for his 
 school, and rode off amidst the good wishes of his wife 
 and friends. Though this descri^Dtion aj^plies to most, it 
 must not be taken as a sample of a visit to all Bulgarian 
 towns ; much depends upon locality and the prosperity 
 of the trade of the neighborhood. Those north of the 
 Balkan are generally more advanced than the towns to 
 the south of that range. At one of these latter, Klis- 
 sura — which has suffered so severely from the massacre — 
 I arrived at the khan, which was served by a crabbed 
 old woman. Had she coffee ? no ; fowls ? no ; eggs ? no ; 
 water ? yes ; what else ? bread. So I sat down in the 
 veranda of the court-yard to make my dinner off dry 
 bread, and tried to imagine it luxury. 
 
 I was hungry, and had eaten about two loaves, and
 
 SOP AT. 223 
 
 was beginning to feel as thongli I was stuffed with cotton- 
 wool, when my ever-truthfnl nose detected a sweet-smell- 
 ing savor as of stew, and looldng np I saw a highly- 
 respectable Turk advancing with a steaming dish in each 
 hand. 
 
 This was no less than the Mudir, or Turkish magistrate 
 of the district, who had heard of my vacuity, and had 
 kindly and courteously hastened to the rescue with two 
 cajjital meat stews. 
 
 Oh, that I could perform one of those conjuring tricks 
 I had once seen, and bring those dry loaves out of my 
 mouth in the form they went in ! 
 
 But it was not to be done, and as the young American 
 lady said, "I guess if I take any more I shall have to 
 hang it on outside." So I could only pick delicately at the 
 savory dishes, and regret the past. 
 
 "\\Tiether coming events cast thek shadows before them, 
 I know not, but there was a dull and depressed air 
 about Klissura which I did not notice in other Bulgarian 
 towns. Alas ! it, together ■v\'ith Karlofer, has suffered 
 severely from the late massacres ; yet how prosi)erous, 
 peaceful, and contented was the latter place only eighteen 
 months before ! 
 
 It is in this quarter that Lady Strangford is so quietly, 
 courageously, and earnestly endeavoring to assuage suf- 
 fering, and may God bless her persevering work of charity. 
 
 There is a large monastery in a gorge of the mountains 
 about four miles from Karlofer, amidst grand scenery, 
 where the crystalline rocks and contorted strata of cal- 
 careous clay slate are very prominent and interesting. 
 
 I was now approaching the point at which I intended 
 to cross the Balkan, and therefore made a short journey 
 from Karlofer to the Bulgarian and Turkish town of 
 Sopat, by way of Karlowa, and distant about sixteen 
 miles. Karlowa was a very prosperous Bulgarian town, 
 and as I passed through, I heard that there was an English 
 governess living in one of the Bulgarian families. Know- 
 ing that she would be glad to see a countryman, I went
 
 224 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 and called, and the poor girl was perfectly delighted at 
 the opportunity of hearing of her own country, from 
 which she had been absent for two years. She came from 
 Manchester, and I have since heard that she has been 
 married to a Bulgarian in the Protestant American Mis- 
 sion, at Samakov. He is to be congratulated, for she was 
 intelligent, lady-like, and good-looking. Sopat i^roved to 
 be a good-sized and prosperous town ; the population was 
 composed of two-thirds Bulgarian Christians, and the re- 
 mainder Mohammedans, including a few gipsies. It was 
 in charge of one policeman, and an old Bulgarian told me 
 that it was quite enough, as they lived very peaceably, 
 and seldom had any necessity for calling in the police. 
 
 To-morrow I shall cross the Balkan, and leave this 
 peaceful country, which has since been visited by such 
 awful scenes of horror. I have given an unvarnished ac- 
 count of my journey made from notes taken by the way. 
 I had not the slightest prejudice for or against either Bul- 
 garian or Turk, and I ask my readers whether I had been 
 traveling among a people ground down by oppression 
 and cruelty until they were about to be goaded into mad- 
 ness and rebellion ? 
 
 To say so is a wicked libel. I have no excuse and no 
 wish to excuse the carnage of last year, which here took 
 place by orders from panic-stricken authorities ; but if 
 ever retribution follows wickedness upon this earth, it 
 should fall upon the heads of those who poisoned the 
 minds of these authorities, and let loose the organized 
 band of murderers who had orders first to manufacture 
 rebellion, and then to provoke the massacre which laid 
 waste this fair land, and cast its honest and contented 
 people into the uttermost depths of misery and despair.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ACROSS THE BALKAN. 
 
 Freedom of a Morning Eide — ^Mounted Police — A Turkisli Cabtle— Physical 
 Aspect of Turkey — Central Watershed — Climate — Destruction of Forests 
 — Geological Formation — Coal and Minerals — Roman Roads — Lovtcha — 
 Good Quarters — Tirnova — An Energetic Governor — A Turkish Resident 
 Landed Proprietor — Hawking — A Turkish Dinner — A Lonely Ride. 
 
 npRAVELINGr on horseback is an excellent way of see- 
 -■- ing tlie country, and if accompanied by tents it en- 
 ables the traveler to stop at any spot which offers interest, 
 and by this means much information of the country and 
 people can be obtained. The sensation of setting out on 
 a fine, clear morning, with a novel country and people 
 to explore, is very delightful. In Turkey the Zaptieh 
 (mounted policeman) leads the way as a guide, and on 
 arriving at the outskirts of the to^vn he stops, turns his 
 horse, salutes, and wishes you a safe and prosperous Jour- 
 ney. 
 
 These men are generally well mounted on very small 
 but wiry horses, which they treat with the greatest kind- 
 ness and care. They carry with them their bed, clothes, 
 and arms ; and as some of them are heavy men, these lit- 
 tle horses frequently have to carry as much as eighteen 
 stone for a day's ride of forty miles, but they do it with 
 ease. 
 
 The mounted police of Turkey get a bad character from 
 some people, but it is hardly well deserved. They are 
 paid so little by the Government that it is impossible for 
 them to live and keep their own horses, and they there- 
 fore do what it is intended they should do, namely, live 
 upon the inhabitants ; but it is a mistake to suppose that 
 they confine their exactions to the Christians. Wherever 
 15 225
 
 236 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 their duty leads them, there they force the villagers, of 
 whatever creed, to recognize the motto, "Live and let 
 live." Of course such a system opens a door for much 
 abuse, and in some cases the power of the police is used 
 for extoi-tion beyond the necessaries of life for man and 
 beast ; but such cases are the exception and not the rule, 
 and the Zaptiehs as a body perform their duties well. 
 
 On the morning of the 30th of August we were up and 
 off early from Sopat, as we intended to cross the Balkan 
 and sleep at Troyan that night. After riding for twelve 
 miles along the foot of the Balkan, we arrived at a khan 
 at the bottom of the pass we had to traverse. On the way 
 we passed the ruins of the only castle I have seen in Tur- 
 key, perched away up the mountains upon a height which 
 could only be reached by one path. The architecture was 
 of the style called "perpendicular," and it must have 
 been a large building, but I could not learn anything 
 about it from any of the inhabitants excepting that it 
 was "very old ;" and one man informed me, in a myste- 
 rious manner, that it was "built by the English ! " 
 
 I must leave it to some future archaeologist to unravel 
 the mystery. 
 
 We commenced the ascent of the pass up a steep path, 
 which zigzagged up one of the numerous spurs which run 
 out at right angles from ih.Q main range. 
 
 As I shall give a description of this and other passes of 
 the Balkan in another chapter, I will now take the oppor- 
 tunity of the lofty elevation of these mountains to look 
 down upon the land of Turkey, and notice how very dif- 
 ferent is the physical aspect of the country to that usually 
 depicted in maps. In looking to the south, across the 
 plain of Philippopolis, the Rhodope range rises to a still 
 greater height than the Balkan, and the character of the 
 whole of Turkey in Euroj)e is essentially that of great 
 mountain ranges, which have begotten the rich alluvial 
 plains which lie at their feet. The gi-eat central water- 
 shed of the whole country is the mountainous district 
 around the large and elevated plain of Sofia. It is from
 
 PHYSICAL ASPECT OF TURKEY. 227 
 
 here tliat the whole of the great rivers of Turkey take 
 their rise and flow in all directions in their course to the 
 sea. 
 
 This suggests that these great and fertile plains of Sofia 
 will some day be the junction of many lines of railway, 
 which will thread their course along the rich valleys 
 formed by the great rivers which emanate from the central 
 watershed. It also gives this district a strategical value 
 of much importance, as the elevated plateau is of sufficient 
 extent, and rich enough, to supply a very large army, 
 which could debouch into the plains toward any quarter 
 by way of the river valleys. The principal plains are 
 those of Macedonia, Thessaly, Seres, Sofia, Philippopolis, 
 , Adrianople, and Yenidge, and of course the valley of the 
 Danube. 
 
 Unfortunately these plains have no water-carriage for 
 their produce by way of the rivers which intersect them, 
 as these rivers, the Maritza excepted, are for the most part 
 unnavigable for even such small craft as barges. The 
 plains, however, from their formation and the nature of 
 their soil, offer great facilities for navigation by means of 
 canals. 
 
 The great mountain ranges, running as they do at right 
 angles to each other, naturally produce great varieties in 
 climate, and an isothermal line drawn through Turkey 
 would pursue a very eiTatic course. 
 
 North of the Balkan the cold in the winter is intense, 
 the thermometer falling sometimes as low as 10° below zero 
 of Fahrenheit, while in summer it rises to 96' in the shade. 
 Spring sets in at the end of April, and winter in Novem- 
 ber. 
 
 South of the Balkan the clinxite is also severe in winter, 
 nntn the Sea of Marmora and ^gean Sea are approached, 
 but the spring is earlier and winter later than in the 
 northern region. As we ajDproach Greece and Albania the 
 effect of locality upon climate becomes very conspicuous. 
 For instance, at Yolo, in Thessaly, the orange and the 
 olive grow to perfection in the open ak, while in the
 
 228 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 Macedonian plains, in almost tlie same latitude, the north, 
 winds which in the winter sometimes sweep down from 
 the Rhodope range, prohibit the growth of any trees 
 except those snited to a more northern climate. 
 
 I imagine that the climate of Turkey has changed from 
 what it was in former ages through the improvident 
 destruction of trees by both Turk and Christian, a waste 
 which must have materially affected the rain-fall. 
 
 The destruction in this way is pitiable, and the plains 
 and lower hills are for the most part denuded of trees. If 
 wood is wanted for a fire, the nearest trunk is mangled 
 with an ax to provide it, and if there is a ready sale for 
 wood, down come the trees wholesale, without any 
 thought of the future. 
 
 The idea of planting trees never enters the head of Turk, 
 Greek, or Bulgarian. It would be a present outlay for 
 the benefit of posterity, which would appear to them to 
 be the act of a lunatic. 
 
 There are, however, immense forests still left among 
 the higher mountains, where the oak, the pine, the beech, 
 and the sweet chestnut thrive to perfection. 
 
 The climate of the Macedonian plains is very similar to 
 that of Australia ; it has the same hot and usually dry 
 summers, accompanied by heavy dews at night, with 
 mild autumns, and fitful winters ; but occasional frosts 
 must be more severe in Macedonia, as several attempts to 
 grow the Eucalyptus globulus (so common to Australia) 
 have failed. 
 
 The mountains of Turkey are not covered with dense 
 forests, as in the case of the Carpathians, but wood and 
 pasture lands are alternated and grouped in such a way 
 that it not only benefits the flockmaster, but adds great 
 beauty to the scenery. Some of the lands at very high 
 altitudes contain excellent soU, which, although covered 
 many feet deep with snow during the winter months, are 
 partially cultivated for summer crops by the nomad shep- 
 herds during the warmer season. 
 
 The general geological features of aU the mountains of
 
 GEOLOGICAL FORITATION. 229 
 
 Turkey consist in tlieir being formed of tlie crystalline 
 and eruptive rocks of syenite and trachyte, with the ex- 
 ception of the northern half of the Balkan range, which is 
 of the cretaceous system. It is the washings from the 
 mica schist and trachyte, together Avith the limestone of 
 these great mountain masses, which form the rich and 
 fertile plains below, where the alluvial soil is frequently 
 many feet in depth. The great plain of Salonica, formed 
 of a clay loam, is in places fifteen feet in depth of soil, and 
 is probably as rich as any land in the world ; but not an 
 eighth of it is cultivated, and although K'ature has been 
 so bountiful, man has been neglectful and idle — at least 
 in modern days. 
 
 The mineral wealth of Turkey in Europe is very great, 
 but through that apathy which is so characteristic of the 
 Government, it still lies undeveloped. 
 
 Coal is found in numerous places along the Balkan 
 range, and also in the Rhodope mountains, and again near 
 Mount Olympus in Macedonia ; but, with the exception 
 of a bed of anthracite near Selje, in the Balkan, it is of the 
 tertiary -bro^^^l character, and hardly worth the expense 
 of working. The mountains, however, are so little known, 
 that there may be rich coal-beds yet undiscovered. 
 
 The district in the neighborhood of Mount Pangseus 
 (the modem Punar Dagh) was in ancient times celebrated 
 for its silver mines. Herodotus speaks of the gold mines 
 of Thrace and Macedonia. In Engell's "History of 
 Ragusa" there is an account of the large gains of that 
 city made by its contracts for working the gold and silver 
 mines belonging to the Thracian princes. There are 
 remains of ancient copper mines near Yerria (ancient 
 Bersea) in Macedonia ; and both ancient and modern 
 research prove the mineral wealth of the country to be 
 very great. 
 
 The district near Troyan, north of the Balkan, is also 
 rich in minerals, consisting of copper, argentiferous galena, 
 and, probably, mercury, for a native brought me a good 
 specimen of cinnabar, but I had not time to go and see the
 
 230 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 place where he obtained the ore, as it was more than fifty 
 miles out of my route. 
 
 The scenery as you descend the northern side of the 
 Balkan is very beautiful, but of quite a different character 
 to that which has just been left to the south. 
 
 Far as the eye can reach toward the Danube the hills 
 go waving down to the plain like billows on the sea, while 
 right and left, on the nearer ground, are deep ravines -with 
 very steep but comparatively smooth sides, clothed here 
 and there with forest. 
 
 As the elevation is reduced, the hills become broken 
 up, and the mixture of cultivated lands with woods, 
 pasture, hills, streams, and villages, reminded me of the 
 scenery in the neighborhood of Dolgelly, in Wales. 
 
 In many parts the view was much disfigured by the 
 custom of breaking off all the lower branches of the trees 
 and stacking them, with the leaves, for fuel, and also for 
 fodder for the sheep in winter. The consequence is, that 
 many of the woods present the appearance of groups of 
 bare poles, with tufts on the top. 
 
 In the valley which runs up to Troyan I came xipon the 
 remains here and there of an old Roman road, probably 
 of the time of Trajan. It is in an excellent state of preser- 
 vation, paved with large flat stones, which still have the 
 smooth iDolish created by the ancient traffic, and the curb- 
 stones along the edge look as though the road had but 
 lately been repaired. It tends toward the Balkan, and I 
 expect might be traced over that range ; it probably after- 
 wards joined the Yia Egnatia in the south. 
 
 Becklemes, or police stations, are placed at intervals 
 along all the passes of the Balkan, and, indeed, every- 
 where in Turkey where the "busy throng" is left behind. 
 There were reports of brigands among the mountains, but 
 I saw nothing of them. 
 
 Troyan is, or was, a pretty, thriving town, with a popu- 
 lation of about 5,000 Bulgarians, chiefly occupied in mak- 
 ing cloth, and also copper vessels. 
 
 They make a curious earthenware water-bottle here,
 
 LOVTCEA. 23;! 
 
 "witli five moiitli-pieces, and a finger-liole for regulating 
 tlie supply of water to the moiitli by checking the admis- 
 sion of air. When a novice drinks from one of these ves- 
 sels, and leaves the air-hole uncovered, he presently feels 
 a cold sensation under his waistcoat, and finds that the 
 •water is trickling down his neck out of one of the five 
 mouths. 
 
 I could not make out what was the origin of these curi- 
 ous vessels ; they are Etruscan in shape. Has the form 
 been handed on from the time of the Roman occupation 
 of the town ? 
 
 My next day's journey was to the town of Lovtcha ; 
 our route lay through pretty winding valleys and rich 
 fields of maize, and as the whole of the cultivated land 
 was sowTi with that crop, it seemed as though rotation was 
 not fashionable ; but a bad harvest must bring great dis- 
 tress upon the rural population, as they have no other 
 crop to fall back upon. 
 
 Lovtcha is one of the most picturesque and quaintest 
 places I have ever seen, not excepting Tirnova, which it 
 slightly resembles. It is a straggling town, built in a 
 deep and winding cleft of basaltic rocks, which rise up in 
 lofty, precipitous walls around, while tree's and minarets 
 thrust themselves up between the houses here and there, 
 and add to the general effect. The rapid flowing Osma, 
 about one hundred yards wide, runs through the to^vn 
 under the arches of a new stone bridge, which would do 
 credit to any country. The whole place had a busy and 
 cheerful aspect. The (in this part) pretty Bulgarian wom- 
 en, in their picturesque costumes, were sitting with their 
 children at the doors of their houses, spinning the woolen 
 threads which were to make their household cloth. The 
 great heaps of melons, fniit, and vegetables which lay in 
 the market-place, surrounded by houses with overhang- 
 ing eaves, and roofs covered by great, irregular yellow 
 slates more than an inch in thickness ; the brilliant sun 
 which here lit up the many-colored cloths in an open ba- 
 zaar, and there cast a deep shadow to form a proper con-
 
 232 TUBKET IN EUROPE. 
 
 trast — all made up an artistic effect wMcli it was very 
 pleasant to look npon. 
 
 A Bulgarian merchant, wlio was the owner of several 
 houses, most hospitably placed one of them at my dis- 
 posal, and as it was situated well up the side of the rock, 
 and overlooked nearly the whole town and winding river, it 
 formed most enjoyable quarters. I visited the Caimacam, 
 who I found had been in the Turkish army during the Cri- 
 mean war, and I received every possible civility from him. 
 He took great pains to find me information concerning 
 landed estates, and was most anxious that I should buy 
 some Government land, which was for sale, offering to 
 give me guides to any part I might wish to visit 
 
 As I was leaving the konak I visited the prison, which 
 consisted of two large rooms ; the outer had one side open 
 to the air, and was protected with iron bars, and the in- 
 ner room was suflBciently ventilated with windows. The 
 apartments were clean, and occupied by eleven prisoners, 
 who were laughing, talking, and chaffing the people out- 
 side, as they offered through the bars some knitted bags 
 for sale. The prisoners were composed of Turks, Bulga- 
 rians, and gypsies. 
 
 My lad John was laid up with a bilious attack, from 
 eating too much fruit, so as I intended to return to Lov- 
 tcha, after visiting an estate about fifty miles off, I left him 
 with Pano and my baggage, and went on with Brophy to 
 Selvi, a prosperous town, about twenty-five miles on the 
 road to Tirnova, and which has the best and cleanest khan 
 I have seen in Turkey. 
 
 The scenery was beautiful the whole way, undulating 
 hills with woods and cultivated lands, rich valleys and 
 rivers, and the great Balkan away in the distance. As 
 we rode along a new road, as large and good as the best 
 that enter London, I enjoyed the ride much. The next 
 day we took the same highway road for about thirty miles 
 toTu'uova, but the scenery was now rather monotonous, as 
 we were descending to the Danubian plain. Tirnova, like 
 Lovtcha, is built in a great basaltic basin with a rapid river
 
 TIRN07A. 233 
 
 — tlie Jantra — flowing through it, and which has such a 
 winding course that it nearly makes an island of a great 
 portion of the rock upon which stands the citadel. The 
 depth of the cleft varies from 1,000 to 500 feet, the houses 
 are built on a plateau, and on the sides of the cliffs where 
 they are sufficiently sloping to permit of it, 
 
 Tii'nova is a very strong position, but no advantage has 
 been taken of the natural defenses. 
 
 It was formerly the seat of the Bulgarian kings after 
 their power was driven north of the Balkan, and in those 
 days it must, in a military sense, have been a position of 
 great strength. The neighboring country is prettily laid 
 out with vineyards, gardens, and villas, which give it a 
 European aspect. 
 
 It is the seat of a Sandjak or Liva, and we visited the 
 governor, Houssein Pasha, who was an excellent man 
 of business, and did not spare himself in the way of work. 
 I sat in the court for some time, and if the administration 
 of the country could everywhere be carried out as it 
 was at Tirnova, Turkey would soon be in a prosperous 
 state. But like all other Turkish governors in those 
 days, he was "moved on," before his labors had well com- 
 menced. 
 
 The khans at Tirnova are large and pretentious, but very 
 bad, so much so that I had to get the loan of a house 
 among the vineyards to pass my second night. The 
 person in charge provided us with an excellent dinner, 
 with wine, a capital breakfast the next morning, and the 
 whole charge for the use of the house, food for Brophy, 
 myself, and the zaptieh who accompanied us, amounted 
 to thirty piasters — about five shillings. 
 
 I had gone out of my way to Tirnova to get a telegram 
 I expected from Constantinople, and now doubled back 
 toward an estate belonging to a Turkish Bey, and which 
 lay between Plevna and Tirnova. The whole of this 
 country is divided into large estates belonging generally 
 to Turkish Pashas and Beys, whose families have inherited 
 them for generations, and the tenants and laborers are
 
 234 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 usually Bulgarian Christians, with here and there a Mo- 
 hammedan (Bulgarian) population. 
 
 After sleeping in a rough way in a Bulgarian village at 
 the end of a short afternoon ride, we pushed on the next 
 day for the estate of the Turkish Bey. 
 
 "\Ve arrived at his house after a long and rather monoto- 
 nous ride, and were invited by the servants to enter ; but 
 we were informed that the Bey was not at home, as he 
 had gone to settle a dispute which had arisen between two 
 Bulgarian Rayahs who had appealed to him to act as ar- 
 biter ; but said the servant, "if the Chelibis will enter and 
 rest awhile, the Bey will soon return." 
 
 The house was a large and straggling building, with a 
 great kitchen, and sort of waiting-hall, where, as in feu- 
 dal times, good fare seemed to be provided for all who 
 came to claim it. 
 
 The numerous rooms had no pretensions to luxury. The 
 walls and long rambling passages were whitewashed, and 
 as usual in Turkish houses, the only furniture consisted 
 in handsome carpets and cushioned divans. 
 
 As we were left alone to wander where we liked, I felt 
 a little nervous for fear I might suddenly stumble upon a 
 nest of houris, and infringe the sacred precincts of a 
 harem ; but we were afterwards informed by a servant, 
 who approached with coffee and cigarettes, that our host 
 was a haclielor ! 
 
 This visit is interesting because the Bey is one of the 
 very few resident landlords in Turkey — the more the pity. 
 In about half an hour I heard the clattering of horses' 
 feet, and looking out I saw our Turkish host driving 
 up in a carriage, with a pair of handsome little black 
 horses admirably groomed, and accompanied by two out- 
 riders. 
 
 The carriage was a strong landau, which had been 
 bought second-hand at Vienna, and had the arms of an 
 Austrian nobleman painted upon it ; the harness was 
 brass, mounted with the same arms. 
 
 Presently our host entered — a very tall, stout, good-
 
 A TURKISH LAXDED PROPIilETOR. 235 
 
 natured-looking and manly gentleman of about fifty years 
 of age. 
 
 He received ns most courteously, and we sat down to 
 more coffee, cigarettes, and conversation. According to 
 TurMsli custom, Bropliy did not touch upon the object of 
 our visit until about a quarter of an hour of general con- 
 versation had been expended ; but at last, when the Bey 
 heard that we had come to inquire about his estate, he 
 seemed greatly astonished and somewhat amused, as well 
 he might be, poor man, as he had not the slightest thought 
 or intention of parting with it, and we had been wrongly 
 informed. 
 
 Of course, we made all the apologies which could be 
 thought of, and after a time asked if we might order our 
 horses. 
 
 "Nay, it is late," said our host, "you must be my 
 guests for to-night." 
 
 It was a lovely warm day in September ; oi^posite the 
 house there was a large fenced garden full of fruit-trees 
 and shady grass-walks, and in the center a delightful 
 arbor, formed of vines bent over trellis-work, from which 
 hung tempting clusters of grapes. 
 
 Our host said that we would presently adjourn to the 
 garden, but that he had some business to transact, and if 
 we would excuse him he would not stand upon ceremony, 
 but would finish his work with his people, begging us in 
 the meanwhile to make ourselves comfortable where we 
 were. 
 
 I now had the opportunity of seeing how, at all events, 
 one Turkish proprietor dealt with his Bulgarian Christian 
 tenants. The Bey clapped his hands, upon which a ser- 
 vant entered, and received orders to shoAv up the people. 
 
 The men came in one by one, stated their business in an 
 open, straightforward, and confident manner, and without 
 that obsequiousness which is so often seen in Turkey. 
 Their business was connected with estate matters, for ad- 
 vice upon this point or that, would he settle such and such 
 dispute, so and so was sick, what should be done, and so
 
 236 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 on. There was evidently most perfect confidence and good 
 feeling between the Bey and his people, whether Christian 
 or Mohammedan ; and from certain parts of the conversa- 
 tion it was evident that the former looked to him for pro- 
 tection fi'om exactions by their priest. I particularly re- 
 marked the Idndly way in which he dealt with his people, 
 and the confidence and satisfaction with which his opin- 
 ion was received. 
 
 At last the interviews were over. He apologized for 
 detaining us so long, and asked if we should like to see 
 the stables. He was very fond of horses, and had fifteen 
 admirable specimens of small but compact animals, but I 
 could not admire a tall, gaunt-looking Hungarian horse, 
 with a hollow back, and standing about sixteen hands, 
 of which he seemed specially proud. His principal pas- 
 time was hawking, which he appeared to thoroughly 
 understand, as far as my own ignorance on the subject 
 permitted me to Judge. We then went to see his falcons, 
 which were in excellent condition under the charge of a 
 falconer. 
 
 It was now the cool of the evening, and we were invited 
 to the arbor, where there was laid a table with a snowy- 
 white tablecloth, and on it several little dishes with differ- 
 ent kinds of burnt almonds and nuts, salt fish, pickles, 
 olives, two large dishes of most delicious melons, neatly 
 cut up, one of the jDink and the other of the yellow variety, 
 two pint decanters of raki,^* and some biscuits. I was, as 
 usual, ravenously hungry, and a horrible dread came over 
 me that this was dinner, and I felt that a meal off pickles, 
 melon, and burnt nuts could only result in what the little 
 child called ' ' a pain in the pinafore. ' ' However, my friend, 
 who knew the ways of the country, assured me that this 
 was not dinner, but only a sort of preliminary canter, and 
 that we should afterwards be invited by the Bey to adjourn 
 to the house, where the great meal would be served. But I 
 had grave doubts on the subject, my own experience hav- 
 ing proved that promised meals were not always realized 
 
 * Turkish spirit, flavored with aniseed.
 
 A TUBEISn DINNER. 237 
 
 in Turkey. We sat down, picked at the various dishes, 
 and tlie raki was handed round, but my host notic- 
 ing that I did not drink it, considerately ordered some 
 win^ for my special use. Brophy advised me to imbibe 
 all that I intended to drink, as we should not, according 
 to Turkish custom, have any liquids when we adjourned 
 for dinner. 
 
 But there is a certain amount of romance about wine, 
 and I felt that I could not drink "to order" in this off- 
 hand manner. 
 
 Time went on. My host kept talking and drinking 
 raki. I commenced by picking at all the dishes for man- 
 ner's sake and curiosity — then I did it to pass the time. 
 At last I saw that one decanter of raki had been finished 
 and the other was commenced, and as we had sat there for 
 an hour I was now convinced that this was dinner, and 
 nothing else, so I thought there was no time to be lost, 
 and, therefore, attacked the melons and biscuits in real 
 earnest. But I was mistaken. When the second decan- 
 ter of raki was nearly finished, our host clapped his 
 hands, upon which two servants appeared as if by magic, 
 one with a towel, and the other with a dish and ewer, and 
 we each had water poured over our hands. 
 
 We then followed our host into the house, where we 
 found in the center of the room a low platter of beautiful 
 clean zinc, about three feet in diameter, and upon it three 
 neatly- folded napkins, with a spoon by the side of each, 
 and in the center a bowl of hot soup. We sat down cross- 
 legged (a most painful operation), our host made an in- 
 clination for us to begin, and in silence we in turn dipped 
 into the bowl. So far it was easy work, and the soup was 
 excellent. 
 
 Four servants stood around, and seemed to divine by 
 instinct when we were satisfied, and the soup was whisked 
 away, and instantly replaced by a dish of quails, but no 
 knives, forks, nor plates ! I felt that the crisis had come. 
 I could eat a good fat quail easily enough in my fingers, 
 but what to do with the bones afterwards ? If I laid them
 
 238 tuhket in Europe. 
 
 on the platter, I might be infringing some sacred law of 
 the Koran, and thus insulting my host. I thought of the 
 Shah when he was in London, and how he had thrown the 
 cherry-stones under the table ; but here was no table to 
 throw under ! I began to calculate how many bones I 
 might swallow with impunity, when our host delicately 
 broke off the leg and wing of a quail, ate the meat, and laid 
 the bones on the platter. I had devoured two quails be- 
 fore you would count fifty. Dish succeeded dish, they 
 were all beautifully cooked ; stewed meat, kebobs, stuffed 
 vegetables, etc., etc. We all ate in perfect silence, and 
 finished with washing hands and coffee. As we were 
 going to start very early the next morning, our host 
 wished us "bon voyage," making many polite speeches 
 in Turkish, which we returned. . On going to our bed- 
 room we found pillows and two large quilts spread as 
 beds, and we slej^t soundly, undisturbed by insects. 
 
 I afterwards heard that our host was very much re- 
 spected for his justice and charity by people throughout 
 the whole district, whether Mohammedan or not. 
 
 I now, with much regret, took leave of my companion, 
 Mr. Brophy, who was obliged to return to his vice-con- 
 sular duties, by way of Rustchuk. We had traveled so 
 far together that it seemed quite unnatural to ride off in 
 opposite directions. I had much to thank him for before 
 we parted, as his knowledge of the language and of the 
 people had been of the greatest assistance to me. 
 
 This was on September 6th, and it was the hottest day 
 I have ever experienced in Turkey, so that my lonely ride 
 of eight hours in the sun was not very enjoyable. 
 
 My route lay for a great part of the distance along the 
 river Osma, and I noticed an immense cave in a cliff on the 
 other side of the river. It was at least fifty feet in height, 
 and appeared to run a great distance into the hill. 
 
 On my arrival at Lovtcha, I found John perfectly well, 
 and Pano as bright as ever. I had left word that they 
 were to telegrajDh to me if John did not get over his bilious 
 attack, so that I was prepared to find him in good health.
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL BOUNDARIES. 239 
 
 I liacl made a deput at Troyan for my tents, guns, etc., 
 and I now determined to make for Samakov, and then for 
 Rilo Monastii', to enjoy two weeks' deer-stalking. I liad 
 been so near the Danube that I was tempted to make for 
 it, take steamer to Belgrade, and from there pass through 
 Servia, and journeying by Msch to Metrovitza, take the 
 railway to Salonica; but the season of the year was so 
 advanced that I was obliged to give up the idea, and thus 
 lost the ox)portunity of personally visiting places which 
 have since obtained so much interest. It is curious to 
 observe how clearly defined are the ethnological bounda- 
 ries in Turkey in Europe. The Bulgarians and the Slaves 
 are as distinct from each other as the Greeks and Circas- 
 sians, and although they have all been under a common 
 government, Slave families do not appear to have been 
 tempted to emigrate from their adopted country of Servia 
 to settle in other parts of Turkey. Yet the vast plains of 
 the Danube lay invitingly before them, and there was easy 
 communication by the river. 
 
 A work on Turkey in Eurox^e would hardly be complete 
 without some account of the Slave subjects of the Ottoman 
 Empu-e, and I will, therefore, pause in my journey to give 
 a brief sketch of their history, in order to refi'esh the 
 memory of some of my readers who may not have taken 
 the trouble to study the subject.
 
 CHAPTEE XIII. 
 
 OTTOMAN SLAVES. 
 
 Ancient Slaves — Their Eeligion — Their Conyersion to Christianity — Battle 
 of Kossova — Assassination — Kara George — His Character — Rebellious 
 Janizaries — Intrigue — Milosch — Russian Poison — Despotisms and Misery 
 — A Reign of Intrigue — Peace and Contentment under Alexander — More 
 Intrigue and Rebellion— Death of Prince Michael. 
 
 nnHE origin of the term Slave is enveloped in a certain 
 -L amount of mist, but it is generally supposed to be 
 derived from Slava, wMcli means "glory." 
 
 The ancient Slavonian people are one of the Indo-Euro- 
 pean families which found their way to Europe by the 
 Volga road, and married with the aborigines Over the 
 greater part of Russia. 
 
 The Ottoman Slaves are comprised under the head of 
 Servians, Bosnians, Montenegrins, Herzegovinians, Croats, 
 and some emigrant tribes from Eussia which are settled 
 in the Dobrudja. 
 
 Latham assigns a Slavonic or Sarmatian origin to the 
 ancient Thracians, and if it is so the Slavonic element 
 must be strong on the mother's side amongst the greater 
 part of the Ottoman subjects in Europe. 
 
 It was by means of Turks — that is, of the Huns — that 
 the modern Slaves were introduced to their present quar- 
 ters in Turkey in Europe. 
 
 In A.D. 488, Denghizikh, the son of Attila, called in the 
 aid of the barbarians from the Ural and the Vistula to 
 prop up his waning power, and from that date commenced 
 their wars with the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 The Emperor Heraclius strove for their alliance and as- 
 sistance. "Give us, then," said the Croats, "some land 
 to cultivate ; " and he gave them Dalmatia. Then set out 
 
 240
 
 THE ANCIE2i'T SLA VES. 241 
 
 the tide of emigration, to profit by the liberality of the 
 emperor ; and hordes of these barbarians poured into the 
 country until they colonized the land from the frontiers of 
 Epirus to the Danube, to be pressed back eventually within 
 their present limits. They are described as rude in man- 
 ner and dress, ignorant of all idea of marriage, their relig- 
 ion a vulgar fetichism, their occupations the chase and war. 
 They must, however, have had some ideas of industry, or 
 they would not have been so eager for lands to cultivate. 
 They had plenty of opportunities for indulging their love 
 for war in the contests which followed ^vith their rivals, 
 the Bulgarians ; but although frequently beaten, they 
 were never subdued by that race, probably on account of 
 the mountainous nature of the country, to which they 
 could always retire. 
 
 We have seen, in the chapter on the Bulgarians, how 
 the Slaves became converted to Christianity by the labors 
 of the missionaries Cyrillus and Methodius, in the ninth 
 century ; and their communications with the Byzantine 
 Empii'e, sometimes in war, sometimes in peace, gradually 
 educated them into the ideas and customs of their neigh- 
 bors, until they rose into such importance and power that 
 their great king, Stephen Douchan, ruled victoriously from 
 Belgrade to the Maritza, from the Black Sea to the Adri- 
 atic, and assumed the title of " Emperor of the Eoume- 
 lians, the Macedonian Christ-loving Czar," * a.d. 1340, 
 with Priscina for his capital. It was the ambition dis- 
 played by this Servian king that alarmed Cantacuzenus 
 for the safety of Constantinople that he called in the aid 
 of the Turks from Asia Minor to defend the empire. By 
 the introduction of foreign legions, and a good organiza- 
 tion, Douchan raised a formidable army. The Ottoman 
 arms soon began to advance over Europe, and twice were 
 the Servian forces defeated on the Maritza ; but the great 
 blow which was to destroy their independence was reserved 
 for the battle of Kossova, August 27th, 1389. King Laza- 
 rus, who then reigned in Servia, made a final effort to re- 
 
 * Ranke. 
 16
 
 242 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 pel the Ottoman advance, and gathered together a vast 
 army from the Slavonians of Poland, Hungary, and Wal- 
 lachia, which he added to his own forces from Servia, Bos- 
 nia, and Albania, together with the Bulgarians, who were 
 now his allies. But although the troops were brave, and 
 ardent to be led against the Turks, there was difficulty in 
 moving so many independent forces as a comjjact army. 
 King Lazarus commanded the whole, and after much dif- 
 ficulty gathered his forces in line of battle on the plain of 
 Kossova, north of the little stream of the Schinitza, and 
 there awaited the attack of Sultan Amurath I,, who was 
 advancing at the head of his veteran Ottoman troops. 
 
 Amurath was accompanied by two princes of the House 
 of Othman, his sons Bayezed and Yakoub. As soon as he 
 had reconnoitered the superior forces of King Lazarus, he 
 hesitated to risk a battle, and called a council of war, the 
 usual accompaniment of hesitation. Conflicting was the 
 advice which followed, but the general tenor was for battle ; 
 and some wily generals suggested that the camels used for 
 baggage should be placed inline, and driven toward the en- 
 emy, so that by their smell the cavalry horses should be 
 put to flight, and in the confusion the attack be made. 
 To this Prince Bayezed wisely objected, saying, " The 
 honor of our flag requires that those who march beneath 
 the crescent should meet their enemy face to face, let that 
 enemy be whom he will." 
 
 The Grand Yizier consulted the Koran by opening a 
 page at random for prophetic advice, and turned up the 
 verse, " Yerily, a large host is often beaten by a weaker 
 one." As night came on, it was decided that battle should 
 be given the next day. 
 
 Amurath passed the night in prayer, and when dawn 
 broke, and a heavy shower fell which laid the dust, he 
 took it as a sign that his prayers for victory were heard. 
 
 Amurath took command of the center, with his Jani- 
 zaries and cavalry of the guard ; Prince Bayezed had 
 the right wing, with the feudatory troops ; and Prince 
 Yakoub was on the left, with the Asiatic forces. On the
 
 BA TTLE OF KOSSO VA. 243 
 
 Servian side King Lazarus commanded in tlie center, liis 
 nepliew, Yuk Brankovitcli, on the right, and tlie King of 
 Bosnia on the left. 
 
 Amiirath commenced the attack nnder cover of clouds 
 of skirmishers along his whole front, but the Servians 
 quickly threw forward their right, under the King of 
 Bosnia, and so fiercely attacked Prince Yakoub, that his 
 Asiatic troops began to waver. Amurath, with his royal 
 iron mace in hand, was pressing on his Janizaries in the 
 center, and fighting hand to hand vdth. the enemy, when 
 the report came to him that his left had given way. His 
 right was not being so hotly engaged ; he therefore did 
 not call up his reserve, but sent to Prince Bayezed to detach 
 a part of his right wing, and charge the Bosnians in flank. 
 The fight raged fiercely, and wave after wave of supports 
 were brought to the front to maintain the position, but 
 victory still hung in the balance. 
 
 At this moment Amurath' s attention was attracted by a 
 Servian nobleman of the name of Milosch Kabilovitch, 
 who, galloping forward by himself from the Servian ranks, 
 made signals that he wished to parley. When safe within 
 the Turkish ranks, he declared his birth, and saying that 
 he was a deserter, demanded that he should be taken to 
 the Sultan, as he had important secrets to reveal. Arrived 
 in the presence of Amurath, who had paused in the fight, he 
 knelt at his feet as if to do him homage, and then, quickly 
 drawing a dagger, stabbed Mm in the belly, and sprang 
 away to escape to his horse. Three times he was caught, 
 and three times he wrenched himself from the grasp of 
 Ms pursuers, but in the melee his horse took fright and 
 fled, and he was cut to pieces by the infuriated Janizaries. 
 Amurath knew that he had received a mortal wound, but 
 concealing it from those around, he galloped to the cavalry 
 of the reserve, and placing himself at their head, charged 
 impetuously upon the Bosnians, and drove them back in 
 confusion. He now ordered a general advance of the 
 whole line, and the great Servian army fled in confusion 
 before the Turks. The brave Sultan's strength just lasted
 
 244 TURRET IX EUROPE. 
 
 to enable him to recognize the victory, and to be brought 
 face to face with his prisoner King Lazarus, whom -vvith 
 his dying breath he cruelly ordered to be executed, and 
 then expired. * The battle of Kossova was decisive in the 
 history of Servia, and henceforth she became the vassal of 
 Turkey ; but the Bosnians, in their mountain fastnesses, 
 still kept up the struggle at intervals, until the battle of 
 Yama, in 1444, when Hunyades was defeated, and with 
 the destruction of his Servian and Bosnian forces, the 
 latter practically became subject to Turkey ; but the com- 
 plete subjection of these countries was not effected until 
 the victorious reign of Mahomet II. At the siege of Yama 
 an incident occurred which showed that Christians can be 
 more bigoted than the Turks. Hunyades, who was a 
 Roman Catholic, was asked by George Brankovitch, of the 
 Greek Church, what he intended to do if victory declared 
 in his favor. He answered that he would compel every 
 one of the inhabitants to become Roman Catholics. Brank- 
 ovitch then went to the Sultan, and put the same question, 
 and received the reply that he would build a church near 
 every mosque, and allow the people to bow in the mosques 
 or cross themselves in the churches, according to their re- 
 spective creeds. The Servians who heard this thought it 
 better to submit to the Turks than be subjected to the 
 Latin Church, f 
 
 It was at this period that most of the nobles of Bosnia 
 and Bulgaria adopted the Mohammedan faith, and as 
 lands were granted to any family who could produce one 
 son who was ready to become a Mohammedan, large num- 
 bers of the Bosnians and Bulgarians accepted the terms. 
 
 After the fall of Constantinople, in the reign of Ma- 
 homet II., Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Albania be- 
 came incorporated as part of the Turkish empire. 
 
 There were occasional attempts on the part of the Servi- 
 ans to shake off the authority of the Porte ; but it was in 
 the early part of the present century, under the hope of 
 assistance from Russia, and when Turkey was weakened 
 
 * Creasy. f Ibid,
 
 KARA OEOIiGE. 245 
 
 by foreign wars and the dissensions created by internal 
 reforms, that the Servians thought that the favorable 
 opportunity had arrived, and, goaded by the merciless 
 excesses of the Janizaries, they listened to the voice of 
 the hero — Czemy George, or Kara George, as the Turks 
 called him — a peasant of Topolo, The stern character of 
 this man may be judged from his earlier life. As a young 
 man he had fought with his father in the revolt of 1787, 
 and after the peace of Sistova, they flew before the ven- 
 geance of the Turks to the Austrian frontier. There the 
 old man paused, conscience-stricken at thus turning his 
 back upon his native land. "George," he said, "stop 
 and listen to your old father. It is cowardly to desert 
 our country. Let us remain and give ourselves up, in the 
 hope of pardon," — "Father," replied George, "I know 
 better ; I have seen enough already to know what our fate 
 would be ; let us go on." — " Then," said the father, "you 
 depart alone, and I remain." — "Then," said George, "it 
 is better you should die by my hand, than submit to tor- 
 ture." The old man blessed his son, who plunged a dag- 
 ger into his breast. After a time George returned to his 
 country, and became a herder of pigs among the Servian 
 forests. When the Janizaries, drunk with blood and 
 carnage, entered the Schoumadia, George left his herd, 
 and fled to the mountains, where he succeeded in rousing 
 the spirit of the people, and soon gathered a large force 
 about him. He was unanimously elected their leader, 
 but at first declined. Much patriotism was exhibited ; 
 many of the people refusing commands, saying, "they 
 were fit to fight and follow, but not to lead." Kara George 
 attacked the Janizaries with vigor, defeated them at 
 Svilenoa, took Schabatz, and soon appeared before Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 At the news of the rising, Sultan Selim, who was 
 threatened by a revolt of his own Janizaries, determined 
 to take the part of Kara George and the Rayahs, and sent 
 orders to his troops to support him against his rebellious 
 dahis or chiefs of the Janizaries. The united forces soon
 
 246 TURRET ly EUROPE. 
 
 gained tTie fortress of Belgi'ade, but after the Janizaries 
 were defeated, tlie Sultan found it no easy matter to bring 
 the Servian Eayahs to terms ; they had felt their power, 
 and their demands rose in proportion. The result was a 
 prolonged struggle for independence, accompanied, as in 
 the case of Greece, with internal rivalries and jealousies. 
 But the extraordinary power of the genius of one man for 
 inspiring courage and order was very prominent in the 
 person of Kara George. While the war was raging with 
 the Turks on the frontier, and dissensions were reigning 
 within, he excited the enthusiasm of the people by the 
 recollection of their former power under Douchan, and in- 
 duced them at a favorable moment to revive the ancient 
 Assembly of the Skupshtina, or gathering together of the 
 voivodes and their followers in the spring to discuss the 
 affairs of the State. 
 
 They met ; a senate was convoked, and Philippovitch, 
 who was named secretary, set about the reforms with re- 
 markable activity. Each district nominated a number of 
 representatives, in proportion to its population. Taxes 
 were regulated, the rights of the clergy limited, schools 
 were formed, district courts of Justice established, village 
 magistrates, and right of appeal to the senate. Truly 
 this steady and cool organization, in the midst of war and 
 depression, was very admirable, and proves Kara George 
 to have been a statesman of the highest order. Among 
 the chief and most able of the administrators was Mladen 
 Milovanovitch ; among the most active of those, whose 
 first object was his own ambition, was Milosch Obreno- 
 vitch. 
 
 Sultan Mahmoud determined to crush this perj)etual 
 Servian irritation, and launched such a powerful Turkish 
 force against that country that even the military ability 
 of Kara George was unable to make head against it with 
 the small forces at his disposal. Although he sought 
 allies, he rejected the advice to apply to Russia, saying 
 that it would be throwing off one tyrant to submit to a 
 greater.
 
 KARA GEORGE. 217 
 
 In his despair, he appealed to Napoleon, but %vithoiit 
 success. Russia the whole of this time was intriguing \\dth 
 Servia, holding out hopes of assistance and friendship, 
 and withdiuwing them when convenient ; and she took 
 care to keep up her influence with many of the Sei-vian 
 politicians, and formed g, powerful opposition to the anti- 
 Russian Kara George. 
 
 It is probable that this irritating opposition of some of 
 the leaders of his o^vn people, on whom he had concentrated 
 all his energies, may have so acted on the emotional 
 character of this extraordinary man as to cause him to 
 throw up the affau^s of his country, and end his glorious 
 life by an act of apparent treason. By the Treaty of 
 Bucharest Russia threw over Servia ; her fortresses were 
 to be given up to the Sultan, and they were again to be 
 reoccuj)ied by Turkish garrisons. 
 
 On this point the Servian historian, Cunibert, says : 
 "Such conduct might promote the ulterior designs of 
 Russia in the East, but it showed little justice ajid gene- 
 rosity to Servia." 
 
 Kara George demanded that prior to giving up the 
 fortresses some guarantee should be given for the security 
 of his people ; but this the Porte declined. Molla Pasha, 
 of Widdin, was in active rebellion against the Sultan, and 
 seized the opportunity to propose joint action with Servia 
 against the Porte ; but the Servians declined this oifer on 
 the urgent representations of Russia, who was endeavor- 
 ing to induce Turkey to join the confederation against 
 France, and was consequently at that time desu'ous to 
 save the Porte from embarrassment.* Kara George now 
 proposed a plan of battle to the Senate, which was most 
 ably conceived. It was to destroy all the fortresses on 
 the frontier, and concentrate all the Servian forces in the 
 heart of their mountainous country for a final effort 
 against the advancing Turks. It was, without doubt, their 
 only hope of success. But his counsels were opposed, 
 and he immediately gave way. 
 
 * Creasy.
 
 248 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 If we examine the character of this remarkable man we 
 find that he was extremely petulant and moody. Con- 
 scious of superior military genius to his fellow-country- 
 men, he had not the patience to combat their obstructive 
 objections, so he took refuge in a petulant agreement to 
 all they proposed, as much as to say, "Learn your igno- 
 rance by bitter experience." His nature was not grand 
 enough to rise above the level of petty spite, and it seems 
 by what followed as though he sacrificed his country to 
 this feeling. It is impossible to suppose that his military 
 genius did not foresee that when he gave the order for the 
 distribution of his small forces over four different parts of 
 his country, it was simply to court defeat ; besides which, 
 it was in exact opposition to his first advice. The Russian 
 opposition in the Senate probably so exasperated him 
 that he gave way, and allowed his country to be sacrificed. 
 It is sad to see so great a mind brought so low. Had he 
 remained and died on the battle-field in defense of his 
 country he would have been one of the most illustrious 
 heroes of history, but pique overmastered him. The 
 Turks advanced, the scattered Servian forces were cut up 
 in detail, and the almost heroic Kara George gathered up 
 his treasures, and with many of his voivodes disgracefully 
 fled from his conquered country, and took refuge in Aus- 
 tria. Of all the voivodes Milosch only remained — the 
 representative of his country and of Russian policy. 
 Milosch, after a show of resistance against the Turks, 
 changed round, and allied himself with them, for the pur- 
 pose of subjecting his country to obedience, and the Otto- 
 mans again spread over the land. Russia was soon re- 
 lieved of her threatened danger from France by the defeat 
 of Napoleon, and had no longer reason to court the 
 assistance of Turkey, neither did she now approve of her 
 growing power over Servia. Milosch, while in aUiance with 
 Turkey, secretly fomented a rebellion in Servia against 
 the authority of the Porte. When aU was ready, in 1815, 
 he placed .himself at their head, and dispersed the Ottoman 
 troops, leaving them only the fortresses of the country.
 
 MiLOScn. 249 
 
 The moment was favorable, for intrigues in the Ottoman 
 Empire were rousing the Christian subjects to rebel — the 
 Porte deemed it wiser to temporize. ISIilosch was made 
 Prince of Servia, and, backed by Russia, obtained exten- 
 sive concessions from the Turks. 
 
 But there was an opposing party to the increasing 
 power of Milosch, and this party would gladly have found 
 a leader. At this time Kara George was in Bessarabia, 
 where a Servian named Georgild brought him a secret 
 message begging him to come to the assistance of his 
 country. Kara George appears to have informed the 
 Russian consul at Jassy of his intention to return, and 
 received encouragement to proceed. On his crossing the 
 frontier he was shot, by whose orders is still a mystery, 
 but it is attributed to Milosch. 
 
 • By the separate Act relating to Servia in the Conven- 
 tion of Ackerman, 1826, it was enacted that Mussulmans, 
 other than those belonging to the garrisons, should be 
 prohibited from establishing themselves in Servia. It 
 having been agreed by the former concessions to Milosch 
 that the resident Mussulmans should be expelled the 
 country, but that time should be allowed for their emi- 
 gration, we see what a fertile source of misunderstanding 
 was thus created, and we also see the intolerant nature of 
 the despotic power that would be %vdelded in Servian self- 
 government. The Porte soon recognized the quarter that 
 directed the actions of Milosch, and we have the curious 
 spectacle of the Sultan taking the part of the Servian 
 people against their rulers — in fact, despotic Turkey de- 
 fending the Servians from the machinations of a still 
 greater despot. The first Hatt-i-cherif confirming the 
 liberty and rights of the Servian people was issued in 
 1829, and followed by another in 1830. By them the 
 Servians were secured the entire management and control 
 of their own affairs. It also stipulated that "the Servian 
 nation shall pay to their Prince the sum required for his 
 maintenance and expenses, but this sum must not be an 
 intolerable burden on the poor." Also, "The Representa-
 
 250 TTTRKET m EUROPE. 
 
 tive Council sliall not be dismissed unless they have been 
 guilty of grave oifense to the Porte, and toward the laws 
 and constitution of their country." Twelve months was 
 given to the Turks to clear out "bag and baggage ;" but 
 as it was found impossible for them to do so without the 
 grossest mjustice, the term was increased to five years. 
 Milosch grew in despotism, trifled with the formation of 
 a constitution, and kept the country in a ferment. 
 
 The Servians, driven to despair, appealed to the Porte 
 to protect them, and to compel the Prince to grant them 
 their liberties ; and in 1838 they obtained a fresh Hatt-i- 
 cherif, and a charter of their liberties, w^hich goes by the 
 name of the "Organic Statute." It confirms the previous 
 Hatt-i-cherifs, limits the revenue of the Prince to £20,- 
 000 a year, and directs that three functionaries shall be 
 appointed directors of internal affairs, of justice, and of 
 finance, these ofiicers to be responsible to the Council for 
 the management of the affairs intrusted to them, and to 
 be called upon annually for an account of their steward- 
 ship. 
 
 The members of the Council were to consist of seven- 
 teen members, Servians by birth ; they were not to be re- 
 movable at the discretion of the Prince, and they were to 
 form a National Representative Assembly. But the appe- 
 tite for despotism of Prince MUosch had been so whetted 
 that he could no longer restrain it, and he refused to ful- 
 fill the terms of the Constitution. His subjects rebelled, 
 expelled him from Servia, and jplaced his eldest son, 
 Milan, on the throne, who, dying soon afterward, was 
 succeeded by his brother Michael. 
 
 The two parties now waged a war of intrigue in Servia, 
 the one Russian, with the Prince at its head, the other 
 Turkish, supported by the Servian people. Prince Michael 
 was as despotic as his father, and did his utmost to in- 
 trigue with the neighboring Christian populations of Tur- 
 key to effect a rising against the Ottoman Government. 
 His despotic conduct to the Servian people was so galling 
 that they rose, and with the assistance of the Porte de-
 
 ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER. 251 
 
 posed and sent liim into exile. In this extremity who was 
 to be thek leader ? 
 
 Kara George was long since dead, but lie had left behind 
 him a son, Alexander ; and the now aged wari'iors, Avho 
 had fought beside the gallant father, thought there could 
 be no better representative of their country than the son 
 of their revered commander ; they therefore, in 1842, in 
 the name of the people, proclaimed Alexander Kara 
 Georgevitch Prince of Servia. The Por-te, upon being 
 asked by the foreign powers what course they proposed 
 to take, replied that they should consult the wishes of the 
 Servian people. The accession of Alexander was a great 
 blow to Russian intrigue, and the emperor made a strong 
 protest, and did his utmost to prevent the young prince 
 being confirmed on the throne ; but the firm attitude as- 
 sumed by the Servian people, who even threatened war 
 against Russia rather than give up the object of their 
 choice, restrained any forcible interference. It was with 
 the greatest difficulty that Lord Aberdeen, then Foreign 
 Secretary, prevented a rupture between Russia and Tur- 
 key. And now Servia was at last to have peace, and to 
 be left to the quiet control of her own affairs under the 
 judicious reign of Alexander. The Turks had not left the 
 country as stipulated, but both Mohammedan and Christian 
 now lived peaceably together, and there were no longer 
 complaints of Turkish oppression or Turkish outrage. 
 Roads were made, education flourished, and for eighteen 
 years Servia advanced in progTess under Alexander, sim- 
 ply because he protected her from the effects of intrigue, 
 and was a liberal ruler. During the Crimean War, Rus- 
 sia made the greatest exertions to rouse the Servian peo- 
 ple to attack the Turks ; but nothing would induce them 
 to swerve from their allegiance, and the following remark- 
 able memorandum, which was then drawn up by the Ser- 
 vian Government, stands out in strong and brilliant con- 
 trast to their miserable conduct of duplicity in 1876, and 
 the result to the country which followed these opposite 
 courses of action points a moral : —
 
 252 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 "The wliole nation is perfectly convinced that the most 
 precious interests impose upon it the maintenance of tran- 
 cLuillity and order, and the avoidance of anything which 
 could involve it in war and turn Servia into a battle-field. 
 Filled with a deep gratitude to the Suzerain Court for the 
 privileges which have been so graciously confirmed to 
 them, and for the attitude which they have been allowed 
 to hold during this war, the Government and people of 
 Servia are too much alive to their own interests, and too 
 much attached to the happiness of their country, to hesi- 
 tate a moment as to the line of conduct to be followed : 
 their consciousness of their own situation will preserve 
 them better than any threats whatever from all false and 
 injurious measures. 
 
 "In other respects, since the war has broken out, has 
 not Servia sufficiently shown that she both knows and 
 will remain faithful to her duties and obligations 1 Not- 
 withstanding all that may have been said, she has never 
 ceased following a line of conduct, retiring, it is true, but 
 loyal and conformable to her engagements. Neither will 
 she henceforward deviate from this line of conduct. The 
 Sublime Porte may be perfectly sure of this." 
 
 But such a hapj)y state of affairs was not destined to 
 last ; it was anything but in accordance with Russian 
 policy, and so the usual "rebellion machinery" was put 
 in motion. Foreign agents were introduced to the coun- 
 try, jealousies were fanned into a flame, suspicions were 
 fomented, and at length, after great perseverance, an out- 
 break was created, Alexander was deposed, and Milosch 
 the despot returned to the country. No sooner had he 
 entered than reports began to be spread of Turkish op- 
 pression and outrages. 
 
 Christian brigands were introduced, with orders to as- 
 sume Mussulman names, and attack the Servians. Mr. 
 Long worth says : "The object for which they were hired 
 appears to me to have been as follows : To cause general 
 belief that the Mussulmans were constantly killing the 
 Christians, and to create disturbances throughout those
 
 B USSIAN INTRIG UES. 253 
 
 very districts wliicli tlie Grand Yizier was visiting, so that 
 it might hereafter be said that even the presence of the 
 Grand Vizier was not sufficient to prevent disorder and 
 nuirder." Just at this time (1860) the old Prince Milosch 
 died, and his son Michael claimed the hereditary right to 
 the throne. At first the Porte objected, but eventually 
 gave way. 
 
 Prince Michael proved a willing agent of Russia in the 
 endeavor to raise the people against the Turks. He en- 
 rolled a large body of police from among refugee Monte- 
 negrins, and Christians from other parts of Turkey, who 
 had been noted for their crimes, as well as for their en- 
 mity to the Turks. Their orders were to intimidate the 
 Turkish population. Mr. Longworth says : " The impres- 
 sion made by this system of terror on the Turkish popula- 
 tion, who naturally shrink from a collision, well knoAving 
 by experience that, right or wrong, they would be sacri- 
 ficed, was very painful to contemplate. The Servians 
 themselves, conscious that they were driving them to 
 despair, declared them to be arming ; but I have been at 
 great pains to clear up this accusation, and I feel con- 
 vinced it was unfounded. They showed great patience 
 and forbearance to the last." 
 
 Then followed the usual programme : murders of 
 Turks, then murders of Christians, then mutual exas- 
 peration and bloodshed. 
 
 In 1861 the Prince convoked the Skupshtina, and pro- 
 posed the following three measures : — That the succes- 
 sion to the principality should be declared hereditary. 
 That a militia of 50,000 men, with a reserve of 70,000, 
 should be raised. That he alone should represent the 
 Servian nation in its relation with foreign Powers, and 
 should conclude all treaties and conventions. He after- 
 ward reduced the number of the members of the Skup- 
 shtina by one hundred, and gave himself the power of 
 dissolving it. He also limited the right of convocation to 
 three years, instead of leaving it annual, and in other 
 ways took the whole reins of government into his own
 
 254 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 liands. The British Government, as well as the Porte, 
 protested against this defiance of treaties and obligations 
 — ^but they only protested. 
 
 Shortly after this, Russian consular agents (agitators, 
 in point of fact) were sent to reside in most of the towns 
 in Turkey, and reports became rife of a general rising of 
 the Christians, and that Servia would take the field in 
 their cause. 
 
 It must be remembered that up to this time the prin- 
 cipal fortresses of Servia had remained in the hands 
 of the Turks. Prince Michael had at last worked the 
 Servian people up to a proper pitch of exasperation. The 
 Turks also were similarly prepared. The order was given 
 to attack the Turkish quarter of Belgrade, and men, 
 women, and children were indiscriminately massacred. 
 Mr. Longworth himself saw a cart-load of slaughtered 
 Turkish women. 
 
 The Servians fired on the fortress, and the Turks com- 
 menced to bombard the Christian quarters of the town, 
 upon which, of course, there was an immediate outcry 
 over all Europe. Russia now supplied the Servians with 
 arms and ammunition. 
 
 At this the Powers remonstrated. At first Russia 
 denied that she had sent them ; then she said that they 
 were but few and trifling, and were not intended for Servia 
 at all ; but at last the whole transaction was exposed, and 
 the truth came out. Still, the foreign Powers allowed the 
 breach of international law. Turkey now became alarmed, 
 and began to concentrate troops on the Servian frontier ; 
 but the cry was immediately raised that the poor Servian 
 Christians were going to be massacred by the brutal Turks, 
 and the proceedings of the Porte were denoiinced in the 
 British House of Commons. The government of Eng- 
 land was, however, under Lord Palmerston, who resolutely 
 fought the principle of the binding-power of treaties. Of 
 the other foreign Powers, France, Italy, and Russia 
 were foremost in support of Servia. A mixed commission 
 was convoked at Constantinople ; the Porte relinquished
 
 H USSTAN INTRIG UE3 255 
 
 tlie Servian fortresses, and left that country entirely in- 
 dependent, with the exception of the trilling tribute of 
 £20,000 per annum. How useless these concessions of the 
 Porte were, so far as securing peace, and how evident it 
 was that no concessions, however great, could prevent 
 intrigues against the Porte, has been manifested by the 
 conduct of Servia in 1876. In fact, the whole history of 
 Servia for the last twenty years has been only a part of 
 the drama which is now being acted, and the closing scene 
 has not as yet appeared. On the 10th of June, 1868, an 
 abominable conspiracy was formed to assassinate Prince 
 Michael, and he was brutally shot and mutilated while 
 walking in the Royal Park with the ladies and attendants 
 of his court. The murderers were arrested, and turned 
 out to be enthusiasts, whose chief idea was the formation 
 of a republic ; but from correspondence in their posses- 
 sion much unjust suspicion was thrown upon Alexander 
 Georgevitch. There was no proof, but it was convenient 
 for political intrigue to raise a storm against him, and the 
 indignation of the Servian people rose furiously against 
 the only man who had ever brought them peace and hap- 
 piness. Had he not been under Austrian protection he 
 would have probably fallen a victim to the popular fury. 
 
 The independence of Montenegro commenced with the 
 early settlement of the Slaves in that mountainous coun- 
 try ; and although it has been the theatre of many a strug- 
 gle with the Ottoman power, it has never been subdued to 
 less than a tributary of the Porte. 
 
 In 1688 it was placed under the protection of the Vene- 
 tian Republic, but was restored to the Porte by the treaty 
 of Passarowitz, in 1718. 
 
 In 1796, Montenegro placed itself under the Protec- 
 torate of Russia, and although a tributary to the Porte it 
 stiU looks to the Czar for support in time of need. It may 
 be caUed one of the great Pan-Slavic weapons of war, 
 which is wielded at intervals, and always inflicts a deep 
 wound. Pan-Slavism or Pan-Russianism, for they are in 
 reality the same thing, has produced much trouble, and
 
 256 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 seems likely to continue its work of carnage. Pan-Hellen- 
 ism, which nsed to be the tool of Pan-Slavism, is now its 
 great opponent. Both sides are adepts in the art of in- 
 trigue, and are said to be i)regnant with secret societies, of 
 which Bucharest is the head centre of the one, and Athens 
 of the other. Unfortunate Turkey is the field where they 
 display their powers. 
 
 The one has for its object the establishment of a great 
 Slave Empire, which,* considering that the great bulk of 
 Slaves are Russian subjects, would probably result in the 
 extension of the Eussian Empire. The other aims at the 
 restoration of the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 Russia will probably favor the Pan- Slavic idea up to a 
 certain point, until in fact it gives her all she requires, and 
 will then try to stamp it out ; but secret societies are dan- 
 gerous weapons, and they may prove more dangerous than 
 Russia anticipates. 
 
 There is another colony of Slaves in Turkey in Europe, 
 and said to number about 20,000 inhabitants, in the Do- 
 brudscha, under the name of Lipovans. They, like the 
 Cossacks and Tartars in the same quarter, are Russian 
 emigrants who have arrived at various times from the 
 interior of that country. They are a peculiar sect, who 
 style themselves "Yieux croyants," in consequence of 
 their ancestors having protested against the assumption 
 of the title of Supreme Head of the Church of Russia by 
 Peter the Great. They are the Old Catholics of the Grseco- 
 Russian Church. The Cossacks of the Dobrudscha are 
 also of the Slavonic family ; they number about 9,000, 
 and have emigrated at different times from the Ukraine ; 
 they hold the same religious views as the Lipovans, and 
 are generally found among the fishermen on the lakes and 
 rivers, which they farm from the Turkish Government. 
 
 I have shown that the Bulgarians are frequently num- 
 bered among the Greek population, because they belonged 
 to the Greek Church ; in like manner they are also num- 
 bered among the Slaves, because their language is Sla- 
 vonic. The Pan-Hellenic and Pan-Slavonic parties each 
 drag at them to draw them into their fold ; but they be-
 
 THE E VILS CA USED BY "A GIT A TOES." 257 
 
 long to neither one nor tlie other, and, except by marriage, 
 are sprung from a totally different family of men. 
 
 These two great "isms" are the ruin of the population 
 of Turkey and her tributaries. If the people are let alone, 
 they are able and anxious to be industrious, and to ad- 
 vance in progress ; but they are not allowed the chance, 
 and the constant state of agitation produces a feverish 
 excitement and want of confidence in the public mind, 
 which is a bar to all progress. "We have seen how Servia 
 prospered under the eighteen years' quiet rule of Alex- 
 ander, when Turks and Christians lived amicably together, 
 and all was peace and happiness. I believe that this 
 blessing might be extended to the whole of Turkey if she 
 were once freed from those curses of the human race, 
 "agitators." In this maledictory remark I beg to draw a 
 broad distinction between an agitator and a reformer : the 
 one is either an egotist or an intriguer, while the other is 
 a patriot ; but they are too often confounded. The suc- 
 cess of these agitators is derived from their thorough 
 knowledge of the gregarious nature of men, and how they 
 delight, like sheep, in following a beU-wether, providing 
 he bells loud enough. This blind following of a leader 
 was rather amusingly illustrated at Belgrade on the 9th 
 of April, 1865, when a requiem was being chanted in 
 the Cathedral for the soul of Mr. Cobden. The church 
 was crowded, but hardly any of the congTegation had a 
 notion who good Mr. Cobden was. The wife of one of the 
 principal statesmen in Servia was asked by an English- 
 man who the person was for whose soul she had been 
 praying, and she replied, "An English benefactor of our 
 country." How? "Because he preached against the 
 Turks." But who was he ? "Why, the husband of your 
 Queen, to be sure I " 
 
 The good lady was determined to give the highest honor 
 and position which could possibly be conferred upon her 
 hero. Those who "tallv: down" the Turk may, therefore, 
 contemplate the lofty pinnacle upon which they may hope 
 to be placed in the imaginations of the fair sex of Servia. 
 
 17
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 turkey's aesiy and navy. 
 
 Turkisli Military Organization — Turkish Army — Its Composition — Military 
 Education — Nizam- Ik htiat Redifs — Cavalry and Artillery Reserves — 
 Material of War — Pay of Officers — Turkisli Navy — Ironclads — Naval 
 Education — Hobart Pasha. 
 
 AS the Balkan range of mountains is one of tlie natural 
 defensive fortresses of Turkey in Europe, it demands 
 to be considered from a military aspect, but to do this we 
 must open a wide door, and through, it enter into the mili- 
 tary establishment of Turkey. 
 
 This will lead us into the presence of statistics and 
 details which will be very dry and uninteresting to the 
 general reader, whom I, therefore, advise to skip this and 
 the following chapter. 
 
 On the other hand, these are times when any informa- 
 tion on such subjects may be of value, and I therefore 
 offer (for those who may be interested) the information I 
 have been enabled to obtain, and the ideas which, rightly 
 or wrongly, have suggested themselves to me ; and I have 
 endeavored to formulate them so that they may be 
 judged in a practical and professional manner. 
 
 Our first step in this direction will be to analyze the 
 composition of the Turkish army ; but it is hardly neces- 
 sary for me to warn my reader that a paper army in 
 Turkey is even more unreal in point of numbers than it is 
 in other countries. 
 
 The Turkish Army. 
 An army properly so called may be said to be composed 
 of two parts — 1. The Mental ; 2. The Physical ; and these 
 again may be subdivided into — 
 
 258
 
 777^ TUUKISn AEMY. 
 
 259 
 
 1. Mental . 
 
 1. The ability of the General. 
 
 2. The standard of education of 
 
 officers. 
 
 3. Efficiency in drill of the men. 
 
 4. System of organization. 
 
 ^ 5. Quality of material of war. 
 
 the 
 
 2. Physical. 
 
 1. Strength and endurance of men and 
 
 officers. 
 
 2. Strength and endurance of horses. 
 
 3. The magnitude of the source from 
 
 which men and horses are drawn. 
 
 4. The quantity of the material of war. 
 
 5. The means of supply. 
 
 Given the mental and physical parts of an army in per- 
 fection, the co-efficient of effective force will be mohility, 
 which may be measured by the nature of the country and 
 the genius of the general. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to measure the effective force of 
 the Turkish army by the foregoing standard, in conse- 
 quence of the obstacles to obtaining accurate information. 
 Even personal observation may be very misleading. I 
 have seen several regiments of Turkish cavahy ; some 
 were admirably mounted, and I should have gone away 
 with the idea of that important arm being in excellent 
 order, had I not met other regiments with horses which 
 were such weeds that for all practical purposes the men 
 were dismounted. A stranger seeing a regiment of Turkish 
 volunteers armed with Martini-Henry rifles would natural- 
 ly infer that if such admirable weapons were given to the 
 auxiliary forces, the regular army must certainly have 
 either the same or better arms ; but it is not so. 
 
 All that I can do, is to offer my reader the best statistics 
 I have been able to find, and to supplement them with my 
 own impressions, based upon personal observation and 
 hearsay evidence. 
 
 Proceeding by the standard of efficiency which I have
 
 260 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 drawn up, we will commence with tlie mental parts of tlie 
 army, and — 
 
 1. T7ie Ability of the SerasMer. — This is at present in 
 nuMhus, and there it must remain until the next cam- 
 paign. 
 
 2. The Standard of Education of the Officers. — There 
 are several excellent military schools, both of an advanced 
 and of a preparatory nature. At the head of these may 
 be mentioned The College of Artillery and Engineering 
 at Coumber-Khauch, in the "sweet waters" at Constanti- 
 nople. This college is divided into four sections, of 
 twenty-five students in each. The course of study ex- 
 tends over four years, and the whole organization is re- 
 markably good. The students have the rank of Sub- 
 LieutenantSj and receive pay at the rate of 180 piasters 
 per month. 
 
 The Imperial Military College., at Pancaldi, founded by 
 Sultan Mahmoud II. The instruction at this college is 
 excellent, but it begins at the "wrong end, and turns out 
 Captains instead of Sub-Lieutenants. The course of 
 studies extends over five years, when the students are 
 drafted into the army -with the rank of captain, and 
 thus lose the practical experience of subalterns, which is 
 of so much value in guiding the interior economy of a 
 regiment. The college is commanded by a general of 
 brigade, and in 1873 it turned out 103 students as cap- 
 tains. The supply of the students is drawn from the Mili- 
 tary Preparatory Schools, which are eight in number — 
 one at Constantinople, and at Adrianople, Monastir, 
 Bosna-Serai, Broussa, Erzeroum, Damascus, and Bagdad. 
 The course of instruction extends over four years, and the 
 students are drafted at the age of sixteen into the Imperial 
 Military College. The instruction consists of the Turkish, 
 Arabic, and French languages, history, and geography, 
 mathematics and astronomy. Each school has six pro- 
 fessors, and from 80 to 100 students, with the exception 
 of the one at Constantinople, which has 400 students, and 
 a proportionate number of professors.
 
 THE TURKISH ARMY. 261 
 
 The Constantinople school is commanded by a general 
 of brigade, and tlie other schools by colonels. 
 
 The preparatory schools, or idadyeTi, are now supplied 
 with students from elementary scJiools, or rucltdlyeli., 
 which were established in 1875. As yet they are only 
 eight in number, and are all at Constantinople. They are 
 organized on the model of the idadyeli, and teach lan- 
 guages, calligraphy, drawing, mathematics, and geograx)hy. 
 The students can enter the preparatory from the elemen- 
 tary schools (by examination) for either the anny, navy, or 
 the military medical services ; and they are also prepared 
 as clerks for the civil service. 
 
 Th.Q unitary College of Medicine, or Tliibhiyeli, situated 
 at Constantinople, for the education of surgeons. In 1873 
 this college turned out thirty-three surgeons for the army, 
 and I am told that of late years the course of studies has 
 been much improved. With the excei)tion of the elemen- 
 tary schools at Ghul-khaneh and Selamsig, only Mussul- 
 man students are supxDosed to be admitted, ^^ but some 
 exceptions are made in favor of Christians. Like many 
 other Turkish institutions the organization of these mili- 
 tary colleges is excellent, but the results are small. The 
 means of education are there, but the students are not 
 'inade to profit by them ; but it is a great point gained 
 that the path is all clear for reform in this quarter, and 
 the organization ready to hand. The higher grades of 
 officers, such as generals and the staff, are all appointed 
 by favoritism, and without any regard to their military 
 abilities, so that I fear we must place the standard of 
 education of the officers of the Turlcish army at a low 
 level. 
 
 3. Efficiency in Drill of the Men. — This is certainly 
 faulty. The men are taught to move quickly into their 
 formations, but they are very deficient in the use of their 
 weapons, and the change of arms from the Snider to the 
 Martini-Henry, which is now going on, will not improve 
 this state of affairs. 
 
 * Becker, Ubicini, Vinceut, aud personal observation
 
 262 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 4. The System of Orgamzation.—Tla.e Turkisli forces 
 are divided into four parts — 
 
 (1) The standing army. 
 
 (2) The reserves. 
 
 (3) The levee en masse. 
 
 (4) Auxiliary troops. 
 
 The standing army consists of the Nizam^ or regular 
 army, maintained during peace ; and the IJcMiat.^ or fii'st 
 reserve, which is composed of men who have served their 
 appointed time in the Nizam, and are liable to be called 
 upon to fill vacancies. They are occasionally taken to 
 form comiDlete regiments, and the 7th Corps d'Armee of 
 Yemen was formed of battalions composed of these re- 
 iserve men. 
 
 Military service extends over twelve years, viz. , four in 
 the Nizam, two in the Ikhtiat, three in the 1st Redif , and 
 three in the 2nd Redif. 
 
 The standing army is divided into seven corps d'armee, 
 composed of the follo^ving forces : — 
 
 1st Coiys d'Armee. — Head-quarters, Const axti^^ople. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons. Batteries. 
 
 7 Regiments of Infantry . . 21 — — 
 
 7 Battalions of Chasseurs. 7 — — 
 
 4 Eegiments of Cavalry. . . — 24 — 
 
 1 Eegiment of Circassians. — 5 — 
 
 2 Eegiments of Cossacks. . — 8 — 
 1 Eegiment of Artillery .. . — — 14 
 
 28 37 14 
 
 %nd Corps d'Armee. — Head-quarters, Shumla. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons. Batteries. 
 
 5 Eegiments of Infantry . . 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5 Battalions of Chasseurs. 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 Eegiment of the Frontier 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4 Eegiments of Cavah-y . . . 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 1 Eegiment of Artillery. . . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 14 
 
 23 24 14
 
 THE TURKISH ARMY. 263 
 
 3rd Corps d'Armee, — Ilead-qnarters, Moxastir. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons. Batteries. 
 
 6 Ucgimeiits of Infautry. . 18 — — 
 
 6 Battalions of Chasseurs. 6 — — 
 
 1 Eegiment of the Frontier 3 — — 
 
 2 Eegiments of Bosniaks. . 6 — — 
 
 4 Eegiments of Cavalry ... — 24 — 
 1 Eegiment of Artillery .. . — — 14 
 
 33 24 14* 
 
 4:ih Corps d'Armee. — Head-quarters, ERZEROUii. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons, Batteries. 
 
 5 Eegiments of Infantry. . 15 — — 
 
 5 Battalions of Cliasseurs. 5 — — 
 
 4 Eegiments of Cavalry... — 24 — 
 
 1 Eegiment of Artillery. .. — — 14 
 
 20 24 14 
 
 Mh Corps d'Armee. — Head-quarters, DAiiASCUS. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons. Batteries. 
 
 5 Eegiments of Infantry... 15 — — 
 
 5 Battalions of Chasseurs ... 5 — — 
 
 4 Eegiments of Cavalry ... . — 24 — 
 
 1 Eegiment of Artillery.... — — 14 
 
 20 24 14 
 
 ^tJi Corps d'Armee. — Head-quarters, Bagdad. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons. Batteries. 
 
 6 Eegiments of Infantry... 18 — — 
 
 6 Battalions of Chasseurs. . . 6 — — 
 
 4 Eegiments of Cavalry.... — 24 — 
 
 1 Eegiment of Artillery — — 14 
 
 24 24 14 
 
 * There are in addition one regiment (de Cordon), one battalion Miksiteh, 
 and one regiment Austrian Frontier.
 
 264 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 '7th CorjJS d'Armee. — Head-quarters, Yemeit. 
 
 Battalions. Squadrons. Batteries. 
 
 5 Eegiments of Infantry 15 — — 
 
 5 Battalions of Chasseurs. . . 5 — — 
 
 1 Squadron of Circassians.. — 1 — 
 
 2 Battalions of Artillery — — 6 
 
 20 1 6* 
 
 A regiment of infantry is composed of 3 battalions of 8 
 companies. Tlie complement of a battalion on a war foot- 
 ing is 800, and on a peace footing, as a rule, 450 rank and 
 
 file. 
 
 A regiment of cavalry is composed of 6 squadrons, ex- 
 cept those of the Cossacks, which have only 4 squadrons. 
 The war state of a squadron is 140, and the peace state 90 
 horses. 
 
 A regiment of artillery is composed of 4 battalions of 3 
 batteries, 1 mountain battery, and battery of mitrailleuses, 
 6 guns to each battery. The guns of the horse artillery, 
 and those of one battalion of field artillery, are Krupp 
 steel guns, similar to those in the Prussian service. 
 
 The strength of a regiment of field artillery is — 
 
 Men. Horses. Mules. 
 
 In war 2,340 2,632 119 
 
 In peace 1,400 600 — 
 
 The garrison artillery are not attached to any corps 
 d'armee in particular, but are placed under the orders of 
 the Minister of War. It is composed of 2 battalions of 4 
 companies each ; and the war strength of a battalion is 
 564 men. 
 
 The war strength of the standing army will consequently 
 be— 
 
 Men. Horses. Guns. 
 
 Infantry, 168 Battalions 134,000 — — 
 
 Cavalry, 158 Squadrons 20,540 20,540 — 
 
 Artillery, 90 Batteries 15,142 17,718 540 
 
 Engineers, 2 Battalions 1,128 — — 
 
 Total .... 171,010 38,258 540 
 * Becker.
 
 TURRETS AUMT AND NA VT. 265 
 
 The peace strength — 
 
 Battalions. Men. Horses. Guns. 
 
 Infantry 168 75,000 — — 
 
 Cavahy 158 14,200 14,200 — 
 
 Artillery 90 9,000 3,900 540 
 
 Engineers 2 900 — — 
 
 Total 99,100 18,100 540* 
 
 In addition to the foregoing there are artillery of reserve 
 and the stationary troops and police, which may be com- 
 prised under the following headings : — 
 
 {a.) Regiment of Artillery of Reserve, which is organ- 
 ized like the field artillery. Its duties are to make experi- 
 ments with new arms, and to furnish the necessary artUlery 
 to exiDeditionary corps, and to the troops of the reserve ; 
 it, in fact, supplements the artillery force of other corps 
 when required. 
 
 (5.) Stationary Garrison Artillery comprises 7 regi- 
 ments of garrison artillery, of which 1 is at the Bos- 
 phorus, 2 at the Dardanelles, 1 on the Danube, and 3 scat- 
 tered among the forts in various parts of the country. A 
 regiment is composed of 4 battalions of 3 companies. The 
 war strength of a regiment is 2,040 men, and the peace 
 strength half of that number. 
 
 In addition to this there are detached forces of garrison 
 artiUery amounting altogether on a war strength to 7,000 
 men, making a grand total of about 21,000 in the station- 
 ary garrison artillery. 
 
 \c.) Corps of Military WorJanen, which is composed of 
 2 divisions of 2 battalions each. The total strength of 
 this corps is about 3,000 men, and it is stationed at To- 
 pana, in Constantinople. 
 
 (d.) Gendarmerie of Constantinople. — This corps is 
 similar to that of our " Yeomen of the Guard," and was 
 organized in 1869. It is composed of distinguished non- 
 commissioned officers. 
 
 {e.) ZaptieJis, or Police of the Towns and Country. — 
 They have a military organization, and number about 
 20,000 t men, including infantry and cavalry. 
 
 * Becker, f This force is variously estimated from 20,000 to 75,000 men.
 
 266 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 (/.) Medical Estdblisliments. — At Constantinople there 
 are eiglit military hospitals, which can receive more than 
 2,000 patients, and in every large town throughout the 
 country (where there are permanent garrisons) there is a 
 military hospital, which receives its supplies from the 
 School of Medicine at Constantinople. The sick are, as 
 a rule, well cared for. 
 
 {g.) TlieBeserties. — They are divided into the first and 
 second Redifs. 
 
 The \st Redifs are composed of 120 battalions of in- 
 fantry, of eight companies each. To each of the first five 
 corps d' armee twenty-four battalions of the 1st Redifs are 
 attached. Those of the 6th Corps are not yet organized, 
 and the 7th Corps has no reserves. 
 
 The men serve for three years (after leaving the Ikhtiat), 
 and then pass into the 2nd Redif. 
 
 The Redifs should properly be called up for one month's 
 drill in each year, but from motives of economy the law 
 has been neglected in this respect. 
 
 The Redifs are composed only of infantry. The reserve 
 of cavalry is supplied from the auxiliary forces, and the 
 artillery from the artillery reserve. 
 
 According to regulation, the 1st Redifs should amount 
 to 120 battalions of 800 men each, giving a total of 96,000 
 men. 
 
 The '^nd Redifs are organized in the same manner, and 
 should give also 120 battalions of 800 men each ; but 
 about sixty battalions are, I believe, the most that could 
 mustered."^ 
 
 (3.) T7ie '•'■Levee en Masse^^ {Moustafiz). — The Minister 
 of War estimates the number of men which could thus be 
 obtained at 250,000, but there is no organization for them. 
 They might, however, be utilized for filling vacancies. 
 Properly speaking, the Moustafiz are not legally liable to 
 serve away from their own district, but in cases of great 
 emergency they would, doubtless, be forced to recruit the 
 regular army. 
 
 (4.) Auxiliary Forces. — These are of two kinds — ^the 
 
 *1874.
 
 TURRETS ARMT AND NA 7 T. 267 
 
 volunteers, or Baslii-Bazouks, and tlie contingents from 
 the different tribes and tributaries. 
 
 The Bashi-Bazouks are organized like the !N'izam, and 
 are principally infantry; but they are an undisciplined 
 set of brigands. 
 
 The contingents from the tribes of Arabs, Kurds, etc., 
 form an admkable force of irregular cavalry ; they are 
 commanded by their own chiefs, who have unlimited 
 power over their men. 
 
 During the Crimean "War there were 30,000 Bashi-Ba- 
 zouks and 10,000 tribal in-egular cavahy, and probably an 
 equal force could be raised in the present day ; and if the 
 Bashi-Bazouks were officered with Europeans (as they 
 were during the Crimean AVar) they would, in the course 
 of twelve months, form a very valuable reserve. Although 
 a wild set of men, they are amenable to discipline. At the 
 close of the Crimean War, when they were disbanded, 
 each regiment was marched to its own part of the country, 
 where it was dismissed, and each man received the arms 
 he carried, together with an English sovereign. During 
 these marches the discipline of the men was admirable. 
 
 The following, then, is a summary of the total forces 
 available, 07i pape?', to the Ottoman Government in event 
 of war : — 
 
 Men, Horses. Guns. 
 
 Infantry, Standing Army, 168 Battalions.. 134,000 — — 
 
 " IstRedifs 120 " ... 96,000 — — 
 
 2ndEedifs 120 '* ... 96,000 — — 
 
 Levee en Masse 250,000 — — 
 
 Cavalry, Standing Army, 158 Squadrons.. 20,540 20,540 — 
 
 " Auxiliary 10,000 10,000 — 
 
 Artillery, Horse and Field, 90 Batteries. . . 15,043 17,718 540 
 
 Eeserve 14 " ... 2,340 2,751 84 
 
 " Garrison 7 Eegiments.. 14,280 — — 
 
 " Detachments 20 " ... 7,000 — — 
 
 Engineers 2 Battahons. . 1,128 — — 
 
 Zaptiehs 20,000 — — 
 
 Total.... 666,530 51,009 624
 
 268 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 The deficiency here is evidently in dismounted men in 
 tlie cavalry and in the strength of the engineers. 
 
 The men for the regular army are, by the decree of 
 1869, recruited from the Mussulman population by con- 
 scription. 
 
 Their first drawing commences when they are twenty 
 years of age ; if they draw a blank they again come up 
 the following year, and so on until twenty-six years of 
 age, at which time, if they have drawn six blanks, they 
 pass at once into the reserve. 
 
 This plan has gi'eat inconveniences, as it obliges men 
 to travel sometimes long distances every year for their 
 "drawing," and keeps them in an unsettled state as to 
 their future. 
 
 Moreover, it passes men into the reserve who have not 
 had a military training. 
 
 The exemi3tions are, members of the legal profession 
 and priests, and the only sons of families. Exemption, 
 and also discharge, can be purchased, according to pres- 
 ent arrangements, for from £40 to £50 Turkish, equal to 
 about £36 to £45 sterling. The price before 1869 was £73 
 sterling ; and the Government received rather a startling 
 example of the dislike to military service, when the re- 
 duction in the price of discharge was made. In the 
 Brd Army Corps no less than 4,000 men applied for their 
 discharge in 1869, while the average number in previous 
 years before the reduction of cost of discharge was only 
 400! 
 
 The production of such a large sum of money repre- 
 sented by the discharge of 4,000 men, £200,000 in one dis- 
 trict, was so unexpected that inquiries were set on foot to 
 discover how the money had been produced, and it was 
 found that it had been obtained by the sale of landed 
 property, in most cases to Christians. Much bribery is 
 practiced in the purchase of exemptions. One of the 
 officers sent to the Monastir district was discovered to 
 have pocketed as much as £6,000 for letting off 1,600 re- 
 cruits.
 
 TURRETS ARMY AND NA VY. 269 
 
 The Brigade of Cossacks is tlie only corps in -wliicli 
 Christians are at present admitted into the rank and file. 
 It is recruited from volunteers. At first the Christians 
 predominated, but now the reverse is the case. 
 
 By law, the annual contingent of recruits is fixed at 
 37,500, but the real number does not exceed 25,000 
 men. 
 
 Recruiting is divided into districts corresponding with 
 the head-quarters of the corps d'armee. In each district 
 the levy of recruits is made by a commission nominated 
 by the general of the corps d'armee, and composed of one 
 superior officer, one doctor, one mollah, one secretary, and 
 the members of the Medjlis or civil court.* 
 
 I have already alluded to the education of officers, but 
 they do not all pass through that course. Some are raised 
 from the ranks, and others appointed by favor, and so 
 little pains is taken to teach them their duties after they 
 enter the service, that those from the military colleges 
 forget what they have learned, and the knowledge of the 
 others is infinitesimal. 
 
 The recruiting of horses, or remounts, comes under the 
 head of two systems. Agents are sent by the Minister of 
 War to foreign countries (principally Hungary) to purchase 
 horses, and purchases are made in the military districts 
 by commissions nominated by the general of the corps 
 d'armee, and sometimes by the colonels of regiments. 
 
 The artUlery purchase the greater part of their horses 
 abroad, in Hungary, Transylvania, and in Bessarabia ; 
 there would, therefore, be great difficulty in getting re- 
 mounts for this branch of the service during war, as the 
 Turkish horses are so small that they are unfitted for the 
 use of artillery. 
 
 Administration of the Army. 
 
 The Sultan is the supreme head of all the forces by land 
 and sea. Next to him comes the Grand Vizier. The 
 Minister of War, or SerasMer, directs under his orders 
 the various services. 
 
 * Becker.
 
 270 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 The Ministry of War is divided as follows :— 
 
 (1.) The Grand Military Council (Dari-Choura) ; (2.) 
 Council of Topana. 
 
 Under the orders of the Minister of War are the fol- 
 lowing officers : — 
 
 The Generals in command of the seven corps d'armee. 
 
 The Generals of Divisions and Brigades which may be 
 temporarily created. 
 
 The Central Commission of Reserves. 
 
 The Grand Military Council. 
 
 (1.) The Council Proper, composed of the Minister of 
 War, a Field-Marshal (Mouchir), as President, six Gen- 
 erals of Division, and one General of Brigade. 
 
 (2.) The departments which include the Adjutant-Gen- 
 eral, Quartermaster-General, Paymaster-General, and Gen- 
 eral of the Staff, or Military Secretary. 
 
 The Council of Topana, under the presidency of the 
 Chief of Artillery, furnishes and controls the material of 
 war and all military manufacturing establishments. The 
 corps of workmen are under their direction. 
 
 The Seven Corps W Armee are each commanded by a 
 Field-Marshal, who is assisted by the Etat Major, the 
 Military Council, and a Sub-Commission of Redifs. 
 
 The Etat Major is composed of the Field-Marshal and 
 his staff of four Generals of Division (of which one is Presi- 
 dent of the Military Council) ; five Generals of Brigade, 
 one of which is the Chief of Artillery, and another Presi- 
 dent of the Sub-Commission of Redifs ; four Colonels or 
 Lieutenant-Colonels ; the Senior Officer of Engineers ; one 
 Surgeon-Major; one Officer of " Intendance ; " two of 
 Control ; and one Accountant. 
 
 Through this staff the Commander-in-Chief can put 
 himself into communication with every part of the corps 
 d'armee. 
 
 The Military Council is composed of a General of Divis- 
 ion (as President), some Generals of Brigade or Colonels, 
 an Assistant Adjutant-General, a Surgeon-Major, and a 
 Secretary. It is in communication with the Military
 
 TURRETS ARMY AND NA VY. 271 
 
 Council at Constantinople, and directs tlie Adjutant- 
 General's department of the corps d'armee ; but such a 
 division of authority cannot do otherwise than create 
 confusion. 
 
 Regiments or battalions which are on detached service 
 are only responsible to the Military Council at Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 The Sub-Commission of Red if s, presided over by a 
 General of Brigade, attends to the conscription, and to the 
 calling up of the Ikhtiat and Redifs. The main principle 
 of this organization is that all tactical movements shall be 
 under the dii-ection of the Commander-in-Chief of the 
 corps d'armee, while the administration is under the con- 
 trol of the Military Council at Constantinople — two mas- 
 ters in one house — which must prove a certain source of 
 difficulty, delay, and confusion. 
 
 Special commands are formed in certain parts of the 
 empire where disaffection is anticipated. The troops 
 which compose them are taken from the district corps 
 d'armee, but the commandant reports direct to Constanti- 
 nople. Another imperium in imperio. 
 
 There are six of these commands : — 
 
 1. That on the frontier of Bosnia and Servia, which 
 generally consists of about 8,000 men, and is drawn from 
 the 5th Corps d'Armee. 
 
 2. The Brigade of Herzegovina, of about 5,000 men, 
 also drawn from the 3rd Corps. 
 
 3. The Brigade of Thessaly, whose duty it is to keep 
 down brigandage on the Greek frontier, composed of 
 about 3,000 men, also drawn from the 3rd Corps, 
 
 4. The Brigade of Tripoli and Barbary, composed of a 
 regiment and a battalion of Chasseurs from the 1st Corps 
 d'Armee. 
 
 5. The Division of Candia, of about 6,000 men, furnished 
 by the 1st, 2nd, and 5th Corps. 
 
 6. The Division of Nedjed, of about 6, 000 men, furnished 
 by the 6tli Corps. 
 
 The first two commands are at present necessarily
 
 273 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 merged in tlie armies wliich are engaged in the military 
 occupation for quelling rebellion. 
 
 The Central Commission of Redifs is at Constantinople, 
 and directs and controls the sub-commissioner. 
 
 The Control., Commissariat., and Paymaster^ s Depart- 
 ments are centralized at Constantinople, which is the chief 
 depot for military stores, and is under the control of the 
 Grand Military Council. The flour for the troops is not 
 purchased, but is made from the wheat, etc., received for 
 the Government tithes, which should effect a great saving. 
 But there exists much corruption in this, as in all other 
 branches of administration, and I have heard of a case of 
 the tithe wheat from Candia being sent to a town in the 
 interior of Macedonia, to be ground into flour by contract. 
 The arrangement was, of course, the result of hacksMsTi, 
 and I was told the Government lost £4,000 by this one 
 transaction. 
 
 The rations of the troops are good, and generally regu- 
 larly served out. It is composed of bread 960 grammes, 
 meat 256 grammes, vegetables 256 grammes, butter 4 
 grammes, salt 1 gramme. For each man the company 
 receives 250 grammes of wood, and 3 grammes of oil. 
 
 The rations of forage are : — Barley, 3*840 kilogrammes ; 
 hay, 3-840 ; straw, 1-280. 
 
 Officers receive a certain number of rations according 
 to their rank, and in most cases make money by selling 
 them. The following is a list of pay and rations of officers 
 and men : — 
 
 Piasters* 
 per month. 
 
 Field-Marshal 25,000 
 
 General of Division 8,333 
 
 " " Brigade 5,000 
 
 Colonel 2,500 
 
 Lieut. -Colonel 1, 633 
 
 Major 1,250 
 
 Adjutant 625 
 
 Captain 350 
 
 * A piaster = 2d. nearly, 
 
 Rations Forage rations 
 per day. per day. 
 
 ...128 .... 
 
 64 
 
 ... 64 ... 
 
 20 
 
 ... 32 ... 
 
 12 
 
 ... 12 ... 
 
 . 8 
 
 ... 8 ... 
 
 3 
 
 6 ... 
 
 . 2 
 
 ... 4 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 2 ... 
 
 
 
 Y- 

 
 TURRETS ARMY AND NA VT. 
 
 273 
 
 Lieutenant , 
 
 Sub-Lieut. 1st Class, 
 " 2nd " 
 
 Sergeant-Major 
 
 Sergeant 
 
 Corporal 
 
 Private 
 
 Piasters 
 per month. 
 
 250 
 230 
 210 
 50 
 35 
 30 
 25 
 
 Rations 
 per day 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 Fora; 
 
 ge rations 
 per day. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The pay of tlie privates is generally in arrear, sometimes 
 as much as two years ! 
 
 This organization of the Turkish army was commenced 
 by Riza Pasha, in 1843, and completed by Hussein Avni 
 Pasha, in 1869 ; and the assassination of that general, by 
 which his military knowledge was lost, has been a great 
 blow to the country in its present difficulties. It will be 
 seen that the system of organization has mnch to recom- 
 mend it, but like all other branches of Turkish service, 
 it is corruptly and imperfectly carried out. 
 
 We now come to the fifth part of the mental composi- 
 tion of an army — 
 
 The Quality of the Material of War. 
 
 This is certainly good. The rifles at present in the 
 hands of the troops are Sniders, but they are being rapidly 
 changed for Martini-Henries. The cavah-y are mostly 
 armed with Winchester and Remington repeating-rifles. 
 The field-guns are mostly steel Krupps, on the Prussian 
 system. The forts in the Dardanelles are being armed 
 with heavy Armstrong guns, bnt are as yet in an imper- 
 fect state. 
 
 The Physical Compositiojst of an army. 
 
 1. TJie Strength and Endurance of Men and Officers. 
 
 In tliis respect the Turkish army is superlatively good 
 as regards the men, bnt not so as regards officers. , The 
 Turk may safely be said to be the finest material for a 
 soldier that is to be found in any part of the world. He 
 is strong, hardy, patient, brave, intelligent, obedient, and 
 sober, and becomes easily attached to his officers. It is 
 the fashion to say that the Turk fights bravely behind 
 18
 
 274 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ramparts, but will not stand in the open field. This is a 
 most erroneous idea, and a want of appreciation of canse 
 and effect. The reason that the Tiirk fights so well be- 
 hind a rampart consists in his being then in a position, 
 which is independent of the ignorance and faults of his 
 officers. He is thus able to develop his natural bravery, 
 and being, comparatively speaking, his own master, he 
 fights to the death. In the open field the fact of his some- 
 times running away is caused by the faults of his officers. 
 No troops in the world will stand in the open field, unless 
 they have confidence in their officers. 
 
 2. Strength and Endurance of Horses. 
 
 The horses in Turkey are very small, but well bred, and 
 exceedingly hardy. They are unfitted for artillery, but 
 are serviceable for light cavalry and outpost work. The 
 great bulk of the traffic of the country is performed by 
 pack-animals. 
 
 3. Tlie Magnitude of the Source from which Men and 
 Horses are drawn. 
 
 The Mussulman population, from which the recruits for 
 the army are dravni, may be put down at about 16,000,- 
 000, and since 35,000 conscripts are supposed to be drawn 
 every year, it would give about 1 in 450 of the Mussul- 
 man population as drawn for the army annually. But as 
 the recruiting for each corps is confined to the military 
 districts, some of which are populated by a large majority 
 of Christians, the drain on the Mussulman population in 
 many cases becomes very severe. This has received the 
 attention of the authorities, and I believe a new organiza- 
 tion for recruiting is in progress. Considering the extent 
 of the Turkish Empire, the source of supply for men is 
 evidently extremely small, and unless use is made of the 
 Christian population, it is next to impossible for Tur- 
 key to compete against a first-rate European power in a 
 lengthened campaign. 
 
 The supply of horses, such as they are, is very great, 
 in consequence of the traffic of the country being done by 
 pack-animals.
 
 TURKETS ARMY AND NA YY. 275 
 
 Every fann or village, however small, can supply a few 
 pack-animals, and tliis must greatly facilitate tlie means 
 of supply. The neighborhood of Hungary and Transyl- 
 vania affords a fertile source for the supply of the larger 
 breeds of horses, in time of peace, but this supply would 
 be cut off by a war on the Danube frontier. 
 
 Turkey and Asia Minor are admirably suited for Gov- 
 ernment horse-breeding establishments, but the corrup- 
 tion in all branches of administration is so great that their 
 creation could not be advised. 
 
 4. The Quantity of the Material of War. 
 
 In the Turkish army this is in a comparatively satisfac- 
 tory state. There should be by this time 600,000 Martini- 
 Henry rifles in store, and a like number of Sniders in the 
 hands of the troops. In 1875 there were 80,000,000 of 
 Snider cartridges in store, and orders were given more 
 than twelve months ago for very large quantities of Mar- 
 tini-Henry ammunition. There is a fair stock of field- 
 guns and ammunition, and the Government possesses 50,- 
 000 repeating-carbines on the Winchester system, besides 
 large quantities of Remingtons. 
 
 Pontoon and field-telegraph trains there are none, which 
 is a grave defect. 
 
 On the whole, however, the quantity of the material of 
 war may be said to be fairly good. 
 
 5. T7ie Means of Supply. 
 
 In consequence of the financial difficulties of Turkey, 
 the possibility of keeping up the supply of the army is 
 most seriously endangered. Other^vise, the geographical 
 position of the country, and the large number of pack- 
 animals and bullock-wagons that exist, tend to facilitate 
 the supply of an army in the field. 
 
 Turkey is especially a grain and forage-prodncing coun- 
 try, and depots or intrenched camps would draw their 
 provisions from neighboring districts. With proper care, 
 water can be found almost everywhere in Turkey in 
 Europe, and on the plains you have only to dig a few feet 
 thi^ough the soft alluvial soil, to meet with a fair supply.
 
 276 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 In the rainy season tlie means of communication become 
 so bad, by reason of the deep mud and sticky nature of 
 the soil, that the difficulties of supply are almost insuper- 
 able, and must seriously endanger any large army that 
 attempts a long march between the months of November 
 and May. 
 
 We have now completed the examination of the mental 
 and physical components of the Turkish army, and the 
 impression left on the mind after having done so, is that 
 they are theoretically good, but practically bad ; never- 
 theless, there is sufficient material in both parts to form 
 a valuable and efficient army, if time and a few active and 
 callable heads could be produced. Turkey wants another 
 Omer Pasha. The great and grave defects are — a scarcity 
 of good officers, a corrupt administration, and financial 
 difficulties. Moreover, there is a great amount of Jealousy 
 existing among the officers of the higher grades — so much 
 so, that one will frequently work to thwart the other, 
 irrespective of the interests of the public service ; and to 
 such an extent does this exist that it would require a per- 
 fect Marlborough to overcome it. 
 
 There is another branch of Turkish armament which 
 must be intimately connected with all military manoeuvres, 
 and that is 
 
 The Turkish Navy. 
 
 Turkey now ranks as the third naval Power in Europe, 
 and under the able administration of the English admiral, 
 Hobart Pasha (who is Inspector-General of the Ottoman 
 Navy), it is hoped that when called upon for active ser- 
 vice, the Turkish navy will revive the ancient glory of her 
 old marine forces, that won such renown under the famous 
 Admiral Barbarossa. 
 
 The Turkish ironclads are some of the finest vessels 
 afloat, and were built, some by Mr. Samuda, and others 
 by the Thames Ironwork Shipbuilding Company, cit Black- 
 wall, many of them from the designs of Ahmed Pasha, 
 chief constructor of the Ottoman navy.
 
 TURKETS ARMY AND NA V7. 
 
 277 
 
 There are twenty-one armor-clads in all, including five 
 gunboats, and besides these there are of wooden vessels, 
 five magnificent large steam-frigates, equal to any of tlie 
 class in tlie English navy, ten steam corvettes, twenty-six 
 steam transports, thirty-five small war-steamers, besides 
 twenty-four small sailing-vessels, brigs, etc. 
 
 The fleet is manned by 28,482 excellent sailors, and 
 3,600 marines ; but the officers have not sufficient training 
 to make them efficient. 
 
 The following is a list of the Ironclad ISTavy : — 
 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Horse 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 Description. 
 
 No. of Guns. 
 
 of Shot, 
 lbs. 
 
 Power. 
 
 Mesondive .... 
 
 Steam Frigate ... 12 
 
 .... 400) 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ... 150 ■ 
 
 1,250 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ... 20. 
 
 
 Mendouhize. . . 
 
 (( 
 
 As above 
 
 (( 
 
 It 
 
 Azizieh 
 
 C( 
 
 ...15 
 
 ... 150) 
 .... 300) 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 900 
 
 Orkaniyeh 
 
 et 
 
 ...15 
 1 
 
 ... 150) 
 ... 300) 
 
 900 
 
 Osmanieh .... 
 
 (( 
 
 (t 
 
 it 
 
 tt 
 
 Mahmoudieh. . . 
 
 <( 
 
 (( 
 
 t( 
 
 tt 
 
 Athar-Teyfik . . 
 
 <( 
 
 ... 8 
 
 .... 250 
 
 700 
 
 Fethi Boulend 
 
 Corvette . . . 
 
 ... 4 
 
 .... 300 
 
 500 
 
 Avni lllali .... 
 
 (i 
 
 ... 4 
 
 .... 250 
 
 400 
 
 Muin Zaffer . . . 
 
 (( 
 
 tt 
 
 ti 
 
 tt 
 
 Astar Shefket. 
 
 (( 
 
 ... 1 
 ... 4 
 
 ... 250) 
 .... 120) 
 
 400 
 
 Neyim Shefket 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 Idjla-Lieh .... 
 
 <e 
 
 et 
 
 tt 
 
 It 
 
 Luf t-Gehl 
 
 t( 
 
 ... 2 
 
 ... 150) 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 40 ^ 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 32 ) 
 
 
 Hufy Rahman 
 
 ce 
 
 tt 
 
 (( 
 
 It 
 
 Fethi Islam . . . 
 
 Gunboat . . . 
 
 2-9 in. bore 
 
 — 
 
 150 
 
 Beksor Selim. . 
 
 (( 
 
 tt 
 
 — 
 
 le 
 
 Semeudirah . . . 
 
 i( 
 
 tt 
 
 — 
 
 tt 
 
 Islikodrali 
 
 it 
 
 tt 
 
 — 
 
 tt 
 
 Boukoritcha . . 
 
 ee 
 
 (C 
 
 — . 
 
 tt
 
 278 TURRET m EUROPE. 
 
 Another vessel of the class of the Mesondroe (and mncb 
 like our new iron-clad Alexandra) has lately been added- 
 This class are of 9,000 tons, 332 feet long, with 59 feet 
 beam, each carrying twelve 18-ton guns. Their armor is 
 ten inches, and in some places twelve inches thick. 
 
 Another very serviceable class is that represented by 
 the A'Gni Illah and Muin Zaffer, of 1,400 tons, with an 
 armament of four 12-ton guns and a right ahead and astern 
 fire. The armor averages only five and a half inches, but 
 they are said to have greater speed than any vessels afloat. 
 
 This is a very formidable naval force, and the possi- 
 bility of its falling into the hands of Russia is worth con- 
 sidering, in which case it would make her superior to 
 England as a naval power. 
 
 At present the Turkish navy is so vastly superior to 
 that of Russia in the Black Sea that it gives Turkey com- 
 plete command by water, and in event of war she can at 
 once blockade all the Russian Black Sea ports, and stop 
 her trade in that quarter. 
 
 The term of service in the Ottoman navy is eight years, 
 and there are many Christian Greeks among the sailors. 
 Officers have a special school of instruction at Khalki, one 
 of the Prince's Islands. There is also a three-decker at 
 Constantinople, and another at Ismid, for gunnery in- 
 struction on the English system.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 TURKEY AS A MILITAEY POWER. 
 
 Ancient Organization of the Turkist Army — Strategical Bases of the Russian 
 and Turkish Armies — Turkish Fortresses — Passes of. the Balkan — Roads 
 of Communication — Plan of Defense for Turkey — Blockade of Russian 
 Ports. 
 
 TTF the strength of the Ottoman army were proportionate 
 -■- to that of her navy, she would have no need of an ally 
 against the great power of Russia. In former ages the 
 greatest care and attention were paid to the most minute 
 details of the army, and a long account of the Ottoman 
 forces is given by the Greek Chalcondylas, who lived in 
 the reign of Mourad II., a.d. 1421-51. The greatest care 
 was bestowed upon the then new arm of artillery. The 
 science and practice of military engineering received spe- 
 cial attention. Military trains were organized, and prac- 
 ticed until they almost arrived at perfection ; a special 
 corps was formed for keeping roads in good order ; the 
 commissariat department, and, indeed, the whole army, 
 was like — what every army should be — a great machine, 
 which only wanted the pull of a lever to set it aU in smooth 
 and easy motion. 
 
 In those days the Turks organized both theoretically 
 and practically, but now they omit the latter important 
 element in efficiency. 
 
 The political aspect of Turkish affairs during the pres- 
 ent crisis (1877) is such that any moment may see her at 
 war, single-handed, against the vast power of Russia, and 
 it ^vill be interesting to review the position and chances of 
 both parties in the contest which may, and probably will, 
 sooner or later, take place. To guide our judgment we 
 
 279
 
 280 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 have the experience of previous campaigns between the 
 combatants ; but there is one element of force on the 
 Turkish side in the present day which she did not possess 
 in her fonner single-handed campaigns, and that is her 
 naval supremacy. The command of the Black Sea is of 
 paramount importance to either side, but more especially 
 to Turkey, as the invaded i;)ower. The last single-handed 
 campaign was that of 1828-29, but since that date railways 
 and telegraphs have threaded their way, like a net-work, 
 over most parts of Europe, and facilitated both strategical 
 and tactical movements. But there is a zone between the 
 two combatants devoid of railways, and this very zone 
 will be the theater of war at the commencement of the 
 campaign. As soon, therefore, as the contending parties 
 step into it they will be liable to the conditions of war 
 which attended their last single-handed campaign, in 
 1828-29. Outside this zone to the north — that is, the left 
 bank of the Danube — the gain by the introduction of rail- 
 ways is greatly to the advantage of Russia, as it gives her 
 the power of maintaining and supplying her base, at all 
 seasons, and of rapidly concentrating her vast resources, 
 through those great and marshy plains which formerly 
 proved so destructive to her armies. 
 
 To the south of the zone — that is, the southern line of 
 the Balkan — Turkey also possesses, in a smaller degree, 
 but still an important one, the advantage of railways, and 
 they are admirably adapted for suj^iDlying an army in po- 
 sition near Adrianople, and, indeed, anywhere south of 
 the Balkan. 
 
 A line goes from Dediagatch, in the ^gean Sea, to 
 Adrianople, by which supplies and men could be sent ; 
 another from Constantinople to Adrianople ; and this 
 again is extended along the plains of Philippopolis as far 
 as Bellova, the whole length of, and parallel to, the great 
 range of the Balkan. From Harmanly, between Adriano- 
 ple and Pliilippoi^olis, a branch line runs north to Yeni 
 Zaghra and Yanboli, a town on the Tundja river, and 
 almost at the foot of the Balkan. Taking, then, the first
 
 FORTRESSES. 281 
 
 base of tlie Turkish army, witli its right at Burgas, on the 
 Black Sea, and its left at Tatar Bazardjik, beyond Philip- 
 popolis, it would lie very nearly the whole distance along 
 a line of railway ; biit, unfortunately, the rolling-stock is 
 not sufficient for the supply of a large army. 
 
 Let us now glance at the nature of the country which 
 would be the theater of war. The leading features for 
 consideration are the fortresses, the Balkan passes, and 
 the roads of communication. 
 
 Of the fortresses of the Danube that have, in former 
 wars, played such an important i^art in the defense of 
 Turkey against Russia, the only one of any importance 
 in the present day is SUistria, on the right bank of the 
 Danube, and on the edge of the long, winding, and nar- 
 row delta which that river forms in its way to the sea. 
 Along the whole line of the Danube, from Widin to 
 Brailow, the right bank commands the left, and so far 
 would give the Turkish army the advantage, if it had a 
 sufficient force to defend the passages of the river. 
 
 So little has been done to strengthen the defenses of 
 Silistria, that it would be quite unable to stand against 
 the artillery of the present day, which the Russians could 
 bring against it. JSTeighboring hills, within 400 yards, 
 command the town, and they are not strengthened in any 
 way that could stand a siege. Indeed, we may pass over 
 the line of the Danube, as the forces of the Russians are 
 so superior in number to those of the Turks, that it would 
 be impossible for the latter to prevent a passage ; and 
 even if an attempt were made to defend Silistria, it could 
 be masked, and the Russian forces might safely march 
 on. 
 
 It is true that the Turks have numerous gunboats on 
 the Danube, but that advantage can in these days be 
 neutralized by the employment of torpedoes. In their 
 numerous campaigns against Turkey, the Russians have, 
 under far less favorable circumstances than they enjoy at 
 present, always effected the passage of the Danube ; we 
 may therefore assume that they will do so in the next war.
 
 282 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 The two fortresses wMch next call for attention are tliose 
 of Varna and Sliumla. 
 
 We have two of the best authorities on the importance 
 of Varna as a strategical position north of the Balkan — 
 viz., Von Moltke and Sir John Burgoyne — and both agree 
 on its value, to the Power which has possession of the 
 sea; but when that Power becomes the defensive one — 
 viz., Turkey — the place as a defensive position rises not 
 to the second, but the first importance. 
 
 The town contains about 6,000 houses and 30,000 inhabit- 
 ants, and occupies a spreading valley at the head of Lake 
 Devna, having the shape of a truncated pyramid, the base 
 of which is toward the interior, with its apex on the Black 
 Sea ; the third side faces the north, and the fourth is 
 washed partly by the anchorage and partly by the river 
 Devna, which flows into the Bay of Varna (on the north 
 side of which lies the town), which, from the northern horn 
 to its southern extremity at Galata Bumu, is about 4,000 
 yards broad, and it runs into the land for about 3,000 
 yards. The harbor is completely exposed to the south- 
 east, and is commanded by the heights. The town is 
 nearly three miles in circumference ; and inside the works 
 the ground rises to some height, both at the western and 
 eastern quarters, and slopes toward the sea. 
 
 To the southwest the nearest heights are about 3,000 
 paces distant, and about 1,000 feet in height ; * these, 
 therefore, command the town, but they could in them- 
 selves be defended by the erection of powerful outworks. 
 In the present day, therefore, the only hope of holding 
 the town, consists in the strength of detached outworks 
 for the formation of an intrenched camp. The place is 
 well supplied with water. The Turks are now busy in 
 strengthening the outworks ; but it is far from being in a 
 position to withstand an attack. But with energy, com- 
 bined \\ith the usual skill of the Turks in constructing 
 defensive positions, it might yet in two months' time be 
 made an extremely strong intrenched camp. 
 
 * Von Moltke and Cliesney.
 
 FORTRESSES. 283 
 
 The next fortress is a very favorite one with tlie Turks, 
 as it has stood them in good stead in their former cam- 
 paigns, viz., that of Shnmla. "The town occupies a deep 
 mountain basin, formed by two abutments of the Balkan, 
 which project north-eastward from that chain, nearly in 
 the foim of a horse-shoe, the heels of the extremities of 
 which are toward the exterior, where, however, they are 
 connected with a low range of hills running across the 
 space. The road from Yarna, by Pravadi, and those from 
 Silistria, "Widdin, and other passages of the Danube, con- 
 verge u^Don the side of the town. The rest of the contour 
 of this position is well protected by the rocky sides of an 
 almost inaccessible chain of hills, covered with brush- 
 wood, and rising in places to 600 feet or more." * There 
 are about 45,000 inhabitants in the town of Shumla, 
 chiefly Mussulmans. Tlie most important defensive posi- 
 tions are the heights of Strandja, about 2,000 paces to 
 the north, and those toward Tschengell, about 1,500 
 paces to the south ; they are of great natural strength, 
 and I believe are now being powerfully fortified by the 
 Turks. The fortified position of this elevated plateau 
 which nearly surrounds Shumla, has a length of from 
 five to six miles, which, from the peculiar nature of the 
 country, is easily capable of defense, while any attack 
 upon the only open side of the town would be exposed to 
 the fire from the heights, and would, consequently, be 
 hopeless. It would, therefore, require a large investing 
 army to mask the place, and they would have to establish 
 themselves in a long chain of forts ; otherwise, from the 
 nature of the country, they would be open to successful 
 attacks from the Turks. All the valleys leading up to 
 this great plateau have been fortified, and it is unques- 
 tionable that two months' work upon the place would 
 make it formidable in the extreme. If it had a garrison 
 of 40,000 men, it would occupy 70,000 of the enemy's 
 troops to mask it. But it must be dependent upon itself 
 for supplies, as by the passes leading to the Balkan it can 
 
 * Chesnej.
 
 284 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 be turned on tlie right, by the road wHcli leads from 
 Eustcliuk, by Eski Dschumna and Eski Stamboul upon 
 Tsclialikawak— and upon the left by that from Silistria, 
 passing by Bulanlik, Marasck, and Smadowa — and all 
 communication vdtk the place could be cut off. The na- 
 ture of the surrounding country is such that it is pecu- 
 liarly favorable for the employment of the irregular 
 troops, formed of Albanians, Circassians, etc., etc., on 
 which Turkey would have to rest a large part of her de- 
 fense. 
 
 Tirnova, situated about fifty miles from the Danube, 
 at nearly equal distances from Mcopolis, Sistova, and 
 Rustchuk, might be made a very strong position, on 
 account of its great natural advantages, but it could not 
 be taken into consideration in any present defense, as 
 nothing has been done to strengthen the place, and it is 
 too near the Danube to afford time to do so, in the pres- 
 ence of an approaching enemy. The river Jantra flows 
 in a peculiar way through steep precipices of basaltic 
 rock, and nearly surrounds the citadel of the town, which 
 occupies a commanding position 1,000 feet in height. 
 If the nne of the Balkan were assumed to be a defensive 
 fortress, Shumla would be the position for an outwork 
 on the right defense, and Tirnova on the left. There are 
 no other fortresses between Shumla and Constantinople. 
 
 The Passes of the Balkan: — 
 
 There are six routes given as parts of the Balkan which 
 are passable for an army ; but in reality that number 
 may be more than doubled, as the nature of the moun- 
 tains is such, that there are many routes which, although 
 only tracks at present, could without much difficulty be 
 made passable even for artillery ; but these routes lie 
 chiefly on the western half of the Balkan. 
 
 The highest part of the range, said to be 4,400 feet 
 above the sea — but I should have judged it to be more 
 — is beyond Kezanlik. The mountains near the Black Sea 
 are only fi'om two to three thousand feet in height. The
 
 PASSES OF TEE BALKAN. 285 
 
 general character of th.e country on the lieiglits is open 
 pasture, on "hog-backs, " falling into steep-sided valleys 
 interspersed with forests, with, in parts, much rocky and 
 precipitous ground. As the descent is made, thick scrub 
 is generally met. 
 
 From Kete, or Kasan, to the west, numerous great 
 spurs, forming "hog-backs," with steep sides, run out 
 perpendicularly to the north, until they break up into 
 the lower foot-hills, and blend into the roUing plains of 
 the Danube. To the south similar spurs run out, but 
 they are much shorter, and end abruptly. 
 
 From Kasan, to the East, it is different. The Balkan 
 there divides itself into almost parallel mountain-chains, 
 with a tendency to radiate to the north-east, and which 
 stretch away in that direction, forming valleys between 
 them, until the northern feeler breaks into the rough 
 and almost isolated mountains about Shumla ; while 
 the southern line, or continuation of the main Balkan, 
 touches the sea at Cape Emineh. This makes the dis- 
 trict of Kasan (where no less than six roads meet), in 
 the midst of the high mountains, a very important 
 strategical position, as it commands many of the valleys 
 to the north and routes to the south. There is another 
 very important feature to be noticed, and one which is 
 but imperfectly shown in aU the maps which exist, and 
 that is the very marked character of the upper and ex- 
 tensive valley of the Tundja, starting from Tekke on 
 the west, untU it arrives at Tanboli on the east, a 
 distance of about 100 mUes.* The mountains on each 
 side enter abruptly into this plain, which varies from 
 six to two miles broad, is very fertile, runs parallel 
 with the Balkan, and has a decided range called the Little 
 Balkan on its southern side. The latter range is, generally 
 speaking, covered with a thick oak-scrub, and would 
 offer serious difficulties to the passage of an army. The 
 pass from Kezanlik, which lies in the center of the 
 
 * I must refer the reader to "feiepert's excellent map of Turkey, as the 
 one in tMs book does not aspire to perfect accuracy.
 
 236 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 valley, to Eski Zaghra on the south of the range, might 
 easily be defended against a greatly superior force. The 
 character of the hills is that of steep and intricate 
 defiles, covered with brushwood. The strategical view 
 of the country south of the Balkan is this— that an army, 
 marching from the direction of Sofia on Constantinople, 
 must pass by Adrianople, and to get there must either 
 march by this valley or by the great plain of Philippopo- 
 lis, or by both routes ; there are no others. 
 
 One of the easiest passages for an army over the Great 
 Balkan — and one that 10,000 men might make passable 
 for artillery in a week, although the road is now little 
 more than a track — is that from Lovtcha on the north, to 
 Tekke on the south, by Troyan. 
 
 From Lovtcha to Timova, by Selvi, there is (or was in 
 1874) an admirable military road, equal to any in Europe, 
 and with telegraph the whole way. From Lovtcha to 
 Troyan, an indifferent road passes through beautiful fer- 
 tile valleys, that offer no difficulties to the advance of an 
 enemy. About five mUes from Troyan the ascent of the 
 Balkan commences up one of the long spurs which run 
 at right angles to that range. For about a mile and a 
 half, the path ascends a steep grassy hill, interspersed 
 with wood, and then emerges on to the "hog's-back," 
 which ascends at a moderate inclination for about four 
 miles, with farms on the steep banks, and in the valleys 
 on each side, by the way. After passing through a fine 
 wood for about a quarter of a mile, it emerges into open 
 country, covered with grass and stones, and makes a. 
 steep ascent for about half a mile up the face of the 
 mountain, and then arrives at the long main ridge run- 
 ning at right angles to the spur. There are several other 
 routes up similar spurs, on either side of the one we have 
 been traversing, all of which arrive upon different parts 
 of the main ridge, so that an army occupying one spur 
 could easily be turned by an enemy passing up another. 
 Arrived at the watershed (about 4,000 feet above the sea) 
 the descent begins to the south, and continues down a
 
 PASSES OF THE BALKAN. 287 
 
 moderately steep incline on pasture and rock for about 
 two miles, along a southern sx^ur ; it then comes to brush- 
 wood, and commences a steep descent down a zigzag path 
 for another two miles, until it arrives at Tekke, at the 
 foot of the mountains and on the verge of the plain. 
 From the top ridge there are several paths, which make 
 their way down other spurs, to other parts of the plain. 
 The nature of the soil is that of loose stones mixed with 
 earthy gravel, and it could with ease be formed into a 
 road passable for artillery. 
 
 I traveled over another i)ass, from Tekke to the plains 
 of Sofia, by Klissura and Slatitza. Just beyond Klissura 
 there is a very strong j)osition for defense, but it could be 
 turned by riflemen on hills on either flank, and although 
 by this route there are some positions which would pre- 
 sent difficulties to the advance of an enemy, esijecially 
 between Slatitza and the plains of Sofia, they could all be 
 turned with a little trouble. 
 
 Of the passes to the east of Lovtcha which are known, 
 the first is that of the route from Tirnova to Kezanlik, by 
 Gabrowa. On leaving Gabrowa, where the Jantra is 
 crossed by a stone bridge, the road rises gradually as far 
 as the hill of Shibka, in the middle of a magnificent 
 forest. The slopes of the deep valley of the Jantra, and 
 of the Tundja, although steep, could easily be occupied 
 by skirmishers, and the pass might in that way be forced. 
 From the hill, as far as the village of Shibka, the road for 
 about a mile goes down a steep inclination, and then 
 shows out the plain of Kezanlik, situated between the 
 Great and Little Balkan ranges, which run parallel to 
 one another. 
 
 2. The pass from Tirnova to Slimno, or Slivmia, by 
 Demirkapou : — 
 
 This route traverses the range at a great elevation, and 
 the only information I could get concerning it was that 
 it would be quite practicable for infantry, but not for 
 cavalry. 
 
 3. The pass from Tii*nova to Kasan, by Osman Bazaar : —
 
 288 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 On leaving Osman Bazaar tlie road ascends througli an 
 open country, np to tlie crest of the Binar Dagli, where it 
 passes between two liigh and naked peaks, and com- 
 mences to descend toward the little town of Kasan, 
 ensconced in a sort of funnel formed by the surrounding 
 steep and rugged mountains. From this town it still 
 descends, through a narrow defile called the Iron Gate 
 (Demirkapou), the passage of which could only be forced 
 with great sacrifice ; but this defile could be turned by a 
 road (a bad one, it is true) which rises in a zigzag to the 
 right. After having j)assed this defile, the road divides 
 into three ; one goes to Kamabat, another to Dobrol, and 
 the third to Sliomia. The number and depth of the val- 
 leys across which the last route passes, make it very diffi- 
 cult to traverse, on account of the numerous ascents and 
 descents, especially on the descent to Sliomia, where the 
 incline is very steep. 
 
 4. The pass from Shumla to Kamabat, by Tschalikawak 
 and Dobrol : — 
 
 This is one of the routes by which Shumla can be 
 turned ; but the other route also meets it at Tschalikawak, 
 which, situated in the lower Balkans, offers an excellent 
 situation for a camp. Water, forage, and wood can be 
 had in abundance, and four roads meet here. From 
 thence, as far as Dobrol, there are numerous difficulties in 
 the way of an advancing army. The road passes through 
 deep ravines, bordered by precipitous rocks. On arriving 
 at the head of these, it ascends the long and narrow defile 
 formed by the river Derbent, which flows into the Deli 
 Kamtchik. This defile could easily be defended by a small 
 force, against one which was vastly superior. There are 
 but few fords over the river, and only one wooden bridge. 
 The ascent from here to the top is made up a rugged 
 slope, after which a more easy descent is made to the open 
 country about Dobrol. From this place, as far as Kama- 
 bat, the country is cut up by a number of small streams, 
 and generally covered with thick bushes. Near Kamabat 
 there is an excellent site for a camp. Continuing this
 
 PASSES OF THE BALKAN. 289 
 
 route further in the direction of Adrianople, it meets the 
 difficult-to-force and easily-to-be-defended defile of Buguk 
 Derbend. Moltke says that after passing Karnabat the 
 route offers difficulties to an advancing aimy, in conse- 
 quence of the absence of corn and forage ; but since the 
 time he was there, much of the rich land has been culti- 
 vated, and there is now a fau' amount of corn to be had, 
 and in the spring plenty of forage. 
 
 5. The pass from Kosludscha to Pravadi, and thence by 
 Koprikoi or by Jenikoi to Aidos : — 
 
 The little town of Pravadi is situated in a defile about 
 1,000 yards broad, bordered by rocks about 600 feet in 
 height. It is traversed by a river of the same name, which 
 rises from hills toward the north, flows due south through 
 the defile, until it bends round by Sultanlar, and winds 
 north-east toward Yama, under the name of the Bevno. 
 
 In the center of the defile at Pravadi there are some 
 bold rocks, which form a narrow pass that could easily be 
 made impregnable, but it can be turned (with difficulty) 
 on both the right and left. The river, both at Pravadi 
 and the small town of Kadikoi, must be crossed by bridges, 
 and the passage at the latter place is difficult. From 
 thence, up the valley of Delidche-Dere, three miles long, 
 and a perilous route for a long column, no less than forty 
 fords have to be crossed over the sinuous river. 
 
 Near Gokbehuet-Arakdehe the rugged rocks close in 
 this valley to a narrow pass, only fifty yards broad, and 
 which could easily be made impregnable ; beyond that, 
 there are no difficulties as far as Aidos. 
 
 The easier route for an invading army is by Jenikoi, 
 where the Kamtchik is easUy fordable, even on foot, dur- 
 ing the summer. 
 
 The right bank of the river is bare about the town of 
 Jenikoi. Near Ischenga the road crosses the DeU Kam- 
 tchik by a ford, and then rises suddenly, and at this place 
 it might be rendered impregnable. The plateau above 
 Ischenga is a mile and a quarter in extent, and troops 
 might be advantageously intrenched at this spot, which 
 19
 
 290 TURKEY IX EUROPE. 
 
 offers the defensive advantage of ground falling rapidly 
 toward the Deli Kamtchik on one side, and the Deli- 
 dschederek on the other. On the neighboring open space 
 at Bau-amovo, a considerable encampment might be 
 formed, and as a practicable road leads from thence to 
 Yama, a force concentrated on this spot could either de- 
 bouch on that fortress or toward Pravadi at pleasure. 
 
 6. The pass from Yama by Derwisch Jowann to Me- 
 sembria and Burgas : — 
 
 Passing through the marshy country south of Yama, 
 this route crosses the Kamtchik by a bridge of boats at 
 Podbaschi, where the banks are precipitous and from six 
 to twelve feet high. The marsh is about 5,000 paces in 
 extent, and there is some rising ground suitable for in- 
 trenchments at a spot beyond it, where two narrow but 
 passable roads lead westward. 
 
 Encountering moderate ascents through beautiful but 
 almost impenetrable woods, these routes lead to Derwisch 
 Jowann and Mesembria (on the Bay of Burgas), passing 
 through the deep valleys of Kip-Dereh. The latter con- 
 sist of an almost continuous succession of deiiles, nor are 
 there here any means of cross-communications between 
 the various roads of the Balkan, excepting those at the 
 southern declivity of the chain, where one such inter-com- 
 munication leads from Mesembria to Aidos, and another 
 from Burgas to the same place, from whence a single line 
 is continued to Kamabat and Sliomia. 
 
 In 1874 there was a good military road from Burgas to 
 Aidos, but it is probably in such bad repair now, as to be 
 impassable for wheeled carriages in the rainy season. 
 
 The description of these Balkan passes is derived from 
 personal observation, made in 1874, and from accounts 
 written by Yon Moltke and Chesney. 
 
 The ease with which the Russians crossed the Balkan 
 in 1829, with Shumla in theii' rear, and in possession of 
 the Turks, proves that the difficulties of the passage are 
 not insuperable. 
 
 The passes are generally covered with snow from No-
 
 ROADS. 291 
 
 vember to April, and although the passage might, with 
 great clifBciilty, be made across the mountains in the win- 
 ter, if a snow-storm came on during the march, the army 
 would be destroyed. 
 
 The roads in Turkey are for the most part merely tracks 
 made by the passage of carts, etc., over the same ground ; 
 but of late years large sums of money have been spent by 
 the Porte in making military roads of communication ; 
 but, as I have already mentioned, they are for the most 
 part useless a few years after their construction, in conse- 
 quence of not being repaired. 
 
 The principal roads that have lately been constructed 
 are, that from Salonica to Monastir, still in very fair 
 order ; from Salonica to Seres, only finished in small 
 lengths, here and there, and those are impassable for any 
 distance, for want of repair. All work on this road is 
 now stopped. 
 
 The roads from Djumaa to Dubnitza and Sofia, and 
 from Samakov to Dubnitza, and from Samakov to Sofia. 
 These were splendid roads in 1874, but were not finished 
 for the whole of their length. Road from Philippopolis 
 to Eski Zaghra and Yeni Zaghra to Yanboli, to Karnabat 
 and Burgas, running the whole length of the Balkan ; this 
 road was nearly completed in 1874. Road from Lovtcha 
 by Selvi, Tii-nova to Rustchuk, finished in 1874, and in 
 excellent order at that time. 
 
 The constant change of governors of districts interfered 
 greatly with road-making. One governor would arrive at 
 a district and take great interest in the construction of 
 these useful highways, and the work then progi'essed 
 rapidly, when the governor was superseded by a man who 
 never thought or cared about roads, and the work at once 
 languished. It is not an unusual thing in some parts 
 of Turkey to meet with a beautiful portion of road about 
 a mile long, and leading nowhere in particular at either 
 end, and to find that it was the work of some energetic 
 pasha who had reigned perhaps for three months. 
 
 Much has been done in the way of telegraphs, and they
 
 292 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 noAv extend to all the principal towns in Turkey. Tliis 
 will be a great advantage to the Turks in tkeii* defensive 
 position. 
 
 In summer an army can move with ease in most parts 
 of the country, as the ground becomes hard, and the 
 numerous tracks over the country then make very fair 
 roads ; but from IN'ovember to May these tracks are im- 
 passable for heavy-wheeled traffic, and there would be the 
 greatest difficulty and danger in moving an army during 
 that season. From March to June there would be ample 
 forage all over the country for a very large army, as at that 
 season the grass springs up in great luxuriance, and the 
 extensive grain crops are then growing. 
 
 Harvest of grain crops (maize excepted) takes place 
 generally in June, and from that month to August grain 
 would be procurable in large quantities almost anywhere, 
 but not forage, as the grass is at that season all dried up 
 by the sun. There would, however, be the chopped 
 straw, which is found everywhere, and makes good food 
 for horses. "Very little grain would be procurable after 
 August, as it is the custom of the inhabitants to sell it off 
 as soon as it is threshed. The maize harvest takes place 
 in September, and the dry leaves and stalks of the plant 
 make excellent fodder, which would be abundant in some 
 districts ; but the cultivation of maize is partial. Sheep 
 and oxen could be found in large quantities everywhere, 
 at all seasons, but the inhabitants are very loath to part 
 with them. 
 
 Fuel would be very scarce in most of the low districts. 
 Water is generally to be found by digging a few feet be- 
 low the surface on the plains, and on the mountains it is 
 abundant. Pack-animals for transport would be abun- 
 dant everywhere, as each little farm has always four or five 
 horses which are used for threshing the grain, and most 
 of the traffic of the country is carried on by means of 
 pack-animals. 
 
 One of the best defenses which Turkey possesses is the 
 unhealthy climate of some of the plains during the autumn
 
 MALARIA FEVERS. 293 
 
 montlis, in consequence of the malaria fevers whicli are 
 generated by the marshes. 
 
 The natives think very little of these fevers, but they 
 are very destructive to the efficiency of an army. The at- 
 tacks commence by shivering, then the hot stage comes 
 on, and after that profuse perspiration, when the patient 
 feels as well as ever ; but two or three days afterward he 
 is again down for twenty-four hours. The attacks vary 
 in severity according to the constitution of the patient, 
 and in many cases he is disabled from all work. Foreign- 
 ers are much more subject to these fevers than the natives, 
 and they have always proved peculiarly destructive to the 
 Russian armies. They are only prevalent during the 
 months of July, August, and September, and then only on 
 plains ; the rest of the year is very healthy. An army 
 moving through the country during these months can 
 never be certain of the number of men it can bring into 
 line of battle. It may have 70,000 men to-day, and only 
 40,000 to-morrow, for while the hot and cold stage of the 
 fever is ragiag it completely incapacitates a man for any 
 kind of work. When traveling through the country in 
 1874, a plan of defense for Turkey against the attacks of 
 Russia suggested itself to me, which I will describe for 
 the consideration, and subject to the correction, of more 
 competent military authorities. It hinges upon the stra- 
 tegical importance of the district about Burgas as a posi- 
 tion for a large intrenched camp. Burgas is on the Black 
 Sea coast, about three hours' steam south of Yarna, and 
 is situated on the bay of that name, which affords excel- 
 lent anchorage and shelter for a fleet of any size in all 
 weathers. The town is on the southern edge of the Bal- 
 kan range, about twenty miles from Aidos, where the 
 passes (already described) debouch, and about fifty miles 
 from Yanboli, the terminus of the railway from Adrian- 
 ople. 
 
 It is principally celebrated for its grain-exports, and is 
 well supplied with water. To the south of the bay is the 
 Greek town of Sisopolis, which, beiag situated on a long
 
 294 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 and narrow promontory, could easily be fortified ; and 
 there is good anchorage for large ships close to the town. 
 This is the place w^hich played an imiDortant part in the 
 campaign of 1828-29. In the neighborhood of Burgas, 
 toward the Balkan range, there are excellent sites for a 
 large intrenched camp, on ground which would be ex- 
 tremely healthy at all seasons of the year, and the amiy 
 occupying the camp could be supplied by sea. Constan- 
 tinox)le is twelve hours' steam from Burgas. 
 
 In the following plan of defense, we must assume what 
 would probably be the case, viz., that Turkey has com- 
 plete command of the Black Sea. Supposing that a cam- 
 I)aign commenced in four months from this time (January, 
 1877), the forces which would probably be arrayed against 
 each other in Turkey in Europe, leaving out those which 
 would be occupied in the campaign in Asia Minor — the 
 quarter in Avhich Russia probably intends to acquu-e new 
 territory at the expense of the Turks — would be as fol- 
 lows : — Russia, considering the power of concentration she 
 now possesses from the construction of her strategical lines 
 of railway, could probably employ 400,000 regular trooi)s 
 for a campaign against Turkey in Europe. Of these, 100,- 
 000 men would probably be in reserve, 100,000 men would 
 T5e employed in masking fortresses and keeping up com- 
 munications ; leaving 200,000 men — or, say, tlu'ee armies 
 of 70,000 men each — to advance into Turkey ; and to these 
 might be added 30,000 Servian and Montenegrin irregular 
 troops. The plan of attack can only be assumed ; but 
 looking at the line of the Ballvan as a long fortress, it is 
 possible that the first Russian army might unite with the 
 Servian forces, and advance by Sofia, the second army by 
 Rustchuk and Tii'nova, and the third by the Dobrudja, 
 Varna, and Shumla. 
 
 The Balkan passed, the only routes to Constantinople 
 would be by Yanboli, along the valley of the Tundja, and 
 along the plain of Philippopolis, both tending to Adiian- 
 ople. The experience of the campaign of 1829 teaches the 
 number of troops that Russia might expect to be able to 
 rely upon by the time she arrived at Adiianople. She
 
 TUE DEFENSE OF TURKEY. 295 
 
 commenced, that campaign, according to Yon Moltke, 
 with the insufficient force of G8,000 men, and when she 
 arrived, at Adrianople, according to the same authority, 
 she could not have put 15,000 men in line of battle. 
 
 If, therefore, Russia now commences the camj)aign with 
 430,000 men, including the Servian troops, we may fairly 
 conclude that, by the time she had passed, the Balkan, 
 she could employ only 100,000 troops south of that range 
 of mountains. And in this calculation it must be remem- 
 bered, that Turkey is now in a far better military position, 
 as compared with Russia, than she was in 1829. She was 
 then even more disorganized than she is now, and prac- 
 tically had no regular army, and Russia had complete 
 command of the sea. 
 
 In considering the Turkish forces which could be em- 
 ployed in Euroi)e to repel such an attack in the siDring, 
 we must dismiss all paper-statistics ; and, as far as I can 
 gather from reliable sources, the Porte could not, even 
 with all the Redifs, employ against Russia in Europe 
 more than 100.000 regular troops. 
 
 To these may be added by great exertions 100,000 re- 
 cruits, to be trained in reserve, and 60,000 irregular troops, 
 consisting of Albanians, Circassians, Bashi-Bazouks, etc., 
 etc., making in all — 
 
 Eegular Troops 100,000 
 
 Eecruits 100,000 
 
 Irregulars 60,000 
 
 Total 260,000 
 
 against 400,000 highly-trained Russian regular troops and 
 30,000 iiTegulars. 
 
 The numerical superiority of the Russians is so great 
 that the attempt to fight her anywhere near her base 
 would seem to be madness. The only hope for Turkey is 
 to make every use of the natural defenses of the country, 
 and to oblige Russia to fight as far from her base as possi- 
 ble, and at the same time to harass her communications. 
 
 Time is all-important ; for if the Russians advance far
 
 296 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 into Turkey they must finish the campaign before Decem- 
 ber, otherwise they would have the greatest difficulty in 
 feeding the army. 
 
 It would seem, then, that the best line of defense for 
 Turkey would be south of the Balkan, where she would 
 be in railway communication with her capital, arsenals, 
 and the sea, of which she would have the command, 
 while the Russian forces opposed to her would be more 
 than 300 miles from their base, and would have the great 
 Balkan range lying right across their lines of communica- 
 tion. 
 
 Turkey might occupy her 260,000 troops on such a plan 
 of defense by evacuating all fortresses excepting Shumla 
 and Yarna, which should be made as strong as possible. 
 All useless mouths that could be spared might be sent away 
 from Shumla, and it might be provisioned for six months. 
 Intrenched camps might be formed at Yarna, at Burgas, 
 and in the district of Adrianox)le. Impregnable positions, 
 which would hold about 500 men each, might be selected 
 among the Balkan passes — I have seen many that would 
 be suitable — and intrenched, provisioned for eight months, 
 and, in some cases fortified. 
 
 The distribution of the Turkish forces might then be as 
 follows : — 
 
 25,000 picked troops, divided into three divisions, to 
 watch, and retreat before the advance of the three 
 Russian armies, harassing them at every favorable 
 position. 
 
 40,000 Albanians, Circassians, etc., including a few regu- 
 lar troops, at Shumla. 
 
 20,000 in the intrenched camp at Yarna. 
 
 10,000 in the fortified and intrenched positions scattered 
 about the Balkan passes. 
 
 75,000 in the intrenched camp at Burgas. 
 
 90,000 in the intrenched camp in the district of Adriano- 
 ple. 
 
 Out of the 75,000 men at Burgas, 60,000 might be regu- 
 lar troops. The neighborhood of Burgas would be an
 
 THE DEFENSE OF TURKEY. 297 
 
 admirable position for falling npon the Russian troops as 
 they debouched from the Balkan passes. 
 
 If Russia masked Shumla and Varna, and passed on, 
 Turkey, being in possession of the sea, could at any mo- 
 ment throw 20,000 additional troops into Varna from Bur- 
 gas — only three hours' off by steam — and thus raise the 
 forces at Shumla and Varna to 80,000 men, right in the 
 line of the Russian communications. If Russia laid siege 
 to Shumla and Varna before passing on, it would be a 
 very tedious and costly undertaking, and it is very doubt- 
 ful whether those jDlaces could be taken in a single cam- 
 paign of one season. When Russia passed the Balkan, 
 she could not advance upon Adrianople without beating 
 the army at Burgas, otherwise she would lay open her 
 communications to its attack. 
 
 The Turks are famous for their fighting powers in in- 
 trenched positions, and would therefore be acting under 
 the most favorable circumstances. Moreover, their armies 
 would be in healthy positions (Varna excepted), and 
 easily supplied by sea and rail. As the containing di- 
 visions fell back before the Russian armies advancing 
 through the Balkan, they would come upon positions 
 where their small forces could act upon almost equal 
 terms with the superior forces of the Russians, and could 
 do great damage to their troops ; but it would require 
 clever officers at the head of these divisions. They are, 
 however, to be found — notably, Mehemet Ali Pasha, a 
 German by birth. 
 
 It may be argued that this plan of defense would be 
 giving over a large portion of the empire to Russian occu- 
 pation ; but the answer is that Turkey, being in command 
 of the Black Sea, could strangle all Russian commerce in 
 those waters until that power released her grij) of the 
 Ottoman throat. 
 
 I jotted down this plan of defense when I was traveling 
 over the country in 1874 ; and now that the Turkish forces 
 are reduced by the exhaustion of the Servian campaign, 
 it seems to me still more reasonable ; but that point I leave 
 to the decision of others.
 
 CHAPTEE XYI. 
 
 FEOM TEOYAN TO SAMAKOV. 
 
 Brigands — A Doctor Shot — Turkisli Hospitality — A Mountain Pass — Slatitza 
 — The Disease of Procrastination — " Cut-em-nps" — Tlie Trials of Inter- 
 pretation — A Long Ride — The Great Watershed — The Meeting of the 
 Mountains — Plain of Sofia — The Railway — The Rilo Dagh — Samakov 
 — The American Mission — Iron — Lovely Scenery — Alarms — A Shake- 
 Down — The Monastery of Rilo — Deer-Stalking — An Accident. 
 
 AFTER tliis long digression I return to my journey 
 from Troyan to Samakov. 
 
 I re-crossed tlie Balkan by tke same track as far as the 
 highest ridge, and then struck down another spur, more 
 to the west of the one I had ascended. As usual, there 
 were reports of brigands before I left Troyan, but no signs 
 of them. Still, there was no doubt that they really ex- 
 isted, for only two days before, on the road to Tirnova, a 
 Greek doctor had been shot. He was traveling ^^ith a 
 friend, and had ridden ahead on the high road, when two 
 brigands stepped out of the neighboring wood, and stop- 
 ped his way, upon which he drew his revolver, fired a 
 wild shot at them, and turned to gallop back. But the 
 brigands had provided for this maneuver, and two more 
 stepped out to stop his retreat, and ui)on his firing at them 
 they shot him dead. Houssein Pasha, the Governor of 
 Tirnova, received the news at six o' clock in the evening, 
 and immediately started off on a seven hours' ride, and 
 succeeded in capturing the brigands, who were, I believe, 
 hung. 
 
 John and Pano carried revolvers, and I gave them orders 
 that if any of these highwaymen attempted to stop our 
 way, they were to follow me in riding straight at them, 
 without hesitating for a moment, and on no account to fire 
 
 298
 
 AN EARL Y START. 299 
 
 until I did, but wlien once tliey began, to keep it going 
 steadily and surely. 
 
 I do not think that, as a rule, the brigands wish to take 
 a man' s life, if they can help it, and it is highly probable 
 that if he dashed through them at once, witliout firing, 
 unless they did, he might escape. 
 
 We had been delayed in starting by difficulties in get- 
 ting pack-horses for my tents, so that it was nearly dark 
 before we arrived on the outskirts of a large Turkish 
 village, on the plain at the foot of the pass. I determined 
 to j)itch the tents, and camp outside the village, and after 
 waiting for about half an hour they arrived, and we set 
 them up in the dark. The noise of the Keradjees (drivers) 
 attracted the attention of the Turks of the village, who 
 came out to see the disturbers of their usually quiet 
 mountain homes, and when they found that we were 
 actually going to camp close outside thek village, their 
 ideas of hospitality were much hurt. 
 
 They said they really could not permit it, that they 
 could give me a good and comfortable house, and would 
 soon have food, etc. But the tents were up, and I was 
 anxious to be off by daybreak the next morning, so with 
 many apologies I refused their hospitable offer. However, 
 the good people insisted on bringing me all kinds of 
 edibles, and refused to take anything in pajrment. I was 
 determined to get my men into training for an early start, 
 as I had a long and uncertain journey before me, so I 
 roused them uj) at 3.30 a.m., and had all the tents struck, 
 baggage packed, and animals started by 4.30 a.m. We 
 followed about an hour afterward. The long valley of 
 the Tundja here narrows into a cul cle sac, and it is from 
 this part that the river takes its source. 
 
 There is what in Scotland would be called a "balloch," 
 which connects the Great Balkan with the Karadja Dagh 
 range, and thus closes the long valley — through which we 
 traveled, by Kezanlik — between them. The town of Klis- 
 snra lies a little way up this "balloch," and it was here 
 that I stopped and met the hospitable Mudu", to whom I
 
 300 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 alluded in a former chapter. The difficulty of obtaining 
 accurate information as to the distance to Samakov was 
 great and trying. One man said it was twenty-eight 
 hours' ride, another that it was sixteen, but no certain 
 guide could be found. All, however, seemed to agree that 
 the route lay by Slatitza, or Isladi, as it is generally spelled 
 in the maps. This puzzled me, as in the large map I had 
 with me that town is marked well north of the Balkan. I 
 afterward found that the map had placed the towTi only 
 forty miles out of its proper position. The Mudir en- 
 deavored to persuade me to take a guard, as the pass 
 through which we should have to travel was infested with 
 brigands, who seem to drive a busy trade in these moun- 
 tain regions. I, however, refused his civil offer, not wish- 
 ing it to be supposed that I was worth robbing, and there- 
 fore contented myself with the usual zaptieh as a guide, 
 but I engaged another to accompany the baggage, which 
 was sent on ahead. 
 
 The scenery here is very pretty, the pasture hills are 
 beautifully wooded in patches here and there, and com- 
 mand a view of the rich plain below. I heard that there 
 were red and roe deer to be seen, and plenty of chamois 
 on the higher mountains, besides bears ; but all accounts 
 agreed in Rilo Monastir being the best district for such 
 game, and I therefore determined to be patient. 
 
 After rising the "balloch" for about a thousand feet 
 Tip a winding path we came to a wooded pass, and the zap- 
 tieh requested us to g^t our revolvers ready, as it was a 
 dangerous place ; but, I regret to say, I cannot offer the 
 reader any exciting account of an encounter with brig- 
 ands, for the country seemed as quiet and peaceful as a 
 scene in Wales, and we passed on without meeting a soul. 
 
 We now descended into a long grassy valley with moun- 
 tains on our right and wooded hills on our left, and de- 
 scended gradually down a steppe country until we reached 
 a beautiful plain of rich meadow-land, well irrigated, and 
 with haystacks such as might be seen in England. Sev- 
 eral Bulgarian and Turkish villages were passed, and at
 
 PROCRASTINATION. 301 
 
 6 T.^i. we arrived at Slatitza, a very prettily situated town 
 inliabited by Bulgarians, partly Moliammedan and partly 
 Christian, each of whom, as in all other similar cases, 
 have their separate quarter of the to^Ti. We found a 
 good khan ; the wife of the Bulgarian khanjee was most 
 civil and obliging, and it looked a clean place. I saw to 
 the horses, and was then shown into a room -^vlth Mother 
 Earth as the floor, and which would have been comfort- 
 able enough if the good woman had not bustled about 
 with a broom, assuring me all the while, ^^ith many 
 apologies, that her house was not half good enough for 
 me ; but she stirred up such a dust with her energetic 
 broom that I could hardly express my thanks through 
 coughing and sneezing — besides which, it set the fleas 
 hopping and skipping about, and I would sooner they 
 had been undisturbed. 
 
 Pano had been in America, and had caught some of the 
 smart habits of that energetic race ; but he had not lost 
 the habitual dilatoriness of an Ottoman subject, and it 
 was now about to be exemplified. 
 
 He begged me not to trouble my head about dinner, as 
 he had made inquiries : there were fowls to be had, and 
 in an hour he would have a grand meal ready, consistmg 
 of soup, boiled fowl, stuffed cucumbers, and melina, a 
 delicious Bulgarian pastry. 
 
 The very thought of this, after a long day's ride of over 
 fifty miles, was decidedly comforting. 
 
 Pano disappeared into the khanjee family haunts, and 
 I leisurely unpacked my bag, had a comfortable wash and 
 change, and, as it was a lovely evening, I took a stroll 
 through the town. 
 
 I returned in about an hour, and finding the dust in my 
 room had subsided, sat down to read. I was naturally 
 hungry, but, knowing the customs of the country, I was 
 determined to be patient. 
 
 Time passed : I looked at my watch, and found it was 
 more than two hours since Pano had assured me dinner 
 would be ready in an hour ; I therefore inwardly congrat-
 
 302 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ulated myself that it would soon appear— possibly tlie 
 fowl was tough, and required extra boiling. 
 
 In about a quarter of an hour my attention was at- 
 tracted by a great bustle outside, and an evident alarm 
 among the poultry, with sounds as though of missiles 
 flying about. 
 
 "What is the matter, Pano ? " I asked. 
 
 "I just trying to catch this fowl, sir." 
 
 "What fowl?" 
 
 "Oh, this fowl for dinner, sir ! " 
 
 He had not even commenced to cook the dinner, and it 
 was now past eight o'clock ! 
 
 But the delay did not end there. When the fowl was 
 caught, killed, and plucked, it then occurred to them that 
 a fire was necessary to cook it, and sticks had to be found, 
 and blown up into a flame ; and all this time the khanjee's 
 wife was, of course, talking vivaciously. 
 
 At last, some time after nine o'clock, the pot was bub- 
 bling on the fire, and a smell as of incense wafted through 
 the air. At ten o'clock I thought the soup must be ready, 
 and made my way to see. Pano was bending over the 
 fire, cleaning something in a plate. 
 
 " What are you doing 1 " I asked. 
 
 "I have got some rice, sir ; it capital for soup, so I go- 
 ing to put it in ; soon we shall have fine dinner." 
 
 Now rice takes nearly an hour to boil, and he was de- 
 liberately, at ten o'clock, going to put rice into the soup 
 w^hich was then nearly ready ! 
 
 My patience was exhausted, and the pangs of hunger 
 were strong upon me, so, seizing the pot, I made off to my 
 room, and supped off stew and bread, to the great disap- 
 pointment of Pano, who would have had the whole of 
 his promised courses ready if I had waited until mid- 
 night. 
 
 This is not an exceptional case, but rather the rule of 
 dilatory action than otherwise, and it is a type of the 
 manner in which the whole administration of the country, 
 public, private, and domestic, is carried on.
 
 TRIALS OF PATIENCE. 303 
 
 I afterward took the cooking into my o^Yn liands, and 
 got my dinner in an lioiir after tlie halt. Pano was not a 
 bad cook, and I taught him to make mutton cutlets. 
 "What you call these, sir, in English?" he asked. 
 " Cutlets," I replied. He was always anxious to learn a 
 new word, and I heard him muttering with much seK- 
 satisfaction as he thought he had caught the proper pro- 
 nunciation, 
 
 A few days afterward I happened to ask him what 
 he had for dinner. " Just a few ' cut-em-ups,' sir ; the 
 same as your 'cut-em-ups.' " 
 
 The difficulty of obtaining accurate information through 
 an interpreter is very great, and also very trying to the 
 patience, but it may be mastered after some experience if 
 it is combined with thorough control of temper. At the 
 risk of trying the patience of my readers I will give an 
 instance of the difficulties which beset a traveler in that 
 way. 
 
 I am passing a field, and espy a crop which I have never 
 seen before, and a man working in the field. I call up the 
 interpreter: "Pano, what is that growing there?" "I 
 don't know, sir." " Ask that man, and find out all about 
 it." He talks to the man for about ten minutes. " Well, 
 what does he say?" "He says, sir, that he plants little 
 seeds, and it grows like that." "Does he give it to his 
 horses or cattle ? " Another long talk now takes place, 
 and the answer comes at last : " No, he does not give it to 
 his cattle." "What does he do with it, then?" More 
 talk. "He says it is a little white seed, sort of brown 
 color." "Well, what does he do with it ? " A very long 
 conversation carried on in crescendo tones, and which be- 
 comes very excited. Now we shall have it. "He says, 
 sir, that there is a little oil in that seed." " Well, what 
 does he do with the oil?" Talk. "He seUs the oil." 
 "Do people burn the oil ? " Talk. "No, he says people 
 do not burn the oH." "What do they do with it?" 
 Talk. " He says they eat the oil." " '\yiiat is the name 
 of it?" Talk. "He says it called difierent names."
 
 304 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ^ ' Wliat is it generally called ? ' ' Talk. ' ' He says it some- 
 times called sesame.'''' He then plunges into violent con- 
 versation until you would suppose that a quarrel was 
 brewing, and at last lie says, "This man says that cattle 
 are very fond of that." 
 
 This leads to a new line of inquiry ; and at last, out of 
 all the answers, I gather this information : that the plant is 
 called sesame ; that it is grown for its seed, which is made 
 into oil ; that the oil is eaten with various kinds of food, 
 and that the refuse is given in the form of "cake" to cat- 
 tle ; that it is a summer crop, and profitable. 
 
 It is no use asking a direct question. You must ap- 
 proach the subject from various points leading up to your 
 object ; but it takes a long time, and if you happen to lose 
 your patience and temper you get back an answer — by 
 way of making everything smooth — which is about as in- 
 correct and misleading as it well can be. 
 
 I found much difficulty in getting any accurate informa- 
 tion at Slatitza as to the distance of my next day's journey 
 to Samakov, but I surmised that it must be a very long 
 ride, and I therefore determined to start before daybreak. 
 The baggage could make two days of the journey, as Pano 
 had informed me that Mr. Clarke, of the American Mis- 
 sion, was residing at Samakov, and would be able to put 
 me up. 
 
 We were off at four o'clock on a most lovely morning, 
 and I felt a sort of instinct that it was necessary to keep 
 up the pace if we wanted to get to our journey's end in the 
 day. Our route lay along a small plain at the foot of lofty 
 rocky mountains, and after traveling for about ten miles, 
 we descended into a most curious country, which, in the dis- 
 tance, appeared like a small plain, but on closer acquaint- 
 ance, it was corrugated with innumerable "nullahs," from 
 five to twenty feet deep, formed by the action of streams 
 which were now dry. Some of these corrugations were not 
 more than two feet wide at the top, and yet ten feet or 
 more in depth. The soil was a decomposed syenite, and 
 was covered with rich pasture. We soon turned sharp off
 
 PLAINS OF SOFIA. 305 
 
 to the left across a small river and into a winding patli np 
 a very steep hill covered with forest, which lasted for about 
 two miles, and then led us down a long winding pass which 
 skirted a wooded river for several miles, and emerged on 
 to broken hills on the edge of the great and fertile plain of 
 Sofia. 
 
 The view here was magnificent, and if the air had been 
 very clear we should probably have seen the town of 
 Sofia. The plain was dotted over with villages, and there 
 were more trees than are usually seen in the low lands of 
 Turkey. The route we had come is the one which would 
 have to be taken by an army which purposed marching 
 for the Tundja valley from Sofia, and thus upon Yanboli 
 and Adrianople, while the other route would be by the 
 line of the present railway. 
 
 The nature of the country through which we had passed 
 would in many places offer very serious but not insur- 
 mountable difliculties for the advance of an army against 
 an enemy in occupation. 
 
 The Vitosh Mountain, composed of an enormous syenite 
 mass, rose on our right to a height of 7,475 feet above the 
 sea, while, just dimly visible in our front, w^ere the still 
 higher Rilo Mountains, whose feet we had to reach that 
 evening. 
 
 We were here at the meeting of the mountain systems 
 of Turkey ; and the Balkan, the Roumelian Hills, the 
 Rhodope, and the Upper Moesian ranges met in common 
 council. 
 
 The distance of the Rilo Mountains told me that no 
 time was to be lost ; but our plucky little horses were 
 equal to the call made upon them, and kept up the pace. 
 
 At two o'clock we had arrived at a small village full of 
 Italian and German engineers and workmen, busy upon 
 the line of railway, which was in a forward state. Here 
 we had a hurried lunch, and again pushed on. 
 
 The scenery as we approached the RUo Mountains was 
 grand in the extreme. Their highest point reaches 9,750 
 feet above the sea, and my spirits rose as I thought that 
 20
 
 306 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 in a few days I should have my tent pitched among their 
 wild heights in the land of bears and red deer. 
 
 We still passed over rough hills of decomposed syenite, 
 and containing mudi mica and magnetic iron ore, and as 
 the sun set Ave descried the white minarets of Samakov 
 lying under the dark mountains in our front. It now 
 commenced raining heavily, and we were not sorry to hear 
 the clatter of our horses' feet on the rough pavement of 
 the streets of the town, as we rode up to the khan at 
 half-past eight, after a ride of seventy-two miles. 
 
 The horses were, of course, rather tired, but they bore 
 the journey remarkably well, considering that they had 
 done fifty miles the day before. We were soon hospita- 
 bly housed by Mr. and Mrs. Clarke, and after my rough 
 life the comforts of an American home were very en- 
 joyable. 
 
 I have already alluded to the missionary work which is 
 so bravely and perseveringly carried out by Mr. Clarke 
 and his brother missionaries. They had just finished a 
 very large and substantial school-house, and I was present 
 at a very well attended service in Bulgarian. One of 
 their converts of that nation spoke English fluently. The 
 rancor of the Greek clergy is very great, every convert is 
 excommunicated, and all Christian shops are forbidden 
 to sell him any supplies of either food or clothing. 
 
 The Turkish authorities do not look with favor upon 
 these Protestant missions, because they see in them the 
 germs of a disturbing element between their Christian 
 subjects. 
 
 Samakov is celebrated for its iron-works. Turkish iron 
 is the finest, perhaps, in the world, and is considered even 
 superior to that of Sweden and Siberia. 
 
 The small quantity which is made is all consumed in 
 the country, chiefly for making horse-shoe nails. 
 
 It is manufactured from the sand of the magnetic iron 
 ore, washed out of the decomposed syenite, which forms 
 the neighboring hills. 
 
 The smelting furnaces are of a most primitive descrip-
 
 SAMAKOV. 307 
 
 tion. A factory is built on the bank of a river which 
 flows through the town, and which is used to turn an 
 undershot w^ater-wheel which works two pairs of large 
 bellows, together with a rude kind of hammer which is 
 attached to a long lever, and is made to rise and fall by 
 means of catches on the axle of the water-wheel. AU the 
 parts of the machinery (if it is deserving that name) are 
 made of wood. 
 
 The bellows play alternately so as to keep up a con- 
 tinuous draught into the bottom of a large earthenware 
 crucible about five feet high, shaped like a pear with the 
 stalk below. This is filled -vvith charcoal, and the well- 
 washed iron sand, which, when smelted, is drawn out 
 from below in a large irregular and white-hot lump, weigh- 
 ing about two hundred- weight. This is dragged under- 
 neath the great hammer, which beats it into jagged bars 
 about six feet long, three inches wide, and three-quarters 
 of an inch thick, and in that form it is sent off to all parts 
 of Turkey. 
 
 The trade is mostly in the hands of Jews. The practice 
 is to build a factory and place it at the service of the 
 villagers, who wash for the magnetic iron ore, which is 
 brought by these men to the factory, who also provide the 
 charcoal and smelt the iron themselves. They are then 
 bound to sell it to the owner of the building at a pre- 
 arranged price. 
 
 Iron is also produced in a similar manner at another 
 town called Samakov, near Kury Burun, on the Black 
 Sea coast. 
 
 I believe there exists here a most favorable opening for 
 any company with command of capital and experienced 
 iron-workers, who might start a smelting and iron fac- 
 tory at Samakov. The climate is very healthy, and the 
 railway will soon pass within fifteen miles of the town. 
 There is a coal bed only six miles off, which crops out 
 of the mountain side, but it is what is known as the 
 "brown" coal. 
 
 There is an excellent highway road from Samakov to
 
 308 TURKEY m EVROPE. 
 
 Dubnitza, and also to the line of railway wMcli runs to 
 Constantinople. 
 
 I found that RHo Monastir was about twelve honrs' ride 
 over the mountains by a very rough path, and two days' 
 journey by carriage-road. I engaged a mountaineer who 
 was well acquainted with that part of the country, and 
 determined to take the shorter route. The weather was 
 now beautiful ; and taking leave of my kind host, who 
 had given me much useful information, I made a start, 
 but not without a delay which detained us until one 
 o'clock, and consequently obliged us to camp for that 
 night on the hill ; but I was detennined to set out, as I 
 felt that the morrow would probably witness similar 
 delays, while, if I once got the men and my tents on 
 the mountain, I could dictate my own time for an early 
 start. 
 
 The ride from Samakov to Rilo Monastir passes through 
 scenery as grand as any in the world. I cannot conceive 
 anything more beautiful. For several miles the path runs 
 by the side of a cascading river, through grand valleys, 
 with precipitous rocky sides, studded with the finest 
 pine-trees I have ever seen ; it then commences a steep 
 ascent up a very rough pass, with rocks of every variety 
 of form and color on either side, and here and there a 
 gorge which opens out the great mountain tops beyond. 
 Waterfalls burst out and lose themselves in spray to 
 moisten ferns and flowers which lie below. Now you are 
 riding on the edge of a precipice a thousand feet or more 
 above a river, which foams and roars as it struggles around 
 great broken rocks that once dwelt yonder where the 
 eagles are circling, three thousand feet above ; now you 
 crest a rounded ridge, with grassy glades and forests of 
 pine and oak, and views of mountains far and near. Add 
 to all this a clear blue sky and the tonic of the air — such 
 air ! — and you get a glimpse of heaven. 
 
 All this I enjoyed until we had ascended about six 
 thousand feet above the sea, and the sun had set below 
 a neighboring ridge. I chose a small grassy plot near a
 
 AN E VENT A T LAST. 309 
 
 rocky stream, as clear as crystal, with a pine-wood within 
 twenty yards, and the higher mountains right and left. 
 
 It was a wild spot, and here I called a halt. The tents 
 were pitched, camp-tires lighted, horses picketed, by which 
 time all was pitchy dark. 
 
 Dinner was over ; Pano had put up his complicated bed 
 in the tent close to mine, which he occupied with John ; 
 the zaptieh and hunter rolled themselves up by the 
 embers of the fire outside, and we all turned in for the 
 night. Presently the zaptieh called to us in a low voice 
 to get up quickly and bring our pistols. I heard a crash 
 in the next tent, which I knew to be Pano's patent bed 
 collapsing from the effect of the start. I went out, and 
 the zaptieh said that there were people about the tents 
 who were probably brigands. I ordered every one to 
 come to the rocks, a few rods off, away from the light of 
 the fire, and we listened. 
 
 There was no doubt about it ; there were people mutter- 
 ing and whispering close by. This really looked like an 
 event at last ! I told Pano to call out to them to come 
 forward to the fire, or we should shoot. There was no 
 answer, and all was silent save the rippling of the burn. 
 Again I told him to call that if they wished to save their 
 lives they must come forward and we would do them no 
 harm. It is no use, reader, we cannot have a startling 
 event, for out of the dark came a whining voice, begging for 
 mercy, and it was soon followed by three poor wretched 
 creatures, who were bound for the monastery, and had 
 lost their way in the dark, and were benighted. I soon had 
 our imaginary enemies round the fire, with a good hot 
 cup of coffee and some bread and cheese, which they ate 
 as though they were half famished. 
 
 Pano was busy adjusting the sticks of his spider-bed, 
 and in about half an hour we were again all dozing off to 
 sleep. 
 
 I was suddenly awakened by the neighing and almost 
 screaming of the horses, as they kicked and tore at 
 the picket ropes. I knew that it awoke Pano also, for
 
 31 TURKEY IN E UROPE. 
 
 I heard his bed collapse again, as, jumping up and rnn- 
 ning out, I seized a fire-stick, and made for the horses ; 
 but the zaptieh was there before me. The poor animals 
 were sweating and trembling all over, and seemed in the 
 greatest terror. 
 
 The cause was soon manifested in the cracking of some 
 of the branches of the neighboring underwood a few 
 yards off, and I knew that it must be a bear. It was no 
 use firing as it was pitch dark ; but I had a fire lighted 
 close to the horses. 
 
 These bears are of the great brown variety, and the 
 largest that are known, being as much as eight feet high 
 when they sit up. It turned out that this animal was a 
 well-linown horse-stealer, and that only the night before 
 he had killed two horses in this very part of the mountain. 
 
 Grass is so abundant everywhere that the natives graze 
 their sheep and cattle at altitudes of 7,000 feet and more. 
 Many of their horses fall as victims to the bears, w^hich 
 are plentiful in these wild mountains, and if once they get 
 a taste for horseflesh they become very troublesome. 
 
 Pano was now busy setting up his pet bed again, and at 
 last I knew from the creaking that he had performed the 
 feat of carefully stretching his long body upon it. He 
 must have been a very sound sleeper, as the slightest 
 movement brought the bed down, and a sneeze would 
 have collapsed it in a moment. 
 
 Presently I knew from the heavy breathing that they 
 were asleep in the next tent, and as I lay a wicked thought 
 came o'er me. I could not resist the temptation, and so 
 called out, "Pano!" "Sir!" — crash — and Pano again 
 lay among the ruins; the vibration of answering "Sir" 
 had brought him down, as I thought it would. 
 
 But he put it all together again, and I left him in peace, 
 and feU asleep. 
 
 I was up with the early dawn, and oh, what a lovely 
 view was there ! I stood outside the tent ; all the rest 
 were sleeping. But to escape from all contact with human 
 life I wandered some yards away, and was alone with IS'a-
 
 RILO MONASTIR. 311 
 
 tnre and lier silence. Iligli above me the dark mountain 
 peaks stood out from the white mist, which looked lilie 
 snow below ; nearer, the rugged rocks, the old and gnarled 
 pines, the ferns and grasses, gathered color as the day- 
 light grew : and all was still — so still ! Then the dark 
 peaks grew to purple, the i)urple grew to crimson, the 
 snowy mist became a golden fleece, and "God said. Let 
 there be light : and there was light. And God saw every- 
 thing that he had made : and behold, it was very good." 
 
 We descended from our mountain-top for about ten 
 miles, through exquisite scenery, and then caught sight 
 of the monastery of Rilo, lying among the woods some 
 miles below. To our right, perched up among the rocks 
 and woods, was the smaller monastery of St. John, and 
 farther down another, which is dedicated to St. Luke. 
 At last we approached the great quadrangular building of 
 Rilo Monastir — a sight in itself ! It is built upon a rocky 
 height overhanging a foaming river, on the site of an 
 ancient ruin, a tower of which is enclosed by the monas- 
 tery, and which is supposed to have been built by Peter, 
 King of the Bulgarians, in the ninth century, to protect a 
 holy hermit who lived there. 
 
 A deep and rocky mountain burn makes its way close 
 to the monastery walls, down to the river below, and 
 forms a kind of moat for the great eastern gateway, where 
 sits an Albanian guard in handsome crimson uniforms, 
 with silver facings, and among them a few aged monks, 
 basking in the sun. 
 
 As we ride under the archway, surmounted by a splen- 
 did royal head of red deer's horns, and enter the great 
 court, a loud clang of bells comes forth, as a peal of wel- 
 come, from the high belfry in the center of the building. 
 Monks are walking in the cloisters around and telling 
 their beads, and one of them steps forward and takes charge 
 of our horses as we dismount. A tall dark monk then 
 appears, and by the great keys hanging at his gu'dle I 
 know that he is the steward. He takes us in charge, and 
 we are shown throu2:h the long galleries into a comforta-
 
 313 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ble room, richly carpeted, and with a small window look- 
 ing sheer down the precipitous rocks into the foaming 
 river below. After a time I asked permission to pay my 
 respects to the abbot, and am led through the long colon- 
 naded galleries to a door which opens into an ante-room, 
 and from thence mto a comfortable chamber, with a beau- 
 tiful carpet of native manufacture, and upon a weU- 
 cushioned divan sits the portly, handsome, and gray- 
 bearded abbot, who courteously rises to receive me. 
 
 He hopes that I am made comfortable ; vriU I inform the 
 steward of my wants, which shall be attended to, etc., etc. 
 
 After many civil speeches I retire, and make prepara- 
 tions for my start the next day for the ^dlder jDarts of the 
 mountains, in search of deer. The monks are most civil 
 and obliging, and say they can send all my baggage up 
 the mountain, and keep me stocked with provisions. It 
 is arranged that I shall pitch my tents about twelve miles 
 away, high up one of the three long ravines which radiate 
 from the monastery, and I am to start at daybreak the 
 next morning. 
 
 Of course there were the usual delays, and I did not get 
 away before twelve o' clock. 
 
 It is impossible to describe the scenery of this lovely 
 spot ; it must be seen to be appreciated. The monastery, 
 although in a ravine, is probably 3,000 feet above the sea, 
 and is surrounded by mountains varying in height from 
 6,000 to nearly 10,000 feet, which look down into the very 
 courtyard. There are romantic walks by mountain burns, 
 through groves of flowering shrubs and filbert-trees, pretty 
 glades and rustic bridges, ferns and flowers ; everything, 
 in fact, to make life enjoyable. 
 
 After a charming ride of four hours, we had ascended to 
 a wild spot about 6,000 feet above the sea, and here the 
 hunter advised me to pitch my tents. As soon as they 
 were up, I sent back all the horses save one, and reduced 
 our party to Pano, John, the zaptieh, the hunter, and 
 myseK. 
 
 The country was generally open, with large grassy cor-
 
 DELIGHTFUL MUSIC. 313 
 
 ries, and below great patches of forest. It was a pleasant 
 occupation unpacking my guns, and I now looked forward 
 to a fortnight of my favorite sport, deer-stalldng. Tlie 
 hunter informed me that the red deer were in the habit of 
 lea\iiig the forests in the evening, and returning a few 
 hours after daylight in the morning ; so, as it was not yet 
 sunset, I went with him a few miles up the ravine. Alas ! 
 in every direction I came upon sheep with shepherds and 
 then* barking dogs ; and wherever I brought my spyglass 
 to bear upon the mountain-tops, there it came upon cattle 
 and horses. 
 
 From my experience of deer in other countries, I thought 
 there was no hope of sport here, and I returned to my tent 
 disgusted and dispirited. The hunter assured me that the 
 deer did not mind the shepherds and their dogs, and that 
 as to chamois, as a Highland forester once said of the 
 sheep, "the mountains were just crarling with them." 
 But I did not believe him. It was dark when I arrived at 
 the tent, which I entered in a very bad humor, and had 
 quite made up my mind that there were no red deer in the 
 country at all, when — what was that ? Surely ? I listened. 
 Presently, " Bor-or-r-r-r-awh, awh, awh !" went echoing 
 through the mountains. Delightful music ! It was a stag 
 roaring in the wood above, and not a quarter of a mile off. 
 Stop ; was that an echo 1 No, it was another answering 
 — down yonder, in the bum below. I was never in a 
 better temper in my life, and felt inclined to rush out and 
 shake the hunter by the hand, and apologize for having 
 for a moment doubted his information. 
 
 I went outside the tent, and made my plans for the 
 morning. Within ten yards of me was a rocky burn ; on 
 the other side of it rose the almost precipitous mountain 
 of loose rocks, interspersed with trees and brushes ; about 
 a mile above, it became less steep, and devoid of wood, 
 and merged into a sloping grass ridge that formed the 
 hog's-back of the great mountain, which stretched for 
 miles away. The wind was blowing in the direction of 
 the ridge ; if it was the same in the morning I would make
 
 314 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 my way straight up tlie steep side to tlie very top, so as 
 to be there as soon after daylight as possible. I could 
 then spy below along a great length of the edge of the 
 woods, and if deer were out feeding I could stalk them. 
 
 We all "turned in." I heard Pano's bed collapse sev- 
 eral times, and at last I fell asleep to the music of bellow- 
 ing stags. I was up long before daybreak, and it was a 
 lovely morning. My long-looked-for sport was to come 
 at last ! 
 
 " Mais rhomme propose, et Dieu dispose." 
 
 Taking only the hunter with me, before day broke I 
 was crawling up the steep side of the mountain. I was 
 used to this sort of work, and had made good progress 
 by the time it was broad daylight. 
 
 A stag was roaring occasionally, about half a mile on 
 my right, and to windward, so that was cheering. Sud- 
 denly I saw chamois feeding among some rocks and 
 bushes, about 400 yards on my right front. The hunter 
 was dressed in dark clothes, and evidently did not under- 
 stand deer-stalking, so I placed him behind a rock, with 
 orders not to move until I came for him. I had now to 
 clear the chamois, so as to get well above them, in order 
 that I might approach the red deer. As I was crawling 
 among some rocks and bushes to accomplish this, I came 
 upon the fresh track of a bear. He must have only just 
 passed, as the juice of some wild raspberries which he had 
 been eating was hanging in drops from the bushes, and 
 there were other unmistakable signs that the tracks were 
 quite recent. Here was sport indeed ! 
 
 I slipped my rifle out of its cover, and continued my 
 crawling progress. The mountain here was so steep that 
 it was difficult to stand upright, and the ground was com- 
 posed of loose stones piled upon each other as though 
 the hill had been formed by hail composed of bits of 
 rock. 
 
 I have good reason to remember the spot. 
 
 I was crawling up this, and drawing my rifle carefully 
 after me, when the whole mass began to slip, and the loose
 
 AN ACCIDENT. 315 
 
 stones came flying about. I was just aware of the explo- 
 sion at tlie muzzle of my rifle, and then all was blank. 
 
 My next sensible experience was that I was sitting upon 
 the rocks, that it was pitch-dark, and I was very wet. 
 I instinctively rubbed my eyes, and then discovered that 
 I had met with an accident, and was covered with blood. 
 
 The rocks had struck the lock of my express rifle, and 
 although it was " stopped " had set it off when the muzzle 
 was only a few inches from my head. The ball had struck 
 the stones close to my face, and splashed back the bits of 
 lead all over me, and for a time made me insensible. My 
 face was covered with lead splinters, and I could only see, 
 indistinctly, with one eye. I called to the liunter, wlio 
 was away behind his rock below, and at last when the 
 poor man came up and saw what a gory spectacle I pre- 
 sented, he was in a great state of mind, and commenced 
 crying, " Aman ! aman ! " as lie covered Ms face with his 
 hands. 
 
 I found it somewhat difficult to make my way down the 
 rough face of the mountain, but with the help of the 
 liunter I at last reached the tent. Pano and John were 
 much, concerned at the sight I presented, but I soon got a 
 good wash, and had an inspection of wounds. It did not 
 then appear so bad, after all. I had a good many small bits 
 of lead in my face, but my eyes seemed quite whole, and I 
 comforted myself that the loss of sight was only occa- 
 sioned by the effusion of blood, and that in an hour or 
 two I might see well enough again. But I soon had symp- 
 toms which told me it would be more prudent to ride back 
 to the monastery, at all events for a time ; but I was loath 
 to move my tents, and, still hoping to return, I left the 
 zaptieh and hunter in charge, and started with Pano and 
 John for the monastery. 
 
 The injuries turned out to be more serious than I an- 
 ticipated, and I had to shut myself up in a dark room for 
 some days, and then make the best of my way to Salonica. 
 The monks were most kind and attentive, and did all they 
 could do for me.
 
 316 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 From tliem I learned a curious story about a stag, whicli, 
 as it was corroborated by other people, must, I conclude, 
 be true. Two years ago there was a herd of horses gi-azing 
 away on the mountain-tops, when an alarmed stag was 
 seen galloping toward them. The horses took fright and 
 started off, but the stag soon had the best of it on the 
 mountains, and joined his equine companions. 
 
 Still more alarmed, the horses made their way down to 
 their field near the monastery. Yet the stag never left 
 them, but entered the field, and afterward became a 
 recognized member of the herd for months, and until the 
 rutting season commenced, when he disappeared. He 
 must have been " off his head ! " 
 
 There is a great deal of Albanian blood among the 
 people in the district of Rilo. I learned much about this 
 interesting people while staying at the monastery, and I 
 was afterward able to supplement it by the valuable infor- 
 mation I received from Consul Blunt, whose knowledge 
 and experience of Turkey, together with his ability and 
 observation, were of the greatest assistance to me. I am 
 glad of this opportunity of thanking him publicly, as I 
 have often done privately, for all the assistance and infor- 
 mation he has been good enough to afford me. 
 
 AYhile we are resting at the monastery I will give my 
 readers the best idea I can of the Albanians.
 
 CHAPTER xyn. 
 
 THE ALBAjS^IANS. 
 
 Their Origin — Gheglias and Toskas — lUyrians and Macedonian Phalanx — 
 Scanderbeg — Distribution of Albanian Tribes — Their Eeligions — Viss- 
 Blood Feuds — Itinerant Trade — Rascians — Toskas— Albanians as Soldiers 
 — The Pasha of Scodra. 
 
 PHYSICALLY a splendid race of men, the Albanians 
 can claim to be one of the purest and oldest races in 
 Europe, their only rivals being the Iberians in the Span- 
 ish Peninsula. 
 
 They have a peculiar language of their own, supposed 
 to be Indo-European, but it is somewhat corrupted by its 
 Slavonic neighbor on the north, and Greek on the south. 
 
 By it they are called Skipetar, which means moun- 
 taineer. The Byzantine writers gave them the name of 
 Arvanitse, which was corrupted by the Turks into Arna- 
 out ; and the tei*m Albania is supposed to be Latin by 
 Latham, who considers Albyn as applied to Scotland and 
 Albyn as applied to the mountainous country on the 
 eastern side of the Adriatic to be one and the same 
 word, referable to one and the same Keltic group of 
 tongues. Hence it contains the root Alp = mountain, 
 and translates the native name Skipetar = mountain- 
 eer.* 
 
 There is another Albania (modem Daghestan) in the 
 Caucasus, and some writers consider that the inhabitants 
 were one and the same people as their namesakes in 
 Turkey. It is certain that there is a great resemblance 
 
 * Latham. 
 
 317
 
 318 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 between the Toskers of Albania and the Circassians of 
 the Caucasus. 
 
 The Skipetars are the descendants of the Southern 
 niyrians and ancient Epirots, Chaonians, Thesprotians, 
 MoUossians, etc., and their present country extends 
 from Montenegro on the north to the Gulf of Arta on 
 the south. 
 
 The Skipetars are divided into the following clans : — 
 
 1. The Gheghides, containing {a.) the proper Gheg- 
 hides, the most northern of the Skipetar, conterminous 
 with the Slavonic countries of Montenegro, Bosnia, and 
 Herzegovina, bounded on the south by the river Drin ; 
 (5.) the Miridites, south of the Drin, in the province of 
 Croia, who, like the Gheghides, are partly Christians. 
 The Gheghides, as a class, are dark-skinned and black- 
 eyed. 
 
 2. The Toskides, of Toskuria, or the country between 
 Croia and the Vojutza, the least mountainous part of 
 Albania, and containing the valleys of the Sternetza, 
 and the Beratina. They are more fair than dark, with 
 blue or gray eyes. 
 
 3. The Liai^ides, of Liapuria, or the valley and water- 
 shed of the Deropuli, and the parts about Debinaki, are 
 the worst-looking, and the most demoralized of the 
 Skipetar. 
 
 4. The Dzhami, of Dzhamuria, are the most agricul- 
 tural. They extend from the Liapides on the north to 
 the Greek frontier southward, Parga and Suli being two 
 of their towns. 
 
 The Taulantii and Parthini are the populations of an- 
 tiquity, whose localities coincide with that of the Tos- 
 kides. 
 
 The Liapides are in the country of the Orestse and 
 Atintanes, the Gheghas in that of the Enchelese, the Miri- 
 dites in that of the Pirustse. In the northern part of 
 their area was the colony of Epidaurus and the Dalma- 
 tian frontier.* 
 
 * Latham.
 
 ALBANIANS. 319 
 
 The lUyrians do not appear in history before the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War, when Brasidas and Perdiccas retreated 
 before them. They again appear in the reign of Philip 
 of Macedon, who partially conquered their country, and 
 it is probable that from them was recruited the celebrated 
 Macedonian phalanx. The ravages of the lUyrian pirates, 
 B.C. 233, interfered with the commerce of the allies of 
 Rome, and envoys were sent to Teuta, their queen. To 
 them she replied that piracy was the habit of her people ; 
 and to show how fitted she was to rule over such a race, 
 she had the envoys murdered. A Roman army crossed 
 the gulf, and inflicted punishment for the offense. 
 
 niyria eventually became annexed to Rome, and was 
 divided into three parts — Dalmatia, Tapydia, and Libur- 
 nia. The people were constantly endeavoring to recover 
 their liberty, and obliged the Romans to occupy the 
 country in force. 
 
 Illyria suffered severely under the Gothic invasion, but 
 held out bravely against the inroad of the Huns under 
 Attila, and defeated him at the town of Azimus, on the 
 frontier. 
 
 The warlike nature of the Skipetars was recognized by 
 foreign nations, and we find them recruiting the armies 
 of Greece, Egypt, and Persia, while the parent race lay 
 secure and semi-independent among the mountain fast- 
 nesses of the country. In the sixth century the fiood of 
 Bulgarian invasion spread far into Albania, and left colo- 
 nies in its path, which may be found there in the pres- 
 ent day, especially in the neighborhood of Upper Debra, 
 which is about seventy miles from Croia, and near the 
 fortress of Sfetegrade. The chief interest in the ancient 
 history of Albania is centered in the heroic reign of Scan- 
 derbeg, or, as he is sometimes called, Iskender Beg, or 
 the Lord Alexander. In a small district of the beautiful 
 country of Epirus, between the Adriatic and the moun- 
 tains, there lived a hereditary prince, named John Cas- 
 triot, A.D. 1404, Lord of Emalthia, the modern district 
 of Moghlene. When Amurath II. was pushing his con-
 
 320 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 quests in Europe, he turned Ms arms toward Albania, and 
 after a gallant struggle the Lord of Emalthia had to suc- 
 cumb to the Ottoman power, and sent his four sons as 
 hostages for his regular payment of the enforced tribute. 
 
 Only one of these sons, named George, survived, and 
 he so attracted the attention of the Sultan that he had 
 him educated in the Mohammedan creed. His soldier-like 
 qualities recommended him to Amurath in consequence of 
 his overthrowing a Tartar and two Persians who carried a 
 defiance to the Turkish court, and the name of Scander- 
 beg was given to him in consequence. The principality 
 of his father had been reduced into a province, but as com- 
 pensation it was given the rank of Sandjak, a command 
 of 5,000 horse. "* The Sultan kept Scanderbeg on active 
 service in foreign wars after the death of his father, and 
 his sensitive nature was so wounded at this injustice, that 
 he determined to quit the Turkish army and take posses- 
 sion of his own territory. 
 
 He boldly seized the Sultan's chief secretary, and made 
 him, on pain of death, sign an order appointing him 
 (Scanderbeg) as the Sultan's viceroy of the territory above 
 the strong city of Croia, in Albania. He then killed the 
 secretary, and made all haste to Croia, where his strata- 
 gem was completely successful, and he gained possession 
 of the fortress and country. He now discarded the Mo- 
 hammedan creed, and declared himself a champion of 
 Christendom, which at once brought him a host of enthu- 
 siastic followers, who turned upon the Turks and cruelly 
 massacred them.f From his neighboring allies, and the 
 returns from the salt-pits of Selina, he created a revenue 
 of 200,000 ducats, and appropriated the whole sum to 
 State purposes. By skillfully taking advantage of the 
 mountainous nature of his country, he was able to defy 
 the attacks of Amurath and his successor, Mohammed, for 
 twenty-five years, with a force of only 8,000 cavalry and 
 7,000 infantry. Such was the renown which he obtained 
 that volunteers from France and Germany flocked to his 
 
 * Gibbon. f Creasy.
 
 ALIlA^^JAIi^S. 321 
 
 standard. Amnratli attacked him at the head of 60,000 
 Turkish cavaliy and 40,000 Janizaries, but, although he 
 overran the country, he failed to take Scanderbeg in the 
 fortress of Croia. The resources of Scanderbeg at last 
 became exhausted by the repeated attacks of the Turks, 
 and this great hero, after being defeated by Mohammed 
 II., managed to escape to Lissus, in Venetian tenitory, 
 where he ended his days in exile, and died in 1467. He 
 saved his infant son in his flight, who was aftei'ward 
 granted a Neapolitan dukedom, and the blood of the Cas- 
 triot still flows among some of the noblest families of 
 Italy. Although Albania was defeated by the Turks, it 
 can never be said to have been subdued, for after succes- 
 sive struggles by independent chiefs, with the Ottoman 
 power, it always enjoyed a semi-independence, and, in- 
 deed, does so in a less degree in the present day. 
 
 Roughly speaking, we may divide the Albanians of the 
 present day (1877) into the Gheghas of the north and the 
 Toskas of the south. The former country is called by the 
 Turks Gheghalik, and the latter Toskalik, the termination 
 " lik " signifying " belonging to," in the Turkish language. 
 The Gheghalik is eminently mountainous, having on its 
 north Montenegro, or, as the Turks call it, Karadagh, and 
 the natives Temagora, both havmg the same meaning as 
 Montenegro, namely, Black Mountain ; and on the north 
 and east lie Bosnia and Servia, the chief districts being 
 Prisrend, Ipek, Jacova, Dibra, Matt, Donkajin, and Miri- 
 dit, all protected by their mountains and defiles, generally 
 covered with dense forests, against the attacks of an 
 enemy. The aforenamed districts lie for the most part 
 along the borders of Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia, 
 separating them from the fertile plains of Uscuj), Monas- 
 tir, and Salonica. They also squeeze in between and shut 
 off Montenegro from the southern district of Servia. 
 
 In a military sense the Gheghalik may be called a great 
 natural fortification, and might easily be made impregna- 
 ble, if the hardy and warlike people which inhabit the 
 country could be disciplined and organized to defend it. 
 21
 
 322 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 These people are principally attached to the Mohammedan 
 faith, which they adopted when the country was con- 
 quered, but not subdued, by Mohammed II. The amount 
 of the Ghegha population is variously stated, and it would 
 be difficult to be even approximately accurate from the 
 available data. 
 
 At Dibra it is affirmed that there are 160,000 inhabitants, 
 and only 25,000 Christians of the Greek Church. 
 
 In Matt and Dukajin the population is entirely Moham- 
 medan. In Miridit it is Roman Catholic, and is estimated 
 at 110,000. 
 
 In Jacova, Ipek, and Prisrend the Mohammedan ele- 
 ment predominates over the Christian as two to one ; and 
 the same is stated as the case in some districts of Scodra 
 (Scutari) and Monastir. 
 
 The cause of the prevalence of Mohammedanism in 
 these countries is explained by the statement that, after 
 they were conquered by Mohammed II., a law was pro- 
 mulgated which secured the estates of the population to 
 every family which should bring up one of its members in 
 the Mohammedan faith. 
 
 As might be expected, the Gheghas are not strict 
 observers of the doctrines, rites, and ceremonies of the 
 religion of convenience which they adopted, and they are 
 consequently held in great contempt by the rigid Osman- 
 lis, with whom the terms infidel and Albanian are almost 
 synonymous. 
 
 " He frequently takes a Christian woman to be his wife, 
 carries his sons to mosque, and allows his daughters to 
 attend their mother to church ; nay, he even goes himself 
 alternately to both places of worship, and eats with his 
 family out of the same dish in which are viands forbidden 
 to the disciples of Mohammed." * They do not seclude 
 their women, like the Turks, and from motives of economy 
 seldom indulge in more than one wife, of whom they are 
 by no means jealous. The wretched women cannot be 
 called the softer sex, as they are warlike in their tenden- 
 
 * Hughes.
 
 ALBANIANS. 323 
 
 cies, and very useful in border fights. They go about 
 armed, and with a sack containing perhaps two childi'en 
 on their back they make their way to their field to labour, 
 while their lord and master is ranging the mountains in 
 search of game, and singing the glories of Scanderbeg, as 
 he rests fi'om his climb up the beautiful hills. The fea- 
 tures of the women are coarse from exposure, and both 
 sexes are extremely dirty in their persons, seldom chang- 
 ing their clothes until they drop off, and avoiding the 
 external application of water as though it were poison. 
 On high days and holidays an outer and very picturesque 
 coating of dress is temporarily donned, lilve a brilliant 
 paper on a dirty wall. The men have that lordly and 
 independent air and strut which are usually found 
 among all highlanders. 
 
 It is calculated that the Gheghalik can furnish 250,000 
 fighting-men, and they would, if well armed, be no mean 
 antagonists. Dibra alone musters thirty to thirty-five 
 thousand. Tlie independence which was enjoyed before 
 the fall of Scanderbeg has been maintained by most of 
 these districts, but it is gradually disappearing as the 
 means of communication are improved. 
 
 The Miriditi in particular acquired, through ancient 
 stipulations with the Porte, certain rights and privileges 
 not legally enjoyed by their neighbors. They are excused 
 from the payment of taxes, and they have an hereditary 
 chief, with the title of Prince of Miridit. During the 
 Crimean war that position was held by Prince Bib-Doda, 
 and for ser-vices rendered the Sultan conferred upon him 
 the rank and pay of a general of brigade. 
 
 This prince was an ambitious and cunning statesman, 
 and formed the idea of uniting certain districts in the 
 Gheghalik into a principality for himself. For this pur- 
 pose he went to Constantinople about the year 1859, but 
 did not succeed in advancing his views with the Sultan. 
 He afterward went to Paris with the same object, and 
 would doubtless have been ready to have introduced the 
 Roman Catholic religion at the point of the sword into his
 
 324 TURKEY IN E UR OPE. 
 
 principality, if it liad been made large enough to satisfy 
 his ambition ; but his efforts ended in disappointment, 
 and he had to return to the small limits of his rule, where 
 he died a few years ago. I believe the exemptions and 
 privileges of the Miriditi have been much curtailed since 
 1867. 
 
 The Gheghas are divided into clans or tribes, called 
 " Viss," originating from the feudal system. These clans 
 are frequently at war with each other, and their blood- 
 feuds are of a most virulent nature. Of a refractory and 
 stubborn spirit, they show little or no inclination for re- 
 form, and theu' habits of industry are so desultory that 
 they hardly deserve the name. When not engaged in 
 border forays, they are chiefly occupied in making fire- 
 arms and gunpowder, herding and stealing large flocks of 
 sheep and cattle, and collecting skins and furs. In Matt 
 a great deal of gunpowder is manufactured and sold to 
 the other districts. The women manufacture the clothing 
 for both sexes, which consists of a coarse kind of flannel. 
 The men invariably go armed, and when cap-d-pied a 
 proud Ghegha has a long gun over his shoulder, two and 
 sometimes three pistols, a yataghan in his belt, and a 
 crooked sabre by his side. "\'VTien he condescends to fol- 
 low the plow, he still keeps his gun slung across his 
 shoulders, and is certainly a greater proficient with the 
 latter than the former implement, and the women are 
 more expert at loading a rifle than threading a needle. 
 It is only natural to expect and to find that the social con- 
 dition of these people is very low, and this state is fos- 
 tered by the blood-feuds which are of such frequent oc- 
 currence. Shut out by their mountains from strict con- 
 trol, they stiE. carry on these acts of barbarity and ven- 
 geance. Blood for blood is one of the most marked char- 
 acteristics of their nature. The ambition of the young 
 men is to be able to rival their fellows in the number of 
 victims they have sacrificed in these hereditary feuds, 
 which have generally been excited by the most frivolous 
 causes. It is not many years since, in the district of
 
 ALBANIANS. 325 
 
 Jacova, tlie disputed possession of a hare led to a regular 
 pitclied battle between two "Yiss," or clans, and it was 
 not terminated until upward of one hundred men had 
 been killed in the fray. 
 
 Very little pains is taken by the Ottoman authorities to 
 put an end to this savage state of society, which finds a 
 parallel with that of the Scotch Highlands 200 years ago. 
 They feel that they have not the power to do so effectu- 
 ally, without such coercion as would at once raise this 
 independent people into rebellion, and their warlike char- 
 acter and the nature of the country are such powerful 
 elements for defense that the attempt would be both 
 expensive and hazardous. The experience of Montenegro 
 is sufficiently bitter to prevent the experiment being re- 
 peated, and the Albanians still recognize no paramount 
 authority. 
 
 The little order or justice that exists is administered by 
 the elders of the clans and villages, but it is of a very 
 variable and precarious nature. In Prisrend, Jacova, and 
 Ipek, the authority of the Porte is more conspicuous, 
 and the causes which have brought about this result 
 should give encouragement to further exertions in the 
 same direction. 
 
 The most prominent of these causes was the transfer- 
 ence of the head-quarters of the province from Uscup to 
 Prisrend, and next to this the establishment of military 
 head-quarters at Pristina. The head-quarters of the prov- 
 ince was again transferred, and is now at Monastir, and 
 the process of civilization was gradually making its way 
 with some success, when the troubles of the years 1875, '76 
 commenced, and the country has now lapsed into its 
 former state. 
 
 A large portion of the trade of the country w^hich forms 
 the western half of Turkey is itinerant, and the Glieghas 
 take a prominent part in the work. This would lead one 
 to suppose that they are naturally an industrious people, 
 but I cannot help thinking, from my own observation and 
 inquiries, that most of these itinerant workmen from Al-
 
 326 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 bania, wlio are designated by the generic term of 
 Gheghas, emanate from tlie Bulgarian colonies, whicli are 
 established in many parts of those mountains, and es- 
 pecially in Dibra. A certain number of the so-called 
 Gheghas in the diiferent districts descend annually from 
 the mountains during the autumn, and proceed to the 
 towns, seaports, villages, and farms in Roumelia in search 
 of employment as masons, carpenters, bakers, shepherds, 
 and servants, and they all return in the spring to their 
 homes, bringing with them their earnings. 
 
 These itinerant laborers are called "kourbetgees," or 
 "absentees," and they comprise both Mohammedans and 
 Christians. From the province of Uscup alone 10,000 
 men are included in this class, and from the other dis- 
 tricts in Albania from 30,000 to 40,000 follow the same 
 calling. 
 
 The average annual gain of a "kourbetgee" is com- 
 puted at £12 sterling, so that taking their number at 
 50,000 an annual sum of £600,000 in hard cash is ab- 
 stracted from Roumelia and carried to Albania, manifestly 
 to the detriment of the former and benefit of the latter 
 country, which also gains by the neAv ideas and experi- 
 ences imported from the more civilized plains. 
 
 Among the Christians of the Xorthern districts are 
 some who i)rofess the Roman Catholic faith, and are said 
 to number 27,000. They are called Latins, and for the 
 most part follow agTicultural iDursuits and trade, but 
 whether from the discipline of their faith, or from chance, 
 they are said to be better in social condition than either 
 the Mohammedans or followers of the Greek Church, and 
 they enjoy greater security. Besides these Latins there 
 are a few small colonies who have separated from their 
 co-religionists in consequence of having assumed an outer 
 garment of Islamism, while their inward faith is Christian. 
 This they did to escape the persecution of the native Mo- 
 hammedan beys, and they therefore practise Moham- 
 medan rites in public and Christian in private life, and 
 bide their time. The remainder of the Christian popula-
 
 ALBANIANS. 397 
 
 tion of the Gheghalik may be classed under two denomi- 
 nations, the Bulgarians and the Rascians, both followers 
 of the Greek Church, but the former are now inclining to 
 the revived Bulgarian Church. 
 
 The Rascians are probably Slavonians who have over- 
 flowed into Albania. They are a brave and hardy race, 
 occupying the mountains near the Servian frontier, and 
 have all the physical characteristics of a mixture by in- 
 termarriage of the Slavonic and Skipetar blood. Among 
 this patchwork of ancient nations the Bulgarians stand 
 out here, as everywhere, as the most peaceful and indus- 
 trious, but they are more servile than their neighbors, and 
 perhaps even more superstitious. The mountain air, 
 bracing climate, and independence has given them a 
 greater air of freedom than their compatriots in other 
 parts of Turkey, but still they are far behind both 
 Skipetar and Rascians in that bold and careless manner 
 so common to mountaineers. 
 
 In Albania, as in almost every other part of Turkey, the 
 wandering gipsy is also found, and in the towns the thrifty 
 Jew. 
 
 The Toskas, as they are now called, of the south, have 
 not only different physical characteristics, but also differ 
 in habit fi'om their northern neighbors and mountaineers. 
 They are generally fair ; and; as they occupy most of the 
 plains and also the sea-coast toward the south-west, it 
 might at fu^st be supposed that this diiference in shade 
 might be explained by intermixture of foreign blood, but 
 it can hardly be so, since some of those districts which are 
 farthest from the coast and the most out of the way have 
 the faii'est inhabitants. "V\niether the fair skin and blue 
 eyes of the Toskas are inherited from the ancient lUyrians, 
 and the tawny skin and dark eyes of the Gheghas are the 
 result of the influx of Slavonic blood, may be a question 
 for adepts in ethnology to solve. The contact of the Tos- 
 kas with the Greeks from the proximity of the two coun- 
 tries, or rather, I should say, their having been pushed 
 within their present limits by Greek pressure, has to a
 
 328 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 certain degree affected tlieir manners and habits, and their 
 occupation of most of the lower and fertile plains has nat- 
 urally a powerful influence in producing a difference to 
 their national neighbors the Gheghas. In Turkey most of 
 the servants used as guards, such as "gardes champetres " 
 in the country and " cavasses " (a sort of military messen- 
 ger and attendant) in the towns, are Arnaouts (Albanians), 
 and it is generally the Mohammedan portion of that com- 
 munity which undertakes such service. When once they 
 feel confidence in their employers they become highly 
 attached to them, and, as a rule, are faithful, honest, and 
 sober to a degree. They would consider it a mere act of 
 common duty to sacrifice their lives for their master's 
 interests, and many cases could be cited of their having 
 done so ; but easy communication is becoming evil com- 
 munication, and corrupting this noble trait in their char- 
 acter now that they are brought so much into contact with 
 the Frank element, which for purposes of trade and profit 
 is pushing its way into the country. 
 
 Albania has been of infinite service to Turkey in supply- 
 ing her with some of the bravest troops in the world in 
 time of war ; and although in the present day they could 
 not safely be used against regular troops in the open field, 
 they would, if given arms of precision, and taught how to 
 use them, be invaluable for mountain warfare. They are 
 generally excellent shots at a short range, and learn any- 
 thing connected with a gun with great facUity. A hun- 
 dred thousand of such men scattered over the Balkan 
 Mountains would elude for a long time the grasp of any 
 regular troops, and would make it extremely difficult, if 
 not impossible, for an enemy to maintain an army south 
 of that range of mountains. 
 
 In the campaign of 1829 the Russian army would prob- 
 ably have been completely crushed by the Albanians, who 
 were advancing under the Pasha of Scodra, had not the 
 hurried and disgraceful peace been concluded by the treaty 
 of Adrianople. 
 
 Moltke gives it as his opinion that at that time the
 
 ALBANIANS. 329 
 
 Russians could not have put more tlian 15,000 men in line 
 of battle, and many of these were debilitated by sickness. 
 Had the brave Gheghas not given way to those dilatory 
 habits so common to mountaineers, it would have placed 
 the Pasha of Scodra earlier on the scene, and they might 
 have materially influenced the future history of Turkey.
 
 CHAPTER xym. 
 
 FROM EILO TO SALONICA. 
 
 Monks of Eilo Monastir— The Call to Prayers— The Abbot— A "Monk 
 Scratcher" — Monastery Farms— A Bulgarian Doctor— The River Stry- 
 mon — Perim Dagh — The Ancient Agrianes — A Gontre-temps — Pheasant 
 Shooting— Plains of Seres— Heavy Traffic— Wrestling Match— A Gipsy 
 Champion — Gipsy Immigration to Europe— Stopped by a Turkish Guard 
 — Lake Besik, or Ancient Bolbe — Reported Ruins — Roman Roads. 
 
 THE Moliammedan natives about Rilo Monastir have 
 a laudable superstition that bad luck will attend 
 any one who attempts to kill a red deer, and it is a belief 
 which should be encouraged by all sportsmen. They 
 were, therefore, not at all surprised at my accident, but 
 only adduced it as fresh evidence in support of their con- 
 firmed belief. 
 
 As soon as I was sufficiently recovered I started for 
 Salonica, and laid out my journeys so as to accomplish 
 the distance in five days' ride by the valley of the 
 Strymon. I had seen a good deal of the monks while 
 living in the monastery, and was very favorably impressed 
 with some of them, especially an old literary character, 
 who had an excellent library of ancient Bulgarian books, 
 from which much historical information might be ob- 
 tained. He spent much of his time in compiling a most 
 elaborate index to the Bulgarian Bible, which was to give 
 every word contained in it, and references to passages in 
 every part of the sacred book where each word was to be 
 found. He had been employed at this work for twenty 
 years, and had arrived as far as the letter G- of the alpha- 
 bet, so that there is not much hope of his being able to 
 finish his labors. The monks attend chapel twice during 
 every night, both summer and winter. The method of 
 
 330
 
 TO PBAYERS! TO PRATERS! 331 
 
 calling to prayers is both curious and effective. One of 
 the younger monks, in full robes, stands in the center of 
 the court, holding in his left hand a flat well-dried piece 
 of wood, about ten feet long and six inches wide, by one 
 thick, and in his right hand a small hammer. With great 
 solemnity he strikes the wood once, and then pauses for 
 fully a minute, when he gives another blow. The rapidity 
 of the blows increases by arithmetical progression, until 
 it becomes a continuous roll, like that upon a drum, the 
 monk walking about in a slow and dignified manner in 
 the meanwhile, until he ends the roll-call abruptly, and 
 follows it by one sharp and finishing blow. 
 
 There are also several services during the day, which, 
 as well as those at night, are sometimes ushered in by a 
 sudden clanging and pealing of the great bells. 
 
 The cloisters, which run round three of the inner sides 
 of the quadrangle which forms the monastery, are 780 feet 
 in length. The present building is comparatively new, as 
 the old one was burned down about fifty years ago. 
 
 The numerous arches which form the cloisters, and also 
 the three tiers of galleries above them, the higlily-decor- 
 ated church, the quaint old beKry, the ancient tower of 
 King Peter, the aged monks, and the majestic mountains 
 looking down upon all, form a scene which is never to be 
 forgotten. 
 
 The abbot and some of the principal monks had left the 
 monastery several days before my departure for a small 
 monastery and farm which they possessed in the low 
 country, about twelve miles away, and as it was in my 
 road, they begged me to call en passant. 
 
 From the result of my accident I could no longer revel 
 in the lovely scenery we now passed through, and I left 
 this beautiful country with a sigh. 
 
 It was now the month of October, and the vintage sea- 
 son had commenced. As we arrived at the small monas- 
 tery I was much struck by the similarity of the scene to 
 some of the descriptions in Sir Walter Scott's novels. 
 
 I found the old abbot in a large and lofty cellar, full of
 
 332 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 great vats. Two monks stood by Ms side with pen and 
 paper to clieck the panniers of gi-apes as they were brought 
 in, while the steward, with his great keys hanging from 
 his girdle, superintended the treading of the grapes. Out- 
 side there was a busy scene : sheep and oxen were being 
 slain for the village feast, women and children were flitting 
 about in their bright costumes, and strings of horses and 
 mules, laden with luscious grapes, were wending their way 
 along the hills and over the bridge to the cellar. 
 
 I was presented with a curious instrument, connected 
 with another of these monasteries, in the form of a wooden 
 spoon about a yard long. It would puzzle the reader to 
 guess its use, as the bowl was not hollowed out and pre- 
 sented a corrugated appearance on each side — besides 
 which the end of the handle was also indented so as to 
 make a number of rough surfaces. 
 
 Truly these old monks are luxurious individuals ; as 
 their farms and vineyards provide comfort for the inward, 
 these wooden spoons are designed to supply it for the out- 
 ward man ; for I afterwards learned that this eccentric 
 spoon was nothing less than a "Monk Scratcher;" and 
 judging from my own experience of the activity of the 
 insects of the country, I am not suriDrised at the ingenuity 
 of these old ecclesiastics in providing an antidote. I can 
 commend this implement to all intending travelers in 
 Turkey ! 
 
 The farms of the monastery are very extensive, and are 
 admirably managed, both in the low country and in the 
 mountain sheep-farms. The abbot informed me that only 
 four years before, the district had been infested by brig- 
 ands, and that it was not safe to go half a mile from the 
 monastery without a guard, but that now (1874) you 
 might go anywhere in safety. 
 
 After taking luncheon with the monks I bid them fare- 
 well, and continued my journey to Djumaa, a large and 
 thriving Bulgarian town, populated by Mohammedans 
 and Christians. There is an excellent highway road lead- 
 ing from Djumaa to Dubnitza. These roads are admir-
 
 BAROAmiNO. 333 
 
 ably made, and quite equal tlie largest and best we have 
 in England ; but tliey are seldom repaired, and conse- 
 quently become impassable after a few years. I liave de- 
 scribed tlie government of this district in my chapter on 
 Bulgaria. There was a young doctor of that nationality 
 in the town, who had been educated at the Turkish Medi- 
 cal College at Constantinople ; he insisted upon prescrib- 
 ing for me, whether I would or not, and medicines for in- 
 ternal as well as external use soon arrived, but I did not 
 feel suflBcient confidence in his skill to make use of them. 
 
 I fortunately met a keradjee (pack-animal owner), who 
 was returning empty-handed to Salonica, and I there- 
 fore made a bargain with him to accompany us, and carry 
 my baggage the whole way. 
 
 All bargains in Turkey occupy much time, and it was 
 two hours before an agreement could be arrived at. My 
 new friend was a wild and jovial individual, who looked 
 very like a brigand, and from what I afterward heard, I 
 rather think he was one. I slung my hammock between 
 two of the verandah posts of the khan, and thus slept un- 
 tormented. Pano, of course, would have his pet bed, 
 and, as usual, spent half the night in tumbling down and 
 putting it together again ; in fact, I believe he would have 
 been quite lonely ^vithout his nightly occupation ; and it 
 was a "shake down " in every sense of the word. 
 
 Our route now lay along a fair road by the river Stry- 
 mon, which here varies in width from fifty to a hundred 
 yards. The left bank is generally high, and the right 
 bank low, but the river is fordable in some places when 
 not in flood. 
 
 On our left were the western Rhodope mountains, with 
 Perim Dagh towering 7,475 feet above the sea. On the 
 right were hills, which appeared covered with a dry kind 
 of bush, and the whole country began to assume a wild 
 and dreary look. The mountains had a dried-up appear- 
 ance, and the scenery was totally different from the Rilo 
 Dagh. 
 
 I mentioned in a former chapter that it is not at all im-
 
 334 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 probable that some of the wild tribes which are found in 
 the mountainous districts, and whose origin is obscure, 
 may be remnants of the aborigines, who retired to these 
 mountain fastnesses, and have there dwelt in comparative 
 security through the many ages which have passed. 
 
 I am inclined to that opinion by one special example in 
 the people called Erghne, who now dwell among these 
 very Rhodope mountains which I was passing, and which 
 are, I have no doubt, the Agrianes mentioned by Herod- 
 otus. 
 
 These people were converted to Mohammedanism about 
 a hundred years ago, but they nevertheless still preserve 
 some of their primitive customs, one of which consists in 
 general meetings of both sexes on certain days in the 
 year, and community of wives. Both Herodotus and 
 Strabo mention a tribe of Thracians north of the Cresto- 
 nians who practised polygamy to an indefinite extent, and 
 as this agrees with the locality inhabited by the Erghne 
 in the present day, they are probably synonymous. 
 
 That night we pitched the tent close to the bank of the 
 Strymon, and were off at daybreak the next morning. 
 
 We had a very dreary ride in a hot sun through a 
 glaring and but loartially populated country, until evening 
 approached, when we halted in a rich plain full of fields 
 of Indian corn, nearly ready for harvest. We slept in 
 the veranda of a khan, and next morning had a little 
 contre-temps through the lawless propensities of our wild 
 Bulgarian keradjee driver, although I did not know that 
 he was to blame at the time. When we were about to 
 start, an indignant Turk farmer, accompanied by many of 
 Ms people, appeared on the scene of action, and seized our 
 pack-animals, saying that we should not leave until we 
 had appeared before the mudir (magistrate) of the district. 
 The charge was that all the pack-animals and horses, fif- 
 teen in number, had willfully been turned into his field of 
 Indian corn to graze during the night. Our keradjee swore 
 loudly that the damage, if there was any— which he 
 doubted — had not been done by our horses, but by others
 
 A LAWLESS EERADJEK 335 
 
 who were picketed near, and that the charge was only 
 trumped up to extort backshish. The Turk, however, had 
 possession of our baggage, and said we should not go 
 until justice was done ; and as I judged from the man' s 
 manner that he was speaking the truth, I requested to be 
 led to the damaged field. 
 
 There was no doubt about the fact. There lay a good 
 acre of splendid Indian com trampled, eaten, and de- 
 stroyed. But as our keradjee declared that our horses 
 were not the culprits, and even showed me where he had 
 kept them all night, and as some other keradjees were 
 now hurrying away from the khan, whom he confidently 
 asserted to be the real offenders, I accepted his evidence, 
 and informed the Turk of my conclusion. 
 
 He was inclined to resist, but I called up Pano, John, 
 and the keradjee, took possession of our animals, and 
 continued my journey. 
 
 Two days afterward I found that I had been deceived, 
 and that this scoundrel of a keradjee was boasting of hov/ 
 he had fed all his animals for nothing during the whole 
 journey by trespassing on the fields, and he was especially 
 delighted at the manner in which he had robbed the Turk. 
 Unfortunately, I did not know the sufferer's name, and 
 had no means of sending him any recompense for his loss. 
 
 On this, the fourth day from leaving Rilo, we were still 
 accompanied by the river Strymon, which now led through 
 a broad gap in the mountains and then emerged on to the 
 extensive and fertile plains of Seres. I could not judge 
 of the scenery ; but from the little I could see, I should 
 say that the views here must be very beautiful, as the 
 plain is rich in villages and surrounded by the Rhodope 
 range, which stretches into it here and there in lofty pro- 
 montories. 
 
 I passed several natives who were pheasant shooting 
 among the bushes which here flanked the river ; and 
 judging from the number of shots, they must have found 
 plenty of birds. 
 
 I also met a mounted Turk, who was coursing with the
 
 336 TURKET IN EUROPE. 
 
 greyhound common to this part of Turkey. They are 
 similar to the Persian variety of this dog, and they are 
 very fleet and hardy, \vith great staying powers, but the 
 tuft behind the ears would preclude breeding from them 
 in England. 
 
 Large quantities of cotton are cultivated upon the Seres 
 plain, and in favorable years it is a paying crop. The 
 traffic upon this road from DJumaa to Salonica — which in 
 some parts is impassable for wheeled carriages — ^is carried 
 on by means of pack-animals, and the amount of goods 
 which pass to and fro must be large, for we met many 
 caravans during the whole length of the journey. The 
 goods consisted principally of cotton, cheese, butter, 
 wool, grain, skins, and tobacco, all passing toward Seres 
 and Salonica ; and paraffin, rum, and manufactured cotton 
 goods were being carried in the opposite direction. 
 
 I passed through a very fine town called Barakli-D jumaa, 
 in the middle of the plain, and inhabited principally by 
 Christian Bulgarians. A great wrestling match was going 
 on just outside the town, and I stopped to witness the 
 sport. 
 
 A circle about thirty yards in diameter was formed by 
 the men, women, and children — Turks, Bulgarians, and a 
 plentiful supply of gypsies — all sitting closely packed to- 
 gether round the circumference. There was the usual 
 accompaniment of a gypsy band, composed of a drum and 
 a clarionet, which was kept going continuously. 
 
 A competitor, stripped to the waist, steps into the ring 
 and walks round with a grand air as he displays his 
 muscular frame to the admiring gaze of the bystanders. 
 Presently his antagonist enters the ring, and both com- 
 petitors shake hands in a good-natured way, and a little 
 laughing and chaffing goes on. They then commence 
 walking round, every now and then turning in to shake 
 hands again, until suddenly one pounces upon the other 
 to get the "catch," and the struggle commences. No 
 kicking is allowed, and the throw must lay the vanquished 
 man upon his back, so that both shoulder-blades touch
 
 A STRUGGLE. 337 
 
 tlie ground at the same time. The champion was a bniiy 
 Bulgarian of herculean strength, when, at the invitation of 
 some black-eyed gypsy girls, a fine but slim young fellow 
 of their tribe entered the lists against hipa ; but, although 
 considering his youth he made a gallant struggle, a quick 
 throw laid him sprawling on his back, to the evident cha- 
 grin and disappointment of the gypsy women. Their eyes 
 flashed with anger as they now held a hurried consulta- 
 tion, when off started a very pretty girl, evidently bound 
 upon some errand. She soon returned with, one of the 
 most splendid specimens of humanity I ever saw. If, as 
 is asserted, there were princes and dukes among the 
 ancient tribe of gypsies who emigrated to Europe, this 
 must certainly have been a descendant of one of them. 
 
 His fair escort pushed him into the ring with an air of 
 pride and confidence, as much as to say, "Now you shall 
 see what a gypsy can do." The young man was about 
 twenty-five years of age, and nearly six feet high, with a 
 handsome, aristocratic, and cheery countenance ; and as 
 he took off his jacket and handed it to his fair one, and 
 thus stood stripped to the waist, there was a buzz of admi- 
 ration from the whole crowd. He was slightly made, but 
 all was sinew. Laughingly, and half modestly, he shook 
 his powerful antagonist by the hand, and then the walk 
 round commenced, the young gypsy talking and laughing 
 all the time. It seemed as though neither liked to be the 
 first to begin ; when suddenly the Bulgarian turned sharp 
 upon his antagonist, and tried a favorite catch, but quick 
 as lightning the lithe figure of the gypsy eluded the 
 grasp, and a sigh of relief went up from his clan. The 
 excitement was now intense, and the young girl perfectly 
 quivered with nervous anxiety as she watched every move- 
 ment of her swain. She would have made a splendid 
 picture ! They were stiU walking round, and it seemed as 
 though the struggle would never begin, when, lo ! a simul- 
 taneous cry went forth from the whole crowd, as the 
 great Bulgarian lay sprawling, and half stunned, upon the 
 ground.
 
 338 TURKEY IN EUROPE 
 
 The movements of the gypsy had been so quick, that it 
 was impossible to say how the throw was done, but the 
 Bulgarian was turned almost a somersault in the air, and 
 came down with a heavy thud. The young champion 
 shook him by the hand, lifted the heavy man high into 
 the air, and then set him on his feet. 
 
 The face of the young girl, as she handed back her hero 
 his Jacket, was pleasant to look upon. Lucky man ! As 
 she took him by the hand and led him away to wherever 
 he came from, I began to think there might be a worse 
 fate than being a gypsy. 
 
 These Tchinganes, as they are called, are widely scat- 
 tered over the whole of Turkey in Europe, and their num- 
 ber has been estimated at 200,000. 
 
 They are of Hindoo origin, and of the same race as their 
 namesakes in England and other parts of Europe ; but 
 from their closer contact with the East they preserve in 
 Turkey more of their oriental appearance and character. 
 Although they always maintained a certain amount of 
 mystery as to the quarter from which they emigrated, it 
 is generally supposed that their appearance in Europe was 
 coeval with the conquests of Timour the Tartar, and that 
 they were one of the tribes of Hindostan pushed out by 
 the force of his triumphant armies. 
 
 At first their ancestors stated that they had come from 
 Lower Egypt, but as their ideas of geography were prob- 
 ably vague, the direction only of their advent may have 
 been meant. 
 
 Among the earliest immigrants were men who claimed 
 to have been dukes and princes in their own country, and 
 there were others of the lowest ranks. They stated that 
 they had wandered from their country to do penance for 
 their sins. 
 
 Their nomad habits, which seem to be a part of their very 
 nature, would certainly point to their having belonged to 
 the Turanian race, but their language and appearance 
 have placed them among the Arian family of men. 
 
 As they were when they first entered Europe, so are
 
 THE GYPSIES. 339 
 
 they now, wanderers over the face of the earth, here to- 
 day and there to-morrow ; but in Turkey there are a few 
 exceptions to this rule, who lead a stationary life, as 
 blacksmiths, or herders of cattle on country farms. As 
 laborers they are not to be depended upon, except in 
 the one art of ditching, at which they are adepts. 
 
 A fine, handsome race they are also very hardy ; and 
 sometimes in passing one of their encampments, even in 
 the depth of winter, with the ground hard with frost, a 
 whole bevy of children will rush out stark naked, and 
 clamor for backshish. 
 
 The adults wear but light clothing, and it is the same 
 for both winter and summer. Brilliant colors are much 
 in fashion, and set off the sometimes handsome faces of 
 the girls ; but their beauty soon fades from the hard life 
 they lead. 
 
 As in ancient times, they still preserve their love of 
 music, and the gypsy drum and clarionet form an accom- 
 paniment to almost every village festival, whether Chris- 
 tian or Mohammedan. Although they usually intermarry 
 among their owti tribe, the rule is not strictly adhered to, 
 and, according as they are Christian or Mohammedan, 
 they vaR sometimes take to wife some fascinating giii 
 from either community. 
 
 The great majority are found among the followers of 
 Mahomet, but a few here and there adopt the tenets of 
 the Greek Church ; and I regret to say that the morality 
 of the Christians is of a lower order than that of the rival 
 creed. 
 
 The principal characteristic of the gypsy in Turkey, as 
 elsewhere, is petty theft. He will steal anything which 
 comes in his way, and he has a particular fondness for 
 poultry. A goose is irresistible ; and, as those birds are 
 plentiful in Turkey, a gypsy family may be tracked, some- 
 what lilve a paper chase, by remnants of down and fea- 
 thers. 
 
 I was so attracted by the wrestling scene at Barakli- 
 Djumaa, that I lost much time, and had to push on quick-
 
 340 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ly, in order that we miglit reach a klian, perched up in a 
 small village among the mountains which lay between 
 us and Salonica. 
 
 We had to cross the river Strymon, or Struma, which is 
 here quite a hundred and twenty yards broad, and is 
 spanned by a rather antiquated wooden bridge, with a 
 Turkish guard-house at the western entrance. 
 
 I did not engage a zaptieh after leaving DJumaa, because 
 the keradjee was well acquainted with the road, and acted 
 as guide. He was leading the way when we crossed the 
 bridge, and the moment he had arrived at the other side, 
 one of the guard stepped out, seized his horse by the 
 bridle, and took the man prisoner. I rode forward and 
 stopped what I considered a very arbitrary act. But the 
 zaptieh said the man must be imprisoned ; that only a 
 week before he had half murdered a shepherd in the 
 neighborhood of Seres, and robbed him of all he possessed, 
 and that they had been looking out for him for some time. 
 
 Wow I had engaged the man at Djumaa, which was a 
 four days' journey, so that I did not see how he could 
 possibly have been at Seres only a week before. How- 
 ever, here I was face to face with the agent of the law, and 
 the position was awkward, for we were dependent upon 
 this man to guide us over the mountains. I therefore told 
 the guide that I could not allow them to seize the kerad- 
 jee, as he was now in my employ, and engaged to take me 
 to Salonica, but that if they would send a zaptieh with me 
 I would take care that the man was brought to trial, if the 
 charge could be proved against him. 
 
 On my pointing out the discrepancy as to time and 
 locality, they said the keradjee might go on, although 
 they were sure he was the man. 
 
 All these delays had occupied valuable time, and it was 
 now three o'clock, and we had a broad range of mountains 
 to surmount. 
 
 We soon turned sharp to the right from these rich 
 plains, and commenced the steep ascent of hills which are 
 characteristic of so many parts of Turkey — steep sides and
 
 A SUIiXEN CITY. 341 
 
 rounded tops, mostly covered with an oak scrub, growing 
 in a good soil, composed of mica schist, with much oxide 
 of iron, and here and there a patch of syenite cropping 
 out. But the oak scrub in Macedonia is of a different 
 character to that I had seen in other parts of the country. 
 A low bush, with a very small prickly leaf of a dark olive- 
 green, it more resembles a holly than an oak. Yet it will 
 grow to a small tree, if it is allowed the chance, and in 
 that form so much resembles the olive at a short distance, 
 that travelers have been deceived by the resemblance, and 
 have attributed a milder winter climate to this jpart of 
 Turkey than it deserves. 
 
 There are many of these trees on the hiUs near the Lake 
 of Besik, in this neighborhood, and Clarke describes them 
 as groves of olives, and he may well be pardoned the mis- 
 take, for they exactly resemble that tree at a distance. 
 The acorn is very large, and, unlike the valonia, it is out 
 of all proportion to the calyx. The inhabitants on the 
 northern shore of this Lake of Besik (ancient Bolbe), who 
 are nearly all Youruks or Turcomans, assert that there 
 are ruins of an ancient town at the bottom of the lake, and 
 that the walls and pillars of the buildings can be distinct- 
 ly seen when the water is clear. I was much puzzled by 
 this assertion, and as, on an after occasion, I rode along 
 the road by the water-side — the road on which part of the 
 army of Xerxes had once marched — I tried to fathom the 
 history of this sunken city. The most ancient of our his- 
 torians — geology — seemed to point to this lake having 
 existed in a probably larger form for many ages. Who, 
 then, could these mermaids be that built their houses 
 among the fishes ? Why, what is that away there on the 
 flat gTound to my right, where once the waters of the lake 
 were probably spreading ? Yes, the ruins of a city ! and 
 grand buildings they must have been, judging by the 
 height of the walls and columns. There they are, stand- 
 ing up quite alone on the flat ground, with no rocks or 
 other buildings near them. But do not pass on, O reader, 
 under this impression ; ride close up to the ancient town,
 
 342 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 and you will find tliat it — and probably tlie mermaids' 
 home at the bottom of the lake — are far more ancient than 
 you had sui)posed, and that Nature's masons, the frost, 
 the sun, and the rains, and also the eddying currents of 
 the lake, have been chiseling away for many an age upon 
 a gi'eat mass of porphyry, until they have shaped it into 
 these quaint fonns, which at a little distance so much 
 resemble ruins. It was rather unMnd, though, for I had 
 just built up a theory in my own mind to account for 
 the sunken city : that Xerxes, with his love of making 
 canals, had let out the waters of the lake ; that his engi- 
 neers, attracted by the fertile land below, and the lovely 
 views and climate, had built unto themselves a city as a 
 settlement in this fair land ; that their canals had silted 
 up, and — but the vision was dispelled, and I rode on, feel- 
 ing, to use a fashionable slang phrase, "sold." But it 
 read me a lesson — never to theorize until mind and matter 
 had fought it out. 
 
 To return to my journey up the other side of the range 
 of Sultanitza Mountains, which stretch from the high top 
 of that name away for eighty miles or more past Lake 
 Besik to the sea. As we ascended the winding road, up 
 ravines, over crests of hills, along ridges, and through 
 woods, I found myself face to face with ancient and mod- 
 ern scientific skill. I stood on the remnant of a Roman 
 road, and by the side of an ancient fountain that had led 
 the waters of an artesian well to slake the thirst of the 
 weary Roman soldier as he toiled up the steep ascent ; 
 while over my head messages with lightning sx)eed were 
 passing through a wire, and changing man's estimate of 
 distance. Above that again was a soaring eagle, as if to 
 point the next step in scientific motion that the "coming 
 race " might rise to. 
 
 I had met traces of this Roman road at intervals along 
 the whole valley of the Strymon, and it doubtless here 
 turned over the mountains to meet the Via Egnatia, 
 which ran past the lakes Besik and St. Basil. The care 
 which in ancient days was bestowed on the march of 
 armies, was conspicuous by the numerous wells which
 
 MACEDONIAN PLAINS. 343 
 
 were made at intervals along the mountain road. The 
 men and horses would necessarily require water in toil- 
 ing over these hills, but to slake the thirst of a large 
 army would require days unless numerous sources for the 
 suj)ply of water were available. Accordingly, at proper 
 intervals these ancient wells are found, so that a short 
 halt might be sufficient to supply the whole army. 
 
 There are numerous Youruk villages on these hills, and 
 the land is better cultivated than in most parts of Turkey ; 
 but the lawless character of this race was manifest by the 
 numerous becklemes, or police-stations, along the whole 
 route. 
 
 I slept that night at Lachane, one of their mountain vil- 
 lages, and by the afternoon of the next day was crossing 
 the rich, elevated, and narrow plain of Langaza, and at the 
 time I little thought that some of the land over which I 
 was then riding was to become my own. 
 
 Two very large tumuli formed conspicuous objects in 
 the plain, and after leaving them behind, and rising 
 through a narrow pass on the low ridge which descends 
 from the Kortach mountains, the great and classic plain 
 of Macedon lay before our view, with the swift-flowing 
 Axius wending its way to the sea on our left front — the 
 sea which we had last left in the Bay of Burgas — and 
 the glorious Mount Olympus, rising to a height of 9,970 
 feet, away across the Bay of Salonica to the west. 
 
 On arriving at Salonica an hour afterward, I was most 
 hospitably received and housed by Consul Blunt, and I 
 here had the advantage of making the acquaintance of 
 the Rev. P. Crosbie, who is so energetically engaged in 
 his mission work in that district. I have to thank him for 
 much valuable information, and have since had many op- 
 portunities of witnessing his good and useful labors. I 
 submitted to a critical examination from a Greek oculist, 
 who at once ordered me off to England to consult more 
 experienced practitioners of my own nation. And while I 
 am away on the journey I will carry my reader over a 
 brief descrij^tion of the ancient and modern state of these 
 wonderful Macedonian plains.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE MACEDONIAN PLAIN'S. 
 
 The MarsTi of Bortoros — Pella — Salonica — Hot Springs — Tlierma in the Time 
 of Xerxes — Lions — The Last King of Macedon — Mineral Wealth of Mace- 
 donia — The Via Egnatia — St. Paul's Pulp'J — Massacre by Theodosius — 
 Literary Celebrities of Salonica — Remains of Antiquity — Arch of Con- 
 stantine — Heathen Temples and Mohammedan Mosques — Population — 
 Midhat Pasha — Railways — Facilities for Making Canals — Enterprising 
 Greeks — Jews — Their Entry into Turkey — Funeral of a Chief Rabbi. 
 
 rpHE Macedonian, or as they are now called, the Sal- 
 -^ onica plains, are bounded on the west by the chain 
 of mountains formed by Olympus, Bermius, and Babuna, 
 which on this slope are principally composed of compact 
 limestone, on the north by Mount Paik of mica schist, 
 on the east by the Hortach range of mica schist and 
 crystalline limestone, and on the south by the Bay of 
 Salonica. 
 
 There can be very little doubt that the sea originally 
 occupied the whole of the area fifty miles long by forty 
 miles broad, which is now dry land, and forms the rich 
 alluvial soil of clay loam. The great rivers which now 
 thread their way through the plain, brought down their 
 fertile freight from the washings of the mountains, and 
 dropped it during countless ages until it silted up and 
 drove away the sea. 
 
 These rivers are the Echidorus (Gallico), Axius (Yar- 
 dar), Lydias (Karasmac), and Haliacmon (Vistritza), and 
 of these the Vardar is the most industrious in the land- 
 forming operation. 
 
 Near the foot of the western mountains there stretches 
 a broad belt of jungle for a distance of about twenty 
 miles, which is broken here and there by cultivated fanns 
 
 344
 
 ANCIENT PELLA. 345 
 
 and pasture land, but the rest of tlie plain is almost tree- 
 less, and has a dreary look until the hills are approached. 
 At the northern side there is a vast marsh about twenty- 
 miles long by ten broad, the center being a lake, which 
 varies in size according to the season. These marshes 
 were in ancient days called Borboros ; and the lake pro- 
 duced a fish called "chromis," which was particularly fat 
 in summer. This fish is the silurus, and it is caught there 
 (as well as fine eels) in the present day. 
 
 The river Karasmac loses itself in the marsh, and after- 
 ward flows out to the south and joins the Yardar near 
 the sea ; and, from the natural formation of the land, the 
 whole plain might be drained Avith the greatest ease, and 
 laid out into navigable canals. The land reclaimed fi'om 
 the marsh would more than repay the cost of the under- 
 taking. 
 
 Close to this marsh was situated the ancient town of 
 Pella, which was raised to importance by Philip, who 
 there fixed his royal residence. The district must have 
 had some fascination, since Aristotle also resided at 
 Pella ; but its greatest claim to renown consists in its 
 having been the birthplace of Alexander the Great. 
 
 In those ancient days the town was in communication 
 with the sea by the marsh and the river Lydias. It 
 grew to be a considerable city, three miles in circum- 
 ference, and the capital of Macedonia, until the fall of 
 Perseus. A city of still greater importance was that of 
 Salonica, and its geographical position as a seaport on 
 the edge of a rich plain, made it one of the landmarks of 
 history. It was the chief station on the Via Egnatia, be- 
 tween the Adriatic and the Hellespont, being twenty- 
 seven miles from Pella and sixty-seven from Amphipolis. 
 In easy water-communication with the numerous towns 
 which then existed on the coast of Chalcidice, it became 
 an important center of trade for the whole district, and it 
 eventually rose to be one of the chief cities in the south 
 of Europe. 
 
 The earliest legendary names by which it is handed
 
 346 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 down to us are tliose of Ematliia and Halia ; but in con- 
 sequence of the liot salt-springs wliicli are found in the 
 neighborhood it afterward received the name of Thenna. 
 
 There is one of these springs in the small elevated plain 
 of Langaza, about nine miles from Salonica, which was a 
 favorite resort of the Romans ; and there still remains a 
 large building of that period, which was placed over the 
 spring, that poured its waters into a great marble bath, 
 wherein Turks, Jews, Greeks, and Bulgarians now lave 
 themselves for the sake of the curative properties of the 
 water. 
 
 When Xerxes advanced into Thrace and had passed his 
 fleet through the canal which he formed near Mount Athos, 
 he ordered it to proceed to Tlierma by sea, while he 
 marched his army by two separate routes to the same 
 place, and there encamped his troops between it and the 
 river Axius. 
 
 As he gazed across the Thermaic Gulf at the mountains 
 of Olympus and Ossa, which stood out in all their gran- 
 deur, he formed the project of exiDloring the sources of 
 the river Peneus, being fascinated apparently with the 
 extraordinary beauties of that country. Herodotus speaks 
 of numerous large Greek towns between the canal and 
 Therma, and especially of those actually bordering the 
 Thermaic Gulf, such as Lipaxus, Combrea, Lis?e, Gigonus, 
 Campsa, Smila, and ^nea, all designated as cities, and at 
 which the fleet stopped to recruit both ships and men. 
 These were in the country which was aftervrard called 
 Crosssea. He also couples the cities of Sindus and Chal- 
 estra (on the Axius) with Therma, showing that they 
 must have been considerable towns, and that i)rior to b. c. 
 480, the whole of this district must have been in a very 
 flourishing and populous state. In many places which 
 are wild and almost uninhabited in the present day, a 
 white marble j)illar or a slab crops uj) out of the earth to 
 tell of past grandeur. There is one remarkable circum- 
 stance in a natural-history jDoint of view which is men- 
 tioned by Herodotus, who, in describing the march of the
 
 ANCIENT TEERMA. 347 
 
 army of Xerxes, speaks of lions having attacked Ms bag- 
 gage-animals, and especially the camels, in the neighbor- 
 hood of the river Echidorus, near the Axius, and that 
 although they were very numerous in that district, they 
 were not to be found in other parts of Europe. He also 
 speaks of the wild bulls which were in the same quarter, 
 and that their long horns were much esteemed at Athens. 
 These cattle were probably the aurochs which are now to 
 be found in Livonia, in Russia, and also in the Caucasus. 
 A lion appears on one side of the coin of Perdiccas, King 
 of Macedon. 
 
 In B.C. 432 Therma was taken by the Athenians, but 
 afterward restored to Perdiccas, and a few years later it 
 was visited by Brasidas on his way to Amphipolis. The 
 name was changed from Therma to Thessalonica about 
 B.C. 310, by Cassander, King of Macedonia, who married 
 Thessalonica, half-sister of Alexander the Great, and in 
 her honor rebuilt the town of Therma, and gave to it the 
 name of his wife. Such, at least, is the account as given 
 by Strabo, but other writers assign different reasons and 
 periods for the change of name. It was afterward, in the 
 middle ages, called Saloniki by the Italians, Salnek by 
 the Germans, 2a\oviH?/ by the Greeks, Selanik by the 
 Turks, and now Salonique by the French, and Salonica by 
 the English, so that it seems difficult to find any generic 
 name for the town which is acceptable to all nations. Cas- 
 sander incorporated in his new city the population not 
 only of Therma, but like^vise of three smaller towns — 
 viz., ^nea and Cissus (which are supposed to have been 
 on the eastern side of the gulf), and Chalastra, which 
 Strabo supposes to have been on the further side of the 
 Axius ; but it does not appear that these cities were abso- 
 lutely destroyed, or that Therma lost its separate exist- 
 ence. It is probable that Cassander merely enlarged the 
 town, and induced some of the inhabitants of these other 
 places to occupy the houses. 
 
 Thessalonica was the great naval station of the Mace- 
 donians, but it was not considered the capital of the
 
 348 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 kingdom, wMch was fixed at Edessa, tlie modem Vod- 
 liena. 
 
 After the defeat of Perseus (fhe last King of Macedon) 
 by Paulus ^milius, at Pydna, Tliessalonica fell into tlie 
 hands of the Romans (b.c. 168), and was made the capi- 
 tal of the second of the four divisions of Macedonia, and 
 retained that honor after it was made into a province. 
 
 During the reign of the last Macedonian kings the 
 country must have been in a most flourishing state, and 
 extremely wealthy. Plutarch, in comparing the avarice of 
 Perseus with the recklessness of Alexander, when he set 
 fire to the trains of wagons containing Persian wealth, and 
 which encumbered his army, says, "Whereas Perseus, 
 though he, his children, and his kingdom overflow with 
 wealth, would not purchase his preservation at the ex- 
 pense of a small part of it, but was carried a wealthy cap- 
 tive to Rome, and showed that people what immense sums 
 he had saved and laid up for them," etc., etc. 
 
 This wealth was probably derived from the rich mines 
 of the country as well as from its trade, and the products 
 of the industry of a large population. But riches were 
 also combined with learning, as we hear, among other 
 treasures prized by Paulus ^Emilius, of a magnificent 
 library which belonged to the Macedonian king. 
 
 With the fall of Perseus, Macedonia lost its national 
 character. Restrictions were placed upon the people, 
 which cramped their trade and broke up their social or- 
 ganization. 
 
 The country was divided into four districts, and it was 
 declared unlawful for any one to intermaiTy, to carry on 
 trade, or to buy or sell any lands to any one who was not 
 an inhabitant of his own district. 
 
 They were prohibited to import any salt, or to sell any 
 timber fit for building ships, to the barbarians, as they 
 were called, of the neighboring districts. All the no- 
 bility, and their children exceeding the age of fifteen, 
 were commanded immediately to quit the country and 
 settle in Italy. The glory of Macedon had departed, but
 
 THESSALONICA. 349 
 
 Thessalonica, from its geograpliical position as a naval 
 and mercantile station, on tlie liigliway of the Via Egna- 
 tia, still retained its importance. 
 
 From Dyrrachium and Apollonia, the Via Egnatia ex- 
 tended a distance of 500 miles to the Hebrus in Thrace. 
 The roads from Dyrrachium and Apollonia met together 
 at a place called Clodiana, and thence the Via Egnatia 
 passed over the mountains to Heraclea in Macedonia. It 
 entered the plain at Edessa, and thence passed by Pella 
 to Thessalonica. There were many other Roman roads in 
 connection vrith the Via Egnatia, and remains of them 
 may be found both north and south of the Balkan in the 
 present day. 
 
 Cicero, after he had quitted Rome, took up his residence 
 at Thessalonica for some months, where he was hospitably 
 received at the house of Plancius, the Quaestor. It was 
 from there that he poured forth his bitterness of soul and 
 lamentations over his fate, in a series of letters to Teren- 
 tia, Atticus, and others. 
 
 It was during the period of the Roman conquest of 
 Macedonia that the present Wallachians, who are found 
 in the neighboring mountain-districts, were probably 
 planted in the country as Roman colonists. 
 
 After the advent of the Christian era, Thessalonica be- 
 came celebrated for the sojourn of St. Paul at that city. 
 In one of the mosques, which was originally the Christian 
 Church of St. Sophia, there is still preserved a very fine 
 pulpit of terde antico, said to have been used by St. Paul. 
 The Turks show every respect to this ancient monument 
 of Christianity. There are also clumps of trees on several 
 parts of the plain, which are supposed to mark the spots 
 where St. Paul stopped to preach. 
 
 Thessalonica can claim a distinguished position in 
 ecclesiastical history. Conybeare and Howson, in their 
 "Life and Epistles of St. Paul," say : " No city which we 
 have yet had occasion to describe has had so distinguished 
 a Christian history, with the single exception of the 
 Syrian Antioch, and the Christian glory of the patriarchal
 
 350 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 city gradually faded before tliat of the Tvf acedonian me- 
 tropolis. The heroic age of Thessalonica was the third 
 century. It was the bulwark of Constantinople in the 
 shock of the barbarians, and it held up the torch of the 
 truth to the successive tribes who overspread the country 
 between the Danube and the JEgean — the Goths and 
 the Slaves, the Bulgarians of the Greek Church, and the 
 Wallachians, whose language still seems to connect them 
 with the Philippi and the Roman colonies. Thus, in the 
 mediaeval chroniclers, it has deserved the name of the 
 " Orthodox City." During the first three centuries of the 
 Christian era, Thessalonica was the capital of the whole 
 country between the Adriatic and Black Sea, and even 
 after the founding of Constantinople it remained the capi- 
 tal of Greece, Macedonia, and lUyricum. In the middle 
 of the third century it was made a Roman colonia. Con- 
 stantine remained for some time at Thessalonica after his 
 victory over the Sarmatians ; and there is a grand tri- 
 umphal arch still standing, which was erected in honor of 
 that event. Under the reign of the Emperor Theodosius, 
 A.D. 390, a sedition broke out among the people of Thes- 
 salonica, and they cruelly murdered Botheric (one of the 
 Roman generals), together with many of his officers, and 
 their mangled bodies were dragged about the streets. 
 Theodosius, exasperated at this cruel act, formed the still 
 more inhuman project of a massacre of the citizens. They 
 were treacherously invited to the games of the circus, to 
 which they were passionately addicted, and as soon as 
 they were assembled, soldiers, who were posted for the 
 purpose, fell upon them, sparing neither age nor sex, and 
 cruelly massacred 15,000 defenseless human beings. A 
 touching story is told of a foreign merchant who was 
 present, and who offered his own life and wealth to supply 
 the iDlace of one of his two sons. But upon being asked 
 to choose, he hesitated to condemn one by the invidious 
 choice of the other, so the impatient assassins put an end 
 to his suspense by plunging their daggers into the hearts 
 of both his boys.
 
 TEESSALONIC± 351 
 
 Theodosius was personally well acquainted with. Thes- 
 salonica, as he had transferred his seat of government 
 there fi'om Constantinople. 
 
 Thessalonica was the great safeguard of the Roman 
 Empire during the Gothic invasions ; it bore the brunt of 
 the Slavonic wars from the middle of the sixth to the lat- 
 ter part of the eighth century. 
 
 In the year 904 it was besieged and taken by the Sara- 
 cens, and the inhabitants were slaughtered with the 
 greatest cruelty. The jDopulation of the town at that 
 period is said to have been 220,000, which is more than 
 double that of the present day. It was again taken by 
 the Normans in 1185. Tancred sent his army by the Via 
 Egnatia from Dyrrachium, while his fleet sailed round to 
 the Tliermaic Gulf, and the united naval and military 
 forces captured the town and barbarously treated the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 At this period Eustathius, who was one of the most 
 learned men of his age, was Archbishop of Thessalonica ; 
 he was the author of a valuable commentary on the 
 "Hiad" and the "Odyssey," and of various other 
 works. 
 
 Among other literary characters produced by this town 
 may be mentioned Theodore Gaza, who went to Italy 
 as a Latin ecclesiastic, and became the translator of Aris- 
 totle, Theophrastus, and Hippocrates. 
 
 Symeon, the chief authority in the Modem Greek 
 Church on ritual subjects, was also a native of the town. 
 He died a few months before the place was taken by the 
 Turks. 
 
 Cyrillus, who converted the Bulgarians and Slavonians 
 to Christianity, was bom, and also received his early 
 education, here. 
 
 The see of Salonica became almost a patriarchate, and it 
 was the withdrawal of the provinces subject to its juris- 
 diction from the see of Rome, in the reign of Leo, the 
 Isaurian, that became one of the principal causes of the 
 separation of the Eastern and Western Churches. It was
 
 353 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 captured by Amuratli II., and became subject to the 
 Turks in a.d. 1430. 
 
 There are many remains of antiquity in this historical 
 town, and it would offer an admirable field for an archaeo- 
 logical campaign. On the hills immediately outside the 
 walls are remains of ancient marble buildings ; and white 
 marble sarcophagi, beautifully sculptured, crop out here 
 and there among the great pUes of earth and rubbish, as a 
 temptation to further search. 
 
 Who knows whether some of the riches of Perseus may 
 not be hidden among these remnants of antiquity ? The 
 town is surrounded on the land side with a high brick- 
 work wall of defense, which was buUt in the Middle Ages, 
 and beneath this a lower wall has been discovered, formed 
 in many parts of great blocks of white marble, which 
 evidently at some period were portions of magnificent 
 buildings, which then adorned the now miserable town. 
 It looks as though at some time in its history the city had 
 been sacked, and the principal buildings puUed down to 
 form walls of defense, to save the labor of hewing out the 
 stone from the neighboring rock. 
 
 The two monuments of greatest interest were the great 
 arches of the western and eastern gates, which formed the 
 entrance and exit to the town by the Via Egnatia, which 
 passed through its center. Sad to say, the western arch, 
 called the Vardar Gate, has of late years been puUed 
 down by the Turks, and most of its interesting sculpture- 
 work chopped up to rebuild parts of the wall ! The east- 
 em arch is stni standing, a monument of ancient grandeur 
 amidst modern misery. 
 
 It is built of brick, partly faced with marble, and for- 
 merly consisted of three archways, the remains of which 
 are stUl visible. 
 
 This arch is supposed to have been erected in honor of 
 Constantine, to commemorate his victories over the Sar- 
 matians. 
 
 On the left of the main street, between the Yardar en- 
 trance and this arch, and in a side alley, there are four
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 353 
 
 CorintMan columns, supporting an architrave, above which 
 are caryatides or statues of women, in lieu of columns, to 
 uphold an entablature and cornice. Two of the figures 
 represent Leda and Ganymede. This interesting remnant 
 forms part of the house of a Jew, and it is called by that 
 nation " Las Incantados," implying that they were petri- 
 fied by enchantment. 
 
 It is supposed to be the Propyloeum of the Hippo- 
 drome, which was situated in the south-eastern part of 
 the to'wTi, between the sea and the building called the Ro- 
 tunda, now a mosque, but previously the Church of Eski 
 Metropoli, and'before the Christian era a heathen temple. 
 In construction it is similar to the Pantheon at Rome. It 
 is called by the Greeks the Church of St. George. 
 
 The date given to this interesting building is the reign 
 of Trajan. The inside of the dome is covered with beau- 
 tiful mosaics, and among the bu-ds which are depicted 
 upon it, the red-legged partridge is plainly distinguish- 
 able. 
 
 It was near this church, in the great Hippodrome, which 
 lay between it and the sea, that the massacre of the in- 
 habitants took place, under the orders of, Theodosius. 
 Another mosque, called Eski Djuma, 157 feet long by 50 
 feet wide, is said by Beaujour, to have been a temple con- 
 secrated to Yenus Therm^ea. 
 
 This also became a Christian church, and afterward a 
 Mohammedan mosque. 
 
 It contains several Ionic pillars, and could be restored 
 without difficulty. It is said to be in a better state of pres- 
 ervation than any other monument of Grecian antiquity. 
 
 Next to this may be mentioned the mosque of St. De- 
 metrius, the patron saint of Salonica. 
 
 It was built in 597, but was partly destroyed by fire a 
 hundred years afterward, and again rebuilt. There are 
 two rows of very beautiful xerde antico pillars in this 
 mosque. The whole of the interior was lined with mar- 
 ble. The Turks have left many of the decorations repre- 
 senting saints and passages of Biblical history. 
 23
 
 3j4 turkey in EUROPE. 
 
 Mr. Fergnsson, in his "Handbook of Architecture," 
 gives an interesting description of these ancient buildings. 
 Many of the ancient remains of Salonica were taken to 
 Constantinople in 1430, when the place was captured by 
 the Turks. 
 
 But the interest of the archaeologist would not be con- 
 fined to the town of Salonica alone ; the whole neigh- 
 borhood is replete with remnants of by-gone days of 
 splendor. 
 
 The population of this city in the present day is about 
 100,000, of which one-third are Jews. When Midhat 
 Pasha was Yali, or Governor-General, some few years 
 ago, he immediately set to work with his usual energy to 
 improve the place, and commenced a fine street, which 
 was to run parallel to the Via Egnatia. He also gave his 
 attention to the roads in the neighborhood, and had he 
 remained any length of time, a great change for the bet- 
 ter would have been made ; but almost before he had 
 commenced his plans he was removed, and everything re- 
 mained at a standstill. 
 
 The town now contains two hotels, which are moder- 
 ately comfortable. 
 
 The railway runs from Salonica to Metrovitza, and it is 
 intended to carry it on to Belgrade, when Macedonia will 
 be brought within four days of London ! 
 
 It is sad to see this naturally wealthy district, which, if 
 it was in the hands of an energetic race, would soon be 
 made the garden of Europe, lying but a partially culti- 
 vated waste. 
 
 Along the mountain range of Bermius there are three 
 large towns, Yerria, Niausta, and Vodhena, each possess- 
 ing water-power sufficient to work all the manufactories of 
 Manchester. 
 
 On the mountains behind them are extensive forests of 
 oak, pine, beech, and sweet chestnut trees. In the rocks 
 about them are mines of copper, coal, and probably other 
 metals. The hills are covered with rich pasture, which 
 produces large supplies of wool. The rich plains below
 
 COTTON FA CTOR T. 3 j5 
 
 would grow any quantity of cotton, and fhe small quan- 
 tity now groTNTi is of excellent quality. The soil on the 
 hiU slopes is peculiarly favorable to vineyards, and the 
 wine is the best that is made in Turkey. Nature seems 
 here to have gathered all her riches, and to be offering 
 them to the hand of man. Water-power, wool, cotton, 
 timber, metals, fruit, wine, grain, a beautiful climate 
 — all are there — and a few canals would place them in 
 water communication with the coast of the whole world. 
 
 In the days of the Macedonian kings, 2,400 years ago, 
 it was the fairest land in Europe. When will it be so 
 again ? 
 
 When Salonica is connected by railway with Athens 
 and Belgrade, and also with Constantinople by the route 
 of the Via Egnatia, it will be the junction of three impor- 
 tant lines of European communication. Then, if it be pos- 
 sible that an energetic administration can be established 
 in Turkey, we may hope to see the ancient glory of Mace- 
 donia revived. 
 
 The beauty of this country in ancient days, when the 
 lower hills were no doubt covered with noble forests, 
 must have been very great ; but although in the present 
 day the grandeur of Olympus and the neighboring moun- 
 tains is still the same, the absence of trees gives a dreary 
 look to the country on the sea-coast. 
 
 At the toA^Ti of Niausta, beautifully situated on the 
 slope of Mount Bermius, two enterprising Greeks have 
 erected a manufactory for spinning cotton yam, which is 
 worked by water-power. The machinery is twenty horse 
 power, and it turns out fifty-five bales of cotton thread 
 daily, each bale weighing 9f lbs. Most of the hands em- 
 ployed are Greek boys and giiis, who have been trained to 
 the work, and proved ajDt scholars. 
 
 It employs eighty hands, and the engineers are Greeks, 
 who were educated at Athens. 
 
 The total cost of the building, machinery, and in fact of 
 the whole undertaking, was £4,000. 
 
 Anybody who is weU acquainted with Turkey must be
 
 S56 TUEEEY m EUROPE. 
 
 aware of the obstacles in the way of starting such an 
 undertaking as this manufactory. First comes the resi- 
 dence for perhaps three months at Constantinople in 
 order to obtain the necessuvj Jirman, and a certain snm 
 has to be set aside for backshish, otherwise the delay 
 would be prolonged indefinitely. After this worrying 
 business the actual work has to begin, the impediments 
 raised by the Custom-house, the depressing effect of hav- 
 ing to pay duty on the import of machinery which will 
 benefit the country, the difficulty of providing fifty miles 
 of land carriage for the machinery where there is no road, 
 the innumerable breakdowns before it even arrives at the 
 end of the journey. Then the arduous task of getting it 
 fitted in working order in a country where a square peg 
 is always made for a round hole, and last, not least, comes 
 the diflBculty of getting people to work it. 
 
 I must say that, as Messrs. Demetros Longos and George 
 Kyrches most courteously showed me over their manufac- 
 tory, which was working away gayly, I looked upon them 
 with the admiration and respect that may be felt for 
 heroes, and I sincerely wished them the success they so 
 richly deserve. 
 
 The Jewish element in the population of Turkey is 
 strongly represented in Macedonia, probably because it is 
 the richest quarter of the empire ; and as they form a 
 very important element among Turkish subjects, \ will 
 offer my reader a short description of this interesting 
 people. 
 
 They are met in every bazaar or market in every town, 
 but I have not found that they drive harder bargains than 
 other Turkish subjects. In all purchases in Turkey you 
 are usually asked four times as much as will be actually 
 taken, and you are generally told by the seller that he 
 is parting with his goods at a loss. This, however, is not 
 peculiar to Turkey. I remember when in the Emerald 
 Isle being tempted by an Irishwoman to buy some fish 
 on the following recommendation : " Sure, yer honor, it's 
 chape, and yer will never get such a chance again, for I'm
 
 THE JEWS. 357 
 
 losing by every one I sell ; but, may the Lord be praised ! 
 I sell a gTeat dale." 
 
 Under what circumstances the Jews made their first 
 appearance in Europe is unknown. 
 
 it may jDossibly have been connected with the conquests 
 of Alexander the Great, and Jews may have passed in 
 the train of his generals to Macedonia, and there settled. 
 The many colonies of Jews which he planted about his 
 empire point to a connection with Macedonia which may 
 be possible. That in those early days they were not 
 attracted to foreign lands by the commercial pursuits for 
 which they have since become so conspicuous, is to be 
 inferred from Milman, who, speaking of a still later pe- 
 riod, says : "ISTor is there any reason to suppose that the 
 Jews of Palestine, who were now in their lowest state, 
 both as to numbers and opulence, had commenced their 
 mercantile career." 
 
 Conybeare and Howson, in writing of the dispersion 
 of the Jews, say : '' It is natural to suppose that those 
 islands of the Archipelago, which, as Humboldt has said, 
 were like a bridge for the x)assage of civilization, became 
 the means for the advance of Judaism. The journey of 
 the proselyte Lydia from Thyatira to Philippi (Acts xvi. 
 14), and the voyage of Aquila and Priscilla from Corinth 
 to Ephesus {ibid, xviii. 18), are only specimens of mercan- 
 tile excursions which must have begun at a far earlier 
 period. PhUo mentions Jews in Thessaly, Boeotia, Mace- 
 donia, etc., etc. St. Luke speaks of them at Thessalonica 
 and Bersea." 
 
 The first of these great authorities gives it as his opinion 
 that the keen mercantile tendencies of the nation had not 
 set in about 250 years before Christ, and the latter author- 
 ities show that they must have pursued foreign trade 
 some considerable time before the birth of our Saviour ; so 
 we may take the intermediate time, or 150 years u.c, as 
 the commencement of the Jewish mercantile tide. 
 
 The Jews have probably been settled in Macedonia from 
 their first emigration to the present time. They are men-
 
 358 TURKEY IN EVROPE. 
 
 tioned in tlie seyenth century, during the Slavonic wars, 
 and again in tlie twelfth by Eustathius, who was Latin 
 Archbishop of Thessalonica, a.d. 1185, and by Benjamin 
 Tudela. 
 
 The events of the fifteenth century had the effect of 
 bringing a large number of Spanish Jews to Thessalonica. 
 Paul Lucas says that in his day there were 30,000 in that 
 city, with twenty-two synagogues. 
 
 It is from the latter date that their general extension 
 over the Turkish Empire probably took place, although 
 they must have existed in considerable numbers in the 
 principal cities from much earlier times. Among them- 
 selves they speak the ancient Spanish language, and their 
 written correspondence is carried on in Hebrew. 
 
 The great mass of the Jews in Turkey are Talmudists ; 
 but there exists a small section of Carai'tes, or those who 
 reject the rabbinical explanations of the Talmud or ex- 
 pounded laws, and hold exclusively to the letter of the 
 Bible. This sectarian difference seemed to foreshadow 
 that which was to follow in the antagonism of the Sunnites 
 and the Shiites of the Mohammedan faith. The Caraites 
 have about a hundred families at Has-keui, near Constan- 
 tinople ; but the great bulk of the Jews of this persuasion 
 are in Gallicia and the Crimea ; there are also many in 
 Bagdad and in Egypt.* 
 
 There is also a curious sect of Jews at Salonica, called 
 ' ' Mamim, ' ' which signifies ' ' turncoat. ' ' They believed in 
 the fourteenth false Messiah, Sabati Levi, who, to save 
 his life, became with his followers Mohammedans ; but 
 these again have their religious differences, and are 
 divided into three sects. They are all still Jews at heart, 
 but their trifling with two creeds makes them despised 
 and looked down upon. They marry among themselves 
 only, and live together in a particular quarter of the towm. 
 There are others of the same sect in parts of Russia. At 
 Salonica they are Mohammedans in public and Jews in 
 private life. 
 
 * Ubicini.
 
 THE JEWS. 359 
 
 The Jews have no hierarcliy, but each congregation is 
 independent, and governed by its owti Chief Rabbi ; but 
 they have a representative head at Constantinople, called 
 the "Khakham-bashi," who is chief of the Israelite nation 
 in the empii'e. As it is part of the Ottoman system of gov- 
 ernment to rule its subjects, with their diverse religions, 
 through their ecclesiastical heads, the Khakham-bashi at 
 Constantinoj)le has a court or council to assist him in ad- 
 ministering both ecclesiastical and civil law. It is divided 
 into two parts — first, the "Medjliss-i-rouhani," or spuit- 
 ual council, composed of six Grand Rabbis, which, as 
 its name im^Dlies, deals with questions relating to the 
 Jewish religion; and second, the " Medjliss-i-djesmani," 
 or civil council, which deals with questions of civil law, 
 and assists the Turkish courts in any question relating to 
 Jews. The same organization is applied by each Grand 
 Rabbi, who, in his turn, is assisted by two similar coun- 
 cils. As the Jewish law, like that of the Mohammedan, is 
 explained by the teaching of the sacred books, the estab- 
 lishment of these councils forms a ready means of arriving 
 at a judgment on all religious and civil cases arising in the 
 Jewish community. It will be seen by these and other 
 explanations how admirably organized is the Turkish 
 administration, and it merely requires to be Iwnestly and 
 energetically carried out to make Turkey one of the best- 
 governed countries in Europe. 
 
 The Khakham-bashi takes rank immediately after the 
 Greek and Armenian Patriarchs. 
 
 The Jewish population of the Turkish Empire is esti- 
 mated at 158,000. The poorer are entirely dependent upon 
 the liberality of the upper classes for education and relief 
 in case of want, and the obligation is met in a most com- 
 mendable spirit. They possess an institution called the 
 " Universal Israelite Alliance," which is charged with the 
 administration of education, etc. In 1875 the Alliance 
 had twenty-one schools throughout the empire, which 
 gave instruction to 2,094 children of both sexes, and of 
 this number 809 were admitted gratuitously. The teachers
 
 360 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 of these schools are educated in the Rabbinical Seminary 
 at Paris, and they give their pupils instruction in foreign 
 languages and all the elements of a first-class education. 
 Much cannot be said in praise of the elementary schools, 
 or talmudtora. They are crowded with children of both 
 sexes, who are simply taught to read and write.* 
 
 In some of the larger towns there are British mis- 
 sionaries for the conversion of the Jews, and they do good 
 service in educating the children and giving them moral 
 ideas and habits, but I cannot learn that they have been 
 very successful in their conversions — at least, if I may 
 judge from a conversation I had with one of them, who 
 had resided in the country for more than eighteen 
 years. 
 
 I asked this very worthy gentleman if he had made 
 many converts, and he replied cautiously that " he could 
 not say that he had." Still anxious for information, I 
 pushed my inquiries by the question, "How many con- 
 verts have you at the present time? To which he re- 
 plied with the greatest gravity, "Well, I cannot say I 
 have any;" but he added quickly, ^^ Miss W. has 
 one at Cairo?'' I therefore conclude there are none in 
 Turkey. 
 
 Commercial transactions are carried on through the 
 Jews in Turkey in a manner that would astonish and 
 frighten merchants in England. We will say that at 
 Salonica a merchant receives a large order for prunes. 
 The part of the country which supplies these lies 200 miles 
 away. He therefore hands sufficient money to purchase 
 what he requires to a traveling Jew who is well ac- 
 quainted with the country. The man goes off with the 
 money to make the purchase, and does not return with 
 the goods for one or perhaps two months. 
 
 I once met a merchant who had £27,000 out in this way, 
 and no goods in his stores to show for it, the only security 
 being the honesty of the Jewish commercial travelers ; 
 
 * Ubicini.
 
 THE JEWS. 361 
 
 yet the whole of the purchases came safely to the stores 
 in due time. 
 
 The wealthy Jews are most charitable to the poor. I 
 have seen from the mndows of the British Consulate at 
 Salonica numerous poor people attending regularly every 
 morning at the house of Messrs. Allatini, and there re- 
 ceiving alms and assistance. Serving classes are also got 
 up among the ladies, and every effort is made to meet 
 the wants of poverty. 
 
 The functions of the Jewish Eabbis are usually executed 
 in a most exemplary manner, and command the respect of 
 all classes of Ottoman subjects as well as the authorities. 
 A pleasing manifestation of this respect took place at the 
 funeral at Salonica of his Eminence Raphael Acher Covo, 
 Grand Eabbi of Roumelia, who died in 1874, The funeral 
 was attended by the Staff of the Turkish Governor-Gen- 
 eral, the President of the Municipal Council, by the 
 Foreign Consular Corps, the Greek Bishop, with several 
 of his clergy, the Protestant ministers, and by delegates 
 from the several corporations ; and it was probably one of 
 the largest assemblies of the kind ever witnessed in 
 Turkey. On passing the Metropolitan Greek Church the 
 bells were tolled, the flags of consulates, and of all the 
 ships in the harbor, were half-mast high, and all offices 
 and shops were closed. 
 
 The Jewish Fire Brigade, in the service of the Sun, 
 North British, and Mercantile Insurance Offices, lined the 
 streets and maintained good order. The whole adult male 
 Je"v\ish population were in the streets, while the Jewish 
 women were at the open windows, and added to the effect 
 of the general mourning by their wailings.* The late 
 Rabbi had held office for twenty-six years, and was 
 remarkable for his justice and upright conduct. It was 
 instructive that the possession of these moral qualities 
 could command a unity of aU creeds and classes to pay 
 respect to them. 
 
 * Report from Consul Blunt.
 
 362 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 The Jews are impervious to the intrigues of either Pan- 
 Hellenic or Pan-Slavonic societies, and I should say there 
 is no section of Ottoman subjects which gives the Porte so 
 little trouble. Jews and Mohammedans get on admirably 
 together, but there is a bitter antagonism between the 
 Jews and Greeks.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 A SECOND VISIT TO TUEKEY. 
 
 Eapid Change of Seasons— American Philanthropy— A Remarkable Boy- 
 Winter Climate of Salonicar— Verria— The Wallachians— Ferocious Dogs 
 — Preparations for a Deer Drive— A Good Bag— A Well-ventilated Khan 
 — Hints to Travelers— Turkish Signs — Exaggeration— Manufacturing a 
 Grievance — The Cry of " Wolf." 
 
 T HAD left Salonica for England in October, in a warm 
 -L sun and clear sky, the thermometer standing in the 
 shade at 80° Fahrenheit. I returned at the end of De- 
 cember, to find the Mountain of the Gods hidden with 
 black clouds, a storm raging in the bay, the thermometer 
 as low as 30° Fahrenheit, and the mountains white with 
 snow. 
 
 There are several very pleasant routes from England to 
 Turkey, but I think the easiest and most comfortable is 
 that by Marseilles, in the splendid steamers of the Mes- 
 sageries Maritime Company. So many nationalities are 
 generally represented among the passengers that an 
 Englishman is almost sure to find compatriots on board 
 who help to beguile the way. 
 
 Judging by the number of Americans that are met 
 abroad in every nook and every corner, I should think 
 their country must contain only half its real population. 
 
 This wonderful people are not only met with in the 
 flesh, but their mark is made upon the world at large for 
 good, without prejudice to race, creed, or locality ; and 
 the traveler is astonished and delighted to find here and 
 there the establishment of useful works which have 
 emanated from pure and unadulterated philanthropy. 
 
 I have already alluded to Robert College, and also to 
 
 363
 
 364 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 the energetic American mission in Turkey. By-tlie-by, I 
 must mention a peculiar trait I remarked in the work of 
 that mission, namely, the amount of good common sense 
 which was brought to bear upon their work, and the high- 
 ly practical way in which it was carried out. There was 
 none of that well-meant but misplaced fanatical zeal so 
 common to Christian missions ; but they opened the door 
 of their fold, and, in a simple way, invited people to come 
 and go as they liked, assuring them that they would find 
 it so pleasant that they would like to stay. 
 
 At Athens the traveler again meets with American 
 philanthropy in the form of a free school for the poorest 
 classes of Greek children, who flock to it, and number, I 
 believe, over 400 of both sexes. 
 
 It was my good fortune to find a large party of Ameri- 
 cans as f eUow-passengers, and their wit and humor nearly 
 exhausted me with laughter. 
 
 There was a boy about fourteen years of age, who, with 
 his uncle, were specially amusing. The latter led the lad 
 up to me one day, when I was sitting on deck reading, and 
 introduced him as follows : — 
 
 " Sorry to interrupt you. Colonel, but this is my nephew, 
 and I have brought him to show you what we can rear in 
 America. 
 
 " This, sir, is altogether a remarkable boy, and I can 
 assure you that if you had him in England you'd have to 
 put him on a pair of cast-iron breeches, and nail him 
 down ; and even that wouldn't hold him. 
 
 It afterward seemed to me that it was quite necessary 
 that the nether garments of this extraordinary boy should 
 be composed of that strong metal, in order that he might 
 be clothed and in his right mind ; for he gravely informed 
 me that he had been in England, and being passionately 
 fond of " drumming," he had challenged the Drum-major 
 (!) of the Grenadier Guards to a match. 
 
 " But, sir," he said, " as soon as the signal was given I 
 started off with 'Yankee Doodle' and 'God Save the 
 Queen' at such a pace that soon the Drum-major — he
 
 VLAQUES, OR WALLACEIANS. 305 
 
 couldn't hold the sticks ; and, sir, if yon'd been looking 
 at that 7nan, you'd have thought you were looking at a 
 scared horse." 
 
 I can quite believe it ! 
 
 The winter climate of Salonica is quite delightful ; the 
 days are generally bright and warm, with hard frosts at 
 night, and the snowy mountains stand out in the clear and 
 bracing air to add fresh charms to the scenery. There are 
 occasional storms, which generally last for three days, 
 and when the wind is from the north, they are frequently 
 accompanied with snow and much cold ; but these merely 
 come to make the usual weather more delightful by con- 
 trast. This is the season for the sportsman, and among 
 the woods near the Bermius range he may get some of the 
 finest woodcock shooting in the world. 
 
 As I was anxious to see the mountains, my friend Cap- 
 tain Synge, late of the 52nd Regiment, who lives upon his 
 farm in that neighborhood, kindly organized a deer drive. 
 
 We left the good cheer in his very hospitable house on 
 the plains, and after riding for about four hours on the 
 flat, ascended the side of the mountain for about 500 feet 
 to Yerria, the ancient Beroea, which now, as in the days 
 of St. Paul, numbers many Jews in its population. There 
 is nothing of much interest in the place except a few old 
 remnants of Byzantine buildings, and its beautiful situa- 
 tion. Streams of water flow through the town, and the 
 masses of maiden-hair fern which cover the rocks and sides 
 of these streams give a pleasant aspect to the streets. We 
 passed on, and ascended the mountain for another hour, 
 through grassy glades and deep ravines, until we came to 
 a solitary and tumble-down khan, where we were to pass 
 the night. 
 
 Here we found a number of Ylaques, who were to form 
 the beaters for the next day's sport, and who had assem- 
 bled by appointment. 
 
 The origin of the Ylaques, otherwise Wallachians, or 
 Roumanians, or Cinciari, is without doubt Roman, and 
 they are of the same race as their namesakes in Roumania
 
 366 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 and Wallacliia. Their language is Latin, mucli corrupted 
 by the introduction of Greek and Albanian words. 
 
 Their entry into Turkey dates from the third century, 
 when they were driven out of Dacia by the Goths, and 
 migrated south of the Danube, and formed colonies along 
 the attractive Albanian mountains. 
 
 Consul Blunt has suggested that they -were established 
 as colonies along these mountains in order to guard and 
 keep open the Via Egnatia, and other highways ; and 
 there is much force in the suggestion. 
 
 Be that as it may, they are now found in groups scat- 
 tered about the range from Epirus to North Albania, and 
 as might be expected, they have a tendency to become 
 Hellenized as they approach the Greek frontier, where 
 their language is being gradually replaced by Greek, 
 more especially with the male population. The women 
 are more conservative, and hold steadfastly to their 
 mother-tongue, and are indignant if they are mistaken 
 for either Greeks or Bulgarians. 
 
 The people are divided into a nomad and a sedentary 
 population. The former, as shepherds, are frequently 
 met with in all parts of Turkey, as they travel great dis- 
 tances in search of summer and winter grazings for their 
 flocks and herds, and it is not uncommon to meet in the 
 summer a Vlaque grazing his sheep on a part of the Bal- 
 kan Mountains, which is two hundred miles or more away 
 from his winter grazings on the plains of Macedonia. 
 
 The sedentary Ylaques are usually engaged in agricul- 
 ture and commerce, and are giving much attention to edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Their schools are Greek, and are well conducted, but as 
 yet they are to be found only in the principal to^vns. 
 
 The yiaques are Christians of the Greek Church, but 
 in many districts they have shown much sympathy with 
 the struggle for ecclesiastical independence of the Bulga- 
 rians, and they have generally taken the latter side in the 
 riots which have occurred between the rival churches. 
 
 Like other populations in Turkey, that of the Ylaques
 
 SA VAQE BOOS. 3G7 
 
 is so variously stated tliat it is difficult to fix upon even 
 
 an approximate number. 
 M. Bolintineano, a Roumanian, gives the number at 
 
 1,200,000, while another authority states it at only 144,- 
 
 740, after statistics said to have been taken from village 
 
 to village. 
 The latter is without doubt the most accurate, and it 
 
 divides the people among the following countries : — 
 
 Epirus and Albania 50,740 
 
 Macedonia 73,000 
 
 Thessaly 21,000 
 
 They are a fine-looking race, generally dark and with 
 Roman features, more marked in the northern than in the 
 southern districts, and are an industrious and peaceable 
 people, but cunning and very fond of intrigue. 
 
 The yiaques and other mountain shepherds in Turkey 
 have a splendid breed of dogs, nearly as large and with 
 much of the appearance of a wolf. They are not put to 
 the same use as the collies of Scotland, but merely act as 
 guards, to protect the flocks from the ravages of wolves, 
 etc. In traveling on the mountains two or three of these 
 animals will sometimes come tearing down with snarls 
 and grinning jaws upon the traveler, who, if he is of a 
 timid nature, will think that his last day has come. His 
 only chance is to walk quietly on and to pick up a stone 
 if there is one, or pretend to do so if there is not. He 
 must then look behind him mth both eyes like a hare, 
 and pay especial attention to the calves of his legs. 
 
 But these dogs are a great nuisance, especially at night, 
 if you happen to be in their neighborhood. 
 
 I heard of a tourist who was seriously mangled by these 
 animals. He had left his tent in the night either to look 
 at the moon or to count the stars, when some of these 
 unmannerly dogs took the poor man at a disadvantage, 
 and he only escaped with his life. It was by these dogs 
 that Euripides lost his life when stopping at the town of 
 Bromiscus or Bormiscus, near the valley of Arethusa by 
 the Lake Besik, to which I aUuded in a former chapter.
 
 368 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 These dogs were then called Esterikae, and they com- 
 mitted such a savage attack upon the great tragedian that 
 he afterward died of his wounds — possibly from hydro- 
 phobia. 
 
 But to return to our over-ventilated khan, on the 
 Olympian range. 
 
 At this altitude and season of the year it was cold, and 
 we were glad of our cloaks and rugs at night, as the wind 
 whistled through countless chinks into the room, and 
 found its way out through open parts of the roof. In the 
 next room our zaptieh — a fine old Turkish soldier — ^had 
 fraternized with a comrade from the neighboring Beck- 
 leme, and we fell asleep to the sound of their subdued song. 
 Whether the ditty told of the glories of the ancient Sel- 
 juks, or how the great Afrasiab had courted the Empress 
 Afrasiab, I cannot say, but phonetically it ranged between 
 the buzzing of a drone and that of a mosquito, and as such 
 it was pleasantly soporific. 
 
 An early rise on such an expedition, when you go out- 
 side the tent, or whatever the covering may be, and find 
 the stars growing pale in a clear blue sky, and no sound 
 save the distant murmuring of the mountain burns, and a 
 pure cold air fresh upon the cheek, is very cheering. 
 
 We were soon up and away with our wild set of Ylaques, 
 all unfortunately armed with guns, ancient productions, 
 with the barrels of such a length that they seemed as 
 though devised for getting as near as possible to the 
 quarry. 
 
 After ascending the mountain diagonally for about two 
 hours, until we came to the snow-line among rocks and 
 deep ravines, with scattered trees of monster pine and 
 beech, we were posted along a ridge, and I ensconced my- 
 self behind a crag with a pass immediately below, and 
 leading up to my right. We had to wait until the beaters 
 went on two miles ahead, and soon we heard their shouts 
 as the drive commenced. 
 
 As they drew nearer, I heard two shots to my left below, 
 which told that either deer or boar were passing.
 
 A DEER DRIVE. 369 
 
 At last tlie shots from among tlie beaters became fre- 
 quent, and their yells and frantic shouts sounded as though 
 they were being" murdered. Presently I heard a clatter 
 among the rocks, which I knew was made by deer, and 
 soon three hinds appeared coming along the pass about 
 eighty yards below. This was to be my first shot from the 
 left shoulder, and I was anxious as to the result. Waiting 
 until I saw that there was no stag following the hinds, and 
 that I had no time to lose if I wanted one of them, I gave 
 a whistle, and when they stopped to listen took my shot. 
 
 I had the satisfaction of seeing my deer roll over dead ; 
 but I did not fire at the others, for, as a rule, I like to 
 spare the hinds. 
 
 When the beaters came up we found that the bag con- 
 sisted of five red-deer — namely, one small stag and four 
 hinds. The red-deer in Turkey are very large, and some 
 of them have splendid heads. The hind I killed was larger 
 than any stag I have ever shot in Scotland. 
 
 It was bitterly cold at this altitude, and yet there were 
 shepherds with their flocks, who sleep out with them all 
 night without any shelter. These men never leave their 
 sheep night or day, and it must be a hard life in the win- 
 ter months. 
 
 It was after dark when we returned to the khan, and we 
 were not sorry to "fall to" at the excellent dinner which 
 my ever-thoughtful host had brought from his farm. 
 
 If any of my readers should think of making a sporting 
 trip, or of traveling in Turkey, I can offer them the follow- 
 ing hints, which are based upon experience : — 
 
 We will suppose that there are two classes of travelers, 
 those who can afford comfort and those who have to con- 
 sider every expense. 
 
 The first class should, if possible, travel in pairs, and 
 should provide themselves with two emigrant tents (one to 
 be lined), and camp beds to their own fancy ; but ham- 
 mocks are certainly advisable, and if lessons are taken 
 from a sailor as to the proper method of slinging them, so 
 much the better for the comfort of the travelers. 
 24
 
 370 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Each man should have three strong tin boxes, made to 
 fit into open wicker baskets, with straps, so as to ride one 
 on each side of a pack-animal. In one tin box should be 
 carried a bed, consisting of an eider-down quilt, and air 
 jrillow, a large blanket, and a water-proof sheet. In the 
 second tin box should be packed clothes and ammunition ; 
 in the third, a smaU luncheon-basket, fitted with knives, 
 forks, spoons, plates, wicker-covered bottles, receptacles 
 for sugar, tea, coffee, etc., etc., according to fancy, but 
 there should certainly be an Etna for getting a hot cup of 
 coffee in a hurry. The space left in the third tin box after 
 the luncheon-basket is packed can be utilized for edible 
 stores by the way. 
 
 A gun and rifle should be fitted in one case, covered 
 with very strong water-proof canvas. 
 
 The cooking utensUs, etc., should consist of a tinned 
 copper pot, with a smaller one fitting inside it, a small, 
 strong copper kettle, a frying-pan, two iron tripods for 
 the pots, and a water-can and tin basin. 
 
 On arriving at Constantinople the travelers should en- 
 gage an interpreter, a cook, and a servant. With these 
 and their baggage they should make for the point where 
 they are to leave the railway, and there purchase five 
 riding-horses, which wiU cost about £10 each, and five 
 pack-animals, which will cost £6 each. 
 
 They should take their own saddles and bridles from 
 England, and purchase three native saddles at Constan- 
 tinople for the servants, at a cost of £1 each. 
 
 When they have finished their travels the horses will 
 sell for as much as they gave for them. 
 
 The two travelers wiU ride two of the riding-horses, the 
 interpreter, cook, and servant the other three, and it will 
 also be necessary to engage a keradjee, or man to look 
 after and drive the pack-animals. 
 
 The loads should be distributed on the pack horses as 
 follows : — Nos. 1, 2, and 3, two basketed tin boxes on each. 
 No. 4, the tents, one on each side, and the camp bedsteads 
 on the top. No. 5, guns, tent-poles, and servants' beds.
 
 SIAT5 TO TEA VELERS. 371 
 
 The pack animals should always be accompanied by the 
 cook and the servant. 
 
 Each of these loads will weigh about 180 lbs., which is 
 not considered much in Turkey, where the pack-animals 
 usually carry 180 okes=275 lbs., and travel from twenty- 
 five to thii'ty miles a day. With the light loads I have 
 named, thuty miles can easily be accomplished in ten 
 hours' traveling, and however wet the weather may be the 
 packs will always arrive dry. With this staff the travel- 
 ers will be perfectly independent of all towns, khans, etc., 
 and will be free from the pest of insects of every variety 
 of size, color, and activity, with which the tovms are 
 generally swarming. 
 
 After an early breakfast, the tents should be struck, 
 packed, and seen off. 
 
 The travelers may then take their leisure, ride on to any 
 toT^Ti on their route they may wish to see, stop there a few 
 hours at a khan for luncheon, the pack-animals passing 
 through meanwhile under guidance of a zaptieh, or 
 mounted policemen, who will be a Turk, but, nevertheless, 
 a most civil, obliging, and honest man, and he should be 
 given instructions where to i^itch the tents for the night' s 
 halt. The travelers may go leisurely on, and when they 
 arrive at the rendezvous they ought to find the tents 
 pitched, the cook preparing dinner, and everything 
 ready to receive them. Food for the horses can be 
 bought at any of the towns or villages which may be 
 passed. 
 
 The zaptiehs (for one should also be taken as guide) may 
 be obtained at any large town which is the seat of a Mudir, 
 Caimakam, or Pasha, as the case may be, by going to the 
 konak and presenting the booyutoo. 
 
 By this arrangement the luggage is so arranged that if 
 the travelers wish to separate to make detours, and to 
 meet again, they can do so. 
 
 In hot weather I have always found it a good plan to 
 ride in woolen clothes, such as would be worn in Scotland, 
 or any other similar climate, for where thick clothes keep
 
 372 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 out the cold in one case, they keep out the sun in the 
 other, and save the wearer from fever. 
 
 There is nothing equal to a felt helmet as a covering for 
 the head. 
 
 In sleeping out in the open, which may sometinjes be 
 necessary, it is well to cut some small branches of any tree 
 which is not prickly, and pile them one on the other to lie 
 upon. They may feel a little lumpy and angular toward 
 the middle of the night, but it is better than getting 
 rheumatism from lying on the bare ground. 
 
 The secret in traveling is always to make yourself as 
 comfortable as you can under all cu-cumstances, and to 
 make believe that you are in luck. 
 
 The second class of travelers, who have to study econ- 
 omy, should take an English saddle and bridle, and the 
 carpet saddle-bags of the country, together with a ham- 
 mock, an eider-down quilt, and an air pillow. 
 
 A change of clothes goes in the saddle-bags, and by 
 purchasing one riding horse, the traveler can get on with 
 his bed on the back of the saddle, and make thirty miles 
 a day, sleeping at the khans, where he should sling his 
 hammock in the veranda, and he will by this means 
 escape insects. He will require a zaptieh for a guide, and 
 his total expenses will amount to about eight shillings a 
 day ; but he will not lead a luxurious life.. Let him be- 
 ware of the rooms in the khans, for however well white- 
 washed and clean they may look by day, a whole army 
 will start out from their ambush by night, and devour 
 him alive. The first system of traveling will cost about 
 £1 10s. per day each, including every expense, if it is 
 done very comfortably. 
 
 On first arriving in Turkey a stranger is very much puz- 
 zled by the affirmative and negative signs of the natives. 
 A decided shake of the head means yes, while a nod of the 
 head backward means no. I remember at the commence- 
 ment of my travels thinking that all kinds of obstacles 
 were being placed in my way by a khanjee, because to 
 every question of my interpreter the man kept shaking
 
 HABIT OF EXAGGERATIOX. 373 
 
 Jiis head ; but I afterward discovered tliat the poor man 
 was acquiescing in every demand. 
 
 Reports concerning sport — or, indeed, about anything 
 where numbers are concerned — must be received with 
 great caution. 
 
 You hear of a place where red-deer, roe-deer, boars, 
 etc., are said to be very numerous, and you hasten to the 
 spot to find, perhaps, that the red-deer dwindle down to a 
 solitary roe-buck, and the only boars are tame pigs. 
 
 On one occasion, when I was on the Balkan range, an 
 Armenian merchant declared that he knew of a gold mine 
 in Macedonia, where the precious metal could be seen 
 sticking out of the rock, and that he had cut off a piece 
 of solid gold three inches long and as thick as his 
 thumb ! 
 
 I felt inclined to address the man as I once heard one 
 American say to another who had just been drawing the 
 long-bow: "Sir, I have no doubt you are speaking the 
 truth, and that's a fact ; but if I was to meet you in New 
 York, walking down the Fifth Avenue, arm in arm with 
 Ananias and Sapphira, I should take you to be all of 
 one family, that I should." 
 
 To this habit of exaggeration there is also added, in 
 many of the Christian population, a love of sensation and 
 intrigTie. 
 
 This was forcibly brought to my mind on my own 
 estate last autumn, and I relate it as an instance of how 
 very easy it is in that country to get up a grievance. 
 
 According to custom at that season, I had all my 
 tenants (Greco-Bulgarians) assembled, and asked them 
 whether they had any comjolaints, and received a unani- 
 mous reply in the negative. Shortly afterward, to my 
 surprise, I received a written document, purporting to be 
 signed by every one of the tenants, and setting forth such 
 a list of charges against my agent (a Scotchman) that it 
 would have made a splendid handle for an atrocity agi- 
 tation. It was all in the usual "oppression style" of the 
 country, namely, that more than their rents were exacted
 
 374 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 from them by force, that they had to supply " corvee," or 
 forced labor, etc., etc., and it commenced by saying that 
 so tyrannical were the exactions that they were penniless, 
 naked, and starving. I was at first shocked at the list of 
 charges, and was nnder the impression that it might be 
 possible that there was at least some foundation for them, 
 but when I came to examine the document I saw that, 
 from my j^ersonal knowledge, some of the complaints 
 were so ridiculously untrue, that I began to doubt the 
 whole of them. For instance, I had just been living 
 among these very men, and so far from their being penni- 
 less, naked, and starving, they were employing servants 
 to do their work, while they sat half the day idle. Tliey 
 were even luxuriously clothed. There was abundance 
 of bread baked by them before my eyes daily, and their 
 farms were stocked with numerous turkeys, geese, and 
 fowls, besides which, each man possessed on an average 
 ten head of cattle, and I had told them long before, that 
 if ever they were in want of food I would advance them 
 flour. I have taken much pains to improve these very 
 people, and I was consequently greatly astonished at this 
 demonstration. 
 
 I quietly made close inquiries into all the charges, and 
 found them to be absolutely untrue, except one, which 
 was that they were frequently kept waiting when they 
 brought their grain-rents to my granary. 
 
 I appointed a day for seeing them altogether, and the 
 following conversation passed between us : — 
 
 "I have received this written list of complaints pur- 
 porting to be signed by all of you. Is that correct ? " 
 
 "Yes, Effendim, certainly we all signed it — and it is 
 true." 
 
 "I am very sorry, and much astonished, to find that 
 you have so many causes of complaint, and if they really 
 exist, I will certainly remove them. But we will now go 
 through them in order. First, you state that from the 
 exactions of my agent you are penniless, naked, and
 
 MANUFACTURING A GRIEVANCE. 375 
 
 "Ha ! lia ! lia 1 the Bey is joking with us ; that is non- 
 sense" (in a general chorus). 
 
 " N^ay ; but it is here, and signed by all of you ! " 
 
 "No, no ! we never signed that ; why, it's foolish ! " 
 
 I will not weary the reader by going on, but the same 
 farce was acted throughout. At last I said, " Come, now, 
 what does all this nonsense mean — what is it ? " 
 
 "Effendim, it was that fellow made us do it ; we are 
 quite comfortable and satisfied." 
 
 " That fellow " was a bad character, whom I had been 
 compelled to discharge, and he it was who had got up this 
 document, and easily induced every man to put his mark 
 to it without knowing what they were signing ; and all 
 they wanted was to try and screw a little more out of the 
 Bey, in the way of loans of money, etc., etc., by a few 
 frivolous complaints. 
 
 They all went away in good humor, declaring they 
 would never listen to "that fellow" again; that they 
 were fools, etc. 
 
 Anyone who is well acquainted with the East will 
 thoroughly understand this scene ; but what a case of 
 "hardship and oppression" might have been manufac- 
 tured out it ! 
 
 When I first entered Turkey I was told that the Turks 
 did not like foreigners settling in their country, and that 
 I should find every possible impediment thrown in my 
 way by ofiicials. 
 
 It is only due to Turkish officials, to state that I have 
 found it exactly the reverse. I have necessarily had 
 many transactions with them, as I purchased my property 
 from the Government by public auction ; but I have 
 found them ready and willing to give every assistance, 
 and the Governor- General assured me that they were 
 most anxious to get Englishmen to settle in the coun- 
 try. 
 
 This leads me to the subject of taxation, for here I am 
 one of those very Christians who are reported to be ground 
 down by extortion and taxation to the uttennost farthing.
 
 376 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 It may be said tliat I, as a foreigner and an Englisliman, 
 am exempt from siicli oppression. 
 
 But I am surrounded by large villages — I can count 
 nine from my windows — most of them are Cliristian, and 
 if there were any gross cases of oppression I should very 
 soon hear of it through my own peoi)le. 
 
 In three of these villages the inhabitants (Greco-Bulga- 
 rians) are very prosperous, and I notice that their pros- 
 perity varies in proportion to the manner in which they 
 cultivate the land. 
 
 There is a weekly market within half a mile of my 
 house, which is attended by over a thousand people, 
 Jews, Turks, Bulgarians, and gypsies, all mingling to- 
 gether. And although there are plenty of khans where 
 spirit can be bought for a penny a glass, quarreling or 
 violence on such occasions is quite the exception ; in fact, 
 I have no personal knowledge of it. Robbery sometimes 
 occurs in the neighborhood, of course, as it does in every 
 country. One of my own tenants was stopped one night 
 in a wild pass, and robbed of what little money he had 
 about him, but the robbers were detected and punished. 
 
 Since the Servian war, and so-called Bulgarian rebell- 
 ion, order has not been so well maintained, and a number 
 of bad characters are about ; but I have only heard of re- 
 ported robberies at a distance, and my immediate neigh- 
 borhood has been quiet enough. There are many people 
 who make it their business, and have an object in spread- 
 ing false and alarming reports ; and the cry of "wolf " is 
 so often raised that it is difficult to give credence to any- 
 thing you hear. These sowers of the seed of discord keep 
 up a nervous tension among the inhabitants, which is 
 productive of much harm, and it unsettles the minds of 
 all classes, whether they are Turks or Christians. 
 
 I will now pass in review the system of taxation which 
 is levied upon the country.
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 TAXATIO]^r, ETC, 
 
 What is a Piastre ? — The Ashr or Tithe — Tltizam and Wokalut — Mode of As- 
 sessing Tithe — Cause of Oppression in Collecting Taxes — Proposed Re- 
 form — Mode of Valuing Land — The Verghi — The Bedel or Haratch — The 
 Sayme or Sheep-tax — Customs-duties — Turkish Bonds — Suggestions to 
 Bond-holders. 
 
 IT is very easy, by the use of figures, to make the taxes 
 of any country appear burdensome and oppressive. 
 
 In England we have only to unite the avocations of a 
 landed proprietor, a publican, a brewer, and a merchant 
 in one man, and we can make out a sum for taxes and 
 duties in proportion to income which at first sight would 
 appear as though the man were the victim of a wanton 
 and greedy Government. 
 
 In Turkey the legal taxes as compared with those of 
 other European States, are not oppressive, but in some 
 instances the mode of collecting them is unjust and ruin- 
 ous to the individual as well as to the State. 
 
 Before examining the taxes, we will first endeavor to 
 get a clear idea of the currency. 
 
 I cannot do better than give the words of Mr. Barron 
 on this point : — 
 
 "What is a piastre? Stated alone, this is not a deter- 
 minate value, as there are four different currencies in cir- 
 culation, all called by that name, but varying slightly 
 from each other in value, and fluctuating in their rela- 
 tive values to each other. In Constantinople and in the 
 Asiatic provinces the copper piastre is a legal tender 
 where it is not otherwise stipulated, and is often the ac- 
 tual medium of payment of Government salaries, etc. 
 
 377
 
 378 TUBEET IiV EUROPE. 
 
 "Tliose wlio have interest enough, however, manage to 
 get their salaries paid in gold piastres, by which they 
 derive a profit of 10 per cent, above the smaller func- 
 tionaries. 
 
 "In some European provinces the 'beslilik currency — 
 an alloyed metal, half silver, half copper — ^is the basis of 
 all transactions. 
 
 "The current commercial medium of exchange is the 
 gold coin, commonly called Turkish lira, divided officially 
 into 100 piastres." 
 
 The following are the principal values reduced to their 
 
 equivalents in English : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 L. T., the Turkish lira or gold medjidie 18 0*64 
 
 P., piastre, the gold official, 100 to L. T 3-16 
 
 " '' the beshlik, 105 to the L. T 2-06 
 
 " '' the copper, about 110 to L.T. .. . 1-97 
 
 Purse, a sum of 500 piastres, gold 4 10 
 
 The piastre is theoretically divided into 40 paras, but 
 the coins do not exist, and the lowest circulated money in 
 the European provinces is the quarter piastre — 10 paras. 
 
 One of the greatest evils of the currency system is the 
 arbitrary power given to the governors of vilaiets to fix 
 the value in piastres of the lira in their district. 
 
 The most ancient of the Turkish taxes is that of the 
 Ashr or tithe, the tax of one- tenth on all agricultural 
 produce raised in the country, especially on corn, oil, 
 grapes, tobacco, and cotton. Many other articles — such 
 as timber, silk, cocoons, etc. — are also chargeable to this 
 tax ; but these tithes are levied and recorded under sepa- 
 rate heads. The tithe has not been a fixed charge of one- 
 tenth ; in former times it only amounted to one-fortieth, 
 but that was in the good old times of Turkish history, be- 
 fore corruption had eaten into the State. In 1867, when a 
 reform took place in the property-laws of Turkey, and 
 the freehold title to land in default of heirs was no longer 
 forfeited to the State, but could be left by will, the Gov- 
 ernment, without a particle of justice, claimed, as an
 
 TEE TITHE. 379 
 
 equivalent for tlie boon, a tithe of 15 per cent, for that 
 year, and 12^ per cent, for the four succeeding years. 
 The tithe is now reduced to 10 per cent. On com it is 
 generally paid in kind, and on other produce in money. 
 
 The tithe is not collected directly by the Government, 
 but the right of collecting it is sold annually, during the 
 spring, to the highest bidder. The speculators who pur- 
 chase the tithe are called multeyim, or farmers, and they 
 are usually from the rayah class of the country, and some- 
 times even foreign subjects. A man will buy the tithes of 
 a whole sandjak, and immediately sell to perhaps four 
 others, at a profit of 50 per cent. These four again sell at 
 a profit, so that a comparatively small portion of the tax 
 goes to the benefit of the State, and the producer is taxed 
 to make the fortunes of private individuals. This is one 
 of the most crying evils of Turkish administration, and 
 until it can be remedied the revenues of the country can 
 never rise to anything like their proper level. But there 
 are great difficulties in dealing with this tax, in conse- 
 quence of the character and customs of the people. 
 
 In theory, a direct Government collection naturally 
 suggests itself; but it has been tried, and has proved a 
 failure. The rayahs bribed the Government ofiicials who 
 were to collect the tax, and in other cases the ofiicials used 
 harsh measures in the collection ; the loss to the Govern- 
 ment became greater than ever, and the peasants prayed 
 to be placed under the old regime, or Iltizam system, as 
 it is called. The WoTcalut, or direct system, was also 
 tried in another form, by commuting the annual amount 
 of the tithe of a sandjak for a fixed sum, payable directly 
 by the producers into the local treasury, and based on 
 the average of five preceding years. But this did not an- 
 swer, for the peasant-farmer as a rule lives from hand to 
 mouth ; and in a bad harvest the Government was alto- 
 gether a loser, while if the crops were good it received 
 only the revenue of an average year. Another evil would 
 practically result from direct Government collection — the 
 tax-collector would be accompanied by his police and
 
 380 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 other officials, wlio would live on tlie peasants during tlie 
 collection. So long as Turkisli administration is corrupt, 
 the present system is the only one that can be followed. 
 The mode of collecting the tax varies with locality. In 
 the vilaiet of Salonica, the farmer of the tax, or his agent, 
 meets the producer on the field where the grain is lying 
 in stooks. Each selects a sheaf here and there about the 
 field. These are taken to the threshing-floors and threshed 
 in presence of both parties, the amount of grain produced 
 is divided by the number of sheaves, and is taken as the 
 average produce from each sheaf. There are ten sheaves 
 in each stook, the number of stooks in the field are 
 counted, and the tax-farmer knows the amount of grain 
 that is due to him. Nothing can be fairer than such a 
 system, so far as the producer is concerned. In the case 
 of large proprietors, an agent of the tax-farmer comes and 
 lives upon the estate (in quarters provided by the proprie- 
 tor, who receives a good rent for them) during harvest, 
 and there is no difficulty whatever in the collection or 
 payment. I am now speaking from actual experience. 
 But in the case of the small peasant-proprietor, whether 
 Turk or Christian, there are abuses which sometimes press 
 cruelly and ruinously upon him. The tax-farmer cannot 
 be ubiquitous, and naturally cannot afford to pay agents 
 to watch and gather every little patch of grain ; he has, 
 therefore, to divide his district into estates, and groups of 
 small farmers. 
 
 While he is collecting in one place, the other has to 
 wait. The rayah will always cheat the collector, if he 
 can, and very often does so, and perhaps the delinquent 
 is discovered in the act, and the agent's time is taken up 
 in securing his prisoner; but in the meantime another 
 small farmer is unable to carry his grain to the threshing- 
 floor until the collector has leisure to attend to him, and 
 his store is diminished daily by innumerable pigeons and 
 other birds, and at last a storm of rain comes on, and the 
 crop is spoiled. 
 
 A cry is raised that the tax-farmer abuses his authority,
 
 THE TITHE. 381 
 
 and extorts more than Ms due from the producer ; but in 
 reality it is rather the other way, and the producer, as a 
 rule, cheats the tax-farmer 
 
 I think the tithe at its proper value of one-tenth is a 
 fair tax in Turkey, where the taxes on property are so 
 slight. What is wanted is a system that will prevent its 
 collection pressing hardly upon the small producer, and 
 ensure the whole of the tax finding its way to the Treas- 
 ury. 
 
 Owners of large estates can, if they wish, buy their own 
 tithe, and it is a profitable thing to do. 
 
 The tithe was placed on its present footing in 1846. 
 Previous to that time a nominal equivalent to it was paid 
 by the peasants, partly in money and partly in kind, to 
 the spahis (beyliks), ziamets, and timars, the feudal lords, 
 among whom the land was partitioned, but who were then 
 pensioned off for life ; and most of them have now died 
 out. It was under their grinding and extortionate op- 
 pression that was born the cry, which is now so popular, 
 of Christians suffeiing under Turkish rule. 
 
 No State functionary is allowed to bid for the tithes, 
 either directly or indirectly. 
 
 There is a reform in connection with this tax which the 
 Government might adopt with profit, namely, to allow a 
 voluntary commutation of the tax for a fixed annual 
 money-payment, to be settled for ten years in advance, 
 and to be revised at the end of that period. If this were 
 done in a liberal spirit, it would prove a great benefit to 
 the country, and, consequently, to the State. For in- 
 stance, a man who now cultivates one hundred out of two 
 hundred acres which he possesses, would have his tithe 
 commuted for ten years on an average of produce for the 
 last five. He would, consequently, be encouraged to cul- 
 tivate more land as soon as he had paid the commutation, 
 and any improvement in cultivation which he might make 
 would be sheer profit. This is somewhat similar to a sug- 
 gestion put forward in the admirable report from Mr. Bar- 
 ron (from which I quote largely), and there is no doubt
 
 TUEKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 that it would be a great boon to the producer. The great 
 evil of the tithe system, as at present arranged, is that it 
 taxes the gross and not the net returns of the producer, 
 and he, consequently, is not encouraged to improve the 
 cultivation of his land. 
 
 Large tracts of land in various parts of Turkey, which 
 were formerly under cultivation, are now placed under 
 natural pasture. 
 
 The next tax to consider is that known generally by the 
 name of Verglii, a sort of property-tax. It also goes by 
 many other names, according to locality, such as mahtou, 
 kapno, kefaliatico, salyane, emlak, temrak-verghi, and 
 timettou. 
 
 This tax is fixed beforehand, at a certain amount for 
 every province, and it was allotted in 1845 at the rate of 
 3s. 7d. per head per annum of the supposed population. 
 
 The sub-allotment of the tax among individuals is not 
 governed by any law or fixed principle, and much depends 
 upon the province as to the form it takes ; sometimes it 
 will be that of a property-tax, in others an income-tax, or 
 house, or capitation- tax. A valuation of property is now 
 going on, with a view to establishing a new verghi as a 
 property-tax. 
 
 "In some places the old impost has been replaced by 
 two new taxes, or forms of verghi, called — 
 
 "1. The salyane or temrak-verglii, on real property. 
 This comprises {a.) a tax at the rate of 4 per 1,000 per an- 
 num on the estimated fee-simple value of all lands and 
 houses, whether subject to tithes or not. (p.) An additional 
 rate of 4 per cent, per annum on the estimated rent of the 
 same tenements if let to tenants. The rent is assumed to 
 be 10 per cent, of the rated value of property under 
 Schedule a. Proprietors occupying their own premises 
 are exempt from this rate, as is also land subject to tithe. 
 
 " 2. The timmetou-verghi, or income-tax. This is 3 per 
 cent, per annum on all gross profits derived from invested 
 capital. Government offices, and industry of every kind, 
 even manual labor : common laborers pay 30 piastres per
 
 TEE YEROni. 383 
 
 annum, Journeymen in regular trades from GO to IGO pias- 
 tres, otlier classes according to their reputed means. The 
 same amount to be levied annually for six consecutive 
 years (from 1870), after which there will be a re-valuation 
 of property and income. Religious orders, salaries (paid 
 out of endowments and charitable funds), school-masters, 
 parish doctors, hospital attendants, and also female ser- 
 vants, are exempt from verghi. 
 
 " Government officials are now subject to a deduction of 
 one-fifth from their salaries. The new verghi is, in fact, 
 an income-tax based on certain fixed principles. The esti- 
 mates of income are, of course, roughly made, and in a 
 manner which in this country would be considered arbi- 
 trary. But, owing to the publicity with which the com- 
 mission makes its estimates in open Medjliss, to the facts 
 that every one who chooses may be present, and that 
 every one thus present, officially, privately, or intrus- 
 ively, thinks himself entitled to give his opinion — the 
 result is a verdict pronounced by the whole community, 
 and approaches fairness." * 
 
 This is a sample of the means that are taken in Turkey 
 for arriving at a fair judgment by a rough-and-ready sys- 
 tem, and it cannot, at all events, be open to the charge of 
 despotic tyranny. That the taxes are not over-burden- 
 some on landed proprietors under the present arrange- 
 ment, may be gathered from the fact that an estate of 
 4,000 acres, of which 1,300 acres are under cultivation, 
 pays only £50 per annum for all taxes, tithe excepted. 
 
 Considering the amount of the tithe, this is adequate, 
 but not oppressive. 
 
 The valuation of the fee-simple of the land is effected as 
 follows : — Three-tenths of the produce of the estate is as- 
 sumed as a rent. Twenty times the value of these three- 
 tenths is set down as the fee-simple value of the land. 
 Upon this assumed value the salyane of 4 per 1,000 is 
 levied. 
 
 The surveyor, however, does not take as the unit of 
 
 * Mr. Barron's Report, 1870.
 
 384 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 Ms calculation the actual tenth, but one deducted by the 
 rule of proportion from the sum at which tJie titlie is sold. 
 Between this sum and the real value of the tithe there are 
 the accumulated profits of the head and submulteyims, or 
 tithe-farmers. Hence the Government is a heavy loser.* 
 
 By the old verghi the poorer classes had to make good 
 the sum requh-ed for the province, and had to pay for all 
 those (and there were many) who contrived to evade the 
 tax. By tlie new system the poorer classes will benefit, 
 because they will pay only in proportion to their means. 
 Whether the Government will be a gainer or loser remains 
 to be seen. 
 
 It would be a fatal mistake to attempt to institute a 
 land-tax in Turkey instead of the tithe. Not half the 
 land in the country is cultivated, and a land-tax would 
 ruin the proprietor, both large and small. The result 
 would be that it would not be paid. 
 
 The next tax for consideration is the Bedel, which, like 
 the verghi, also passes under different names, according 
 to locality, such as askerie, haratch, nefouz, parassi, 
 imdadie, ajidzye, nizamie, and bedelat. 
 
 It is paid by the non-Mussulman subjects of the Porte, 
 in consideration for their exem^^tion from military service. 
 The last official estimates of its yield gave an annual sum 
 of £580,432. The tax is levied on different principles, as 
 well as under different names. In some provinces it is 
 fixed at a certain amount, like the verghi, and then 
 allotted by the Government among the different creeds ; 
 in others it is collected by the Government itself from 
 individuals, after a certain fixed scale. In general, how- 
 ever, it is allotted beforehand on the basis of the supposed 
 population of a district. 
 
 A rough estimate of the population of some districts 
 was made in 1854 for this purpose. It was then laid 
 down that the annual levy for the nizam, or regular 
 army, should be one recruit for every 180 male adults, or 
 five and a half per 1,000, and that the rayah population 
 
 * Mr. Barron's Eeport, 1870.
 
 THE HA TT-l-EUMA TO UN. 385 
 
 should furnisli their contingent in money, at the rate of 
 5,000 piastres (£41 12s.), instead of one recruit. This 
 would come to a tax of 21-^^ piastres, or about 5s. lOd. per 
 head per annum for each Christian. And this is the tax 
 about which such an outcry is made abroad, and it is 
 called an injustice to the Christians, who have to pay 5s. 
 lOd. per annum for exemption from military service, 
 while it costs a Mussulman from £45 to £90 to escape 
 similar service ! 
 
 The Hatt-i-humayoun of 1856 distinctly laid down that 
 Christians as well as Mussulmans should be admitted into 
 the army ; but the law has never been complied with, and 
 the reason given by Fuad Pasha on the 18th of February, 
 1866, was the following : — " The actual admission of non- 
 Mussulman subjects into the Ottoman army has met with 
 obstacles resulting almost exclusively from the repug- 
 nance felt by the same for military service. But the 
 Government, far from having renounced the execution of 
 this measure, which is all to the advantage of the Mussul- 
 mans, who now alone pay the ' tax of blood,' is studying 
 a method for introduciQg the non-Mussulman element, 
 either by means of voluntary engagement, or by other 
 conditions calculated to remove existing jealousies or 
 repugnance. There exists, moreover, already in the Otto- 
 man army two regiments of mixed Cossacks, composed of 
 Mussulmans and Christians." 
 
 Mr. Barron, remarking upon this tax, says: "The 
 present form of conscription in Turkey is certainly the 
 most suicidal of all their taxes, falling, as it does, not on 
 the whole population, but on one-half of it, and on that 
 half which constitutes the mainstay of the empire. The 
 rich Turks and towns-people manage to shii^k this tax in 
 whole or in part. The Capital, by an unwise and illegal 
 privilege, is totally exempt from the conscription and 
 hedel. Millions of Arabs, Kurds, and other nomads, laugh 
 at this and all other taxes. The poor Turkish peasant^ 
 loyal, laborious, uncomplaining, and unfriended — pays for 
 everybody. To him the loss of his able-bodied sons may 
 25
 
 386 TURKEY IN EUROFE. 
 
 be absolute ruin. This is no sentimental grievance, bnt 
 a crying injustice, which is gradually sapping the strength 
 of the emx)ire. Everything tends to prove that the so- 
 called dominant race is yearly dwindling away under the 
 action of this cause." 
 
 The next tax is that of the sayme, on sheep and goats. 
 
 This is a tax originally assessed on sheep and goats, but 
 subsequently extended to swine, and in some districts to 
 cattle. It is called by the various other names of djelleb, 
 aghnam, korgoum-rossoumi, djanovar-rossoumi, kume- 
 hour, and tchoban. It may be supposed to be an equiv- 
 alent, imposed on pasture-lands, for the tithe which is 
 payable on arable land, and was, before 1858, paid in 
 kind, at the rate of one in every ten sheep. Since then a 
 money-payment has been generally established, calcu- 
 lated at 10 per cent, on the average value of the sheep. 
 
 In Bulgaria the average price of mutton was, in 1870, 
 two piastres an oke = 1 tt P©^ pound. At Salonica it is 
 now from 3d. to 4d. per pound, and the mutton is good. 
 
 The sheep-tax is fixed at different rates for different 
 provinces, but is everywhere put up to competition and 
 sold to speculators. 
 
 In addition to the sayme, flock-owners are subject to 
 another charge, called arniatiJca, which consists of an oke 
 of butter and an oke of cheese for every ten ewes or she- 
 goats, and a lamb for every fifty sheep, annually pre- 
 sented, together with a contribution of fowls from the 
 villagers to the effendi, bey, or lord of the manor. This 
 is a remnant of the old tax called spaliilik, which was 
 paid to the holders of beyliks, ziamets, and timars. 
 
 In the European provinces lambs do not pay the tax 
 until they are shearlings. Swine are taxed at the rate of 
 from three to ten piastres a head, according to locality. 
 Horned cattle used for draught are not taxed, but two 
 and a half piastres a head is sometimes claimed on the 
 sale of both oxen and horses. The sheep- and swine-tax 
 is a difficult one to collect, and it is evaded wherever possi- 
 ble. It comes heavily on the sheep-farmer ; but the profits
 
 CUSTOMS D UTIE8. 387 
 
 from that system of farming are great in Turkey, and en- 
 able the impost to be borne without oppression ; but as a 
 question of political economy it is pernicious, as it is de- 
 rived from producing-animals. 
 
 This concludes the taxes of Turkey, and we now come 
 to the customs duties. Upon this point Mr. Barron says : 
 "The Turkish tariff is certainly more moderate than those 
 of either France or Belgium ; but on the other hand it 
 includes transit and export duties, which in those coun- 
 tries practically do not exist, and an eight per cent, duty 
 on all imports of every description, whereas in France 
 and Belgium many of the chief articles of support are 
 exempt from duty. Moreover, in Turkey the customs 
 revenue includes a charge of eight per cent, on all native 
 produce passing from one Turkish port to another." 
 
 In comparing the customs revenue with the population, 
 Mr. Barron is of opinion that in Turkey the return should 
 be double what it really is. This is probably owing to the 
 system of backshish, which is practised to an abominable 
 extent in every custom-house in the empire, and it has 
 become such a habit that it is followed openly. 
 
 The eight per cent, duty on articles of native produce 
 passing from one i)ort to another has happily been re- 
 moved, as it was a most suicidal measure. For instance, 
 a farmer who held land on the coast of a bay, with a mar- 
 ket town on the opposite shore, only two miles off by sea, 
 could not send his gTain to market by water without pay- 
 ing an import-duty of eight per cent., while if he sent it 
 by land, which might be a distance of fifty miles, he paid 
 no duty ! In this case the farmer could not cultivate his 
 land with profit, as he must either be charged with eight 
 per cent, on his produce, or with the long and ruinous 
 land carriage. This duty has been reduced to one per cent. 
 for most sea-port towns, but it has not yet been entirely 
 removed. All exports to foreign countries pay a duty of 
 only one per cent. 
 
 In Appendix F, I give some interesting remarks and 
 statistics by Mr. Barron.
 
 388 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 On examining these statistics, the thought naturally 
 arises as to what would be the consequences if exclusive 
 Russia had command of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, 
 instead of Turkey ? 
 
 Since 1873 tobacco and salt in Turkey have been made 
 a Government monopoly, and experience is beginning to 
 prove the un^visdom of such an order. 
 
 There is a duty on title-deeds, tapou, which are now de- 
 livered to the purchaser of real estate by the Government : 
 this duty amounts to the small sum of 9 piastres for each 
 title-deed. 
 
 The duties on spirits and vdne are variable ; on the for- 
 mer it has risen fi'om 10 to 20 per cent. 
 
 Since 1870 a new regulation has been made with regard 
 to stamps. K"ow, all contracts to be binding must be 
 stamj)ed on paper, which can be purchased from the Gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 It wiU be seen that much remains to be done in purify- 
 ing the taxation and collection of duties in Turkey, but 
 very great strides have been made in reform, if we look 
 back twenty years in the history of the country. 
 
 The outcry of oppressive taxation is greatly exaggerated, 
 but that hardships exist in the collection there is no doubt. 
 The reason that the rayah finds the burden of taxation so 
 heavy is almost entirely his own fault, or, rather, I should 
 say, the fault of his religion. The Greek Church ordains 
 180 feast- and fast-days out of the year, on which the 
 strict Catholic or the lazy man need not work — nearly half 
 the year ! "VYhen he does work, he cultivates the land in 
 a most careless manner. Under such circumstances, it is 
 hardly matter of surprise that taxes should press heavily. 
 The Government on their side are to blame for not making 
 and Jceeping up roads of communication by which the pro- 
 duce of land may be brought to market. 
 
 By neglecting this duty the Porte locks up her wealth 
 and puts the key in her pocket. 
 
 There are hundreds of thousands of acres of the richest 
 land in the world, which might be cultivated with profit if
 
 BAD ROADS. 389 
 
 there were good roads of communication, but as it is, all 
 tlie bulk of tlie traffic of the country lias to be done by 
 pack-animals instead of wheeled carriages. One horse 
 would drag in a cart as much as four horses could carry ; 
 the consequence is, that food has to be groA\Ti to feed three 
 horses instead of one. The horse is useless for purposes 
 of food, and therefore this unnecessary exx3enditure of la- 
 bor to provide his keep and to rear him is sheer loss to the 
 State and people, and may be set down at many millions 
 of pounds. Again, the country is not adequately popu- 
 lated per square mile of area, consequently labor is to a 
 certain extent deficient ; therefore, if means were taken to 
 reduce the number of horses used for traffic, it would also 
 reduce the number of men who are employed to attend to 
 them, and would leave the surplus for the profitable culti- 
 vation of the enormous amount of rich but waste lands. 
 
 To give some idea of the loss this must entail upon the 
 country, I will instance my own case. My estate is only 
 eight miles from Salonica, and five years ago the magnifi- 
 cent highway road to Seres was made, and passes close to 
 the property. The road has never been touched from that 
 day to this, and is now impassable for wheeled carriages. 
 The consequence is, that although I have an excellent 
 market only eight miles off, I must send all my grain to it 
 on pack-animals, and for that short distance it costs me 
 6 per cent, on the value of the gTain, while with wheeled 
 carriages, and the road in order, the cost would be only 
 1 per cent. Here is a sheer and unnecessary loss of 5 per 
 cent, on the produce of one farm. And in this sense, that 
 which is a loss to the producer is indii-ectly a proportion- 
 ate loss to the Government. 
 
 K some of the many millions which were borrowed by 
 Turkey had been spent in making canals and roads of 
 communication, and 'keeping them, in order^ instead of 
 being squandered on the huge palaces at the capital, the 
 country would have been able to meet her liabilities, and 
 would have had revenue to spare to strengthen her for the 
 war which is probably approaching.
 
 390 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 In Appendix F, I give the year of issue, nominal capital, 
 tlie interest per cent., and tlie issue -price of tlie foreign 
 loans of Turkey. 
 
 By a decree of the Government, October 6, 1875, the in- 
 terest of the debt was reduced for a time to one-half of 
 the stipulated amount, but the foreign loan of 1855, issued 
 under the guarantee of Great Britain and France, was not 
 affected by the decree ordering the reduction of interest. 
 
 The liabilities of Turkey are so great, and her expenses 
 in connection with foreign troubles are so large, that she 
 is not likely to be able to pay the interest of her debt 
 under ordinary circumstances, but it seems to me that 
 there is a plan which might meet the difficulty, and be a 
 benefit not only to the bond-holders, but to Turkey herself . 
 
 Turkey is in possession of prodigious natural and un- 
 developed wealth in the form of extremely rich Govern- 
 ment lands, forests, and mines. The extent of these lands, 
 especially in Asia Minor, is enormous. The value of the 
 virgin mines is supposed by competent authorities to be 
 very great, and the forests are there to speak for them- 
 selves. At present all these riches are undeveloped, and 
 therefore do not benefit either the Government or the 
 subjects of Turkey. They merely require roads of com- 
 munication, and capital to be invested upon them, to bring 
 forth all their wealth. 
 
 The broad outline of the plan I would suggest is the 
 unification of the whole of the Turkish debt, and the 
 appointment of a Commission to rej^resent the bond- 
 holders, who should subscribe 5 per cent, on the nominal 
 value of their bonds, to be paid in equal annual install- 
 ments, extending to five years, and to receive for such 
 deposits what might be called "Turkish Estate Shares." 
 
 This would give on the one side a Commission with a 
 capital of £9,200,000 to represent the bond-holders, and on 
 the other there would be the Porte, which on its side 
 should agree to capitalize the interest of the whole debt 
 over ten years, and in lieu thereof to let to the Commis- 
 sion, on a lease of 100 years, Government lands, mines.
 
 TUEEISE BONDS. 391 
 
 and forests, to tlie value of the capitalized ten years' in- 
 terest of the debt. These lands, mines, and forests should 
 represent the "Turkish Estate Shares" of the bond-hold- 
 ers. The Porte also to claim that, at the end of ten years, 
 she should pay only 6 per cent, on her unified debt. 
 
 The agreement between the two parties would be this : 
 That the Porte should grant annually a certain sum, to be 
 determined upon and to be expended under the du-ection 
 of a joint committee appointed by the Porte and the Com- 
 mission, for the purpose of making and maintaining roads 
 of communication to the estates, mines, forests, etc., which 
 had been granted to the Commission. That the Commis- 
 sion, on their side, should agree to develop these estates, 
 and pay the usual tithes and taxes on the land, and a 
 royalty on the produce of the mines. The result of this 
 arrangement would be that for ten years the Porte would 
 be relieved of the interest of the debt, and after that date 
 would pay 5 per cent, on the whole amount. She would 
 have £9,200,000 spent in developing her rich country, and 
 the very fact of this capital flowing in, would, under the 
 circumstances, establish confidence, and attract more 
 foreign capital to be invested in the country. This rapid 
 development would bring a proportionate amount of reve- 
 nue, and enable the Porte at the end of the ten years to 
 meet her reduced liabilities. 
 
 The bond-holders, on their part, would be in possession 
 of valuable estates, mines, and forests, which would with- 
 out doubt give them a very large return, and this return 
 would go on increasing in value for 100 years. At the end 
 of ten years they would probably also receive interest at 
 5 per cent, on their bonds, which they would still liold. 
 Under present arrangements, they will certainly get no 
 interest for their investment, and their bonds will be only 
 so much waste paper. I am not a bond-holder myself, 
 so that I am quite a disinterested party to such a pro- 
 posal ; but I submit it for the consideration of those who 
 are. 
 In Appendix F, I give some statistics of the average
 
 392 TURRET m EUROPK 
 
 value of Imports and Exports of Turkey, and of the 
 Revenue returns. 
 
 We see here a decrease in the revenue of upward of 
 three millions sterling, and it is significant that the only 
 items of increase are, spirits, judicial taxes or fines, and 
 tapous, or tax on the transfer of lands, which certainly 
 does not point to prosi)erity. I believe (and I know that 
 I am borne out in my opinion by many competent author- 
 ities in Turkey) that this decrease in revenue is greatly 
 attributable to the demoralizing effects of the large foreign 
 loans, which have induced Turkish capitalists to fly to the 
 attractions of the Stock Exchange, instead of investing 
 their capital in the country. Many landed proprietors 
 have sold their estates simply for this purpose; others 
 have invested every farthing they could scrape together 
 in the same channel, to the detriment of their estates, and 
 consequently of their tenants, who have languished for 
 want of support. 
 
 The worst aspect of the case is that much of this money 
 passes into the hands of foreign speculators, and leaves 
 the country, which thus becomes impoverished. 
 
 Travel where you will, in any part of Turkey, and in 
 every small town you will find many of the wealthiest 
 people who can think and talk of nothing else but Turk- 
 ish bonds ; and there is quite a feverish excitement on the 
 subject. The whole gear of the commercial machinery of 
 the country is put out of working order by this species of 
 excitement, and when money cannot be obtained by fair 
 means, it is too often found by venality. 
 
 With a sort of blind fatuity, the people insisted upon 
 believing that the Porte would meet her liabilities, and 
 thus, when the crisis, which might have been anticipated, 
 was at length realized, all trade and enterprize was para- 
 lyzed. 
 
 In 1874-75 and 1875-76 a reform in the finances was 
 instituted by the verification of the Budget under a Spe- 
 cial Commission of eight members, including five Turkish 
 high functionaries and the manager of the Ottoman Bank.
 
 FmAyCIAL REFORMS. 393 
 
 In Finance, like all other branches of administration, 
 Turkey has made great reforms within the last thirty 
 years ; but there is no doubt that, notwithstanding the 
 reforms which have been promulgated, the officials and 
 admmistrators generally are more corrupt now than they 
 were then, and until some purifying process can be estab- 
 lished, it is impossible that the affairs of the country can 
 be properly conducted. It is only of late years that the 
 Porte has rendered any account at aU of the enormous 
 sums which she borrowed, and of her annual revenue and 
 expenditure. A large amount of the venality which has 
 existed, emanated, without doubt, from the example set 
 at the palace under Sultan Abdul Aziz, and it remains to 
 be seen what reforms are to take place in that quarter 
 Tinder the present Sultan.
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 Divisions of Landed Property — Vacouf — Mulk and Gedik — Miri— Villago 
 Lands — Title to Land in Turkey — Mode of Transfer — CMfiiks — Tenants 
 and Laborers — Impediments to good Cultivation — Value of Labor — Care- 
 less Cultivation. 
 
 T AND-TENURE in Turkey commenced with tlie con- 
 -L-^ quest of the country, and the division of the land into 
 Yacouf or Church property, private lands, and domain 
 lands. 
 
 Yacouf Peopeety is that which belongs to the mosques 
 and other religious institutions, and to benevolent founda- 
 tions. 
 
 It is administered by a special department of the State, 
 called the Evkaf, and it consists of two classes : — 
 
 1st. Property, or its produce, actually belonging to 
 such ecclesiastical establishments, and held and received 
 on their account by the Evkaf ; and 
 
 2nd. Property owned by private persons, but lapsing, 
 in default of direct heirs of the owner, to the Evkaf, and 
 subject in the meantime to a small yearly contribution 
 payable to that department ; but an owner of Vacouf 
 property having no dii'ect heirs, is not debarred from sell- 
 ing it to a person having such heirs, and so preventing it 
 for the time from falling into the Evkaf. By a recent law 
 a private person holding Yacouf property can, on pay- 
 ment of certain fees to the Government, have it converted 
 into what is called mulkieli — a title which gives the holder 
 the fee-simple of the land, to do with it as he pleases, to 
 leave it by will, and in default of his doing so, it passes to 
 his next heir. 
 
 394
 
 LAND. 395 
 
 Private Peoperty, or 77iul7c. This is equivalent to 
 freehold property in England. The owner now gets a 
 title dii'ect from the Government, and the property is 
 registered in his name. 
 
 By a recent law it can be left by will, and in default of 
 assignation, it goes to the next of kin. 
 
 A new addition to the facilities of transfer of this kind 
 of proj)erty has lately been enacted, by which the mulk 
 becomes what is termed ged'ik. The owner of the mulk 
 sells it to a purchaser, resei-ving either to himseK or to 
 some one else, a perpetual charge upon it. The pur- 
 chaser receives, under these circumstances, a gedik title. 
 
 The o^vner of the mulk may, by the gedik title-deed, 
 either prescribe the manner in which the property shall 
 descend, or he may put it out of his power to do so ; but 
 in the former case the Turkish Government reserves to 
 itself the power of compelling the proprietor of the mulk 
 to discharge this restriction on payment by the gedik of a 
 fixed fee. 
 
 It, therefore, comes to this — that the owner of a free- 
 hold estate or mulk can sell it, and at the same time 
 encumber it with a perpetual charge, in which case the 
 property ceases to be mulk, and becomes gedik. Gedik is, 
 therefore, a species of mortgage. 
 
 The Domain LA:riDS. These, at the conquest of the 
 country, were divided into — 
 
 1. Miri^ or those which were appropriated to the State 
 Treasury. 
 
 2. Unoccupied or waste lands. 
 
 3. The private demesne of the sultan. 
 
 4. Escheated and forfeited lands. 
 
 5. The appanages of the valideh-sultana (sultan's mo- 
 ther) and other members of the blood royal. 
 
 6. Lands assigned to the offices filled by viziers. 
 
 7. Lands assigned to pashas of the second rank. 
 
 8. Lands assigned to the ministers and officers of the 
 palace. 
 
 9. The military fiefs of beyliks, ziamets, and timars.
 
 396 TURRET m EUROPE. 
 
 Tlie designation of these lands explains tlieir character ; 
 but some remarks are necessary concerning the second, 
 fourth, and ninth. 
 
 In Turkey the traveler frequently meets with large vil- 
 lages, the inhabitants of which cultivate the adjoining 
 land, and if he asks to whom it belongs, he is told that it 
 is milage projperty, and that the title to such lands is a 
 most complicated affair. The explanation of the matter 
 is as follows : — These village lands have grown out of 
 No. 2 of the domain property — namely, the unoccupied or 
 waste lands. 
 
 By the Turkish law any one may settle upon the waste 
 lands ; and if he pays a fee, varying from 9d. to Is. 6d. per 
 acre, builds a house upon it, cultivates it, lives there, and 
 pays tithes for twenty years, he can then get a Govern- 
 ment title to his estate, and he can make it mulk or free- 
 hold. But the complicated part of the situation has to 
 come. When the squatter occupies his land, and builds 
 his house, he is granted the right of grazing a certain 
 number of animals (in proportion to the land he cultivates) 
 upon the waste lands which lie around him, w^hich fre- 
 quently produce excellent grass. He can always increase 
 the size of his estate by taking in more of these waste 
 lands, paying the fee, and cultivating them, and after 
 twenty years gets a title. But supposing several other 
 squatters settle around himi They also have the same 
 rights of grazing on the waste lands, which become what 
 is termed mira^ and are equivalent to our common lands. 
 
 The small farms grow in number until they become a vil- 
 lage, and perhaps a town, and as they increase in number 
 so does the area of mira. The title to such lands frequently 
 becomes complicated, because the owner may have sold 
 his right before the expiration of the twenty years' pay- 
 ment of tithe — before, in fact, he had any legal right to 
 the land. The only property, therefore, which a foreigner 
 should think of buying is that of mulk, or freehold, or that 
 called Yacouf, which can now be converted into mulk. 
 
 The escheated or forfeited lands arose from the former
 
 TITLE-DEEDS. 397 
 
 practice of tlie Government to seize private property in 
 cases of perversion from the faith of Islam, and certain 
 violations of tlie law ; but this practice has been abolished. 
 The land belonging to the military fiefs has passed to the 
 Government, who abolished the species of tenure during 
 the reign of Sultan Mahmoud, and the holders of it were 
 pensioned off, and are now nearly extinct. 
 
 In 1867 a law was passed granting foreigners the right 
 of holding real property in Turkey. Previous to that 
 date, any foreigner who wished to hold real property had 
 to employ an Ottoman subject to purchase it in his own 
 name, and then sign a document binding him to pay the 
 purchasing foreigner the purchase-money of the estate. 
 This unsatisfactory state of affairs was done away with 
 by a Firman, which I give in Appendix G. 
 
 All title-deeds now emanate from the Government, and 
 are registered. The process of transfer of landed property 
 is very simple tind expeditious. The seller and purchaser 
 having agreed as to terms, they proceed to the konak or 
 Government-house of the district, m which all the Courts 
 are concentrated. There, before vdtnesses, the owner 
 proves his identity, and hands over the title-deeds to the 
 Government officials. The purchaser pays the purchase- 
 money on the spot, before witnesses, to the seller, and the 
 Government hands him in return a paper setting forth the 
 name, situation, and extent of the estate, by what it is 
 bounded, etc. The estate is then registered in the name 
 of the purchaser, and it virtually belongs to him, the pa- 
 per he has received being equivalent to a title-deed ; but 
 the latter is drawn up at Constantinople, and in process of 
 time is handed over to the new owner. '\Yhen buyer and 
 seller are agreed as to terms, half an hour completes the 
 whole transaction, and the land being registered makes 
 the whole business perfectly simple and straightforward. 
 Before attending at the konak, the purchaser can apply 
 to the magistrate of the district where the land is situated, 
 and he appoints a certain day for the attendance on the 
 spot of all neighboring landowners ; these, accompanied
 
 398 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Iby the magistrate, the purchaser, and the seller, go round 
 the boundaries and compare them with the title-deeds, so 
 as to prevent the possibility of after-dispute. This trans- 
 action is registered at the local office, and affords evi- 
 dence in favor of the purchaser against any neighbor who 
 might afterward disx)ute the boundary. 
 
 Xotv^ithstanding this, the wildest statements are pro- 
 mulgated regarding property in Turkey, which would lead 
 to the sui)i)osition that there was no such thing as security 
 for a landed proj^rietor. I made careful inquiries from 
 the highest officials, both English and foreign, who had 
 resided many years in the country, and they all agreed 
 that no single instance could be adduced of a proprietor 
 being disturbed, when he had a just title to his property. 
 
 A great noise is sometimes made by foreigners in Turkey 
 against the bad faith of the Porte in this respect, and 
 they hold theu' own cases up as examples ; but when these 
 cases come to be inquired into, it is found that the 
 foreigner is the delinquent, who, cunningly taking advan- 
 tage of some loophole, has tried to cheat either the Govern- 
 ment or some one else out of his property. In such cases 
 the Turkish law is strictly just. The fact is, the Turkish 
 Government is a peg for any thwarted adventurer (and 
 there are many) to hang a grievance upon. 
 
 In Turkey, if a man be careful to examine the title of his 
 estate, he is as secure and as free in his property as in any 
 other country. But if he be careless, and purchases the 
 property I have described which carries Avith it the rights 
 of mlra and other complications, he must naturally expect 
 to meet with trouble ; and the same penalty would follow 
 in England. Formerly it was not possible in Turkey to 
 leave landed property by will, but when a man died, the 
 estate was, by law divided equally among his children, 
 and each child received a separate title-deed to his share 
 of the estate ; the consequence was that the land became 
 broken up into a great number of small holdings : it there- 
 fore frequently occurs that, on buying a large estate, the 
 purchaser finds that he has over a hundred title-deeds.
 
 FARMING. 399 
 
 He can, however, get them all comprised in one on appli- 
 cation to the Government. 
 
 The whole expenses connected with the purchase of 
 mullc — landed property — may be estimated at 5 per cent. 
 on the purchase-money. This includes the Government 
 tax of 2i per cent. 
 
 Landed proprietors in Turkey are, almost without 
 exception, non-resident, and their estates usually comprise 
 what is called the heylilc, or home farm ; the yeradjees, or 
 tenants on the metayer system, which is prevalent over 
 nearly the whole of Southern Europe ; and the grazlnr/s 
 — that is to say, the estate contains arable land and natural 
 pasture ; the tenants are permitted to graze a certain 
 number of beasts on the pasture-land, which, subject to 
 this right, is let to flock-masters for grazing. 
 
 AYe will su];)pose that a proprietor has just purchased 
 an estate, or cliijlllc, as it is called. He finds upon it a 
 dwelling-house or Iconak (not to be confused "with the 
 Government konak), more or less good, surrounded by 
 houses occupied by the yeradjees, or metayer tenants, 
 and houses occupied by the chifgees, or laborers, who work 
 the beylik, or home farm. 
 
 Each yeradjee has his straw-bam and a stable, and there 
 is a common cattle-yard for all the tenants. 
 
 The beylik has its own straw-barn and cattle-stable. In 
 charge of the estate is a soubassi or native bailiff — some- 
 times a Turk, sometimes a Christian. The Turks are the 
 most trustworthy. He keeps the accounts, and acts under 
 instructions from the proprietor. His wages are usually 
 £35 a year and house-room ; he keeps himself. What 
 may be called the staff of the estate, who are paid by the 
 proprietor, are, besides the soubassi, the semens or 
 gardes-cliampetre, usually two, and Albanians, who are 
 armed ; they get from £20 to £23 per annum, keep them- 
 selves, and find their own horses, or £10 a year and fines 
 for captured cattle, and the proprietor finds the horses ; 
 they are also housed. The geladar, or estate cow-herd : 
 he herds all the cows, calves, horses, etc. , of both j^erad-
 
 400 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 jees and proprietor; Ms wages vary slightly, in many 
 cases it is— from the proprietor, 100 piastres— 17s,, nearly 
 — ^per annum, four bushels of wheat, two bushels of bar- 
 ley, two bushels of rye, and one and a half skins for shoes ; 
 and from the yeradjees, 11 piastres per head for non- work- 
 ing cattle. The volovosJcos, or ox-herd of the estate, who 
 looks after all the working oxen when grazing, and is paid 
 500 piastres per annum, and the same allowance of grain 
 as the geladar, by the x)roprietor, and optional small pay- 
 ments in grain by the yeradjees. These herds are usually 
 gipsies, and are housed on the estate. The demirjee, or 
 blacksmith, almost always a gipsy, who is housed with 
 his family on the estate : his wages vary ; they are gener- 
 ally 500 piastres per annum, and the same grain allow- 
 ances as the geladar from the proprietor, and payment for 
 "work done" by the yeradjees. He shoes the cattle and 
 horses, and does any blacksmith's work which may Ibe 
 required of him. 
 
 This completes the "staff" of the estate. It is culti- 
 vated by — 
 
 1. Tlie c7if/f/ees, or fann-laborers, who work on the bey- 
 lik, or home farm, for the proprietor, under the soubassi, 
 are usually paid £10 per annum in cash, and allowances 
 of grain and food, the average annual value of which may 
 be set down at £8, so that the total cost of a farm-laborer 
 is £18 per annum and house-room. 
 
 There is another way of paying these farm-laborers, 
 which is occasionally adopted, and that is the payment 
 to them of four bushels of wheat, two bushels of barley, 
 and two bushels of rye per annum, and in place of a 
 cash payment they receive 15 per cent, of the crops after 
 tithe and seed are deducted. This is a co-operative sys- 
 tem, which at first sight would appear to be advisable ; 
 but it is not to the advantage of the proprietor, as the men 
 will not do any work which is not actually connected with 
 the cultivation of the land which is to return them 15 per 
 cent, of its produce. 
 
 2. The yeradJeeSj or tenants on the metayer system.
 
 TEXA^^TS. 401 
 
 These men form what is nsnally meant by the term rayah 
 in Tnrkey, Their Avealth and independence much depends 
 upon the part of the country they live in, and the wealth 
 and character of their landlord. As Christians they are 
 called rayahs, but they may be Turks, Tartars, or any 
 nationality ; the large majority are, however, Christians, 
 and, generally speaking, Bulgarians, The conditions of 
 their tenancy vary. In all cases the landlord provides 
 them \\'ith a house, stable, barn, and seed. Occasionally 
 they pay a fixed rent of about two bushels of wheat to the 
 acre, which is in that country equivalent on an average to 
 about 8s. 6d. in money-value ; but unless they are well- 
 to-do people (which is an exception), this is a very unsatis- 
 factory arrangement for the landlord, because in bad years 
 they cannot pay, and in good years he obtains only his 
 average rent. The arrears become a debt, it is true, but it is 
 seldom possible to realize it. The yeradjees as a rule are 
 farmers of only one plow each, worked by a pair of oxen, 
 with a third beast to shift. They are also the owners, on 
 an average, of two or three cows and their calves, and two 
 or three horses — in all, about ten animals each. 
 
 "WTien working on the metayer system, which is almost 
 general, the landlord provides the seed, the yeradjee cul- 
 tivates the land, and after tithe and seed for the following 
 year are deducted, he divides the crop equally with the 
 landlord. By this system the landlord in a bad year is a 
 loser, but in a good year he receives a high rent. The 
 yeradjee is also given gratis a small amount of ground for 
 growing melons, and also sufficient land to sow grain-crops 
 for the winter feed of his stock, and this he does not share 
 with the landlord. 
 
 The wives of the tenants rear and sell poultry. 
 
 K the yeradjee has a bad year, or loses his cattle, he has 
 to borrow money, for in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred 
 he has not a farthing of capital. If he goes to the money- 
 lenders, he will probably have to pay 40 per cent, for the 
 loan. He therefore applies to his landlord, who advances 
 it to him at 12 per cent. It thus happens that each tenant 
 26
 
 402 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 has a debt to his landlord, and it is usual for the purchaser 
 of an estate to take over with it the debts of the tenants, 
 so that they are transferred mth the property, but not 
 necessarily so. However if the new owner does not take 
 them, the last proprietor waits until the midst of the 
 plowing-season, and then summons the tenants for their 
 debts, which of course they cannot pay, and are therefore 
 put in prison ; so that the new owner must either take 
 over the debts, or lose the cultivation of his estate for that 
 year for want of men to plow it. 
 
 It consequently happens that the proprietor finds him- 
 self in the position of holding tenants whom he must keep, 
 however badly they may farm his land, or he must sacri- 
 fice a certain amount of capital if he dismisses them. 
 
 The rayahs, or yeradjees, on their side, know that what- 
 ever happens, the proprietor must support them, or lose 
 his money, and they, therefore, become lazy and careless. 
 So that it comes to this, that the proprietor is responsible 
 for the support of his tenants, but has no control over the 
 manner in which they cultivate his land. Moreover, for 
 each tenant he has to supply grazing for ten animals — • 
 although the tenant only cultivates, say, forty acres of 
 land — besides supporting a host of poultry, geese, etc. 
 
 It would seem that under such a system the rayahs 
 ought to prosper, for it is almost a case of " heads I win, 
 tails you lose," between him and his landlord. Why, 
 then, does it happen that the rayahs are poor, and living 
 from hand to mouth? The reason is not far to seek. 
 Their religion enjoins 180 out of the 365 days of the year 
 as either fasts or feasts, and for abstention from work. 
 Any farmer knows the importance, in farming, of doing 
 the right thing at the right moment, and perhaps one or 
 many of these holidays come just at the time when hard 
 work is of the utmost importance ; and on a fine day in 
 the autumn, when wheat ought to be sowing, a number of 
 idle fellows may be seen sitting about doing nothing but 
 watch their cattle "eating their heads off," as it is vul- 
 garly called ; and the reason given is that it is a "fast"
 
 RAYAHS. 403 
 
 day, and tlie priest has forbidden work. But this is not 
 all ; when the work is done, it will be seen that the culti- 
 vation is of such a miserable description, that the wonder 
 is that the land produces anything at all. The whole sys- 
 tem is bad, from beginning to end — bad for the landlord 
 and bad for the tenant — and until some reform can be 
 made in this quarter, there is no hope of prosperity for 
 the peasant-classes in Turkey. But be it observed that 
 the fault lies here not with the Turks, but with the Chris- 
 tians. If the Porte were to attempt to dictate as to the 
 number of working days for the Christians, what an out- 
 cry about persecution we should have flying about Eu- 
 rope ! It is, however, some satisfaction to find that this 
 absurd excess of fasts and feasts is gi-adually being re- 
 duced. 
 
 Hired laborers will now work every day, excepting on 
 the few most important holy days. The rayahs suffer in 
 many instances from the non-residence of their landlords. 
 The soubassi (generally a Christian) grinds them down to 
 the uttermost farthing, and is not particular about justice, 
 and, by way of being consistent, he also robs the land- 
 lord. 
 
 The grazing or pasturage of a chiflik is usually let to 
 :^A flock-masters, and consists (in the plains) of two lettings, 
 the summer and the winter ; the latter being by far the 
 more valuable, because at that season the flocks which 
 during the summer have been grazing on the high 
 mountains, are driven down to the plains to winter. The 
 summer letting takes place in May, and the winter letting 
 in October. It is the custom to pay cash for the rent of 
 grazings — usually half in advance, and the second moiety 
 a considerable time before the termination of the letting. 
 
 The competition for the winter grazings is sometimes 
 keen, and the rents are high for that country, varying 
 from five to eight piastres per head for sheep, and four- 
 teen to twenty-five piastres for cattle, for the season. The 
 proprietor has the best possible security for his rent, as he 
 can seize the sheep or cattle upon his estate if it be not
 
 404 TUREET IN EUROPE. 
 
 paid, and the custom of payment in advance always en- 
 ables him to secure his rent. The necessity for such strong 
 measures is, however, quite exceptional, as the rents are 
 paid with great regularity. 
 
 We have hitherto been considering the occupation of 
 land as chifliks or large landed estates, but there is a very 
 large portion of the country held by villagers on the 
 terms of tenure I have described in page 396. These men 
 are more prosperous, because they are more self-depend- 
 ent, but in the case of the Christians the numerous holi- 
 days and wretched system of cultivation naturally act as 
 a great di^ag to advancement, yet in spite of this the land 
 is so wonderfully rich, especially in Macedonia, that in 
 many cases comparatively wealthy villagers are to be 
 found. This is not so general among the Turkish popu- 
 lation, who are poorer but uncomplaining. The drain 
 upon them for military service is one of the chief causes 
 of their want of success, but they are industrious, and 
 apparently contented. 
 
 One of the grievances of all classes of peasants, and a 
 very just one, is what is called "corvee," or forced labor. 
 In time of war, or on any emergency, the Government 
 seize the men and horses belonging to the villagers for 
 any State work which may be necessary. The men are 
 paid, it is true, but the loss to the farms at some seasons 
 of the year is far more than the payment covers. Re- 
 bellion is so often fomented in some part or other of the 
 empire that these emergencies arise frequently, and the 
 hardship is great. 
 
 The system of cultivation in Turkey varies with locality 
 and soil. In some places it is customary to sow land one 
 year and leave it fallow the next ; in others the same land 
 is sown every year, and in neither case is manure applied. 
 This, of course must exhaust the soil, but it is wonderful 
 how well some of the rich alluvial plains seem to bear it ; 
 and I have seen lands giving very fine crops which have 
 been sown yearly, without manure, as far back as the 
 natives can remember. They certainly get a slight ma-
 
 PLOWS. 405 
 
 nuring from tlie custom of turning slieep on tlie land im- 
 mediately after harvest, and also, in the early spring, to 
 graze down the grain crops, which at that season are wont 
 to get "proud," as the English farmer terms it ; but this 
 is but slight compensation for all the chemical matter 
 which must be abstracted from the soil by the successive 
 crops and removal of the straw, I find that in Macedonia 
 there is generally a four-course system of wheat, barley, 
 rye, and a summer crop. Wheat, barley, rye, and oats 
 are sown in the autumn and reaped in June, and the ear- 
 lier they are in the ground the better for the crop ; but 
 sowing goes on until the middle of January. Spring 
 grain crops are always a failure in Turkey. The summer 
 crops consist of maize, kikree, sesame, rovi (a sort of 
 small pea), revethi (the Indian gram), cotton, tobacco, etc. 
 They are sown during April and May, and reaped in 
 August and September, Hay is confined to the natural 
 grasses, w^hich are rich and abundant, A portion of the 
 grazing is reserved for hay in AjDril, and the grass springs 
 up nearly three feet high, and is cropped in June, It is 
 not stacked, as in England, but is made up into bundles 
 and housed in barns. When properly cultivated, every- 
 thing grows in the greatest luxuriance ; and even vdth the 
 wretched system adopted, the land produces in good sea- 
 sons crops equal to those in England. 
 
 If Noah had a plow, I expect it was very similar to the 
 primitive implement which is now used in Turkey. A 
 long crooked piece of wood, with a yoke of oxen at one 
 end of it, and a single handle, held by a careless earth- 
 scratcher at the other, performs the scratching operation 
 at a quick w^alk. It cannot be called plowing. If a bram- 
 ble be met, the plowman works round it delicately — he 
 never thinks of grubbing it up — if a tall thistle, with a 
 tough root, he pays it similar respect, and hops the plow 
 over it with a clever jerk. Brambles and thistles are 
 rather numerous, so that the appearance of a plowed field 
 in Turkey is not exactly what it is in England ! Barley, 
 rye, and oats are sown broadcast on the old stubble and
 
 406 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 scratched in with the plow. Wheat land receives two 
 plowings. Harvesters go about in gangs, and are engaged 
 in April for the June harvest. In Macedonia the harvest- 
 ing expenses, exclusive of carrying, come to from £7 10s. 
 to £9 per plow. 
 
 I have already explained the mode of taking the tithe. 
 The sheaves are carried in bullock-wagons to the thresh- 
 ing-floors, which consist of a level part of the land, well 
 cleared and trodden, and in a position likely to catch the 
 wind from every quarter. 
 
 The grain in the ear is strewn about the threshing-floor, 
 and in many places horses are merely galloped over it to 
 break out the grain ; but the more improved method is to 
 harness them into a sort of wooden sleigh, studded with 
 flints at the bottom. On this one of the giiis of the village 
 (or farm) stands, and as she supports herself with a long 
 wand, the horses are lashed into a gallop round and round 
 the threshing-floor. It is a very busy and picturesque 
 sight, as these young ladies go careering round and round 
 amid the golden corn, under the admiring gaze of their 
 swains. 
 
 The straw is cut up into small lengths of about two 
 inches by this process, and the grain is then winnowed by 
 tossing it up cleverly with wooden-pronged forks and 
 shovels, so that the breeze may blow away the chaff, which 
 falls like showers of gold-leaf in every direction. 
 
 Both men and women work hard at the threshing, begin- 
 ning at 2 A.M. and working, off and on, until after 9 p.m. 
 As may easily be imagined, this system of threshing is 
 wasteful in the extreme. Moreover, if rain comes on, 
 large quantities of grain are destroyed. Another serious 
 evil of this system is that the farm men are occupied with 
 threshing at the very time they ought to be plo\ving the 
 land for the next year's crop ; so that a heavy harvest 
 entails a short crop the following year, because it has taken 
 so long to thresh that the time for sowing is limited. 
 
 In Turkey the yield of a crop is not estimated, as in 
 England, at so many bushels to the acre, but at so many
 
 OBJECTIONS TO MACniNERT. 407 
 
 times tlie seed sown. Eiglit times is considered an aver- 
 age crop, ten times good, and twelve times very good, 
 but I have had fourteen times the seed from rye. About 
 three bushels of wheat are sown to the acre, two and a 
 half bushels of rye, four bushels of barley, and four 
 bushels of oats. Indian-corn yields two, three, and some- 
 times four hundred-fold. Land receives two plomngs 
 for the summer crops. The Indian-corn is dibbled in rows 
 and hoed twice. The labor is, therefore, expensive, but 
 it is a paying crop on suitable land. Laborers can be 
 engaged by the month, week, or day, and are called respect- 
 ively Ailekgee, Hef tagee, and Guiundelikgee, ai signifying 
 in Turkish a month, hefta a week, and guiun a day. The 
 termination lik signifies belonging to, and gee is attribu- 
 tive : hence, chift = a pair, chiftgee the worker of a pair 
 (of oxen) ; bey-lik belonging to the bey ; Yarim = half, 
 yarimgee, or yeradjee, one who works for half. It is not 
 easy to find labor at a moment's notice, and care is re- 
 quired to provide beforehand for future wants. 
 
 The drawback to labor in Turkey is the difficulty of 
 getting a man to do any work but that which he consid- 
 ers his particular line ; so that a plo^vman will not make 
 a ditch, and a ditcher will not make a fence. A little tact 
 and management are required to overcome these prejudices. 
 
 Like the peasantry of every country the Bulgarians are 
 very prejudiced, and object to any innovation. To every 
 improvement that is suggested the answer is, " It may do 
 in your country, but it won't do here;" but by perse- 
 verance this obstinacy can be overcome. Like our own 
 English farm-laborers in former days, they have the 
 greatest objection to what they call the "machina," or 
 machinery, but although they never attempt to destroy it, 
 they are delighted to see the work go wrong. This, again, 
 merely requires patience and perseverance to overcome it. 
 I took out an English single and a double-furrow plow, 
 by Messrs. Ransomes, Sims & Head. At first the na- 
 tives said they were no use, and it would be quite impos- 
 sible to work them ; but through the perseverance of my
 
 408 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 agent, Mr. W. C. Eobertson, they are now doing excellent 
 work, and a native with the single plow can turn up one 
 and one-eighth English acres a day, seven inches deep, in 
 a rich sandy loam, which would be considered good even 
 for an Englishman. The fact is, the Bulgarian works 
 about nine hours on a winter's day, while the Englishman 
 only works six. The villagers are now beginning to ask 
 for English plows ; so they are evidently amenable to 
 reason. The difference in the croiDS from the land which 
 has been cultivated with our home plows is very re- 
 markable, and I hope before long to see all the neigh- 
 boring villagers cultivating their land on the English 
 system. 
 
 The cattle in Turkey are small, but well shaped, and 
 nearly all the same color, namely, a light yellowish gray, 
 with brown points. The cows give very little milk, but 
 what is given is almost as rich as cream. The calves are 
 usually allowed to have it all. I have tried a cross with 
 a thoroughbred ISTorth Devon bull, and expect great re- 
 sults, as the climate is admirably suited for cattle rearing. 
 Buffaloes are much used for draught work and plowing, 
 and very useful animals they are, although slow in their 
 paces." 
 
 In Macedonia a pair of working oxen costs from £12 to 
 £18, a pair of buffaloes from £20 to £22, pack-horses from 
 £5 to £8, riding-horses (small), from £10 to £30. All the 
 horses are very small, but ^Avj and hardy animals. 
 
 Sheep-farming pays well in Turkey if properly man- 
 aged. The sheep are not well bred, and more resemble 
 the common Irish than any other I know ; there is a large 
 field for improving the breed, and the experiment would 
 pay well. The flockmasters rent summer grazing on the 
 great mountains, and winter grazing on the plains, and 
 they will sometimes drive their flocks as far as 200 miles 
 from one ground to the other. I met a flockmaster on the 
 plains of Troy in the winter whom I had seen during the 
 summer with the same flocks on the Balkan mountains. 
 He told me that it answered very weU. to drive them so
 
 SHEEP FARMING. 409 
 
 far, because they paid nothing for grazing daring the 
 journey. 
 
 The slieep clip on an average about 2|lbs. of coarse, 
 kempy wool, whicli finds a ready sale at from Gd. to 8d. 
 per lb. ; but in the district of Adrianojile the wool is of a 
 finer quality, and from one to two million pounds of it 
 are exported annually to France. The ewes are milked 
 after July, when the lambs are weaned, and the milk is 
 made into butter and cheese, which always finds a ready 
 sale, even on the mountain-top, where merchants go to 
 purchase it. It is calculated that 1,000 ewes will produce 
 cheese and butter to the value of £150 in the season. 
 
 Sheep are taxed after they become shearlings. In Mace- 
 donia the tax is 4| piasters per head per annum. Young 
 shepherds are paid £12 a year, including food ; good shep- 
 herds £25. The rent for grazing may be set down at from 
 ten to fourteen piasters a head, including winter and sum- 
 mer. The sheep get nothing to eat but what they can pick 
 up, excexDtiug in very stormy weather in the winter, when 
 they are given a little barley, the cost of which for the 
 season may be set down at about four piasters per head. 
 In Macedonia a lamb when weaned "svill sell for from 
 thirty-five to sixty i)iasters, according to size. The shep- 
 herds never leave their flocks day or night, and are very 
 careful of them ; but the art of breeding is not understood, 
 and the sheep run down to skeletons in a bad winter, and 
 fatten again in the summer. 
 
 Cotton is extensively cultivated in Macedonia and iq 
 many other parts of Turkey, as the soil m some parts and 
 the climate is well suited for it. The seed of the annual 
 cotton plant is sown in May, and the crop is gathered in 
 the end of September. 
 
 Tobacco grows in great perfection in many parts of Tur- 
 key, especially in the district between Cavalla and Lagos, 
 on the ^gean Sea, where lies the quarter called Jened- 
 sche, which gives its name to some of the finest tobacco 
 in the world. The high price which this tobacco realizes 
 makes its cultivation In that quarter very profitable, and
 
 410 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 it is all in the hands of natives of the country. Near Ca- 
 vaUa I saw a smaU valley broken up into little farms of 
 not more than four or five acres, each of which boasted of 
 a small house, and was well fenced. Tobacco only was 
 cultivated, and the flourishing condition of the little farms 
 evidenced the profitable nature of the crop. 
 
 In other parts of the country, where the nature of the 
 soU is not so peculiarly suited to the plant as at Cavalla 
 and Jenedsche, the cultivation of tobacco is less profitable 
 than that of grain crops. 
 
 Vineyards in Turkey are very extensive, and the climate 
 is admirably suited to the growth of the vine. The vol- 
 canic nature of the soil in many parts of the country is 
 also favorable to the cultivation of that plant. There are 
 many kinds of grapes, both of the black and white varie- 
 ties, and most of them are good, but the wines are as yet 
 but indifferent, from the careless manner in which they are 
 made. 
 
 All the wine made in the country is generally consumed 
 in the year of its manufacture, so that much " bouquet " 
 cannot be expected. 
 
 The vines are planted about fifty inches apart, and are 
 well dug and trenched twice a year. They do not bear 
 grapes before the fiith, and the crop goes on increasing 
 until the tenth year, when it produces on an average about 
 6,500 lbs. of grapes to the acre, which sell atone halfpenny 
 per lb., wholesale. 
 
 They are pruned to about three feet in height, and are 
 not " sticked." To lay down a vineyard costs by the end 
 of the fifth year, including the price of the land, about 
 £30 per acre. 
 
 Olives and lemons grow to great perfection in the 
 islands, and at Volo in Thessaly, and in Epirus, but in 
 other parts of Turkey in Europe the winters are too se- 
 vere for those fruits. 
 
 The olive oil of Volo is celebrated, and is exported in 
 large quantities. 
 
 Snk cultivation is decreasing in Turkey, and although
 
 SILK. 411 
 
 manufactories for the raw material are found at Salonica, 
 
 Philippopolis, Adrianople, and otlier parts of tlie country, 
 it is generally reported that they are unprofitable. The 
 great fluctuations in the price of cocoons is assigned as 
 the cause of the decrease in the cultivation of the silk- 
 worm. The year 1876 was an instance of this rai)id fluctu- 
 ation. The price of cocoons had sunk to a very Ioav level, 
 when in the course of two months it more than doubled 
 itself, and I believe a merchant in Salonica cleared 
 £12,000 by the sudden rise in this one article. 
 
 The mulberry-tree is of the white variety, and is pol- 
 larded, the shoots being cut doAvn every year. The fruit 
 of those trees which are allowed to grow is white, of a 
 sickly flavor, and without much juice. On many farms 
 there are a number of these trees, and men come round in 
 the spring and bargain with the proprietor either to let 
 the trees at so much each, or to provide house-room for 
 the man who brings the seed, cultivates the cocoons, and 
 shares half the profits "vvith the proprietor. A mulberry- 
 tree will let for the season at from fifteen to twenty-five 
 piasters. 
 
 Turkey carpets may reasonably be expected to claim a 
 place in the products of that country ; but those sold in 
 England do not come from Turkey in Europe, but from 
 Smyrna. 
 
 Large quantities of carpets are made in various parts of 
 Roumelia, each place having its distinctive pattern and 
 texture ; but they are not exported in any quantity, and 
 a.re chiefly used in the country. They are of an inferior 
 kind to those exported from Smyrna ; but are very pretty, 
 and the colors and patterns are well harmonized. In visit- 
 ing one of the mosques, at Salonica, which was originally 
 an old heathen temple before the Christian era, I was much 
 struck with the resemblance of some of the beautiful mo- 
 saics, still in excellent order, to the patterns and colors on 
 the Turkish carpets, and it is possible that old mosaics form 
 the originals of the carpet-patterns we so much admire. 
 
 The general products of Turkey might easily be raised
 
 412 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 to five times their present amount by some energy and 
 honesty on the part of the Government ; but it must in 
 any case be a comparatively slow process, as the habits 
 and prejudices of a people cannot be changed in a day. 
 The rich mines of the country cannot many of them be 
 called virgin, since there are historical records that in 
 ancient times they were worked to a considerable extent, 
 and judging by the estimation in which some of the 
 Thracian princes were held for their wealth in gold and 
 silver mines, they must in those days have been very 
 remunerative : but there is no doubt that in the present 
 day almost inexhaustible wealth is lying buried in the 
 mines of Turkey in Europe and Asia Minor. Many of 
 these mines have been assayed, and applications made to 
 the Porte for concessions to work them. The Porte has 
 been so beset in this way with adventurers, and so often 
 deceived, that it hesitates to grant a concession. On the 
 other hand, so much backshish would have been necessary 
 under Sultan Abdul A*iz to obtain a concession, that no 
 respectable company would undertake it. 
 
 The natural advantages of Turkey suggest a good field 
 for emigration, and as I have had some experience of the 
 country in that way, I wUl offer my reader the benefit 
 of it.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 TUEKEY AS A FIELD FOR EMIGEATIOK. 
 
 Laws wliicli Eegulate Farming — Causes of Success in Emigration — Causes of 
 Failure in Turkey — Sheep Farming — Capital Eequired for Starting a 
 Farm — Sport — Value of Land — Wages — Caution necessary in Choosing a 
 Farm. 
 
 rpHEEE are certain causes, whicli may almost be called 
 -*- laws, that contribute to success in farming, and when 
 they are found combined in any country the emigrant may 
 feel that, if success does not follow, it will be his own 
 fault. 
 
 These elements for success may be comprised under the 
 following heads : — 
 
 Rich and cheap land. 
 
 A favorable climate. 
 
 Cheap and abundant labor. 
 
 Good available markets. 
 
 Fair taxation. 
 
 Security for life and property. 
 
 It is not probable that all these can be found to perfec- 
 tion in any country, but the emigrant should seek the 
 land that has the nearest approach to them. Turkey in 
 Europe certainly stands high in the market in this respect, 
 but it is not a country to which I should ever advise a 
 laboring man to emigrate, for the reason that he would 
 feel so "abroad" among the natives, and so ignorant of 
 their language. There are only two classes of men who 
 should ever emigrate, namely, those who have capital and 
 brains, or those who have the strength and will to make 
 their way by the " sweat of the brow." 
 
 413
 
 41 4 TURRET m EUROPE. 
 
 The greater number of successful emigi'ants to our colo- 
 nies and America have made their fortunes by purchasing 
 at an exceedingly cheap rate land which has afterward 
 risen to great value. They have, in fact, been pioneers 
 of civilization, and have reaped the benefits of railways 
 and telegraphs, which have brought the land of their 
 adoption into easy communication with, and consequent- 
 ly nearer to the civilized world. In passing through Italy, 
 along the plains of Foggia, I was much struck by the 
 resemblance of the country to the plains of Mace- 
 donia. I made inquiries as to the value of land, and to 
 my astonishment heard that it was as much as £25 an 
 acre, but I was told that, not many years ago, before the 
 railway pushed into the country, any quantity of it might 
 be bought at £4 an acre. I believe that the same law will 
 apply to Turkey, and that in a few years, when railways 
 have made their way, as they are doing, and will continue 
 to do, the land will rise in value as much as it has done in 
 Italy. No man should emigrate to Turkey unless he has 
 capital, and even then he should not spend a farthing of 
 that capital until he has lived a year in the country and 
 learnt to know something of its ways. Macedonia is in- 
 comparably the best field in Turkey for an emigrant capi- 
 talist. He will there find land as rich -as any in the world, 
 and exceedingly cheap, a climate admirably suited for the 
 growth of almost all cereals, as well as many root-crops, 
 and for the rearing of animals, especially sheep. 
 
 He will find labor very cheap, but not abundant. If he 
 be careful in the selection of his estate, he will find good 
 and available markets. Taxation is heavy, but not op- 
 pressive. Life and property are secure in time of peace, 
 and as secure as can be expected during war. But let me 
 warn him that several Englishmen have tried farming in 
 Turkey, and with two exceptions they have failed. I 
 have been to much pains to discover the cause of this, as 
 in Turkey aU the laws necessary for success certainly seem 
 to combine. An emigrant who purchases an estate such 
 as I have described in the preceding chapter, has to choose
 
 AMATEUR FARMERS. 415 
 
 between two courses — either to accept the prevailing sys- 
 tem, or to make a change and introduce high farming. 
 
 If he does the former, he \vill certainly not make money, 
 and if he attempts the latter without due caution, he will 
 certainly lose it. It is this latter course, and in many 
 cases the want of sufficient capital, which have been, I am 
 inclined to think, the cause of most cases of failure in 
 farming land in Turkey. 
 
 The faulty system which is now practised demands a 
 change, but the introduction of high cultivation and ma- 
 chinery must be adopted by slow degrees. Many ama- 
 teur farmers do not realize the amount of capital necessary 
 for starting and maintaining a farm, and spend nearly all 
 their ready money in buying an estate five times larger 
 than they can cultivate ; and, of course, find that they do 
 not obtain a high interest on their outlay. Others com- 
 mence by investing large sums in agricultural machinery, 
 which they afterward find quite unsuited to the country. 
 I heard of one instance of a gentleman who had an estate 
 on the sea-shore, and who spent £6,000 on machinery^ 
 with the view of cultivating the land on a very extensive 
 scale, but did not take into calculation the weight of the 
 engines, etc., and the mechanical arrangements necessary 
 for landing them. The consequence was, they arrived 
 at the beach of the estate, but there was no provision 
 for getting them on shore from the lighters, and in the 
 attempts to accomplish the task they sank into the sand 
 and the sea. An Englishman, in his own country, will 
 immediately exclaim — with fine English cart-horses in his 
 mind — ""\Yhy did he not get a lot of horses and drag 
 them out % " But that was exactly what he did try ; only 
 the horses of that country are very small, and not used to 
 draught ; and consequently, when one pulled the other 
 stopped, and when the whip was applied they all kicked, 
 so that failed. Bullocks and buffaloes were then tried ; 
 but they also have their quirks and fancies, and being 
 accustomed to work only in single pairs, were indig- 
 nant at this gregarious innovation, not knowing what
 
 416 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 goading and torture it miglit not tend to, and so they ran 
 this way and that way, and sideways, and backways, and 
 did everything but pull all together ; and I believe the 
 engines lie in the sand to this day ! 
 
 If an emigrant understands something about farming 
 before he leaves his own country, and then resides in 
 Macedonia for a year, watching meanwhile the seasons 
 and also the habits of the people, he will have gained suf- 
 ficient experience to warrant the investment of half of his 
 available capital in the purchase of an estate or chiflik. 
 
 He should allow the native system of cultivation to 
 continue, with the exception of purchasing one English 
 plow and some harrows. 
 
 "When he has taught his native laborers to work that 
 one plow satisfactorily he should buy another, and so 
 on, until he has ousted all native tenants and implements 
 from his estate, and has it under the English system of 
 cultivation. He may then spend some of his still re- 
 maining capital upon machinery, and I am confident 
 that he will find his estate a very profitable undertaking, 
 and that it will quintuple in value in the course of twenty 
 years. 
 
 It is impossible that the native system of cultivation can 
 pay a proprietor, for it is wasteful in the extreme, and 
 execrable farming. Means of communication are now so 
 improved that a farmer in any part of Europe has to com- 
 pete with the whole world, and especially with America. 
 
 Turkey is much nearer the great markets — France and 
 England-r-than is America ; also her soil is just as rich, 
 her climate as good, and her labor infinitely cheaper. 
 How is it, then, that America can compete successfully in 
 the market against her? The answer is to be found in 
 the utilization of labor by means of machinery and good 
 farming. Turkey must place herself side by side with 
 America in this respect, and then she can beat her, but it 
 cannot be done with a jump. 
 
 There are two courses open to a gentleman-emigrant to 
 Macedonia — either sheep-farming or the cultivation of arat
 
 AMATEUR FARMERS. 417 
 
 blo land. I should recommend tlie former ; but tliis again 
 may be divided into two courses: — First, the emigrant 
 might buy a large estate on the plains, let it all run to 
 pasture, buy his stock of shsip, rent summer grazing for 
 most of them on the neighb: ing mountains, and winter 
 them on his own estate. He could introduce the English 
 breeds, and combine cattle-rearing \^dth his sheep-farming. 
 It would not be necessary to grow root-crops for the win- 
 tering, as the climate is so mild that there is a good bite 
 during that season, and hay would be the only extra food 
 required. 
 
 This would be a very profitable undertaking, but it 
 would necessitate a large capital — say £12,000. 
 
 The emigrant would have a large estate, with the pros- 
 pective advantage of its quintupling itself in value, and in 
 the meantime a very high rate of interest for his money. 
 
 The emigrant with only half that capital should pursue 
 a different course, and might buy a small estate of about 
 500 acres among the woods at the foot of the mountains on 
 the great Macedonian plain. Upon this he should build 
 his house, and make his home. The estate would cost him 
 about £1,200, and his house and buildings £800 at the 
 outside, leaving him £4,000 of his capital. He should then 
 begin the first year by buying 200 ewes, and he might im- 
 port three or four English rams as an experiment. The 
 second year he might buy 500 more ewes, and the thu-d 
 year 2,000 more, by which time he should still have £1,000 
 of his capital in hand for a rainy day. He would farm by 
 renting both his summer and the gi^eater part of his win- 
 ter grazing, which he would find near his own estate. The 
 mountains close to him range from 5,000 to 8,000 feet high, 
 and he could rent admirable summer grazing within eight- 
 een miles of his hoiise. A good English or Scotch shep- 
 herd would be desirable. His flocks would come down 
 from the mountains in October, and return to them in the 
 end of April, and the emigrant should follow his flocks. 
 He would find a rough but comfortable house for a sum- 
 mer residence in one of the villages, perhaps 5,000 feet up 
 27
 
 418 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 the mountains, and on his rented grazing. The climate of 
 the mountains in the summer is simply exquisite, and the 
 "beauty of the country rivals the climate. 
 
 The plains in the winter are healthy in the extreme, and 
 if the emigrant is a sportsman, he would get the finest 
 woodcock -shooting in the world, besides a few jDheasants, 
 plenty of hares, and gray partridges, innumerable snij^e, 
 wild ducks, wild geese, large and small bustards, etc., etc. 
 On the mountains (and in the woods on tlie j)lains in the 
 winter) there are plenty of red-deer, roe-deer, and wild 
 pigs, and — what he could well dispense with — wolves and 
 foxes. But if he is going to sheep-farm he must make 
 sport a secondary and not a primary consideration. 
 
 The cost of living would be very trifling, as all the nec- 
 essaries of life are very cheap, and he might grow his 
 own vegetables and poultry, while the excellent cheap 
 cloth of the country would supply him with clothing. 
 
 If two friends who were congenial spirits were to club 
 together in such an undertaking, they might lead a most 
 healthy and enjoyable life, and might, in time and with 
 care, make a fortune. 
 
 They would find an ample field among the inhabitants 
 of the country for any amount of philanthropy, and 
 would meet a ready return for any expenditure of gener- 
 ous feeling. 
 
 And this country will in a short time, when the rail- 
 way is completed to Belgrade, be within four days' journey 
 of London ! 
 
 If instead of sheep-farming the emigrant took to the 
 plow, he would not at the present time (1877) have much 
 difficulty in finding a suitable estate. 
 
 In consequence of the financial difficulties of the country 
 and the war, many valuable estates have been thrown on 
 the market, and the richest land can now be bought at a 
 merely nominal value. 
 
 Freehold estates of five and six thousand acres, with 
 fann-buildings upon them, and excellent titles, are selling 
 at from £8,000 to £12,000. The purchase of these estates
 
 AMATEUR FARMING. 419 
 
 would give a high interest on capital if they were simp^ 
 let for grazing without attempting any cultivation. There 
 could not be a more favorable time for purchasing land. 
 
 I have already pointed out the best course for an emi- 
 grant to pursue who buys an estate with the intention 
 of cultivating it — namely, to reserve a proper amount of 
 capital, and introduce his improvements by degrees. 
 Building is very cheap, if elaborate and fine work is not 
 attempted. In Macedonia the farm-buildings have gener- 
 ally stone foundations. The walls are about thirty inches 
 thick, and are made of sun-dried bricks, and the roofs are 
 tiled. This kind of building, if plastered outside with 
 lime, looks well, and will last a great length of time ; but 
 the lime adds to the expense. 
 
 A farm-building of this description for a man working 
 two plows, and consisting of a dwelling-house of two 
 rooms, with a veranda, a cattle-stable, and a straw-barn, 
 can be built for £80, including all expenses ; with lime- 
 plaster it would cost £10 extra, but the money would be 
 well expended. 
 
 The following is a scale of daily wages generally paid in 
 that country : — 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 Laborers 10 to 1 
 
 Male Reapers 1 6 "2 
 
 Female " 10 " 1 
 
 Vinediggers 1 2"1 4 
 
 Shoemakers 2 " 2 6 
 
 Tailors 2 " 2 10 
 
 Joiners 2 0"2 6 
 
 Masons, carpenters, and stone-cutters are paid by the 
 piece, or by fixed agreement, I pay a good carpenter, 
 who provides a lad as an assistant, £35 a year, and he 
 does all the repairs of the estate, etc. 
 
 In Appendix H, I give a rough estimate of the cost of 
 setting up and farming an estate of 1,500 acres on the 
 English system. 
 
 I was much puzzled when I first commenced farming in
 
 420 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Turkey to see lieavy crops growing in tlie fields, and still 
 to find tliat the amount of grain got to market was small. 
 But the reason is not far to seek, and lies in the wasteful 
 system of threshing, and of getting the grain to market. 
 
 The threshing I have already described ; but when the 
 grain is sent to market it is put in sacks holding about two 
 bushels each, and then consigned to the care of keradjees, 
 or owners of pack-animals — horses, mules, donkeys, or 
 camels. On its way to market the sacks leak, and much 
 loss is sustained. I have seen the road to Salonica strewn 
 with grain for several miles, and women with droves of 
 turkeys picking it up. It may be fairly stated that from 
 the time the grain is ready for reaping to the time it reaches 
 the market 40 per cent, is wasted under the. present sys- 
 tem. How is it possible that such farming can pay ? If 
 an emigrant were to select an estate within easy distance 
 of Salonica, he could, if roads are put in order — which I 
 hope they will be — send his grain to market in his own 
 carts. 
 
 A railway now runs from Salonica to Metrovitza (a dis- 
 tance of about 200 miles), on its way to Belgrade ; when it 
 reaches that place it will place Salonica in railway com- 
 munication with the whole of Europe. The plains of Seres 
 are also very rich, and, I believe, many farms are to be 
 had in that neighborhood ; but the Macedonian plains are 
 a preferable quarter for settlement, in consequence of pos- 
 sessing a seaport town. 
 
 I believe an emigrant would find the purchase of land in 
 Turkey a perfectly safe investment. So long as it remains 
 Tinder Ottoman government he would not be disturbed in 
 his title ; and even if the event came to pass which some 
 people think probable — namely, that Turkey may change 
 hands — it is not likely to be occupied by any uncivilized 
 tribe from Central Africa or Timbuctoo, but by some civil- 
 ized European nation, who would, of course, respect the 
 rights of property. But some very hard fighting will have 
 to take place before Turkey in Europe passes out of the 
 control of the Porte — should it ever happen !
 
 AMATEUR FARMING. 421 
 
 An emigrant to Macedonia must remember that there — 
 as in all other countries — are farms which will not pay 
 under any cultivation, sour lands which cannot be drained, 
 or which are subject to floods which sweep away the crojDs ; 
 lands so far from market that the carriage of the grain 
 eats away the profits, etc., etc. A traveler visiting Mace- 
 donia in the spring, and another in the autumn, would 
 give very different accounts of the country. The former 
 would find it beautifully green from the mountain-tops to 
 the plains, which would be rich Avith the growing crops ; 
 all the lower and stony hills would be covered with young 
 grass, and the whole country would appear rich in the ex- 
 treme ; while in September everything is yellow, parched, 
 and dried up by the hot sun, and the unobservant traveler 
 would say he had been journeying through a desert. In 
 the late autumn the rains commence, and the grass begins 
 to grow again, so that by December there is a good bite 
 for the sheep ; but, as in California, when the herbage is 
 yellow and dried up, it still retains plenty of nourishment, 
 and I have noticed the cattle fat and sleek when they have 
 been grazing on the dried-up grass of the low hills adjoin- 
 ing the plains. 
 
 An American once told me that in California the first 
 thing a settler should look for is water, and the second 
 land; and the same may be said of Macedonia, for 
 any weU-situated estate which can be iiTigated, and also 
 drained, is certain to give a very large return if it be pro- 
 perly cultivated.
 
 CHAPTER XXIY. 
 
 THE CEIMEAIS" TAETAES. 
 
 Tartars of Dobrudja — Their Faitli — Difficulties of Government in Turkey — 
 Efforts at Reform Frustrated by Repeated Rebellions — The Sunnites and 
 Shiites — Massacre of the Shiites — Progress of Mohammedanism among 
 British Subjects — Popular Ignorance as to the Mohammedan Faith — 
 Moral Qualities of the Osmanli — " Young Turkey " — Prophecy of Turk- 
 ish Corruption — Farewell. 
 
 npHERE is yet another nation in Turkey in Europe 
 -*- wliicli can claim the rights of Ottoman subjects ; and 
 if the Crimean Tartars, or Tartars of the Dobrudja, num- 
 bered two millions instead of two hundred thousand, it 
 would be all the better for Turkey. 
 
 They are a quiet, peaceable, and industrious race, and 
 excellent agriculturists, but unfortunately their habits are 
 dirty in the extreme. 
 
 In 1784, when the Crimea passed into the hands of 
 Russia, the Crim Tartars emigrated in large numbers to 
 Bessarabia, and again, when in 1812 that country also was 
 swallowed up by the ever-advancing Russian wave, the 
 Tartar, hating the Muscovite, fled before him with his 
 wife and family, his goods and chattels, and settled in 
 the Dobrudja under Ottoman rule. 
 
 After the Crimean war another emigration took place, 
 and large colonies were established on the fertile soil of 
 Turkey in the same quarter, but in this case with poor 
 success. 
 
 The emigrants were devoid of capital, and although the 
 Ottoman Government gave them lands, they had but little 
 else, and they were unable to stand the bad harvest which 
 followed, and thus, from want of assistance at the right 
 
 422
 
 THE CRIMEAN TARTARS. 423 
 
 moment, a colony was tlirown into poverty wliicli miglit 
 otherwise, from its natural industry, liave enriched itself, 
 and also the country it inhabited. 
 
 These Tartars profess the Mohammedan faith, but al- 
 though strict observers of the tenets of the Kca-an, they 
 do not resent, like the Osmanlis, a stranger entering their 
 houses while the women are present ; neither are the lat- 
 ter so particular about covering theii' faces from the eyes 
 of the unbeliever. Families of this people still continue 
 to arrive in Turkey, and they have all the patience and 
 quiet dignity of the Turks, to which stock of men they in 
 reality belong. 
 
 But here again we have another addition to the nation- 
 alities who claim the rights of Ottoman subjects, and con- 
 sequently add to the difficulties of governing the mass. 
 
 these difficulties are also increased by the physical 
 aspect of many parts of the country, both in Europe 
 and Asia. 
 
 For instance, the great mountain-ranges in Albania form 
 a second Switzerland, and being for the most part inhab- 
 ited by a lawless and independent race, it is impossible to 
 apply to them rigid laAvs which could be carried out with 
 ease in the plains of Adrianople. If the process of reform 
 were pushed rapidly in that quarter it would immediately 
 create rebellion, and rebellion among those mountain 
 fastnesses becomes a serious matter, for although it may 
 be scotched with difficulty, it cannot be killed. Reform 
 in Albania cannot keep pace with that in the plains, and 
 it is the same with many other parts of the Turkish 
 dominions, especially in Asia Minor. 
 
 It is difficult enough in time of peace to restrain these 
 independent mountain tribes, but any one who chooses to 
 examine into the state of Albania prior to the Crimean 
 war, and the state of that country in the year 1874, will 
 find that great progress has been made by the Ottoman 
 Government, and that order is being pushed gradually but 
 surely into the very heart of the mountains. All the bands 
 of restraint are however again broken, and that country
 
 424 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 is thrown back into its former disorder, through the anar- 
 chy produced by civil war. It is therefore always easy 
 for sensation-mongers and agitators to store themselves 
 with charges against the Government of the Porte by 
 going into these wild mountain districts, and there gather- 
 ing their venom. 
 
 It has been seen that the religious differences among the 
 Christian population form a powerful element of discord, 
 and we can appreciate the difficulties that are thus created 
 by the trouble we frequently have in Ireland in riots 
 between Roman Catholics and Protestants. 
 
 The Mohammedans are not, however, exempt from reli- 
 gious differences themselves, but their controversies are 
 narrowed to two sects, the Sunnites and the Shiites. The 
 Ottomans are rigid Sunnites, or those who acknowledge 
 the three immediate successors of the prophet, the Caliphs 
 Abou-beker, Omar, and Othman, and their expositions of 
 the holy law. 
 
 The Shiites reject the authority of the Caliphs, consid- 
 ering them usurpers, and are followers of Ali, a cousin 
 of the prophet, and they, therefore, cleave to the letter of 
 the Koran. They are principally represented in the Per- 
 sians ; but great and bitter has been the strife between 
 these two sects. Shortly after the Ottomans gained pos- 
 session of Constantinople, the doctrine of the Shiites 
 began to make its way among them, not^vithstanding 
 that the Ulema and the great majority of the people were 
 rigid Sunnites. The conversions increased with such 
 rapidity, that in the reign of Sultan Selim I., a.d. 1512-20, 
 so much alarm was created that it was determined to 
 stamp out this disease which was eating its way into their 
 beloved faith. 
 
 Agents were sent all over the empire to search out the 
 names and addi-esses of all the Shiites, and after the reck- 
 oning had been carefully made it was found that in Tur- 
 key In Europe and Asia Minor there were no less than 
 seventy thousand perverts, including men, women, and 
 children.
 
 THE CRIMEAN TARTARS. 425 
 
 Orders were then issued tliat tlie whole of these poor 
 people should be immediately arrested. Afterward, as 
 many as forty thousand of them were barbarously massa- 
 cred, and the remainder were doomed to pei-petual im- 
 prisonment. By a curious coincidence, this horrible cru- 
 elty, emanating from religious persecution, occurred in 
 the same century as the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 The Mohammedans show much more toleration to Chris- 
 tians than to sectarian disturbers of their own faith. 
 
 They look upon the former with a kind of pity that 
 they should be excluded from the hope of paradise, and 
 they are so confident in the strength and beauty of their 
 own tenets that they do not fear the loss of any of their 
 flock by contact with the Christian unbeliever. But when 
 schism dares to place its foot upon their own sacred 
 ground, all the religious fervor of their nature is at once 
 launched against the traitor, and they crush him as they 
 would a venomous reptile. 
 
 The massacre of the Shiites naturally increased the ha- 
 tred between the two sects ; but if we may accept the 
 opinions of Mr. Palgrave and Mr. Bosworth Smith — and 
 they are both excellent authorities — the schism is so far 
 healed by time, that in the present day any impending 
 danger to the Mohammedan faith would at once unite the 
 two sects in the common defense of their beloved religion, 
 just as Roman Catholics and Protestants would at once 
 unite to ward off a dangerous blow at Christendom. 
 
 The question should have a peculiar interest for English- 
 men, in consequence of the millions of Mohammedan Brit- 
 ish subjects, and especially as the adherents to that faith 
 are increasing. 
 
 Mr. Talboys Wheeler, in his "History of India," re- 
 marks : "Few impartial observers will deny the fact that 
 to all appearance the people of India are drifting, slowly 
 but surely, toward the religion of the Prophet of Arabia 
 rather than toward Christianity, which is fi-eely offered 
 to them, but which they are not prepared to accept." 
 
 The word "impartial" here is deserving of attention;
 
 426 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 for in India as well as in Turkey religious idiosyncrasies 
 beget such violent opinions, either one way or the other, 
 that statements have to be weighed in the balance of rea- 
 son, and analyzed by evidence. 
 
 Mr. Bos worth Smith, in remarking upon the advance of 
 Islamism, as represented by Mr. Wheeler, says: "And if 
 this be true, or nearly true, how profound the importance 
 to England, even from an imperial point of view, of a 
 sympathetic study of the religion which under her very 
 rule threatens to become dominant ; and how far more 
 profoundly important to the Christian and to the philan- 
 thropist to understand and to influence while yet he may 
 a system which, long probably after the British Empire 
 in India shall have passed away, will be the chief motive- 
 power — for in the most Eastern coiintries religion and na- 
 tional feeling are one and the same thing — among its two 
 hundred millions of inhabitants. Yet probably nowhere 
 is there a more profound ignorance of Islam and its 
 founder, and a greater indifference to what is doing in 
 the world than in England. Popular preachers and teach- 
 ers still call the Prophet of Arabia an impostor ; and mili- 
 tary officers, and even civil servants of the Crown, have 
 gone out to India, passed years there, returned again, still 
 fancying that Mohammedans are idolaters. 
 
 The address lately presented to Her Majesty from some 
 of her Mohammedan subjects in India, expressing anxiety 
 for the fate of their co-religionists, the Ottomans, is an 
 evidence of fact in support of the previous written opin- 
 ions of Messrs. Palgrave, Bosworth Smith, and Talboys 
 Wheeler. 
 
 The fact that many millions of people are so attached 
 to their religious belief that they are ready to sacrifice, 
 not only their vv^orldly interests, but their lives, for its 
 defense, should, from the very nature of the case, com- 
 mand the respect and attention of all religious people. 
 
 It is sometimes asserted, without due consideration, that 
 the Mohammedan religion is a bar to all progress, and 
 therefore for that reason the Turks can never exist as
 
 TEE CRIMEAN TARTARS. 427 
 
 members of tlie European family. But is siicli a state- 
 ment justified by facts? We have the evidence of all 
 impartial men who have lived among Mohammedans 
 and studied their character, to the effect that they com- 
 pare favorably with Christians in all the virtues which 
 unite in making up the generic term "morality." 
 
 "SATiat does Mr. Bosworth Smith say upon this point : 
 "The genuine Othmanli has many noble, social, and na- 
 tional characteristics ; he is, or was till the example of the 
 precept of the western money-makers influenced him, em- 
 inently a man of his word ; his word was his bond, and a 
 bond which was of first-rate security. He is still sober, 
 temperate, dignified, and courageous. Tenibly cruel as he 
 is when his passions are aroused, he is at other times gen- 
 tle, hospitable, and humane. Nowhere in Christendom, 
 with the one exception perhaps of K"orway, are beasts of 
 burden and domestic animals treated with such unvaiy- 
 ing kindness and consideration as they are in Turkey, and 
 nowhere probably, in spite of all the depressing influ- 
 ences of polygamy, and the degradation of women gener- 
 ally, does the mother retain more hold on her children, or 
 do children regard their mother T\ith such constant and 
 indissoluble veneration. 
 
 "It was not a Mussulman, but a Christian missionary, 
 and he a zealous and successful one, who, in rebuking 
 some younger missionaries at Stamboul, who were speak- 
 ing contemptuously of the Turks, remarked, ' You will 
 see practiced here the virtues ice talk of in Christendom.'' 
 An over-statement, no doubt, but still with some truth in 
 it, and truth which we should do well to bear in mind, as 
 a makeweight against the official con^uption and the mis- 
 government and the vices with which the Turks may be 
 justly charged, and which those who most admire what is 
 fine in their national character have the best right to de- 
 plore." 
 
 As far as my own experience is worth anything, it fully 
 confirais this opinion ; and if we accept the fact that the 
 Turk stands on a par with the Christian in the general
 
 428 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 practice of morality, what is tliere in the nature of the 
 case which is a bar to all progress, and which unfits the 
 Turk to be a member of the European family ? Doubt- 
 less the strongest argument in support of this postulate 
 so adverse to the Turk is that his religion permits poly- 
 gamy and the seclusion of women, and that such customs 
 are so contrary to the social conditions under which mem- 
 bers of the European family live, that they must clash, 
 and can never unite with them. There is much truth in 
 this aspect of the question, but it is by no means clear 
 that it is an obstacle which will not be removed by time, 
 and by the increase of the ease of communication — on 
 the contrary, we have every evidence that such a result 
 may follow. 
 
 Polygamy is not so general as is supposed, and there 
 are numerous instances of Turks who have only one wife. 
 The change which has been made as to the seclusion of 
 women is extraordinary, and I have already remarked 
 upon it. 
 
 If the ramparts of fanaticism are so far broken, it offers 
 a base for the argument that a still wider breach may be 
 made, as soon as the means of communication become 
 facilitated, and the social forces of Christendom have 
 freer play. 
 
 The party which represents what is called "Young 
 Turkey" is, without doubt, leaning toward the West 
 and not the East, and when this party grows — as grow it 
 will — social ambition will probably swamp the prejudices 
 of custom when the two are found to clash. 
 
 This " Young Turkey " is the product of the Tanzimat 
 and the after-reforms, but the process of incubation is 
 necessarily slow ; it still lies warm within its shell, and 
 we cannot judge what the plumage will be until it is 
 hatched and reared into fuU growth \vith the food of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 And now that I am about to take leave of my reader, 
 the question may pertinently be put to me — 
 
 If the Turks be the estimable race which you endeavor
 
 THE CRIMEAN TARTARS. 429 
 
 to prove, if tliey compare favorably with other European 
 races in the qualities which fall under the generic terra of 
 morality, how is it that their country has not made more 
 progress 1 
 
 Surely such a fine race as yon describe would take care 
 to be well governed ? 
 
 To this I reply that a servant might with as much 
 justice be saddled with the faults of his master, as the 
 Ottoman race with the faults of their rulers. 
 
 In my humble opinion, it is the very virtues of the 
 Ottoman people which cause their patient submission to 
 misgovernment — their religion enjoins respect for their 
 rulers, and they do their utmost to obey the command, 
 however trying the circumstances may be. 
 
 But their rulers ? They also are Turks, and you confess 
 that they are corrupt in the extreme ? 
 
 I do not for a moment contend that every Turk is im- 
 maculate — the rulers, as compared with the people, are 
 an exceedingly small minority. When they first con- 
 quered the country they found the capital they were to 
 inhabit a perfect hotbed of intrigue and corruption — a 
 corruption which had decayed and destroyed the Byzan- 
 tine Empire, and they gradually fell under the temptation. 
 
 The result was foretold by Shemsi Pasha, a descendant 
 of one of the Seljukian princes, who had been deposed by 
 the House of Othman, and who, turning to one of his 
 domestics, said with much glee, " At last I have avenged 
 my house on the House of Othman ; for if the Ottoman 
 dynasty caused our downfall, I have now made it prepare 
 its own." 
 
 "How has that been done?" cried the old servant 
 gravely. 
 
 "I have done it," said Shemsi, "by persuading the 
 Sultan to share in the sale of his own favors. It is true I 
 placed a tempting bait before him : 40,000 ducats make 
 no trifling sum. Henceforth the Sultan will himself set 
 the example of corruption ; and corruption will destroy 
 the empire."
 
 430 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Tliis was at the close of tlie sixteenth century, and the 
 prophecy has been true to the letter so far. The reason 
 why the Sultans lost their dignity and their honor by 
 stooiDing to this venality was to be found, as I have al- 
 ready shown, in the change in their education, which was 
 henceforth directed by the harem. 
 
 This enfeebled the head, and the corruption of the body 
 of the State followed. 
 
 In judging of Turkey we must not forget the innumera- 
 ble difficulties which stand in the way of good government, 
 however honest and energetic the rulers might be. I have 
 endeavored to point these out fairly but plainly — they are 
 difficulties which have nothing to do with the Turks, and 
 they would be experienced with as much force if that 
 nation did not exist. 
 
 I have also endeavored to show that the ability of Otto- 
 man rulers for organizing a good administration is very 
 great ; but they lack the honesty and energy to carry it 
 out. Of this I am quite sure, that if England, or any other 
 power, were suddenly called upon to rule the Ottoman 
 dominions, they would find the Turks more easy to govern 
 than any other of their subjects. 
 
 We find then that the administration is well organized ; 
 that a large portion of the Ottoman subjects are so consti- 
 tuted as to be easily governed, and all that is required is 
 an honest and energetic executive, and time. We there- 
 fore know what is necessary, which is the first step toward 
 its attainment. And now, Reader, that we have traveled 
 together from the Black Sea to the Gulf of Salonica, I trust 
 that — although I have in many places stated my opinions 
 boldly because I felt them strongly — we have not quarreled 
 by the way, and that we may now shake hands, and bid 
 each other — Farewell !
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Egbert College, Coxstanti»"Ople. 
 
 This college, established by Irad^ of H. I. M. tlie Sultan, 
 offers to students every facility for acquiring a complete education. 
 It is provided with an able faculty of instruction from America, 
 as well as the best qualified Armenian, Bulgarian, French, Greek, 
 and Turkish professors. It is furnished with a fine cabinet of 
 mineral and geological specimens, and with a complete apparatus 
 for the study of chemistry and the various branches of natural 
 science. 
 
 The younger students are under the care of a matron of the 
 highest qualifications, and all are under the constant supervision 
 of the teacbers, who board at the same table and reside in the 
 building with the students. 
 
 It is the object of the institution to combine the highest moral 
 training with the most complete mental discipline, and with a due 
 care for physical culture. 
 
 Admissiox. — Students are not received into the preparatory 
 department below the age of ten, nor into the college department 
 below the age of fourteen. All applicants are expected to present 
 satisfactory evidence of their good moral character, and they will 
 be allowed to remain in the college only so long as this character is 
 maintained. Those applying for admission into the college depart- 
 ment must be able to pass an examination in the preparatory 
 studies. 
 
 Students maybe admitted to any part of the course for which 
 they are fitted, and will not be required to pursue any studies in 
 which they are already proficient. Those who desire it are per- 
 mitted to pursue only those studies which belong strictly to a com- 
 mercial education, but no one is recommended to take anything less 
 than the full course, which has been planned to give that complete 
 mental discipline which is essential to success in any prominent 
 position in life. * 
 
 431
 
 432 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 TABULAE VIEW OF THE COURSE 
 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Natural 
 Science. 
 
 Law and 
 Philosophy. 
 
 Geography 
 and History. 
 
 English, 
 
 Rhetoric, 
 
 and Oratory. 
 
 
 Mental Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 School Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 University 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Elementary 
 Geometry. 
 
 Natural 
 History. 
 
 
 Phvsical and 
 Political 
 Geography 
 of the 
 World. 
 
 Primer. 
 
 Reading and 
 Spellmg. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Writing and 
 Dictation. 
 
 Term 1. 
 
 O 
 
 « 3 
 
 Elements of 
 Algebra. 
 Book-keep- 
 ing. 
 
 University 
 Algebra, 
 Book-keep- 
 ing.* 
 
 University 
 Algebra. 
 
 
 
 Ancient 
 Geography. 
 
 Ancient 
 History. 
 
 History Greek 
 Empire. 
 
 Thro' the 
 Year. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Dictation. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 ^^ 2 
 
 l| • 
 o 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Trigonome- 
 try. 
 
 Stirveying. 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 Physiology 
 and 
 Hygiene. 
 
 Botany.* 
 
 
 History 
 Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 History 
 Modem 
 Times. 
 
 Thro' the 
 Year. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Conversation. 
 
 English Prose 
 Writers. 
 
 Third 
 College Year. 
 
 CO ts l-« 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 Analytical 
 Geometry.* 
 
 Calctilus.* 
 
 Physics. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Political 
 Economy. 
 
 Commercial 
 Law. 
 
 History of 
 Turkey. 
 
 History of 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Forensic Dis- 
 putation. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Rhetoric. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Logic. 
 
 Essays. 
 
 1 
 
 "3 
 
 3 
 
 Mathematics 
 of Astron- 
 omy. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Analytical 
 Chemistry.* 
 
 Gfiology. 
 
 Mineralogy.* 
 
 Quantitative 
 Analysis.* 
 
 Mental 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Paley's 
 
 Evidences. 
 History of 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Moral 
 
 Philosophy. 
 International 
 
 Law. 
 Butler's 
 
 Analogy. 
 
 History of 
 Civilization. 
 
 Philosophy of 
 History. 
 
 Elements of 
 Criticism. 
 
 Oratory. 
 
 Oratory.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 OF STUDY IX ROBERT COLLEGE. 
 
 433 
 
 Armenian. 
 
 Bulgarian. 
 
 French. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Turkish. 
 
 Modem 
 Grammar. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Oral 
 Exercises. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Ollendorff. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Primer. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Primer. 
 
 Madkhal-i- 
 Kavaid. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Modem 
 Grammar. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 Ancient 
 Grammar. 
 
 Thro' the 
 Year. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 Compositions. 
 
 Thro' the 
 Year. 
 
 Lexicology, 
 No. 1. 
 
 Dictation. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Thro' the 
 Year. 
 
 Modem 
 Grammar. 
 
 Parsing. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 History. 
 
 Correspond- 
 ence. 
 
 Calligraphy. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Reader. 
 
 Reader. 
 
 Turkish 
 Grammar. 
 
 Turkish 
 History. 
 
 Calligraphy. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Ancient 
 Grammar. 
 
 Relation of 
 .■Ancient to 
 Modern 
 Armenian. 
 
 Translation 
 from 
 
 Ancient to 
 Modern. 
 
 Slavic Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 Syntax and 
 Parsing in 
 Slavic. 
 
 Bulgarian 
 History and 
 Literature. 
 
 Thro' the 
 Year. 
 Lexicology, 
 No. 2. 
 
 Dictation. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 French 
 Literature 
 of 16 and 17 
 Centuries. 
 
 Ancient 
 Grammar. 
 
 Maori's 
 Fables. 
 
 Lncian. 
 
 Ancient 
 Grammar. 
 
 Cyropnedia. 
 Memorabilia. 
 
 Caesar. 
 Caesar. 
 VirgU. 
 Composition. 
 
 Arabic Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Calligraphy. 
 
 Der^'ish 
 Pasha's 
 Na: ural 
 Philosophy. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 Ancient 
 Armenian. 
 
 Poetry and 
 History. 
 
 Composition 
 in Ancient 
 Armenian. 
 
 Bulgarian 
 History and 
 Literature. 
 
 Translation 
 from 
 
 Bulgarian 
 into Slavic. 
 
 Composition 
 in Slavic. 
 
 Thro' the 
 
 Year. 
 
 Lexicology, 
 
 No. 3. 
 Dictation. 
 Composition. 
 Discussions. 
 Literature of 
 
 18 and 19 
 
 Centuries. 
 Corneille, 
 
 Racine, and 
 
 Moliere. 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 Composition 
 in Ancient 
 Greek. 
 
 Lycurgua. 
 
 Chrysostome. 
 
 Plato. 
 
 Virgil. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Cicero. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Horace. 
 
 Arabic Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Hamayoun- 
 uame. 
 
 Calligraphy. 
 
 New Chemis 
 try. 
 
 Ancient 
 Literature. 
 
 Slavic Litera- 
 tui-e. 
 
 
 Demosthenes. 
 Homer. 
 Euripides. 
 Aristophanes. 
 
 Tacitus. 
 Juvenal. 
 
 Rhetoric. 
 
 Correspond- 
 ence. 
 
 Calligraphy. 
 
 Natural 
 History. 
 
 28
 
 434 TVRKET IN^ EVBOPE. 
 
 Studies. — The particulars of the course of study in each de- 
 partment, and during each year, will be found in the tabular view. 
 This, exclusive of the preparatory department, occupies four years, 
 and the degree of Bacheloe of Aets will be conferred upon those 
 who regularly complete it. The studies marked with an * are 
 optional. Every student is expected to take a thorough course in 
 the English language, and in his own vernacular. The other lan- 
 guages, both ancient and modern, are optional. Drawing, paint- 
 ing, music (vocal and instrumental), and the German language are 
 taught by special masters, at an extra price, to those who desire it. 
 Lessons in declamation, in the different languages, are given to all 
 the students, through the whole course in both departments. 
 
 Public lectures in English and French are delivered every week 
 to the students, on literary, scientific, and historical subjects. Ex- 
 aminations take place at Christmas, at Easter, and at the close of 
 the college year in July. Graduates of the college may remain 
 after the completion of the ordinary course, to continue their 
 studies in chemistry, pharmacy, mining, mental philosophy, etc. 
 
 Teems. — The college year commences loth September, and 
 closes the last Thursday in July, with two weeks' vacation at 
 Christmas and two weeks' at Easter. Each student will pay 
 forty-four Turkish liras a year for board and tuition, and is ex- 
 pected to come provided with one mattress, six sheets, one pillow, 
 six pillow-cases, one yargan, two flannel blankets, six table-nap- 
 kins, six towels, a rug or carpet, and each one will be required to 
 purchase a college uniform. Day scholars pay ten Turkish liras 
 a year for tuition. All bills must be paid in advance every six 
 months, 15th September and loth February. 
 
 In the spring of 1871 the college will remove to the new and 
 splendid buildings in course of erection for it at Eoumeli Hissar. 
 
 Cyeus Hamlin", D.D., Principal.
 
 APPE]SDIX B. 
 
 Bulgarian Church. 
 
 The following is the full text of the firman which settles the 
 long pending dispute between the Bulgarian and the Greek Patri- 
 archate, on the subject of a '^ national " episcopacy : — 
 
 " The dearest subject of our wishes is that the inhabitants of 
 the Empire, our faithful subjects, should enjoy perfect peace and 
 security in the exercise of their religion and worship, as in all 
 other general respects, and that they should draw toward each 
 other by the exchange of the best sentiments, as becomes men who 
 are citizens of a common country, so that, by means of such good 
 will and mutual understanding, they should be able to aid, each 
 in his proportion, the efforts we constantly devote to two important 
 ends — the increase of the prosperity of our States, and their 
 advancement in the paths of progress and civilization. 
 
 " Hence we have seen with regi'et the misunderstandings and 
 dissensions which, contrary to the spirit which animates us, have 
 for some time past arisen between the Greek Patriarchate and 
 the orthodox Bulgarians, as regards the definition of the relations 
 which should subsist between that Patriarchate and the Bulgarian 
 metropolitans, bishojis, and subordinate clergy. 
 
 " The conferences and negotiations which have taken place with 
 a view to a satisfactory settlement of these differences have re- 
 sulted in the following provisions : — 
 
 "1. There shall be constituted, under the title of 'The Bulga- 
 rian Exarchate,' a separate spiritual administration, which shall 
 embrace the metropolitan and episcopal sees hereafter mentioned, 
 as also some other localities. The control of the religious and 
 spiritual affairs of such administration devolves exclusively upon 
 this Exarchate. 
 
 "2. The most ancient in rank of the metropolitans, who shall 
 be at the head of this administration, shall take the title of Exarch, 
 and shall have the legal and permanent presidency of the Bulga- 
 rian synod which shall be attached to him. 
 
 435
 
 436 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 " 3. The internal spiritual organization of this Exarchate shall 
 be submitted for approval and confirmation of our Imperial Govern- 
 ment. Its powers shall be defined by an organic code which must 
 be in conformity on all points with the established laws and relig- 
 ious principles of the Orthodox Church. This code shall be drawn 
 up in such way as to entirely exclude all interference, direct or 
 indirect, on the part of the Patriarch, with monastic affairs, and 
 more especially with the election of the Exarch and the Bishops. 
 As soon as the election of the Exarch shall have taken place» 
 the Bulgarian synod will give notice of it to the Patriarch, who 
 will remit without the least delay the necessary letters of confir- 
 mation according to the laws of the church. 
 
 *'4. The Exarch shall be named by Imperial lerat. He will 
 be bound, in conformity with ecclesiastical rules, to commemorate 
 the name of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Wlioever may be 
 judged worthy of the dignity of Exarch must be approved and 
 confirmed as such by our Imperial Government before his religious 
 consecration can be proceeded with. 
 
 " 5. In all matters concerning localities within the limits of his 
 administration, in which he may have legal and regular authority 
 to intervene, the Exarch can have direct recourse to the local 
 authorities, and, if necessary, to the Sublime Porte, and especially 
 the diplomas of the monks under his jurisdiction shall only be 
 delivered on his requisition. 
 
 "6. In all affairs relating to the orthodox worship, which call 
 for a mutual understanding, in which the synod of the Exarchate 
 requires to refer to the (Ecumenical Patriarch and his synod of 
 metropolitans, the latter will hasten, on their part, to afford the 
 requisite assistance, and forward their replies to the communica- 
 tions addressed to them. 
 
 "7. The synod of the Bulgarian Exarchate is bound to obtain 
 the holy oils in usage in the church from the Patriarchate of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 **8. The bishops, archbishops, and metropolitans under the 
 jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, may freely pass 
 through the districts subjected to the Bulgarian Exarchate, as, on 
 the other hand, may the bishops, archbishops, and metropolitans 
 of the Bulgarian Exarchate pass through the dioceses placed under 
 the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. They are 
 at liberty to sojourn, for the transaction of business, in the chief
 
 APPENDIX B. 437 
 
 towns of the Vilaiets and other residences of the Government 
 authorities ; but beyond the limits of their authority, they can 
 neither convoke synods, nor interfere in the affairs of Christians 
 who are not under their jurisdiction, nor officiate in any place 
 without the permission of the bishop of the locality. 
 
 '' 9. In the same way as the Presbytery of the Holy Places, 
 situated at the Phanar, is affiliated to the Patriarchate of Jeru- 
 salem, and placed under its authority, so also the Bulgarian 
 Presbytery and the Church attached to it, situated in the same 
 quarter, shall be placed under the control of the Bulgarian Exarch. 
 Whenever that dignitary shall have occasion to come to Constan- 
 tinople, he is authorized to take up his abode at the Bulgarian 
 Presbytery of the Phanar. He will also, on the occasion of his 
 visits to the Capital, and of officiating during his sojourn, adopt 
 the rules and usages followed in like case by the Patriarchs of 
 Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. 
 
 "10. The Bulgarian Exarchate comprises in its spiritual juris- 
 diction the towns and districts of Kustchuk, Silistria, Shumla, 
 Tirnova, Sofia, Vratcha, Lovtcha, Widdin, Nisch, Kustendil, 
 Samakov, Veles (with the exception of about twenty villages 
 situated along the coast of the Black Sea between Varna and 
 Kustendji, whose inhabitants are not Bulgarians, as also the towns 
 of Varna, Mesembria, and Akhioli), the Sandjak of Slivmia (ex- 
 cept a few villages on the coast), the district of Sisopolis, the town, 
 of Philippopolis, the district of Stanimaka (with the exception of 
 the villages of Kokline, Vodnia, Arnaoutkeoi, Novo-Selo, Allan, 
 Batchkovo, Belatchitza), and the metropolitan diocese of Philip- 
 popolis (excepting the monasteries of Patchkovo, St. Anarghiri, St. 
 Paraskeve, and St. George). The Panaya quarter shall also be 
 under the authority of the Bulgarian Exarchate; nevertheless, 
 such of the inhabitants of that quarter as do not desire to belong 
 to the Bulgarian Church and Exarchate are at perfect liberty to 
 remain apart from them. The details of these various jurisdic- 
 tions shall be regulated by joint understanding between the Greek 
 Patriarchate and the Bulgarian Exarchate in conformity with 
 Ecclesiastical Law. 
 
 "If the whole, or, at least, the third, of the other inhabitants 
 of the localities above enumerated, desire to place themselves, with 
 regard to their religious affairs, under the authority of the Bul- 
 garian Exarchate, and their requests to this effect have been
 
 438 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 maturely considered, they shall be permitted to do so ; but only 
 on condition that it is with the expressed desire and free will of 
 the whole or at least the third of the population. But should this 
 be taken as a pretext to sow discord and dissension among the 
 inhabitants, those guilty of such intrigues shall be held responsible 
 for them, and punished according to law. 
 
 *'ll. The monasteries situated within the limits of the Bul- 
 garian Exarchate, which, in virtue of Ecclesiastical Laws, are 
 subject to the jurisdiction of the Patriarchs of Constantinople, 
 shall be amenable to the same rules and conditions as heretofore. 
 
 "The provisions above enumerated — being considered of a 
 nature to give adequate satisfaction to the legitimate wants of 
 both parties, and to put an end to the regretable disputes now ex- 
 isting — have been confirmed by our Imperial Government, and 
 the present Sovereign Order has been given to announce that we 
 desire it should have the force of law, and that no one venture to 
 contravene it."
 
 APPEl^DIX 0. 
 
 Population-. 
 
 Perhaps the most accurate statement published is that of the 
 German statisticians, who make the total population in Euro- 
 pean Turkey proper as 16,430,000, exclusive of the tributary 
 states of Eoumania, Servia, and Montenegi'o. On the other hand, 
 Mr. Jakschitz, the Servian Government statistician, gives the fol- 
 lowing estimate : — 
 
 Vilafets. Motammedan. Non-Mohammedan. PoTjJia^ion 
 
 Constantinople 183,540 144,210 327,750 
 
 Edirneh (Adrianople) . . . 523,009 831,558 1,354,567 
 
 Tuna (Danube) 819,226 1,175,601 1,994,827 
 
 Selanik (Salonica) 429,410 598,731 1,028,141 
 
 Janina (Janina) 250,649 460,601 711,250 
 
 Prisrend (Roumelia) . . . . 789,934 550,537 1,340,471 
 
 Boshmaili (Bosnia) 493,148 864,836 1,357,984 
 
 Ghirit (Crete) 38,000 162,000 200,000 
 
 Army 82,539 .. 82,539 
 
 3,609,455 4,788,074 8,397,529 
 
 It "will be seen that one estimate is nearly double that of the 
 other ; but from my own experience of the country, I should be 
 inclined to say -that the greater was the more accurate than tlie 
 lesser computation. M. Boue, in his work on Turkey in Europe, 
 gives the number of "Turks " at only 700,000 ; and he is probably 
 correct if, by " Tui-ks," he means the descendants of the ancient 
 conquerors of the country and not the whole Mohammedan popu- 
 lation. 
 
 The following is the estimate of population, as given byUbicini, 
 of the whole population of the Empire, first by race and secondly 
 by religion: — 
 
 439
 
 440 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Division of the Population. 
 
 I. — Eaces. 
 
 f Ottomans 13,500,000 
 
 ^^°^P' \ Turkomans 300,000 
 
 Turk 14,020,000 -^^ Tartars 220,000 
 
 f Greeks 2,100,000 
 
 ^^^^"^P- \ Tchinganeh 220,000 
 
 Greco-Latin 3,520,000 j^ Albanians 1,200,000 
 
 r Serbo-Croats 1,500,000 
 
 . . ^.nn Bulgarians 3,000,000 
 
 Slavonic 4,550,000 j Cossacks 32,000 
 
 l^ Lissovans 18,000 
 
 . ... nn. ( Circassians 1,000,000 
 
 C^eorgian 1,020,000 J ^^^^.^^^ 20000 
 
 Hindoo Gipsies 212,000 
 
 f Armenians 2,500,000 
 
 Persian 3,620,000 \ Kurds 1,000,000 
 
 1^ Druses, etc 120,000 
 
 r Jews 158,000 
 
 Semitic , 1,611,000^ 
 
 Arabs 1,000,000 
 
 Chaldeans 160,000 
 
 ^ Syro-Maronites ... 293,000 
 
 Total 28,553,000 
 
 II. — Beligioxs. 
 Mussulmans 18, 938,000 
 
 r Osmanlis 13,500,000 
 
 Tartars 220,000 
 
 Turkomans 300,000 
 
 Albanians 1,050,000 
 
 Serbo-Croats 448,000 
 
 Bulgarians 60,000 
 
 Circassians 1,000,000 
 
 Kurds 1,000,000 
 
 t Arabs 1,000,000 
 
 Sunnites 18,578,000^
 
 APPENDIX a 
 
 441 
 
 Persian Sects. 
 Mixed 
 
 Druses, etc. 
 Gipsies .... 
 
 Christians 9,615,000 
 
 Greco-Eussian Church 3,225,000 
 
 Greeks 
 
 Albanians 
 
 Tchinganeh 
 
 Serbo- Croats 
 
 Cossacks-Dobrudjas. 
 Staro-Viertzi 
 
 Armenian Church . 
 Bulgarian Church, 
 Nestorian Church. 
 Jacobite Church . . 
 
 Armenians . 
 Bulgarians . 
 Chaldeans.. 
 Syrians . . . . 
 
 ' Greeks .... 
 
 Armenians. 
 
 Bulgarians . 
 
 Eoman Catholic Church 670,000^ Chaldeans. 
 
 Syrians . . . . 
 Maronites . 
 Latins 
 
 Protestant Church Armenians . 
 
 Jews. 
 
 120,000 
 240,000 
 
 2,035,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 220,000 
 
 870,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 41,000 
 
 2,920,000 
 
 2,450,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 63,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 220,000 
 
 302,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 Total.... 28,553,000
 
 Turkish ADMiisrisTRATioK. 
 
 The head of the Vilaiet is called a Vali, or governor-general, 
 and he possesses considerable powers, which he wields from the 
 head-quarters of his province. His abuse of independence is 
 checked by his being nominated by the Sultan, who can depose 
 him at will ; and it was the abuse of this power by Sultan Abdul 
 Aziz which caused so much confusion and corruption throughout 
 the Empire during the last twenty years. A Vali had hardly 
 arrived at his head- quarters when he was superseded by another ; 
 indeed, I know of one Vildiet which had two successive Valis 
 appointed, and neither had even time to get to his post before he 
 was superseded. 
 
 The Vali represents the executive power in all branches of the 
 administration, except those of the judicial and military, and all 
 other heads of departments are under his authoi'ity. He has 
 charge of the police, and is responsible for carrying out the sen- 
 tences of the law. To assist him in his labors he has a second in 
 command, called Miiavm, who represents him in his absence with 
 the following members of his council : — 
 
 1. The Defterdar, or book-keeper, has charge of everything 
 connected with finance, and with all accounts of the Vilaiet ; he 
 is under the direction of the Vali, but is responsible to the cen- 
 tral Government at Constantinople. 
 
 2. The Mektouhji, or chief secretary, who has charge of all the 
 official correspondence. 
 
 3. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, who, as his name implies, is an 
 intermediary between the local authorities and any foreigners who 
 may be residing in the province. 
 
 4. Officers of Public Instruction — commerce, agriculture, high- 
 ways, surveys, census, registers and the chief of police. 
 
 All these officials are under officers of similar and higher institu- 
 tions at the Porte, so that although the Vali directs, he does not 
 
 442
 
 APPEXDIX D. 443 
 
 appoint them. The object of this organization is a good one, as 
 it is intended to prevent that subserviency which miglit result if 
 the appointment of these officials rested with the Vali ; so that 
 although they are bound to obey his instructions, they are not 
 dependent upon his favor for their appointment. 
 
 The administration of the Sandjalcs, or Livds, is simply a reduced 
 copy of that of the Vilaiet. At its head is a governor, or Mutessa- 
 rif, who is the representative of the Vali, from whom he receives 
 his instructions ; but he is appointed by Imperial iradeh ; and 
 this principle runs through the whole organization. He is as- 
 sisted by the Muhassebehji, sub-director of finance, and by the 
 TahrircU Mudiri, or secretary to the Liva, and by sub-officers of 
 all the departments named in the council of the Vali. 
 
 In cases of urgent importance all the Mutessarifs can appeal di- 
 rect to the Porte, without the intervention of the Vali. The Cazas 
 are governed by a Caimacam or sub-governor, nominated by the 
 Porte, and he has under him sub-officers of all the departments of 
 finance, correspondence, etc., etc. 
 
 The administration of the Nah'ielis, or communes, was re- 
 formed in 1876. By the new law each village and each group of 
 chifliks (farms) which make up a population occupying at least 
 200 houses constitute a Nah'ieh, and is governed by a Mudir, who 
 is elected each year by the votes of the inhabitants, and is con- 
 firmed by the Vali of the district. The Mudir has an assistant or 
 Muavin, who takes his place in his absence. If the village or 
 farms are entirely peopled by Christians, both the Mudir and 
 Muavin are Christians. If the population is mixed, the Mudir is 
 taken from the side which has the majority, and the Muavin from 
 the minority. 
 
 The duties of the Mudirs are similar to those of Caimacams, 
 whom they are supposed to represent. In this case we have the 
 election of their subordinate rulers placed in the hands of the peo- 
 ple, and Mohammedans and Christians have equal rights. The 
 same is the case with the Codja-bashis of the villages and farms ; 
 but their duties are simply limited to carrying out the orders of 
 the Mudir, and attending to the transmission of orders, and the 
 collection of taxes, etc. 
 
 Besides all these officers, the Vali is assisted in his government 
 by an Ad^ninistrative Council, or Medjliss-i-idareh. These are 
 permanent Councils attached to each Vilaiet, Liva, Caza, and Xa-
 
 444 TURRET IN EUROPE. 
 
 hieli, who deliberate openly upon all affairs relative to the ad- 
 ministration of the Vil^iet, etc., etc. 
 
 The Medjliss-i-idar^h of the Vilaietis composed of the Yali, who 
 sits ex officio as President, of the Chief Magistrate of the Court of 
 the Vildiet, of the three Directors of Finance, of the Secretary 
 and Foreign Secretary of the ecclesiastical heads of the non-Mus- 
 sulman communities, of four other members (two Mussulmans 
 and two Christians) elected by the inhabitants. 
 
 Besides the permanent Council there is an Annual Coimcil, 
 which assembles every year at a fixed time at the head-quarters of 
 the Vildiet, under the presidency of the Vali. The duration of 
 each sitting does not exceed four days. 
 
 The Administrative Councils of the Livd is composed of the 
 Mutessanf, as President, the Mufti of the Sandjak, the Cadi of 
 the Central Caza, of the Christian Metropolitan and Jewish Eabbi, 
 where there is one, of the Muhassebedji, or Controller of the Va- 
 coufs, of tlie Secretary, and of four elected members, of which two 
 are Christians and two Mussulmans. 
 
 The Council of the Cazas is composed of the Mufti and of the 
 Cadi, of the Secretary, the non-Mussulman ecclesiastical heads, 
 and of three elected members. 
 
 The Council of the Nahiehs is compose of not less than four, 
 and not more than eight members, all appointed by election of the 
 people. The members must be Ottoman subjects, of not less than 
 thirty years of age, and paying at least 100 piastres in direct taxes 
 and must never have suffered imprisonment by law. 
 
 If the community is composed of all Christians, the members 
 are so also ; but where the community is mixed, half are Mussul- 
 mans and half Christians. 
 
 In the Communes, or Nahi^hs, there are yet other Councils 
 (Medjliss), which date from the Ottoman conquest, and are called 
 Demogeronties, or Ancient Councils. They are composed of from 
 three to twelve members by villages ; the members are elected an- 
 nually by the inhabitants, and are generally re-elected. The 
 Imam, or the priest, according to the religious persuasion of the 
 village, sits ex officio on the Council. • They, in concert with the 
 Mouhtar, or Mayor of the village, assess the taxes of its inhabit- 
 ants. The Mouktars are responsible for the collection of the 
 taxes, each from his own co-religionists. 
 
 "We have now to consider the Courts of Justice which are at-
 
 APPENDIX D. 445 
 
 tachcd to the Yilaiets, Livds, and Cazas. In one of tlie public 
 speeches lately made with the object of exciting antagonism to 
 Turkey and its institutions, I saw it stated that what was wanted 
 for that country, and what it should be made to adopt, was good 
 laws, such as may be found in the Codes Napoleon, Xow this 
 happens to be precisely what exists. 
 
 There are most admirable laws based on the very Codes Napo- 
 leon, relating to real property, commerce, etc., etc., and all of 
 which are translated into French, and published in Constantinople, 
 so that any one who runs may read.* These laws are most exten- 
 sive and exact, and deal with the most minute details, especially 
 in connection with real property. They even regulate the de- 
 cision of the Sheri, or courts which are supposed to expound the 
 sacred law of the Koran, and where cases relating to real property 
 are tried ; and if any deviation from them should be attempted, 
 appeal can be made, and would meet with attention. With regard 
 to real property, we know liow in England the most complicated 
 cases frequently arise, and we have our Coiirt of Equity to decide 
 that which cannot be proved by law. The Sheri of Turkey, in 
 any case which cannot be decided by the law of the country, will 
 settle the question by reference to the Koran. 
 
 We may say that the administration of justice in Turkey is di- 
 vided into two parts — that of the Sheri, w'herein all the judges are 
 Mussulmans, and that of the Nizdmiyeli, composed of both 
 Christians and Mussulmans. 
 
 The head of all the Courts of the Sheri is the Sheik-ul-Islam, 
 who sanctions all their judgments. 
 
 The judicatory of the Sheri is composed of a High Court of Ap- 
 peal (Arz-odaci), divided into two chambers (Soudour), one for 
 Turkey in Europe, and one for Asia. At the head of each is a 
 Cdzi-aslcer, literally military judge. This is an ancient title es- 
 tablished by Sultan Murad I., a.d. 1361, when the civil affairs of 
 the army Avere brought under the cognizance of the holder of the 
 title. The Cazi-asker is assisted by fourteen honorary chief jus- 
 tices. In the Hierarchy of the Ulema the Mollahs rank next to 
 the Cdzi-asker, and after them the Cadis. 
 
 * " Legislation Ottoman ou Recueil des lois reglements ordonnances 
 traites, capitulations et autres documents officiels de 1' Empire Ottoman par 
 Aristarchi Bey (Gregoire). 1. Droit Civil General. 3. Droit Public Inte 
 rieur. 3. Droit Administratif. 4. Droit Internationale."
 
 446 TUREE Y IX E UROPE. 
 
 The first in rauk are the Mollulis of Constantinople, nine in num- 
 ber, and who sit in the Court Sheri, at the capital, for a year, be- 
 ing taken in turn from the body of the Mollahs. At its head is 
 the Moll ah of Stambonl. 
 
 The second in rank is the Mevlevizet, which numbers fifty-seven 
 titularies. The Mollah, when on duty, serves for only a year, and 
 then returns to the roll. 
 
 In each Vildiet there is a Court Sheri presided over by a Mol- 
 lah. Appointments to the Courts of Sheri are made by the Sul- 
 tan at the presentation of the Sheik-ul-Islam. There is a general 
 term for the heads of these district courts — viz., Naihs. It is the 
 duty of the Naib to examine and revise all the sentences passed by 
 the Sheri ; he also presides at the Divmi-temyzi (Court of Appeal) 
 attached to each Vilaiet, which is divided into two sections — the 
 one civil and the other criminal, and to which all appeals are sent 
 from all the courts of the Livas and Cazas. The Naib is an inter- 
 mediary between the ancient law and the new. He has, in fact, 
 to so interpret the Koran that it will agree with the laws Avhich 
 have been founded on the Codes Napoleon ; the latter is for all 
 practicable purposes the laiv, and the Sheri sanctions it, and if it 
 did not, appeals could be made. The members of the Divan- 
 temyzi are composed of all classes of subjects, whether Mussulmans 
 or not, taken from the inferior courts at the rate of three for the 
 Daavi, four for the Temyz-i-houkouk, and six for the Divan-i- 
 temyz. These courts will presently be described. The law di- 
 rects that the members of this court shall be elected by the in- 
 habitants, but it is evaded, and the election practically lies in the 
 hands of the Vali. Steps were taken in December, 1875, to rem- 
 edy this, with what result remains to be seen. Each Liva and 
 Caza has also a Court Sheri, of which the Naibs are Cadis ap- 
 pointed by the Sultan on the nomination of the Sheik-ul-Islam. 
 The practice of these courts is simple and expeditious, and their 
 decisions are usually just, but unfortunately in many instances the 
 subtle influence of backshish forms a powerful counsel. The par- 
 ties concerned in the case take care to provide themselves with a 
 fetva of the Mufti or counsel's opinion, and then without any other 
 assistance they appear before the Court and state their own case, 
 and prove it by any documents they may possess, or by any wit- 
 nesses they can produce. The AyaJc-naih, a sort of pleader, then 
 makes a brief resume of the whole case, and the judge pronounces
 
 APPENDIX D. 447 
 
 sentence ildm (which is inscribed at the bottom of the arz-i-hel or 
 petition), and legalizes it by his signature. The administrative 
 authority is charged with carrying out the sentence. 
 
 It is a popular error to sujopose that the Courts Sheri are the 
 only laws in Turkey, that is, that all cases are settled by the law 
 of the Koran ; it would be just as reasonable to say that our Courts 
 of Equity form the only law in England. It may be fairly put in 
 this way — that the Courts Sheri are guided by the law which is 
 founded on the Codes Napoleon, and that in all cases of difficulty 
 they apply for assistance to the lav/ of the Koran. 
 
 "We have now to consider the Mekhemeli-i-nizdiniyeh, or legal 
 tribunals, the members of which comprise both Mussulmans and 
 Christians, and whose duty it is to examine and try all cases be- 
 tween the two religious classes of Ottoman subjects, and also 
 between Mussulmans alone. They are also Criminal Courts. The 
 members of these Courts are taken like those of the Divan-temyzi, 
 from all classes who may be properly qualified, and are elected by 
 the inhabitants as directed in the new regulations for the admin- 
 istration of the Vilaiets, published in March, 1876. In other re- 
 spects these Courts are formed on the European model, and one 
 is attached to each Vilaiet, Liva, and Caza. Below the latter 
 Court come the demogeronties of the villages, which may be com- 
 pared to our own justices of the peace. 
 
 Each higher Court forms a Court of Appeals from the one be- 
 low it. That of the Vildiet, the Divan-i-temyzi, I have already 
 described ; it gives judgment on cases of capital punishment, 
 penal servitude, and perpetual exile ; but all cases of capital pun- 
 ishment have to be sanctioned by the High Court of Constantino- 
 ple, and finally by the Sultan. 
 
 The Court which sits at the head-quarters of the Livd is called 
 Temyz-i-liouJcouh-Medjlisseri. It is charged with civil cases 
 where the amount in debate does not exceed in value 5,000 pias- 
 ters, or where terms of imprisonment not exceeding three months 
 can be inflicted, or a fine of 500 piasters. 
 
 The Court at the head-quarters of the Gaza is called Dadvi- 
 Medjlisseri, which judges on civil actions not exceeding 1,000 
 piasters, and passes sentences of imprisonment not exceeding one 
 week, or fines not exceeding 100 piasters. 
 
 This concludes all the Local Courts, with the exception of the 
 Tribunals of Commerce, established in the sea-port towns, and of
 
 448 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 whicli there are forty-nine in Turkey in Europe. They were in- 
 stituted in 1847, but many reforms have been made in them since 
 that date. They are composed of two chambers — one considers 
 all cases connected with commerce on land, the other is maritime. 
 Appeals are carried to the High Courts of the Vilaiets, and finally 
 to the Supreme Court of Justice at Constantinople, or the Divan- 
 i-ahhidm-i-adliyeh, instituted in 1868. This Court sits in appeal 
 from all other courts in the country, and is divided into two sec- 
 tions. The first Mekhemeh-i-temyzi, or Court of Cassation, is 
 again divided into two sections — the one civil, and the other crim- 
 inal. The second section of the Supreme Court is called Mehhe- 
 m^li-i-nizameyeh, or High Court of Appeal, and passes a final 
 sentence on civil and criminal cases, excepting sentence of death, 
 upon which further appeal can be made to the Sultan. It is 
 divided into three chambers — civil, criminal, and commercial. 
 
 This Court completes all the judicial tribunals of the Empire. 
 It may be seen that, like all other departments, the organization 
 is excellent, but it is indifferently administered. Nevertheless, 
 the accounts of maladministration of justice, which it is too com- 
 mon to blaze about, are greatly exaggerated. Abuses exist, and 
 whenever they can be discovered they are made the most of by the 
 enemies of the country. In the execution of justice much dejiends 
 upon the character of the Vali, or of the head of any of the infe- 
 rior districts. It consequently happens that in one part of the 
 country you may find the laws honestly carried out, while in an- 
 other they are evaded by bribery. Consul Palgrave, in writing from 
 Trebizond in 1867, says : " The Medjliss is a tribunal sufficiently 
 impartial from its very organization ; no legal difference is made 
 between the Turk and Christian ; and the witness of either is 
 equally admitted in every case. Indeed, whatever occasional in- 
 justices may here occur weigh for the most part heavier on a Turk 
 than on a Christian ; because the former has in matter of fact no 
 ulterior appeal, while the latter habitually interj)oses the authority 
 of some Consulate, especially the Greek or the Eussiaft." 
 
 There are auxiliary institutions connected with the mercantile 
 regulations for trade which, although of a private character, are 
 nevertheless recognized by the Government, and are made use of 
 by it for the purposes of information and for transmitting instruc- 
 tions. 
 
 These are the guilds called '* Esnafs." The masters of those
 
 APPENDIX D. 449 
 
 professions or tr.ades which bear analogy to each other form an 
 assembly called the Esnaf. These communities are regularly or- 
 ganized. They have each a recognized chief or president, as he is 
 called, who is elected by the majority of the members. 
 
 They have their statutes and hold meetings. 
 
 The members are bound by reciprocal engagements to agree to 
 all matters having reference to current lorices or opposition there- 
 to. The admission of a workman or artizan to an Esnaf is regu- 
 lated by its president, who either decides on his own responsibil- 
 ity at once, or submits the case at the general meeting of its 
 members. It is also part of the duty of the president to see that 
 each member of his Esnaf should comply with the law, as also with 
 the special rules of the corporation. The president has power to 
 fine, in accordance with these rules, those who disobey them. 
 
 He is intrusted with the seal of office of the association, and the 
 local authorities look to him as the exponent on all matters con- 
 nected with the Esnaf of which he is the chief member. The 
 claims of admission of any new member are inquired into at a 
 meeting convened for the purpose. 
 
 If the applicant is admitted, his entrance fee is inscribed in a 
 book, which sum, together with any fines that may have been im- 
 posed, goes toward the relief of distressed workmen of the craft, 
 or is applied to the use of orphan children. 
 
 In principle, every Esnaf enjoys a monopoly of its trade, as no 
 one is allowed to form part of it witliout the consent or conditions 
 already mentioned. The Mussulman population when joined to 
 the Christian, as frequently occurs, are far from rendering willing 
 obedience to the by-laws which govern these corporations, and 
 difliculties arise in consequence. Sixty-nine of these corporations 
 exist in the Bazaar of Monastir — namely, forty-one Christian, 
 nineteen Mussulman, and nine Jewish, This division of creeds in 
 no way interferes with the working of the system. 
 
 The Jews foi-m a separate section, and do not admit a member 
 of a different belief ; all the others are mixed and are designated 
 Mussulman, Christian, etc., according to the majority in them, as 
 the majority of course elect a president of their own ci'eed. Mer- 
 chants properly so called do not form part of the Esnaf.* I believe 
 the Esnaf is an ancient organization, and it seems somewhat sim- 
 
 * Report from Consul Blunt. 
 
 29
 
 450 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 ilar to that whicli must have existed on the formation of our great 
 city guilds or companies. 
 
 There is a special organization for Constantinople into a sepa- 
 rate Vilaiet, placed under the immediate authority of the Minister 
 of Police. The jurisdiction of the Zabtiyeli Ndziri, as it is called, 
 comprises Stamboul and the quarters of Eyoub, Kassim Pasha, 
 Pera and Galata, and all the suburbs from Silivria on the Sea of 
 Marmora to the Black Sea on the European side, and from Ghili 
 on the Black Sea to the end of the Gulf of Nicomedia on the 
 Asiatic side. The number of inhabitants has been estimated at 
 1,200,000, but it is doubtful whether that is even approximately 
 accurate. The Vildiet is divided into four Mutecarrifliks or 
 LivAs, Stamboul, Pera, Scutari, and Buyuk-Tchekmedjeh, which 
 comprise eight Caimacdmliks or Cazas, and five Mudirliks or 
 Nahiehs, as follows : 
 
 COKSTAKTINOPLE. 
 
 Mut6carrlflik9. Catmacamliks. Mudirliks. 
 
 Fatih-Sultan-Mehemet. 
 
 Eyoub. 
 
 Cartal. 
 
 lies des Princes. 
 
 Stamboul - 
 
 Pera. 
 
 Galata. 
 Yeni Keui. 
 
 Scutari Beicos i <^"ibeyeh. 
 
 1 Ghili. 
 
 r Kutchuk. 
 
 Buyuk-Tchekmedjeh. Tchataldjeh \ '' ' 
 
 [ Derkos. 
 
 The Minister of Police fills the office of Vali, and is assisted with 
 similar officers to those in a Vildiet. The Municipal Government 
 of Constantinople forms a prefecttire, divided into fourteen circles: 
 1. St. Sophia ; 3. Ak Serai ; 3. Fatih-Sultan-Mehemet ; 4. Eyoub ; 
 5. Kassim Pasha ; 6. Pera and Galata ; 7. Bechik-Tach ; 8. Emir- 
 ghian ; 9. Buyukdereh ; 10. Beycos ; 11. Beylerbey ; 13. Scutari ; 
 13. Cadi Keui ; 14. Princes Islands. 
 
 The three first are comprised in the enciente of Stamboul.
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 451 
 
 The administration of each municipal circle is carried out hy a 
 municipal council elected by the people, except the president, who 
 is appointed by Government. Up to the end of 187G only one, 
 the sixth, of these circles had been completely organized, the re- 
 mainder are in process of formation. They are all to be under 
 the surveillance of the Prefect of Constantinople, who is a mem- 
 ber of the Privy Council. He is assisted by two Councils — the 
 Council of the Prefect, consisting of six members appointed by 
 the State, and a Council General, composed of the fourteen presi- 
 dents of the Circles — and three members from each of their 
 Municijjal Councils appointed by their colleagues. The Council 
 General meets twice a year, and is convoked by the Prefect, and 
 the duration of each session does not exceed one month. 
 
 The following is a list of the Vilaiets, together with their 
 Livds : — 
 
 Turkey iisr Europe. 
 
 10 VilaTcts, or General Governments. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 1. Edirneh (Adrianople) . 
 
 2. Touna (Danube). 
 
 3. Bosna (Bosnia) , 
 
 44 Livas, or MntgcarriflikB. 
 
 Edirneh. 
 
 Tekfour Daghi (Rhodosto). 
 
 Gueboli (Gallipoli). 
 
 Fillibeh (Philippopoli). 
 
 Islimiyeh. 
 
 RutschuJc. 
 
 Varna. 
 
 Widdin. 
 
 Toultcha. 
 
 Tirnova. 
 
 Sofia. 
 
 Nich. 
 
 Bosna Serai. 
 
 Zvornik. 
 
 Banialouka. 
 
 Travnik. 
 
 Behkeh. 
 
 Yeni- Bazaar. 
 
 4. Ersek (Herzegovina) i ^^ostar. 
 
 ^ ^ ( Gatchka (Gatzko).
 
 452 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 5. Selanik (Salonica). 
 
 6. Yania (Yanina) , 
 
 7. Monastir. 
 
 Ochkoudra or Scodra (Scu- 
 tari) 
 
 9. Djezair (Islands) , 
 
 10. Ghirit (Candia) 
 
 SelaniTc. 
 Sironz (Seres). 
 Drama. 
 
 Yania. 
 
 Tirhala. 
 
 Erkri (Okhri). 
 
 Prevesa. 
 
 Berat. 
 
 Monastir. 
 
 Perzerim (Prizrend). 
 
 Uscub (Scopia). 
 
 Dobra. 
 
 Scodra. 
 
 Rodos (Ehodes). 
 Midilli (Mytillene) 
 Sakyz (Chios). 
 Istankeui (Cos). 
 Kybrys (Cyprus). 
 
 Hania (Cania). 
 Eismo. 
 
 Candiyeb (Candia). 
 Sultauiyeb (Spakia). 
 *- Lachid. 
 
 We have now to consider how the Vilaiets communicate with 
 their central head-quarters at Constantinople, and thus reach the 
 supreme head of the State, the Sultan. 
 
 "We have seen how the ancient order of oflBcials termed outer 
 and inner Aghas still exist, and how the latter, or the Maheindji, 
 are connected with the serai or palace. 
 
 The mabein is that part of the palace inhabited by the harem, 
 and which contains not only the wives but the female relations of 
 the Sultan, together with their attendants. 
 
 This is the case with all harems, and often gives a stranger a 
 very erroneous impression of the number of wives belonging to a 
 Turk. He sees, perhaps, twenty or more women, and is told that 
 they form the harem of some Bey or Pasha, and he immediately 
 sets them all down as the wives of the unfortunate Turk, while
 
 APPENDIX D. 453 
 
 in point of fact there may be only one wife, and the remainder 
 are aunts, mothers, sisters, etc. 
 
 The Sultan's harem is considered a permanent state institution, 
 and all children born to him, whether offspring of free women or 
 slaves, are legitimate. The female children are called Imperial 
 Princesses, but the title does not descend to their offspring. The 
 male children, until called to the throne, must either remain un- 
 married or abdicate their rank. Several of the Sultan's favorites 
 are called Kadyn, or ladies of the palace ; the remainder are 
 termed Odalik, and remain under them as servants. An aged 
 lady is selected as Superintendent of the Palace, under the title of 
 Hasnadar-Kadyn, and she communicates with the outer world 
 through the guard of eunuchs. * 
 
 To the outer Aghas belong the First Aide-de-camp, or Chief of 
 the Saltan's military staff, which is composed of five aide-de- 
 camps and thirty officers from the rank of General of Brigade to 
 that of Captain, the first Imam, or Grand Almoner, the Chief Sur- 
 geon, the First Secretary, and the Master of the Horse. 
 
 The principal offices of the Mabeindji are filled by eunuchs, who 
 carry the title of Aghas. They occupy a very important place in 
 the State in consequence of the great influence they sometimes 
 possess as intermediaries between the Valideh Sultana or other 
 members of the harem, and the officers who hold the reins of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 In the first rank comes the chief of the Black Eunuchs, or 
 Kislar Aghaci. His official title is Darus Sead-t-aghaci. He ranks 
 as a muchir, or field-marshal, and often exercises as much influ- 
 ence as the Grand Vizier. After him comes the Kliasnadar, 
 Treasurer, and the 8cr moucdhib, or Chief of the Pages ; the First 
 Chamberlain, or Grand Master of the Court, etc., etc. 
 
 The Sultan governs his empire through two channels — (1.) The 
 Grand Vizier ; {2.) The Sheik-ul-Islam, or Mufti. The Grand 
 Vizier is the mouthpiece of the Sultan, and executes his will. He 
 presides, in the absence of the Sultan, at the Privy Council, 
 nominates to most of the appointments, commands the army, 
 either in person or by delegates. He is, in fact, the chief executive 
 power, but he only exercises that power in the name of tlie Sultan. 
 His powers are conferred upon him by a hatt, which the Sultan 
 addresses to him on raising him to the appointment. Anybody 
 Statesman's Year Book, 1877.
 
 454 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 may be selected by the Sultan to be Grand Vizier, no matter what 
 his qualifications may be. 
 
 The SheiTc-ul-Isldni does not rank inferior to the Grand Vizier, 
 but he acts in a different sphere. As the latter is the voice of the 
 Sultan, the former may be called his judgment. The Sheik-ul- 
 Islam is also called the Grand Mufti ; but the latter word is also 
 used to designate other remarkable personages. 
 
 His position is altogether unique, and somewhat difficult to 
 describe. He is generally supposed to belong to the si:)iritual 
 order ; but such is not the case, and he might more justly be de- 
 signated as the head of the legislature ; but since the law is con- 
 nected with the Koran, and the Sheik-ul-Islam is the interpreter 
 of the Koran, it attaches to him a spiritual character. There is 
 no spiritual head besides himself, yet he is not an ecclesiastical 
 functionary. He may be designated as the counsel of the Sultan, 
 and his fetva, or stated legal opinion as derived from the Koran, 
 has to be obtained to sanction any State ordonnance. He is the 
 head and referee of all law courts. The office was established by 
 Sultan Mohammed II., in the year 1453. He is removable at the 
 will of the Sultan, and if his fetvas are not always in accordance 
 with the Sultan's wishes a new ajipointment is made, so that the 
 Sultan can direct the law. He is, in fact, despotic. 
 
 But this despotism is only nominal, and, as we have seen in the 
 case of Sultan Abdul Aziz, when the despotic power is greatly 
 abused the Councils take the law into their own hands ; but before 
 misgovernment arrives at such a pass a dishonest, weak, or cruel 
 Sultan brings his country to the verge of ruin. 
 
 The Sheik-ul-Islam is chief of the Ulema, or sacred and legisla- 
 tive order, and, like the Grand Vizier, has the title of Highness, 
 and each receives a salary of about £11,000 per annum. 
 
 They form, together with the ministers with portfolio and some 
 high dignitaries having the rank of minister, the Privy Council, 
 or Medjliss-i-hlidss. 
 
 It is composed of the following twenty-two members : — 
 
 The Seraskier, or Minister of War. 
 
 The Minister of Marine, or Capitan Pasha. 
 
 The Minister of Foreign Affairs (Ancient Eeis-Effendi). 
 
 The Minister of Justice. 
 
 The Minister of Public Instruction. 
 
 The Minister of Finance.
 
 APPENDIX D. 455 
 
 The Minister of Commerce. 
 
 The Minister of Public Works. 
 
 The Minister of Police. 
 
 The Minister of Vacoufs. 
 
 The Mustechilr (Counsel) of the Grand Vizier, and who per- 
 forms the functions of a Minister of the Interior. 
 
 The President and Vice-President of the Council of State. 
 
 A Member of the same Council. 
 
 Three other Members of the Superior Councils. 
 
 The Director-General of Indirect Contributions. 
 
 The Director-General of Archives. 
 
 The Prefect of the Town of Constantinople. 
 
 The name given to the Privy Council is the Divan, which is, 
 properly speaking, derived from the Persian word Div (demon), 
 and it is said that the King of Persia, on passing before his Coun- 
 cil, said to a friend, "1 nan divan end" (Those are demons), and 
 since that day the plural of div, which is divan, has attached to 
 councils. * 
 
 The Sublime Porte is supposed to be wherever the Grand Vizier 
 is found, and the Divan is the Council of the Sublime Porte, and 
 meets generally every week under the presidency of the Sultan, 
 and deliberates on all that concerns the public interests. Under 
 circumstances of exceptional gravity, the Privy Council is re- 
 placed by an extraordinary divan composed of all the ministers, 
 of the muchirs of the civil and military order, of the chiefs of 
 the grand administrations, of the principal ulemas, of the pro- 
 fessors of the great mosques, etc., etc 
 
 In addition to the Divan there are the Councils of the Empire, 
 which consist of the Council for the Execution of Eeform, and 
 the Council of State. 
 
 The first, or IfedUjj-i-ali-idJradf, is, as its name implies, de- 
 signed to watch over the general administration, and to see that 
 the reforms promulgated in the Hatt-i-cherifs, Iradehs, etc., are 
 carried out. The Grand Vizier is President, and the Ministers sit 
 ex officio. There are fifteen other members, of which six are 
 Christians. 
 
 The Council of State was instituted in 1868, and is organized 
 on the model of the French Council of State, but many changes 
 
 * Von Hammer.
 
 456 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 have been made in its divisions. In 1873 it had four sections — 
 administrative, legislative, litigation, and public works ; but in 
 1875 the last was delegated to a council of public works. 
 
 It is presided over by a minister, and at the head of each section 
 there is a " President of Section." There are sixteen counselors, 
 among whom three are representatives of the non-Mussulman 
 community — a Greek, an Armenian, and a Jew. There are also a 
 secretary, five assessors {muavin), and eight auditors {muldzim). 
 
 The Council of State has the germs of a representative council 
 of the general subjects of the Porte, and will no doubt be built 
 upon as reforms take place. 
 
 In addition to the great Councils of the State, there are eleven 
 Special Councils of the Ministers of the various branches of ad- 
 ministrations, among which may be mentioned that of the ad- 
 ministration of the Post and Telegraphs, and the Sanitary Council, 
 which is the head of a sanitary service whose duty it is to indicate 
 what may be necessary for the public health in any part of the 
 Empire — no easy matter under the circumstances ! 
 
 All these subordinate Councils sift the State business in detail, 
 and concentrate it for the consideration of the State Council. 
 There are also a number of bureaucratic appointments called the 
 Officers of the State, and of which the GalemiyeJi demands the 
 first consideration. 
 
 It comprises five ranks of functionaries, of which the highest 
 is assimilated to the military profession (the ancient foundation of 
 the governors of Turkey), and carries with it the rank of Ferik, 
 or General of Division. The first and second ranks are each com- 
 posed of two classes, and in the former may be included the 
 Mustechdrs, or Counsellors. They are, as it were, adjutants of the 
 principal ministers. The Mustechar of the Grand Vizier fulfills 
 the functions of Minister of the Interior, an arrangement which 
 does not give satisfaction, and it is proposed to institute a minister 
 for that special purpose. This office was filled under the ancient 
 regime by the Kiaia Bey. Then comes the Interpreter of the 
 Divan, or Divan-i-humayoun-terdjumdni ; the Vice-Chancellor, 
 BeililctcM, who is the channel of communication with the Patri- 
 archate, and exj^edites the transmission of the firmans to provincial 
 governors relative to Uie police of the Empire ; the Director of the 
 Imperial Divan, Amedi-i-divan-i-Jiumayotin ; the Keeper of the 
 Signet, who affixes the imperial seal to all firmans ; the Master of
 
 APPENDIX D. 457 
 
 the Ccromouies, Teclirifdti-i-humayoun; the Director-General of 
 the Press, Matboiidt-mudiri ; the Controller-General of Vacoufs, 
 MuhdsseheMj i ; the Controller of the Bank, etc., etc.* 
 
 The Interpreter of the Divan has under his orders a staff of 
 Linguists {Terdjuman-odaci), a very necessary accompaniment to 
 Government in Turkey. This work used to be performed by the 
 Phanariots prior to the Greek war of independence, in 1821, when 
 it was replaced by the Terdjuman-odaci, and with it the Greeks 
 lost much of the influence they formerly possessed in the govern- 
 ment of the country. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary for good government in Turkey that 
 the leading men should be Linguists, otherAvise they cannot 
 fathom the intricacies of their complicated administration ; we 
 consequently find that some of the most distinguished men in 
 Turkish history for the last forty years have emanated from the 
 Terdjuman-odaci. Aali Pasha, Fuad Pasha, Ahmed- Vefik Effendi, 
 Emin-Muklis Pasha, Noureddin Bey, Namik Pasha, Savfet 
 Pasha, etc. 
 
 This concludes the plan of government and administration in 
 Turkey, and if it is studied closely it will be seen that it has been 
 framed with the intention of checking corruption, especially in the 
 Vilaiets ; but the weak point in the edifice is the power of the 
 Sultan. If he is dishonest he can, by a wave of his hand, sweep 
 off the Grand Vizier and the Sheik- ul-Isldm, and replace them 
 with dishonest men, and after that the organization is complete 
 for ramifying venality through the State. 
 
 * Ubicini.
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 EDUCATION". 
 
 The education in the public schools is divided into three 
 stages — 
 
 1. The Primary — given by the SiUdn, or elementary schools, 
 and the Ruclidiyeh or primary schools. 
 
 2. The Secondary — which also pursue two courses through the 
 Idadiyeh or preparatory schools, and the Sultauiyeh or Lyceums. 
 
 3. The Superior Institutions — representing the University and 
 special superior schools or Aliyeh. 
 
 We will now examine these lay schools in detail. 
 
 The Sihidn or Primary ^Scliools. 
 
 These are the Elementary schools which have taken the place of 
 the old Mektehs. Education is gratuitous, and for the Mussulman 
 population compulsory for all children of both sexes — for boys, 
 from the age of six to eleven years ; and for girls, from six to ten 
 years of age. Each quarter, or each village, must possess at least 
 one of these schools. 
 
 At the end of 1864 there existed in Turkey 15,071 Primary 
 schools) 289 in Constantinople, the remainder in the Provinces), 
 which gave instruction to 660,000 children of both sexes ; of this 
 number 12,509 with 524,771 students were Mussulman, and 2,562 
 with 135,229 students were non-Mussulman schools. 
 
 In 1876 the Salndmeh had at Constantinople alone 470 schools, 
 of which 280 were Mussulman, and 190 non-Mussulman ; the latter 
 were divided as follows : — Greek 77, Armenian 48, Armenian 
 Catholics 8, Bulgarian 4, Jews 47, Protestants 5, Servian 1. 
 
 I^he Ruclidiyeh is also gratuitous, but not compulsory. Accord- 
 ing to Law, each group of 500 houses must have a Euchdiyeh 
 school — Mussulman, if the population is of that faith ; Christian, 
 if it is Christian. In mixed populations there are to be two 
 schools, one ]\Iussulman, and one Christian. The teaching, which 
 
 458
 
 APPENDIX E. 459 
 
 extends over four years, comprises, for tlie boys — Turkish gram- 
 mar, Arabic and Persian, arithmetic, elementary geometry, history, 
 geography, drawing, and the language of one of the non-Mussul- 
 man communities of the locality ; for the girls — religious instruc- 
 tion, Turkish grammar, the elements of Arabic and Persian 
 grammar, literature, history, geography, arithmetic, domestic 
 economy, needlework, drawing, and the rudiments of music. 
 This is excellent in theory, but as yet the practice has been imper- 
 fect ; there has, however, of late years been a marked improve- 
 ment both in the teaching and in the number of the Euchdiyehs, 
 as may be seen from the following list : — 
 
 Schools. Scholars. 
 
 1857 39 3,371 
 
 1860 53 3,920 
 
 1868 87 11,894 
 
 1874 386 19,356 
 
 Secondary ScJiooIs. 
 
 1st. The Idddiyeh. These contain both Mussulman and non- 
 Mussulman scholars, and receive students who have attended all 
 the classes of the Euchdiyeh, and have passed a qualified examina- 
 tion, which takes place during the month of June. The course 
 of instruction extends over three years, and comprises Ottoman, 
 literature and composition, the French language (compulsory), 
 rhetoric, the elements of political economy, geography, universal 
 history, arithmetic and algebra, geometry, physics, natural history, 
 and drawing. By law an Idddiyeh has to be established for every 
 one thousand houses. 
 
 The Lyceums, or Sultaniyeh, are established at the head-quarters 
 of the Vilaiets, and comprise two divisions — one a three years' 
 course in grammar, etc., and the other a similar period in sciences, 
 etc. ; but both these and the Idadiyeh are at present in nubibus 
 and only exist on paper. 
 
 The only secondary schools which really exist are the Bureau- 
 cratic School, established in 1869 for scholars who are to be em- 
 ployed as copyists in the public offices. This is an imjiortant 
 branch of education in consequence of the complicated character 
 of Turkish writing, of which there are several kinds — the jS^csl:i, 
 used for religious or scientific works ; the Suhis, for inscriptions;
 
 460 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 the Divdni, for official acts ; tlie Riha, discursiye ; tlie SiaTcali, 
 for office-work connected with finance, and the Talik, or Persian, 
 writing. This school had fifty-nine scholars at the end of 1875, 
 
 School of Administration, or MeMeb-i-Milhiyeli, instituted in 
 1862 ; entrance after qualified examination from the Euchdiy^h. 
 The instruction comprises sacred law, civil law, general history, 
 political economy, book-keeping, geography, the French language, 
 natural history, and chemistry. The course lasts for two years. 
 The scholars, if they pass an examination on leaving, receive a 
 dijoloma, and are appointed to vacant Mudirliks — Governors of 
 JSTakiehs in the Vilaiets. The number of scholars in 1875 was 113. 
 This is an important school, as we here find a lay educational in- 
 stitution educating Mussulmans for appointments of Governors, 
 or magistrates, of small districts. 
 
 There is another school, or college, Avhich occupies an important 
 position in the educational institutions of the country, and that is 
 the Mehteb-i-8ultani, or Imperial Lyceum. It was established in 
 1868 under a French staff of teachers, and upon a French model. 
 The course of study is eight years, three years preparatory and 
 five actually in the college course. At the end of 1875 there were 
 428 scholars of all religions and nationalities in the Emjiire. The 
 studies include all branches of education given in the French 
 language. The government of the Lyceum is directed by a high 
 Ottoman functionary, assisted by a council of inspection. 
 
 The superior branches of education are comprised in the Im- 
 perial University, and other schools of a special description. 
 
 The Imperial University is a new institution, and is at present 
 only in embryo. It is to have three schools — of letters, of civil 
 engineering, and of political economy. 
 
 The special schools are numerous, and include military and 
 naval (to be afterward mentioned). Medieme, founded in 1826 
 by Sultan Mahmoud. This college has produced better results 
 than any other in Turkey. It consists of two sections, the pre- 
 paratory and the medical. In 1874 there were 887 students in the 
 first, and 302 in the second. I have met several of the doctors 
 who have been educated in this college, and those who have taken 
 their degree of late years are well instructed in their profession, 
 as far as it is possible for a non-medical man to judge.
 
 FIN'AN'CE. 
 
 The Treaties of the 29th April, 1861, with Great Britain and 
 France mark a new stage in tlie commercial legislation, and form 
 the basis of the present duties. It was therein stipulated that a 
 single export duty of 8 per cent, should be payable on the export 
 of Turkish produce, not to be enhanced by any internal duties on 
 sale or removal, and to be annually reduced by 1 per cent, till it 
 should have reached the minimum of 1 per cent., at which it was 
 to remain stationary. This minimum rate came into operation on 
 the 13th of March, 1869. The new Treaties raised the import 
 duties on foreign produce from 5 per cent, to 8 per cent., which 
 charge was to cover all internal charges or tolls, and reduced the 
 transit duty from 3 to 1 per cent. Similar Treaties were subse- 
 quently concluded with Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the 
 Netherlands, Prussia, Eussia, Sweden, Spain, and the United 
 States. Separate tariffs were also framed by special Commissions 
 for the purpose of assessing specific rates of duty on the imports 
 from and exports to the above states, which rates were to be 
 equivalent to the 8 per cent, ad valorem duty. 
 
 Thus, the Turkish tariff, though one of the most moderate, has 
 become one of the most complicated. Still more objectionable is 
 its inequality. Under color of an 8 per cent, duty for all, the 
 specific rates have been so manipulated as to favor some countries 
 at the expense of others and at the expense of the Turkish Treas- 
 ury. Thus cloth pays duty by value when coming from Austria, 
 and by weight coming from the Zollverein. As a natural conse- 
 quence, coarse Prussian cloths are sent through Austria and fine 
 Austrian cloths through Prussia, to be shipped at Hamburg, both 
 thus choosing the tariff which is most advantageous to them and 
 least advantageous to the Treasury. This can only be remedied 
 by the adoption of a uniform tariff applicable to all countries. 
 Considering the geographical position of Turkey and the 
 
 461
 
 462 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 quantity of merchandise whicli passes tlirougli her ports, the 
 Customs duties should yield a much larger revenue than at pres- 
 ent. The ruinous system of farming the revenue, accompanied 
 with loss to the Treasury and demoralization of the mercantile 
 community, has now, thanks to the vigor and integrity of the pres- 
 ent Director-General, Kiani Pasha, been abolished. But frauds 
 and corruptions are still undoubtedly rife in the lower branches 
 of the Department. This is the principal difficulty with which 
 the Government has to contend. It tends also to throw the trade 
 into the hands of unscrupulous merchants, and fosters a spirit of 
 hostility between the Custom-house and the merchants, by which 
 both suffer. A simple and uniform tariff would promote the 
 interests of both, and would discourage fraud. 
 
 Another great desideratum is a good system of warehousing in 
 bond. Of this Turkey is at present destitute, so that merchants 
 are obliged to import from hand to mouth. A good bonding 
 system would encourage importation, and would materially aid in 
 the just collection of the duty. The erection of docks and bonded 
 warehouses would be readily accomplished by private enterprise, 
 and would supjily a keenly-felt want. 
 
 Statistics of trade for the whole Empire are absolutely deficient, 
 and those for the principal sea-ports are very imperfect. I am, 
 however, enabled to subjoin an original tabular statement, show- 
 ing the import trade of Constantinople, derived from an official 
 source. 
 
 SxATEiiEJiTT of the Imports of Constantinople from Europe in 
 1864, reduced to their values in English money at 111 piasters 
 per £ sterling : 
 
 Articles. 
 
 £ sterling. 
 
 Amber 
 
 26,685 
 16,587 
 16,083 
 
 Silver Plate 
 
 Arms 
 
 Butter and tallow 
 
 176,625 
 16,164 
 
 Cattle from Russia 
 
 Jewelry and watches 
 
 75,807 
 
 Spirituous beverages 
 
 109,134 
 
 Candles 
 
 70,740 
 
 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 507,835
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 Statement op Ijtpobts — continued. 
 
 463 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Cinnamon and cloves 
 
 Caviare 
 
 Cereals and flour from Russia 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Ropes and tar 
 
 Cottons and linens 
 
 Colors 
 
 Table glass and China 
 
 Leather 
 
 Drugs 
 
 Wool, Manufactures of 
 
 Silk, ditto 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 Wrought iron, nails, machinery 
 
 Thread of gold and silver, ornaments 
 
 Furs 
 
 Coal 
 
 Oil seeds 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 Printed books 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Wool from Russia 
 
 Furniture, mirrors, etc 
 
 Stationery 
 
 Skins, not varnished 
 
 Stones, bricks, and slabs 
 
 Boards and cabinetmaker's wood 
 
 Pepper and spices 
 
 Rice 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Articles of food, sundry 
 
 Cigars and tobacco 
 
 Tea 
 
 Oil-cloth 
 
 Window-glass and bottles 
 
 Zinc, copper, tinned plates, and lead. . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 £ sterling. 
 
 507,825 
 
 178,623 
 
 6,870 
 
 19,296 
 
 307,026 
 19,359 
 15,759 
 2,679,402 
 54,990 
 91,134 
 
 132,042 
 73,629 
 
 762,921 
 
 353,475 
 47,604 
 
 105,228 
 41,034 
 17,334 
 
 200,025 
 
 3,099 
 
 10,944 
 
 33,570 
 
 7,014 
 
 26,400 
 
 5,823 
 
 11,505 
 
 58,185 
 
 62,676 
 
 3,099 
 
 10,935 
 
 17,424 
 
 10,143 
 
 102,843 
 19,5fl3 
 
 331,587 
 
 111,843 
 
 7,029 
 
 55,125 
 
 19,800 
 
 20,664 
 
 158,634 
 
 621,126 
 
 7.325.883
 
 464 
 
 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 In tlie above table are uot incliided : 1. Merchandise passing to 
 Trebizond and Persia in transit ; 2. Merchandise in transit to 
 Eussia or Eoumania, -which in winter is often delayed for two or 
 three months in Constantinople ; 3. Goods supplied to the Impe- 
 rial palaces, to the army, the navy, foreign Legations, churches, 
 convents, aiid other benevolent establishments, a liberality of the 
 Government which is, no doubt, often abused ; and 4. All the 
 smuggling trade which is known to exist, including most of the 
 precious stones, and much of the jewelry, gold thread, silk, and 
 other fabrics which are imported. It is also to be observed that 
 the above values being based on the tariffs of 1861, are certainly 
 inadequate as regards woven fabrics for the values of 1864. Al- 
 lowing for the above circumstances, and for the known fact of a 
 greatly increased trade since 1864, the value of the European im- 
 ports may be set down at £10,000,000 per annum at least. 
 
 TUEKISH LOANS. 
 
 Year of Issue. 
 
 Nominal Capital 
 
 1854 
 
 £3,000,000 
 
 1855 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1858 
 
 5,000,090 
 
 1860 
 
 2,070,000 
 
 1863 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 1863-4 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 1865 
 
 36,363,363 
 
 1865 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1867 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1869 
 
 22,222,220 
 
 1871 
 
 5,700,000 
 
 1873 
 
 11,126,200 
 
 1873 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 1874 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 
 £184,981,783 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Issue Price 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 4 
 
 . . . 103^ 
 
 6 
 
 85 
 
 6 
 
 62i 
 
 6 
 
 68 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 5 
 
 ... m 
 
 6 
 
 65i 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 6 
 
 60^ 
 
 6 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 ... m 
 
 6 
 
 m\ 
 
 5 
 
 43i 
 
 The first foreign loan of Turkey, of 1854, issued to meet the 
 expenses of the Crimean "War, was contracted with Messrs. Dent, 
 Palmer and Co., London, on the security of the Egyptian Trib- 
 ute, with stipulation to be repaid by annual drawings in or before 
 the year 1889. 
 
 The second loan of 1855, was brought out under the guarantee 
 of England and France. It is to be paid off at par by annual 
 drawings, the last of which will be in August, 1900, and it is
 
 APPENDIX F. 465 
 
 charged on the balance of the Egyptian Tribute and on the Cus- 
 toms duties of S3'ria. 
 
 The third loan, of 1858, was contracted with Messrs. Dent, 
 Palmer and Co. and the Ottoman Bank on the securities of the 
 Customs duties and octrois of Constantinople, and of the general 
 revenues of the Empire. It was issued in two portions, £3,000,000 
 in 1858, and £2,000,000 in 1859, and is to be repaid at par by 
 annual drawings before the year 1893. 
 
 The fourth loan of 1860, contracted with M. Mir5s, Paris, on 
 the securities of the Customs and other revenues of the Empire, 
 was intended to be for £16,000,000, but only £2,070,000 could be 
 issued at the.price of 62^. 
 
 The fifth loan of 1862, contracted with the Ottoman Bank and 
 Messrs. Deveaux, Paris, was secured on the tobacco, salt, stamp, 
 and license duties, and the general revenues of the Empire. 
 
 The sixth loan of 1863, contracted with the Ottoman Bank, was 
 issued on the security of the Imperial customs and tithes. 
 
 The seventh loan, of 186-1, was raised with the professed object 
 of attaining at a conversion and unification of the internal debts 
 of the Ottoman Empire. The contract for issuing this loan was 
 made by ilr. Laing, representing a financial combination of the 
 General Credit Company of London, the Societe Generale of 
 Paris, and a number of other banks. 
 
 The eighth loan, of 1865, contracted through the Ottoman 
 Bank, was charged on the security of the sheep tax of Roumelia 
 and the Archipelagoes, and the produce of the mines of Tokat. 
 
 The ninth, tenth, and eleventh loans, contracted through the 
 Societe Generale, Paris, Messrs. Louis Cohen and Sons, Paris, 
 Messrs. Dent, Palmer and Co., London, were placed on the secu- 
 rity of a variety of special taxes, imports and tithes, as well as on 
 the general revenues, present and future of Turkey. 
 
 The twelfth loan, issued in August, 1872, through Messrs. R. 
 Raphael and Sons, London, was secured on taxes already hypoth- 
 ecated with the special privilege for the bond-holders to exchange 
 their securities at the rate of £550 payment for £1,000 for the 5 
 per cent. Bonds of the General Debt of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 The thirteenth loan, issued in September, 1873, for the nomi- 
 nal amount of £28,000,000, proved a failure for the time, the 
 subscription not reaching one-sixth of the required amount. 
 
 But the fourteenth and last loan, the first installment of which, 
 30
 
 466 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 to the amount of £15,900,000, was issued in September, 1874, 
 found numerous subscribers. 
 
 The amount of the internal or floating debt of Turkey is stated 
 variously. 
 
 In the report of the Special Budget Commission, certifying the 
 estimates 1874-75, it was announced on authority that the total 
 amount of the debt did not exceed £13,000,000, while the com- 
 mission of 1875-76 gave £8,935,000. Other reports estimated it 
 at £30,000,000. 
 
 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 
 
 According to the " Statesman's Year Book,*' for 1877, the aver- 
 age value of the imports of Turkey in Europe is estimated at 
 £18,500,000, and the exports £10,000,000, representing a total 
 trade of £38,500,000 ; but for this, like all other statistics in Tur- 
 key, there are no reliable data. 
 
 On an average of three years from 1871 to 1874, the shipping of 
 Constantinople was made up to the extent of 20 per cent. Brit- 
 ish ; 19 per cent. Italian; 18 per cent. Austrian; 16 per cent. 
 French ; 13 per cent. Greek, and the remainder was made up of 
 vessels sailing under the flags of Turkey, Eussia, and a number 
 of other countries. 
 
 The value of commercial intercourse between the Turkish Em- 
 pire (exclusive of the tributary states of Egypt and Eoumania) 
 and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was : 
 
 
 Exports from 
 
 Imports from 
 
 Years. 
 
 Turkey to Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain to Torkey. 
 
 1870 
 
 6,636,909 
 
 7,088,369 
 
 1871 
 
 7,038,510 
 
 5,996,634 
 
 1873 
 
 5,540,529 
 
 7,639,143 
 
 1873 
 
 6,068,925 
 
 7,733,487 
 
 1874 
 
 5.842,864 
 
 7,037,707 
 
 The staple article of exports to the United Kingdom has been 
 corn. The corn exports in 1874 were of the total revenue of 
 £•2,305,375, divided as follows : wheat, £318,460 ; barley, 
 £1,451,330 ; maize, £517,362 ; mixed kinds, £18,223. 
 
 Next in value to corn stands goat's hair, valonia, and opium, 
 which in 1874, to the United Kingdom, were respectively : 
 £1,020,106, £498,665, £407,105. 
 
 In 1864 the export of raw cotton to this country was £1,560,968, 
 but in 1874 only £38,929.
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 467 
 
 The British imports to Turkey are principally manufactured 
 cottons. In 1874, £5,229,038 ; and of woolens, £234,953 ; iron, 
 ■wrought and un wrought, £490,772.* 
 
 Turkey has so much available water-power, and such excellent 
 soil for the growth of cotton, and such vast grazings and innu- 
 merable flocks of sheep, that she should be able to grow and man- 
 ufacture all her cotton and woolen stuffs. 
 
 The following is the Expenditure and Eevenue of Turkey for 
 the years 1874-75 and 1875-76 :— 
 
 Tears 
 Branches of Revenue. 1874-5. 
 
 Property Tax £2,963,370 
 
 Patent Taxes 681,820 
 
 Exemptions from Military Service 757,170 
 
 Tithes 7,954,545 
 
 Sheep Tax 1,977,270 
 
 Customs 1,886,365 
 
 Tobacco 1,363,635 
 
 Silk 
 
 Spirits 
 
 Tapou (Title Deeds' Duty) 
 
 Stamps 
 
 Contracts 
 
 Judicial Taxes 
 
 Miscellaneous Taxes 
 
 49,180 
 
 , 227,270 
 
 681,820 
 
 454,545 
 
 90,910 
 
 113,635 
 
 413,635 
 
 Divers Receipts 2,164,205 
 
 Tributes — Egypt , 
 
 " WaUacbia. 
 
 Moldavia. . . . 
 
 Servia 
 
 Samos 
 
 Mount Atbos. 
 
 681,820 
 
 22,730 
 
 13,635 
 
 20,910 
 
 3,635 
 
 655 
 
 Total Revenue £22,552,200 
 
 Tears 
 
 1875-6. 
 
 £2,540,000 
 
 128,800 
 
 640,000 
 
 6,900,000 
 
 1,015,840 
 
 1,060,000 
 
 1,320,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 820,000 
 
 772,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 116,552 
 
 381,200 
 
 1,654,064 
 
 681,820 
 
 22,730 
 
 13,635 
 
 20,910 
 
 3,685 
 
 655 
 
 £19,106,353 
 
 " Statesman's Year Book," 1877.
 
 468 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 EXPENDITtmE. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 Expenditure. 1874-75. 
 
 Foreign Debt Interest and Sinking Fund £5,738,495 
 
 Charges on General Debt 1,781,820 
 
 Ivocal Annuities 610,655 
 
 Interest on Floating Debt 448,660 
 
 Interest on Various Advances 
 
 Civil List and Dotations 1,809,090 
 
 Restitutions 4,850 
 
 Deficiency in Receipts 113,635 
 
 Ministry of Finance 885,740 
 
 Administration of Customs 490,090 
 
 Administration of Forests 159,090 
 
 Ministry ef the Interior 2,449,635 
 
 Prefecture of Police 135,495 
 
 Judicial Salaries 420,465 
 
 Ministry of Foreign Affairs 159,090 
 
 War Department 3,775,370 
 
 Ordnance 818.180 
 
 Mipistry of Marine 909,090 
 
 Ministry of Commerce 80,630 
 
 Ministry of Public Instruction 113,635 
 
 Sanitary Administration 
 
 Ministry of Public Works 103,620 
 
 Telegraphs and Post * 590,365 
 
 Guarantee of Interest to Railways 1,332,910 
 
 Total Expenditure £22,849,610 
 
 Deficit £397,410 
 
 Tears. 
 1875-76. 
 
 £5,763,560 
 
 3,065,580 
 
 916,716 
 
 1,108,340 
 
 989,372 
 
 1,594,736 
 
 5,600 
 
 738,584 
 
 664,936 
 
 161,564 
 
 2,206,196 
 
 140,824 
 
 383,176 
 
 140,000 
 
 3,122.328 
 
 640,000 
 
 640,000 
 
 21,393 
 
 101,644 
 
 68,313 
 
 89,480 
 
 841,920 
 
 197,188 
 
 £23,143,276 
 
 £4,036,934 
 
 According to the most reliable estimates, the actual expenditure ex 
 ceeded the actual revenue in recent years by seven or eight millions sterling 
 but as this is supposition, it must not be taken for granted. 
 
 It is calculated that the actual revenue of 1875-76 will not be more than 
 £15,300,000, while the expenditure, in consequence of the war, will be 
 £33,400,000, leaving a deficit of £17,000,000. 
 
 But such exaggerated reports are spread in connection with Turkey that 
 these statements must be received with caution. 
 
 It must be remembered that in Turkey there are a number of people 
 whose business consists in spreading false reports to the detriment of the 
 country. The shortcomings of Turkey are bad enough, without being ex- 
 aggerated. 
 
 * The number of Telegrapli Offices in Turkey in 1875 was 401, and tlie length of the tele- 
 graph lines 28,155 kilometres.
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
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 appe:ndix g. 
 
 BIGHTS OF FOREIGNERS TO HOLD REAL PROPERTY. 
 
 Protocol. 
 
 The law which grants to foreigners the right to hold real 
 property does not in any way affect the immunities sanctioned by 
 Treaties, which will continue to cover the person and the personal 
 property of foreigners who may have become proprietors of real 
 estate. 
 
 The exercise of such right of property being likely to induce 
 foreigners to establish themselves in greater numbers in Ottoman 
 territory, the Imperial Government deems itself bound to antici- 
 pate and prevent the difficulties to which the application of that 
 law may give rise in certain localities. This is the object of the 
 following arrangements. 
 
 The dwelling of every person inhabiting the Ottoman territory 
 being inviolable, and no one being entitled to enter it without the 
 consent of its master, unless in virtue of orders issued by the com- 
 petent authority, and with the assistance of the magistrate or 
 functionary invested with the necessary powers, the dwelling of a 
 foreign subject is inviolable by the same right, in conformity with 
 Treaties ; and the officers of police cannot enter therein without 
 the assistance of the Consul of the country to which the foreigner 
 belongs, or of his delegate. 
 
 By the term dwelling is understood the house of residence and 
 its appurtenances, tliat is to say, tlie outhouses, courts, gardens, 
 and contiguous inclosures, to the exclusion of all other parts of 
 the property. 
 
 In localities distant less than nine hours from the Consular resi- 
 dence, the officers of police cannot enter the dwelling of a foreigner 
 without the assistance of the Consul, as above stated. On his part 
 the Consul is bound to afford his aid immediately to the local 
 authority, so that not more than six hours shall elapse between the 
 
 473
 
 474 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 moment Avhen he shall have been apprized, and the moment of the 
 departure of himself or of his delegate, in order that the action of 
 the authorities may never be suspended for more than twenty -four 
 hours. 
 
 In localities distant nine hours', or more than nine hours' 
 journey from the residence of the Consular Agent, the officers of 
 police may, on the requisition of the local authority, and with the 
 assistance of three members of the Council of Ancients of the 
 Commune, enter the dwelling of a foreign subject, without the 
 presence of the Consular Agent, but only in case of urgency, and 
 for the investigation or the proof of the crime of murder, of at- 
 tempt to murder, of arson, of robbery with violence, or with 
 house-breaking, or at night in an inhabited dwelling, of armed 
 rebellion, and of the fabrication of false money ; and whether the 
 crime shall have been committed by a foreign subject, or by an 
 Ottoman subject, and whether it shall have taken place within the 
 habitation of the foreigner, or outside of such habitation, and in 
 any other place whatever. 
 
 These arrangements are aj)plicable only to those parts of the 
 property which constitute the dwelling, as defined above. Beyond 
 the dwelling, the action of the police shall be free and without 
 reserve ; but in case an individual accused of a crime or offense 
 should be arrested, and the accused be a foreign subject, the im- 
 munities attaching to his person shall be observed with regard to 
 him. 
 
 The functionary or officer charged with the performance of the 
 domiciliary visit, under the exceptional circumstances above de- 
 scribed, and the members of the Council of Ancients Avho shall 
 assist him, shall be bound to draw up a Minute of the domiciliary 
 visit, and to communicate it immediately to their sujjerior au- 
 thority, who shall himself transmit it without delay to the nearest 
 Consular authority. 
 
 A special regulation shall be promulgated by the Sublime Porte, 
 in order to determine the mode of action' of the local police in the 
 different cases above contemplated. 
 
 In localities distant more than nine hours from the residence of 
 the Consular Agent, and in which the law relative to the judicial 
 organization of the vilaiet shall be in force, the cases of foreign 
 subjects shall be tried, without the assistance of the Consular 
 delegate, by the Council of Ancients fulfilling the functions of
 
 APPENDIX G. 475 
 
 Judge of the Peace, and by tlie Court of the Caza, as well in 
 actions the subject-matter of which shall not exceed 1,000 piasters, 
 as in offenses punishable by a fine not exceeding 500 piasters. 
 
 Foreign subjects shall, in all cases, have the right to appeal to 
 the Court of the Sandjah against decisions given as above de- 
 scribed ; and the appeal shall be heard and decided with the 
 assistance of the Consul, in conformity Avith Treaties. 
 
 An appeal shall always suspend execution. 
 
 In no case can the forcible execution of decisions given under 
 the circumstances above described take place without the concur- 
 rence of the Consul or his deputy. 
 
 The Imperial Government shall issue a Law which shall deter- 
 mine the rules of procedure to be observed by the parties in the 
 application of the foregoing arrangements. 
 
 Foreign subjects, in whatever place, are authorized to make 
 themselves voluntarily amenable to the Council of Ancients, or to 
 the Courts of the Cazas, without the assistance of the Consul, in 
 actions the subject-matter of which does not exceed the compe- 
 tence of those Councils or Courts, saving, however, the right of 
 appeal to the Court of the Sandjah, where the cause shall be 
 heard and decided with the assistance of the Consul or his dele- 
 gate. 
 
 The consent, however, of the foreign subject to submit to the 
 jurisdiction above described, without the assistance of the Consul, 
 must be given in writing, and previously to any proceeding. 
 
 It is well understood that all these restrictions do not concern 
 suits involving a question of real property, which shall be carried 
 on and decided under the conditions established by the Law. 
 
 The right of defense and of publicity of hearing are secured in 
 aU matters to foreigners who shall appear before the Ottoman 
 Courts, as well as to Ottoman subjects. 
 
 The preceding arrangements shall remain in force until the re- 
 yision of the ancient Treaties, a revision with regard to which the 
 Sublime Porte reserves to itself to come hereafter to an agreement 
 with friendly Powers. 
 
 In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed 
 the present Protocol, and have affixed thereto the seal of their arms. 
 
 Done at Constantinople, the twenty-eighth day of July, in the 
 year eighteen hundred and sixty-eight. 
 (L.S.) Hexrt Elliot. (L.S.) Fuad.
 
 476 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Law granting to Foreigners the rigid to hold Beat Property in the 
 Ottoman Empire. 
 
 Imperial Eesckipt. 
 
 *'Let it be done in conformity with wliat is herein contained." 
 
 Sepher 7, 1285. 
 
 With the view to develop the prosperity of the country, to put 
 an end to the difficulties, abuses, and uncertainties which arise 
 relative to the exercise of the right of proiDerty by foreigners in 
 the Ottoman Empire, and to complete, by means of precise regu- 
 lations, the guarantees due to financial interests and to adminis- 
 trative action, the following legislative arrangements have been 
 determined by order of His Imperial Majesty, the Sultan : — 
 
 Article I. 
 
 Foreigners are admitted, on the same footing as Ottoman sub- 
 jects, and without other conditions, to the enjoyment of the right 
 of holding urban or rural real property throughout the whole 
 extent of the Empire, with the exception of the province of the 
 Hedjaz, submitting to the laws and regulations which govern 
 Ottoman subjects themselves, as hereinafter stated. 
 
 This arrangement does not concern Ottoman subjects by birth 
 who have changed their nationality, and who shall be governed 
 in regard to this matter by a special law. 
 
 Article II. 
 
 Foreigners who are proprietors of real property, urban or rural, 
 are in consequence assimilated to Ottoman subjects in all that 
 concerns their real property. 
 
 Such assimilation has for its legal effect — 
 
 1. To oblige them to conform to all the laws and all the police 
 or municipal regulations which at present govern, or may here- 
 after govern, the enjoyment, transmission, alienation, and hy- 
 pothecation of landed property. 
 
 2. To pay all the charges and contributions, under whatever 
 form or denomination, which are now or may hereafter be im- 
 posed on urban or rural real property. 
 
 3. To render them directly amenable to the Ottoman Civil 
 Courts in regard to all questions relative to landed property, and 
 to all real actions, both as plaintiffs and as defendants, even when
 
 APPENDIX G. 477 
 
 both parties are foreign subjects, the whole on the same footing, 
 under the same conditions, and in the same forms as Ottoman 
 proprietors, and without the power of availing themselves in such 
 matters of their personal nationality ; but under the reservation 
 of the immunities attaching to their persons and their personal 
 property, according to the terms of Treaties. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 In case of the bankruptcy of a foreign owner of real property, 
 the syndics of his bankruptcy shall take the necessary steps before 
 the Ottoman authorities and Civil Courts, in order to demand 
 the sale of the real property possessed by the bankrupt, which 
 from its nature and in accordance with the law, is liable for the 
 debts of the owner. 
 
 The same course shall be observed when a foreigner shall have 
 obtained against another foreign proprietor of real property an 
 adverse judgment before foreign Courts. 
 
 For the execution of such judgment on the real property of his 
 debtor, he shall apply to the competent Ottoman authority in 
 order to obtain the sale of such part of that real property as is 
 liable for tlie debts of the owner ; and such judgment shall not 
 be carried into execution by the Ottoman authorities and Courts 
 until after they shall have ascertained that the real property 
 which is required to be sold really belongs to the class which may 
 be sold in order to pay the debt. 
 
 Aeticle IV. 
 The foreign subject has the right to dispose by gifts or by will 
 of such part of his real property as the law permits to be disposed 
 of in that manner. 
 
 With regard to the real property Avhicli he may not have dis- 
 posed of, or which the law does not allow to be disposed of by gift 
 or by will, the succession thereto shall be governed by the Otto- 
 man law. 
 
 Article Y. 
 
 Every foreign subject shall enjoy the benefit of the present 
 Law, so soon as the Power to which he belongs shall have acceded 
 to the arrangements proposed by the Sublime Porte for the exer- 
 cise of the right of property. 
 
 Constantinople, June 18, 1867.
 
 APPENDIX H. 
 
 SHEEP-FAKMING. 
 
 The following is a debtor and creditor account of the sheep- 
 farming, on the native system, of 1,000 ewes, in Macedonia, as 
 given to me by a flock-master, who said that the balance to credit 
 would be considered a bad year. From other inquiries which I 
 have made, I think it may fairly be taken as an average profit 
 over a numbeT of years, allowing for loss by severe epidemics 
 (which in that country are not frequent) and bad winters : — 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 1,000 ewes with lambs by their side, bought in March @ 100 p 100,000 
 
 50rams 5,000 
 
 Reeds, etc., etc 5,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 1,000 lambs @ 40 p 40,000 
 
 1,050 Okes wool (§> 10 p 10,500 
 
 Cheese and butter 15,000 
 
 65,500 
 
 2 shepherds @ 2,500 p 5,000 
 
 4 " @1300p 4,800 
 
 Sheep tax @ 4^ p 4,725 
 
 Grazing @ 12 p 12,600 
 
 Barley@4p 4,200 
 
 15 % loss 16,500 
 
 Balance. 
 
 47,825 
 .17,675 
 
 65,500 
 
 The loss is put down at the very high rate of 15 per cent., be- 
 cause although the climate and grass of Macedonia is almost a 
 paradise for sheep, and epidemics are very rare, yet from the care- 
 less native system of making no provision for winter feed, with 
 hay, etc., when a drought or severe winter occurs the loss is very 
 heavy, and would amount to as much as 40 or 50 per cent, 
 among the starving animals. On the other hand, in ordinary 
 years the loss is very small. The flock-master told me that in the 
 
 478
 
 APPENDIX B. 479 
 
 last two years, out of 500 sheep, ho had only lost 6 ; but of course 
 that is exceptional. 
 
 The number of shepherds is necessarily large for the number 
 of sheep, because tlie flocks have to be divided, and when on the 
 plains require careful watching to keep them off the crops, as there 
 are no fences. 
 
 By the foregoing account grazing for summer would be rented 
 on the neighboring mountains, and for winter on the plains be- 
 low. The lambs would be sold as soon as weaned. 
 
 AKABLE FARMING. 
 
 The following is a rough estimate of the capital which would 
 be required to set up an estate of about 1,500 acres, of which 1,000 
 acres would be cultivated on a proper system. 
 
 It is assumed that there would be the usual native farm-build- 
 ings on the estate, and that the emigrant would gradually get tho 
 whole cultivation under his own hands. 
 
 CAPTTAIi. 
 
 Purchase-money of the estate, with expenses £4,800 
 
 New buildings and repairs 1,800 
 
 English Plows, etc 200 
 
 " harrows, etc 100 
 
 Drilling and reaping machines, etc> 200 
 
 Steam threshing machine 650 
 
 Carts and harness 200 
 
 Miscellaneous articles 100 
 
 80 native horses @ £8 640 
 
 20 native mares @ £10 200 
 
 1 English stallion 150 
 
 20 native cows @ £6 120 
 
 1 English bull 70 
 
 Seed 500 
 
 Miscellaneous expenses 270 
 
 Total capital £10,000 
 
 I have assumed that the plowing would be done with native 
 horses, instead of bullocks or buffaloes, although such is not tho 
 custom of the country ; but horses can do all draught work so 
 much better than oxen that the change would be advisable, but it 
 would have to be made gradually, as the horses would have to be 
 trained to the plow. 
 
 The following is a rough estimate of the annual receipts and
 
 480 
 
 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 expenditure upon sucli a farm, taking the expenditure at full 
 rates, and the receipts at moderate prices : — 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 325 acres of Wheat 
 
 @ 28 bushels to the 
 
 acre = 9,100 bushels. 
 
 910 less tithe. 
 
 8,190 
 650 less seed. 
 
 7,540 b. 
 
 V 
 
 = £1,696 
 
 325 acres of Barley or 
 Eye, say Barley @ 35 
 bushels = 11,375 
 
 1,137 less tithe. 
 
 10,288 
 
 975 less seed. 
 
 9,263 b. @ V« = 1,157 
 850 acres summer crops, etc. = 1,650 
 
 £4,503 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Soubassi or native Bailiff £35 
 
 2 gardes-champetre 50 
 
 Cattle-herds and horse-keepers ... 80 
 
 Carpenter 35 
 
 Blacksmith 20 
 
 20 plowmen @ £18 360 
 
 20 lads @ £10 200 
 
 Harvesting and extra labor 208 
 
 Keep of 90 working horses @ £5.. 450 
 
 " 50 mares and foals @ £2.. 100 
 
 " 50 cows and calves @ £2.. 100 
 
 10 % loss on stock of value £1,200. 120 
 
 10 % wear and tear of plant value 
 
 £1,400 140 
 
 Taxes 50 
 
 Miscellaneous 100 
 
 Interest of 5 ^ on capital of 
 
 £10,000 500 
 
 Balance. 
 
 2,558 
 . 1,945 
 
 £4,503 
 
 There "would, of course, be bad years, when the crops would be 
 less than I have stated ; but, on the other hand, the land is so 
 rich that there would be years when the crops would be much 
 heavier. I l:^ave not credited any sale of young stock ; but, on 
 the other hand, there are always contingencies on every farm 
 which would counterbalance that profit. On the whole, I think 
 it may be taken as a fair statement of profit on an average of 
 years, but it must be remembered that such a result could only be 
 arrived at after two or three years of careful labor and attention. 
 The case under the native system is very different, and some- 
 times shows a balance on the wrong side ; but what else oould bo 
 expected from all the holidays and careless cultivation.
 
 GLOSSAET 
 
 OF A FEW TURKISH TERMS, ETC. 
 
 AgTia — An officer, and applied to those about the Serai. It also is 
 equivalent to our term " gentleman," and is an ancient title. 
 
 Almeh — Female dancers, who perform at private houses for hire. 
 
 Altuluh — A debased silver coin, equal to six piasters. 
 
 Anadooloo — Anatolia, Asia Minor. 
 
 Arnaout — An Albanian. 
 
 ArsMn, or 'Tic" — A measure of length, varying from 25-70 
 inches, or 67 '79 centimetres, for the cloth ''arshin," to 
 26*34 inches, or 66*91 centimetres, for the builder's "ar- 
 shin." 
 
 Ashr, also UsJir — The tithe. 
 
 Assur — Ruins. 
 
 Bairam — A festival of three days, which succeeds the Eamazan. 
 
 Bash — Head ; chief. 
 
 Bashi-Bazouh — Literally, light-headed ; a foolish fellow ; but it 
 is applied to irregular troops. 
 
 Bedel— The military exemption tax; also called "bedelie," 
 "askerie," etc. 
 
 Beshlih—A. debased silver coin, equal to five piasters. It is the 
 official currency. 
 
 Bey—K. title formerly of the holder of an Imperial fief ( " bey-lik "). 
 It ranks with a lieutenant-colonel in the army, is attached 
 to his title, and is hereditary. 
 
 Beyler Bey—Bey of beys ; an ancient title given to military com- 
 manders of provinces under the feudal system, and carrying 
 
 three horses' tails as emblems of rank. 
 
 481
 
 482 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Bin hashi — A colonel in the army. 
 
 Cadi, or Cazi — A member of the Ulema, and a judge. 
 
 Caimacam — A governor of a caza, or district next in rank to a 
 sandjak or liva. 
 
 Capitan — The commander of a ship. 
 
 Capooji — A chamberlain ; officer of the seraglio ; literally a door- 
 keeper. 
 
 Caza — A district, next in importance to a sandjak or liva. 
 
 Charsliy — A bazaar. 
 
 Chelihi — A Christian gentleman. 
 
 ChifliTc — A private estate or farm. 
 
 CliinganeJi or TcliinganeTi — Gipsy. 
 
 Commune, vide Kariye — An administrative subdivision. 
 
 Damga — Grovernment staimp affixed to certain home-made goods, 
 and for the purpose of levying duty. 
 
 Defterdar — The accountant-general of a vildi'et. 
 
 Demir Yoloo — Railway. 
 
 Demoyeros — "Elder" or ** Primate." An elective municipal 
 functionary. 
 
 Dervisli — A Turkish monk. There are various fanatical orders of 
 dervishes. 
 
 Divan — An Assembly in Council of State officials. 
 
 Dragoman, or Terjuman — An interpreter. 
 
 Dunum — A land measure of forty " arshins," but variable. The 
 rough method of measuring land is by paces ; forty-four 
 paces was the old " dunum," and forty paces is the new 
 " dunum." 
 
 Effendim, or Effendi — Equal to " sir," but a cusbomary expres- 
 sion of address when speaking to any class. 
 
 Eidlet — One of the late divisions of the empire, which was divided 
 into sandjaks, etc. 
 
 Emir — Prince. 
 
 Ferik — A lieutenant - general or general of division in the 
 army.
 
 GLOSSARY OF TURKISH TERMS. 483 
 
 Fetvali — A counsel's decision, or a judicial decision either of the 
 Sheik-ul-Islam or of the Mufti for a fee. 
 
 Firenh — European ; Frank. 
 
 Firman — An Imperial edict or order headed by the Sultan's sig- 
 nature. 
 
 Giaour (from ''Gueber," a fire worshipper) — A term of con- 
 tempt ; an infidel ; also used to express Christians in gen- 
 eral without intending insult. 
 
 Gumruh — Custom-house duties. 
 
 Harem — Sanctuary ; that part of the Serai appropriated for 
 women ; tlie court-yard of a mosque. 
 
 Hatt-i-chcrif — An Imj^erial ordinance ; the illustrious writing. 
 
 Hatt-i-humayoun — An Imj)erial ordinance ; the august writing. 
 
 Hejira — Flight. The Moslem era dates from the year of the he- 
 jira, or flight of the propbet from Mecca. 
 
 Hodya Bashi — A term api^lied to the Mouktars, or mayors of 
 Christian communities ; the bead man of a Tillage. Hod- 
 ya — The tutor to the royal princes. 
 
 Hitiar — Primate, or elder ; in Greek " Demoyeros," a member of 
 the Communal Municipal Council. By law these function- 
 aries are elected by the citizens, who pay at least fifty pias- 
 ters per annum in direct taxes. 
 
 Hitizah — A generic name for the aggregate of certain indirect 
 imposts. In some places a specific term used to designate 
 duties on sales and gate-dues of towns (" octrois"). 
 
 Iltizam — The system of farming or selling the collection of taxes 
 to private speculators. 
 
 Imam — A Turkish priest, next in rank to a Khatib ; also one of 
 the titles of the Sultan. The Imams read the prayers, and 
 tbe Sheiks preach. 
 
 Imaret — A hospital or soup kitchen for the relief of the poor, 
 travelers, etc. 
 
 Iradeh — An Imperial ordinance. 
 
 lami — A mosque of the higher class.
 
 484 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Kariye — Commune ; the smallest administratiye subdiYision or 
 unit. 
 
 Kayim — An inferior order of the priesthood, next in rank to a 
 Muezzin. 
 
 Kliatih — A priest attached to a mosque, next in rank to a Sheik. 
 
 Kiahay a— M.ii^tQV ; steward ; lieutenant ; a Tillage official ap- 
 pointed to attend to strangers. Kiahaya-ley — Formerly 
 the title of the Minister of the Interior. 
 
 KiU, or Kilo — A corn measure, which varies with locality. That 
 of Constantinople is equal to 7*29 gallons, 33 "14 litres, or 
 about 1^ of a bushel ; that of Salonica is equal to about 
 four bushels. 
 
 KonaJc — A government house. Also used to designate a gentle- 
 man's house. 
 
 Koorlan-bairam — The feast of sacrifices celebrated by rejoicings, 
 etc. 
 
 Kot—A dry measure, about two gallons. 
 
 Kubleh— The point to which a Moslem turns when at prayer. 
 
 MalialU — A quarter of a town, or an urban commune. 
 
 Malmudiri — The accountant of a caza. 
 
 Medjliss — Court council. 
 
 Medresseli — A college attached to the great mosques. 
 
 Meidan — An open square, or piece of ground. 
 
 Mejidieh — A silver coin ; 20 piasters, or gold ; 100 piasters ; an 
 order, or decoration. 
 
 MeTcteb — A school. 
 
 Mesjid — An ordinary mosque, which has neither a Sheik nor 
 Khatib attached to it. 
 
 Mevlivi — Spinning dervishes. 
 
 Mollah — A superior member of the division of the TJlema ; an 
 interpreter of the sacred law. 
 
 MouTctar — A chief municipal officer (mayor) elected by each 
 community possessing twenty or more houses in the com- 
 mune.
 
 GLOSSARY OF TVREISE TERMS. 485 
 
 Mudir — A magistrate at the head of a nahieh, and sometimes of 
 
 a caza. 
 Muezzin — Inferior officers of the mosques, who call to prayers 
 
 from the minarets, next in rank to an Imam. 
 Mufti — An interpreter of the law ; a member of the Ulcma ; a 
 
 counsel. 
 Multei/im — A tithe farmer, also termed "Ushrdji." 
 Mushir — A title sometimes borne by Pashas ; a Field Marshal in 
 
 the army. 
 Musselim — A governor of a city. 
 
 Mufessarif—An administrative functionary at the head of a sand jak. 
 Muhassebelidji — The accountant of a sand jak. 
 Nahieh — A large rural commune, or sometimes . an aggregate of 
 
 several smaller communes, administered by a Mudir. 
 Namaz — The Moslem prayer recited five times a day. 
 Nizam — The regular active army. 
 Ohe — A weight equal to 2-83 lbs., 1-28 kilogrammes ; it is also 
 
 used for liquids. 
 Piaster— ThQ official piaster, j^^ of a Turkish lira, or 2166 pence. 
 Ramazan — The ninth month of the Turkish year, in which falls 
 
 the fast of twenty-eight days of that name — the Moham- 
 medan Lent. 
 Rayah — A non- Mussulman subject of the Porte. 
 Redif—ThQ reserve force of the regular army. 
 Rossoumdt — A name given to some miscellaneous and indirect 
 
 taxes, varying in different provinces. 
 Salyane — A new tax on property. 
 Sandjah — An administrative province of the second order ; a liva, 
 
 governed by a Mutessarif. 
 <^a7iz— Formerly the holder of a Government military fief, now 
 
 a term applied in some places to the " Tahsildars." 
 Tahsildar — Government collector of taxes. 
 Tanziindt—RQloim ; specially applied to the measures carried out 
 
 in 1839.
 
 486 TURKEY m EUROPE. 
 
 Tapou — A title-deed ; a peculiar feudal tenure of tlie land. 
 
 Tehieli — A Mohammedan monastery. 
 
 TesTcerre — A passport. 
 
 Timettoo — The new income-tax. 
 
 Ushr, also Ashr — The tithe. 
 
 Ushurji — Tithe collector. 
 
 Vacouf — A kind of copyhold tenure, by which property is held 
 
 in trust for certain ecclesiastical or charitable corporations 
 Vali — A Governor- General of a vilaiet. 
 Verghi — A tax or tribute raised on property and income. 
 Vilaiet — An administrative division of the first class, divided into 
 
 sandjaks. 
 WoTcalut — The system of collecting taxes on Government account 
 
 as opposed to the Iltizam. 
 Youruh — Turcoman of Asia Minor, etc. 
 Zaptieh — Policeman.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abdul Aziz, Sultan, 55, 186, 393, 
 Abdul, Medjid, Sultan, 1C9, 185. 
 Accident, Au, 315. 
 Administration, Scliool of, 460. 
 Turkish, 443. 
 Aghas, 139, 453. 
 Agitators, 257. 
 Ahmed Pasha, 276. 
 Aladdin, Sultan, 128. 
 Albania in the Caucasus, 317. 
 " Divisions of, 321. 
 " Subjection of, 244. 
 Albanians, Tlie, 317. 
 
 Blood Feuds of, 324. 
 
 " Origin of, 318. 
 
 " Religion of, 323. 
 
 '* Soldiers of, 328. 
 
 " Tribes of, 318. 
 
 Women of, 323. 
 Alexander Kara Georgevitch, 251, 
 Alliance, Universal Israelite, 359, 
 Alp Arslan, 126. 
 Alphabet, Slavonic, 23. 
 American Philanthropy, 364, 
 
 " Missions, 35. 
 
 " Missionaries, 306, 
 Americans, Traveling, 363. 
 Amurath, Sultan, 131, 242. 
 Ancient Remains in Salouica, 353. 
 Angora, Battle of, 133. 
 Arable Farming, 478. 
 Arms, Cliange of, in Army, 261. 
 Army, Administration of, 269. 
 " Christians in Turkish, 384. 
 " Physical Composition of, 273. 
 Arnaouts, The, 317. 
 Arniatika, The, 386. 
 Artillery, 264. 
 
 " Introduction of, 165. 
 
 Aryan Race, 13. 
 Arz-odaci, 445. 
 Ashr, or Tithe, The, 378. 
 Asoraaton, Fortress of, 155. 
 Atrocities, False Reports of, 209, 
 Attack, Probable Plan of Russian, 294, 
 
 Attar of Rose, 214. 
 Aurochs, 347. 
 Avars, 19. 
 Ayak-nuib, 446, 
 
 B. 
 
 Backshish, 7, 131, 3?7. 
 
 Bajazid, Sultan, 133. 
 
 Balkan Mountains, 85, 200, 214. ^ 
 
 " Passes of the, 284, 
 Barakli-Djuniaa, 336. 
 Barron. Mr., 384. 
 Bashi-Bazouks, 267. 
 Basil II, Cruelty of, 24 
 Ba^'ezed, Prince, 243. 
 Beard, Plucking out the, 203. 
 Bears, 310. 
 
 Beaurocratic School, 459. 
 Becklemes, 230, 243. 
 Bedel, The, 384. 
 Belgrade, Massacre at, 254. 
 Bermius Mountains, 354. 
 Bertezema, 132. 
 Beshlik Currency, 378, 
 Besik, Lake of, 341. 
 Bevler Bev, Title of, 140. 
 Beyliks, 137, 399. 
 Bhotiya Race, 16. 
 Bib-Doda, Prince, 323. 
 Black Eunuchs, 453. 
 Black Sea, Communication with Cas- 
 pian, 66. 
 Black Sea Coast, Scenery of, 85. 
 Blood Feuds of Albanians, 324. 
 Bogaris, King, 23. 
 Bogomiles. Sect of, 39. 
 Bombar, 88. 
 Bonds, Turkish, 390, 
 Booyutoo, 64, 
 Borboros, Marsh of, 345. 
 Bosnia, Subjection of, 244, 
 Bosphorus, Currents of, 66. 
 Bosphorus, Trips on, 9, 
 Botheric, 350, 
 
 487
 
 488 
 
 . INDEX. 
 
 Brankovitcli, George, 244. 
 
 Yuk, 243. 
 Bribery, 268. 
 
 Brigandage, 69, 252, 298, 309. 
 Brophy, Mr. Charles, 83, 201, 238. 
 Bucharest, 256. 
 Buffaloes, 408. 
 Building, Cost of, 419. 
 Bugs, 117, 207, 372. 
 Billgaria, Russian Maps of, 41. 
 
 " Atrocities, District of, 204. 
 
 Church, 23, 41, 435. 
 " Exarchate, 437. 
 " Progress, 221. 
 
 Villages, 208, 211. 
 " Music, Similarity to Scotch, 
 
 90. 
 " Women, 89. 
 Bulgarians, 18. 
 
 " American Schools among, 
 
 35. 
 " Costumes of, 88. 
 
 " Finnish Origin of, 18. 
 
 " Industry of, 87. 
 
 " Introduction of Christian- 
 
 ity among, 22. 
 " Greek Discredit of, 25. 
 
 " National Feeling of, 24. 
 
 " Newspapers of the, 40. 
 
 " North and South of Bal- 
 
 kan, 19. 
 Number of, 58. 
 " Rebellion of, 52. 
 
 " Russian Intrigues among, 
 
 41, 50. 
 " Schools of the, 81. 
 
 " Transition of Language 
 
 of, 20. 
 " Warlike Character of, 21. 
 
 " Weddings and Funerals 
 
 of, 89. 
 Bulls, Wild, 347. 
 
 Bulwer, Sir Henry, Letters from, 174. 
 Burgas, 69, 83, 105, 293. 
 Burgoyne, Sir John, 282. 
 Butter, 409. 
 
 Byzantine Architecture in Burgas, 69. 
 Byzantine Empire, 74. 
 
 Fall of, 
 
 Cadi, or Cazi, 143. 
 Cadiaskers, 138, 445. 
 Caimacam, 443. 
 Calemiyeh, 456. 
 Calvert, Frederick, 4. 
 Cannons, Monster, 157. 
 Cantacuzenus, Joannes, 130. 
 
 Capital Necessary for Farming, 417. 
 
 Captain Pasha, 454. 
 
 Caravans, 3B6. 
 
 Carpets, Turkey, 411. 
 
 Caspian Sea, Level of, 67. 
 
 Castle, Ancient, 226. 
 
 Castriot, John, 319. 
 
 Cattle, 118, 408. 
 
 Cavalla, 410. 
 
 Cavalry, 264. 
 
 Cavasses, 328. 
 
 Cazas, 143. 443. 
 
 Caziasker, 138, 445. 
 
 Chalcondylas, 279. 
 
 ('hamois, 313. 
 
 Champion, A Gypsy, 337. 
 
 Chatal Dagh, 200. 
 
 Cheese, 409. 
 
 Chiflik, 399, 443. 
 
 Cliifgees, 400. 
 
 Christianity in Bulgaria, 21. 
 
 Christians, Former Treatment of, 142. 
 
 Chromis, The, 345. 
 
 Church, Bulgarian, 435. 
 
 " Oriental Orthodox, 75. 
 Churches, Ancient Christian, 217. 
 " Greek and Roman, 76. 
 
 " at Salonica, 353. 
 
 Cicero, 349. 
 Cinnabar, 229. 
 Circassians in Turkey, 95. 
 
 " Forced Emigration of, 95. 
 
 Hospitality of, 99. 
 
 " Number of, 101. 
 
 " Organization of, 102. 
 
 « Petition of, 96. 
 
 " Slavery among, 101. 
 
 " Thieving among, 100, 104. 
 
 Cities, Ancient Greek, 346. 
 City, A Sunken, 341. 
 Cyrillic Alphabet, 22. 
 Climate of Turkey, 227. 
 Cloth Factory in Slivmia, 201. 
 Cobden, Requiem for Mr., 257. 
 Coal, 229, 307. 
 Codja-bashi, 143. 
 College of Artillery and Engineering, 
 
 260. 
 College, Imperial Military, 260. 
 Comite, Secret, The, 52. 
 Commands, Special, 271. 
 Commerce, Tribunals of, 447. 
 Commercial Travelers, Jewish, 360. 
 Commissariat, 272. 
 Compliment, A Turkish, 203.1 
 Conscription, 268. 
 Conscripts, 274. 
 Constantine, Arch of, 350. 
 Constantiue, Palceologus, 155.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 480 
 
 Constantinople, 6 
 
 " Cannon at Siege of, 157. 
 
 " Fires in, 10. 
 
 " Many Races in, 11 
 
 '• Military Routes to, 286, 
 
 294. 
 
 " Municipal Government 
 
 of, 450. 
 
 " Siege of, 155. 
 
 " Vilaiet of, 450. 
 
 Contracts, Stamps for, 388. 
 Convent at Kezaulik, 218. 
 
 " at Karlofer. 222. 
 Converts, Jewisli, 300. 
 Copper, 229. 
 
 Corps d'Armee, Command of, 270. 
 Corvee. 374, 404. 
 Cossacks, Brigade of, 269. 
 Cotton, 336, 405, 409. 
 Cotton-yarn Factory at Niausta, 355. 
 Coumber-Khauch, College of Artil- 
 lery at, 260. 
 Councils, 443, 4.55. 
 Council of State, 455. 
 Court of Appeal, 446. 
 
 " of Cassation, 448. 
 Courts of Confiscation, 168. 
 " of Justice, 444. 
 " of Justice, Supreme, 448. 
 " Turkish, 201. 
 Crete, Rebellion in, 173. 
 Crim Tartars, The, 422. 
 Croia, 320. 
 Crops, Yield of, 406. 
 Crosbie, Rev. P. 343. 
 Crusaders, 127. 
 Cultivation, System of, 404. 
 Cuuibert, 247. 
 Custom Duties, 387. 
 Cyanean Gates, 66. 
 Czerny George, 245, 249. 
 
 D. 
 
 Daavi-Medjlisseri, 447. 
 
 Danube, Passage of, 281. 
 
 Debt, Plan for Unification of the, 390. 
 
 Deer Drive, A, 369. 
 
 " Red, 313. 
 Defence for Turkev, Plan of, 293. 
 Defterdars, 138,442. 
 Derairjee, 400. 
 Demogeronties, 444. 
 Denghizikh, 240. 
 Derbent, River, 288. 
 Derey Beys, 168 
 Devua, Lake, 282. 
 Dibra, 322 
 Dinner, Bulgarian, 93. 
 
 Dinner, Turkish, 236. 
 Disabul, 124 
 Divan, 139, 455 
 Divan-Temyzi, 446. 
 Djavid Pasha, 201. 
 Djumaa, 332. 
 Djumaa, District of, 59. 
 Dobrudja, Cossacks of the, 256. 
 Dogs, Savage, 307. 
 Dolma-Baghtcheh, Palace at, 186. 
 Domain Lands, 395. 
 Douchan, Stephen, 241. 
 Dragomen, Constantinople, 7. 
 Dzhami, The, 318. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Disputes, Bulgarian and 
 
 Greek, 49. 
 Education, 458. 
 Eialets. 142. 
 
 Elementary Schools, 261. 
 Emalthia, Lord of, 3l!». 
 Emigrants, Advice to, 416. 
 Emiueh, Cape, 09. 
 Erghne, The, 334. 
 Eski Zaghra, 211. 
 
 " School at, 32. 
 
 Estate of a Turkish Bey, 234. 
 Ertoghrul, 128. 
 Esnafs, 448. 
 
 Eucalyptus Globulus, 238. 
 Eunuchs, 453. 
 Euripides, Death of, 367. 
 Eustathius, Archbishop, 351. 
 Evkaf, The, 394. 
 
 Exaggeration, Native Habit of, 873. 
 Exarchate, Bulgarian, 437 
 Exports and Imports, 406. 
 
 F. 
 
 Far Away Moses, 7. 
 Farm Buildings, 419. 
 Farm Laborers, 400, 407. 
 Farmers, Amateur, 415. 
 Farming, 418, 478. 
 
 " Success in, 413. 
 Wasteful, 420. 
 Fasts, 402. 
 Feasts, 403. 
 Finance, Turkish, 461. 
 Finns, 18. 
 
 Fires in Constantinople, 10. 
 Firman Establishing Bulgarian 
 
 Church, 435. 
 Fleas, 117, 207. 
 Flood, Ancient, 67. 
 Forage, Army, 273.
 
 490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Forage and Fuel, 292. 
 
 Foreigners, Real Property held by, 
 
 397. 
 Forests, Destruction of, 228. 
 Fountain, Ancient, 343. 
 Funeral, Bulgarian, 91. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabrowa, 287. 
 
 Gaza, Theodore, 351. 
 
 Gedik, 395. 
 
 Geladar, 399. 
 
 Gendarmerie of Constantinople, 265. 
 
 Geugliis, Khan, 127. 
 
 Geougen, Kahn of the, 122. 
 
 Gheglialik, M., 321. 
 
 Qheghas, or Gheghides, 318. 
 
 Gypsies, 201,338. 
 
 Giustiniaui, John, 158. 
 
 Glossary, 481-6. 
 
 Gold, 124, 229. 
 
 Golden Age, 124. 
 
 Grain, Marketing, 420. 
 
 Grapes, 410. 
 
 Grazing, 403. 
 
 Greek Brigandage, 82. 
 
 " Love of Intrigue, 80. 
 
 " Priests in Turkey, 76. 
 Greeks, Ambition of, 77. 
 
 " Bitter Feeling of, 81. 
 of Black Sea Coast, 77. 
 
 " Massacre of, 81. 
 
 " Number of in Turkey, 71. 
 Origin of, 72. 
 
 " Pursuits of, 73. 
 Grievance, Manufacturing a, 373. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hamals, Turkish, 8. 
 Hamblin, Dr. Cyrus, 36. 
 Harem, the Sultan's, 452. 
 Harvesters, 406. 
 Hasuadar-Kadyn, 453. 
 Hatt-i-cherifs, 142. 
 Hatt-i-]iumayouus, 142. 
 Hawking, 236. 
 Herzegovina, Rebellion in, 193. 
 
 " Subjection of, 244. 
 
 Hiong-nu, 121. 
 Hobart Pasha, 276. 
 Hobby, A Strange, 3. 
 Holmes, Consul, Report from, 193. 
 Hotels, Constantinople, 9. 
 Horses of Tura, 16. 
 Horses, Turkish, 118, 123, 274, 408. 
 
 " Recruiting for Army, 269. 
 Hortach Mountains, 344. 
 
 Hot Spring, 213, 217. 
 
 Hound, Native Breed of, 108. 
 
 Houssein Pasha, 233. 
 
 Huns, 19. 
 
 Hunting, 108. 
 
 Hunyades, 244. 
 
 Hussein Avni Pasha, 273. 
 
 Idadyeh, 261. 
 
 Ignatieff, General, 55, 145. 
 
 Ikhtiat, 262. 
 
 Illvriaus, The, 319. 
 
 llt'izam. The, 379. 
 
 Imaums, 151. 
 
 Imperial Lyceum, 460. 
 
 " University, 460. 
 Imports, Tables of, 462. 
 Infantry, 264. 
 
 Interpreter of the Divan, 457. 
 Iron, Turkish, 306. 
 Ironclads, Turkish, 276. 
 Iron Gate, The, 288. 
 Iskender Beg, 319. 
 Islamism, Advance of, 425. 
 
 " General Ignoiance of, 426. 
 
 Jackals in Europe, 109. 
 Jantra, River, 233, 284. 
 Janizaries, 132, 142, 245. 
 
 Downfall of, 167. 
 Jenikoi, 289, 
 Jenedsche Tobacco, 409. 
 Jews in Turkey, 356. 
 Jewish Commercial Travelers, 360. 
 Converts, 360. 
 
 " Fire Brigade, 361. 
 
 " Funeral, 361. 
 
 " Schools, 359. 
 Justice, Courts of, 444. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kabilovitch, Milosch, 243. 
 
 Kadikoi, 289. 
 
 Kadyu, The, 453. 
 
 Kamtchik, River, 289. 
 
 Karadagh, 321. 
 
 Karadja Dagh, 204,299. 
 
 Kara George, 245, 249. 
 
 Karasmac, River, 345. 
 
 Karies, 147. 
 
 Karlofer, 218. 
 
 Karlowa, 223. 
 
 Kasan, 288. 
 
 Kasan, District of, 285. 
 
 Keradjee, A Lawless, 334, 340.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 Kerraan, Dynasty of, 12G. 
 Keziinlik, 213. 
 Khakhain, Bashi, The, 359. 
 Khalki, Naval School at, 378. 
 Khans at Tirnova, 233. 
 Khodya, 139. 
 Kikree, 405. 
 Kinprili, 49. 
 
 Family of, 1G7. 
 Klissura, 222, 287. 
 Konak, 399. 
 
 Koran, Wine Forbidden in the, 203. 
 Kossova, Battle of, 131, 241. 
 Kourbetgees, 320. 
 
 Land, Mode of valuing, 383. 
 
 " Tenure, 394. 
 
 " Valueof, 112, 208. 
 Landed Property, Tran.sfer of, 397. 
 Landlords, Non-resideut, 403. 
 Lands, Turkish Division of, 140. 
 Latius, 326. 
 Lazarus, Kiug, 241. 
 Lemons, 410. 
 Leo, Archbishop, 23. 
 Liapides, The, 318. 
 Lions, 347. 
 Lipovans, 250. 
 Lira, Turkish, 378. 
 Listopat, Mr., 94. 
 Liva, 144, 443. 
 
 Liverpool to Constantinople, 1, 
 Loans, Turkish, 464. 
 Longworth, Consul, on Cretan Rebell- 
 ion, 173, 
 " to Sir H. Bulwer, 177. 
 
 " Report from, 188. 
 
 Lovtcha, 231. 
 Lyceums, 459. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mabein, The, 452. 
 
 Macedonia, Roman Division of, 348. 
 
 Macedonian Plains, 344. 
 
 Climate of, 228. 
 Machinery, Objection to, 407. 
 Mahmoud 11., 107. 
 Mahmoud the Ghaznavide, 125. 
 Maize, 405. 
 
 Malaria Fevers, 105, 293. 
 Mamim Jews, 358. 
 Manufactures in Karlofer, 219. 
 Maps, Errors of, 800. 
 Maritza, Plain of, 204. 
 Massacre of Shiites, 424. 
 Massacres, Bulgarian, 223. 
 
 Matt, 324. 
 
 Maury on Black Sea Currents, 66. 
 
 Medical College, 400. 
 
 " Establishments, 266. 
 Medieme, College of, 400. 
 Med j idle, 378. 
 Medjliss. 448. 
 Medjliss-i-idareh, 443. 
 Medresses, 150, 152. 
 Mehemet Ali Pasha, 297. 
 Mekhemeh-i-nizamiyeh, 447. 
 Mektebs, 150, 152. 
 Mektoubji, 442, 
 Melene, 88. 
 Mesembria, 08. 
 Metayer System, GO, 401. 
 Methodius, 22. 
 Mevlevizet, 440. 
 Michael. Prince, 250. 255. 
 Midhat Pasha, 53, 354. 
 Milan, Prince, 250. 
 Milanovitch, Mladen, 240. 
 Military College, Imperial, 260. 
 
 " College of Medicine, 261. 
 
 " Council, 270. 
 
 " Preparatory Schools, 260. 
 
 " Routes to Constantinople, 286 
 Service, 202. 
 
 " Staff, Sultan's, 453. 
 
 " Workmen, Corps of, 265. 
 Milosch, Prince, 248. 
 Mineral Springs, 111. 
 Wealth, 229. 
 Mines, 390, 412. 
 Mira, 390. 
 Miridit, 322. 
 Miridites, The, 313. 
 Missions, American, 35. 
 Missionaries, American, 306. 
 Mohammed II., 150, 155. 
 Mohammedan Sects, 424. 
 Mohammedanism, Progress of, 425. 
 Mollahs, 445. 
 Molla Pasha, 247, 
 Monastery near Karlofer, 223. 
 " Rilo, 147. 311, 330. 
 
 " of St. Athanasius, 110. 
 
 Monasteries in Bulgaria, 438. 
 Monasteries, Government of Greek, 
 
 146. 
 Monasteries, Mt. Athoa, 144. 
 Monastic Assembly, General, 147 
 Mongolian Race, 16. 
 Monk Scratcher, 332. 
 Monks, Council of, 145. 
 
 " of Rilo Monastir, 330. 
 
 *' Russian and Greek, 145. 
 Montenegro, 255, 321. 
 Mouktar, 444.
 
 492 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mountains Soutli of tlie Balkan, 204. 
 Mountain System, Meeting of Turk- 
 
 isli, 305. 
 Mountain Tribes, 423. 
 Mourad. Sultan, 187, 279. 
 Moustafiz, 266. 
 
 Mt. Athos, Monasteries on, 144. 
 Muavin, 442. 
 Muderris, 151. 
 Mudir, 443. 
 Muftis, 139, 
 Mulk Property, 395. 
 Muhassebelidji, 443. 
 Mulberry Tree, 411. 
 Multeyiui, The, 379. 
 Music, Bulgarian, 90. 
 MustechSrs, 456. 
 Mutessarif, 443. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nahieh, 142, 443. 
 Naib, 446. 
 
 Nationalities in Turkey, 11. 
 Navy, Turkish, 276. 
 Newspapers, Bulgarian, 40. 
 Niausta, Massacre at, 81. 
 Nicopolis, Battle of, 24. 
 Nischaudyes, 138. 
 Nizam, 262, 384. 
 Nizamiyeh, 445. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak Scrub, Macedonian, 341. 
 
 Obreuovitch, Milosch, 246. 
 
 Ochrida, 21. 
 
 Odalik, The, 453. 
 
 Officers, Scarcity of Good, 276. 
 
 Officials, Turkish, 64. 
 
 Origin of, 138. 
 Oke, The, 386. 
 Olives. 410. 
 Olympus, Mount, 343. 
 Orchan, Sultan, 130, 141. 
 Organic Statute, Servian, 250. 
 Orsenius, Bulgarian Primate, 27. 
 Orthodox Church, 75. 
 Orthodox City, 350. 
 Osma, River, 231, 238. 
 Osman, 128. 
 Osman, Bazaar, 287. 
 Osmanlis, 129, 427. 
 Othmau, 128. 
 
 Ottoman Greek Subjects, 71. 
 Ottoman Slaves, 240, 256. 
 Ottomans, 129. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pack-Animals, 371. 
 
 Padishah, 139. 
 
 Palaeologus, Andronicus, 130. 
 
 Palaeologus, Constantine, 155. 
 
 Palgrave, Mr., 425. ~' 
 
 Pancaldy, Military College at, 260. 
 
 Pan-Hellenism, 256. 
 
 Pan-Slavism, 255. 
 
 Pano Gospodinoff, 212. 
 
 Paris, Treaty of, 172. 
 
 Pasha, Title of, 140. 
 
 Passarowitz, Treaty of, 255. 
 
 Passes, Mountain, 213. 
 
 Pasturage, 403. 
 
 Patriarchs of the Oriental Church, 75. 
 
 Paulicians, 39. 
 
 Paymaster's Department, 272. 
 
 Pella, 345. 
 
 Pentapolis, The Greek, 70. 
 
 Perim Dagh, 333. 
 
 Perseus, King, 348. 
 
 Phalanx, Macedonian, 319. 
 
 Phanar, Intiuence of the, 75. 
 
 " Intrigues, 26. 
 Pheasant Shooting, 335. 
 Philippopolis, Sandjak of, 31. 
 Schools at, 32. 
 Philippovitch, 246. 
 Piaster, What is a, 377. 
 Pillars of State, 138. 
 Plows, 405. 
 Plum Brandy, 148. 
 Plums, 217. 
 Podbaschi, 290. 
 Poles in Turkey, 94. 
 Police, Mounted, 225. 
 Polygamy, 428. 
 Population, Dense, 208. 
 Population, Tables of, 439. 
 Pravadi, 289. 
 Prayers, Calling to, 331. 
 Procrastination, Habit of, 301. 
 Propaganda, Roman Catholic, 39. 
 Purse, Turkish, 378. 
 
 R. 
 
 Races in Turkey, 135. 
 
 Railways, Turkish, 280. 
 
 Raki, 236. 
 
 Rascians, 327. 
 
 Rayahs, 142, 401. 
 
 Real Property, Right of Foreigners 
 
 to Hold, 397, 473. 
 Reapers, Female, 86. 
 Rebellion of 1867-8, Bulgarian, 52. 
 Red Deer in Turkey, 369.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 Redifs, lat and 2d, 203, 2G6. 
 
 " Central Commission of, 272. 
 
 " Sub-Commission of, 271. 
 Beis Effendi, 139. 
 Reform in Turkey, DiflBcultiea of 
 
 177. 
 Reserves, Army, 266. 
 Revenue and Expenditure, 467. 
 
 '* Farming, 402. 
 Revethi, 405. 
 Rhodope Mountains, 226. 
 Rilo Mountains, 805. 
 " Monastir, 311. 830. 
 " Monastery, 147. 
 Riza Pasha, 273. 
 Roads in Turkey, 205, 291, 389. 
 Roads, Military, 286. 
 
 •' Roman, 230, 343, 349. 
 Robert College, 361, 431. 
 Roman Wells, 343. 
 Rose, Attar of, 214. 
 Rose Cultivation, 215, 
 Roum, 20. 
 
 " Dynasty of. 126. 
 Roumanians, Origin of, 365. 
 Routes from England to Turkey, 363. 
 Rovi, 405. 
 Ruchdiyeh, 261. 
 
 Rulers, Corruption of Ottoman, 430. 
 Russian Attack, Probable Plan of, 294. 
 
 " Intrigues, 41, 50, 172,250. 
 
 ** Monks, 145. 
 
 " Protectorate over Montene- 
 gro, 255. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saint Athanasiug, Monastery of, 110. 
 
 " Paul, Pulpit used by, 349. 
 Sakar Bair, 200. 
 Salonica, 40, 345. 
 
 Plains, 344. 
 Salyane, The, 383. 
 Samakov, 306. 
 Sandjak, 443. 
 Sayme, The, 386. 
 Scanderbeg, 319. 
 Scenery, Mountain, 311. 
 Schliemann, Dr. 5. 
 gcodra, Pasha of, 328. 
 Schools at Adrianople, 39. 
 
 " Elementary, 261. 
 
 " at Eski Zaghra, 33, 211. 
 
 " Jewish, 359. 
 
 " Military, 260. 
 
 " Naval, 278. 
 
 " at Philippopolis, 33. 
 
 " Primary, 458. 
 
 " at Salonica, 40. 
 
 Schools, Secondary, 459. 
 Secret Societies, 256. 
 Selim, Sultan, 245, 424 
 Seljuk, 125. 
 Semens, 399. 
 
 Sensation, Native Love of, 373. 
 Seraskier, 2G9, 454. 
 Servia, Fortresses of, 254. 
 
 " Subjection of, 244. 
 Servians' Attack on Turks at Bel- 
 grade, 254. 
 Defeat of, 341. 
 " Insurrections of, 244. 
 " Rights Confirmed, 249. 
 " Russian Intrigues among, 
 
 251. 
 " Submission to Turks, 244. 
 Sesame, 304, 405. 
 Sfetegrade, Fortress of, 319. 
 Shibka, 287. 
 Sheep, 118. 
 
 " Dogs, 
 
 " Farming, 408, 417, 478. 
 
 " Tax, 386. 
 Shepherds, Nomad, 366. 
 Sheiks, 151. 
 
 Sheik-ul-Islam, 153, 445, 453. 
 Shemsi Pasha, 439. 
 Sheri, Courts, 445. 
 Shiites, 424. 
 Shumla, 283. 
 Signs, Affirmative and Negative, 
 
 372. 
 Silistria, 281. 
 Silk Cultivation, 410. 
 Silk Factory in Eski Zaghra, 211. 
 Silver, 229. 
 Simeon, King, 23. 
 Sisopolis, 293. 
 Skipetars, The, 317. 
 Skupshtina, 246, 253, 
 Slaves or Slavs in Turkey, 240, 256. 
 
 " Origin of, 240. 
 
 " Religion of Ancient, 241. 
 
 " Christian, 141. 
 Slatitza, 287, 301. 
 Slivmia, 200. 
 
 Smith, Mr. Bosworth, 435. 
 Snow in the Balkan, 290. 
 Sofia, Plains of, 237, 305. 
 Softa, 150. 
 Soil, Analysis of, 86. 
 Soldiers, Albanian, 328. 
 Turkish, 136. 
 Soliman, Sultan, 126. 
 Sopat, 224. 
 Soubassi, 399. 
 Speculation, 392. 
 Sport, 418.
 
 494 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sportsmen, Hints to, 369. 
 Springs, Hot, 213, 346. 
 Squall iu Black Sea, 107. 
 Stamps, 388. 
 Standing Army, 262. 
 State, Council of, 455. 
 Stock Jobbers, 392. 
 Storks, 115. 
 
 Strandja Mountains, 85. 
 Strangford, Lady, 223. 
 
 " Viscount, quoted, 29, 53. 
 
 Strymon, River, 334, 340. 
 Stuart, Consul, Report from, 191. 
 Sublime Porte. 138. 
 Sultan, Title of, 125. 
 Sultan's Harem, 452. 
 
 " Military Staff, 453. 
 
 '< Privy Council, 454. 
 Sultanitza Mountains, 342. 
 Sunnites, 424. 
 Svilenoa, 245. 
 Sword of Othman, 129. 
 Synod, Bulgarian, Letters from, 43,45. 
 Svra, 4. 
 Syria, 126. 
 System, Metayer, 60, 401. 
 
 " of Organization, 258. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tahrirat Mudiri, 443. 
 Talegas, 85, 117. 
 Tanzimat, 143, 169. 
 Tapou, The, 388. 
 TarilT, Turkish, 387, 461. 
 Tartars, Crimean, 422. 
 
 " of the Dobrudja, 422. 
 Tax, Military Exemption, 384. 
 
 " Non-Mussulman, 384. 
 
 " Reform, Suggestions for, 381. 
 Taxation, 377. 
 
 Taxes, Method of Collecting, 379. 
 " Statistical Table.s of, 469. 
 Tchinganes, 338. 
 Tchornozem, 86. 
 Telegraphy, Leo's System of, 23. 
 Temyz-i-houkouk-Medjlisseri, 447. 
 Tenants, 400. 
 
 Tent Court Life in the East, 138. 
 Tetunium, Battle of, 24. 
 •Teskerre, 63. 
 
 Theodosius, Emperor, 350. 
 Therma, .S47. 
 Thermal Springs, 346, 
 Thessalonica, 347. 
 Thibbiyeh, 261. 
 Threshing, 406. 
 Timmetou-verghi, The, 383. 
 Timars, 137. 
 
 Timour, 133. 
 Tirnova, 21, 232, 284. 
 Title-Deeds, 397. 
 Tobacco, 405, 409. 
 Togrul Bey, 126. 
 Topana, Council of, 270. 
 Toskalik, The, 321. 
 Toskas or Toskides, 318, 337. 
 Trebizond, Mines of, 124. 
 Troy, Ancient, 5. 
 Troyau, 230. 
 
 Troyan to Samakov, 298. 
 Tumuli, Ancient, 115, 343. 
 Tundja Mountains, 85. 
 Tundja, Valley of the, 285. 
 Tungusian Race, 16. 
 Tura, Laud of, 15. 
 Turk, Son of Japhet, 121. 
 Turkey, Central Watershed of, 327. 
 Climate of, 227. 
 
 " Corruption in, 393. 
 
 " Difficulties of Government 
 in, 423. 
 
 " Ecclesiastical Appointments 
 in, 151. 
 
 " Education in, 149, 170. 
 
 " Emigration to, 413. 
 
 " Ethnological Boundaries in, 
 239. 
 Farming in, 399. 
 
 " Feudal System in, 137. 
 
 " Geological Features of, 228. 
 
 " Land Tenure in, 394. 
 
 " Landed Proprietors in, 399. 
 
 " Mineral Wealth of, 229. 
 
 " Natural Resources of, 390. 
 
 " No Family Names in, 137. 
 
 " Phvsical Aspect of, 227. 
 Pla'u of Defense for, 393. 
 Political Divisions in, 187, 
 142, 144. 
 
 " System of Cultivation, 404. 
 
 " Traveling in, 114. 
 
 " Value of Land in, 113. 
 
 " Young, 438. 
 Turkish Administration, 443. 
 
 " Army, 258. 
 
 " Army, Ancient, 279. 
 
 " Bonds and Bond-holders, 390. 
 
 " Conquests, 131, 133. 
 
 " Corruption, 197. 
 
 " Court Life, Ancient, 138. 
 Debt, 173. 
 
 " Division of Lands, 140. 
 
 " Empire, Foundation of, 134. 
 
 " Finance, 461. 
 
 " Fortresses, 28. 
 
 " Government, 135. 
 
 •' Hospitality, 299.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 Turkisli Justice, 201. 
 
 " Landed Proprietor, 234. 
 
 Loans, 170, 18G. 
 " Monarcliy, Decays of, 1G6. 
 
 Navy, 27G. 
 
 Officials, 208, 
 " Patience in Adversity, 205. 
 " Politeness, 117. 
 " Progress, 174. 
 
 Eailways, 280. 
 
 Reforms, 1G8. 
 " Rule in Asia Minor, 126. 
 
 Soldiers, 13G. 
 Turks, Ancient Religion of, 123. 
 " Arrogance of, 61. 
 " Cavalry of, 123, 125. 
 " Election of a King by, 121. 
 " Migrations of, 121. 
 " Mohammedanism embraced Ly, 
 
 126. 
 " Nomadic Character of, 122. 
 " Origin of, 121. 
 " Various Tribes of, 122 
 
 U. 
 
 TJgrian Eace, 16. 
 Ulema, 139, 149. 151. 
 Umur Bev, 130. 
 Uniates, 39. 
 Upper Debra, 319. 
 Uscup, Province of, 326. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacouf Property, 394. 
 
 Vacoufs, 140. 
 
 Vali, 186, 443. 
 
 Valideh Sultana, 141, 186. 
 
 Varna, 282. 
 
 Varna, Battle of, 244. 
 
 Verde Antics, 349, 353. 
 
 Verghi, The, 382. 
 
 Verria, 365. 
 
 Via Egnatia, 342, 345, 349. 
 
 Vieux Croyants, 256. 
 
 Vilaiet, 442. 
 
 Vilaiets in Turkey in Europe, 451. 
 
 Villages, Bulgarian, 208. 
 
 Village Property, 39G. 
 
 Vineyards, 204, 410. 
 
 Village at Rilo Mouastir, 331. 
 
 Viss. The, 324. 
 
 Vituslx Mountain, 305. 
 
 Vizier, Grand, 453. 
 
 " Office of, 130, 187. 
 Vlaques, 365. 
 Voivodes, 246. 
 Volo, 410. 
 Volovoskos, AQO. 
 Von Moltke, General, 282. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wages, Scale of, 419. 
 Wallachians, C65. 
 
 Dogs of the, 367. 
 Number of, 366. 
 Religion of, 366. 
 Walnut Oil, 217. 
 War, Material of, 273, 275. 
 
 " Ministry of, 270. 
 
 " Taxes, 209. 
 
 " Theater of, 281. 
 Water-Bottle, Curious, 230. 
 
 " Power, 354. 
 Watershed, Central, of Turkey, 227. 
 Weddings, Bulgarian, 89. 
 Wheeler, Mr. Talboys, 425. 
 Widdin, 177. 
 Wine, 410. 
 
 Wine and the Koran, 203. 
 Wokalut, The, 379. 
 Wolf, Cry of, 376. 
 Woodcock Shooting, 365. 
 Wool, 409. 
 
 Wrestling Match, 336. 
 Writing, Turkish, 459. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xerxes, 341, 346. 
 
 Takoub, Prince, 243. 
 Tanboli, 114, 117. 
 Yeni Zaghra, 207. 
 Yeradjees, 399. 
 Young Turkey, 150, 428. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zabergan, Finnish Chief, 19. 
 Zabtiyeh Naziri, 450. 
 Zahire-Naziri, 169. 
 Zaptiehs, 225, 265. 
 ZiametSj 137.
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
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